SSBHC 


tTMNOLOCICAL 
MAP  OF  MODERN  EUROPE 
!    iiii'LMn'AN  ii':<n>i.K.s 

BASOUCS  '_2 

AinAN  I'KOIM.KS. 

CELTS 
VATJN    BRANCH 

fRENCH   ; J    SPANIAROS 

PORTUGUESE  |  IIAIIANS 

RAETIAN 

ROUMANSORVLACWS 
ALBANIANS 


j  GERMANIC  BRANCH     ^ZZZ 

GERMANS 

'  SCANDINAVIANS 
I  ANGLO-SAXONS 
I  SLAVIC  BRANCH 

jGREAT  RUSSIANS 
'  I  'lITiLE  RUSSIANS 
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^C^ECHS  SLOVAKSANO  WENOST 
BULGARIANS    — 
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SLOVENES 


URAL  ALTAIC  OR  RMNO-TATAR  BUMS 

MAGYARS -      ~ 

FINNICPEOPLES 

TURKS  4HB         TARTARS 
KALMUCKS 


HISTORY 
FOR  READY  REFERENCE 

FROM  THE  BEST 
HISTORIANS,  BIOGRAPHERS,  AND  SPECIALISTS 

THEIK   OWN  WORDS  IN   A   COMPLETE 

SYSTEM  OF  HISTORY 

FOR  ALL    USES,   EXTENDING  TO   ALL   COUNTRIES  AND   SUBJECTS, 

AND  REPRESENTING  FOR  BOTH  READERS  AND   STUDENTS  THE  BETTER  AND 

NEWER   LITERATURE    OF    HISTORY    IN    THE 

ENGLISH   LANGUAGE 

JiNrLARNED 

WITH  NUMEROUS  HISTORICAL  MAPS  FROM  ORIGINAL  STUDIES  AND  DRAWINGS  BY 

ALAN  C.  REILEY 


IN  FIVE  VOLUMES 


VOLUME  I-A  TO  ELBA 


SPRINGFIELD,  ILASS.      . 

THE  C.  A.  NICHOLS  CO.,  PUBLISHERS 

MDCCCXCV 


JAN  24  1974 


COPTKKIHT.  1803, 

BY  J.  N.  LAKNED. 


The  Kiveritie  Pteu,  Cambridgr,  Mais.,  V.  8.  A- 
I'riDled  hy  U.  0.  Uougbton  •&  Compuiy. 


PEEFACB. 


n~^IIIS  work  has  two  aims  :  to  represent  and  exhibit  the  better  Literature 
of  History  in  the  English  language,  and  to  give  it  an  organized  body 
—  a  system  —  adapted  to  the  greatest  convenience  in  any  use,  whether  for 
reference,  or  for  reading,  for  teacher,  student,  or  casual  inquirer. 

The  entire  contents  of  the  work,  with  slight  exceptions  readily  distin- 
guished, have  been  carefully  culled  from  some  thousands  of  books, — embrac- 
ing the  whole  range  (in  the  English  language)  of  standard  historical  writing, 
both  general  and  special :  the  biography,  the  institutional  and  constitutional 
studies,  the  social  investigations,  the  archeological  researches,  tno  ecclesi- 
astical and  religious  discussions,  and  all  other  important  tributaries  to  the 
great  and  swelling  main  stream  of  historical  knowledge.  It  has  been 
culled  as  one  might  pick  choice  fruits,  careful  to  choose  the  perfect  and  the 
ripe,  where  such  are  found,  and  careful  to  keep  their  Havor  unimpaired. 
The  flavor  of  the  Literature  of  History,  in  its  best  examples,  and  the  ripe 
quality  of  its  latest  and  best  thought,  are  faithfully  preserved  in  what  aims 
to  be  the  garner  of  a  fair  selection  from  its  fruits. 

History  as  written  by  those,  on  one  hand,  who  have  depicted  its  scenes 
most  vividly,  and  by  those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  have  searched  its  facts, 
weighed  its  evidences,  and  pondered  its  meanings  most  critically  and  deeply, 
is  given  in  their  own  words.  If  commoner  narratives  are  sometimes  quoted, 
their  use  enters  but  slightly  into  the  consii  Action  of  the  work.  The  whole 
matter  is  presented  under  an  arrangement  which  imparts  distinctness  to  its 
topics,  while  showing  them  in  their  sequence  and  in  all  their  large  relations, 
both  national  and  international. 

For  every  subject,  a  history  more  complete,  I  think,  in  the  broad  meaning 
of  "History,"  is  supplied  by  this  mode  than  could  possibly  be  produced 
on  the  plan  of  dry  synopsis  which  is  common  to  encyclopedic  works.  It 
holds  the  charm  and  interest  of  many  styles  of  excellence  in  writing,  and  it 
is  read  in  a  tuear  light  which  shines  directly  from  the  pens  thai;  Lave  made 
History  luminous  by  their  interpretations. 

Behind  the  Literature  of  History,  which  can  be  called  so  in  the  liner 
sense,  lies  a  great  body  of  the  Documents  of  History,  which  are  unattractive 
to  the  casual  reader,  but  which  even  he  must  sometimes  have  an  urgent  wish 
to  consult.  Full  and  carefully  chosen  texts  of  a  large  number  of  the  most 
famous  and  important  of  such  documents  —  charters,  edicts,  proclamations, 
petitions,  covenants,  legislative  acts  and  ordinances,  and  the  constitutions  of 


many  countries  —  have  been  accordingly  introduced  and  are  easily  to  be 
found. 

The  arrangement  of  matter  in  the  work  is  primarily  alphabetical,  and 
secondarily  chronological.  The  whole  is  thoroughly  indexed,  and  the  index 
is  incorporated  with  the  body  of  th?  text,  in  the  same  alphabetical  and 
chninological  order. 

Events  which  touch  several  countries  or  places  are  treated  fully  but  once, 
in  the  connection  which  shows  their  antec  ;dents  and  consequences  best,  and 
the  reader  is  guided  to  that  ampler  discussion  by  references  from  each  cap- 
tion under  which  it  may  be  sought.  Economies  of  this  character  bring  into 
the  comi)ass  of  live  volumes  a  body  of  History  that  would  need  twice  the 
number,  at  least,  for  equal  fulness  on  the  monographic  plan  of  encyclopedic 
works. 

Of  my  own,  the  only  original  writing  introduced  is  in  a  general  sketch  of 
the  history  oi  Europe,  and  in  what  I  have  called  the  '^'^ Logical  Outlines''^  of  a 
number  of  national  histories,  which  are  printed  in  colors  to  distinguish  the 
influences  that  have  been  dominant  in  them,  But  the  extensive  boiTowing 
which  the  work  represent.s  has  not  been  done  in  an  unlicensed  way.  I  have 
felt  warranted,  by  common  custom,  in  using  moderate  extracts  without  per- 
mit. But  for  everything  beyond  these,  in  my  selections  from  books  now 
in  print  and  on  sale,  whether  under  copyrigl.it  or  deprived  of  copyright,  I 
have  sought  the  consent  of  those,  authors  or  publishers,  or  both,  to  w'lom 
the  right  of  consent  or  denial  appears  to  belong.  In  nearly  all  cases  I 
have  received  the  most  generous  and  friendly  responses  to  my  request,  and 
count  among  my  valued  possessions  the  great  volume  of  kindly  letters  of 
l)ermission  which  have  come  to  me  from  authors  and  publishers  in  Great 
Britain  and  America.  A  more  specific  acknowledgment  of  these  favox-s  will 
be  appended  to  this  preface. 

The  authors  of  books  have  other  rights  beyond  their  rights  of  property, 
to  which  respect  has  been  paid.  No  liberties  have  been  taken  with  the  text 
of  their  writingc,  except  to  abridge  by  omissions,  which  are  indicated  by 
the  customary  signs.  Occasional  interpolations  are  marked  by  enclosure 
in  brackets.  Abridgnumt  by  paraphrasing  has  only  been  resorted  to  when 
unavoidable,  and  is  shown  by  the  interruption  of  quotation  marks.  In  the 
matter  of  different  spellings,  it  has  been  more  difficult  to  preserve  for  each 
writer  his  own.  As  a  rule  this  is  done,  in  names,  and  in  the  divergences 
between  English  and  American  orthography  ;  but,  since  muck  of  the  matter 
quoted  has  been  taken  from  American  editions  of  English  books,  and  since 
both  copyists  and  printers  have  worked  under  the  habit  of  American  spell- 
ings, the  rule  may  not  have  governed  with  strict  consistency  throughout. 

J.  N.  L. 

The  Buffalo  Libraey,  ..: „-_:-: -v~^..-^.~^,.:  -— k 

Buffalo,  N.  T.,  December,  1893.         ,  ,  .  ,  .  :.  ;  ..■:  \      <: 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


IN  MY  preface  I  have  acknowledged  in  general  terms  the  courtesy  and  liberality  of  authors  and 
publishers,  by  whose  permission  I  liuve  used  much  of  the  matter  quoted  in  this  work.  I  tliink 
it  now  proper  to  male  the  acknowledgment  more  specific  by  naming  those  persons  and  publishing 
houses  to  whom  I  am  in  debt  for  such  kind  permissions.     They  are  as  follows : 

.    AUTnons. 

Prof.  Evelyn  Abbott;  President  Charles  Kendall  Adams;  Prof.  Herbert  B.  Adams;  Prof.  Joseph  II.  Alien;  Sir  Wil- 
liam Anson,  Lort.;  Rev.  Henry  M.  Baird;  Jlr.  Hubert  Howo  Bancroft;  Hon.  S.  O.  \V.  Benjamin;  3Ir.  Walter  Besant; 
Prof.  Albert  S.  Bolles;  John  0.  Boiirinot,  F.  S.  S.;  Mr.  Henry  Bradley;  Kev.  James  Franclf  Bright;  Daniel  Q.  Brlnton, 
M.  D.;  Prof.  William  Hand  Browne;  Prof.  Qeorgo  Brycc;  Kt.  Hon.  James  Bryco,  M.  P.;  J.  B.  Bury,  M.  A.;  Jlr,  Lueien 
Carr;  Gen.  Henry  B.  Cirrington;  Mr.  Jo'm  I).  Champlin,  Jr.;  Mr.  Charles  Corleton  Collin;  Hon.  Thomas  M.  Cooley; 
Prof.  Hen-y  Coppte;  Rev,  Sir  George  W.  Cox,  Bart.;  Oen,  Jaccb  Dolson  C'o.t;  Mrs.  Co.k  (for  "Three  Decades  of  Federal 
Lcglslati'.u,"  by  the  late  Hon,  Samuel  S.  Cox):  Prof.  Thomas  F.  L'rune;  Rt.  Rev.  Mandell  Creighton,  Bishop  of  Peter- 
borough; Hon,  J,  L".  M.  Curry;  Hon.  George  Ticknor  Curtis;  Prof.  Robert  K.  Douglas;  J.  A.  Doyle,  M.  A.;  Mr.  Samuel 
Adams  Drake;  Sir  Mounti\tuart  E.  Grant-Duff;  Hon.  Sir  Charles  Oaven  Duffy;  Mr.  Charles  Henry  Eden;  Mr.  Henry 
Sutherland  Edwards;  Orrin  Leslie  Elliott,  Ph.  D.;  Mr.  Loyali  Farrngut;  The  Ven.  Frederic  William  Farrar,  Archdeacon 
of  Westminster;  Prof.  George  Park  Fisher;  Prof.  John  Fiske;  Mr.  Wm.  E.  l^jster;  Prof.  WMIiam  Wardo  Punier;  Prof. 
EdTard  A.  Freeman;  Prof.  J,\mes  Anthony  Froude;  Mr.  James  Gairdner;  -Vrthur  Gilman,  M.  A.;  Mr.  Parke  Godwin; 
Mrs.  M.  E.  Gordon  (for  the  "  History  of  the  Campaigns  of  the  Army  of  Va.  under  Gen.  Pope,''  by  the  late  Geu,  George 
H.  Gordon);  Rev.  Sobine  Baring-Gould;  Mr.  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  Jr.  (for  the  "Peisonal  Memoirs  "of  the  late  Gen.  Grant); 
Mrs.  John  Richard  Green  (tor  her  own  writings  and  for  those  of  the  late  John  Richard  Green; ;  >Villiam  Greswell,  M.  B. ; 
Mnj.  Arthur  Grifflths;  Frederic  Horrison,  M.  A.;  Prof.  Albert  Bushnell  Hart;  Mr.  William  Heaton;  Col.  Thomas  Went- 
worth  Higginson;  Prof.  B.  A.  Hinsdale;  Miss  Margaret  L.  Hooper  (for  the  writings  of  the  Ulte  Mr.  George  Hooper) ;  Kev. 
Robert  F.  Horton;  Prof.  James  K.  Hosmer;  C!ol.  Henry  M.  Ilozier;  Rev,  iVilliam  Hunt;  Sir  William  Wilson  Hunter; 
Prof.  Edmund  James;  Mr.  Rosslter  Johnson;  Mr.  John  Foster  Kirk;  The  Very  Rev.  George  William  Kitchin,  Dean  of 
Winchester;  Col.  Thos.  W.  Knox;  Mr.  J.  S.  Landon;  Hon.  Emily  Lawless;  William  E.  H.  Lecky,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.;  Mrs. 
Margaret  Levi  (for  the  "  History  of  British  Commerce,"  by  the  late  Dr.  Leone  Levi);  Prof.  Charlton  T.  Lewis;  The 
Very  Rev.  Henry  George  Liddell,  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  Hon.  Henry  Cabot  Lodge;  Richard  Lodge,  M.  A.; 
Rev.  W.  J.  Lottie;  Mrs.  Mary  8.  Long  (for  the  "  Life  of  General  Robert  E.  Jjoe,"  by  the  late  Gen.  A.  L.  Ix)ng);  Mrs. 
Helen  Lossiug  (for  the  writiugs  of  the  late  Benson  J.  Lossing);  Charles  Lowe,  M.  A.;  Charles  P.  Lucas,  B.  A.;  Justin 
McCarthy,  M.  P.;  Prof,  John  Bach  McMaster;  Hon.  Edward  .McPherson,  Prof.  John  P.  MahalTy;  Capt,  Alfred  T.  Mahan, 
U.  S,  N.;  Col.  George  B.  Malleson;  Clements  R.  Markham,  C.  B.,  F,  R.  S.;  Prof.  David  Mas.son;  The  Very  Rev.  Cliarles 
Merivale,  Dean  of  Ely;  Prof.  John  Henry  Middleton;  Mr.  J.  0.  Cotton  Jlinehin;  William  R.  Morflll,  M.  A.;  Rt.  Hon.  John 
Morley,  JI.  P.;  5Ir.  John  T.  Morse,  Jr.;  Sh- Wllliaiii  Muir;  Mr.  Harold  JIurdock;  Rev.  Arthur  Howard  Noll;  Miss  Kate 
Xorgate;  C.  W.  C.  Oman,  M.  A, ;  Mr.  John  C.  Palfrey  (for  "  History  of  New  England,"  by  the  late  John  Gorham  Pal- 
frey); Francis  Parkman,  LL.  D. ;  Edward  James  Payne,  M.  A.;  Charles  Henry  Pearson,  M.  A.;  Mr,  James  Breck  Per- 
kins; Jlrs.  Marj-  E.  Phelan  (for  the  "  History  of  Tennessee,"  by  the  late  James  Phelan);  Col.  George  E.  Pond;  Reginald 
L.  Poole,  Ph.  D.;  Mr.  Stanley  Lane-Poole;  William  F.  Poole,  LL.  D.;  MaJ.  John  W.  Powell;  Mr.  John  W.  I>robyn;  Prof. 
John  Clark  Ridpath;  Hon.  Ellis  H.  Roberts;  Hon.  Theodore  Roosevelt;  Mr.  John  Codman  Ropes;  J.  H.  Rose,  M.  A.; 
Prof.  Joslah  Royce;  Rev.  Philip  Schaff;  James  Schouler,  LL,  D.;  Hon.  Carl  Schurz;  Mr.  Eben  Qreenough  Scott;  Prof. 
J.  R.  Seeley;  Prof.  Nathaniel  Southgate  Shaler;  Mr.  Edward  .Uorse  Shepard;  Col.  M.  V.  Sheridan  (for  the  "Personal 
Memoh^"of  the  late  Gen.  Sheridan) ;  Mr.  P. T.  Sherman  (fur  he  "Memoirs"  of  the  late  Gen.  Sherman);  Samuel 
Smiles,  LL.  D.;  Prof.  Goldwin  Smith;  Prof.  James  Russell  Soley;  Mr,  Edward  Stanwood;  Leslie  Stephen,  M.  A,;  H. 
Morse  Stephens,  M.  A. ;  Mr.  Simon  Sterne;  Charles  J.  stilKS,  LL.  D. ;  Sir  John  Strachey ;  Rt.  Rev.  William  Stubbs,  Bishop 
of  Peterborough;  Prof.  William  Graham  Sumner;  Prof.  Frank  William  Taussig;  Mr.  William  Roscoe  Thayer;  lYof. 
Robert  H.  Thurs.ton;  Mr.  Telemachus  T.  Timayenis;  Henry  D.  Traill,  D.  C.  L.;  Gen.  R.  de  Trobrland;  Mr.  Bayard 
Tuckerman;  Samuel  Epes  Turner,  Ph.  D.;  Prof.  Herbert  Tuttle;  Prof.  Armlnius  Vomb6ry;  Mr.  Henri  Van  Laun;  Gen. 
Francis  A.Walker;  Sir  D.  Mackenzie  Wallace;  Spencer  Walpole,  LL.  D. ;  Alexander  Stewart  Webb.  LL.  D.;  Mr.  J. 
Talboys  Wheeler;  Mr.  Arthur  Silva  White;  Sir  Monier  Monier-WiUiams;  Justin  Winsor,  LL.  D.;  Rev.  Frederick  C. 
Woodhouse;  John  Yeats,  LL.  D.;  Miss  Charlotte  M.  Yonge. 

PUnUSIIEHS. 

London :  Messrs.  W.  H.  Allen  &  Co.;  Asher  &  Co.;  George  Bell  &  Sons;  Richard  Bentley  &  Son;  Bickers  &  Sons; 
A.  &  C.  Black;  Cassell  &  Co. ;  Chapman  &  Hall;  Chatto  &  V.indus;  Tlios.  De  La  Rue  &  Co. ;  H.  Grevel  ,t  Co. ;  Griffltji, 
Farran&Co.;  William  Heinemann;  Hodder  &  Stoughton ;  Sampson  Low,  Marston&Co.;  Macmillan  &  Co.;  Methuen 
&  Co.;  John  Murray;  John  C.  Nimmo;  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  TrUbner  &  Co.;  George  Philip  &  Son;  The  Religious  Tract 
Society;  George  Routledge  &  Sons;  Seeley  &  Co.;  Smith,  Elder  &  Co.;  Society  lor  the  Promotion  of  Christian 
Knowledge;  Edward  Stanford;  Stevens  &  Hoynes;  Henry  Stevens  ■£  Son;  Elliot  Stock;  Swan  Sonnenschehi  &  Co.;  The 
Times ;  T.  Fisher  Unwin ;  Ward,  Lock,  Bowden  &  Co. ;  Frederick  Warae  &  Co  ;  Williams  &  Norgote. 

New  York:  Messrs.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.;  Armstrong  &  Co.;  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.;  The  Century  Co.;  T.  Y.  Crowell  & 
Co.;  Derby  &  Miller;  Dick  &  Fitzgerald;  Dodd,  Mea<l&Co,;  Harper  &  Brothers;  Henry  Holt  &  Co.;  Townsend  Mac- 
Coun;  a.  P.  Putm.r-'«  "^ons;  Anson  D.  F.  Randolph  &  Co.;  D.  J.  Sadler  &  Co.;  Charles  Soribner's  Sons;  Charles  L. 
Webster  &  Co. 


Edinburgh :  Mi-mre.  William  Hiackwowl  &  Song;  W.  &  R.  Chambers;  David  Douglas;  Thomas  Nelsun  &  Sons;  W. 
P.  Nlmnin;  Hay  &  Mitchell;  The  Seottiuh  Reformation  Society. 

mUuleli'hia  :    Mesara.  L.  II,  Evci ts  &  Co. ;  J.  B.  Llppiucott  Company;  Oldach  &  Co. ;  Porter  &  Coaics. 

Boston :  Messrs.  Estcs  *  Lauriat;  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.;  Uttle,  Brown  &  Co. ;  D.  liOthrop  Company;  Roberta 
Brothers. 

DxAUn :    Messrs.  James  Duffy  &  Co. ;  Hodges,  Figgis  &  Co. ;  J.  J,  Lalor. 

Chicai/o :    .>!  jssrs.  Calln^hnn  &  Oo. ;  A.  C.  MuClurg  *  Co. 

Cincinniili :    Messrs.  It<il>ert  Clarke  &  Co.;  Jones  Hrolhers  Publishing  Co. 

llarlfortl.  Conn.:    MessrR.  <  >.  1).  Ciwe  A:  Co. ;  8.  S.  Si:ranton  &  Co. 

Albany;    Messrs.  Ji>e!  MunselTs  Sons. 

Cambridge,  Eng.:    The  University  l*re«8. 

Norwich,  Conn.:    The  Henry  1)111  Publishing  Co. 

Oxford  :    Tlie  Clarendon  Press. 

Providence.  R.  I.:    Messrs.  J.  A.  •&  R.  A.  Reld. 

A  list  of  books  quoted  from  will  bo  given  in  the  final  volume. 

I  am  greatly  Indebted  to  lue  remarkable  kindness  of  a  number  of  eminent  historical  scholars, 
who  have  critically  c.vamined  the  proof  slieets  of  important  articles  and  improved  them  by  their 
suggestions.  My  debt  to  Miss  Ellen  M.  Chandler,  for  assistance  given  me  in  many  ways,  is 
more  than  I  can  describe. 

In  my  publisliiug  arrangements  I  have  been  most  fortunate,  and  I  owe  the  good  fortune  very 
largely  to  a  number  of  friends,  among  whom  it  is  just  that  I  should  name  Mr.  Henry  A.  Richmond, 
Mr.  George  E.  Matthews,  and  Mr.  John  CI.  Milburn.  There  is  no  feature  of  these  arraugements  so 
satisfactory  to  me  as  that  which  p.aces  the  publication  of  my  book  in  the  hands  of  the  Company  of 
which  Mr.  Charles  A.  Nichols,  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  is  the  head. 

I  think  myself  fortunate,  too,  in  the  association  of  my  work  with  that  of  Mr.  Alan  C.  Reiley, 
from  whose  original  studies  and  drawings  the  greater  part  of  the  historical  maps  in  these  volumes 
bnvo  been  produced. 

J.  K.  Larnbd. 


LIST   OF   MAPS  AND  PLANS. 

Ethnographic  map  of  Moflern  Europe Preceding  the  title-page. 

Map  of  American  Discovery  and  Settlement, To  follow  ])age  48 

Plftn  of  Athens,  and  Harbors  of  Athens On  page  145 

Plan  of  Athenian  house On  page  163 

Four  development  maps  of  Austria To  follow  page  196 

Ethnographic  map  of  Austria-Hungary On  page  107 

Four  development  maps  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula, To  follow  page  242 

Map  of  the  Balkan  and  Danubian  States,  showing  changes  during  the  present 

century, On  page  244 

Map  of  Burgundy  under  Charles  the  Bold To  follow  page  332 

Development  map  showing  the  diffusion  of  Christianity, To  follow  page  432 


LOGICAL  OUTLINES,  IN  COLORS. 

Athenian  and  Greek  history To  follow  page  144 

Austrian  history To  follow  page  198 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES. 


The  Seventeenth  Century:  First  half  ami  second  half To  follow  page  208 

To  the  Peloponuesian  War,  and  Fourth  and  Third  Centuries,  B.  C To  follow  page  166 


APPENDICES   TO  VOLUME   l. 


A.  Notes  to  Ethnographic  map ;  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Reiley. 

B.  Notes  to  four  maps  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula ;  by  the  same. 

C.  Notes  to  map  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  in  the  pref    t  century;  by  the  same. 

D.  Notes  to  map  showing  the  diffusion  of  Christia  \  ;  by  the  same. 

E.  Notes  on  the  American  Aborigines;  by  Major  J.  W.  Powell  and  Mr.  J.  Owen  Dorsey,  of  the 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 

F.  Bibliography  of  America  (Discovery,  Exploration,  Settlement,  Archseology,  and  Ethnology), 

and  of  Austria. 


HISTOEY  FOE  EEADY  EEFEEENCE. 


A.  C.  Ante  Christum ;  used  sometimes 
Instead  of  tlie  more  familiar  abbreviation,  B.  C. 
—Before  Clirist. 

A.  D.  Anno  Domini ;  Tlie  Year  of  Our  Lord. 
See  Eba,  Chbistian. 

A.  E.  I.  O.  U. — "The  famous  device  of  Aus- 
tria, A.  E.  I.  O.  U.,  was  first  used  by  Frederic 
III.  [1440-1493],  who  adopted  it  on  his  plate, 
books,  and  buildings.  These  initials  stand  for 
'  Austriae  Est  Imperaro  Orbl  Univcrso ' ;  or,  in 
German,  'AUes  Erdreich  1st  Osterreich  Unter- 
than ' :  a  bold  assumption  for  a  man  who  ■  vas  not 
safe  in  an  inch  of  his  dominions." — H.  Hallam, 
The  Middle  Ages,  v.  2,  p.  89,  foot-note. 

A.  H.  Anno  Hejirae.  See  Era,  Mahome- 
tan. 

A.  M.  "Anno  Mundi ;"  the  Year  of  the 
World,  or  the  year  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world,  according  to  the  formerly  accepted  chro- 
nological reckoning  of  Archbishop  Usher  and 
others. 

A.  U.  C,  OR  U.  C.  "Ab  urbe  condita," 
from  the  founding  of  the  city;  or  "Anno  urbis 
Conditae,"  the  year  from  tne  founding  of  the 
city;  the  Year  of  Rome.     See  Rome:  B.  C.  753. 

AACHEN.    See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

AARAU,  Peace  of  (17x2).  See  Switzerlakd  : 
A.  D.  1052-1789. 

KBJE,  Oracle  of.    See    Oracles    of    the 

ABBAS  I.  (called  The  Great).  Shah  of  Per- 
sia; A.  D.  1582-1027.... Abba's  IL,  A.  D. 
1641-1006. . .  .Abbas  III.,  A.  D.  1732-1730. 

ABBASSIDES,  The  rise,  decline  and  fall  of 
the.  See  Mahomktan  Conquest,  &c.  :  A.  D. 
716-750;  763;  and  815-945;  also  Bagdad:  A.  D. 
1258. 

ABBEY.— ABBOT.— ABBESS.  See  Mon- 
astery. 

ABDALLEES,  The.  See  Indla:  A.  D. 
1747-1701. 

ABDALMELIK,  Caliph,  A.  D.  084-705. 

ABD-EL-KADER,  The  War  of  the 
French  in  Algiers  with.  See  Barbary  States  : 
A.  D.  1830-1840. 

ABDICATIONS.  Alexander,  Prince  of 
Bulgaria.    See   Bulgaria:   A.   D.    1878-1880. 

Amadeo    of    Spain.     See   Spain:  A.   D. 

1806-1878 Charles  IV.  and  Ferdinand  VII. 

of  Spain.     See  Spain:  A.   D.   1807-1808 

Charles   V.  EmoRror.    S^i  Germany:  A.  D. 

1662-1501,  and  Netherlands:  A.  D.  1655 

Charles  X.King  of  France.     See   France: 

K.  D.  1815-1830 Charles  Albert,  King  of 

Saiainia.     See  Italy:   A.    D.   1848-1849 

Christina,  Regent  of  Spain.    See  Spain  :  A.  D. 

1833-1840 Christina,  Queen   of    Sweden. 

See   Scandinavian  States  (Swe-dkn):    A.   D. 

1644-1007 Diocletian,  Emperor.  See  Rome  : 

A.  D.  284-a05. . .  .Ferdinand,  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria.   See  Austria:  A.  D.  1848-1840. Louis 

Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland.    See  Nbtoer- 

landb:  A.  D.   1806-1810 Louis  Philippe 

See  Fbahce:  A.  D.  1841-1848 Milan,  King 


of  Serria.    See  Servia:  A.  D.  1882-1889 

Pedro  I.,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  King  of 
Portugal.    See  Portugal:    A.  D.   1824-1889, 

and  Brazil:  A.  D.  1825-1805 Ptolemy  I.  of 

Egypt.  See  Macedonu,  &c.  :  B.  C.  297-280. 
. . .  .Victor  Emanuel  I.  See  Italy:  A.  D.  1820- 

1821 William    L,  King  of  Holland.    See 

Netherlands:  A.  D.  1830-1884. 

ABDUL-AZIZ,  Turkish  Sultan,  A.  D. 
1801-1876. 

ABDUL-HAMID,  Turkish  Sultan,  A  D. 
1774-1789. . . .  Abdul-Hamid  II.,  1876-. 

ABDUL-MEDJID,  Turkish  Sultan,  A.  D. 
1839-1861. 

ABEL,  King  of  Denmark,  A.  D.  1250- 
1252. 

ABENCERRAGES,  The.  See  Spain  :  A.  D. 
1238-1273,  and  1476-1492. 

ABENSBURG,  Battle  oi.  See  Germany: 
A.  D.  1809  (January-June). 

ABERCROMBIE'S  CAMPAIGN  IN 
AMERICA.  See  Canada  (New  France):  A. 
D.  1758. 

ABERDEEN  MINISTRY,  The.  See 
England:  A.  D.  1851-1852,  and  1855. 

ABIPONES,  The.  See  American  Aborigi- 
nes:   Pampas  Tribes. 

ABJURATION  OF  HENRY  IV.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1591-1593. 

ABNAKIS,  The.  See  American  Aborigi- 
nes: Aloonkin  Family. 

ABO,  Treaty  of  (1743).  See  Russia:  A.  D. 
1740-1703. 

ABOLITIONISM  IN  AMERICA,  The 
Rise  of.  See  Slavery,  Negro:  A.  D.  1828- 
1883;  and  1840-1847. 

ABORIGINES,  AMERICAN.  See  Ameri- 
can Aborigines. 

ABOUKIR,  Naval  B.\ittle  of  (or  Battle  of 
the  Nile).  See  France.  A.  D.  1798  (May- 
August) Land-battle     of    (1799).      See 

France:  A.  D.  1708-1799  (August- August). 

ABRAHAM,  The  Plains  of.  That  part  of 
the  high  plateau  of  Quebec  on  wLJcL  the  mem- 
oraole  victory  of  Wolfe  was  won,  September  13, 
1759.  The  plain  was  so  called  "from  Abraham 
Martin,  a  pilot  known  as  Maltre  Abraham,  who 
had  owned  a  piece  of  land  here  in  the  early  times 
of  the  colony." — P.  Parkman,  Montcalm  and 
Wolfe,  «.  2,  p.  289.— For  an  account  of  the  battle 
which  gave  distinction  to  the  Plains  of  Abraham, 
see  Canada  (New  France):  A.  D.  1750,  (Junk 
—  September). 

ABSENTEEISM  IN  IRELAND.— In  Ire- 
land, "the  owners  of  about  oue-lialf  the  land  do 
not  live  on  or  near  their  estates,  while  the  owners 
of  about  one  fourth  do  not  live  in  the  country. 
.  .  .  Absenteeism  is  an  old  evil,  and  in  very 
early  times  received  attention  from  the  govem- 
Lient.  .  .  .  Some  of  the  disadvantages  to  the 
community  arising  'rom  the  absence  of  the  more 
wealthy  and  intolligent  classes  are  apparent  to 
every  one.  Unless  the  landlord  is  utterly  pov- 
erty-stricken or  very  unenterprising,   'there  is 


ABSENTEEISM  IN  IRELAND. 


ABYSSINIA. 


a  great  dcitl  more  going  on '  wlicii  lie  is  in  the 
country.  ...  I  un>  convinced  t!mt  absenteeism 
is  a  great  di.sailvantage  to  tlie  country  and  the 
people.  ...  It  is  too  nuich  to  attribute  to  it  all 
the  evils  that  have  been  set  down  to  its  charge. 
It  is,  however,  an  important  consideration  that 
the  people  regard  it  as  a  grievance;  and  think 
the  twenty-live  or  thirty  millions  of  dollars  paid 
every  year  to  these  landlords,  who  are  rarely  or 
never  in  Irelaud,  is  a  tax  grievous  to  be  borne." 
—  I).  H.  King,  The  Irinh  Quentiiiii,  pp.  5-11. 

ABSOROKOS,  OR  CROWS.  The.  See 
A.MKUKWN  AnoitniiNi:s:  Siotjan  Family. 

ABU-BEKR,  Caliph,  A.  I).  033-034. 

ABU  KLE A,  Battle  of  (1885).  See  Egypt: 
A.  1).  1H84-IHH5. 

ABUL  ABBAS,  Caliph,  A.  D.  750-754. 

ABUNA  OF  ABYSSINIA.  — "Since  the 
days  of  Frumentius  [who  introd\iced  Christianity 
into  Abyssinia  in  the  4th  century]  every  ortho- 
dox Primate  of  Abyssinia  has  been  consecrated 
by  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  the  church  of  Alex- 
andria, and  has  borne  the  title  of  Abuna" — or 
Abuna  Salama,  "Father  of  Peace."  —  II.  M. 
Ilozier,    "J7ie  Jlritish    Krpcditioii   to   Abyssinia, 

^'aBURY,  or  AVE3URY.— STONE- 
HENGE.— CARNAC— "Tl:o  numerous  cir- 
cles of  stone  or  of  earth  in  Uritain  and  Ireland, 
varying  in  diameter  from  30  or  40  feet  up  to 
1,200,  are  to  be  viewed  as  temples  stiinding  in 
the  closest  possible  relation  to  tne  btirial-places 
of  the  dead.  Tlio  most  imposing  group  of  re- 
mains of  this  kind  in  this  country  [England]  is 
that  of  Avcbury  [Aburv],  near  Devizes,  in 
Wiltshire,  referred  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  to  a 
late  stage  in  the  Neolithic  or  10  the  beginning  of 
the  bronze  period.  It  consists  of  a  large  circle 
of  unworkeil  upright  stoucs  1,200  feet  in  diame- 
ter, surround':d  by  a  fosse,  which  in  turn  is  also 
surrounded  by  a  rampart  of  earth.  Inside  arc  the 
remains  of  two  concentric  circles  of  stone,  and 
from  the  two  entrances  in  the  rampart  proceeded 
long  avenues  Hanked  by  stones,  one  leading  to 
Beckliami)ton,  and  the  other  to  West  Kennett, 
where  it  formerly  ended  in  another  double  circle. 
Between  them  rises  Silbury  Hill,  the  largest 
artilieial  mound  in  Great  Britain,  no  less  than  130 
feet  in  height.  This  group  of  remains  was  at 
one  time  seeoiid  to  none,  'but  unfortunately  for 
us  [says  Sir  John  Lubbock]  the  pretty  little 
village  of  Avcbury  [Abury],  like  some  beautiful 
parasite,  has  grown  up  at  the  expense  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  ancient  temple,  and  out  of  050  great 
stones,  not  above  twenty  are  still  standing.  In 
spite  of  this  it  is  still  to  be  classed  among  the 
finest  ruins  in  Europe.  The  famous  temple  of 
Stonehenge  on  So'isbury  Plain  is  probably  of  a 
later  date  th;in  Avebury,  since  not  only  are  some 
of  the  stones  used  in  its  construction  worked,  but 
the  surrounding  barrows  arc  more  ?laborate  than 
those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  latter.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  circle  100  feet  in  diameter,  of  large 
upright  blocks  of  sarsen  stone,  12  feet  7  inches 
high,  bearing  'niposts  dovetjiiled  into  each  other, 
so  as  to  form  ,v  continuous  architrave.  Nine 
feet  within  this  was  a  circle  of  small  foreign 
stones  .  .  .  and  wifhin  this  five  great  trilithons 
ol  sursen  stone,  for.-aing  a  horse-shoe;  then  a 
licise-shoe  of  foreign  stones,  eight  feet  high,  an(l 
in  the  centre  a  slab  of  miceceous  rndstone  called 
the  altar-stone.  ...  At  a  distauce  of  100  feet 
from  the  outer  line  a  small  ramp,  with  a  ditcli 


outside,  formed  the  outer  circle,  300  feet  in 
diameter,  which  cus  a  low  barrow  and  Includes 
another,  nd  therefore  is  evidentlj-  of  later  date 
than  some  of  the  barrows  of  the  district.  "-=-W.  B. 
Dawkins,  Jiarli/Man  in  Britain,  c/i.  10. — "Stone- 
henge .  .  .  may,  i  think,  be  regarded  as  a  monu- 
ment of  the  Bronze  Age,  though  apparently  it 
was  not  all  erected  at  one  time,  the  inner  circle  of 
small,  unwrought,  blue  stones  being  probably 
older  than  the  rest ;  as  regards  Abury,  since  tlii! 
stones  are  all  in  their  natural  condition,  while 
those  of  Stonehenge  arc  roughly  hewn,  it  seems 
reasonable  to  conclude  that  Abury  is  the  older 
of  the  two,  and  belongs  either  to  the  close  of  the 
Stone  Age,  or  to  the  commencement  of  that  of 
Bronze.  Both  Abury  and  Stonehenge  were,  I 
believe,  used  as  temples.  Many  of  the  stone 
circles,  however,  have  been  proved  to  be  burial 
places.  In  fact,  a  complete  burial  place  may  be 
described  as  a  dolmen,  covered  by  a  tumulus„ 
and  surrounded  by  a  stone  circle.  Often,  how- 
ever, we  have  only  the  tumulus,  sometimes  only 
the  dolmen,  and  sometimes  again  only  the  stone 
circle.  The  celebrated  monument  of  Carnac,  in 
Brittany,  consists  of  eleven  rows  of  unhewn 
stones,  which  differ  greatly  both  ;i  size  and 
height,  the  largest  being  23  feet  above  ground, 
while  some  are  quite  small.  It  appears  that  the 
avenues  originally  extended  for  several  miles,  but 
at  present  they  are  very  imperfect,  the  stones  hav- 
ing been  cleared  away  in  places  for  agricultural 
improvements.  At  present,  therefore,  there  are 
several  detached  portions,  which,  however,  hav& 
the  same  general  direction,  and  appear  to  have 
been  connected  together.  .  .  .  Most  of  the  great 
tumuli  in  Brittany  probably  belong  to  the  Stone 
Age,  and  I  am  therefore  disposed  to  regard  Car- 
nac as  having  been  erected  during  Jie  same 
period." — Sir  J.  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Timei, 
eh.  5. 

ABYDOS. —  An  ancient  city  on  the  Asiatic 
side  of  tlu'  Hellespont,  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  as 
one  of  the  towns  that  were  in  alliance  with  the 
Trojans.  Originally  Thracian,  as  is  supposed,  it 
became  a  colony  of  Miletus,  and  passed  at 
different  times  under  Persian,  Athenian,  Lace- 
diBmonian  and  Macedonian  rule.  Its  site  was  at 
the  narrowest  point  of  the  Hellespont  —  the  scene 
of  the  ancient  romantic  story  of  Hero  and 
Leondcr  —  nearly  opposite  to  the  town  of  Sestus. 
It  was  in  the  near  neighborhood  of  Abydos  that 
Xerxes  built  his  bridge  of  boats;  at  Abydos, 
Alcibiades  and  the  Athenians  won  an  important 
victory  over  the  Peloponnesians.  See  Greece: 
B.  C.  480,  and  411-407. 

ABYDCS,  Tablet  of.— One  of  the  most  valu- 
able records  of  Egyptian  history,  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Abydos  and  now  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum.  It  gives  a  list  of  kings  whom 
liamscs  II.  selected  from  among  his  ancestors  to 
pay  homage  to.  The  tablet  was  much  mutilated 
when  found,  but  another  copy  more  perfect  has 
been  unearthed  by  M.  Marlette,  which  supplies 
nearly  all  the  names  lacking  on  the  first. — F. 
Lenormaut,  Manual  of  Ancient  Hist,  of  the  Ea»t, 
V.  1,  bk.  8. 

ABYSSINIA  :  Embraced  in  ancienr.  Ethio- 
pia.   See  Ethiopia. 

Fourth  Century. — Conversion  to  Christi- 
anity.— "What'iver  may  have  been  the  effect 
proifuccd  in  bis  native  country  by  the  conver- 
sion of  Queen  Candace's  treasurer,  recorded  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  [ch,  YIII.],  it  would 


ABYSSIXIA,  FOURTH  CENTURY. 


ABYSSINIA,  15Tn-10TH  CENTURIES. 


ftppoar  to  linve  been  transitory ;  andtheEtbio- 
piiiii  or  Abyssiniiin  church  owes  its  origin  to  an 
expedition  made  early  in  tlie  fonrtli  century  by 
Meropius,  a  philosop'lier  of  Tyre,  lor  the  pur- 
pose of  scientilic  inijuiry.  On  liis  voyage  liomc- 
■wards.  lie  and  liis  companions  were  attaclied  at 
a  phice  where  tliey  liad  landed  in  search  of 
water,  and  all  were  massacred  except  two 
youths,  ./Edesius  and  Frumontius,  the  relatives 
and  pui)ils  of  Meropius.  These  were  carried  to 
the  king  of  the  country,  who  advanced  iEdesius 
to  be  liis  cup-bearer,  and  Frumontius  to  be  his 
cecretary  and  treasurer.  On  the  death  of  the 
king,  who  left  a  boy  as  his  heir,  the  two 
strangers,  at  the  request  of  the  widowed  queen, 
acted  as  regents  of  the  kingdom  until  the  prince 
came  of  age.  yEdesius  then  returned  to  Tyre, 
where  he  became  a  presJiyter.  Frumentius, 
who,  with  the  help  of  such  Christian  traders  as 
visited  the  country,  had  already  introduced  the 
Christian  doctrine  and  worship  into  Abyssinia, 
repaired  to  Alexandria,  related  his  story  to 
Atlianasius,  and  .  .  .  Atlianasius  .  .  .  con- 
secrated him  to  the  bishoprick  of  Axum  [the 
capital  of  the  Abyssinain  kingdom].  The  church 
thus  foimded  continues  to  this  day  subject  to  the 
see  of  Alexandria." — J.  C.  Robertson,  flift.  of  the 
ClirUiiitii,  Church,  bk.  3,  ch.  0. 

6th  to  i6th  Centuries. — Wars  in  Arabia. — 
Struggle  with  the  Mahometans.  —  Isolation 
from  the  Christian  world, — "The  fate  of  the 
Christian  cliurch  among  the  Homerites  in  Arabia 
Felix  afforded  an  opportunity  for  the  Abyssin- 
ians,  under  the  reigns  of  the  Emperors  Just'n 
and  Justinian,  to  show  their  zeal  in  behalf  of  the 
cause  of  the  Christians.  Tlie  prince  of  that 
Arabian  population,  Dunaan,  or  Dsunovas,  was 
a  zealous  adherent  of  Judaism;  and,  under  pre- 
text of  avenging  the  oppressions  which  his 
fellow-believers  were  obliged  to  suffer  in  the 
Roman  empire,  he  caused  the  Christian  mer- 
chants v.ho  came  from  that  quarter  and  visited 
Arabia  lor  the  purposes  of  trade,  or  passed 
through  the  country  to  Abyssinia,  to  be  mur- 
dered. Elesbaan,  the  Christian  king  of  Abys- 
sinia, made  this  a  cause  for  declaring  war  on  the 
Arabian  prince.  Ho  conquered  Dsunovas,  de- 
prived him  of  the  government,  and  set  up  a 
Christiai;,  by  the  name  of  Abraham,  ns  king  in 
his  stead.  But  at  the  death  of  the  latter,  which 
happened  soon  after,  Dsunovas  again  made  him- 
self master  of  the  throne ;  and  it  was  a  natural 
consequence  of  what  he  had  suffered,  that  he 
now  became  a  fiercer  nnd  more  crufi  persecutor 
than  he  was  before.  .  .  .  Upon  this,  Elesbaan 
interfered  once  mort-,  under  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Justinian,  who  stimulated  him  to  the 
undertaking.  He  made  a  second  expedition 
lo  Arabia  Felix,  and  was  again  victorious. 
Dsunovas  lost  his  life  in  the  war;  the  Abys- 
sinian prince  put  an  end  to  the  ancient,  in- 
dependent empire  of  the  Homerites,  and  estab- 
lished a  new  government  favourable  to  the 
Christians."— A.  Neander,  General  History  of  the 
Christian  licligion  and  Church,  second  period, 
sect.  1. — "In  the  year  593,  as  nearly  as  can  be 
C(dculated  from  the  dates  given  by  the  native 
writers,  the  Persians,  whose  power  seems  to 
have  kept  pace  with  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire,  sent  a  great  force  against  the  Abyssin- 
ians,  possessed  themselves  onco  more  of  Arabia, 
acquired  a  naval  superiority  in  the  gulf,  and 
secured  the  principal  ports  on  either  side  of  it. 


It  is  uncertain  how  long  these  conquerors  re- 
tained their  acquisition;  but,  in  all  pre' ability 
their  ascendancy  gave  way  to  Jie  rising  gre.it- 
ness  of  the  Jlahometan  power;  winch  soon 
afterwards  overwhelmed  all  the  nations  ron- 
tigtious  to  Arabia,  spread  to  the  remotest  parts 
of  the  East,  and  even  penetrated  the  African 
deserts  from  Egypt  to  the  Congo.  Meanwhile 
Abyssinia,  though  within  two  hundred  miles  of 
the  walls  of  Jfecca,  remained  unconqiiered  and 
true  to  the  Christian  faith;  presenting  a  mor- 
tifying and  galling  object  to  the  more  zealous 
followers  of  the  Prophet.  On  this  accoiuit, 
implacable  and  incessant  wars  ravaged  her  terri- 
tories. .  .  .  She  lost  her  commerce,  saw  her  conse- 
quence annihilated,  her  capital  threatened,  and  the 
richest  of  her  provinces  laid  waste.  .  .  .  There 
is  reoson  to  apprehend  that  she  miist  shortly 
have  sunk  under  the  pressure  of  repeated  in- 
vasions, had  not  the  Portuguese  arrived  [in  the 
iOtb  century]  at  a  seasonable  moment  to  aid 
her  endeavours  rgainst  the  Jloslem  chiefs." — M. 
Russell,  Nubia  and  ^-iiji/ssinin,  ch.  3. — "When 
Nubia,  which  intervenes  between  Egypt  and 
Abyssinia,  ceased  to  be  a  Christiiui  country, 
owing  to  the  destruction  of  its  church  by  the 
^Mahometans,  the  Al)yssinian  church  was  cut  off 
from  communication  with  the  rest  of  Christen- 
dom. .  .  .  They  [tho  Abyssinians]  remain  an 
almost  unique  specimen  of  a  semi-barbarous 
Christian  people.  Their  worship  is  strangely 
mixed  with  Jewish  customs."— H.  F.  Tozer,  The 
Church  and  the  Eastern  Empire,  ch.  5. 

Fifteenth-Nineteenth  Cer-turies. — European 
Attempts  at  Intercourse. — Intrusion  of  the 
Gallas. — Intestine  conflicts. — "About  the  mid- 
dle of  tlie  15th  century,  Abyssinia  car.ie  in  con- 
tact with  AVestern  Europe.  An  Abyssinian  con- 
vent WIS  endowed  at  Rome,  and  legates  were 
sent  from  the  Abyssinian  convent  at  Jerusalem 
to  the  council  of  Florence.  These  adhered  to 
the  Greek  schism.  But  from  tliat  time  the 
Church  of  Rome  made  an  impress  upon  Ethiopia. 
.  .  .  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal  .  .  .  next  opened 
up  communication  witli  Europe.  He  hoped  to 
open  up  a  route  from  the  West  to  the  East  coast 
of  Africa  [see  Poktuoal;  A.  D.  1415-1460], 
by  which  the  East  Indies  might  be  reached  with- 
out touching  MahometJin  territory.  During  his 
efforts  to  discover  sucli  a  passage  to  India,  and 
to  destroy  the  revenues  derived  by  the  Moors 
from  the  spice  trade,  be  sent  an  ambassador 
named  Covillan  to  the  Court  of  Shoa.  Covillan 
was  not  suffered  to  return  by  Alexander,  the 
then  Negoos  [or  Negus,  or  Nagash  —  tho  title  of 
the  Abyssinian  sovereign].  He  married  nobly, 
and  acquired  rich  possessions  in  the  country.  He 
kept  up  correspondence  with  Portugal,  and  urged 
Prince  Henry  to  diligently  continue  his  efforts  to 
discover  the  Southern  passage  to  the  East.  In 
1498  the  Portuguese  effected  the  circuit  of  Africa. 
The  Turks  shortly  afterwards  extended  their  con- 
quests towards  India,  where  they  were  bauikcd  by 
the  Portuguese,  but  they  established  a  post  and  a 
toll  at  Zcyla,  on  the  African  coast.  From  here 
they  hampered  and  threatened  to  destroy  the 
trade  of  Abyssinia,"  antl  soon,  in  alliance  with 
the  Mahometan  tribes  of  the  coost,  invaded  the 
country.  ' '  They  were  defeated  by  the  Negoos 
David,  and  at  tho  same  time  tho  Turkish  town  of 
Zeyla  was  stormed  and  burned  by  a  Portuguese 
fleet."  .Considerable  intimacy  of  friendly  rela- 
tions was  maintained  for  some  time  between  the 


ABYSSINIA,  15Tn-10TII  CENTURIES. 


ABYSSINIA,  1854-1880. 


Abys.sinians  and  tlio  Portugui.'sc,  who  (i.ssi.stcd  in 
defending  tlicin  iigiiinst  tlio  Turks.  "In  the 
middle  of  the  Hith  ccntiirv  ...»  migration  of 
Oallas  camr  fnnii  the  Souti.  and  swept  up  to  and 
over  tlie  eimlines  of  Abyssinia.  Men  of  ligliter 
ooiiiplexi(m  and  fairer  sl<in  tlian  most  Africans, 
they  were  Pagan  in  religion  :;nd  savages  in  cus- 
toms. Notwitlistanding  frecjuent  efforts  to  dis- 
lodge tliem,  tliey  diave  (irmly  established  them- 
.selves.  A  large  colony  has  planted  itself  on  the 
baiiUs  of  the  Upper  Takkazie,  tlie  Jidda  and  the 
Hashilo.  Since  their  establishment  here  they 
have  for  tlie  most  part  embraced  the  creed  of 
Mahomet.  The  province  of  Slioa  is  but  an  out- 
lier of  Cliristian  Aby.s.sinia,  separated  completely 
from  co-religionist  districts  by  these  Galla 
bands.  About  the  same  time  the  Turks  took  a 
firm  hold  of  Massowah  and  of  the  lowland  by 
the  coast,  -"vhich  had  hitherto  been  ruled  by  the 
Abyssinian  Bahar  Nagash.  Islainism  and  heath- 
enism surrounded  Abyssinia,  where  the  lamp  of 
Christianity  faintly  glimmered  amidst  dark 
superstition  in  the  deep  recesses  of  rugged  val- 
leys." In  1)558  a  Jesuit  mission  arrived  in  the 
country  and  estjiblished  itself  at  Fremona.  ' '  For 
nearly  a  century  FrcmoLa  existed,  and  its  super- 
iors were  the  trusted  advisors  of  the  Ethiopian 
throne.  .  .  .  But  the  same  fate  which  fell  upon 
the  company  of  Jesus  in  more  civilized  lands, 
pursued  it  m  the  wilds  of  Africa.  The  Jesuit 
missionaries  were  universally  popular  with  the 
Negoos,  but  the  prejudice  of  the  people  refused 
to  recognise  the  benefits  which  llowed  from  Fre- 
L'.ona."  Persecution  befell  the  fathew,  and  two 
of  them  won  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The 
Negoos,  Facilidas,  "sent  for  a  Coptic  Abuna 
[ecclesiastical  primate]  from  Alexandria,  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  the  Turkish  governors  of 
Massowah  and  Souakin  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
Europeans  into  his  dominions.  Some  Capuchin 
preachers,  who  attempted  to  evade  this  treaty 
and  enter  Abyssinia,  met  witli  cruel  deaths. 
Facilidas  thus  completed  the  work  of  the  Turks 
and  the  Gallaa,  and  shut  Abyssinia  out  from 
European  influence  and  civilization.  .  .  .  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  Abyssinia  was  torn 
by  internal  feuds  and  constantly  harassed  by  the 
encrocchments  of  and  wars  with  the  Gallas. 
Anarchy  and  confusion  ruled  supreme.  Towns 
and  villages  were  burnt  down,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants sold  into  slavery.  .  .  .  Towards  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  the  Gallas  appear  to  have 
•ncreased  considerably  in  power.  In  the  intes- 
tine quarrels  of  Abyssinia  their  alliance  was 
courted  by  each  side,  and  in  their  couniiy  politi- 
cal refugees  obtained  a  secure  asylum."  During 
the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  the  cam- 
jjaigns  m  Egypt  attracted  English  attention  to 
the  Red  Sea.  "In  1804  Lord  Valeutia,  the 
Viceroy  of  India,  sent  his  Secretary,  Mr.  Salt, 
into  Abyssinia;"  but  Mr.  Salt  was  unable  to 
penetrate  beyond  Tigre.  In  1810  he  attempted 
a  second  mission  and  again  failed.  It  was  not 
until  1848  that  English  attempts  to  open  diplo- 
matic and  commercial  relations  with  Abyssinia 
became  successful.  Mr.  Plowden  was  appointed 
consular  agent,  and  negotiated  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  Ras  Ali,  the  ruling  Galla  chief." — 
H.  M.  Hozier,  The  British  Expedition  to  Aby»- 
linia,  Introd. 

A.  D.  185^-1889.— Advent  of  KinrTheodore. 
— His  English  captives  and  the  Expedition 
which  released  th^m. — "Consul  Plowden  had 


been  residing  six  years  at  Massowah  when  he 
heard  that  the  Prince  to  whom  he  had  been  ac- 
credited, Ras  Ali,  had  been  defeated  and  de- 
throned by  an  adventurer,  whose  name,  a  few 
years  before,  had  been  unknown  outside  the 
boundaries  of  his  native  province.  This  was 
Lij  Kfisa,  better  known  by  his  adopted  name  of 
Theodore.  He  was  born  of  an  old  family,  in 
the  mountainous  region  of  Kwara,  where  the 
land  begins  to  slope  downwards  towards  the 
Blue  Nile,  and  educated  in  a  convent,  where  he 
learned  to  read,  and  acquired  a  considerable  knowl- 
edge of  the  Scriptures.  Kftsa's  convent  life  was 
suddenly  put  an  end  to,  when  one  of  those  ma- 
rauding Galla  bands,  whose  ravages  are  the 
curse  of  Abyssinia,  attacked  and  plundered  the 
monastery.  From  that  time  he  himself  took  to 
the  life  of  a  freebooter.  .  .  .  Adventurers  flocked 
to  his  standard ;  his  power  continually  increased ; 
and  in  1854  he  defeated  Ras  Ali  in  a  pitched  bat- 
tle, and  made  himself  master  of  central  Abys- 
sinia." In  1855  he  overthrew  the  ruler  of  Tigr6. 
"He  now  resolved  to  assume  a  title  coramen- 
surate  with  the  wide  extent  of  his  dominion.  In 
the  church  of  Derczgye  he  had  himself  crowned 
by  the  Abuna  as  King  of  the  Kings  of  Ethiopia, 
taking  the  name  of  Theodore,  because  an  ancient 
tradition  declared  that  a  great  monarch  would 
some  day  arise  in  Abyssinia."  Mr.  Plowden  now 
visited  the  new  monarch,  was  impressed  with 
admiration  of  his  talents  and  character,  and  be- 
came his  counsellor  and  friend.  But  in  1860  the 
English  consul  lost  his  life,  while  on  a  journey, 
and  Theodore,  embittered  by  several  mis- 
fortunes, began  to  give  rein  to  a  savage  temper. 
"The  British  Government,  on  hearing  of  the 
death  of  Plowden,  immediately  replaced  him  at 
Massowah  by  the  appointment  of  Captain  Cam- 
eron. "  The  new  Consul  was  well  received,  and 
was  entrusted  by  the  Abyssinian  King  with  a 
letter  addressed  to  the  Queen  of  England,  solicit- 
ing her  friendship.  The  letter,  duly  despatched 
to  its  destination,  was  pigeon-holed  in  the  Foreign 
Offlce  at  London,  and  no  reply  to  it  was  ever 
made.  Insulted  and  enraged  by  this  treatment, 
and  by  other  evidences  of  the  indifference  of  the 
British  Government  to  nis  overtures,  King  Theo- 
dore, in  January,  1864,  seized  and  imprisoned 
Consul  Cameron  with  all  his  suite.  About 
the  same  time  he  was  still  further  offended  by 
certain  passages  in  a  book  on  Abyssinia  that  had 
been  published  by  a  missionary  named  Stem. 
Stem  and  a  fellow  missionary,  Rosenthal  with 
the  latter's  ^ife,  were  lodged  in  prison,  and  sub- 
jected to  flogging  and  torture.  The  first  step 
taken  by  the  British  Government,  when  news  of 
Consul  Cameron's  imprisonment  reached  Eng- 
land, was  to  send  out  a  regular  mission  to  Abys- 
sinia, bearing  a  letter  signed  by  the  Queen,  de- 
manding the  release  of  the  Captives.  The  mission, 
headed  by  a  Syrian  named  Rassam,  made  its  way 
to  the  King's  presence  in  January,  1866.  Theo- 
dore seemed  to  be  placated  by  the  Queen's  epistle 
and  promised  freedom  to  his  prisoners.  But  soon 
his  moody  mind  became  flllcd  with  suspicions  as 
to  the  genuineness  of  Rassam's  credentials  from 
the  Queen,  and  as  to  the  designs  and  intentions  of 
all  the  foreigners  who  were  in  his  power.  He  was 
drinking  heavily  at  the  time,  and  the  result  of 
his  "drunken  cogitations  was  a  determination  to 
detain  the  mission — at  any  rate  until  by  their 
means  he  should  have  obtained  a  supply  of  skilled 
artisans  and  machinery  from  England."     Mr. 


ABYSSINIA,  1854-1889. 


ACH.«AN  CITIES. 


Rnssam  and  his  companions  were  accordingly  I 
put  into  conflnement,  as  Captain  Cnmoron  had 
been.  But  tliey  were  allowed  to  send  a  mes- 
senger to  England,  making  tlieir  situation  Ijnown, 
and  conveying  the  demand  of  King  Theodore 
lliat  a  man  be  sent  to  hinl  "wlio  can  maiie  can- 
nons and  muskets. "  The  demand  was  actually 
'complied  -with.  Six  skilled  artisans  and  a  civd 
engineer  were  sent  out,  together  with  a  quantity 
of  machinery  and  otlier  presents,  in  the  hope  that 
they  would  procure  the  release  of  the  unfortunate 
captives  at  Magdala.  Almost  a  year  was  wasted 
in  these  futile  proceedings,  and  it  was  not  until 
Beptemlicr,  1867,  that  an  expedition  consisting  of 
4,000  British  and  8,000  native  troops,  under  Gen- 
eral Sir  Robert  Napier,  was  sent  from  India  to 
bring  the  insensate  barbarian  to  terms.  It  landed 
in  Annesley  Bay,  and,  overcoming  cmormous 
difBcultics  with  regard  to  water,  food-supplies 
and  tiansportation,  was  ready,  about  the  middle 
of  January,  1868,  to  start  upon  its  march  to  the 
fortress  of  Magdala,  where  Theodore's  prisoners 
were  confined.  The  distance  was  400  miles,  and 
several  high  ranges  of  mountains  liad  to  bo  passed 
to  reach  the  interior  table-land.  The  invading 
army  mot  with  no  resistance  until  it  reached  the 
Valley  of  the  Beshilo,  when  it  was  attacked 
(April  10)  on  the  plain  of  Aroge  or  Arogi,  by 
the  whole  force  which  Tlieodore  was  able  to 
muster,  numbering  a  few  thousands,  only,  of 
poorly  armed  men.  The  battle  was  simply  a 
rapid  slaughtering  of  the  barbaric  assailants,  and 
when  tUey  fled,  leaving  700  or800  dead  and  1,500 
wounded  on  the  field,  the  Abyssinian  King  had 
no  power  of  resistance  left.  He  offered  at  once 
to  make  peace,  surrendering  all  the  captives  in 
his  hands;  but  Sir  Robert  Napier  required  an 
unconditional  submission,  with  a  view  to  displac- 
ing hira  from  the  throne,  in  accordance  with 
the  wish  and  expectation  which  he  had  found  to 
be  general  in  the  country.  Theotlore  refused 
these  t<;rms,  and  when  (April  13)  Magdala  was 
bombarded  and  stormed  by  the  British  troops — 
slight  resistance  being  made — he  shot  himself  at 
the  moment  of  their  entrance  to  the  place.  The 
sovereignty  he  had  successfully  concentrated  in 
himself  for  a  time  was  again  divided.  Between 
April  and  June  the  English  army  was  entirely 
withdrawn,  and  "  Abyssinia  was  Be.iled  up  again 
from  intercourse  with  the  outer  world." — Qtii- 
lell'a  Illunlratcd  Ilht.  of  Eny.,  v.  9,  ch.  28.— "The 
task  of  permanently  uniting  Abyssinia,  in  which 
Theodore  failed,  proved  equally  impracticable  to 
John,  who  came  to  the  front,  in  the  first  instance, 
as  an  ally  of  the  British,  and  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded to  the  sovereignty.  By  his  fall  (10th 
March,  1889)  in  the  unhappy  war  against  the 
Dervishes  or  Moslem  zealots  of  the  Soudan,  the 
path  was  cleared  for  Jlenilek  of  Shoa,  who  en- 
joyed the  support  of  Italy.  The  establishment 
of  the  Italians  on  the  Red  Sea  littnrid  .  .  . 
promises  a  new  era  for  Abyssinia.  "—T.  NOldeke, 
ISketchcs  from  Eastern  Hint.,  ch.  9. 

Also  in  II.  A.  Stern,  The  Captive  Missionary. 
—II.  M.  Stanley,  Coomassie  and  Magdala,  pt.  2. 
- — ♦— — 

ACABA,  the  Pledges  of.  See  Mahometan 
Conquest  :  A.  D.  600-0:(2. 

ACADEMY,  The  Athenian.— "  The  Aca- 
demia,  a  public  garden  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Athens,  was  the  favourite  resort  of  Plato,  and 
gave  its  name  to  the  school  \,  ,iich  Iw.  founded. 
I'his  garden  was  plant<'d  with  lofty  plane-trees. 


and  adorned  with  temples  and  statues ;  a  gentle 
stream  rolled  through  it." — G.  H.  Lewes,  Biog. 
Jlist.  of  Philosophy,  Qth  Ejweh. — The  masters  of 
the  great  schools  of  philosopy  at  Athens  "chose 
for  their  lectures  and  discussions  the  public 
buildings  which  were  called  gymnasia,  of  which 
there  were  several  in  different  quarters  of  the  city. 
They  could  only  use  them  by  the  sufferance  of 
the  State,  which  had  built  them  chiefly  for 
bodily  exercises  and  athletic  feats.  .  .  .  Before 
long  several  of  the  schools  drew  themselves 
apart  in  s])ccial  buildings,  and  even  took  their 
most  familiar  names,  such  as  the  Lyceum  and 
the  Academy,  from  the  gynmasia  in  which  they 
made  themselves  at  home.  Gradually  we  find 
the  traces  of  some  material  provisions,  which 
helped  to  define  and  to  perpetuate  the  different 
sects.  Plato  had  a  little  garden,  close  by  the 
sacred  Eleusinian  Way,  in  the  shady  groves  of 
the  Academy,  which  he  bought,  says  Plutarch, 
for  some  3,000  drachma;.  There  lived  also  his 
successors,  Xenocratcs  and  Polemon.  .  .  .  Aris- 
totle, as  we  know,  in  later  life  had  taught  in  the 
Lyceum,  in  the  rich  grounds  near  the  Ilissus, 
and  there  lie  probably  possessed  the  house  and 
garden  which  after  his  death  came  into  the  hands 
of  his  successor,  Theophrastus. " — W.  W.  Capes, 
University  life  in  Ancient  Athens,  pp.  81-33. — 
For  a  description  of  the  Academy,  the  Lyceum, 
and  other  gymnasia  of  Athens,  see  Gysinasia 
GitEEK. — Concerning  the  suppression  of  the 
Academy,  see  Athens:  A.  D.  539. 

ACADIA.    See  Nova  Scotia. 

ACADIANS,  The,  and  the  British  Gov- 
ernment.— Their  expulsion.  See  Nova  Scotia  : 
A.  D.  1713-1730;  1749-1755,  and  1755. 

ACARNANIANS.    Bee  Akarn.vnianb. 

ACAWOIOS,  The.  See  Ameuican  Abori- 
gines: Caribs  and  tiieiu  Kindred. 

ACCAD.— ACCADIANS.  See  Babylonia, 
Primitive. 

ACCOLADE.— "The  concluding  sign  of 
being  dubbed  or  adopted  into  the  order  of 
knighthood  was  a  slight  blow  given  by  the  lord 
to  the  cavalier,  and  called  the  accolade,  from  the 
part  of  the  body,  the  neck,  whereon  it  was 
struck.  .  .  .  Many  writers  have  imagined  that 
the  accolade  was  the  last  blow  which  the  sol- 
dier might  receive  with  impunity :  but  this  in- 
terpretation is  not  correct,  for  the  squire  was  as 
jealous  of  his  honour  as  the  knight.  The  origin 
of  the  accolade  it  is  irapos.sible  to  trace,  but  it 
was  clearly  considered  symbolical  of  the  religious 
and  moral  duties  of  knighthood,  and  was  the 
only  ceremony  used  when  knights  were  made  in 
places  (the  field  of  battle,  for  instance),  where 
time  and  circumstances  did  not  allow  of  many 
ceremonies." — C.  Mills,  Hist,  of  Chivalry,  v.  1, 
;).  53,  and  foot-iiote. 

ACHiEAN  CITIES,  LeaguR  of  the.— This, 
which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  "  Achaian 
League "  of  Pcloponiie.us,  was  an  early  League 
of  the  Greek  settlements  in  southern  Italy,  or 
Magna  Grari,  It  was  "  composed  of  the  towns 
of  Siris,  Pandosia,  Metabus  or  Metajiontum, 
Sybaris  with  its  offsets  Posidonia  and  Laus, 
Croton,  Caulonia,  Temesa,  Tcrina  and  Pyxiis. 
.  .  .  The  language  of  Polybius  regarding  the 
Achtean  symmachy  in  the  Peloponnesus  may  be 
applied  also  to  these  Italian  Achinins ;  '  not  only 
dill  they  live  in  federal  and  friendly  communion, 
but  they  made  use  of  tlie  same  laws,  and  the 
same  weights,  measures  and  coins,  as  well  as  of 


ACII^AN  CITIES. 


ACHKIDA. 


the  same  mngistriitcs,  counrillnrs  mid  judges.'  " 
— T.  Momiiiscn,  Hint,  of  Itome,  bk.  1,  ch.  10. 

ACHiEAN  LEAGUE.  Sec  Guekce:  B.  C. 
280-146. 

ACHiEMENIDS,  The.— TIic  family  or  dy- 
nastic name  (in  its  Ureel<  form)  of  tlie  kings  of 
the  Persian  Enijjire  founded  by  Cyrus,  derived 
from  an  ancestor,  Acliipmcnos,  wlio  was  probably 
a  cliief  of  tlie  Persian  tribe  of  tlic  Pasargada>. 
"In  tlie  inscription  of  Rehistun,  King  Darius 
Bays:  'From  old  time  wc  were  kings;  eight  of 
my  family  linve  been  kings,  I  nm  the  ninth; 
from  very  ancient  times  we  liave  been  kings.' 
He  enumerates  liis  ancestors:  'My  father  was 
Vista^pa,  the  father  of  Vista9pa  was  Arsama; 
the  father  of  Arsama  was  Ariyaramna,  the  father 
of  Ariyaramna  was  Khaispis,  the  father  of  Khais- 
pis  was  Ilakhamauis;  lience  we  are  called  Ilak- 
hamanisiya(Acha>menids). '  In  these  words  Darius 
gives  the  tree  of  his  own  family  up  to  Khaispis; 
this  was  the  younger  branch  of  the  Aclite- 
mcnids.  Teispes,  the  son  of  Achaemenes,  had 
two  sons;  the  elder  was  Cambyses  (Kambujiya) 
the  younger  Ariamnes;  the  son  of  Cambysea  was 
Cyrus  (Kurus),  the  son  of  Cyrus  was  Cambyses 
II.  Hence  Darius  could  indeed  maintain  that 
eight  princes  of  his  family  had  preceded  him ; 
but  it  was  not  correct  to  maintain  that  they  liad 
been  kings  before  him  and  that  ho  was  the  ninth 
king. "  —  M.  Duncker,  Ilut.  of  Antiquity,  v.  5, 
bk.  8,  ell.  3. 

Also  in  O.  Rawlinson,  Family  of  th'  Acfus- 
menidm,  app.  to  bk.  7  of  Herodotus. —  See,  also, 

PeUBIA,  ANCffiNT. 

ACHAIA. — "  Crossing  the  river  Larissus,  and 
pursuing  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus 
south  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  the  traveller  would 
pass  into  Achaia — a  name  which  designated  the 
narrow  strip  of  level  land,  and  the  projecting 
spurs  and  declivities  between  that  gulf  and  the 
northernmost  mountains  of  the  peninsula.  .  .  . 
Achaean  cities  —  twelve  in  number  at  least.  If  not 
more  —  divided  this  long  strip  of  land  amongst 
them,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Larissus  and  the 
northwestern  Capo  Ara.xus  on  one  side,  to  the 
western  boundary  of  the  Bikyon  territory  on  the 
other.  According  to  the  accounts  of  the  ancient 
legends  and  the  belief  of  Herodotus,  this  terri- 
tory had  been  once  occupied  by  Ionian  Inhabit- 
ants, whom  the  Achaeans  had  e.xpcUed." — G. 
Grote,  IlUt.  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch.  4  (c.  2).— After 
the  Roman  conquest  and  the  suppression  of  the 
Achaian  League,  the  name  Acliaia  was  given  to 
the  Roman  province  then  organized,  wliich 
embraced  all  Greece  south  of  Macedonia  and 
Epirus.— See  Guefxe:  B.  C.  280-140.— "In  the 
Homeric  poems,  where  .  .  .  the  'Hellenes' 
only  appear  in  one  district  of  Soutliern  Tliessaly, 
the  name  Achivans  is  employed  by  jircference 
as  a  general  appelation  for  the  whole  race.  But 
the  Achieans  we  niav  term,  without  hesitation, 
a  Pclasgian  people,  in  so  far,  that  is,  as  wo  use 
this  name  merely  as  the  opposite  of  tho  terra 
'Hellenes,'  wliich  prevailed  at  a  later  t'nie, 
although  it  is  true  tliat  the  Hellenes  thems.lves 
wore  nothing  more  than  a  particular  branch  of 
the  Pclasgian  stock.  .  .  .  [The  name  of  the] 
Achreans,  after  it  had  dropped  its  earlier  and 
more  universal  application,  was  preserved  as  the 
special  name  of  a  population  dwelling  in  the 
north  dt  the  Peloponneso  and  the  south  of 
Tliessaly." — G.  F.  SchCmann,  Antiq.  of  Greece: 
Tlie  Stale,  Int. — "The  ancients  regarded  them 


[the  Achtcansl  as  a  branch  of  the  .^olians,  viith 
whom  they  afterwards  reunited  into  one  national 
bod  V,  i.  e. ,  not  as  an  originally  distinct  nationality 
or  mdependent  branch  of  tho  Greek  people. 
Accordingly,  we  hear  npitlier  of  an  Acha;an  lan- 
guage nor  of  Achffian  art.  A  manifest  and  decided 
influence  of  the  maritime  Greeks,  wherever  the 
Aclia>ans  appear,  is  common  to  the  latter  with 
the  yEolians.  Achirans  are  everywhere  settled 
on  tho  coast,  and  are  always  regarded  as  jiar- 
ticularly  near  relations  of  tho  lonians.  .  .  .  1  he 
Achoeans  appear  scattered  about  in  localities  on 
the  coast  of  the  iEgean  so  remote  from  one 
another,  that  it  is  impossible  to  consider  all  bear- 
ing this  name  as  fragments  of  a  people  originally 
united  in  one  social  community;  nor  do  they 
in  fact  anywhere  appear,  properly  speaking, 
as  a  popular  body,  as  the  main  stock  of  tho 
population,  but  rather  as  eminent  families,  from 
which  spring  heroes ;  hence  tho  use  of  tho  expres- 
sion '  Sons  of  tho  Achreans '  to  indicate  noble  de- 
scent."— E.  Curtius,  Hist,  of  Greece,  bk.  1,  ch.  3. 

Also  in  M.  Duncker,  Hist,  of  Greece,  bk.  1,  ch. 
2,  and  bk.  2,  ch.  2. — See,  also,  Achaia,  and 
Greece  :  The  Miohatioss. 

A.  D.  1205-1387.  —  Mediaeval  Principality. 
— Among  tho  conquests  of  the  French  and 
Lombard  Crusaders  in  Greece,  after  tho  taking  of 
Constantinople,  was  that  of  a  major  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus  —  then  beginning  to  be  called  the 
Morea — by  William  do  Champlitte,  a  French 
Itnight,  assisted  by  GeflErey  de  Villehardouin, 
tho  younger — nephew  and  namesake  of  the 
Marshal  of  Cliampagno,  who  was  chronicler  of 
the  conquest  of  the  Empire  of  the  East.  William 
de  Champlitte  was  invested  with  this  Principality 
of  Achaia,  or  of  tlie  Morea,  as  it  is  variously 
stj'led.  Qcflrcy  Villehardouin  represented  him 
in  the  government,  as  his  "bailly,"for  a  time, 
and  finally  succeeded  in  supplanting  him.  Half 
a  century  later  the  Greeks,  who  had  recovered 
Constantinople,  reduced  the  territory  of  the 
Principality  of  Achaia  to  about  half  the  penin- 
sula, and  a  destructive  war  was  waged  between 
the  two  races.  Subsequently  the  Principality, 
became  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
and  underwent  many  changes  of  possession 
until  the  title  was  in  confusion  and  dispute 
between  the  houses  of  Anjou,  Aragon  and 
Savoy.  Before  it  was  engulfed  finally  in  the 
Empire  of  the  Turks,  it  was  ruined  by  their 
piracies  and  ravages. — O.  Finlay,  Hist,  of  Greece 
jFrom  its  Conquest  by  the  Crusaders,  ch.  8. 

ACHMET  I.,  Turkish  Sultan,  A.  D.  1003- 
1017. . . .  Achmet  II.,  1691-1005. . . .  Achme*  III., 
1703-1730. 

ACHRADINA.—  A  part  of  tho  nncLnt  city 
of  Syracuse,  Sicily,  known  as  the  "  outer  city, 
occupying  the  peninsula  north  of  Ortygia,  the 
island,  which  was  the  "  inner  city." 

ACHRIDA,  Kingdom  of.— After  the  death  of 
John  Zimisces  wlio  had  reunited  Bulgaria  to  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  the  Bulgarians  wore  roused 
to  a  struggle  for  the  recovery  of  their  independ- 
ence, under  the  lead  of  four  brothers  of  a  noble 
familv  all  of  whom  soon  perished  save  one, 
nan.od  Samuel.  Samuel  proved  to  be  so  vigor- 
ous and  able  a  soldier  and  had  so  much  success 
that  ho  assumed  presently  the  title  of  king.  His 
authority  was  established  over  the  greater  part 
of  Bulgaria,  and  extended  into  Macedonia, 
Epirus  and  Illyria.    He  established  his  capital 


ACHRIDA. 


ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT. 


at  Achrida  (modern  Ochrida,  in  Albania),  wliich 
gave  its  name  to  liis  liingdom.  Tlie  suppression 
of  tliis  new  Bulgarian  monarchy  occupied  the 
Byzantine  Emperor,  Basil  II.,  in  wars  from  981 
until  1018,  wlien  its  last  strongholds,  including 
the  city  of  Achrida,  were  surrendered  to  him.— 
O.  Finlay,  Ilitt.  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  from 
716  to  1057,  hk.  2,  ch.  3,  sect.  3. 

ACKERMAN,  Convention  of  (1826).  See 
Turks:  A.  D.  1826-1829. 

ACOLAHUS,  The.  See  Mexico,  Ancient: 
The  Toi.tkc  EMrmi;. 

ACOLYTH,  The.  Sec  Varangian  or  War- 
Djo  Guard. 

ACRABA,  Battle  of,  A.  D.  633.— After  the 
death  of  Mahomet,  his  successor,  Abu  Bekr,  had 
to  deal  witli  several  serious  revolts,  the  most 
threatening  of  which  was  niised  by  one  Mosei- 
lama,  who  had  pretended,  even  in  the  life-time  of 
the  Prophet,  to  a  rival  mission  of  religion.  The 
decisive  battle  between  the  followers  of  Mosei- 
lama  and  those  of  Mahomet  was  fought  at  Acraba, 
near  Yemama.  The  pretender  was  slain  and  few 
■of  his  army  escaped. — Sir  W.  Muir,  Annals  of 
the  Early  Caliphate,  ch.  7. 

ACRABATTENE,  Battle  of.— A  sanguinary 
defeat  of  the  Idiimcans  or  Edomites  by  the  Jews 
under  Judas  Maccabajus,  B.  C.  164. — Josephus, 
Antig.  of  the  Jews,  bk.  13,  ch.  8. 

ACRAGAS.    See  Aorioentum. 

ACRE  (St.  Jean  d'Acre,  or  Ptolemais) :  A. 
O.  1 104. — Conquest,  Pillage  and  Massacre  by 
the  Crusaders  and  Genoese.  See  Crusades: 
A.  D.  1104-1111. 

A.  D.  1 187.— Taken  from  the  Christians  by 
Saladin.    See  .Jerusalem:  A.  D.  1149-1187. 

A.  D.  1 1 89-119 1. — The  great  siege  and  recon- 
quest  by  the  Crusaders.  Sec  Crusades:  A.  D. 
1188-1103.  r 

A.  D.  1256-1257.— Quarrels  and  battles  be- 
tween the  Genoese  and  Venetians.  See 
Venice:  A.  D.  1256-1357. 

A.  D.  1291.— The  Final  triumph  of  the 
Moslems.    See  Jerubalesi:  A.  D.  1291. 

i8th  Century.— Restored  to  Importance  by 
Sheik  Daher.— "Acre,  or  St.  Jean  d'Acre, 
celebrated  under  this  name  in  the  history  of 
the  Crusades,  and  in  antiquity  known  by  the 
•name  of  Ptolemais,  had,  by  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century,  been  almost  entirely  forsaken, 
when  SUcik  T^iher,  the  Arab  rebel,  restored  its 
commerce  and  navigation.  Tliis  able  prince, 
whoso  sway  comprehended  the  whole  of  ancient 
Galilee,  was  succeeded  by  tlic  infamous  tyrant, 
Djezzar-Pasha,  who  fortified  Acre,  and  adorned 
it  with  a  mosque,  enriched  with  columns  of 
antique  marble,  collected  from  all  the  neighbour- 
ing cities."— M.  Malte-Brun,  System  of  Univ. 
Oeog.,  bk.  28  {v.  1). 

A.  D.  1790.— Unsuccessful  Siege  by  Bona- 
parte. See  France  :  A.  D.  1798-1799  (August 
—  August). 

A.  D.  1831-1840.- Siege  and  Capture  by 
Mehemed  Ali.— Recovery  for  the  Sultan  by  the 
Western  Powers.    Sec  Turks:  A.  D.  1831-1840. 

ACROCERAUNIAN      PROMONTORY. 

See  KoRKViiA. 
ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS,    The.-"  A 

road  which,  by  running  zigzag  up  the  slope  was 
rendered  practicable  for  chariots,  led  from  the 
lower  city  to  the  Acropolis,  on  the  edge  of  the 
platform  of  which  stood  the  Propylaea,  erected 


by  the  architect  Mne.sicles  in  five  years,  during 
the  administration  of  Pericles.  ...  On  entering 
through  the  gates  of  the  Propylica  a  scene  of 
unparalled  grandeur  and  l)ciiiity  burst  upon  the 
eye.  No  trace  of  human  dwellings  anywhere 
appeared,  but  on  all  sides  temples  of  more  or  less 
elevation,  of  Pentclic  marble,  beautiful  in  design 
and  exquisitely  delicate  in  execution,  sparkled 
lilce  piles  of  alaba.ster  in  the  .sun.  On  the  left 
stood  the  Erectheion,  or  fane  of  Athena  Polias; 
to  the  right,  that  matchless  edilicc  known  as  the 
Ilecatompcdon  of  old,  but  to  later  ages  as  the 
Parthenon.  Other  buildings,  nllhoh  to  the  eye 
of  an  Athenim,  lay  grouped  around  idesc  ma.ster 
structures,  and,  in  tlie  open  spaces  lictwcen,  in 
whatever  direction  the  spectator  mighi  'lok,  ap- 
peared statues,  some  remarkable  for  tlic.i- dimen- 
sions, others  for  their  beauty,  and  all  for  the 
legendary  sanctity  which  si-.rrounded  them.  No 
city  of  the  ancient  or  modern  world  ever  rivalled 
Athens  in  the  riches  of  art.  Our  best  filled  mu- 
seums, thougli  teeming  witli  her  spoils,  are  poor 
collections  of  fragments  compared  with  that 
assemblage  of  gods  and  heroes  which  peopled  the 
Ac-opolis,  tlie  genuine  Olympos  of  the  arts." — 
J.  A.  St.  John,  The  Hellenes,  bk.  1,  ch.  4.— 
"Nothing  in  ancient  Greece  or  Italy  could  be 
compared  witli  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  in  its 
combination  of  beauty  and  grandeur,  surrounded 
as  it  was  by  temples  and  theatres  among  its 
rocks,  and  encircled  by  a  city  abounding  with 
monuments,  some  of  which  rivalled  those  of  the 
Acropolis.  Its  platform  formed  one  great 
sanctuary,  partitioned  only  bv  the  boundaries  of 
the  .  .  .  sacred  portions.  We  cannot,  there- 
fore, admit  the  suggestion  of  Chandler,  that,  in 
addition  to  the  temples  and  other  monuments  on 
the  summit,  there  were  houses  divided  into  regu- 
lar streets.  Tliis  would  not  have  been  consonant 
either  with  the  customs  or  the  good  taste  of  the 
Athenians.  When  the  people  of  Attica  crowded 
into  Athens  at  the  beginning  of  the  Peloponne- 
sianwar,  and  religious  prejudices  gave  way,  in 
every  po.ssible  case,  to  the  necessities  of  the  occa- 
sion, even  then  the  Acropolis  remained  unin- 
habited. .  .  .  Tlie  western  end  of  the  Acropolis, 
which  furnished  llie  only  access  to  the  summit  of 
the  hill,  w.as  one  hundred  and  sixty  eight  feet  in 
breadth,  an  opening  so  narrow  that  it  appeared 
practicable  to  the  artists  of  Pericles  to  fill  up  the 
space  with  a  single  building  which  should  serve 
tlie  purpose  of  a  gateway  to  the  citadel,  as  well 
as  of  a  suitable  entrance  to  that  glorious  dis- 
play of  architecture  and  sculpture  which  was 
witliin  tlie  inclosure.  This  work  [the  Propy- 
Ia;a],  the  greatest  production  of  civil  archi- 
tecture in  Atliens,  wliich  rivalled  the  Parthenon 
in  felicity  of  execution,  surpassed  it  in  bold- 
ness and  originality  of  design.  ...  It  may  be 
defined  as  a  wall  pierced  with  five  doors,  be- 
fore which  on  both  sides  were  Doric  hexastyle 
porticoes." — W.  M.  Leake,  Tojiography  of  Athens, 
sect.  8. — See,  also,  Attica. 

ACT  OF  ABJURATION,  The.    See  Neth- 
erlands: A.  D.  1577-1581. 

ACT  OF  MEDIATION,  The.    Sec  Swit- 
zerland: A.  D.  180i!-1848. 

ACT  OF  SECURITY.    See  Scotland:  A. 
D.  1703-1704. 

ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT  (English).    See 
Enql.\nd:  a.  D.  1701. 

ACT    OF    SETTLEMENT   (Irish).    See 
Ireland:  A.  D.  1660-1665. 


ACT  RESCISSORY. 


ADULLAM1TE8. 


ACT  RESCISSORY.  See  Scotlajjd;  A. 
I).  ifl«n-l«00. 

ACTIUM  :  B.  C.  4^4.— Naval  Battle  of  the 
Greeks.— A  defeat  inllictcd  upon  the  Corinthians 
by  the  C'orcyriuns,  in  the  contest  over  Epidaninus 
wliich  was  the  prelude  to  the  Peloponnesian 
War.— E.  Curtius,  Hint,  of  O recce,  bk.  4,  ch.  1. 

B.  C.  31.— The  Victory  of  Octavius.  See 
Homk:  H.  C.  31. 

ACTS  OF  SUPREMACY.  See  Sui-re- 
MACY,  Acts  of;  and  England:  A.  D.  1527- 
1534  ;  and  1559. 

ACTS  OF  UNIFORMITY.  See  England: 
A.  U.  1559  and  1003-1065. 

ACULCO,  Battle  of  (1810).  See  Mexico: 
A.  1).  1810-1810. 

ACZ,  Battle  of  (1849),  See  Austria,  A.  D. 
1848-1849. 

ADALOALDUS,  King  of  the]  Lombards, 
A.  D.  616-620. 

ADAMS,  John,  in  the  American  Revolu- 
tion. See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1774 
CMay— June);  1774  (September);  1775  (May- 
August);  1776  (January— June),  1776  (July). 
....  In  diplomatic  service.  See  United  States 
ofAm.  :  A.  D.  1783{.VriiiL);  1792  (September— 
November) Presidential  election  and  ad- 
ministration. See  United  States  op  Am., 
A.  D.  1790-1801. 

ADAMS,  John  Quincy. — Negotiation  of  the 
Treaty  of  Ghent.  See  United  States  of  Am., 
A.  D.  1814  (December).  ,.  .Presidential  elec- 
tion and  administration.  Sec  United  States 
OF  Am.,  a.  D.  1824-1829. 

ADAMS,  Samuel,  in  and  after  the  American 
Revolution.  See  United  States  of  A.m.  : 
A.D.  1772-1773;  1774  (September)  ;  1775  (May); 
1787-1780. 

ADDA,  Battle  of  the  (A.  D.  490).  See 
Rome:  A.  D.  488-526. 

AD  DECIMUS,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  533).  See 
Vandals:  A.  D.  533-534. 

ADEL.  —  ADALING.  —  ATHEL.  —  "The 
homestead  of  the  original  settler,  his  house, 
farm-buildings  and  enclosure,  '  the  toft  and  croft, ' 
with  the  share  of  arable  and  appurtenant  common 
rights,  bore  among  the  northern  nations  [early 
Teutonic]  the  name  of  Odal,  or  Edhel ;  the  primi- 
tive mother  village  was  an  Athclby,  or  Athel- 
ham;  the  owner  was  an  Athelbonde:  the  same 
word  Add  or  Athcl  signified  also  nobility  of 
descent,  and  an  Adaling  was  a  nobleman.  Prim- 
itive nobility  and  primitive  landownership  thus 
bore  the  same  name. " — W.  Stubbs,  Comt.  Uist.  of 
Eng.,  ch.  3,  sect.  24. —  See,  also,  Alod,  and 
Ethel. 

ADELAIDE,  The  founding  and  naming  of. 
See  Australia:  A.  D.  1800-1840. 

ADELANTADOS.— ADELANTAMIEN- 
TOS. — "  Adeluntumientos  was  an  early  term 
for  gubernatorial  districts  [in  Spanish  Amer- 
ica, the  governors  bearing  the  title  of  Adelanta- 
dosl,  generally  of  undefined  limits,  to  be  ex- 
tended by  further  conquests." — II.  II.  Bancroft, 
IIi.it.  of  the  Pacific  States,  v.  0  (.V&rtVo,  v.  3), 
;;.  520. 

ADEODATUS  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  672-670. 

ADIABENE. — A  name  which  came  to  bo  ap- 
plied anciently  to  the  tract  of  country  east  of  the 
middle  Tigris,  embracing  what  was  originally 
the  proper  territory  of  Assyria,  together  with 
Arbelitis.  Under  the  Parthian  monarchy  it 
formed  a  tributary    kingdom,   much    disputed 


between  Parthia  and  Armenia.  It  was  seized 
several  times  by  the  Romans,  but  never  perma- 
nently held. — O.  Ituwlinson,  tlixth  Oreat  Oriental 
Monarchy,  p.  140. 

ADIRONDACKS,  The.  See  American 
AuoRKiiNES:   Adirondackb. 

AOIS,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  256).  See  Pumio 
War,  The  First. 

ADITES,  The.— "The  Cushites,  the  first  In- 
habitants of  Arabia,  uro  known  in  the  national 
traditions  by  the  name  of  Adites,  from  their 
progenitor,  who  is  called  Ad,  the  grandson  of 
Ham." — F.  Lenormant,  Manual  of  Ancient  Hist., 
bk.  7,  ch.  3. — See  Arabia:  The  ancient  suc- 
cession and  fusion  of  races. 

ADJUTAT0R«  See  England:  A.  D.  1647 
(April — August). 

ADLIYAH,  The.     See  Islam. 

ADOLPH  (of  Nassau),  King  of  Germany, 
A.  D.  1291-1298. 

ADOLPHUS  FREDERICK,  King  of 
Sweden,  A.  D.  1751-1771. 

ADOPTIONISM.  — A  doctrine,  condemned 
as  heretical  in  the  eighth  century,  which  taught 
that  "Christ,  as  to  his  human  nature,  was  not 
truly  the  Son  of  God,  but  only  His  son  by  adop- 
tion. "  The  dogma  is  also  known  as  the  Felician 
heresy,  from  a  Spanish  bishop,  Felix,  who  was 
prominent  among  its  supporters.  Charlemagne 
took  active  measures  to  suppress  the  heresy. — J.  I. 
Mombert,  Uist.  of  Charles  the  Oreat,  bk.  2,  eh.  18. 

ADRIA,  Proposed  Kingdom  of.  See  Italy: 
A.  D.  1343-1389, 

ADRIAN  VI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1622-1528. 

ADRI ANOPLE.  —  HADRIANOPLE.  —A 
city  in  Thrace  founded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
and  designated  by  his  name.  It  was  the  scene 
of  Constantine's  victory  over  Licinius  in  A.  D. 
323  (se%RoME:  A.  D.  805-323),  and  of  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Valens  in  battle  with  the 
Goths  (see  Goths  (Visigoths)  ;  A.  D.  878).  In 
1361  it  became  for  some  years  the  capital  of  the 
Turks  in  Europe  (see  Turks:  A.  D.  1360-1389). 
It  was  occupied  by  the  Russians  in  1829,  and 
again  in  1878  (sec  Turks:  A.  D.  1826-1820,  and 
A.  D.  1877-1878),  and  gave  its  name  to  the 
Treaty  negotiated  in  1829  between  Russia  and 
the  Porte  (see  Greece:  A.  D.  1821-1829). 

ADRIATIC,  The  Wedding  of  the.  See 
Venice:  A.  D.  1177,  and  14th  Century. 

ADRUMETUM.  See  Carthage,  The  Do- 
minion OF. 

ADUATUCI,  The.    See  Belq^. 

ADULLAM,  Cave  of.— When  David  had 
been  cast  out  by  the  Philistines,  among  whom  he 
sought  refuge  from  the  enmity  of  Saul,  "his 
first  retreat  was  the  Cave  of  AduUam,  probably 
the  large  cavern  not  far  from  Be'.hlehem,  now 
called  Khureitun.  From  its  vicinity  to  Bethle- 
hem, he  was  joined  there  by  his  whole  family, 
now  feeling  themselves  insecure  from  Saul's 
fury.  .  .  .  Besides  these  were  outlaws  from 
every  part,  including  doubtless  some  of  the 
original  Canaanites  —  of  whom  the  name  of  one 
at  least  has  been  preserved,  Ahimclech  the 
Hittite.  In  the  vast  columnar  halls  and  arched 
chambers  of  this  subterranean  palace,  all  who 
had  any  grudge  against  the  existing  system 
gathered  round  the  hero  of  the  coming  age." — 
Dean  Stanley,  Lect's  on  the  Hist,  of  the  Jemtih 
Church,  lect.  23. 

ADULLAMITES,  The.  Sec  Enol.and:  A. 
D.  1865-1868.  ,.     - ^.  .    . 


AD  WALTON  MOOI{. 


^OLIANS. 


ADWALTON   MOOR,  Battle  of  (A.  D. 

1643).— This  was  a  battle  fought  near  Bradforrl, 
June  29,  1643,  in  the  great  English  Civil  War. 
The  Parliamentary  forces,  under  Lord  Fairfax, 
were  routed  by  the  Koyalists,  under  Newcastle. 
— C.  R.  Markhara,  Life  of  the  Oreat  Lord  Fair- 
fix,  eh.  11. 

.£AKIDS  (^adds).— The  supposed  de- 
scendants of  the  demi-god  ^akus,  whose  grand- 
son was  Achilles.  (See  Myumidons.)  Miltiades, 
the  hero  of  Marathon,  and  Pyrrhus,  the  warrior 
King  of  Epirus,  were  among  those  claiming  to 
belong  to  the  royal  race  of  ^akids. 

iEDHILIWG.    See  Ethel. 

>EDILES,  Roman.   See  Rome:  B.  C.  49-1-493. 

iEDUI.-ARVERNI.— ALLOBROGES.— 
"The  two  most  powerful  nations  in  Gallia  were 
the  ^dui  [or  Hsedui]  and  the  Arverni.  The  .^dui 
occupied  that  part  which  lies  between  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Loire  and  the  Saone,  which  river  was 
part  of  the  boundary  between  them  and  the 
Scquani.  The  Loire  separated  the  iEdui  from 
the  Bituriges,  whose  chief  town  was  Avaricum 
on  the  site  of  Bourges.  At  this  time  [B.  C.  121] 
the  Arverni,  tlie  rivals  of  the  .^dui,  were  seek- 
ing the  supremacy  in  Gallia.  The  Arverni  occu- 
pied the  mountamous  country  of  Auvergne  in 
the  centre  of  France  and  the  fertile  valley  of  the 
Elavor  (Allier)  nearly  as  far  as  the  junction  of  the 
Allier  and  the  Loire.  .  .  .  They  were  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Allobroge::,  a  powerful  nation  east 
of  the  Rhone,  who  occupied  the  country  between 
the  Rhone  and  the  Isara  (Isfire).  ...  In  order  to 
break  the  rorr.iidable  combination  of  the  Arverni 
and  the  Allobroges,  the  Romans  made  use  of  the 
^dui,  who  were  the  enemies  both  of  the  Allo- 
broges and  the  Arverni.  ...  A  treaty  was  made 
either  at  this  time  or  somewhat  earlier  between 
the  .^dui  and  the  Roman  senate,  who  conferred 
on  their  new  Gallic  friends  the  honourable  ti*le  of 
brothers  and  kinsmen.  This  fraternizing  was  a 
piece  of  political  cant  which  the  Romans  prac- 
ticed when  it  was  useful." — G.  Long,  Decline  of 
the  Roman  liepublic,  v.  1,  eh.  21. —  See,  also, 
Gaiii.8. 

.£G.£.    See  Edessa  (Macedonia). 

yEGATIAN  ISLES,  Naval  Battle  of  the 
(B.  C.  241).    See  Punic  Wau,  The  Fiust. 

iEGEAN,  The.— "The  iEgean,  or  White 
Seo,  ...  as  distinguished  from  the  Euxinc." 
— E.  a.  Freeman,  Ilistorical  Oeog.  of  Europe,  p. 
413,  and  foot-note. 

iEGIALEA.  — iEGIALEANS.— The  orig- 
inal name  of  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus, 
and  its  Inhabitants.  See  Greece  :  The  Mioua- 
Ti:.»is. 

«GIKOREIS.    SeePiiTL/E. 

.^GINA.— A  small  rocky  island  in  the  Sar- 
onic  gulf,  between  Attica  and  Argolis.  First 
colonized  by  Achaans  it  was  afterwards  occu- 
pied by  Dorians  (seo  Greece:  The  Migrations) 
and  was  unfriendly  to  Athens.  During  the 
sixth  century  B.  C.  it  rose  to  great  power  and 
commercial  importance,  and  became  for  it  time 
the  most  brilliant  center  of  Greek  art.  At  the 
period  of  the  Persian  war,  ^gina  was  "  tlie 
first  maritime  power  in  Greece."  But  the 
-lEginetans  were  at  that  time  engaged  in  war 
with  Athens,  as  the  allies  of  Thebes,  and  rather 
than  forego  tlielr  enmity,  they  offered  submission 
to  the  Persian  king.  The  Athenians  thereupon 
appealed  to  Sparta,  as  the  liead  of  Greece,  to 
Interfere,  and  the  ^ginetans  were  compelled  to 

8 


five  hostages  to  Athens  for  their  fidelity  to  the 
lellenie  cause.  (See  Guekce:  B.  C.  493-491.) 
They  purged  themselves  to  a  great  extent  of 
their  intended  treason  by  the  extraordinaiy  valor 
with  which  they  fought  at  Saloniis.  But  the 
sudden  pre-eminence  to  wliich  Athens  rose  cast 
a  bligliting  shadow  upon  ^Igina,  and  in  429  B.  C. 
it  lost  its  independence,  the  Athenians  taking 
possession  of  tlicir  discomfited  rival. —  C.  Thirl- 
wall,  Hist,  of  Greece,  r.  1,  ch.  14. 

Also  in  G.  Orotc,  lliat.  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  r.  4, 
ch.  38.— See,  also,  Athens:  B.  C.  489-480. 

B.  C.  458-456.— Alliance  with  Corinth  in 
war  with  Athens  and  Megara. —  Defeat  and 
subjugation.     See  Gukece:  B.  (!.  4.')H-156. 

B.  C.  431.— Expulsion  of  the  lEginetans 
from  their  island  by  the  Athenians. — Their 
settlement  at  Thyrea.  See  Greece:  B.  C. 
431-429. 

B.  C.  210.—  Desolation  by  the  Romans. — 
The  first  appearance  of  the  Uonians  in  Greece, 
when  they  entered  the  country  as  the  ollies  of 
the  .iEtolians,  was  signalized  by  the  barbarous 
destruction  of  .(Egina.  The  city  having  been 
taken,  B.  C.  210,  its  entire  population  was  reduced 
to  slavery  by  the  Romans  and  the  lund  and 
buildings  of  the  city  were  sold  to  Attains,  king 
of  Pergamus.— E.  A.  Freeman,  Hist,  of  FederM 
Govt.,  ch.  8,  sect.  2. 

♦ 

iEGINETAN  TALENT.    See  Talent. 

iEGITIUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  436).— A  re- 
verse experienced  by  tlie  Athenian  General, 
Demosthenes,  in  his  invasion  of  .^tolia,  during 
the  Peloponnesian  War. — Thucydides,  Historff, 
bk.  3,  sect.  97. 

.£GOSPOTAMI  (Aigospotamoi),  Battle  of. 
See  Greece:  B.  C.  405. 

yGLFRED.    See  Alfred. 

.£LIA    CAPITOLINA.— The    new    name 

fiven  to  Jerusalem  by  Hadrian.  See  Jews: 
..  D.  130-134. 

.fiLIAN  AND  FUFIAN  LAWS,  The.— 
"  The  yElian  and  Fuflan  laws  (leges  yElia  and 
Fufla)  the  age  of  which  unfortunately  we  can- 
not accurately  determine  .  .  .  enacted  that  a 
popular  assembly  [at  Rome]  might  bo  dissolved, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  acceptance  of  any  pro- 
posed law  prevented,  if  a  magistrate  announced 
to  the  president  of  tlie  assembly  that  it  was  his 
intention  to  choose  the  same  time  for  watching 
the  heavens.  Such  an  announcement  (obnunti- 
atio)  was  held  to  bo  a  sufllcient  cause  for  inter- 
rupting an  assembly." — AV.  Ihne,  Ilist.  of  Rome, 
bk.  6,  ch.  10. 

.(EMILIAN  WAY,  The.— "M.  .Emilius 
licpidus,  Consul  for  the  year  180  B.  C.  .  .  .  con- 
!  i-ucted  the  great  road  which  bore  his  name, 
t  he  ^milian  Way  led  from  Ariminum  through 
the  new  colony  of  Bononia  to  Placentia,  being  a 
continuation  of  the  Flaminian  Way,  or  great 
north  road,  made  by  C.  Flaminius  in  220  B,  C. 
from  Rome  to  Ariminum.  At  the  same  epoch, 
Flaminius  the  son,  being  the  colleague  of  Lepi- 
dus,  made  a  branch  road  from  Bononia  across 
the  Appcnines  to  Arrctium."  —  IL  G.  Liddell, 
Hist,  of  Home,  bk.  5,  cti.  41. 

iEMILIANUS,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  253. 

iEOLIANS,  The.— "The  collective  stock  of 
Greek  nationalities  falls,  according  to  the  view  of 
those  ancient  writers  who  laboured  most  to 
obtain  an  exact  knowledge  of  ethnographic 
relationships,  into  three  main  divisions,  ^olians. 


^OLIANS. 


iETOLIAN  LEAGUE. 


Dorians  and  Inniuns.  .  .  .  All  thcotlier  inliabit- 
iintrt  of  Greece  (not  Dorians  unii  lonians]  and  of 
till!  iHluuds  included  in  it,  are  comprised  under 
thecommon  niunc  of /Kolians  —  a  name  unknown 
as  yet  to  Houier,  und  wliich  was  iicontestnbly 
applied  to  u  t^rvai  diversity  of  peoples,  amon); 
which  it  is  certain  that  no  such  homogeneity  of 
race  is  to  be  assumed  as  existed  among  the  loni- 
ans  and  Dorians.  Among  the  two  former  races, 
though  even  these  were  scarcely  in  any  quarter 
completely  unmixed,  there  was  incontestably 
to  be  found  a  single  original  stock,  to  which 
others  had  merely  been  attached,  and  as  it  were 
engrafted,  whereas,  among  the  i)eoples  assigned 
to  the  .Eolians,  no  such  original  stock  is  recog- 
nizable, but  on  the  contrary,  as  great  a  diiTer- 
cuce  is  found  between  the  several  members 
of  this  race  as  bctw  en  Dorians  and  lonians, 
and  of  tlie  so-called  .Eolians,  some  stood  nearer 
to  the  former,  others  to  the  latter.  ...  A 
thorough  and  careful  investigation  might  well 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Greek  people 
was  divided  not  into  three,  Ijut  into  two  main 
races,  one  of  which  wo  may  call  Ionian,  theotlier 
Dorian,  while  of  the  so-called  vEolians  some, 
and  probably  the  greater  number,  belonged  to 
*ie  former,  the  rest  to  the  latter."— G.  F.  SchO- 
man,  Antii].  of  Orcece  :  The  State,  pt.  1,  eh.  2. — 
In  Greek  myth.,  .lEolus,  the  fancied  progenitor 
of  the  yEolians,  apijcrs  as  one  of  the  three  sons 
of  Ilellen.  "vEolus  is  represented  as  having 
reigned  in  Thessaly:  liis  seven  sons  were  Kre- 
theus,  Sisyphus,  Atham&s,  Salmoueus,  Dcion, 
Magnes  and  Perieres :  his  live  daughters,  Canace, 
Alcyone,  Peisidike,  C'alyce  and  Perniede.  The 
fables  of  this  race  seem  to  be  distii'guisbed  by  a 
constant  introduction  of  the  God  Poseidon,  as 
well  as  by  an  unusual  prevalence  of  liaughty  and 

Ercsumptuous  attributes  tmong  the  Jiolid 
croes,  leading  them  to  affront  the  gods  by  pre- 
tences of  equality,  and  sometimes  even  by  defi- 
ance."—  G.  Grote,  Hist,  of  Grace,  pt.  1,  ch.  6. 
— See,  also,  Tiie8s.\lv,  Dorians  and  Ignians, 
and  Asia  JIinou:  The  Greek  Colonies. 

.^QUIANS,  The.  ScoOscans;  alsoLAi'iCM; 
and  KcME ;  B.  C.  45b. 

iERARIANS. — Romu.n  citiixns  who  had  no 
political  rights.     Sec  Cf.S8o:i8,  Roman. 

iERARIUM,  The.    See  1<. -sous. 

iESOPUS  INDIANS.  See  Amebic.vn  Abo- 
BiQiNEs:  Ai.(»)nqi;ian  Family. 

.ffiSTII,  or  iESTYI,  The.— "  At  tiiis  point 
[beyond  the  SuionesJ  the  Suevlc  Sea  [the  Baltic], 
on  its  eastern  shore,  washes  the  tribes  of  the 
.^stii,  whose  rites  and  fashions  and  styles  of 
dress  are  tUose  of  the  Suevi,  while  their  language 
is  more  Ike  the  British.  They  worship  the 
mother  of  the  gods  and  wear  as  a  religious  sym- 
bol the  de\  >ce  of  a  wild  boar.  .  .  .  They  often 
use  clubs,  iron  weapons  but  seldom.  They  are 
more  patient  in  cultivating  corn  and  other  pro- 
duce than  might  be  expected  from  the  general 
indolence  of  the  Germans.  But  they  also  search 
the  deep  and  aro  the  only  people  who  gather 
amber,  which  they  call  glcsura." — "The  ^Estii 
occupied  that  part  of  Prussia  which  is  to  the 
north-east  of  the  Vistula.  .  .  .  The  name  still 
survives  in  the  form  Estonia." — Tacitus,  Ger- 
many, trans,  by  Church  and  Brodribb,  with 
note. — See,    also,    Prussian    Language,    The 

OLD. 

.^SYMNETjE,  An.— Among  the  Greeks, 
an  expedient  "which  seems  to  have  been  tried 


not  unfrcquently  in  early  times,  for  preserving 
or  restoring  tranquility,  was  to  invest  an  indi- 
vidual witli  absolute  jjower,  imder  a  peculiar 
title,  which  soon  became  obsolete:  that  of 
a's^mneta;.  At  Cunia,  indeed,  and  in  other  cities,  | 
this  was  the  title  of  an  ordinary  magistracy,  prob- 
ably of  that  whicli  succeeded  the  hereditary  mon- 
archy; but  when  applied  to  an  extraordinary 
odlce,  it  was  equivalent  to  the  title  of  jjrotector 
or  dictator." — C.  Thirlwall,  Hut.  of  Greece,  ch. 
10. 

iETHEL.— iETHELIKG.  8co  Rtuel,  and 
Adel. 

iETHELBERT,  iETHEi-^RITH,  ETC. 
See  Etiiki.iiekt,  etc. 

iETOLIA.— iETOLIANS.  — ".i:tolia,  the 
country  of  Diomed,  though  famous  in  the  early 
times,  fell  back  during  the  migratory  period 
almost  into  a  savage  condition,  probably  through 
the  influx  into  it  of  an  Illyrian  population  which 
became  only  partially  Hellenizecl.  The  nation 
was  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  among  which 
the  most  iinportant  were  the  Apodoti,  the  Ophi- 
oneis,  the  Eurytanes  and  the  Agrirans.  There 
were  scarcely  any  cities,  village  life  being  pre- 
ferred universally.  ...  It  waS  not  till  the  wars 
which  arose  among  Alexander's  successors  that 
the  ./Etolians  formed  a  real  political  union,  and 
became  an  important  power  in  Greece." — Q. 
Rawlinson,  Manual  of  Ancient  Jlist.,  bk.  8. — See 
also,  Akarnanians,  and  Greece:  Tiik  Miora-       v 

TIONB. 

iETOLIAN  LEAGUE,  The.— "The  Acha- 

ian  and  the  iEtolian  Leagues,  had  their  constitu- 
tions been  written  down  in  the  sluqie  of  a  formal 
document,  would  have  presented  but  few  vori- 
cties  of  importance.     The  same  general  fonn  of 
government  prevailed  in  both ;  each  was  federal, 
each  was  democratic;  each  had  its  popular  as- 
sembly, its  smaller  Senate,  its  general  with  large 
powers  at  the  head  of  all.    The  differences  be- 
tween the  two  are  merely  those  differences  of 
detail  which  will  always  arise  between  any  two 
political  systems  of  which  neither  is  slavishly 
copied  from  the  other.  ...  If  therefore  federal 
states  or  democratic  states,  or  aristocratic  states, 
were  nccessarilj'  weak  or   strong,  peaceful   or 
aggressive,  honest  or  dishonest,  we  shculd  see 
Achaia  and   .lEtolia  both  exhibiting   the    same 
moral  characteristics.    But  history  tells  another       ' 
tale.     The    political    conduct    of    the   Achaian 
League,  with  some  mistakes  and  some  faults,  is,        j 
on  the  whole,  highly  Iionourable.     The  political        ' 
conduct  of   the  .lEtolian  League  is,  throughout       ^ 
the  century  in  which  we  know  it  best  [last  half 
of  third  and  first  half  of  second  century  B.  C.] 
almost  ahyays  simply  infamous.  .  .  .  The  coun-       ',, 
scls  of  the  .iEtolian  League  were  throughout  di-       -■'. 
rccted  to  mere  plunder,  or,   at  most,   to  selfish 
political  aggrandisement. " —  E.  A.  Freeman,  Jliat. 
of  Federal  Govt.,  ch.  0. — The  plundering  aggres-        t 
liious  of  the  iEtolians  involved  them  in  continual        I 
'.var  with  their  Greek  kindred  and  neighbours,        "^ 
and  they  did  not  scruple  to  seek  foreign  aid.     It        ; 
^vas  through  their  agcncj'  that  the  Romans  were       ;' 
first  brought  into  Greece,  and  it  was    by  their       -r 
instrumentality  that  Antiochus  fought  his  battle        >■ 
vi'ith  Korae  on  the  sacrcdest  of  all  Hellenic  soil. 
In  the  end,  B.  C.  189,  the  League  was  stripped 
I'y  the  Romans  of  even  its  nominal  independence 
and  sank  into  a  contemptible  servitude. —  E.  A. 
Freeman,  The  name,  ch.  7-9. 
Also  in  C.  Thirlwall.  Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  63-66. 


10 


AFGHANISTAN,  J.  C.  880. 


AFGHANISTAN.  1803-1888. 


AFGHANISTAN:  B.  C.  330.— Conauest 
by  Alexander  the  Great.— Founding  of  Herat 
and  Candahar.  Sec  Mackdonta,  J;c.  :  U.  ('. 
830-»2a;  niid  India:  B.  C.  827-312. 

B.  C.  301-346.— In  the  Syrin  Empire.  Sec 
Sbleucid^-;  nnd  Mackdonia,  Ac  .  810-301  nml 
after. 

A.  D.  990-1183.— The  Ghaznevide  Empire. 
Sco  Turks:  A.  D.  000-1183;  niul  India:  A.  D. 
077-1200. 

A.  D.  13th  Century.— Conquests  of  j  n,  .iS- 
Khan.  Sec  M(.soolh:  A.  I).  lir)3-12-,'V ;  nml 
India:  A.  D.  077-1200. 

A.  D.  1380-1386.— Conquest  by  Timour. 
See  Ti.MOUU. 

A.  D.  1504.— Conquest  by  Babar.  See  In- 
dia: A.  I).  1309-1005. 

A.  D.  1723. — Mahmoud's  conquest  of  Persia. 
ScoPkhsia:  A.  I>.  1409-1887. 

A.  D.  1737-1738.— Conquest  by  Nadir  Shah. 
See  India:  A.  I).  1002-1748. 

A.  D.  1747-1761.— The  Empire  of  the  Door- 
anie,  Ahmed  Abdallee. —  His  Conquests  in 
India.    Sec  India.  A.  D.  1717-1701. 

A.  D.  1803-1838.— Shah  Soojah  and  Dost 
Mahomed.— English  interference.-"  Sliiih  Soo- 
jiih-ool  3Ioolk,  u  grandson  of  the  illustrious 
Ahmed  Shuh,  reigned  in  Afglmuistnn  from  1803 
till  1800.  His  youth  had  been  full  of  trouble 
nnd  vicissitude.  He  hud  been  a  wnnderer,  on 
the  verge  of  starvation,  a  pedlar,  nnd  a  bun- 
dit,  who  raised  money  by  plundering  caravans. 
His  courage  wns  lightly  reputed,  nnd  it  was 
ns  a  mere  creature  of  circumstance  that  lie 
reached  the  throne.  His  reign  was  perturbed, 
and  in  1809  he  was  a  fugitive  and  nn  e.xile. 
Uunject  Singh,  the  Sikh  ruler  of  the  Punjaub, 
defrauded  liim  of  tlie  famous  Koli-i-noor,  which 
is  now  tlie  most  precious  of  the  crown  jewels  of 
England,  and  plundered  and  impri.soned  the 
fallen  man.  Shall  Sooiali  at  length  escaped 
from  Lahore.  After  further  misfortunes  he 
at  length  reached  tlie  British  frontier  station  of 
Loodinnah,  and  in  1816  became  a  pensioner  of 
the  Ea.st  India  Company.  After  the  downfall  of 
Siiah  Soojah,  Afghanistan  fnr  many  years  wns  a 
prey  "to  anarchv.  At  Icngtli  in  1820,  Dost  Ma- 
iionied  succeeded  in  making  himself  supreme  at 
Cabul,  nnd  this  mnsterful  man  thenceforward 
held  swuy  \intil  his  death  in  1803,  uninterrupt- 
edly save  during  the  three  years  of  the  British 
occupation.  Dost  jVIahonied  wns  neither  kith  nor 
kin  to  the  legitimate  dynasty  which  he  displaced. 
Ilis  father  Poyudnh  Khun  was  an  able  statesman 
and  gallant  soldier.  He  left  twenty-one  sons,  of 
whom  Futteh  Klian  was  the  eldest,  and  Dost 
Mahomed  one  of  the  youngest.  .  .  .  Throughout 
his  long  reign  Dost  JIahomed  was  a  strong  and 
wise  rider.  His  youth  had  been  neglected  and 
dissolute.  His  education  was  defective,  and  he 
had  been  addicted  to  wine.  Once  seated  on  the 
throne,  the  reformation  of  our  Henry  V.  was  not 
more  thorough  than  was  that  of  Dost  Mahomed. 
He  taught  himself  to  read  and  write,  studied  the 
Koran,  became  scrupulously  abstemious,  assidu- 
ousin  ■(fairs,  no  longer  truculent,  but  courteous. 
.  .  .  ThcTs  was  a  tine  rugged  honesty  in  his 
nature,  and  a  streak  of  genuine  chivalry;  not- 
withstanding the  despite  lie  suffered  at  our 
liands,  he  had  a  real  regard  for  the  English, 
and  his  loyalty  to  us  was  broken  only  by  his 
armed  support  of  the  Siklis  in  the  second 
Punjaub  war.    The  fallen  Shah  Soojah,  from 


hisa.sylum  in  Loo<linnnli,  wascontiniin'Iy  intrigu- 
ing for  his  restoration.  His  schemes  were  long 
inoperative,  and  it  was  not  until  1H32  that  cer- 
tain arrangements  w«'re  entered  into  between 
him  and  the  JMahuraja  Uunject  Singh.  To  nn 
application  on  Shuh  Soojnh's  part  for  counte- 
nance and  pecuniary  aid,  the  Anglo-Indian  Oov- 
ernmcnt  replied  that  to  afford  liim  assistance 
would  be  Inconsistent  with  the  policy  of  neutral- 
ity which  the  Government  hiid imposed onilself; 
l)ut  it  unwisely  contributed  linancially  toward 
his  undertaking  by  granting  him  four  months' 
pension  in  ailvance.  Si.xtcen  thousand  rupees 
formed  a  scant  war  fund  willi  which  to  attempt 
the  recovery  of  a  Ihnme,  but  the  Khali  started  on 
his  errand  in  Fel)riiary,  1833.  After  a  success- 
ful contest  with  the  Aineersof  Scinde,  he  mnrched 
on  Candahar,  and  besieged  that  fortress.  Cauda- 
liar  was  in  e.vtremity  when  Dost  >Iahomed, 
hurrying  from  Cabul,  relieved  it,  nnd  joining 
forces  with  its  defenders,  he  defeated  and  routed 
Shah  Soojnh,  who  lied  precipitately,  leaving  be- 
hind him  his  artillery  and  camp  equipage.  Dur- 
ing the  Dost's  absence  in  tlie  south,  Runjeet 
Singh's  troops  crossed  the  Attock,  occupied  the 
Afghan  province  of  Peshawui",  and  drove  the 
Afghans  into  the  Kiiyber  Pass.  No  subsequent 
efforts  on  Dosi,  Mahomed's  jiart  availed  to  expel 
the  Sikhs  from  Peshawur,  and  suspicious  of 
British  connivance  with  Runjeet  Singh's  success- 
ful aggression,  he  took  into  consideration  the 
policy  of  fortifying  himself  by  a  counter  alliance 
with  Persia.  As  for  Shah  Soojah,  he  had  crept 
back  to  his  refuge  ntLoodianah.  Lord  Auckland 
succeeded  Lord  William  Bentinck  as  Qovcriior- 
Genera'  of  India  in  March,  1830.  In  reply  to 
Dost  Jlaliomed's  letter  of  congratulation,  his 
lordship  wrote:  'You  are  aware  that  it  is  not 
the  practice  of  tlie  Briti.sh  Government  to  inter- 
fere with  the  affairs  of  other  independent  States;' 
nn  abstention  whicli  Lord  Auckland  was  soon  to 
violate.  He  had  brought  from  England  the  feel- 
ing of  disquietude  in  regard  to  the  designs  of 
Persia  and  Russia  which  tlio  communications  of 
our  envoy  in  Persia  had  fostered  in  the  Home 
Government,  but  it  would  appear  that  he  was 
wholly  undecided  what  lino  of  action  to  pursue. 
'Swayed,'  says  Duraiid,  'by  tlie  vague  appre- 
hensions of  a  remote  danger  entertained  by 
others  ratlier  than  him.self,*  he  despatched  to 
Afghanistan  Ca])tain  Burnes  on  a  nominally 
commercial  mission,  wliicli,  in  fact,  was  one  of 
political  discovery,  but  without  definite  instruc- 
tions. Burnes,  an  able  but  rasli  nnd  ambitious 
man,  reached  Cabul  in  September,  1837;  two 
months  before  th  Persian  army  began  tlie  siege 
of  Herat.  .  .  .  The  Dost  m.ide  no  concealment 
to  Burnes  of  liis  approaches  to  Persia  and  Rus- 
sia, in  despair  of  British  good  olllccs,  and  being 
hungry  for  assistance  from  any  source  to  meet 
tlie  encroachments  of  the  Siklip,  ho  professed 
himself  ready  to  abandon  his  negotiations  with 
tlie  vestern  powers  if  he  were  given  reason  to 
expect  countenance  and  assistance  at  tlie  hands 
of  the  Anglo-Indian  Government.  .  .  .  Tlie  situ- 
ation of  Burm^s  in  relation  to  the  Dost  was  pres- 
ently complicated  by  the  arrival  at  Cabul  of  a 
Russian  officer  claiming  to  be  nn  envoy  from  the 
Czar,  whose  credentials,  however,  were  regarded 
as  dubious,  and  who,  if  tliat  circumstance  has 
tlie  least  weight,  wns  on  his  return  to  Russia  ut- 
terly repudiated  by  Count  Ncsselrode.  The 
Dost  took  small  account  of  this  emissary,  con- 


n 


AFOIIANIHTAN,  1808-1888. 


AFGHANISTAN,  18!W-1842. 


tinning  to  niutiin^  HiirncH  Hint  lie  cared  for  no 
connection  except  nitli  tlie  Knjtllsli,  and  Hunics 
profeHHcd  to  liis  (i.)vernnient  his  fullest  con- 
lldence  in  tlie  Hlncerily  of  tliow-  declarations. 
Hill  tlie  tone  of  Lord  A\ickliinds  reply,  ad<lreg8ed 
to  the  Dost,  was  so  dletatoriul  und  supercilious 
us  to  indicate  the  writer's  intention  that  it  should 
give  olTence.  It  had  that  efTect,  and  Humes' 
nii.sslon  at  once  hecanie  hopeless.  .  .  .  The  Uus- 
sian  envoy,  who  was  profuse  in  his  promises  of 
everylhlni;  whi<li  the  Dost  was  most  anxious  to 
obtain,  was  received  into  favour  and  treated  with 
distiiicliou,  and  on  his  return  journey  he  efTectcd 
a  treaty  with  the  Candahar  chiefs  which  was 
presently  ratified  by  the  Hus.sian  minister  at  the 
Persian  "t'ourt.  Ihirncs,  fallen  Into  discredit  at 
C;at>ul,  (pntted  that  place  in  August  1838.  He 
had  not  been  discreet,  Init  it  was  not  his  indis- 
<'rction  that  l)rouKht  about  the  failure  of  his 
mission.  A  nefarious  transactimi,  which  Kayu 
denounces  witli  the  passion  of  a  just  indignation, 
connects  itself  with  Humes'  negotiations  with 
the  Dost ;  his  oflleial  correspondence  was  imscru- 
puloiisly  mutilated  and  garbled  in  the  published 
lllue  Hook  witii  delil)erate  purpose  to  deceive 
the  British  inibllc.  Humes  had  failed  beciuse, 
since  he  bad  (juitted  India  for  Cabul,  Lord 
Auckland's  jjolicy  had  gradually  altered.  Lord 
Auckland  bad  landed  in  India  in  tlic  character 
of  a  man  of  jicace.  Tlnit,  so  late  aa  .'ipril  1837, 
lie  had  no  design  of  obstructing  tlie  existing 
situation  in  Afgliani.staii  is  proved  by  his  writ- 
ten statement  of  that  date,  thai  '  the  liritish 
(lovernment  had  resolved  decidedly  to  discourage 
the  proseiMition  by  the  ex-king  iSliah  Soojah-ool- 
Moolk,  so  long  as  he  may  renvdn  under  our  pro- 
tection, of  further  schemes  of  liostility  against 
the  chiefs  now  in  power  in  Cabul  and  Candahar.' 
Yet,  in  the  following  June,  he  concluded  a  treaty 
which  sent  Shah  Soojah  to  Cabul,  escorted  liy 
Hritisli  baj-onets.  Of  this  inconsistency  no  ex- 
planation presents  itself.  It  was  a  far  cry  from 
our  frontier  on  the  '.iutlcj  to  Herat  in  the  con- 
fines of  Central  Asl't — a  distance  of  more  tlian 
1,200  miles,  over  some  of  the  most  arduous 
marching  ground  in  the  known  world.  .  .  . 
Lord  William  B'.'iitinck,  Lord  Auckland's  prede- 
cessor, denounjcd  the  project  as  an  act  of  in- 
credible folly.  Slaniuis  Wellesley  regarded 
'  this  wild  expedition  into  a  distant  region  of 
rocks  and  dcerts,  of  sands  and  ice  and  snow,'  as 
an  act  of  inf  itualiou.  Tlie  Duke  of  Wellington 
pronounced  with  prophetic  sagacity,  tliat  the 
consequence  of  once  crossing  the  Indus  to  settle 
a  govenrment  in  Afghanistan  would  be  a  peren- 
niui  march  into  tliat  country."— A.  Forbes,  The 
Afghan  Wars,  ch.  1. 

Also  in:  J.  P.  Ferricr,  Hut.  of  the  Afghans, 
eh.  10-20.— Jlohan  Lai,  Life  of  Amir  Dost  Mo- 
hammed Khan,  v.  1. 

A.  D.  1838-1842.  —  English  invasion,  and 
restoration  of  Soojah  Dowlah.— The  revolt  at 
Cabul.  —  Horrors  of  the  British  retreat.— 
Destruction  of  the  entire  army,  save  one  man, 
only.— Sale's  defence  of  Jellalabad.— "To  ap- 
proach Afghanistan  it  was  necessary  to  secure 
the  friondshii)  of  the  Sikhs,  who  were,  indeed, 
ready  enough  to  join  against  their  old  enemies; 
and  a  threefold  treaty  was  contracted  between 
Runiect  Singh,  the  Lnglish,  and  Shah  Soojah 
for  the  restoration  of  tlie  banished  house.  'The 
expedition  —  which  according  to  tlie  original 
intention  was  to  have  been  carried  out  chiefly 


by  means  of  troops  in  the  pay  r>f  Slioh 
Soojali  and  tlie  Hikhs  —  rapidly  grew  into 
an  Knglish  invasion  of  .Vfgnanist  in.  A 
considrralile  force  was  gathered  on  the  Sikh 
frontier  from  Bengal ;  a  second  army,  under 
OeniTal  Keane,  was  to  come  up  from  Ivurrachee 
through  HiiKili.  Both  of  these  armies,  and  the 
triHips  of  Shah  Soojah,  were  to  enter  the  high- 
lands of  Afglianist:in  by  the  liolan  Pass.  As 
the  Sikhs  would  not  willingly  allow  the  free 
passage  of  our  troops  throiigli  their  country,  an 
additional  burden  was  laid  upon  the  armies,  — 
the  independent  Ameers  of  Sindh  had  to  bo 
coerced.  At  lengtli,  with  much  trouble  from 
the  diftlcuities  of  the  country  and  the  loss  of  the 
commissariat  animals,  the  forces  were  all  col- 
lected under  the  command  of  Kcane  beyond  the 
passes.  The  want  of  food  permitted  of  no  delay ; 
the  army  pushed  on  to  C'andahar.  Shah  Hoojali 
was  declared  Monarch  of  the  southern  Princi- 
pality. Thence  the  troops  moved  rapidly  on- 
wanls  towards  the  more  iniiKirtant  and  ditlicult 
conquest  of  Cabul.  Ghuznee,  a  fortress  of 
great  strength,  lay  in  the  way.  In  their  hasty 
movements  the  Knglish  had  left  their  battering 
train  behind,  but  the  gates  of  the  fortress  were 
blown  in  with  gunpowder,  and  by  a  brilliant 
feat  of  arms  the  fortress  was  stomied.  Nor  did 
the  English  army  encounter  any  important 
resistance  subsc()uently.  Dost  Moliamcd  found 
his  followers  deserting  him,  and  withdrew  north- 
wards into  the  mountains  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh. 
With  all  the  splendour  that  could  be  collected. 
Shah  Soojah  was  brought  back  to  his  throne  in 
the  Bala  Hissar,  the  fortress  Palace  of  Cabul. 
.  .  .  For  the  moment  the  policy  seemed  thor- 
oughly successful.  The  English  Ministry  could 
feel  that  a  fresh  check  had  been  placed  upon  its 
Hussian  rival,  and  no  one  dreamt  of  tlic  terrible 
retribution  that  was  in  store  for  the  unjust  vio- 
lence done  to  the  feelings  of  a  people.  .  .  . 
Dost  Moliamcd  thought  it  prudent  to  surrender 
himself  to  the  English  envoy,  Sir  William  Mac- 
naghten,  and  to  withdraw  with  his  family  to  the 
English  provinces  of  Iliudostan  [November, 
1840].  He  was  tliere  well  received  and  treutJid 
with  liberality;  for,  as  both  the  Governor- 
General  and  his  chief  adviser  Macnaghten  felt,  he 
had  not  in  fact  in  any  way  ollended  us,  but  had 
fallen  a  victim  to  our  policy.  It  was  in  the  full 
belief  that  their  policy  in  India  hod  been  crowned 
witii  pemianent  success  that  the  Whig  Ministers 
withdrew  from  oftice,  leaving  their  successors 
to  encounter  tlic  terrible  results  to  wliicli  it  led. 
For  while  the  Englisli  offlcials  were  blindly  con- 
gratulating themselves  upon  the  happy  comple- 
tion of  their  enterprise,  to  an  observant  eve 
signs  of  approaching  difflculty  were  on  all  sicfes 
visible.  .  .  .  The  removal  of  the  'itrong  rule  of 
the  Barrukzyes  opened  a  door  for  undeflaed 
hopes  to  many  of  the  other  families  and  tribes. 
The  whole  country  was  full  of  intrigues  and  of 
diplomatic  bargaining,  carried  on  by  the  Eng- 
lish political  agents  with  the  various  chiefs 
and  leaders.  But  they  soon  found  that  the 
hopes  excited  by  these  negotiations  were  illu- 
sory. The  allowances  for  which  they  had  bar- 
gained were  reduced,  for  the  English  envoy 
began  to  be  disquieted  at  the  vast  expenses  of 
the  Government.  They  did  not  find  that  they 
derived  any  advantages  from  the  establishment 
of  the  new  puppet  King,  Soojah  Dowlah;  and 
every  Mahomedan,  even  the  very  king  himself. 


12 


AFUIIAN18TAK,  1838-1842. 


AFOnANISTiV>,   1838-1843. 


felt  (Usprnccd  at  the  predominance  of  the  Eng- 
lUli  Inlhlils.  Hut  as  no  actual  Insurrection 
brolti!  out,  Macnaglitcn,  a  niun  ot  sanguino 
temperament  and  anxious  to  ImjIIcvo  wliat  ho 
wislied,  in  spite  of  unini8tal<al)Ie  warnings  as  to 
the  real  feeling  of  tlio  people,  clung  witli 
almost  angry  veliemence  to  the  persuasion  that  all 
was  going  well,  and  tliat  the  new  King  had  a  real 
hold  upon  the  people's  affection.  So  completely 
had  he  deceived  hims<;lf  on  this  point,  tliat  ho 
had  decided  to  send  back  a  portion  of  the  Kng- 
llsh  army,  under  General  Sale,  into  Ilindostan. 
He  even  intended  to  accompany  it  himself  to 
enjoy  the  peaceful  post  of  Governor  of  Bombay, 
with  whicli  his  successful  policy  had  been 
rewarded,  llis  place  was  to  bo  taken  by  Sir 
Alexander  Humes,  whose  view  of  the  t  -^ubled 
condition  of  tlic  country  underlying  the  com- 
parative calm  of  the  surface  was  much  truer 
than  that  of  Macnaghten,  but  who,  perhaps 
from  that  very  fact,  was  far  less  popular  among 
the  ciiiefs.  The  army  whicli  was  to  remain  at 
Candahar  was  under  tlie  command  of  General 
Nott,  an  oble  and  decided  if  somewhat  irascible 
man.  But  General  Elphinstone,  tlio  commander 
of  the  troops  at  Cabul,  was  of  quite  a  different 
stamp.  lie  was  much  respected  and  liked  for 
his  honourpblo  clmracter  and  ..jiol  qualiticH, 
but  was  advanced  in  years,  a  confirmed  invalid, 
and  wliolly  wanting  in  the  vigour  and  decision 
which  his  critical  position  was  likely  to  require. 
The  fool's  paradise  with  which  the  English 
Envoy  had  surrounded  himself  was  rudely 
destroyed.  He  had  persuaded  himself  that  the 
frequently  recurring  disturbances,  and  especially 
the  insurrection  of  the  Qhilzyes  between  Cabul 
and  Jcllfllabad,  were  mere  local  outbreaks.  But 
In  fact  a  great  conspiracy  was  on  foot  in  which 
the  chiefs  of  nearly  everv  Important  tribe  in  the 
country  were  implicated.  On  the  evening  of 
the  1st  of  November  [1841]  a  meeting  of  the 
chiefs  was  held,  and  It  was  decided  that  an 
immediate  attack  should  be  made  on  the  house 
of  Sir  Alexander  Burnes.  Tlie  following  morn- 
ing an  angry  crowd  of  assailants  stormed  the 
houses  of  Sir  Alexander  Humes  and  Captain 
Johnson,  murdering  the  inmates,  and  rifling  the 
treasure-chests  belonging  to  Soojah  Dowlali's 
army.  Soon  the  whole  city  was  in  wild  insur- 
rection. The  evidence  is  nearly  irresistible  that 
a  little  deci' '  ^n  and  rapidity  of  action  on  the 
part  of  tb"  .nil  ary  would  have  at  once  cru.^ lied 
the  outb  '  ak.  "'ut  although  the  attack  on 
Burn'"'  blouse  wd  •  known,  no  troops  were  sent 
to  ;:  s  assistance.  Indeed,  that  unbroken  course 
of  folly,and  mismanagement  which  marked  the 
conduct  of  our  military  affairs  throughout  this 
crisis  had  already  begun.  Instead  of  occupying 
the  fortress  of  the  Bala  Hissar,  where  the  army 
would  have  been  in  comparative  security, 
Elphinstone  had  placed  his  troops  In  canton- 
ments far  too  extensive  to  be  properly  defended, 
Furrounded  by  an  entrenchment  of  the  most 
insignificant  character,  commanded  on  almost 
all  sides  by  higher  ground.  To  complete  the 
unfitness  of  the  position,  the  commissariat 
supplies  were  not  stored  within  the  canton- 
ments, but  were  placed  in  an  isolated  fort  at 
some  little  distance.  An  ill-sustained  and  futile 
assault  was  made  upon  the  town  on  the  3d  of 
Kovember,  but  from  that  time  onwards  the 
British  troops  lay  with  incomprehensible  supine- 
ness  awaiting  their  fate   in   their   defenceless 


position.  Tlio  commis-sariat  fort  soon  fell  into 
till)  hands  of  the  enemy  and  rendered  their  situ- 
ation still  more  deplorable.  Some  flushes  of 
liravery  now  and  tlien  lighted  up  the  sombre 
scene  of  helpless  misfortune,  and  Berved  to  show 
that  destruction  miglit  oven  yet  have  been 
averted  I'v  a  little  firmness.  .  .  .  Hut  the  com- 
mander had  already  begun  to  despair,  and  before 
many  days  had  jias.sed  he  was  thinking  of  mak- 
ing terms  with  the  en<'my.  iMaenughten  had  no 
course  open  to  him  under  such  circumstances 
but  to  adopt  the  suggestion  of  the  general,  and 
attempt  as  well  us  he  could  by  bribes,  cajolery, 
and  intrigue,  to  divide  the  ''hiefs  and  secure  a 
safe  retreat  for  the  English.  Akbar  Khan,  tlio 
son  of  Dost  Jlohamed,  though  not  present  at  the 
beginning  of  the  insurrection,  had  arrived  from 
the  northern  mountains,  an;',  at  once  as.sertcd  a 
predominant  influence  in  the  insurgent  councils. 
With  him  and  with  the  other  insurgent  cliic.'fs 
Macnaghten  entered  into  an  arrrangement  by 
wliich  ho  promised  to  withdraw  the  English 
entirely  from  the  country  if  a  safe  pas.sago  were 
secured  for  the  army  through  the  passes.  .  .  . 
While  ostensibly  treating  with  the  Barrukzyo 
chiefs,  he  intrigued  on  all  sides  with  the  rival 
tribes.  His  double  dealing  was  taken  advantage 
of  by  Akbar  Khan,  ile  sent  ni'jssengers  to  Mac- 
naghten proposing  that  the  English  should  make 
a  separate  treaty  with  himself  and  support  him 
with  their  troops  in  an  as.sault  upon  some  of  his 
rivals.  The  proposition  was  a  mere  trap,  and 
the  envoy  fell  into  it.  Ordering  troops  to  be 
got  ready,  he  hurried  to  a  meeting  with  Akbar 
to  complete  the  arrangement.  There  he  found 
hiniself  in  the  presence  of  the  brother  and  rela- 
tives of  the  very  men  against  whom  he  was 
plotting,  and  was  seized  and  murdered  by 
Akbur's  own  hand  [December  23].  Still  the 
General  thought  of  nothing  but  surrender.  The 
negotiations  were  entrusted  to  Major  Pottingcr. 
The  terms  of  the  chiefs  gradually  rose,  and  at 
length  with  much  confusion  the  wretched  army 
marched  out  of  the  cantonmenis  [January  6, 
1843],  leaving  beliind  nearly  all  tho  cannon  and 
superfluous  military  stores.  An  A'ghan  escort 
to  secure  the  safety  of  the  troops  or,  ihoir  peril- 
ous journey  had  been  promised,  but  vhe  promise 
was  not  kept.  The  horrors  of  the  retreat  form 
one  of  the  darkest  passages  in  English  militarv' 
history.  In  bitter  cold  and  snow,  which  took 
all  life  out  of  the  wretched  Sepoys,  without 
proper  clothing  or  shelter,  and  hampered  by  a 
disorderly  mass  of  thousands  of  camp-followers, 
the  army  entered  the  terrible  defiles  which  lie 
between  Cabul  and  Jellalabad.  Whether  Akbar 
Khan  could,  had  he  wished  it,  have  restrained 
his  fanatical  followers  is  uncertain.  As  a  fict 
the  retiring  crowd — it  can  scarcely  be  called  an 
army  —  was  a  mere  unresisting  prey  to  the 
assaults  of  the  mountaineers.  Constant  com- 
munication was  kept  up  with  Akbar;  on  the 
third  day  all  the  ladies  and  children  with  the 
married  men  were  placed  in  his  hands,  and 
finally  even  the  two  generals  gave  themselves  up 
as  hostages,  always  in  the  hope  that  the  rem- 
nant of  the  army  might  be  allowed  to  escape. " — 
J.  P.  Bright,  Hist,  of  Sngland,  v.  4,  pp.  01-66.— 
"Then  the  march  of  the  army,  without  a  gen- 
eral, went  on  agf.in.  Soon  it  became  the  story 
of  a  general  without  an  army ;  before  very  long 
there  was  neither  general  nor  army.  It  is  idle  to 
lengthen  a  tale  of  mere  horrors.    The  strag- 


18 


AFGHANISTAN,  1838-1849. 


AFGHANISTAN,  1842-1869. 


gling  rcm.:ant  of  an  army  enterfid  the  Jugdulluk 
Pass — a  dark,  steep,  narrow,  ascending  patli 
between  crags.  The  miserable  toilers  found 
that  the  fanatical,  implacable  tribes  had  barri- 
caded the  pass.  All  was  over.  The  army  of 
Cabul  was  tinally  extinguished  In  that  barri- 
caded pass.  It  was  a  trap;  the  British  were 
taken  in  it.  A  few  mere  fugitives  escaped  from 
the  scene  of  actual  slaughter,  and  were  on  the 
rof.d  to  Jellalabad,  where  Sale  and  his  little 
army  were  holding  their  own.  When  they  were 
within  sixteen  miles  of  Jellalabad  the  number 
was  reduced  to  six.  Of  these  six  five  were 
killed  by  straggling  marauders  on  the  way. 
One  man  alone  reached  Jellalabad  to  tell  the 
tale.  Literally  one  man,  Dr.  Brydon,  came  to 
Jellalabad  [Ja"nuary  13]  out  of  a  moving  host 
which  had  numbered  in  all  some  10,000  'when  it 
set  out  on  its  march.  The  curious  eye  will 
search  through  history  or  fiction  in  vain  for 
any  picture  more  thrilling  with  the  suggestions 
of  an  awful  catastrophe  than  that  of  this  solitary 
survivor,  faint  and  reeling  on  his  jaded  horse, 
as  he  appeared  under  the  walls  of  Jellalabad,  to 
bear  the  tidings  of  our  Thermopylae  of  pain  and 
shame.  This  is  the  crisis  of  the  story.  With 
this  at  least  the  worst  of  the  pain  and  shamo 
were  destined  to  end.  Dho  rest  is  all,  so  far 
as  we  are  concerned,  reaction  and  recovery. 
Our  successes  are  common  enough ;  we  may  tell 
their  tale  briefly  in  this  instance.  The  garrison  at 
Jellalabad  had  received  before  Dr.  Brydon's  ar- 
rival an  intimation  that  they  were  to  go  out  and 
march  toward  India  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  extorto''  ^rom  Elphinstone  at  Cabul. 
They  very  properly  declined  to  bo  bound  by  a 
treaty  which,  as  Qeueral  Sale  rightly  conjec- 
tured, had  been  'forced  from  our  envoy  and 
military  commander  with  the  knives  at  their 
throats. '  General  Sale's  determination  was  clefir 
and  simple.  '  I  propose  to  hold  this  place  on 
the  part  of  Government  until  I  receive  its  order 
to  the  contrarir.'  This  resolve  of  Sale's  Tvas 
really  the  turning  point  of  the  history.  Sale 
held  Jellalabad ;  Nolt  was  ut  Candahar.  Akbar 
Khan  besieged  Jellalabad.  Nature  seemed  to 
have  declared  herself  emphatically  on  his  side, 
for  a  succession  of  earthquake  shocks  shattered 
the  walls  of  the  place,  and  produced  more 
terrible  destruction  than  the  most  formidable 
guns  of  modern  warfare  could  have  done.  But 
the  garrison  held  out  fearlessly;  they  restored 
the  parapets,  re-established  every  battery,  re- 
trenched the  whole  of  the  gates  and  built  up  all 
the  breaches.  They  resisted  everv  attempt  of 
Akbar  Khan  to  advance  upon  their  works,  and 
at  length,  when  it  became  certain  that  General 
Pollock  was  forcing  the  Khyber  Pass  to  come 
to  their  relief,  they  determined  to  attack  Akbar 
Khan's  army;  they  issued  boldly  out  of  their 
forts,  forced  a  battle  on  the  Afghan  chief,  and 
completely  defeat-xl  him.  Before  Pollock,  hav- 
ing gallantly  fought  his  way  through  the 
Khyber  Pass,  had  reached  Jellalabad  [April  16] 
the  beleaguering  army  had  been  entirely  defeated 
and  t"",persed.  .  .  .  Jleanwhile  the  unfortunate 
Shah  doojah,  whom  we  had  restored  with  so 
much  pomp  of  announcement  to  the  throne  of 
his  ancestors,  was  dead.  He  was  assassinated 
in  Cabul,  siwn  n^ter  the  departure  of  the  British, 
.  .  .  and  hk  bot'y,  fltripped  of  its  royal  robes  ond 
its  many  jewels,  was  flung  into  a  ditch."— J. 
McCarthy,  /fiat,  ofourmen  Timet,  v.  1,  cA.  1i. 


Also  m  J.  W.  Kayc,  JSst.  of  the  War  in 
Afgfianislaii. — Q.  R.  Gleig,  Sales  Brigade  in 
Afghanistan. — Lat  y  Sale,  Jownal  of  the  Disas- 
ters in  Afghanistan. — Mohan  Lai,  Life  of  Dost 
Mohammed,  ch.  15-18  {v.  2). 

A.  D.  1842-1869.— The  Btitish  return  to 
Cabul, —  Restoration  of  Dost  Mahomed. —  It 
was  not  till  September  that  General  Pollock 
' '  could  obtain  permission  from  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral, Lord  Ellenborough,  to  advance  against 
Cabul,  though  both  he  and  Nott  were  bummg  to 
do  so.  When  Pollock  did  advance,  he  found  the 
enemy  posted  at  Jugdulluck,  the  scene  of  the 
massacre.  '  Here, '  says  one  writer,  '  the  skeletons 
lay  so  thick  that  they  had  to  be  cleared  away  to 
allow  the  guns  to  pass.  The  savage  grandaur  of 
the  scene  rendered  it  a  fitting  place  uir  the  deed 
of  blood  which  had  been  enacted  under  its  horrid 
shade,  never  yet  pierced  in  some  places  by  sun- 
light. The  road  was  strewn  for  two  miles  with 
mouldering  skeletons  like  a  charnel  house.'  Now 
the  enemy  found  they  had  to  deal  with  other 
men,  under  other  leaders,  for,  putting  their 
whole  energy  into  the  work,  the  British  troops 
scaled  the  heights  and  steep  ascents,  and  defeated 
the  enemy  in  their  strongholds  on  all  s'des. 
After  one  more  severe  fight  with  Akbar  K.mn, 
and  all  the  force  he  could  collect,  the  enemy 
were  beaten,  and  driven  from  their  mountains, 
and  the  force  marched  quietly  into  Cab  .1. 
Nott,  on  his  side,  started  from  Candahar  on  the 
7th  of  August,  and,  after  fighting  several  small 
battles  with  the  enemy,  ho  captured  Ghuzni, 
where  Palmer  and  his  garrison  had  been  de-  ' 
stroyed.  From  Ghuzni  General  Nott  brought 
away,  by  command  of  Lord  Ellenborough,  the 
gates  of  Somnauth  [said  to  have  been  taken 
from  the  Hindu  temple  of  Somnauth  by  Mah- 
moud  of  Ghazni,  the  first  Mohammedan  in- 
vader of  India,  in  10241,  which  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  the  celebrated  'Proclamation  of  the 
Gates,'  as  it  was  called.  This  proclamation, 
issued  by  Lord  Ellenborough,  brought  upon  him 
endless  ridicule,  and  it  was  indeed  at  first  con- 
sidered to  be  a  satire  of  his  enemies,  in  imitation 
of  Napoleon's  address  from  the  Pyramids;  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  called  it  "The  Song  of 
Triumph.'  .  .  .  "This  proclamation,  put  forth 
with  so  much  flourishing  of  trumpets  and  ado, 
was  really  an  insult  to  those  whom  it  professed 
to  praise,  it  was  an  insult  to  tht  Mohammedans 
under  our  rule,  for  their  power  v  as  gone,  it  was 
also  an  insult  to  the  Hindoos,  for  their  temple  of 
Somnauth  was  in  ruins.  Tliese  celebrated  gates, 
which  are  believed  to  bo  imitations  of  the  original 
gates,  are  now  lying  neglected  and  wojm-eaten, 
in  the  back  part  of  a  small  museum  at  Agra. 
But  to  return.  General  Nott,  having  captured 
Ghuzni  and  defeated  Sultan  Jan,  pushed  on  to 
Cabul,  where  he  arrived  on  the  17th  of  Septem- 
ber, and  met  Pollock.  The  English  prisoners 
(amongst  whom  were  Brigadier  Shelton  and 
Lady  Sale),  who  had  been  captured  at  the  time 
of  the  massacre,  were  brought,  or  found  their 
own  wav,  to  General  Pollock's  camp.  General 
Elphinst  jne  had  died  during  his  captivity.  It 
was  not  now  considered  necessary  to  take  any 
further  steps;  the  bazaar  in  Cabul  was  de- 
stroyed, and  on  tnc  12th  of  October  Pollock  and 
Nott  turned  their  faces  southwards,  and  began 
their  march  into  India  by  the  Khyber  route. 
The  Afghans  in  captivity  were  sent  hack,  and 
the  Governor-General   received   the   troops  at 


14 


AFGHANISTAN.  1842-1869. 


AFGHANISTAN,  1869-1881. 


Fcrozcpoor.  Thus  ended  the  Afghan  war  of 
1838-4a.  .  .  .  The  war  bcins  over,  we  with- 
drew our  forces  into  India,  leaving  tlio  son  of 
Shah  Soojah,  Fatlii  Jung,  wlio  had  escaped  from 
Cabul  wlien  his  father  was  murdered,  as  king  of 
tlio  country,  a  position  tli.it  he  was  unable  to 
maintain  long,  being  very  shortly  afterwards 
assassinated.  In  1842  Dost  Mahomed,  the  ruler 
whom  we  had  deposed,  and  who  had  been  living 
at  our  expense  in  India,  returned  to  Cabul  and 
losumed  his  former  position  as  king  of  the  coun- 
try, still  bearing  ill-will  towards  us,  which  he 
showed  on  several  occasions,  notabljr  during  the 
Sikh  war,  when  he  sent  a  body  of  his  horsemen 
'0  Ught  for  the  Sikhs,  and  ho  himself  marched 
an  army  through  tlic  Khyber  to  Peshawur  to 
assist  our  enemies.  However,  the  occupation  of 
the  Punjab  forced  upon  Dost  Mahomed  the 
necessity  of  being  on  friendly  terms  with  his 
novt-erful  neighbour;  he  therefore  concluded  a 
friendly  treaty  with  us  in  1854,  hoping  thereby 
that  our  power  would  bo  used  to  prevent  the  in- 
trigues of  Persia  against  his  kingdom.  This 
hope  was  shortly  after  realized,  for  la  1856  we 
(leclared  war  against  Persia,  an  event  which  was 
greatly  to  the  advantage  of  Dost  JIahomcd,  as 
it  prevented  Persian  encroachments  upon  his 
territory.  This  war  lasted  but  a  short  time,  for 
early  in  1857  an  agreement  was  signed  between 
England  and  Persia,  by  which  the  latter  re- 
nounced all  claims  over  Herat  and  Afghanistan. 
Herat,  however,  still  remained  independent  of 
Afghanistan,  until  1803,  when  Dost  Mnhoro~l 
attacked  and  took  the  town,  thus  uniting  the 
whole  kingdom,  including  Candahar  and  Afghan 
Turkestan,  under  his  rule.  This  was  almost  the 
last  act  of  the  Ameer's  life,  for  a  few  days  after 
taking  Herat  he  died.  By  his  will  ho  dirc"t'!d 
that  Shere  All,  one  of  his  sons,  sboald  surccd 
him  as  Ameer  of  Afghanistan.  The  new  J:  i  cer 
immediately  wrote  to  the  Goveruor-Oenciai  of 
India,  Lord  Elgin,  in  a  friendly  tone,  o  •■)■  Ing 
that  his  succession  might  be  ack.iowledged. 
Lord  Elgin,  however,  as  the  comi7"-'acen;  _  it  of 
the  Liberal  policy  of  'masterly  inactfvity' 
neglected  to  answer  the  letter,  c,  neglect  niiich 
cannot  but  be  deeply  regretted,  c^  Shero  All  was 
at  all  events  the  do  facto  ruler  of  the  country, 
and  even  had  he  been  ber.ten  by  any  other  rival 
for  the  throne,  it  would  have  been  time  enough 
to  acknowledge  that  rival  rs  soon  as  he  was 
really  ruler  of  the  country.  When  six  months 
later  a  cold  acknowledgement  of  the  letter  was 
given  by  Sir  'WiUiani  Donison,  and  when  a  re- 
quest that  the  Ameer  made  for  6,000  muskets 
had  been  refused  by  Lord  Lawrence,  the  Ameer 
concluded  that  the  disposition  of  England 
towards  him  was  not  that  of  a  friend ;  particu- 
larly as,  when  later  on  <  wo  of  his  brothers  re- 
volted against  him,  o;u.u  of  them  was  told  by 
the  Government  that  he  would  bo  acknowledged 
for  that  part  of  the  country  v/hich  ho  brought 
under  his  power.  However,  after  various 
changes  in  fortune,  in  186U  Shere  AH  finally 
defeated  his  two  brothers  Afzool  and  Azim, 
together  witli  Afzool 's  son,  Abdurrahman."— P. 
F.  Walker,  Afgl<;nutan,  pp.  4.^-51. 

Also  in  J.  W.  Kayo.  Hist,  of  the  War  in 
^\fghanutan.—Or.  B.  Malleson,  Hist,  of  Afghan- 
istan, ch.  11. 

A.  D.  1869-1881.— The  second  war  with 
the  English  and  its  causes.— The  period  of 
disturbance  in  Afghanistan,  during  the  struggle 


of  Shere  AH  witli  his  brother.^,  coincided  with 
the  vice  royalty  of  Lord  Lawrence  in  India. 
The  policy  of  Lord  Lawrence,  "  sometimes 
slightingly  spoken  of  as  masterly  inactivity, 
consisted  m  holding  entirely  aloof  from  tlie  dynas- 
tic quarrels  of  the  Afglians  .  .  .  and  in  attempt- 
ing to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  tlie  Ameer  bv 
gifts  of  money  and  arms,  while^  carefully  avoid- 
ing topics  of  offence.  .  .  .  Lord  Lawrence  was 
himself  unable  to  meet  the  Ameer,  but  his  suc- 
cessor, Lord  Mayo,  had  an  interview  with  him 
at  Umballah  in  1869.  ;  .  .  LOrd  Mayo  adhered 
to  the  policy  of  his  prnlecessor.  He  refused  to 
enter  into  any  close  alliance,  he  refused  to  pledge 
himself  to  support  any  dynr.  ;y.  But  on  the 
other  hand  he  promised  that  he  would  not 
press  for  the  admission  of  any  English  offlcors  ns 
Residents  in  Afglianistan.  The  return  expected 
by  England  for  this  attitude  of  friendly  non-in- 
terference was  that  every  other  foreign  state, 
and  especially  Russia,  should  bo  forbidden  to 
mix  either  directly  or  indirectly  with  the  affairs 
of  the  country  in  which  our  interests  were  so 
closely  involved.  .  .  .  But  a  different  view  was 
held  by  another  school  of  Indian  politicians,  and 
was  supported  by  men  of  such  eminence  as  Sir 
Bartle  Frere  and  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson.  Their 
view  was  known  as  tlie  Sindh  Policy  as  con- 
trasted with  that  of  the  Punjab.  It  appeared 
to  them  desiriiblo  that  English  agents  should  be 
established  at  C^uetta,  Candahar,  and  Herat,  if 
not  at  Cabul  itself,  to  keep  the  Indian  Govern- 
ment completely  informed  of  the  affairs  of 
Afghanistan,  and  to  maintain  English  influence- 
in  the  country.  In  1874,  upon  tlie  Recession  of 
the  Conservative  ^Ministry,  Sir  Bartle  Frere  pro- 
duced a  memorandum  in  >vhii;h  this  policy  was 
ably  maintained.  ...  A  Viceroy  whoso  views 
were  more  in  accordance  with  those  of  the 
Government,  and  who  was  likely  to  bo  a  more 
readv  instrument  in  [its]  hands,  was  found  in 
Lord  Lytton,  who  went  to  India  intrusted  with 
the  duty  of  giving  effect  to  the  new  policy  He 
was  instructed  ...  to  continue  payments  of 
money,  to  recognise  the  permanence  of  the 
existing  dynasty,  and  to  give  a  pledge  of 
material  support  in  case  of  unniovoked  foreign 
aggression,  but  to  insist  on  the  acceptance  of  an 
English  Resident  at  certain  places  in  Afghanistan 
in  exchange  for  these  advantages.  .  .  .  Lord 
Lawrence  and  those  who  thought  with  him  in 
England  prophesied  from  the  first  the  disastrous 
results  which  v,  ould  arise  from  vho  alieuation  of 
the  Afghana.  .  .  .  The  suggestion  of  Lord 
Lytton  that  an  English  Commission  should  go 
to  Cabul  to  discuss  matters  of  common  interest 
to  the  two  Governments,  was  calculated  .  .  . 
to  excite  feelings  alreody  somewhat  unfriendly 
to  England.  He  [Shere  All]  rejected  the 
mission,  and  formulated  his  grievances.  .  .  . 
Lord  Lytton  waived  for  a  time  the  despatch  of 
the  mission,  and  consented  to  a  meeting  between 
the  Minister  of  tlie  Ameer  and  Sir  Lewis  Pelly 
at  Peshawur.  .  .  .  The  English  Commissioner 
was  instructed  to  declare  that  the  one  indispen- 
sable condition  of  the  Treaty  was  the  admission 
of  an  English  reproscnfativo  within  the  limits  of 
Afghanistan.  The  almost  piteous  request  on 
tl'.e  part  of  the  Afghans  for  the  relaxation  of 
this  demand  proved  unavailing,  and  the  sudden 
death  of  the  .i^incer's  envoy  formed  a  good 
excuse  for  breaking  off  the  negotiation.  Lord 
Lytton  treated  the  Ameer  as  incorrigible,  gave 


16 


AFGHANISTAN,  1869-1881. 


AFGHANISTAN.  1869-1881. 


him  to  undcrstaud  that  the  English  -would  pro- 
ceed to  secure  their  frontier  without  further  rcfcr- 
cnco  to  him,  and   wiDidrew   his   native    agent 
from  Cul)iil.     While  the  relations  between  tlio 
two  countries  were  in  tliis  uncomfortable  con- 
dition, information  reached  India  that  a  Russian 
inis.sion  liad  been  received  at  Cabul.    It  was  just 
at  thi.s  time  that  tlie  action  of  the  Home  Govern- 
ment seemed  to'  be  tending  rapidly  towards  a 
war  veith  Russia.  ...  As    the    despatch    of  a 
mission    from    Russia    was    contrary    to    the 
engagements  of  that  country,  and  its  reception 
under  existing  circumstances"  wore  an  unfriendly 
aspect,  Lord    Lytton  saw  his  way  with    some 
plausible  justification  to  demand  the  reception 
at  Cabul  of  an  English  embassy.     He  notified 
his  intention  to  the  Ameer,  but  without  waiting 
for  an  answer  selected  Sir  Neville  Chamberlain 
as  his  envQy,  and  sent  him   forward  with   an 
escort  of  more  than  1,000  men,  too  large,  as  it 
was  observed,  for  peace,  too  small  for  war.     As 
a  matter  of  course  the  mission  was  not  admitted. 
.  .  .  An  outcry  was  raised  l)oth  in  England  and  in 
India.  .  .  .  Troops  were  hastily  collected  upon 
the   Indian  frontier;  and   a  curious   light  was 
thrown  on  what  had  been  done  by  the  assertion 
of  the  Premier  at  the  Guildhall  banquet  that 
the  object  in  view  was  tlie  formation  of  a  '  scien- 
tific frontier;'  in  other  words,  throwing  aside  all 
former   pretences,  he  declared  that  the   policy 
of  England  was  to  make  use  of  the  opportunity 
offered  for  direct  territorial  aggression.  ...  As 
had  been  foreseen  by  all  parties  from  the  first, 
the  English  armies  were  entirely  successful  in 
their  first  advance  [November,  1878].  ...  By 
the   close  of  December  Jellalabad  was  in   the 
hands  of  Browne,  the  Shutargardan  Pass  had 
been  surmounted  by  Roberts,  and  in  January 
Stewart  established  himself  in  Candahar.    When 
the   resistance  of  his  army  proved  ineffectual, 
Shere  All  had  taken  to  flight,  only  to  die.     His 
refractory  son  Yakoob  Khan  was  drawn  from 
his  prison  and  assumed  the  reins  of  government 
as    regent.  .  .  .  Yakoob    readily    granted    the 
English  demands,  consenting  to  place  his  foreign 
relations  under  British  control,  und   to  accept 
British    agencies.       With     considerably    more 
reluctance,  he  allowed  what  was  required  for  the 
rectification  of  the  frontier  to  pass  into  English 
hands.    Ho  received  in  exchange  a  promise  of 
support   by  the   British    Government,  and   an 
annual  subsidy  of  £00,000.     On  the  conclusion 
of  the  treaty  the  troops  in  the  Jellalabad  Valley 
withdrew  within  the  new  frontier,  and  Yakoob 
Khan  wac  left  to  establish  his  authority  as  best 
ho  could  at  Cabul,  whither  In  July  Cavagnari 
with  an  escort  of  twenty -six  troopers  and  eighty 
infantry  betook    himsrlf.     Then  was    enacted 
again   the  sad   story  which  preluded  the   first 
Afghan  war.     All  the  parts  and  scenes  in  the 
drama     repeated     thomsclves     with     curious 
uniformity— the    English    Resident    with    his 
little  garrison  trusting  blindly  to  his  capacity 
for  influencing  the  Afghan  mind,   the  puppet 
king,    without    the    power    to   make    himself 
respected,  irritated  by  the  constant  presence  of 
the  Resident,  the  chiefs  mutually  distrustful  and 
at  one  in  nothing  save  their  hatred  of  English 
interference,  the    people    seething  with    anger 
against  the  infidel   foreigner,  a  wild   outbrealc 
which  the  Ameer,  even  had  he  wished  it,  could 
not  control,  an  attack  upon  the  Residency  and 
the  complete  destruction  [Sept.,  1870]  after  a 


gallant  but  futile  resistance  of  the  Resident  and 
his  entire  esccr.'.  Fortunately  tlie  extreme 
disaster  of  tlie  previous  war  was  avoided.  The 
English  troops  which  were  withdrawn  from  the 
country  were  still  witliin  reach.  .  .  .  About  the 
24th  of  September,  three  weeks  after  the  out- 
break, the  Cabul  field  force  under  General 
Roberts  was  able  to  move.  On  the  5th  of  Octo- 
ber it  forced  its  way  into  tlie  Logar  Valley  at 
Charassiab,  ond  on  the  12th  General  Roberts 
was  able  to  make  his  formal  entry  into  the  city 
of  Cabul.  .  .  .  The  Ameer  was  deposed,  martial 
law  was  established,  the  disarmament  of  the  peo- 
ple required  under  pain  of  death,  and  the 
country  scoured  to  bring  in  for  punishment 
those  chiefly  implicated  in  the  late  outbreak. 
While  thus  engaged  in  carrying  out  his  work  of 
retribution,  the  wave  of '  Insurrection  closed 
behind  the  English  general,  communication 
throtigh  tlie  Kuram  Valley  was  cut  off,  and  he 
was  left  to  pass  the  winter  with  an  army  of 
some  8,000  men  connected  with  India  only  by 
the  Kybur  Pass.  ...  A  new  and  formidable 
personage  .  .  .  now  made  liis  appearance  on 
the  scene.  This  was  Abduraliman,  tlie  nephew 
and  rival  of  tlie  late  Shero  All,  wlio  upon  the 
defeat  of  his  pretensions  1  sought  refuge  in 
Turkestan,  and  was  supji  d  to  be  supported 
by  the  friendship  of  Russia.  The  expected 
attack  did  not  take  place,  constant  reinforce- 
ments had  raised  the  Cabul  army  to  80,000,  and 
rendered  it  too  strong  to  be  assai]ed.  ...  It 
was  thought  desirable  to  break  up  Afghanistan 
into  a  northern  and  southern  province.  .  .  .  The 
policy  thus  declared  was  carried  out.  A  cer- 
tain Shore  Ali,  a  cousin  of  the  late  Ameer  of 
the  same  name,  was  appointed  Wall  or  Gover- 
nor of  Candahar.  In  the  north  signs  were 
visible  that  the  only  possible  successor  to  the 
throne  of  Cabul  would  be  Abdurahtnan.  .  .  .  The 
Bengal  army  under  General  Stewart  was  to 
march  northwards,  and,  suppressing  on  the  way 
the  Ghuznee  insurgents,  was  to  join  the  Cabul 
army  in  a  sort  of  triumphant  return  to  Peshawur. 
The  first  part  of  the  programme  was  carried  out. 
.  .  .  The  second  part  of  the  plan  was  fated  to 
be  interrupted  by  a  serious  disaster  which 
rendered  it  for  a  while  uncertain  whether  the 
withdrawal  of  the  troops  from  Afghanistan  was 
possible.  ,  .  .  Ayoob  hod  always  expressed  his 
disopproval  of  his  brother's  friendsliip  for  the 
English,  and  had  constantly  refused  to  accept 
tlioTr  overtures.  Though  little  was  known 
about  him,  rumours  were  afloat  that  he  intended 
to  advance  upon  Ghuznee,  and  join  the  insur- 

fents  there.  At  length  about  the  middle  of 
une  [1880]  his  army  started.  .  .  .  But  before 
the  end  of  June  Farah  had  been  reached  and  it 
seemed  plain  that  Candahar  would  be  assaulted. 
.  .  .  General  Burrows  found  it  necessary  to  fall 
bock  to  a  ridge  some  forty-five  miles  from 
Candahar  called  Kush-y-Nakhud.  There  is  a 
pass  called  Maiwand  to  the  north  of  the  high- 
road to  Candahar,  by  which  on  army  avoiding 
the  position  on  the  ridge  might  advance  upon 
the  city.  On  the  27th  of  July  the  Afghan 
troops  were  seen  moving  in  the  direction  of  this 
pass.  In  his  attempt  to  stop  them  with  his 
small  force,  numbering  about  2,500  men,  Gen- 
eral Burrows  was  disastrously  defeated.  With 
difficulty  and  with  the  loss  of  seven  guns,  about 
half  the  English  troops  returned  to  Candahar. 
General  Primrose,  who  was  in  command,  had  no 


M 


AFGHANISTAN,  1S69-18SI. 


AFRICA,  1834-1891. 


dioicc  but  to  strengtlicn  the  place,  submit  to  an 
investment,  and  wait  till  he  should  be  rescued. 

.  .  The  troops  at  Cabul  were  ou  the  point  of 
■witlulrawins  when  the  news  of  tlie  disaster 
reached  them.  It  was  at  once  decided  that  tins 
picli  of  tlie  army  under  General  IJoberts  sliould 
push  forward  to  the  beleaguered  city,  while  Gen- 
eral Stewart  with  the  remainder  should  carry 
out  the  intended  withdrawal.  .  .  .  With  about 
10,000  lijrliting  men  and  8,000  camp  followers 
General  Hoberts  brought  to  a  successful  issue 
his  remarlvable  enterprise,  .  .  .  falling  upon 
the  army  of  tlie  Ameer  and  entirely  dispersing 
it  a  sliort  distance  outside  the  city  All  those  at 
all  inclined  to  the  forward  policy  clamoured  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  liritish  force  in  ( Jandahar. 
15ut  the  Government  lirndy  and  decisively 
refused  to  consent  to  anything  approuching  to 
a  permanent  occupation.  .  .  .  The  struggle 
between  Abdurahiuan  and  Ayoob  conlinu(!d  for 
a  while,  and  until  it  was  over  the  Kngli.sh 
troops  remained  at  Quotta.  But  when  Abdurah- 
man  had  lH!en  several  times  victorious  over  his 
rival  aiiu  in  October  [1881]  occui)ied  Herat,  it 
was  thought  safe  to  complete  the  evacuation, 
leaving  Abduiahman  for  the  time  at  least  gen- 
erally "accepted  as  Ameer. "--J.  F.  Bright,  Hist, 
of  Eng.,  period  4,  P2>.  534-544. 

Also  in  A.  Forbes,  T/ie  Afghan  Wnn,  pt.  2.— 
Duke  of  Argyll,  I'/ie  Afghan  Question  from  1841 
to  1878.— G.  B.  Malleson,  The  liusso-Afghan 
Question. 

AFRICA:  The  name  as  anciently  applied. 
See  LuiYANs. 

The  Roman  Province.  —  "Territorial  sov- 
ereignty over  the  whole  of  North  Africa  had 
<loubtless  already   been  claimed  o>    the  part  of 

,  the  IJoman  Hepublic,  perhaps  as  a  portion  of 
the  Carthaginian  inheritance,  perhaps  because 
'  our  sea '  early  became  one  of  the  fundamental 
ideas  of  the  Uoman  commonwealth;  and,  in  so 

■  !:','■,  all  its  coasts  were  regarded  by  the  Homans 
even  of  the  developed  republic  as  their  true  pro- 
perty. Nor  had  this  claim  of  Home  ever  been 
properly  contested  by  the  larger  .states  of  North 
Africa  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage.  .  .  . 
The  arrangements  which  the  emperors  made 
were  carried  out  qinte  after  the  same  way  in  the 
territory  of  the  dependent  princes  as  in  the 
immediate  territory  of  Koine ;  it  was  the  Roman 
government  that  regulated  the  boimdaries  in  all 
North  Africa,  and  constituted  Roman  com- 
munities at  its  discretion,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Mauretania  no  less  than  in  tlie  province  of 
Numidia.  We  cannot  therefore  speak,  in  the 
strict  sense,  ot  a  Roman  subjugation  of  North 
Africa.  The  Romans  did  not  conquer  it  like  the 
Pluenicians  or  the  French ;  but  they  ruled  over 
Numidia  as  over  Mauretania,  first  as  suzerains, 
then  as  succes.sors  of  the  native  govin-nments. 
...  As  for  the  previous  rulers,  so  also  doubtless 
for  Roman  civilization  there  was  to  b(i  found  a 
limit  to  the  .south,  but  hardly  so  for  the  Roman 
territorial  sujiremacy.  There  is  never  mention 
of  any  formal  extension  or  taking  back  of  the 
frontier  in  Africa.  .  .  .  The  former  territory  of 
Curtilage  and  the  larger  part  of  the  earlier  king- 
dom of  Numidia,  united  with  it  by  the  dictator 
Ciusar,  or,  as  they  also  called  it,  the  old  and  new 
Africa,  formed  until  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Tiberius  tlie  province  of  that  name  [Africa], 
which  extended  from  the  boundary  of  Cyrano  to 


tin:  river  Ampsagi ,  cmbra'ini'  the  modem  state 
of  Tripoli,  as  well  as  Tunif  and  the  French  prov- 
ince of  Constantine.  .  .  .  Mauretania  was  not 
a  heritage  like  Africa  and  Numidia.  .  .  .  Tlie 
Romans  can  .scarcely  ha  ^  <•  taken  over  the  Empire 
of  llie  Maurctanian  kings  in  quite  the  same  ex- 
tent as  these  pos.sessed  it;  but  .  .  .  probably  the 
whole  south  as  far  as  the  great  desert  passed  as 
imperial  land."— T.  Momnisen,  Hist,  of  Uoiiu;  W-. 
8,  (•/(.  13. — Sec,  also,  Cahtiiaqe,  Nu.mi1)IA,  and 

CviiKNK. 

The  Medieval  City.  See  Bakbahy  States: 
A.  I).  1513-1500, 

Moslem  conquest  and  Moslem  States  in  the 
North.  SecJlAiloMfyrAN  CoMjtl'.sT,  Ac.  :  A.  D. 
(UO-040;  647-709,  and  908-1171;  al.so  Haimiauv 
Statics;  EgyI'T:  A.  1).  1~'50-1517,  and  after;  and 

StDAN. 

Portuguese  Exploration  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast. — The  rounding  of  the  Cape.  See  Poii- 
Tt<iAi,:  \.  1).  1415-1400,  and  14113-1498. 

Dutch  and  English  Colonization.  See  South 
Akuica. 

A.  D.  1787-1807.-  Settlement  of  Sierra 
Leone.     See  SiinutA  f.Ko.Ni:. 

A.  D.  1820-1822. — The  founding  of  Liberia. 
See  Slavkhv,  Nkoiio:  A.  1).  1810-1847. 

A.  D.  1884-1891. — Partition  of  the  interior 
between  European  Powers. —  "The  partition 
of  Africa  may  be  .said  to  date  from  the  Berlin 
Conference  of  1884-85  [.see  Congo  Fuek  State]. 
Prior  to  that  Conference  the  question  of  inland 
boundaries  was  scarcely  considered.  .  .  .  The 
founding  of  the  Congo  Independent  State  was 
probably  the  most  important  result  of  the  Con- 
ference. .  .  .  Two  months  after  the  Conference 
had  concluded  its  labours,  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many had  a  serious  dispute  in  regard  lo  their  re- 
spective spheres  of  influence  on  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea.  .  .  .  The  co:npromise  .  .  .  arrived  at 
placed  the  Mission  Station  of  Victoria  within  the 
German  sphere  of  influence."  The  fnmticr  be- 
tween tlK  vo  spheres  of  iulhience  ou  the  Bight 
of  Biafrii  was  subsequently  delined  by  a  line 
drawn,  in  1880,  from  the  coast  to  Yola,  ou  the 
Benue.  The  Royal  Niger  Company,  constituted 
by  a  royal  charter,  'was  given  iiilndnistralive 
powers  over  territories  covered  by  its  treaties. 
The  regions  llicreby  placed  under  British  pro- 
tection .  .  .  apart  from  the  Oil  Rivers  District, 
which  is  directly  administered  by  the  Crown, 
embrace  the  coastal  lands  between  Lagos  and  the 
northern  frontier  of  Caiuarons,  tlie  Lower  Niger 
(including  territories  of  Sokoto,  Gandu  and 
Borgo),  and  the  Benue  from  Tola  to  its  con- 
fluence." By  a  Protocol  signed  December  24, 
1885,  Germany  and  France  "defined  their  re- 
spective spheres  of  influence  and  action  on  the 
Bight  of  Biafra.  and  also  ou  the  Slave  (,'oast  and 
in  Senegambia."  This  "  fixed  the  inland  exten- 
rion  of  the  Germairsphere  of  influence  (Camarons) 
at  15°  E.  longitude,  Greenwich.  ...  At  present 
it  allows  the  French  Congo  territories  to  expand 
along  the  western  bank  of  the  Jl'baugi  .  .  .  pro- 
vided no  other  tributary  of  the  M'bangi-Congo  is 
found  to  the  west,  in  which  case,  according  to 
the  Berlin  Treaty  of  1884-85,  the  conventional 
basin  of  the  Congo  would  gain  an  extension." 
On  the  12tli  of  May,  1886,  FriHice  and  Portugal 
signed  a  convention  by  which  Franco  "secured 
the  exclusive  control  of  both  banks  of  the  Casa- 
nianza  (in  Senegambia),  and  the  Portuguese 
frontier  in  the  south  was  advanced  approximately 


17 


APHICA,   1884-1891. 


AFRICA,  1884-1891. 


to  the  southern  limit  of  the  bn.siii 
On  the  CoiiKo,  Portugal  rctnincd  ili^ 


the  Casini. 
Miissnbi  dis- 
trict, to  wliioli  Fniiice  luul  liiid  claim,  but  both 
banks  of  the  Loaugo  were  left  to  France. "  lu 
18M4  three  representatives  of  the  Society  for 
German  Colonization  —  Dr.  Peters,  Dr.  JUhlke, 
and  ( 'ount  Pfeil  —  (luietlv  concluded  treaties  with 
the  chiefs  of  Useguha,  Ukami,  Nguru,  and  U.sa- 
gara,  by  which  those  territories  were  conveyed 
to  the  Society  in  ([uestion.  "Dr.  Peters  .  .  . 
armed  with  his  treaties,  returned  to  Berlin  in 
February,  1HH5.  On  the  27th  February,  the  day 
following  the  signature  of  the  General  Actof  the 
Berlin  (,'onference,  an  Imperial  Schutzbrief,  or 
Cliarter  of  Protection,  secured  to  the  Society  for 
German  Coloni/.fition  the  territories  .  .  .  ac- 
ciuired  for  them  tlirough  Dr.  Peters' treaties :  in 
other  words,  a  German  Protectorate  was  ])ro- 
elalmed.  When  it  became  known  that  Germany 
had  seized  ujion  the  Zanzibar  mainland,  the  in- 
dignation in  colonial  circles  knew  no  bounds. 
.  .  .  Prior  to  1384,  thi;  continental  lands  facing 
Zanzil)ar  were  almost  e.\clusivcly  under  British 
inlUienee.  The  principal  traders  were  British 
subjects,  and  the  Sultan's  Government  was  ad- 
ministered imdcr  the  advice  of  the  British  Resi- 
dent. The  entire  region  between  the  Coast  and 
the  Lakes  was  regarded  as  being  under  the  nomi- 
nal suzerainty  of  the  Sultan.  .  .  .  Still,  Great 
Britain  had  no  territorial  claims  on  the  dominions 
of  the  Sultan."  The  S.iltan  formally  jirotested 
and  Great  Britain  championcil  his  cause ;  but  to  no 
elTect.  In  tlie  end  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  yielded 
the  German  Protectorate  over  t  he  four  iidand  prov- 
inces and  over  Vitu,  and  the  British  and  German 
Governments  arranged  questions  between  them, 
provisionally,  by  the  Anglo-German  Convention 
of  1880,  which  was  afterwards  superseded  by 
the  more  dctinite  Convention  of  July  1890,  which 
will  be  spoken  of  below.  In  April  1087,  the 
rights  of  the  .Society  for  German  Colonization 
were  transferred  to  the  German  East  Africa  As- 
sociation, with  Dr.  Peters  at  its  heail.  The  Brit- 
ish East  Africa  Company  took  over'  concessions 
that  had  been  granted  by  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar 
to  Sir  William  Maekinnon,  and  received  a  roj-al 
charter  in  September,  1888.  In  South-west  Af- 
rica, "an  enterprising  Bremen  merchant,  Herr 
Hideritz.  and  subseciuently  the  German  Consul- 
Oi|neral,  Dr.  Kachtigal,  concluded  a  series  of  po- 
litical and  conunereial  treaties  with  native  chiefs, 
whereby  a  claim  was  instituted  over  .lUigra 
Pecpiefla,  and  over  vast  districts  in  the  Interior 
between  the  Orange  River  and  Cape  Frio.  .  .  . 
It  was  useless  for  the  Cape  colonists  to  protest. 
On  the  13th  October  1884  Germany  formally 
notified  to  the  Powers  her  Protectorate  over 
South- West  Africa.  .  .  .  On !trd  August  1885  the 
German  Colonial  Company  for  South- West  Af- 
rica was  founded,  and  .  .  .  received  the  Im- 
perial sanction  for  its  incorporation.  But  in 
August  1880  a  new  Association  was  formed  — 
the  German  West-Africa  Company  —  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  its  territories  was  placed  under  an 
Imperial  Connnissioner.  .  .  .  TL^  intrusion  of 
Germany  into  South-West  Africa  acted  as  a  check 
upon,  no  less  than  a  spur  to,  the  extension  of 
British  inlluenee  northwards  to  the  Zambezi 
Another  obstacle  to  this  extension  arose  from  the 
Boer  insurrection."  The  Transvaal,  with  in- 
creased independence  had  adopted  the  title  of 
South  African  Republic.  "Zulu-land,  having  lost 
its  independence,  was  partitioned :  a  third  of  its 


territories,  over  which  a  republic  had  been  pro- 
claimed, was  absorbed  (October  1887)  by  the 
Transvaid ;  the  remainder  was  added  (14th  May 
1887)  to  the  British  possessions.  Amatonga-land 
was  in  1888  also  taken  under  British  protection. 
By  a  convention  witli  the  South  African  Repub- 
lic, Britain  acquired  in  1884  the  Crown  colony 
of  Bechuana-land ;  and  in  the  early  part  of  1885 
a  British  Protectorate  was  proclaimed  over  the 
remaining  portion  of  Bechuana-land. "  Further- 
more, "a  British  Protectorate  was  instituted 
[1885]  over  the  country  bounded  by  the  Zambezi 
m  the  north,  the  Britisli  pos,sessions  in  the  south, 
'  the  Portuguese  province  of  Sofala'  in  the  east, 
and  the  2flth  degree  of  east  longitude  in  the  west. 
It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes 
came  forward,  and,  having  obtained  certain  con- 
cessions from  Lobengula,  founded  the  British 
South  Africa  C'omi)any.  ...  On  the  29th  Oc- 
tober 1889,  the  British  South  Africa  Company 
was  granted  a  royal  charter.  It  was  declared  in 
this  cliarter  that  '  the  principal  Held  of  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Briti.sh  South  African  Company  shall 
be  the  region  of  South  Africa  lying  immediatelj' 
to  the  north  of  British  Bechuanaland,  and  to 
the  north  and  west  of  the  South  African  Repub- 
lic, and  to  the  west  of  tlii'  Portuguese  domin- ' 
ions.'"  No  northern  limit  was  given,  and  the 
other  boundaries  were  vaguely  delined.  The 
position  of  Swazi-land  was  definitely  settled  in 
1890  by  an  arrangement  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  South  African  Republic,  which  provides 
for  the  continued  independcnceof  Swazi-land  and 
a  joint  control  over  the  white  seitler.s.  A  British 
Protectorate  was  proclaimed  over  Nyassa-land 
and  the  Shire  Highlands  in  1889-90.  To  return 
now  to  the  proceedings  of  other  Powers  in  Africa: 
"Italy  took  formal  possession,  in  July  1882,  of 
the  bay  and  territory  of  Assab.  The  Italian, 
coast-line  on  the  Red  Sea  was  extended  from  Ras 
ICasar  (18"  2'  N.  Lat.)  to  the  southern  boundary 
of  Raheita,  towards  Obok.  During  1889,  shortly 
after  the  death  of  King  Johannes,  Keren  and* 
Asmara  were  occupied  by  Italian  troops.  Mene- 
lik  of  Shoa,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Abyssinia  after  subjugating  all  the  Abyssinian 
provinces,  except  Tigre,  dispatched  an  embassy 
to  King  Humbert,  the  result  of  which  was  that 
the  new  Negus  acknowledged  (29th  September, 
1889)  the  Protectorate  of  Italy  over  Abyssinia, 
and  its  sovereignty  over  the  territories  of  JMas-" 
sawa,  Keren  and  Asmara."  By  the  Protocols 
of  24th  March  and  ISth  April,  1891,  Italy  and 
Great  Britain  define  their  respective  Spheres  of 
Influence  in  East  Africa.  "  But  since  tlien  Italy 
has  practically  withdrawn  from  her  position. 
Slie  has  absolutely  no  hold  over  Abyssinia.  .  .  . 
Italy  has  also  succeeded  in  establishing  herself 
on  the  Soniiil  Coast."  By  treaties  concluded  in 
1889,  ' '  the  coastal  lands  between  Capo  Warslieikh 
(about  2°  30'  N.  lat.),  and  Cape  Bedwin  (8° 
it'  N.  lat. )  —  a  distance  of  4/50  miles  —  were  placed 
under  Italian  protection.  Italy  subsequently  ex- 
tended (1890)  her  Protectorate  over  the  Soma) 
Coast  to  the  Jub  river.  .  .  .  The  British  Pro- 
tectorate on  tlie  Sonial  Coast  facing  Aden,  now 
extends  from  the  Italian  frontier  at  Ras  Hafiin 
to  Ras  Jibutc  (43°  15' E.  long.).  .  .  .  The  activ- 
ity of  France  in  litr  Senegambian  province,  ,  .  . 
during  the  last  hundred  years  .  .  .  has  tinally 
resulted  in  a  considerable  expansion  of  her  terri- 
tory. .  .  .  The  French  have  established  a  claim 
over  the  country  interveuing  between  our  Gold 


18 


AFRICA,  1884-1891. 


AGELA. 


Coast  Colony  and  Libi'ria.  A  more  precise  ile- 
liniiliition  oi'  tlie  frontier  lietweeu  Sierra  Leoue 
■and  Liberia  resulted  from  tlie  treaties  sipned  at 
Monrovia  on  tlie  lltli  of  November,  188".  In  1888 
Portujfal  witbdrew  all  riglits over  Deliome.  .  .  . 
I{ecently,  a  French  sphere  of  influence  has  been 
instituted  over  tlut  whole  of  the  Saharan  rej;ions 
between  Algeria  and  Senegambia.  .  .  .  Declara- 
tions were  e.xchanged  (■"Hh  August  1800)  between 
[France  and  Great  Britain]  with  the  following 
R'sults:  Fninee  became  a  consenting  party  to  the 
Anglo-Germau  Convention  of  1st  July  1890.  (3.) 
Great  Britain  recognised  a  Frer.ch  sphere  of  in- 
fluenec  over  Madagascar.  .  .  .  And  (3)  Great  Brit- 
ain recognised  the  si)lierc  of  inlluenceof  France  to 
the  south  of  her  ^Mediterranean  possessions,  up  to 
a  line  from  Say  on  the  Niger  to  liarrua  on  Lake 
Tsad,  drawn  in  sucli  a  manner  as  to  comprise  in 
the  sphere  of  action  of  the  British  Niger  Corn- 
puny  all  tliat  fairly  belongs  to  the  kingdom  of 
Bokoto.'"  The  Anglo-German  Convention  of 
July,  1890,  already  referred  to,  established  by  its 
main  provisions  the  following  delinitions  of  ter- 
ritory: "The  Anglo-German  frontier  in  East 
Africa,  which,  by  the  Convention  of  1880,  endeil 
at  a  point  on  tlie  eastern  shore  of  the  Victoria 
Nyaii/.u  was  continued  on  tlu;  Siime  latitude  across 
the  lake  to  the  eonlines  of  the  Congo  Independent 
State;  but,  on  the  western  side  of  the  lake,  this 
frontier '.\  as,  if  necessary,  to  be  detlectcd  to  the 
south,  ill  order  to  include  -Mount  M'fumbiro  within 
tile  lirilisli  sphere.  .  .  .  Treaties  in  that  district 
were  made  oft  behalf  of  the  British  East  Africa 
Company  bv  Mr.  Stanle\ .  on  liis  return  (May 
1889)  from  the  relief  of  'Eniin  Paslia.  .  .  .  (2") 
The  southern  boundary  of  the  German  sphere  of 
Intluence  in  East  Africa  was  recognised  as  that 
originally  drawn  to  a  point  on  the  eastern  shore- 
of  Lake  Nyassa,  whence  it  was  continued  by  the 
eastern,  northern,  and  western  shores  of  the  lake 
to  the  northern  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kiver 
Songwe.  From  this  iioint  the  Anglo-German 
frontier  was  continued  to  Lake  Tanganika,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  leave  the  Stevenson  Itoail 
within  the  British  sphere.  (3.)  The  Northern 
frontier  of  British  East  Africa  was  defined  by 
the  Jiib  River  and  the  conterminous  boundary  of 
the  Italian  sphere  of  inlluenee  in  Galla-land  and 
Abyssinia  up  to  the  confines  of  Egypt;  in  the 
west,  by  the  Congo  StatB  and  the  Congo-Nile 
waterslu^d.  (4.)  Gennauy  withdrew,  in  favor  of 
Britain,  her  Protectorate  over  Vitu  and  her  claims 
to  all  territories  on  the  mainland  to  the  north  of 
the  River  Tana,  as  also  over  the  islands  of  Patta 
and  JIanda.  (5.)  In  South- West  Africa,  the 
Anglo-German  frontier,  originally  fixed  up  to  23 
south  latitude,  was  conflrmc'd;  but  from  this 
point  the  boundary-line  was  drawn  in  such  a  man- 
ner eastward  and  northward  as  to  give  Germany 
free  access  to  the  Zambezi  by  the  Cliobe  River. 
(6.)  The  Auglo-Germmi  frontier  between  Togo 
and  Gold  Coast  Colony  was  fixed,  and  that  be- 
tween the  Camaroiis  and  the  British  Niger  T(!r- 
ritorics  was  provisionally  adjusted.  (7.)  The 
Free-trade  zone,  defined  by  the  Act  of  Berlin 
(1885)  was  recognised  as  appUcable  to  the  present 
arrangement  between  Britain  and  Germany.  (8.) 
A  British  Protectm-atc  was  recognised  over  tlu! 
dominions  of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  within  the 
British  coastal  zone  and  over  the  islands  of  Zau- 
zilvir  and  Pemba.  Britain,  however,  underlooU 
to  use  her  infiuence  to  secure  (what  have  sinei 
been  acquired)    corresponding    advantages  for 


Germany  within  the  German  coastal  zone  and 
over  the  island  of  -Mafia.  Finally  (9),  the  i.ilaiid 
of  Heligoland,  in  the  North  Se-,  was  ceded  by 
Britain  to  Germany."  By  a  treaty  concluded  in 
June,  1891,  between  Great  Britain  and  Portugal, 
"  Great  Britain  acquired  a  broad  central  sphere 
of  infiuence  for  tlie  exjiansion  of  her  possessions 
in  South  Africa  northward  to  and  bt'yond  the 
ZamViczi,  along  a  path  which  provides  for  the  iin- 
interriii)ted  passage  of  British  goods  and  British 
enterprise,  up  to  the  conflneA  of  the  Congo  In- 
dependent State  and  German  East  Africa.  .  .  . 
Portugal,  on  tin,"  East  Coast  secured  the  Lower 
Zambezi  fn  m  Zuinbo,  and  the  Lower  Shire  from 
the  Ruo  Confiuencc,  the  entire  Hinterland  of 
Mosamliique  up  to  Lake  Nyassa  and  the  Ilinter- 
laiid  of  Sofala  to  the  confines  of  the  South  African 
Republic  and  the  JIatabcle  kingdom.  On  the 
West  Coast,  Portugal  received  the  entire  Hinter- 
land behind  her  provinces  in  Lower  Guinea,  up 
to  the  confines  of  the  Congo  Independent  State, 
and  the  ujiper  course  of  the  Zambezi.  ...  On 
ilay  3.jtli  1891  a  Convention  was  signed  at  Lis- 
bon, which  has  put  an  end  to  the  dispute  between 
Portugal  and  the  Congo  Independent  State  as  to 
the  possession  of  Lunda.  Rouglily  speaking,  the 
country  was  eijually  divided  between  the  dispu- 
tants. .  .  .  Lord  Salisbury,  in  his  negotiations 
with  Germany  and  Portugal,  very  wisely  upheld 
the  principle  of  frec-traile  which  was  laid  down 
by  the  Act  of  Berlin,  1885,  in  regard  to  the  free 
transit  of  goods  through  territories  in  wl  h  two 
or  more  powers  are  indirectly  interested.  — A.  S. 
^Vliite,  T/w  Development  of  Afncu,  Hccond  EiL, 
lici\,  1893. 

Also  in;  J.  S.  Keltic,  The  Partitioii  of  Af- 
rim,  eh.  13-23. — See,  also,  Soutu  Africa,  and 

Uo.VND.V. 

The  inhabiting  races. — The  indigenous  races 
of  Africa  are  considered  to  be  four  in  number, 
namely:  the  Negroes  proper,  who  occupy  a  cen- 
tral zone,  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Egy])tian  Sudan,  and  who  comprise  aa  enormous 
number  of  diverse  tribes ;  the  Fulahs  (with  whom 
the  Nubians  arc  associated)  settled  mainly  lie- 
tweeu Lake  Chad  and  the  Niger;  the  Bautus, 
wlio  occupy  the  whole  South,  except  its  extrem- 
ity, and  the  Hottentots  who  are  in  that  extreme 
southern  region.  Some  anthropologists  includQ 
with  the  Hottentots  the  Bosjesmans  or  Bushmen. 
The  Kafirs  and  Becliuanas  are  Bantu  tribes.  The 
North  and  Northeast  are  occupied  by  Samitic  and 
Ilamitic  races,  the  latter  including  Abyssinians 
and  Gulltis. — A.  II.  Keane,  The  African  liaces 
(Utaiiford's  ComjKiidium:  Africa,  app.). 

Also  IN;  R.  Brown,  The  liaces  of  Manki ml,  v. 
3-3. — R.  N.  Chist,  Sketcliofthe  Modern  Languages 
of  Af rial. — See,  also,  South  Afiuc.\. 

AGA  MOHAMMED  KHAN.  Shah  of  Per- 
sia, A.  I).  1795-1797. 

AGADE.  See  B.vuvloni.v:  The  E.^uly 
(C!i.\li)i;ax)  Monauchy. 

AGAPETUS  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  948-956. 

AGAS.     See  Suulimi-;  Poiitk. 

AGATHO,  Pope,  A.  I).  «78-(i83. 

AGATHOCLES,  The  tyranny  of.  See 
SvuACi:si;;  B.  C.  317-289. 

AGE  OF  STONE.— AGE  OF  BRONZE, 
&c.     See  Sto.ni-;  Aoi:. 

AGELA.— AGELATAS.— The  youths  and 
young    men    of    ancient    Crete    were    publicly 


19 


AOELA.. 


AGRI  DECUMATES. 


tmincdnnd  disripliiied  in  divisions  or  cnmpnnics, 
(Midi  of  wliicli  WHS  (idled  an  Af,'(lii,  and  ils 
lender  or  director  the  AKelalas.  — G.  fSchOihaiin, 
Auli(/.  of  (Ira,;::    The  Slat/:,  pt.  3,  eh.  2. 

AGEMA,  The.— Tho  royid  tscort  of  Alex- 
ander the  (Jreiil. 

AGEN,  Origin  of.     See  Nn'roiiuKir'.s. 

AGENDICUM  OR  AGEDINCUM.  See 
Si;nom;s. 

AGER  PUBLICUS.— "Rome  was  always 
making  fresli  aci/uisitions  of  territory  in  her 
( arly  liistory.  .  .  .  J^arge  traets  of  country  lie- 
caino  lioinan  laud,  the  [iroperty  of  the  lioinaii 
state,  or  public  domain  (ager  puhlieiis),  as  the 
Honuins  calleil  it.  The  condition  of  this  land, 
th(!  use  to  which  it  was  aj)plii  a,  and  the  dis- 
putes which  it  eaiiBcd  hct  ween  thi^  two  orders  at 
Komo,  are  auionj;  the  most  curious  and  perplex- 
ing qtieslions  in  Uoman  liistor_>.  .  .  .  That  part 
of  newly-ac(iuired  territory  which  was  neither 
sold  nor  given  remained  piililic  property,  and  it 
was  occupied,  according  to  the  Roman  term,  by 
private  jirrsons,  in  wl.os('  hands  it  was  a  I'os- 
scssio.  llygintis  and  SIculus  Flaccus  represent 
this  occupation  as  being  made  without  any 
order.  Every  Roman  took  what  he,  coidd,  and 
more  than  lie  could  uso  prolitably.  .  .  .  "W'c 
.shoidd  be  more  inclined  to  believe  that  this 
public  land  was  occupied  imder  some  rcgida- 
tions,  in  order  to  prevent  disputes;  but  if  i:ucli 
regulations  exist(,'d  we  know  nothing  abotit 
them.  There  was  no  stirvey  made  of  the  public 
land  which  was  from  time  to  time  acipiired,  but 
there  were  certainly  gener.al  boundaries  fixed  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  what  had  becom(^ 
public  property.  The  lands  which  were  sold 
and  given  W(  ro  of  necessity  surveyed  and  fixed 
by  boundaries.  .  .  .  Tliere  is  no  direct  evidence 
that  any  payments  tj  the  stale  were  originally 
made  by  the  Possessors.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  at  some  early  time  such  pnymeiits  were 
made,  or,  at  least,  were  due  to  tlie  slate." — G. 
Long.  Iki-Unc  of  the  Jii>maii  IkpuhUc,  eh.  11. 

AGGER.     See  Castu.v. 

AGGRAVIADOS,  The.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1814-1827. 

AGHA  MOHAMMED  KHAN,  Shah  of 
Persia,  A.  D.  17<J5-i;97. 

AGHLABITE  DYNASTY.  See  I^Uuome- 
TAN  C(iN(iUKST  AND  E.vi'iiu::  A.  I).  715-75'J. 

AGHRIM,  OR  AUGHRIM,  Battle  of  (A. 
D.  itai\    Seelmci.ANi):  A.  1).  lOSO-KJPl. 

AGILULPHUS,  King  of  the  Lombards. 
A.  D.  59I)-61G. 

AGINCOURT,  Battle  of  (1415).  See 
FllANTi:;  \.  I),  141,V 

AGINNUM.— Modern    Agen.      See  NiTio- 

BHKIKS. 

AGNADEL,  Battle  of  (1509).  See  Venice  : 
A.  1).  1508-ir)il!t. 

AGNATL— AGNATIC.    See  Gens,  Roman. 

AGNIERS,  The.  See  American  Ahouioi- 
NEs:  A  (J-     .US. 

■AGC  ,,  The. — Tlio  public  discipline  en- 
force ancient  Sparta;  the  ordinances  nttri 
bute  ijycurgus,  for  the  training  of  the  youn; 
and  '  .  (he  regulating  of  the  lives  of  (atizens. — 
O.  SchOmaim,  Antiq.  of  Qretce  ;  The  State,  pt.  3, 
ch.  1. 

AGORA,  The.— The  market-place  of  an  ancient 
Greek  citv  was,  also,  the  centre  of  its  political 
life.  "Like  the  gymnasium,  and  even  earlier 
tlun  this,  it  grew  into  architectural  splendour 


with  the  incr(!asing  culture  of  the  Greeks.  In 
maritime  cities  it  generally  lay  near  tlic  sea;  in 
inland  ;daces  at  the  foot  of  the  bill  wliicli carried 
the  old  feudal  castle.  IJeing  the  oldest  part  of 
the  city,  it  naturally  became  tlie  focus  not  only 
of  commercial,  but  also  of  religious  and  political 
life.  Here  even  in  Homer's  time  tlie  citizens 
as.senil)le(l  in  consultation,  for  which  purpose  it 
was  supplied  with  seats;  here  were  the  oldest 
sanctuaries;  here  were  celebrated  the  first  fes- 
tive games;  here  centred  tin!  roads  on  which  tlio 
interconimunicatioii,  both  religious  and  commer- 
cial, with  neigliliouring  cities  and  states  was  car- 
ried on;  from  here  8tart(;d  tlu!  processions  which 
continually  jjassed  lietween  holy  places  of  kin- 
dred origin,  tho'igli  locally  separated.  Although 
originallj'  all  public  transactions  were  carried  on 
in  these  market-places,  special  local  arrange- 
ments for  contracting  public  business  soon 
became  n(?ccs.sary  in  large  citi(!S.  At  Athens,  for 
instance,  tlie  gently  rising  ground  of  tlie  Pliilo- 
pappos  hill,  calle(i  Pnyx,  touching  the  Agora, 
was  used  for  jjolitical  consultations,  while  most 
likely,  aliout  the  time  of  the  Pisistratide.s,  the 
market  of  Iverameikos,  the  oldest  seat  of  Attic 
industry  (lying  between  tlie  f(jot  of  tlie  Akropo- 
lis,  the  Areopagos  and  the  hill  of  Theseus), 
became  the  agom  proper,  1.  e.,  the  centre  of 
Athenian  commerce.  .  .  .  TIic  description  by 
Vitruvius  of  an  agora  evidently  refers  to  the 
splendid  struetures  of  post-Alexandrine  times. 
According  to  iiiin  it  was  (juadraiigular  in  size 
[?  shape]  and  surrounded  by  wide  cToublc  colon- 
ades.  The  numerous  columns  carried  architraves 
of  common  stone  or  of  marble,  and  on  the  roofs  of 
the  poi  ticoes  were  galleries  for  walking  jnirposes. 
Tills,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  all  market- 
places, even  of  later  date ;  but,  upon  the  whole, 
the  remaining  specimens  agree  w  itli  the  deserip- 
tiou  of  Vitruvius." — E.  Guhl  and  W.  Koner, 
Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Ihmans,  tr.  by  Ilueffer,  pt. 
1,  sect.  2(5. —  In  the  Homeric  time,  the  general 
assembly  of  freemen  was  called  the  Agora. —  G. 
Grote,  Ilist.  of  Greece,  i)t.  1,  ch.  20. 

AGR.^1,  The.    See  AituiNANiANs. 

AGRARIAN  LAW^S,  Roman.—"  Great  mis- 
takes formerly  prevailed  on  the  nature  of  the 
Roman  laws  familiarly  termed  Agrarian.  It 
was  supposed  that  by  tliese  laws  all  land  was 
declared  common  prifperty,  and  that  at  certain 
intervals  of  time  the  state  resumed  possession 
and  made  a  fresh  distribution  to  all  citizens, 
ricli  and  poor.  It  is  needless  to  make  any 
remarks  on  the  nature  and  conse(iucnces  of  such 
a  law ;  suiiieient  it  will  be  to  say,  what  is  now 
known  to  all,  that  at  Rome  such  laws  never 
existed,  never  were  thought  of.  The  lands 
wliicli  were  to  be  distributed  by  Agrarian  laws 
were  not  private  property,  but  the  property  of 
the  state.  They  were,  originally,  those  public 
lands  which  had  been  the  domain  of  the  kings, 
and  which  were  increased  wlienever  any  city 
or  people  was  conquered  by  the  Romans ;  because 
it  was  an  Italian  practice  to  conliscate  the  lands 
of  the  conquered,  in  whole  or  in  part." — II.  G. 
Liddell,  Jlt'st.  of  Home.  bk.  3,  ch.  8.— See  RoiiE: 
B.  C.  376,  and'B.  0.  133-121. 

AGRI  DECUMATES,  The.— "Between the 
Rhine  and  the  Upper  Danube  there  intervenes  a 
triangular  tract  of  land,  the  apex  of  which 
touches  the  confines  of  Switzerland  at  Basel; 
thus  separating,  as  with  an  enormous  wedge, 
the  provinces  of  Gaul  and  Vindelicia,  and  pre- 


JO 


AGRI  UECUMATES. 


AIX-LA-CIIAPELLE. 


senling  at  its  base  uo  uutural  line  of  defence 
from  one  river  to  tlie  other.  Tliis  tract  was, 
however,  oceupied,  for  the  most  part,  by  forests, 
and  if  it  broke  tlie  lino  of  tlielJoman  defences,  it 
might  at  least  lie  considen^d  imjienetrablc  to  an 
enemy.  Abandoned  by  tlie  warlike  and  preda- 
tory tribes  of  Germany,  it  was  seized  l)y  wander- 
ing immigrants  fromfjaul,  many  of  tliem  Roman 
adventurers,  before  whom  tlie  original  inhabit- 
ants, tlie  Marcomaiini,  or  men  of  the  frontier, 
seem  to  have  retreated  eastward  beyond  the 
Ilercynian  forest.  The  intruders  claimed  or 
solicited  Roman  i)rotection,  and  offered  in  return 
n  tribute  from  tlic  produce  of  the  soil,  wheiice 
the  district  itself  came  to  bo  known  by  the  title 
of  the  Agri  Decumates,  or  Tithed  Laud.  It  was 
not,  howevrr,  ofllcially  connected  with  any 
province  of  I  lie  Empire,  nor  was  any  attempt 
made  to  provide  for  its  permanent  security,  till 
a  period  much  later  than  that  on  which  we  are 
now  engaged  [the  periol  of  Augustus]." — C. 
Merivale,  Hist,  of  the  linimna,  ch.  3(1. — "Wur- 
teinburg,  Badeu  and  IlohcnzoUern  coincide 
with  the  Agri  Decumates  of  the  Roman  writers." 
— R.  G.  Latham,  Klhiuioim  of  Europe,  ch.  8. — 
See,  also,  Ali:5i.\nm,  and  Sukvi. 

AGRICOLA'S  CAMPAIGNS  IN  BRI- 
TAIN.   See  Bhit.un:  A.  D.  78-84. 

AGRIGENTUM. — Acragas,  or  Agrigentum, 
one  of  the  youngest  of  the  Greek  colonies  in 
Sicily,  founded  about  B.  C.  582  by  the  older  col- 
ony of  Qela,  became  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
splendid  cities  of  the  age,  in  the  fifth  century 
B.  C,  as  is  testified  by  its  ruins  to  this  day. 
It  was  the  scene  of  the  notorious  tyranny  of 
Phalaris,  as  well  as  that  of  Theron.  Agrigen- 
tum was  destroyed  by  the  Carthagenians,  B.  C. 
405,  and  rebuilt  by  Tiiiioleon,  but  never  recovered 
its  former  importance  and  grandeur. —  E.  Cur- 
tius.  Hist,  of  Greece,  hk.  4,  ch.  3. —See,  also, 
PnAL.Miis,  BiiAZEN  Bui.i,  OP. — Agrigentum  was 
destroyed  by  the  Carthagenians  in  400  B.  C. 
See  SrciLT  :  B.  0.  409-405.— Rebuilt  by  Timo- 
Icon^  it  was  the  scene  of  a  great  defeat  of  the 
Carthagenians  by  the  Romans,  in  262  B.  C.  See 
Punic  Wah,  The  Fikst. 

AGRIPPINA  AND  HER  SON  NERO. 
See  H0.ME:  A.  D.  47-54,  and  54-04. 

AHMED  KHEL,  Battle  of  (i88o).  See 
Afoii.\m8t.\n  :    A.  1).  1800-1881. 

AIGINA.     See  .•Eoix.\. 

AIGOSPOTAMOI,  Battle  of.  See  GnuECE: 
B.  C.  405. 

AIGUILLON,  Siege  of.— A  notable  siege  in 
the  "Hundred  Years'  War,"  A.  D.  1346.  An 
English  garrison  under  the  famous  knight.  Sir 
Walter  JIanny,  held  the  great  fortress  of  Aiguil- 
lon,  near  the  conlluonce  of  the  Garonne  and  the 
Lot,  against  a  formidable  French  army. —J. 
Froissart,  Chronicka,  ■».  1,  bk.  1,  ch.  120. 

AIX,  Origin  of.    See  S.vlyeb. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE :  The  Capital  of 
Charlemagne.—  The  favorite  residence  and  one 
of  th('  two  capitals  of  Charlemagne  was  tlie  city 
which  the  Germans  call  Aachen  and  the  French 
have  named  Aix-lu-Chapclle.  ' '  He  ravished  the 
rums  of  the  ancient  world  to  restore  the  monu- 
mental arts.  A  new  iioiiie  arose  in  the  depths 
u-}  ioKRts  of  Austrasia  —  palaces,  gates, 
bridges,  baths,  galleries,  theatres,  churches,—  for 
the  erection  of  which  the  mosaics  and  marbles  of 
Italy  were  laid  under  tribute,  and  workmen  sum- 
moned from  all  parts  of  Europe.     It  was  there 


that  an  extensive  library  was  gathered,  thero 
that  the  school  of  the  iiiilace  was  made  perma- 
nent, there  that  foreign  envoys  were  pompously 
welcomed,  there  that  the  monarch  pcifeeled  his 
])lans  for  the  introduction  of  Roinnn  letters  and 
the  improvement  of  music." — P.  Godwin,  IIi.it. 
of  Frruicc:  A}irii  nt  Gaul.  hk.  4,ch.  17. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  Treaty  of  (A.  D, 
803).     See  Vi;m(  !■;:  A.  D.  007-810. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,   Treaty  of  (A.    D. 

1668).      See   NETirERLANDS    (IIOIXAND):    A.    1). 

1GG3. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  The  Congress  and 
Treaty  which  ended  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession  (1748). — The  AVnr  of  the  Austrian 
Su(?eession,  which  raged  in  Europe,  and  on  the 
ocean,  and  in  India  and  America,  from  1740  to 
1748  (see  Ai:sii:ia:  A.  D.  1718-1738,  1740- 
1741,  and  after),  was  brought  to  an  end  in  the 
latter  year  by  a  Congress  of  all  the  belligerents 
which  met  at  Ai.x-ia-Chapelle,  in  April,  and 
which  concluded  its  labors  on  the  18tli  of  Octo- 
ber following.  "The  intlueace  of  England  and 
Holland  .  .  .  forced  the  peace  upon  Austria  and 
Sardinia,  though  both  were  bitterly  aggrieved  by 
its  con^'itions.  France  agreed  to  restore  every 
coiiquesb  she  had  made  during  the  war,  to  aban- 
don the  cause  of  the  Stuarts,  nnd  e.\[)el  the  Pre- 
tender from  her  soil ;  to  demolish,  in  accordance 
with  earlier  treaties,  the  fortilications  of  Dunkirk 
on  the  side  of  the  sea,  while  retaining  those  on 
the  side  of  the  land,  and  to  retire  from  the  con- 
quest without  acfiuiring  any  fresh  territory  or 
any  pecuniary  compensation.  England  in  like 
manner  restored  the  few  coiupiests  she  had  made, 
and  submitted  to  the  somewhat  humiliating  con- 
dition of  sending  ho.stagcs  to  Paris  as  a  security 
for  the  restoration  of  Cape  Breton.  .  .  .  The  dis- 
puted boundary  between  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia,  which  had  been  a  source  of  constant  diffl- 
culty  witli  France,  was  left  altogether  undeflned. 
The  Assiento  treaty  for  trade  with  the  Spanish 
colonies  was  conlirmcd  for  the  four  years  it  had 
still  to  run;  but  no  real  comi)eusation  was 
obtained  for  a  war  expenditure  which  is  said  to 
have  exceeded  sixty-four  millions,  and  which 
had  raised  tlio  funded  and  unfunded  debt  to 
more  than  seventy-eight  millions.  Of  the  other 
Powers,  Holland,  Genoa,  and  the  little  state  of 
Jlodena  retained  their  territory  ns  before  the  war, 
and  Genoa  remained  mistress  of  the  Duchy  of 
Finale,  which  had  been  ceiled  to  the  king  of 
Sardinia  by  the  Treaty  of  Worms,  and  which  it 
had  been  a  main  object  of  his  later  policy  to 
secure.  Austria  oblaincxl  a  recognition  of  the 
election  of  the  Emperor,  a  general  guarantee  of 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  the  restoration  of 
everything  she  had  lost  in  the  Xether'ands,  but 
she  gained  no  additional  territory.  She  was 
compelled  to  confirm  the  cession  of  Silesia  and 
Glatz  to  Prussia,  to  abandon  her  Italian  con- 
quests, and  even  to  cede  a  considerable  ])art  of 
her  former  Italian  dominions.  To  the  bitter 
indignation  of  Slaria  Theresa,  the  Duchies  of 
Parma,  Placentia  and  Guastella  passed  to  Don 
Philip  of  Spain,  to  revert,  however,  to  their 
former  possessors  if  Don  Philip  mounted  the 
Spanish  throne,  or  died  witliout  male  issue.  The 
King  of  Sardinia  al.so  obtjiined  from  Austria  the 
territorial  cessions  enumerated  In  the  Treaty 
of  Worms  [see  Italy:  A.  D.  1743],  with  the 
important  exceptions  of  Placentia,  which  passed 
to  Don  Philip,  and  of  Finale,  which  remained 


21 


AIX-LA-CIIAI'ELLK. 


ALABAMA. 


with  tlio  OriKK'se.  For  tlio  Inss  of  tlicso  ho 
oblaimd  no  coiiiiicnsulioii.  Kri(i('ri(k  [tlic Orciit, 
of  I'russm]  obtiiimd  n  Kciiural  (^imraiitie  for  llio 
possession  of  his  nciwly  iicciuired  territory,  uiiil  ti 
long  list  of  old  treaties  was  formally  couiirnicd. 
Thus  small  were  I  he  chaiiiics  elleeted  in  Kuropo 
bv  HO  much  bloodshed  and  treaehery,  by  nearly 
nuio  years  of  wasteful  nnil  desolalinjj  war.  The 
desiftn  of  the  disnicmberm<nt  of  Austria  had 
failed,  but  no  vexed  questions  liad  been  set  at 

rest Of  all  the  andjitious  i)rojects  that  had 

been  conceived  durinir  the  war,  tliatof  Frederiek 
alone  was  substantiallv  realized." — W.  K.  II. 
Leeky,  Hist.  i<f  Ku^.  Wt/i  Cntun/,  eh.  3.— "Thus 
ended  the  War  of  the  Austrian  succession.  In 
its  orijrin  and  its  motives  one  of  the  most  wicked 
of  all  the  many  conllicts  which  ambition  and 
perfidy  have  iiruvoked  in  Eurojje,  it  excites  u 
peculiarly  mournfid  interest  by  tlio  pross  in- 
equality in  the  rewards  and  i)enalties  which  for- 
tune assigned  to  the  leading  actors.  Prussia, 
Spain  an(l  Sardinia  were  all  endowed  out  of  the 
estates  of  tlie  house  of  llapsbnrg.  But  the 
electoral  house  of  Bavaria,  the  most  sincere  and 
the  nio.sl  deserving  of  all  the  claimants  to  that 
vast  inheritance,  not  only  received  no  increase  of 
territory,  but  even  nearly  lo.st  its  own  patri- 
monial possessions.  .  .  .  The  most  trying  prol)- 
lem  is  still  that  offered  by  the  misfortunes  of  the 
Queen  of  Hungary  [Maria  Theresa].  .  .  .  The 
verdict  of  history,  as  expressed  by  the  public 
opiidon,  and  by  the  vast  majority  of  writers,  in 
every  country  except  Prussia,  upholds  the 
justice  of  the  queen's  cause  and  condemns  the 
coalition  that  w-.s  formed  against  her." — II. 
Tuttle,  Hint,  ofi'nigsia,  1745-1756,  ch.  2. 

Also  in  W.  Kiissell,  Ilist.  nf  Modern  Europe, 
pt.  2,  letter  m.—\f.  Coxe,  llht.  of  the  Uoim  of 
AuKtria,  eh.  108  (v.  3). — See,  also.  New  Eso- 
I,.\nd:  a.  D.  1745-1718. 


See 


AIZNADIN,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  634). 
Maiiomktax  C(in(}ui:st  :  A.  1).  632-03(5. 
AKARNANIAN  LEAGUE,  The.—"  Of  the 

Akariianian  League,  formed  by  one  of  the  least 
important,  but  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most 
estimable  peoples  in  Greece  .  .  .  our  knowl- 
edge is  only  fragmentary.  The  boundaries  of 
Akarnania  fluctuated,  biit  wc  always  tind  the 
people  spoken  of  as  a  political  whole.  .  .  . 
Thucydidcs  speaks,  by  implication  at  least,  of 
the  Akarnanian  Lengue  as  an  institution  of  old 
standing  in  his  time.  The  Akarnanians  had,  in 
early  times,  occupied  the  liill  of  Olpai  ns  a  place 
for  judicial  proc(?edings  common  to  the  whole 
nation.  Tlius  the  supreme  court  of  the  Akar- 
nanian Union  held  its  sittings,  not  in  n  town,  but 
in  a  mountain  fortress.  But  in  Thucydidcs' 
own  time  Stratos  had  attained  its  i)ositi<m  as  the 
greatest  city  of  Akarnania,  and  probably  the 
federal  assemblies  were  already  held  there.  .  .  . 
Of  the  constitution  of  the  League  we  know  but 
little.  Ambassadors  were  sent  by  the  federal 
body,  and  probably,  just  as  in  the  Aehaian 
League,  it  would  have  been  held  to  be  a  breacli 
of  tlio  federal  tie  if  any  single  city  had  entered 
on  diplomatic  intercourse  witli  other  powers.  As 
in  Achaia,  too,  there  stood  at  the  head  of  the 
licague  a  General  with  high  authority.  .  .  . 
The  existence  of  coins  bearing  the  name  of  the 
whole  Akanianian  nation  shows  that  there  was 
unity  enough  to  admit  of  a  federal  coinage, 
though  coins  of  i)articular  cities  also  occur." — 


E.   A.   Freeman,  ninf.   of  FnUrnl    Onr.t.,  ch.   4, 
«tW.  1. 

AKARNANIANS  ( Acarnanians).  — The 
Akarnanians  form<d  "a  link  of  transition"  . 
between  the  ancient  Greeks  and  tlieir  barbarous  • 
or  noii-llellenie  neighbours  in  the  Epirus  and 
beyond.  "They  oecui)ied  tlie  territory  between 
tliu  river  A(!hil(n'ls,  the  Ionian  sea  and  the 
Amlirakian  gulf:  they  wi'ie  Greeks  and 
admitted  as  such  to  contend  at  the  Pan- Hellenic 
games,  yet  thej  were  also  closely  connected 
with  tlio  Amphiloehi  and  Agru;i,  who  were  not 
Greek.s.  lu  manners,  sentiments  and  intelli- 
gence, they  wer(!  half- Ilelleiiic  and  half-Epirotic, 
—  like  till!  JOtoliaus  and  the  Ozolian  Lokrians. 
Even  down  to  the  time  of  Thucyditlcs,  these 
nations  were  subdivided  into  numerous  petty 
coinmunilies,  lived  in  unfortified  villages,  were 
fieiiuently  in  the  habit  of  plun.lering  each  other, 
and  never  permitted  thein.selvea  to  be  unarmed. 
.  .  .  Notwithstanding  this  stato  of  disunion  and 
insecurity,  however,  the  Akarnanians  main- 
tained a  loose  political  league  among  themselves. 
.  .  .  The  Akarnanians  appear  to  have  produced 
many  prophets.  They  traced  up  their  mythical 
ancestry,  as  well  as  that  of  their  neighbours  the 
Am])hiiochians,  to  the  most  renowned  prophetic 
family  among  the  Grecian  heroes, — Amphiaraus, 
with  "his  sons  Alkina'on  and  Anipllochus:  Akar- 
nan,  the  eponymous  hero  of  the  nation,  and 
other  eponymous  heroes  of  the  separate  towns, 
were  supposed  to  be  the  sons  of  Alkma'on.  They 
are  sjioken  of,  together  with  the  .lEtolians,  as 
mere  rude  shepherds,  by  the  lyric  poet  Alkman, 
and  so  they  seem  to  linve  continued  with  little 
alteration  until  tho  beginning  of  the  Pelopon- 
ncsian  war,  when  we  hear  of  them,  for  the  flrst^ 
lime,  as  allies  of  Athens  and  as  bitter  onemies' 
of  the  Corinthian  colonies  on  their  coast.  The 
contact  of  those  colonies,  liowever,  and  the  large 
spread  of  .\karnaniau  accessible  coast,  could  not 
fail  to  produce  sonic  effect  in  socializing  and  im- 
proving the  iioople.  And  it  is  probable  that  this 
effect  would  liavo  been  more  sensibly  felt,  had 
not  tho  Akarnanians  been  kept  back  by  the 
fatal  neighbourhood  of  tho  ..Etolians,  with  whom 
they  were  in  perpetual  feud, — a  people  the  most 
unprincipled  and  unimprovable  of  all  who  bore 
tho  Hellenic  name,  and  whose  habitual  faithless- 
ness stood  in  marked  contra.st  with  the  rectitude 
and  steadfastness  of  the  Akarnanian  character." 
— G.  Grotc,  IIM.  of  Grcca-.,  pt.  2,  ch.  24. 

AKBAR  (called  The  Great),  Moghul 
Emperor  or  Padischah  of  India,  A.  D.  1556- 
1C05. 

AKHALZIKH,  Siege  and  capture  of  (1828). 
SeeTiiiKS:  A.  1).  182()-]8','!). 

AKKAD.— AKKADIANS.  See  Bauylonia. 
PitiMrnvK. 

AKKARON.     See  t  iiilistines. 

AKROKERAUNIAN  PROMONTORY. 
See  KonKVKA. 

ALABA^TA  :  The  Aboriginal  Inhabitants. 
See  Ameuic.vn  Aboukiinks:  Ai'alachkb; 
]\h:sKiiooi:E  Fa.milv ;  CniiiioKioKs. 

A.  D.  1539-1542. — Traversed  by  Hernando 
deSoto,     hieeFLouiDA:  A.  D.  1528-1542. 

A.  D.  1629.— Embraced  in  the  Carolina 
grant  to  Sir  Robert  Heath.  See  AwiiUlCA: 
A.  1).  1629. 

A.  D.  1663.— Embraced  in  the  Carolina 
?rant  to  Monk,  Shaftesbury,  and  others.  See 
NoiiTU  Cauolina  :  A.  D.  1663-1070. 


00 


jU.AUxVAIA. 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


A.  D.  1702-171 1. —  French  occupation  and 
first   settlement.— The    founding  of    Mobile. 

8(c  l.oiisiAN.v;  A.  1).  KtiW-lTl-'. 

A.  D.  1732. — Mostly  embraced  in  the  new 
province  of  Georgia.  Sii(ii;(>ii(;iA:  A.  1).  17;i','- 
1T;!!I. 

A.  D.  1763.— Cession  and  delivery  to  Great 
Britain.— Partly  embraced  in  West  Florida. 
Sec  Skvkn  Ykaus'  Wau;  unci  I'i.okida:  A.  1). 
17(i:i;  ami  Xoiniiwr.sT  Tkukitouy:  A.  D.  ITIi:!. 

A.  D.  1779-1781.— Reconquest  of  West 
Florida  by  the  Spaniards.  Sec  Fi.ouipa:  A.  1). 
1771I-1781. 

A.  D.  1783.— Mostly  covered  by  the  English  ' 
cession  to  the  United  States.  Sec  U.nitki)  | 
.SiATKs  OF  A.M. :  A.  1).  1783  (Si.i'ri;Mi!i;K).  \ 

A.  D.  1783-1787.— Partly  in  dispute  with 
Spain.     Sci- Ki.okida:  A.  1).  1783-1787. 

A.  D.  1 798-1 804.— All  but  the  West  Florida 
District  embraced  in  Mississippi  Territory. 
SeoMississii'iM:  A.  1).  1798-1804. 

A,  D.  1803. — Portion  acquired  by  the  Louis- 
iana purchase.    Si'('Loi:isiANA:  A.  1).  1798-180:). 

A."  D.  1813. — Possession  of  Mobile  and 
West  Florida  taken  from  the  Spaniards.  Sec 
Flohipa:  a.  D.  1810-1813. 

A.  D.  1813-1814.— The  Creek  War.  Soe 
U.\iTi;i)  Statks  ok  Am.:  A.  I).  1813-18U 
(Ai'(irsT--Aviiii.). 

A.  D.  1817-1819. — Organized  as  a  Territory. 
— Constituted  a  State,  and  admitted  to  the 
Union. — "15y  nu  act  of  Coiigre.s.s  dated  >Iarch  1, 
1817,  Mississippi  Territory  wasilividwl.  Another 
act,  bearing  the  date  JIarcli  3,  thereafter,  organ- 
ized the  western  [?  eastern]  portion  iiiLo  a  Terri- 
tory, to  be  known  as  Alabama,  and  with  the 
boundaiics  as  tliey  now  e.xist.  .  .  .  15y  an  act 
approved  March  2,  1819,  congress  ar.tlicrlzed  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Territory  of  Alabaniii  to  form 
a  slate  constitution,  'and  that  said  Territory, 
when  formed  into  a  State,  .shall  be  admitted  into 
the  Union  upon  the  .same  footing  as  the  original 
States.'  .  .  .  The  joint  resolution  of  congress 
admitting  Alabama  into  the  L^niou  was  approved 
by  President  ^Monroe,  December  14,  1819."— W. 
lirewer,  Ahthaiiui,  ch.  5. 

A.  D.  1861  (January). — Secession  from  the 
Union.  See  Unitkd  Statks  of  Am.  :  A.  I).  1801 
(Januauv — Feuulauy). 

A.  D.  1862.— General  Mitchell's  Expedition. 
See  United  Statics  of  Am.  :  A.  I).  18Ca  (Ai'hil 
—.May:  Alaiiama). 

A.  D.  1864  (August;.— The  Battle  of  Mobile 
Bay.— Capture  ofConfederate  forts  and  fleet. 
See  United  States  OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  18G4:(Auoust: 
Alabama). 

A.  D.  1865  (March— April).- -The  Fall  of 
Mobile.— Wilson's  Raid.— End  of  the  Rebel- 
lion. See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1805 
(Ai'iiiL- May). 

A.  D.  1865-1868.  —  Reconstruction.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  1).  1805  (5Iay— 
July),  to  1808-1870. 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS,  The:  A.  D.  186:- 
1862.— In  their  Origin.— The  Earlier  Con- 
federate cruisers.— Precursors  of  the  Ala- 
ba.na.— The  commissiouiug  of  jirivateers,  and 
of  mmv.  ofllcially  commanded  eruisei-s,  in  the 
American  civil  war,  by  the  government  t)f  the 
Southern  Confedcmcy,  was  begun  etirly  in  the 
progress  of  the  movement  of  rebellion,  pur- 
suant   to    u  proclamation  issued   by   JelTei-sou 


Davis  on  the  17tli  »f  .Vpril,  1801,  "  Before  the 
clo.se  of  .Jul}',  1801,  more  than  20  of  those  <lepre- 
dators  were  alloal,  and  had  capttircd  iiiilli(iii.s 
of  property  belonging  to  Anieri(:in citizens.  The 
most  f<iriiii(hil)le  and  notorious  of  tlie  sea-going 
ships  of  this  character,  were  the  Nashvilli',  Cap- 
tiiin  U.  IS.  I'cgrani,  a  Virginian,  wlio  had  ab.-m- 
(loned  liis  Hag,  and  the  Sumlcr  [a  regularly 
commis.sioni'd  war  vessel].  Captain  Itaph.iel 
Semmes.  The  former  was  a  side-wleMl  steamer, 
carried  a  crew  of  eighty  men,  and  was  armed 
with  two  long  12-poini<lcr  rilled  cannon.  Her 
career  was  short,  but  (juile  sneeessfiil,  .She  was 
linally  destroyed  by  the  .Moniaiik,'  Captain  Wor- 
(len,  in  the  Ogeecliee  HIver.  The  career  of  the 
Sumter,  which  had  been  a  Xew  Orleans  aad 
Havana  pac'ket  steamer  named  Manpiis  de  Jla- 
bana,  was  also  short,  but  much  more  active  and 
destructive.  She  had  11  cnw  of  si.\ty-live  men 
and  twenty-live  marines,  and  was  heavily  armed. 
She  ran  the  blockade  at  the  mouth  of  the  Jllssis- 
sippi  HIver  on  the  3lHh  of  .)une.  and  w:is  pur- 
sued some  distance  by  the  Brooklyn.  Slie  ran 
among  the'VVest  India  islands  and  on  the  Spanish 
Main,  and  soon  made  i)rizes  of  many  vess<dH 
bearing  the  American  tlag.  She  was  every- 
where received  in  Briti.^h  Colonial  jxirls  with 
great  favor,  and  was  nllorded  every  lacllity  for 
her  piratical  oi)erallons.  She  became  the  terror 
of  tlio  American  merdiant  service,  and  every- 
where eluded  Xatioiud  vessels  of  war  sent  out 
in  pursuit  of  her.  At  length  she  cro.ssed  the 
ocean,  and  at  the  close  of  1801  was  conipelleil  to 
seek sindter  under  British  guns  at  Gibraltar,  where 
sho  was  watelied  by  the  Tuscarora.  Early  in 
the  year  1802  .she  was  sold,  and  thus  ended  her 
piratical  career.  Encouraged  by  the  practical 
friendship  of  the  British  evinced  for  these  cor- 
sairs, aiul  the  substantial  aid  they  were  receiving 
from  British  subjects  in  various  ways,  especially 
through  bloska(le-runncrs,  the  conspirators  de- 
termined to  i)rocure  from  tho.se  friends  some 
))owerful  ])iratical  craft,  and  made  arrangements 
for  the  i)urcliase  and  construction  of  vessels  for 
tliat  purpose.  j\Ir.  Laird,  a  sliip-buililcr  at  Liver- 
pool and  member  of  the  British  I'arliamout,  was 
the  largest  contra(!tor  in  the  business,  and,  in  de- 
fiance of  every  obstacle,  succeeded  in  getting 
pirate  ships  to  sea.  The  first  of  these  ships  that 
went  to  sea  was  th<i  Oreto,  ostensibly  built  for  ti 
house  in  Palermo,  Sicily.  Mr.  Adams,  the 
American  minister  in  London,  was  so  well  satis- 
fied from  information  received  that  she  was  de- 
signed for  the  Confederates,  that  ho  called  the 
attention  of  the  British  government  to  the  matter 
so  early  as  the  18th  of  February,  1802.  But 
notlung  eflfective  was  done,  and  slin  was  com- 
pleted and  allowed  to  depart  from  British  waters. 
She  went  first  to  >s  :iu,  and  on  the  4th  of  Sep- 
tember suddenly  .  leared  ol?  ^Mobile  harbor, 
flying  the  British  Hag  and  pennants.  The  block- 
ading squadron  there  was  in  charge  of  Com- 
mander ticorgo  II.  Preble,  who  had  been  .specially 
instructed  liot  to  give  offense  to  foreign  nations 
while  enforcing  the  bh)ckv.de.  He  believed  th<! 
Orclo  to  be  a  British  vessel,  and  while  deliberat- 
ing a  lew  minutes  as  to  what  he  should  do,  she 
passed  out  of  range  of  his  guns,  anu  eiiiered  the 
harbor  with  a  rich  freight.  For  his  s'jeniing 
remissness  Commander  Preble  was  suinniarily 
dismi.ssed  from  the  service  \  ithout  a  hear- 
ing—  an  act  which  subse(iuent  events  seemed 
to  show  was  cruel  injustice.     Late  in  December 


28 


ALAHAMA  CLAIMS. 


ALAUiUIA  CLAIMS. 


tlin  Oroto  csciiiicd  from  Moliilf,  fully  amied  for 
a  pinilical  criiLsc,  iiiidcr  the  ((lUim.uMl  of  John 
Ncwland  .Malllt,  .  .  .  Tlic  niiiiicof  lli(r  Ort'to  was 
(■lmiii,'(il  to  tliiit  of  Florida. "— B.  .1.  Lo8.siii>f, 
IHM  li'Kik  of  the  Ciril  War,  r.  3,  cli.  21.  —  Flic 
falo  of  tlu:  Florida  is  related  below— A.  I).  1802- 
1805.  —  H.  Seiiimes,  .\f<iiiiiint  of  Sirricc  Ajhat, 
eh.  0-20. 

Ai.HO  IN  J.  Davis,  A'lw^  miil  Full  <tf  the  Con- 
ftdfnite.  Cliin riiiiKiil,  c/i.  ;l()-31  (r.  2). 

A.  D.  1862-1864.— The  Alabama,  her  career 
and  her  fate.— "  The  .Vialiiiina  [tlic!  seeoiid 
cruiser  built  in  Kn},'hnid  for  th<^  Confedcratesl 
...  is  thus  described  by  Seiiiines,  her  com- 
mnnd(r:  'She  was  of  about  UdO  tons  burden, 
2;«)  feet  in  h  UKth,  ;i2  feet  in  breadth,  20  feet  in 
dei)th,  and  drew,  when  provisioned  and  coaled 
for  cruise,  IT)  feet  of  wjili'r.  She  was  barkcn- 
tinc-ri^ired,  with  lonj;  lower  musts,  which 
enabled  her  to  carry  lar{;e  fon,' and  aft  Hails,  as 
iibs  and  try -sails.  .  .  .  ller  cnjxine  was  of  ifOO 
liorse-power,  and  she  had  attached  an  apparatus 
for  condensinj;  from  the  vapor  of  sea-water  nil 
the  fresh  water  that  her  crew  might  require. 
.  ..  Ilerarnianientconsisted  of  eight  guns.'.  .  . 
The  Alabama  was  built  and,  from  <he  out.set, 
was 'intended  for  11  Confederate  vessel  of  war.' 
The  contract  for  her  construction  was  'signed 
by  Cai)tnin  IJuUoek  on  the  on(^  i)art  and  Messrs. 
Laird  on  the  other.'.  .  .  On  the  blth  of  May 
[1802]  she  was  launched  under  the  name  of  the 
290.  ller  otliccrs  were  in  Kugland  awaiting  her 
completion,  and  wera  paid  their  .salaries 
'monthly,  about  the  first  of  theiiionlli,  at  Fraser, 
Trcnhohn  &  Co.'s  oftiee  in  Liveri)ool.'  The  pur- 
pose for  which  this  vessel  was  being  constructed 
was  notorious  in  Liverpool.  Before  she  was 
launched  she  became  an  object  of  Kus])iciou  with 
the  Consul  of  I  lie  I'nited  States  at  that  port,  and 
she  was  the  s\il)ject  of  constant  correspondence 
on  his  part  with  his  Government  und  with  Mr. 
Adams.  .  .  .  Karly  in  the  history  of  this  cruiser 
the  jxjint  was  taken  by  the  British  authorities  — 
a  point  maintained  throughout  the  struggle  — 
that  they  woidd  originate  notiiing  themselves 
for  the  iiiainlenancu  and  performaive  of  their 
international  duties,  and  that  they  ^WJuId  listen 
to  no  representations  from  the  olUcrials  of  the 
United  States  which  did  not  furnish  technical 
evidence  for  a  criminal  iiroseciition  under  the 
Foreign  Enlistment  Act,  ...  At  last  Mr.  Dud- 
ley [tlic  Consul  of  the  United  Stales  at  Liver- 
pool] succeeded  in  tlnding  the  desired  proof.  On 
the  31st  day  of  July,  he  laid  it  in  the  form  of 
affidavits  before  the  Collector  at  Ijiverjiool  in 
compliance  with  the  intimations  which  Mr. 
Adams  hail  received  from  Karl  Uussell.  These 
affidavits  were  on  the  same  day  transmitted  by 
the  Collector  to  the  Board  of  Customs  at  London, 
with  a  rccpie.st  for  instructions  by  telegrajili.  as 
the  ship  ai)i)eared  to  be  ready  for  sea  and  nught 
leave  any  hour.  .  .  .  It  .  .  .  apiiears  that  not- 
withstanding this  official  infornnition  from  the 
Collector,  the  ]iapers  wore  not  considered  by  the 
law  advisers  tmtil  the  28th,  and  that  the  case 
appeared  to  them  to  be  so  clear  that  they  gave 
their  advice  upim  it  that  evening.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  delay  of  eight  days  after  the 
21st  iu  the  order  for  the  detention  of  the  ves.^el 
was,  in  the  opinion  of  the  United  States,  gross 
negligence  on  the  part  of  Her  j^Iajesty's  Govern- 
ment. On  the  29tli  the  SecretJiry  of  the  Com- 
mission of  the  Customs  received  a  telegram  from 


Liverpool  saying  that  '  the  vessel  200  came  out 
of  dock  last  night,  and  left  the  port  this  morn- 
ing.' .  .  .  After  leaving  the  dock  she  'pro- 
ceeded slowly  down  tlie  Alersey.'  Both  the 
Lairds  were  on  board,  und  also  Bullock.  .  .  . 
The  '290  slowly  steamed  on  to  Aloelfra  Bay,  on 
the  coast  of  Anglesey,  where  sIk'  ren>aine(l  'all 
that  night,  all  Uu:  next  day,  and  the  ne.\t  night.' 
No  clTort  was  made  to  sei/.e  her.  .  .  .  When  the 
Alabama  left  Moelfra  Bay  he  ■  crew  nund)ered 
abo\it  90  men.  She  ran  part  way  down  the  Irish 
C'liannel.  then  round  the  north  (H)ast  of  Ireland, 
only  sto|)ping  near  the  Giant's  Causeway.  She 
then  made  for  Terceira,  on(?  of  the  Azores, 
which  she  reached  on  the  10th  of  Aiigu.st.  Ou 
isth  of  A\igust,  while  she  was  at  Terceira,  a 
.sail  was  observed  nndiihg  for  the  anchorage.  It 
juoved  to  be  the  'Agrippina  of  London,  Cap- 
tain McQueen,  having  on  board  si.\  guns,  with 
ammimition,  coals,  stores,  &c. ,  for  the  Alabama.' 
Preparation.s  were  immediately  made  to  transfer 
this  imjiortant  cargo.  On  the  afternoon  of  the 
20tb,  while  em])Ioyed  discharging  the  bark,  the 
screw-steamer  Bahama,  Captain  Te.ssier  (the 
same  that  had  taken  the  armament  to  the  Florida, 
whoso  insurgent  ownei'ship  and  character  were 
well  known  in  Liverpool),  arrived,  '  having  on 
board  Commander  Raphael  Semmes  and  ollicers 
of  the  Confederate  States  steamer  Sumter.' 
There  were  also  taken  from  this  steamer  two  82- 
]iounders  and  some  stores,  which  occupied  all 
the  remainder  of  that  day  and  a  part  of  the  next. 
The  22d  and  2'M  of  August  were  taken  up  in 
transferring  coal  from  the  Agrippina  to  the 
Alabama.  It  was  not  until  Sunday  (the  24th) 
that  the  insurgents'  Hag  was  hoisted.  Bullock 
and  tho.se  who  were  not  going  in  the  290  went 
back  to  the  Bahama,  and  the  Alabama,  now  fli-st 
known  luidcr  that  name,  went  off  with  '20  offi- 
cers and  85  men.'" — I'/ic  Case  of  the  United  Statcn 
III  fore  the  Trilmnal  of  Arhitnition  at  Geneva  (42rf 
Cong.,  2d  Sens.,  Senate  Ki:  Doe.,  No.  31,  pp. 
140-151). — The  Alabama  "arrived  at  Porto 
Praya  on  the  19th  August.  Shortly  thereafter 
Capt.  Baphaol  Semmes  assumed  command. 
Hoisting  the  Confederate  Hag,  she  cruised  and 
captured  seveiiil  vessels  in  the  vicinity  of  Flores. 
Cruising  to  the  westward,  and  making  several 
captures,  she  approached  within  200  miles  of 
New  York ;  thence  going  southward,  arrived,  on 
the  18th  November,  at  Port  Koyal,  Mai'tinique. 
On  the  night  of  the  19th  she  escaped  from  the 
harbour  and  the  Federal  steamer  San  .Jacinto, 
and  ou  the  20th  November  was  at  Blancpnila. 
On  the  7th  December  she  captured  the  steamer 
Ariel  in  the  passage  between  Cuba  and  St. 
Domingo.  On  January  11th,  1863,  she  sunk  the 
Federal  gimboat  Ilatteras  olT  Galveston,  and  on 
Die  30th  arrived  at  Jamaica.  Cruising  to  the 
eastward,  and  making  many  captures,  she 
arrived  on  the  10th  April,  at  Fernando  de 
Noronha,  and  ou  the  11th  May  at  Bahia,  when!, 
on  th'j  13th,  she  was  joined  by  the  Confederate 
steamer  Georgia.  Cruising  near  the  lino,  thence 
southward  towards  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
numerous  captures  were  made.  On  the  29tli 
Jtily  she  anchored  iu  Saldanha  Bay,  South 
Africa,  and  near  there  on  the  5lh  August,  was 
joined  by  the  Confederate  bark  Tuscaloosa,  Com- 
mander "Low.  In  September,  1803,  she  was  at 
St.  Simon's  Bay,  and  in  October  was  iu  the 
Straits  of  Sunda,  and  up  to  January  20,  1804, 
cruised  iu  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  viciuity,  visit- 


24 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


Inc  SiiiKiiiwirc.  iiiul  niakinff  a  iiumlior  of  very 
viilimlilo  cupturcs,  iiicliiditiK  tli('  IIif,'liliinil<'r, 
Bimorn,  I't^.  From  tiiis  point  h\h:  rruisi'd  on  her 
hnmewiiril  iMck  via  ('ai)o  of  (Jood  llopo,  ciip- 
tiiriiiR  till'  tiiirk  Tycooiv  iinil  ship  UocUingliiini, 
and  arrived  at  C'liurbour),',  Franco,  in  June,  1804, 
>vlicrc  she  rcpalri'd.  A  FciU-ral  steamer,  tlie 
Keursurgo,  was  lyinR  "ft  the  harl)our.  ('apt. 
Senimes  ir.i;,'lit  easily  liavo  evaded  thi?)  enemy; 
the  biisiics.s  of  his  vclsel  was  that  of  a  privateer; 
and  hiT  vidue  to  the  »,o;.''e(lenicy  was  out  of  all 
comparison  with  :>,  sinjjle  vessel  of  the  enemy. 
.  .  .  Hi^t  Capt.  Semnies  had  been  twitted  with 
tho  name  of  'pirat<^;'  and  h(3  was  easily  per- 
suaded to  attempt  an  'clat  for  f'O  Southern 
Confederacy  bv  a  naval  tl;;ht  ■within  siKbt  of  the 
French  eoa'st,  "wineli  contest,  it  was  calculated, 
would  prove  the  Alabama  a  legitimate  war  ves- 
sel, and  ijive  such  an  exhibition  of  Confederate 
belliseren<;y  as  nossibly  to  revive  the  question 
of  '  recognition  in  Paris  and  London.  These 
were  the  secret  motives  of  the  gnitnitous  lijlht 
with  which  ('apt.  Semmes  obli,t,'ed  tho  enemy 
oil  the  port  of  Cherbourg.  The  Alabama  car- 
ried one  7-inch  Ulakely  rifled  gun,  one  8-inch 
smooth-bore  pivot  gun,  and  six  ;!2-pounders, 
smooth-bore,  in  broadside;  the  Kear^argo  carried 
four  broadside  Sa-poimders,  two  11-inch  and  one 
28-pound  rifle.  The  two  vessels  were  thus 
about  equal  in  match  an<l  armament;  and  their 
tonnage  was  about  the  same." — E.  A.  Pollard, 
Tlic  Lost  C/iiini',  p.  .549. — (Japtain  Winslow,  com- 
manding the  United  States  Steamer  Kearsargc, 
in  a  report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
written  on  the  afternoon  of  the  day  of  his  battle 
with  the  Alabama,  Jimo  19,  1864,  said:  "I  have 
the  honor  to  inform  the  department  that  the  day 
subsequent  to  the  arrival  of  tho  ICearsnrge  ofT 
this  port,  on  the  34th  [14th]  instant,  I  received 
a  note  from  Captain  Scmnies,  begging  that  the 
Kearsarge  would  not  depart,  as  lie  intended  to 
fight  her,  and  wovild  delay  her  but  a  d-'.y  or 
two.  According  to  this  notice,  die  AlaLaina 
left  the  port  of  Cherbourg  this  morning  at  about 
half  past  nine  o'clock.  At  tweiit)'  minutes  past 
ten  A.  M.,  wo  discovered  her  steering  towards 
us.  Fearing  the  qtiestion  of  jurisdiction  might 
arise,  we  steamed  to  sea  until  a  distance  of  sis. 
or  seven  miles  was  attained  from  the  Cherbourg 
break-water,  when  wo  roimded  to  and  com- 
menced steaming  for  the  Alabama.  As  we 
approached  her,  within  about  1,200  yards,  she 
opened  lire,  we  receiving  two  or  three  broad- 
sides before  a  shot  was  returned.  The  action 
continued,  tho  respective  steamers  making  a  cir- 
cle round  and  round  at  a  disi  nee  of  about  900 
yards  from  each  other.  At  the  e.xpiraticm  of  an 
hour  the  Alabama  struck,  going  down  in  about 
twenty  minutes  afterward,  carrying  many  per- 
sons with  iK'r."  In  a  report  two  days  later, 
Captain  Winslow  gave  the  following  i)afticulars: 
"Toward  tho  close  of  the  action  between  the 
Alabama  and  tliis  vessel,  all  available  sail  was 
made  on  the  former  for  tho  purpose  of  again  reach- 
ing Cherbourg.  When  the  object  was  apparent, 
tho  Kearsarge  was  steered  across  the  bow  of  the 
Alabama  for  a  raking  fire;  but  before  reaching 
this  point  the  Alabama  struck.  Uncertain 
whether  Captain  Semmes  was  not  using  some 
ruse,  the  Kearsarge  was  stopped.  It  was  seen, 
shortly  afterward,  that  tho  Alabama  was  lower- 
ing her  boats,  and  an  officer  came  alongside  in 
one  of  them  to  say  that  they  had  surrendered, 


and  were  fnnt  BinkinfC,  and  begging  that  lioat^i 
wouhl  be  despatched  immediately  for  saving 
life.  Tho  two  boats  not  disabU-d  wem  at  once 
lowered,  and  i;s  it  was  apparent  the  Alabama 
was  settling,  this  ollleer  was  permitted  to  leave 
in  his  boat  to  airord  assistance.  An  Fnglish 
yacht,  tho  Deerhoiind,  hail  ai>pr>)aclied  near  tho 
Kearsargo  at  this  time,  wiien  I  hailed  and 
begged  the!  commander  to  run  down  to  tho 
.Vlatinma,  as  she  was  fast  sinking,  anil  wo  had 
but  two  boats,  and  assist  in  picking  up  the  men. 
He  answered  afllrmativel)',  and  steamed  toward 
the  Alabama,  but  tho  latter  .sank  almost 
immediately.  Tho  Deerhound,  however,  .sent 
lier  boats  and  was  actively  engaged,  aided  by 
several  others  which  hail  como  from  shore. 
These  boats  were  busy  in  bringing  the  wounded 
and  others  to  the  Kearsarge;  whom  wo  were 
trying  to  make  as  'omfortablo  as  possible,  when 
it  was  reported  to  mo  that  the  Deerhound  was 
moving  olT.  I  could  not  believe  tliat  the  com- 
mander of  that  vessel  could  bo  guilty  of  so  dis- 
graceful an  act  n"  t.i'  .  ig  our  prisoners  off,  and 
therefore  took  no  mans  to  prevent  it,  but  con- 
tinued to  keep  our  boats  at  v>'ork  rescuing  the 
men  in  the  water.  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  I  was 
mistaken.  Tho  Deerhound  maile  olT  with 
Captain  Semmes  and  others*,  and  also  tho  very 
officer  who  had  come  on  board  to  surrender." — 
In  a  still  later  report  (Captain  Winslow  gave  the 
following  facts:  "The  lire  of  tho  Ahibama, 
although  it  is  stated  she  discharged  370  or  more 
shell  and  shot,  was  not  of  .serious  damage  to  tlie 
Kearsargo.  Soino  13  or  14  of  these  had  taken 
etrect  in  and  about  tho  hull,  and  10  or  17  about 
the  masts  and  rigging.  Tlie  casualties  were 
small,  only  three  persons  having  been  wounded. 
.  .  .  The  lire  of  tho  Kearsargo,  although  only 
173  projectiles  had  been  discliarged,  according 
to  tlie  prisoners'  accounts,  was  terriUc.  One 
shot  alone  had  killed  and  wounded  18  men,  rnd 
disfiblcd  a  gun.  Another  had  entered  tho  coal- 
buakcrs,  exploding,  and  completely  blocking  up 
the  engine  room;  and  Captain  Semmes  states 
that  shot  and  f  hell  had  taken  effect  ir  the  sides 
of  his  vessel,  tearing  largo  holes  by  explosion, 
and  his  ni^n  wero  evcrywlierc  knocked  down." — 
licbcUioit,  Itcmrd,  v.  9,  lip.  231-225. 

Ar.so  IN  J.  U.  Soley,  The  Blockade  and  the 
Cruisers  {Tho  Knny  in  the  C'iril  War,  n.  1),  ch.  7. 
—J.  R.  Soley,  J,  JIcI.  Kell  and  J.  M.  Browne, 
The  Coiifcderuto  Cruisers  (liatllcs  and  Leaders, 
V.  8). — U.  Semmes,  Memoirs  of  Service  Afloat, 
ch.  29-55.— ,1.  I).  Bullock,  Secret  Serr:ce  of  the 
Confederate  Slates  in  Europe,  1\  1,  ch.  5. 

A.  D.  1862-1865. — Other  Confederate  cruis- 
ers.— "A  score  of  other  Confederate  cruisers 
roamed  tho  seas,  to  prey  upon  United  States 
commerce,  but  none  of  them  became  quite  so 
famous  as  the  Sumter  and  the  Alabama.  They  in- 
cluded tho  Shenandoah,  which  made  38  captures, 
the  Florida,  which  made  30,  tho  Tallahassee, 
which  made  27,  the  Tacouy,  which  mado  15,  atul 
the  Georgia,  which  made  10.  The  Florida  was 
captured  in  the  harbor  of  Baliia,  Brazil,  in 
October,  18C4,  by  a  United  States  man-of-war 
[the  Waehusett,  commander  Collin.s],  in  violation 
of  the  neutrality  of  tho  port.  For  this  the 
United  States  Government  apologized  to  Brazil 
and  ordered  the  restomtion  of  the  Florida  to  the 
harbor  where  she  was  captured.  But  in  Hamp- 
ton Hoads  she  met  with  an  accident  and  sank.  It 
was  generally  believed  that  tho  api)aR'i:t  aeci- 


2& 


ALAUAMA  CLAIMS 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


(k'lit  WiiH  CDiitrivcil  witli  the  connivance,  it  not 
by  direct  itrdcr,  of  the  (lovcrnnicnt.  .Slost  of 
these  cruisers  were  built  in  Hrilisli  Kliiiiyanls. " — 
H.  .loliiison,  Slinrt  JliKt.  (if  till'  W'lir  of  S'lVuxiiiii, 
eh.  SI.  —  Tile  liisl  of  tlie  (lest rovers  of  Aniericiin 
coiiuneree,llieSlicnaiuloah,«iisa  liritisli  niereliaiit 
sliip — llie  Sea  King — built  for  the  Hointiay 
lra(h',  l)Ut  pureha.si'il  by  the  Confccleratc!  ag-  nt, 
Captain  HullocU,  armed  willi  .six  K""».  a»J  <'"ni- 
missioned  (October,  IHIi."))  under  her  new  nanie. 
In  June,  IHf!.",  Ili(t  Slienandonh,  after  a  voyaire 
lo  Australia,  in  tlie  course  of  wliicli  slio  destroyed 
ado/en  luercliant  sldps,  made  lier  appearance  in 
the  Northern  Si.i,  near  lldiring  Strait,  wliere 
.slic  tell  in  witli  tlie  New  Hcdford  wlialini;  licet. 
"In  th(^  course  of  one  week,  from  tlie  'ilst  to 
tlio  '.IHtli.  twenty-live  winders  were  captured,  of 
which  lour  were  ransome<l,  and  the  retuaiiniiir 
21  were  burned.  The  loss  on  these  31  whalers 
was  estiiaated  at  tipwardsof  ij:!, 000,000,  and  con- 
sidering that  it  oecurreil  .  .  .  two  months  after 
the  Confederacy  had  virtually  pas.scd  out  of  ex- 
istence, it  may  be  characterized  ;is  the  most  use- 
less net  of  hostility  that  o<curr(Ml  during  the 
whole  "var."  The  captain  of  the  Shenandoah 
had  ne\v.H  on  the  2:td  of  thu  fall  of  Uichmond; 
yet  after  that  time  ho  dtstroyed  15  vessels.  On 
his  way  southward  he  received  iuformation, 
August  2d,  of  the  linal  collapse  of  the  Con- 
federacy. He  then  sailed  for  Liverpool,  and 
surrendered  his  vcwel  to  the  liritish  Government, 
which  (li.'livcrcd  her  to  the  L'nited  States. — ,1.  U. 
Solcy,  Tlifi  (.'i>ifalin(tr  Cndmrn  {liiitth-K  and 
I^otlm,  V.  4). 

A.  D.  1862-1869. — Definition  of  the  indemnity 
claims  of  the  United  States  against  Great 
Britain. —  First  stages  of  the  Negotiation. 
—  The  rejected  Johnson-Clarendon  Treaty. 
— "A  review  of  the  history  of  the  negotiations 
between  the  two  Governments  jirior  to  the  corrc- 
.si)ondenco  between  BirEdward  Thornton  and  Mr. 
Fish,  will  show  .  .  .  what  was  intended  by  these 
words,  '  geiierically  known  us  the  Alabama 
Claims,'  used  on  each  side  in  that  correspondence. 
The  correspondence  betwec^n  the  two  Govermcnts 
was  opened  by  Mr.  Adams  on  the  20th  of  Novem- 
ber,1862  (less  than  four  months  after  the  escape  of 
the  Alabama),  in  a  note  to  Earl  Russell,  written 
under  instructions  from  the  Government  of  the 
United  States.  In  this  note  Mr.  Adams  sub- 
mitted evidence  of  tlie  acts  of  the  Alabama,  and 
stated :  '  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  Your  Lord- 
ship of  the  directions  which  I  have  received 
from  my  Government  to  solicit  redress  for  the 
nationaland private  injuries  thus  sustained.'.  .  . 
Lord  UiisscU  met  this  notice  on  the  19th  of 
December,  1862,  by  a  denial  of  any  liability  for 
any  injuries  growing  out  of  the  acts  of  the  Ala- 
bama. ...  As  new  losses  from  time  to  time 
were  suffered  by  individuals  during  the  war, 
they  were  brought  to  the  notice  of  Her  JIujcsty's 
Government,  and  were  lodged  with  the  national 
and  individual  claims  already  preferred;  but 
arguincutative  discussion  on  the  issues  involved 
was  by  common  consent  deferred.  .  .  .  The 
fact  that  the  first  claim  preferred  grew  out  of 
the  acts  of  the  Alabama  explains  how  it  was 
that  all  the  claims  growing  out  of  the  acts 
of  all  the  vessels  came  to  be  'geuerically 
known  as  the  Alabama  claims.'  On  the  7th  of 
April,  1865,  the  war  being  virtually  over,  Mr. 
Adams  renewed  the  discussion.  He  transmitted 
to  Earl  Ivusaell  an  ollicial  report  showing  the 


number  and  tonnage  of  Vnierlcun  vcssoU  tnms- 
fcrred  to  the  Urltish  V.\k,  during  tlie  war.  He 
said:  'The  l'nited  Stales  (omnuTce'ls  nipidly 
v.'iinshiug  from  .he  face  of  the  ocean,  and  that  of 
Great  lirit.iiii  is  mc'tiplyiiig  in  nearly  the  same 
ratio.'  'This  pn  ecs*  is  going  on  by  rea.son  of  the 
action  of  Hritish  sul)jects  in  cooperation  with 
einis.iarieH  of  the  insurgents,  w  ho  have  supplied 
from  the  ports  vf  He"  Majesty's  Kin.gdoin  lUl  the 
materials,  such  u .  vessels,  arnuiment,  supplies, 
anil  men,  indi.-ip  'is  i|>le  to  the  effective  prosecu- 
tion if  this  ic:  ult  oil  the  ocean.'  .  .  .  lie  stated 
that  he  'was  under  tlie  painful  necessity  of 
aiiii(mr..ing  that  his  Government  cannot  avoid 
entailing  upon  the  Government  of  (Jreat  Britain 
the  responsibility  for  this  daiiiagc. '  Lord  Bus- 
sell  .  .  .  said  in  repiv,  'lean  never  admit  that 
the  <lutics  of  Grciit  Britain  toward  the  United 
States  are  to  be  measured  by  the  losses  which 
t\w  trade  and  commerce  of  the  United  States 
have  sustained.  .  .  .  Beferring  to  the  offer  of 
arbitraticm,  madoouthe2Utliday  of  October,  1803, 
Lord  Bussell,  in  the  same  note,  said:  'Her 
^'aiesty's  Government  mu.st  dediiK!  cither  to 
ike  reparation  and  conipensatiou  for  the  cap- 
aires  made  by  the  Alabama,  or  to  refer  the 
question  to  any  foreign  State.'  This  terminated 
the  first  stage  of  the  n'gotiations  between  the 
two  Governments.  .  .  .  In  the  summer  of  1860  a 
change  of  MinLstry  took  place  in  England,  and 
Lord  Stanley  became  Secretary  of  State  for  For- 
eign Affairs  in  the  place  or  Lord  Clarendon. 
He  took  an  early  opportunity  to  give  on  intima- 
tion in  the  House  of  Commons  that,  should  the 
rejected  claims  be  revived,  the  new  Cabinet  was 
not  prepared  to  say  what  answer  might  be  given 
them;  in  other  words,  that,  should  nu  oppor- 
t'.inily  be  offered,  Lord  Russell's  refusal  might 
possibly  be  reconsidered.  Mr.  Seward  met  these 
overtures  by  instructing  Jlr  Adams,  on  the  27th 
of  August,  1800,  '  to  call  Lord  Stanley's  attention 
in  tt  rcspeeiful  but  earnest  manner,'  to  'a  suiii- 
niary  of  claims  of  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
for  damages  which  were  suffered  by  tUem 
during  the  period  of  the  civil  war,'  and 
to  say  that  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  while  it  thus  insists  tpou  these  par- 
ticular claims,  is  neither  desirous  nor  willing 
to  assume  an  attitude  unkind  and  uncon- 
ciliatory  toward  Great  Britain.  .  .  .  Lord  Stan- 
ley mot  this  overture  by  a  communication  to  Sir 
Frederick  Bruce,  in  which  he  denied  the  liability 
of  Great  Britain,  and  assented  to  a  reference, 
'  provided  that  a  fitting  Arbitrator  can  be  found, 
and  that  nu  agrecnncut  can  be  come  to  as  to  the 
points  to  which  the  arbitration  shall  apply.' .  .  . 
As  the  first  result  of  these  negotiations,  a  con- 
vention known  as  the  Stanley-Johnson  convention 
was  signed  at  London  011  the  10th  of  November, 
1868.  It  proved  to  be  unacceptable  to  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States.  Negotiations 
were  ot  once  resumed,  and  resulted  on  the  14th 
of  January,  1809,  iu  the  Treaty  known  as  the 
Johnson-Clarendon  convention  [having  been 
negotiated  by  Jlr.  Beverdy  Johnson,  who  had 
succeeded  Mr.  Adams  as  United  States  Minister 
to  Great  Britain].  This  latter  convention  pro- 
vided for  the  organization  of  a  mixed  commi  Aon 
with  jurisdiction  over  'all  claims  on  the  part  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States  upon  the  Govern- 
ment of  Her  Britannic  ]\Iajesty,  including  the 
so-called  Alabama  claims,  and  all  claims  on  the 
part  of  subjects  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty  upon 


26 


ALAHAMA  CLAmS. 


ALABAMA  CLAlMa. 


•ho  GDVcrnmcnt  of  tlio  Unlu^d  Htntca  wliicli  iimy 
Imvu  birti  presented  In  eltlier  K"Vi'riiiiient  for 
its  illterIll>^iliull  witli  tin-  cjllier  since  the  'Jfltli 
July,  IHo;),  and  wliieli  yet  remain  iinsellled,' " 
The  Johnsont'lariiKloirirealy,  when  suliinilted 
ti)  thi'  Sen:ite,  was  rejeeled  liy  tlial  liody,  in 
April,  "bieaiise,  altlioUKh  it  made  jirovision  for 
the  |mrt  of  tlie  Alahiima  elaitns  wliieli  consisted 
(if  claims  for  individual  losses,  the  provision  for 
the  more  exti'nsive  national  losses  was  not  witis- 
faetory  to  the  Senate."— 77/c  .l)v/»w</(<  >if  l/w 
I' II Hot  Stiifili  lUiireirAl  to  tlic  Triliilliill  <;/'  Alhi- 
tniti'iii  (It  (h'lierii,  June  1."),  WTi.  Dirinhn  111, 
mrt.  i. 

A.  D.  1869-1871.  — Renewed  Negotiations. 
—  Appointment  and  meeting  of  the  Joint 
High  Commission.— The  action  of  the  Senate 
in  rejeclini;  the  .lohnson-C'larendon  treaty  was 
taken  in  April,  IHItO,  a  few  weeks  after  Presi- 
dent (Jnint  entered  upon  his  olllee.  At  this  tini(i 
"  the  condition  of  Kurope  was  sneh  as  to  induce  the 
British  .Ministers  In  take  into  consideration  the 
foreign  relations  of  Great  Britain;  and,  as  Lord 
Granville,  the  British  Minister  of  Foreign  AITairs, 
has  himself  stated  in  the  House  of  Lo.ds,  they 
«iw  caii.se  to  look  with  solicitude'  on  the  uneasy 
relations  of  the  British  Govennnent  with  the 
United  States,  and  the  inc()nveiiien<e  thereof  in 
case  of  possible  complications  in  Europe.  Thu.s 
impelled,  the  Govennnent  dispatched  to  Wash- 
ington a  gentleman  who  enjoyed  the  contidenoe 
of  both  Cabinets,  Sir  John  Itose,  to  ascertain 
whether  overttircs  for  reoi)ening  negotiations 
would  be  received  by  the  President  in  spirit  and 
terms  acceptable  to  Great  liritain.  .  .  .  Sir  John 
Rose  found  the  United  States  disposed  to  meet 
with  perfect  correspondenc  e  of  good-will  the  ad- 
vances of  the  British  Government.  Accordingly, 
on  the  20th  of  January,  1H71,  the  British  Gov- 
ernment, through  Sir  "Edward  Thornton,  finally 
proi)o.sed  to  the  AmiTican  Government  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  joint  High  Commission  to  hold  its 
sessions  at  AVashington,  and  there  devise  means 
to  settle  the  various  pending  ([uestions  between 
the  two  Governments  alTecting  the  British  pos- 
sessions in  North  America.  To  this  overture  Mr. 
Fish  replied  that  the  President  woidd  with 
pleasure  appoint,  as  invited,  Comnnssioner.s  on 
the  part  of  the  Unite'  States,  provided  the 
deliberations  of  the  Commissioners  .should  bo 
extended  to  other  differences, —  that  is  to  say, 
to  include  the  difTerences  growing  out  of  incidents 
of  the  late  Civil  AVur.  .  .  .  The  British  Gov- 
ernment promptly  accepted  this  proposal  for 
enlarging  the  sphere  of  the  negotiation."  The 
joint  High  Commission  was  speedily  constituted, 
as  proposed,  by  appointment  of  the  two  govern- 
ments, and  the  promptittidc  of  proceeding  was 
suca  liiat  the  British  commissioners  landed  at 
New  York  in  twenty-seven  days  after  Sir  Edward 
Thornton's  suggestion  of  January  20tli  was  made. 
They  sailed  without  waiting  for  tlieir  commis- 
sions, which  were  forwarded  to  them  by  special 
messenger.  The  High  Commission  was  made 
u?>  as  follows:  "On  the  part  of  the  United 
.States  were  five  j)ersons,—  Hamilton  Fish,  Robert 
V.  Sehenck,  Samuel  Kelson,  Ebenezer  Rockwood 
Hoar,  and  George  II,  Williams,— cnunently  fit 
representatives  of  the  diplomacy,  the  bench,  the 
bar,  and  the  legislature  of  the  United  States:  on 
the  part  of  Great  Britain,  Earl  Dc  Grey»  and 
Kipon,  President  of  the  Queen's  Council;  Sir 
S'afford  Northcote,  Ex-Ministcrand  actual  Mcm- 


Iht  of  the  Ilousaj  of  Commons;  Sir  Edward 
Thorntr)!!,  the  universally  respected  Briti.sli  Min- 
ister at  WashiuLrton;  Sir  John  |  \.\  .Macdonald, 
the  able  and  eioi|Ucnt  I'render  of  the  Canadiiiu 
Do'uiiuon;  :.nd,  in  revival  of  the  good  old  time, 
when  h'arning  was  "((ual  to  iuiy  other  tilh^  ni 
]iid)lic  honor,  the  Universities  in  the  person  of 
I'rofessor  .Aionlaguc  Bernard.  ...  In  the  facc^ 
of  many  dillicullies,  the  Comndssioners,  on  IIk 
yih  of  Nlay,  IHTl,  completed  a  treaty  [known  as 
(he  Treaty  of  Washington],  which  receivcil  Ihe 
prompt  approval  of  their  respective  (Jovern- 
menls. " — C.  Cushing,  'I'/w  'J'ruiti/  of  Wun/iiiiy- 
l"ii,  PI'.  18-20,  (I ml  U-l;!. 

.Vi,s(>  I.N  A.  I.ai.g,  /Jt'i-.  Littin,  and  Diaricii 
iif  Sir  Sliiffiinl Miirtlici/te,  Fimt  Karl  nf  Iililin/tiij/i, 
ch.  Vi(>\  S)._A.  Badeau,  (Iniiitin  ihnr.  <•/(. '25. 

A.  D.  1871.— The  Treaty  of  Washington.— 
The  treaty  signed  at  AVashington  on  the  Mth  day 
of  May,  18*1,  and  the  ratilicalions  of  which 
were  exchanged  at  I.ond  in  on  tlw^  17th  da  •  <if  the 
following  June,  .set  forth  its  i)rineipal  agreeineui. 
in  the  llrst  two  articles  as  follows:  "Whereas 
dilferenecs  have  arisen  between  the  Govennnent 
of  the  United  States  and  the  Government  of  Her 
Brittanic  Majesty,  and  still  e.\i:t,  growing  out  of 
thii  acts  committed  by  the  Rcvcriil  vessels  which 
have  given  r'se  to  tiio  claims  ^''''nerically  known 
as  the  'Alabama  Claims;'  and  whereas  Her 
Britannic  Majesty  has  authorized  Her  High  Com- 
missioners and  Plcinpotcntiaries  to  express  in  a 
friendly  spirit,  the  regret  felt  by  Iler  Majesty's 
Government  for  the  cpcape,  imder  wliatever  cir- 
cumstances, of  tlic  -Mabaina  and  other  vessels 
from  British  ])orts,  anil  for  the  depredations  com- 
mitted by  tlio.se  v'>.:iL'ls:  Now,  in  order  to 
reniove  and  ;Kljust  all  complaints  and  claims  on 
the  part  of  tiie  United  States  and  to  provide  for 
the  speedy  settlement  of  such  claims  which  are 
not  admitted  by  Ilcr  Britannic  Majesty's  Gov- 
ernment, the  high  conf  eting  parties  agree  that 
all  the  said  claims,  grjwing  out  of  acts  com- 
mitted by  the  aforcsai(.  vessels,  and  generically 
known  as  the  '  Alabama  Clfdms,'  shall  be  referred 
to  a  tribunal  of  arbitration  to  be  composed  of 
live  Arbitrators,  to  be  api)ointcd  in  the  following 
manner,  that  is  to  sav:  One  shall  be  named  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States;  one  .shall  lie 
named  by  Her  Britannic  Majesty;  Ilis  Majesty 
the  King  of  Italy  shall  be  requested  to  name  one ; 
the  I'resident  oi'  the  Swiss  Confederation  sliall 
be  retjuested  to  name  one;  and  His  Majesty  the 
Emperor  of  Brazil  shall  be  requested  to  name 
one.  .  .  .  The  Arbitrators  shall  meet  at  Geneva, 
in  Switzerland,  at  the  earliest  convenient  day 
after  they  shall  have  been  named,  and  shall  pro- 
ceed impartially  and  carefully  to  examine  and 
decide  all  questions  that  shall  be  laid  before  them 
on  the  part  of  the  Governments  of  the  United 
States  and  Her  Britannic  Majesty  resiieclively. 
All  questions  co.isidered  by  the  tribunal,  includ- 
ing tlic  final  award,  shall  be  decided  by  a  majority 
of  all  the  Arbitrators.  Each  of  the  high  con- 
tracting jiarties  shall  also  name  one  person  to 
attend  tlu!  trilmnal  as  its  Agent  to  represent  it 
generally  in  all  matters  connected  with  the  .uhl- 
tiation."  Articles  it,  4  and  5  of  the  treaty  specify 
the  mode  in  which  each  iiarty  shall  submit  its 
case.  Article  0  declares  that,  "In  deciding  tlic 
matters  submitted  to  the  Arbitrators,  they  shall 
be  governed  by  the  following  three  rules,  which 
are  agreed  upon  by  the  high  contracting  parties 
as  rules  to  be  taken  as  applicable  to  the  case,  and 


27 


A1.ABAMA  CLAIMS. 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


by  such  principles  of  international  law  not  incon- 
sistKiit  tiR'n'witli  as  tlic  Arliitmtors  shall  deter- 
mine  to  have  heen  iipiilicuhlu  to  the  case:  A 
neutral  Oovermncnl  is  IiohikI  —  l''irst,  to  use  due 
dili;;iMKe  to  prevent  the  littnisr  out,  arming,  or 
erpiippiiij,'.  within  its  jurisdietion,  of  any  vessel 
Avhieli  it  has  reiison.ible  ground  to  believe  is 
intendrd  to  cruise  or  to  carry  on  war  against 
a  Power  with  wliieli  it  is  at  peace;  and  also  to 
use  like  diligence  to  prevent  the  departure  from 
its  ju.'sdiction  of  any  vessel  intended  to  cruise 
or  carry  t)n  war  as  above,  such  vessel  having 
been  specially  adapted,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
within  such  jurisdiction,  to  waiiike  use.  Sec- 
ondly, not  to  jiermit  or  suffer  either  belligerent  to 
malte  use  of  its  ports  ur  waters  as  the  base  of 
naval  openitions  against  the  other,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  the  renewal  or  augnientation  of  mili- 
tary supplies  or  arms,  or  tlic  recruitment  of  men. 
Thirdly  to  e.xcrcise  duo  diligence  in  its  jwn 
ports  and  ^vaters.  and,  a3  to  all  persons  within 
its  ju'isdiciiou,  to  jjrevcnt  any  violation  of  the 
foregoing  obligations  an<l  duties.  Ilcr  Britannic 
Majesty  has  commanded  her  High  C'mnnis- 
sioners  and  Plenipotentiaries  to  declare  that  Her 
Majesty's  Government  cannot  assent  to  the  fore- 
going rules  as  a  statement  of  principles  of  inter- 
national law  which  were  in  force  at  the  time 
when  the  claims  mentioned  in  Article  1  arose, 
hut  that  Her  JIajesty's  Government,  in  order  to 
cvin<'c  its  desire  of  strengtliening  tin;  friendly 
relations  betw  ?n  tlie  two  countries  and  of 
making  satisfactory  provision  for  the  future, 
agrees  that  in  deciding  the  questions  between 
the  two  countries  arising  out  of  those  claims,  the 
Arbitrators  should  assume  that  Her  JIajesty's 
Government  had  undertaken  to  act  upon  the 
principles  set  forth  in  these  rules.  And  the 
high  "ontracting  parties  agree  to  observe  these 
nile  s  between  themselves  in  future,  and  to 
bring  them  to  the  knowledge  of  other  maritime 
powers,  and  to  invite  them  to  accede  to  them." 
Articles  7  to  17,  inclusive,  relate  to  the  procedure 
of  the  tribunal  of  arbitration,  and  provide  for 
the  determination  of  claims,  by  assessors  anil 
commissioners,  in  ca.se  the  Arbitrators  should 
llnd  any  liability  on  tlie  part  of  Great  Britain 
and  should  not  award  a  sum  in  gross  to  be  paid 
in  Bcttlenicnt  thereof.  Articles  18  to  25  relate  to 
the  Fisheries.  By  Article  18  it  is  agreed  that  in 
addition  to  the  liberty  secured  to  American  lish- 
crmen  by  the  convention  of  1818,  "of  taking, 
curing  and  drying  lisli  on  certain  coasts  of  the 
British  North  Aiiiericaii  colonies  therein  defined, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  shall  have, 
in  common  with  the  subjects  of  Her  Britannic 
Majesty,  the  liberty  for  [a  i)eiiiid  of  ten  years, 
and  two  years  further  after  noliee  given  by 
cither  party  of  its  wish  to  terminate  the  arrange- 
ment] ...  to  take  lish  of  every  kind,  except 
shell  fish,  on  the  sea-coasls  and  shores,  and  in 
the  hays,  harbours  and  creeks,  of  the  provinces 
of  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick, 
and  the  colony  of  Prince  Edward's  Island,  and 
of  the  several  islands  thereunto  adjacent,  with- 
out being  restricted  lO  any  distance  from  the 
shore,  with  permission  to  land  upon  the  said 
coasts  and  shores  and  islands,  and  also  upon  the 
Magdalen  Islands,  for  the  purpose  of  drying 
their  ni'ts  and  curing  their  tlsh;  provided  ihat, 
in  80  doing,  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  rights 
of  private  property,  or  with  British  lishernun, 
in  the  peaceable  use  of   any  part  of  the  said 


coa.sts  in  their  occupancy  for  the  same  purpose. 
It  is  understood  that  the  above-niButioned  liberty 
applies  solely  to  the  sea-lishery,  and  that  the 
salmon  and  shad  tisheries,  and  all  other  lisheries 
in  rivers  and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  are  hereby 
reserved  exclusively  for  British  fishermen." 
Article  19  secures  to  British  subjects  the  corre- 
.sponding  rights  of  fishing,  &c.,  <m  the  eastern 
sea-coasts  i!!:;'i  shores  of  the  United  States  nortli 
of  ilie  39th  parallel  of  nortli  latitude.  Article  20 
!  icservcs  from  these  stipulations  the  places  that 
were  reserved  from  the  common  right  of  fishing 
under  the  first  article  of  the  treaty  of  June  5, 
1854.  Article  21  provides  for  the  reciprocal 
admission  of  fisli  and  fish  oil  into  each  country 
from  the  other,  free  of  duty  (excepting  fish  of 
the  inland  lakes  and  fish  preserved  in  oil). 
Article  22  provides  that,  "Inasmuch  as  it  is 
asserted  by  tlu;  Government  of  Her  Britannic 
Majesty  that  the  privileges  accorded  to  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States  under  Article 
XVIII  of  this  treaty  are  of  greater  value  than 
those  accorded  by  Articles  XIX  and  XXI  of  this 
treaty  to  the  subjects  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty, 
and  this  assertion  is  not  admitted  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  it  is  further 
agreed  that  C'omnussioners  shall  be  appointed 
to  determine  .  .  .  the  amount  of  any  compensa- 
tion which  in  their  opinion,  ought  to  be  jiaid  by 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  the  Gov- 
ernment cf  Her  Britannic  JIajesty."  Article  23 
provides  for  the  appointment  of  such  Commis- 
sioners, one  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  one  by  Her  Britannic  JIajesty,  and  the 
third  by  the  President  and  Her  JIajesty  con- 
jointly; or,  failing  of  agreement  within  three 
months,  the  third  Commissioner  to  he  named  by 
tlie  Austrian  Minister  at  London.  The  Coinir.':i- 
sioncrs  to  meet  at  Halifax,  and  their  procedure 
to  be  as  prescribed  and  regulated  by  Articles  24 
and  25.  Articles  20  to  31  define  certain  recipro- 
cal privileges  accorded  bj'  each  government  to 
the  subjects  of  the  other,  including  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Yukon,  Porcupine  and 
Stikine  Rivers,  Lak(!  JlicUigan,  and  the  Wclland, 
St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Clair  Flats  canals ;  and  the 
transportation  of  goods  in  bond  through  the 
territory  of  one  country  into  the  other  witliout 
Iiayment  of  duties.  Article  32  extends  the  pro- 
visions of  Articles  18  to  25  of  the  treaty  to  New- 
foundland if  all  parties  concerued  enact  the 
necessary  laws,  but  not  otherwise.  Article  33 
limits  the  duration  of  Articles  18  to  25  and  Arti- 
cle 30,  to  ten  years  from  the  date  of  their  going 
into  eitect,  antl  "further  until  the  expiration  of 
two  years  after  either  of  the  two  high  contract- 
ing parties  shall  have  given  notice  to  the  i^ier 
of  its  wi.sh  to  terminate  the  same."  The  rcflnin- 
ing  articles  of  the  treaty  provide  for  submitting 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
vhe  Northwestern  water-boundary  question  (in 
the  channel  between  Vancouver's  Island  and  the 
conthient) — to  complete  the  settlement  of  North- 
western boundary  disputes. — I'lratirs  and  Con- 
ri'itdona  heticccii  the  U.  S.  and  other  I'oiccrs  (ed.  of 
1889),  pp.  478-493. 

Also  in  C.  Cushing,  The  I'irafi/  of  Wa.ihiii;/- 
ton,  app. 

A.  D.  1871-1872.— The  Tribunal  of  Arbi- 
tration at  Geneva,  and  its  Award. — "  'I'he  ap- 
pointment of  Arbitrators  took  place  in  due 
course,  and  with  the  ready  good-will  of  the  three 
neutral  governments.     The  L^iited    States  up- 


28 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


ALANS. 


pointed  Mr.  Charles  Francis  Adams;  Great 
Uritiiin  appointed  Sir  Al(^\ande^  Cocliburn;  tlie 
Kini;  of  Italy  named  Count  Frederic  Sclopis; 
the  President  of  tlii^  Swiss  Confederation,  Mr. 
.lacol)  StitmpHi :  and  the  Emperor  of  Urazil,  the 
Baron  d'ltajuba.  Mr.  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis  was 
appointed  Agent  of  the  United  States,  and  Lord 
Tentcrden  of  Great  Britain.  The  Tribunal  was 
organized  for  the  rccepticm  of  the  case  of  each 
parly,  and  held  its  first  conference  [at  Geneva, 
.Switzerland]  on  the  IHth  of  December,  1871," 
Count  Selopii  being  eho-sen  to  preside.  "The 
printed  Case  of  the  United  States,  with  accom- 
jianying  documents,  was  tiled  by  Mr.  Bancroft 
Davis,  and  the  printed  Case  of  Great  Britain, 
with  documents,  ■  by  Lord  Tenterde*  The 
Tribunal  made  regulation  for  the  tiling  of  the 
respective  Counter-Cases  on  or  l)eforo  the  15th 
day  of  April  next  ensuing,  as  required  by  *ho 
Treaty;  and  for  the  (uinvening  of  a  spiicial  meet- 
ing of  the  Tribunal,  if  occasion  should  require; 
and  then,  at  a  second  meeting,  on  the  next  day, 
they  adjourned  imtil  tlie  15th  of  June  next  ensu- 
ing, subject  to  a  prior  call  by  the  Secretary,  if 
there  should  be  oceabion."  The  sessions  of  the 
Tribunal  were  resumed  on  the  luth  of  June, 
1872,  according  to  the  adjouriunent,  and  were 
c(mtiuned  \mtii  the  14th  of  Si^ptomber  following, 
when  the  decision  and  award  were  announced, 
and  were  signed  by  all  the  Arbitrators  except 
the  British  representative'.  Sir  Alexander  Cock- 
burn,  who  dissented.  It  was  found  by  the 
Tribunal  that  the  British  Government  had 
"failed  to  use  due  diligence  in  tlie  performance 
of  its  neutral  obligations"  with  respect  to  the 
cruisers  Alabama  and  Florida,  and  the  several 
tenders  of  those  vessels;  and  also  with  respect 
to  tlu!  Shenandoah  after  her  departure  from  Mel- 
bourne, Feb.  18,  1805,  but  n<it  before  that  date. 
With  respect  to  the  Georgia,  tlie  Sumter,  the 
Nashville,  the  Tallahassee  and  the  Chickainauga, 
it  was  the  linding  of  'he  Tribunal  that  Great 
Britain  had  not  failed  to  perform  the  duties  of  a 
neutral  power.  So  far  as  relates  to  the  vessels 
called  the  Sallie,  the  Jelferson  Davis,  the  3Iusic, 
the  Boston,  and  the  V.  II.  Joy,  it  was  the  deci- 
sion of  the  Tribunal  tliat  they  ought  to  be 
excluded  from  consideration  for  want  of  evi- 
dence. "So  far  as  relates  to  the  particulars  of 
the  indemnity  claimed  by  the  United  States,  tlie 
costs  of  ijiirsuit  of  Confederate  cruisers "  are 
declared  to  be  "not,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Tribunal,  properly  distinguishable  from  the  gen- 
eraj  expiuises  ot  the  war  carried  on  by  the 
United  States,"  and  "there  is  no  ground  for 
awarding  to  the  United  States  any  sun  li-  way 
of  indemnity  un  i^r  this  head."  A  s.uillai-  deci- 
sion put  aside  the  whole  consideration  of  claims 
for  "  prospective  eai:>i!igs."  Finally,  the  award 
was  rendered  in  the  following  language; 
"Whereas,  in  order  to  arrive  at  an  equitable 
compensation  for  the  damages  which  have  been 
sustained,  it  is  necessary  to  sot  aside  all  double 
( laiins  for  the  same  losses,  and  all  claims  for 
'gross  freights '  so  far  as  they  cxeccid  '  net  f  rcigli  ts ;' 
and  whereas  it  is  just  anil  reasonable  to  allow 
interest  at  a  reasonable  rate ;  and  whereas,  in  nc- 
eordance  with  the  spirit  and  letter  of  the  Treaty 
of  Washington,  it  is  preferable  to  adopt  the 
form  of  adjudication  of  a  siiiu  in  gross,  rather 
than  to  refer  the  subject  of  compensation  l'>.r 
further  discussion  and  deliberation  to  a  IJoard  of 
Assessors,  as  provided  by  Article  X  of  the  said 


Treaty:  The  Tribunal,  making  use  of  the  au- 
thority conferred  tipon  it  by  Article  VII  of  the 
said  Treaiy,  by  a  majority  of  four  voices  to  one, 
awards  to  the  United  States  the  sum  of  fifteen 
millions  live  hundred  thousand  Dollars  in  gold 
as  the  indemnity  to  lie  paid  by  Great  Britain  to 
the  L'nited  States  for  the  satisfaction  of  all  the 
claims  referred  to  the  consideration  of  the  Tri- 
bunal, conformably  to  the  provisions  contained 
in  Article  VII  of  the  aforesaid  Treaty."  It 
should  be  stated  that  the  so-called  "indirect 
claims  "  of  the  United  States,  for  consequential 
losses  and  damagiw,  growing  out  of  the  enr:our- 
agement  of  the  Sotithern  Uebillion,  the  prolong- 
ation of  the  war,  iV'c.,  were  dropped  from  con- 
sideration at  the  outset  of  the  session  of  the  Tri- 
bunal, in  June,  tlie  Arbitrators  agreeing  then  in 
a  statement  of  opinion  to  the  cfTeet  that  "these 
claims  do  not  constitute,  upon  the  principles  of 
internatioual  law  applicable  to  such  cases,  good 
foundation  for  an  award  of  compensation  or 
computation  of  damages  between  nations. "  This 
declaration  was  aecejited  by  the  United  States  a8 
deci.sive  of  the  question,  and  the  hearing  pro- 
ceeded accordingly. — C.  Gushing,  The  IVcaty  oj 
Wdshinni'iii. 

Also  i.\  F.  Wharton,  Digest  of  the  Interna- 
tional Law  of  the  If.  .S. ,  ch.  21  {v.  A). 

ALACA3,  OR  TOLOSO,  Battle  of  (1212). 
See  Almohauls.  and  Sr.MN:  A.  D.  114G-1233. 

ALADSHA,  Battles  of  (1877).  See  Tuuks: 
A.  D.  1877-1878. 

ALAMANCE,  Battle  of  (1771).  See  Noktii 
C.vitoMN.v:  A.  1).  17G0-1771. 

ALAMANNI.     See  Ai,i:M.\NNr. 

ALAMO,  The  massacre  of  the  (1836).  See 
Texas;  A.  D.  1821-1830. 

ALAMOOT,  OR  ALAMOUT,  The  castle 
of. — The  stronghoUl  of  the  "Old  Man  of  the 
^Mountain,"  or  Sheikh  of  tlie  terrible  order  of  the 
Assassins,  in  northern  Persia.  Its  uaino  signifies 
' '  the  Eagle's  nest, "  or  ' '  the  Vulture's  nest. '  See 
Assassins. 

ALANS,  OR  ALANI,  The.— "The  Alani 
are  lirsl  mentioned  by  I)iony.sius  tlie  geographer 
(B.  C.  30-10)  who  joins  them  with  the  Daci  and 
the  Tauri,  and  again  places  them  between  the 
latter  and  the  Agatliyrsi.  A  similar  po.sition  (in 
the  south  of  Russia  in  Europe,  the  modem 
Ukraine)  is  assigned  to  them  by  Pliny  and 
.loseplius.  Seneca  places  them  f  urth  'i  "vest  ujjon 
the  Ister.  Ptolemy  lias  two  bodies  of  Alani,  one 
in  tlie  position  above  described,  the  other  in 
Scythia  within  the  Iniaus,  north  and  partly  cast 
of  the  Caspian.  It  must  liave  been  from  these 
last,  the  successors,  and,  according  to  some,  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Jlassagetie,  that  the 
Alani  came  who  attacked  Pacorus  and  Tiridates 
[in  .Media  and  Armenia,  A.  D.  75].  .  .  .  Tlie 
result  seems  to  ha\e  been  that  the  invaders,  after 
ravaging  and  harrying  Media  and  Armenia  at 
their  pleasure,  carrie((  oil  a  vast  number  of 
l)risoners  and  an  enormous  booty  into  t.ieir  own 
country." — G.  liawlinson,  Si.rth  Great  O.-iintal 
Monarchy,  ch.  17. — E.  II.  Bunbury,  llint.  of 
Ancient  Gcn;i.,  ch.  6,  note  II.—"  The  first  of  thia 
I  the  Tartar]  race  known  to  the  Romans  were 
the  Alani.  In  the  fourth  century  they  pitched 
tlieir  tents  in  the  couutry  between  tliu  Volga  and 
'le  Tanais.  ot  an  equal  distance  from  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Caspian."— J.  C.  L.  Sismoudi,  Fali 
of  the  lioman  Enqnre,  ch.  3. 


29 


ALANS. 


ALBA. 


A.   D.  376. — Conquest  by  the  Huns.    Sco 

OOTHH     (ViKKiOTlIf):    A.   I).  JiTO. 

A.  D.  406-409. — Final  Invasion  of  Gaul. 
See  (}Ai;i.:  A.  1).  40(!-40y, 

A.  D.  409-414.— Settlement  in  Spain.  Hcc 
Spain:  A.  1).  409-414. 

A.  D.  429.— With  the  Vandals  in  Africa. 
Sei^  Vandals:  A.  I).  429-4:ii(. 

A.  D.  451.— At  the  Battle  of  Chalons.  See 
lIu.Ns:  A.  1).  451. 

ALARCOS,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1195).  Sec 
Ai.MoHAnr.s. 

ALARIC'S  RAVAGES  IN  GREECE 
AND  CONQUEST  OF  ROME.  Ste  Goriis: 
A.  1).  :«<"):  4(l(l-4(»:j,  and  Hdmk:  A.  D.  4US-H0. 
ALARODIANS.  -  IBERIANS.  -  COL- 
CHIANS.— "The  Aliirodiiuis  of  IlorodoHis, 
joined  with  (hi;  Siipeires  .  .  .  are  almost  cer- 
tainly the  inhabitants  of  Armenia,  whoso  Semitic 
name  was  Urarda,  or  Ararat.  '  Alarud,'  indeed, 
is  a  mc-e  variant  form  of  'Ararud,'  the  1  and  r 
being  undistinguisliable  in  the  old  Persian,  and 
'  Ararud '  serves  deterniinately  to  connect  the 
Ararat  of  Scripture  with  the  Urardi>,  or  Urartlia 
of  the  Inscriptions.  .  .  .  The  name  of  Ararat  is 
constantly  used  in  Srrliiture,  but  always  to  de- 
note a  country  rather  iliui  a  particular  moun- 
tain. .  .  .  'I'lii'  connexion  .  .  .  of  Urania  with 
the  Babylonian  tribe  of  Akkad  is  iirovcd  by  the 
application  in  the  inscriptions  of  the  ethnic  title 
of  Burbur  (?)  to  the  Armenian  king  .  .  .  ;  but 
there  is  nothing  to  jjrove  whether  the  Burbur  (jr 
Akkad  of  Babylonia  descended  in  a  very  remote 
age  from  the  mountains  to  colonize  the  plains, 
or  whether  the  Urardians  were  refugeesof  a  later 
period  driven  northward  by  the  growing  power 
of  the  Semites.  The  former  supposition,  how- 
ever, id  most  in  ccmforniily  with  Scriptiu'e, 
and  incidentally  with  the  tenor  of  the  inscrip- 
tions."— II.  C.  lljiwlinson,  llint.  of  Ilcrmlotim, 
bk.  7,  app.  3. — "The  broad  and  rich  valley  of 
the  Kur,  which  corresnonds  closely  with  the 
modern  Russian  provmcc  of  Georgia,  was 
[anciently]  in  the'possessionof  a  people  called  by 
Herodottis  Sa'peires  or  Sapeires,  whom  we  may 
identify  with  the  Iberians  of  later  writers.  Ad- 
joining tipon  them  towards  the  sotitli,  probably 
In  the  country  about  J>ivan,  and  so  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Ararat,  were  the  Alarodians, 
whose  nam  J  must  be  connected  with  that  of  the 
great  mountain.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
Sapcirian  country,  in  the  tracts  now  known  as 
Mingrelia  and  Iiiicritia,  regions  of  a  wonderful 
beauty  and  fertility,  were  the  Colchians, — de- 
pendi'iits,  but  not  exactly  subjects,  of  Persia." — 
Q.  Hawlinsou,  Five  (ircat  Monarchies:  I'cnia, 
eh.  1. 

ALASKA:  A.  D.  1867.— Purchase  by  the 
United  States. — As  early  as  185!)  there  were  uu- 
ollicialconinuniidilions  between  the  Uussian  and 
American  govfnuncntj*,  on  the  subject  of  the 
sale  of  Alaska  iiy  the  former  to  the  latter,  llus- 
sia  was  more  than  w  illing  to  part  with  a  piece  of 
territory  wliich. site  found  dillicully  in  defending, 
In  war;  and  the  interests  connected  with  liic 
llsheries  and  the  fur-trado  in  the  north-west 
Were  disposed  to  proi.'iote  the  transfer.  In 
March,  1807,  defliiil^'  negotiations  on  the  subject 
were  opened  by  th"  Uus.siau  minister  at  AVash- 
ington,  and  on  the  'i'M  of  that  month  he  received 
from  Secretary  Seward  an  offer,  subject  to  the 
President's  approval,  of  $7,200,000,  on  cuuditioQ 


that  the  cession  be  "  free  and  imencumbered  by 
any  reservations,  privileges,  franci.isca,  grants, 
or  possessions  by  any  associated  companies, 
whether  corporate  or  incorporate,  Uussian,  or 
any  other."  "Two  days  later  an  answer  was 
returned,  stating  that  the  minister  believed  him- 
self authorized  to  accept  these  terms.  On  the 
29th  tiual  instructions  were  received  by  cable 
from  St.  Petersburg.  On  the  same  day  a  note 
v/as  addressed  by  tlic  minister  to  the  secretary  of 
.state,  informing  him  that  the  tsar  consentc(l  to 
the  cession  of  Russian  America  for  the  stipu- 
lated sum  of  $7,200,000  in  gold.  At  four 
o'clock  the  ne.xt  morning  the  treaty  was  signed  by 
the  two  parties  without  further  pliras!.  or  negoti- 
ation, in  May  the  treaty  was  ratified,  and  on 
.Tune  20,  1867,  the  usual  proclamation  was  issued 
by  the  president  of  the  United  States."  On  the 
18th  of  October,  1807,  the  formal  transfer  of  the 
territory  was  made,  at  Sitka,  General  Rousseau 
taking  possession  in  the  name  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States. —  II.  H.  Bancroft, 
JliKt.  of  tJio  Pacific  States,  1:  28,  ch.  28. 

Ai.so  IN  W.  H.  Dall,  Alaska  and  il«  Iksourees. 
pt.  2,  ch.  2. — For  some  account  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  see  Amkuiian  Abokigines:  Es- 
KiMAiAN  Family  and  Atiiai'Ascan  Family. 

ALATOONA,  Battle  of.  See  Uxnion  States 
OK  Am.:  a.  1).  1864  (Septe.mbeu  —  Octoiikk: 
Geouoia). 

ALBA. --Alban  Mount.  —  "Cantons  .  .  . 
having  tLi>ir  iciul,  vous  in  rome  .stronghold,  and 
including  a  >;ertain  number  of  clansiiips,  form 
the  primitive  political  unities  with  which  Italian 
history  begins.  At  what  period,  and  to  what 
extent,  inch  cantons  were  formed  in  Latiiim, 
cannot  be  determined  with  precision ;  nor  is  it  u 
matter  of  special  historical  interest.  The 
isolated  Alban  range,  that  natural  stronghold 
of  Latium,  which  offered  to  settlers  the  most 
wholesome  air,  the  freshest  springs,  and  the 
most  secin'o  position,  would  doubtless  be  first 
occupied  by  the  new  comers.  Here  accord- 
ingly, along  the  narrow  plateau  above  Palaz- 
zuola,  between  the  Alban  lake  (Logo  di  Castcllo) 
and  the  Alban  mount  (Monte  Cavo)  extended 
the  town  of  Aiba,  which  was  universally 
regarded  as  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Latin 
stock,  and  the  mother-city  of  Rome,  as  well  as 
of  all  the  other  OliJ  Latin  communities.  Here, 
too,  on  the  slopes  lay  the  very  ancient  Latin 
canton-centres  of  Lanir'ium,  Aricia,  and  Tus- 
culura.  .  .  .  All  these  cantons  were  in  primiti  ire 
times  politically  soveroii5n,  and  c&cn  of  them 
was  governed  by  its  prince  with  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  council  of  elders  and  the  assembly  of 
warriors.  Nevertheless  the  feeling  of  fellov/ 
ship  based  on  community  of  descent  ond  of 
language  not  only  jicrvaded  the  whole  of  them, 
but  manifested  itself  in  an  important  religious 
and  political  institution  —  the  perpetual  league 
of  the  collective  Latin  cantons.  The  presidency 
belonged  originally,  according  to  the  tmiversal 
Italian  as  well  as  ilelleuic  usage,  to  that  cautim 
within  who.se  bounds  lay  the  meeting- place  of 
the  league;  in  this  case  it  was  the  canton  of 
Alba.  .  .  .  The  communities  entitled  to  partici- 
pate in  tliu  league  were  in  the  beginning  thirty. 
.  .  .  The  rendezvous  of  this  tmitm  was,  like  the 
Pambtcotia  and  tlie  I'anionia  among  the  Bimilar 
confederacies  of  the  Greeks,  the  '  Latin  festival ' 
(feriic  Lutiiue)  at  which,  on  the  Mount  of  Alba, 
upon  a  day  annually  appointed  by  the  chief 


30 


ALBA. 


ALUEKUNl 


magistrate  foi  the  purpose,  an  ox  was  offered  in 
sacrifice  by  tlie  iisseniblcd  Latin  stocli  to  the 
'  Latin  god '  (Jupiter  Latiaris)."—  T.  Jlommsen, 
Hint,  of  Rome,  lik.  1,  ch.  3. 

Ai.so  IN  Sir  W.  Gell,  Tojy'ti.  of  Rome,  v.  1. 

ALBA    DE    TORMES,    Battle    of.      Sec 

Si-ain:    a.  I).   IHO'J  (AUOI.ST— XOVEMIIEK). 

ALBAIS,    The.     See  Amehican  Anouioi- 
NEs:  Pampas  Tkiiies. 
ALBAN,  Kingdom  of.    See  Albion;  also, 

Scori.ANU;  8TH-itTII  Centhuieb. 

ALBANI,  The.  See  Britain,  Tbibes  of 
VvA.nv. 

ALBANIANS:  Ancient.     See  Epibus  and 

ll.I.YUIANS, 

Medisval. — "From  tlie  .scttlcnicnt  of  the 
Servian  Sclavonians  witliin  the  bounds  of  tlie 
empire  [during  the  reign  of  Ilcraelius,  first  half 
of  tlie  seventh  century],  we  may  .  .  .  venture  to 
date  the  earliest  encroachments  of  the  Illyrian  or 
Albanian  nice  on  the  Hellenic  jjopulation.  The 
.Mbanians  or  Arnauts,  who  are  now  called  b;, 
tliemselves  Skiptars,  are  supjiosed  to  be  rem>uns 
of  I  lie  great  Thracian  race  wliicli,  under  various 
names,  and  more  jiiirtieularly  as  Pa'.oniuns, 
Eiiirots  and  Macedcmiaiis,  take  lin  impo'  lant  part 
in  early  Grecian  history.  Xo  distinct  Iraceof  the 
period  at  which  tlicj'  began  to  be  ro-proprietors 
of  Greece  with  the  Hellenic  race  can  be  fo\nid 
in  history.  ...  It  se(>ms  very  dilTicult  to  tract! 
back  the  history  of  the  Grcjk  nation  without 
suspecting  that"  the  germs  jf  their  modern  con- 
dition, like  lho.se  of  the!;  neighbours,  are  to  be 
souglit  in  the  singular  events  which  occurred  in 
the  reign  of  Ilcraelius  ■' — G.  Finlay,  Greece  Vmhr 
the  Romans,  ch.  4,  f.ct.  0. 

A.  D.  I443-Iij67. — Scanderbeg's  War  with 
the  Turks. — "John  Caslriot.  Lord  of  Emal- 
thia  (tlie  in.K.ern  district  of  Moghlene)  [in 
Epiru.^  or  .Albania]  had  submitted,  like  the 
other  petty  despots  of  those  regions,  to  Amurath 
early  in  his  reign,  and  had  ])laced  his  four  sous 
in  tlio  Sultan's  liands  as  hostages  for  his  fidelity. 
Tb-.ce  of  them  died  young.  The  fourth,  whose 
name  was  George,  pleased  the  Sultan  by  his 
beauty,  strength  and  intelligence.  Amurath 
caused  him  to  be  brought  up  iu  the  Mahometan 
creed;  and,  when  lie  was  only  eighteen,  con- 
ferred on  him  the  government  of  one  of  the 
Sanjaks  of  the  empire.  The  young  Albanian 
proved  his  courage  and  skill  iu  many  exploits 
under  .Vmurath's  eye,  and  received  from  him  the 
name  of  Iskanderbeg,  the  lord  Alexander. 
When  John  Castriot  died,  Amunith  took  pos- 
session of  liis  priiicipaliti(^s  and  kept  the  son  con- 
stantly employed  in  distant  wars.  Scanderbcg 
brooded  over  this  injury ;  and  when  the  Turkish 
armies  were  routed  by  Huiiyades  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1143,  Scandefbegdeiermined  to  escajje 
from  their  side  and  assume  forcible  possession  of 
his  patrimonv.  lie  suddenly  entered  the  tent 
of  the  Sultans  chief  secretary,  and  forced  that 
functionary,  witli  tlie  poniard  at  his  throat,  to 
write  and  seal  a  formal  order  to  the  Turkish 
commander  of  the  strong  city  of  (.'roia,  in 
Albania,  to  deliver  that  place  and  the  adjatuMit 
territory  to  Scanderbcg,  as  the  Sultan's  viceroy. 
He  then  stabbed  the  secretary  and  hastened  to 
Croia.  whore  his  strategem  gained  him  instant 
adi'iittanee  and  submission.  He  now  publicly 
abjured  the  Mahometan  f  .Hh,  and  declared  his 
intention  of  defending  the  creed  of  his  fore- 
fathers,  and  restoriut"  the  independence  of  his 


native  land.  Tlie  Christian  population  tlockcii 
readily  to  his  banner  and  the  Turks  -.vere  mas- 
sacred witliout  mercy.  For  nearly  twenty-five 
years  Scanderbcg  contended  a<:ainst  all  the 
jiower  of  the  Ottomans,  though,  directed  by  the 
skill  of  Amurath  and  his  successor  Mahomet, 
the  conqueror  of  Constantinople." — Sir  E.  8. 
Crcasj',  Hint,  of  the  Otioinan  Tiirkx,  ch.  4. — 
"  Scanderbcg  died  a  fugitive  at  Lissus  on  the 
Venetian  territory  [  V.  D.  1467J.  His  sepulchre 
was  soon  violated  by  the  Turkish  contjuerors; 
but  the  janizaries,  who  wore  his  bones  enchased 
in  a  bracelet,  declared  by  this  superstitious 
amulet  their  involuntary  reverence  for  his 
valour.  .  .  .  His  infant  son  was  saved  from  the 
national  shipwreck;  the  Castiiots  were  invested 
with  a,  Neapolitan  (lukod;)m,  and  their  blood 
continues  to  How  in  the  noblest  families  of  the 
ralm." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  und  Full  of  tlm 
Roman  Empire,  ch.  B7. 

Also  in  A.  Lamarline,  Hist,  of  Turkey,  bk.  11, 
sect.  11-25. 

A.  D.  1694-1696. — Conquests  by  the  Vene- 
tians.    SeoTuuKs:  A.  I).  lOS-t-ieUG. 


ALBANY,  N.  Y. :  A.  D.  1623.— The  first 
Settlement.  —  In  1614,  the  year  after  the  first 
Dutch  traders  had  estallished  their  openitions  on 
Manhattan  Island,  they  built  a  trading  house, 
which  they  called  Fort  Nassau,  on  Castle  Island, 
in  tlie  Hudson  lUver,  a  little  below  the  site  of 
the  present  city  of  Albany.  Three  years  later 
this  small  fort  was  carried  away  by  a  llood  and 
the  island  abandoned.  In  1023  a  more  impoitant 
fortification,  namcil  Fort  Orange,  was  erected  on 
the  site  afterwards  covered  by  tlio  business  part 
of  Albany.  That  year,  "about  eighteen  families 
settled  themselves  at  Fort  Orange,  under  Adriaen 
Joris,  who  'staid  with  them  all  \?inter,'  after 
sending  his  sliipliome  to  Holland  in  charge  of  his 
son.  As  soon  as  the  colonists  had  built  them- 
selves '  some  huts  of  bark  '  around  the  fort,  the 
Mahikanders  or  River  Indians  [.Mohegans],  the 
3Iohawks,  the  Oneidas,  the  Onondagas,  the 
Cayugas,  and  the  Senccas,  with  the  Mahawawa 
or  Ottawawa  Indians,  'came  and  made  covenants 
of  friendship  .  .  .  and  desired  that  they  might 
come  and  have  a  constant  free  trade  with  them, 
which  was  concluded  upon.'" — J.  II.  Brodhead, 
Uist.  of  tlte  State  of  JV.  I'.,  r.  1,  pp.  55  and  151. 

A.  D.  1630. — Embraced  in  the  land-purchase 
of  Patroon  Van  Rensselaer.  See  New  Yohk: 
A.  IX  1021-llil(>. 

A.  D.  1664. —  Occupied  and  named  by  the 
English.     SeeNEwYouK:  A.  1).  10(!4, 

A.  D.  1673. — Again  occupied  by  the  Dutch. 
See  New  Youk:  A.  I).  lOTIJ. 

A.  D.  1754. — The  Colonial  Congress  and  its 
plans  of  Union.  Sec  rxiTKi)  States  ok  .Vm.  : 
A.  1).  ITol.  ^ 

ALBANY  AND  SCHENECTADY  RAIL- 
ROAD OPENING.  Sec  Stea.m  Locomotion 
O.N  Land. 

ALBANY  REGENCY,  The.  See  New 
Youk;  A.  1).  lyja 

ALBEMARLE,  The  Ram,  and  her  de- 
struction. See  United  States  ok  Am.:  A,  1). 
1H(>4  (.Vi'Uii,  —  ;May:  Nobtii  Cauolina),  and 
(Octouku:    N.  Cauomna). 

ALBERONI  f^--"'  ,  ine  Spanish  Min- 
istry of.  See  «i>ain:  A.  1).  1713-1725;  and 
Italy:  A.  D.  1715-1735. 


81 


ALUEUT. 


ALBIGENSES, 


ALBERT,  King  of  Sweden,  A.  D.  1385-1388. 
....Albert,  riector  of  Brandenburg,  A.  I). 
147()-14H(!.... Albert  I.,  Duke  of  Austria  and 
King  of  Germany,  A.  J).  1298-1308. ..  .Albert 
II.,  Duke  of  Austria,  King  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  A.  D.  1437-1440;  King  of  Germany, 
A.  I).  1438-1440. 

ALBERTA,  The  District  of  Sec  Noinii- 
\vi;ht  'ri:uitiT<)uiKS  of  (;an.\1)a. 

ALBERTINE  LINE  OF  SAXONY.  See 
Sa\(i.\y:  a.  1).  1180-1553. 

ALBICI,  The.— A  Gullic  tribe  which  occu- 
])ii(l  the  hills  above  51iissiliii  (Marseilles)  and 
will)  are  (leserihed  as  a  savage  people  even  in 
I'le  time  of  C'lesar,  when  they  helped  the  IMassil- 
iots  to  defend  their  city  against  him.  — G.  Long, 
V<cliiii'  nf  t/ic  lioninii  Ihpiiblie,  r.  5,  rh.  4. 

ALBIGENSES,  OR  ALBIGEOIS,  The. 
— "  Nothing  is  more  curions  in  Christian  history 
tlian  the  vitality  of  the  Manieheau  opinions. 
That  wild,  half  poetie,  half  rationalistic  theory 
of  Christianity,  .  .  .  appears  almost  suddeidy 
in  the  12th  <'entury,  in  living,  almost  irvesist- 
ible  power,  lirst  in  its  intermediate  settlement 
in  lliilgaria,  and  on  the  bcjrders  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  then  in  Italy,  in  France,  in  Ger- 
many, in  the  remoter  West,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.  .  .  .  The  <hief  seat  of  these  opinions 
was  the  south  of  France.  Innocent  III.,  on  his 
accession,  found  not  only  these  daring  insur- 
gents scattered  in  the  cities  of  Italy,  even,  as  it 
were,  at  his  own  gates  (among  hiii  first  acts 
was  to  sidxhio  the  I'aterines  of  Vilerbo),  he 
found  a  whole  province,  a  realm,  in  some  re- 
spects the  richest  and  noblest  of  his  spiritual  do- 
main, absolutely  dissevered  from  his  Emp'  ■, 
in  almost  universal  revolt  from  Latin  ChrLstian- 
ity.  ...  In  no  [other]  Euroitean  country  had 
the  clergy  (jp  entirely,  or  it  should  seem  so  de- 
servedly, forfeited  its  nuthoritj'.  In  none  had 
the  Church  more  ab.solutely  ceased  to  perform 
its  proper  functions." — II.  II.  Jlilman,  llist.  of 
L<itiii  Ohristianity,  hk.  9,  ch.  8. —  "By  mere 
chance,  the  sects  scattered  in  South  France 
received  the  common  name  of  Albigenses,  from 
one  of  the  districts  where  the  agents  of  the 
church  who  came  to  combat  them  found  them 
mostly  to  abound, —  the  dist-ict  around  the 
town  of  Alba,  or  Alby;  and  by  this  conmiou 
name  they  were  well  known  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  thirteenth  century.  Under  this 
general  denomination  parties  ct  dillerent  tonetu 
were  cimiprcheuded  together,  but  the  Catharlsts 
seem  to  have  constituted  a  pred  uniuant  element 
uraong  the  people  thus  designated." — A.  Nean- 
dcr,  Gen.  liiat.  of  the  ChrMan  licl.  and  Ch., 
Ml  pi:r.,  iU)\  3,  acrt.  4,  fit.  13. — "  Of  the  sectaries 
who  sluired  the  errors  of  Gnostiiatni  and  iMani- 
chrcism  and  opposed  the  Catholic  Church  and 
her  hierarchy,  the  Albigenses  were  the  most 
thorough  and  radical.  Their  errors  were,  in- 
deed, pa.'tly  Gnostic  and  partly  JIanichivan, 
but  the  latter  was  the  more  prominent  and 
fully  developed.  Tliey  received  their  name 
from  a  district  of  1  ruedoe,  inhabited  by  the 
Albigeois  and  ki"  ling  the   town  of  Albi. 

They  are  called  i  and  Patarini  in  the  acts 

of  the  Couiuiil  i  rs  (A.  D.  11G3),  and   in 

those  of  the  third  Ln  m,  Publiciani  (i.  e.,  Pauli- 
ciani).  Like  the  Cathaii,  they  also  held  that  the 
evil  spirit  created  all  visible  things."— J.  Alzog, 
Manual  of  Unie.  (!li.  Jlint.,  jKriod  3,  efxich  2, 
pt.  1,  ch.  3,  sect.  238.— "The    imputations  of 


irreligion,  heresy,  and  shameless  debauchery, 
whicli  have  been  cast  with  so  much  bittternoss 
on  the  Albigenses  by  their  persecutors,  and 
which  have  been  so  zealously  denied  by  their 
apologists,  are  probably  not  ill  founded,  if  the 
word  Albigi^nses  be  employed  as  synonymous 
with  tl  J  words  Provengaux  or  Languedocians; 
for  they  were  ajiparenlly  a  race  among  whom 
the  hallowed  charities  of  domestics  life,  and  the 
reverence  due  to  divine  ordinances  and  the  hom- 
age due  to  divine  truth,  were  often  impaired, 
and  not  seldom  extlngulUied,  by  ribald  jests,  by 
infidel  scollings,  and  by  heart-hardening  inii)uri- 
ties.  Like  other  voluptuaries,  the  Provenyaux 
(as  their  remaining  literature  attests)  were  ac- 
customed to  find  matter  for  merriment  in  vices 
which  would  have  moved  wise  men  to  tears. 
Hut  if  by  the  word  Albigenses  be  meant  the 
Vaudois,  or  those  followers  (or  associates)  of 
Peter  AVahlo  who  revived  the  doctrines  against 
which  the  Church  of  Home  directed  her  censures, 
then  the  accusation  of  dissoluteness  of  maimers 
may  be  safely  rejected  as  altogether  calunmious, 
anil  the  charge  of  heresy  may  be  considered,  if 
not  as  entirely  tinfoimded,  yet  as  u  cruel  and 
injurious  exaggeration." — Sir  J.  Stephen,  Lccta. 
on  the  llint.  of  France,  Icct.  7. 

Ai.BO  IN  L.  JIariotti,  Fm  Dolciiio  and  his 
Tiniis. — See,  also,  P((uliciinin,  anil  Vathariats. 

A.  D.  1209. — The  First  Crusade. — Pope 
"Innocent  III.,  in  organizing  the  persecution  of 
the  iJatiiarins  [or  CatharistsJ,  the  Patarins,  and 
the  Pauvres  de  Lyons,  exercised  a  spirit,  and 
displayed  a  genius  similar  to  tho.so  which  had 
already  elevated  him  to  almost  universal  domin- 
ion; which  had  enabled  him  to  dictate  at  once  to 
Italy  and  to  Germany;  to  c  mtrol  the  kings  of 
France,  of  Spain,  and  of  England;  to  overthrow 
the  Greek  Empire,  and  to  substitute  in  its  stead 
a  Latin  dynastv  at  Con.-tantiuoplc.  In  the  zeal 
of  the  Cistercian  Ordci',  and  of  their  Abbot, 
Arnaud  Amalric;  in  the  tiery  and  unwearied 
(^reaching  of  the  first  Inquisitor,  the  Spanish 
iMissiouary,  Dominic ;  in  the  remorseless  activity 
of  Foulquet,  Bishop  of  Toulouse ;  and  above  uU, 
in  the  strong  and  tinpitjing  arm  of  Simon  de 
Montfort,  Earl  of  Ijcicester,  Innocent  found  ready 
instruments  for  his  purpose.  Thus  aided,  he  ex- 
communicated Kaymond  of  Toulouse  [A.  D. 
1207],  as  Chief  of  tlic  Heretics,  and  he  ijromised 
lemission  of  sins,  and  all  the  privileges  wliich 
had  hitherto  been  exclusively  conferred  on  ad- 
venturers in  Palestine,  to  the  champions  who 
should  enroll  themselves  as  Cru.saders  in  the  far 
more  easy  enterprise  of  a  Holy  War  against  the 
Albigenses.  In  the  lirst  invasion  of  his  territories 
[A.  1).  1209],  Kaymoud  VI.  gave  way  before  the 
terrors  excited  by  the  800,00(>  fanatics  who  pre- 
cii)itated  themselves  on  Languedoc;  and  loudly 
declaring  his  personal  freedom  from  heresy,  he 
surrendered  his  chief  castles,  underwent  a  humili- 
ating penaiice,  and  took  the  cross  against  his  own 
subjects.  The  brave  resistance  of  his  nephew 
IJaymond  Uoger,  Viscount  of  Bezii)res,  deserved 
but  did  not  obtain  sueeess.  When  the  crusaders 
surrounded  his  capital,  which  was  occupied  by  a 
mixed  population  of  the  two  Ueligions,  a  ques- 
tion was  raised  how,  in  the  approaching  sack,  the 
Catholics  should  bo  distinguished  from  the  Ilerc- 
tics.  '  Kill  them  all,'  was  the  ferocious  reply  of 
Amalric;  'the  Lord  will  easily  know  His  own.' 
In  compliance  with  this  advice,  not  one  human 
being  within  the  walls  was  permitted  to  survive; 


83 


ALBIGENSE8. 


ALI3IGEN8E8. 


and  the  tale  of  slaughter  has  been  variously 
estimated,  bv  those  who  have  perhaps  exagger- 
ated the  mmibei-s,  at  (iO.OOO,  but  even  in  the  ex- 
tenuiitiug  desputeh,  whicli  tlio  Abbot  himself 
nd<lresscd  to  llie  Poi)e,  at  not  fewer  than  15,000. 
Riiyinond  Uoirer  was  not  iucliulcd  iu  this  fearful 
inassiv  re,  ai»l  lie  repulsed  two  altaeks  upon  Car- 
cassonne, before  a  treacherous  bivach  of  faith 
placed  him  at  tiic  disposal  of  de  Montfort,  by 
whom  h(!  was  i)oisoned  after  a  sliort  imprison- 
ment. Tlio  removal  of  that  yoimg  and  gallant 
Prince  •■vas  indeed  most  important  to  the  ulterior 
project  of  liis  capt(n-,  who  aimed  at  permanent 
establislnnent  iu  tlie  South.  Tiic  familv  of  do 
Montfort  liail  ranla'd  among  the  nobles  of  France 
for  more  tliau  two  centuries;  and  it  is  traced  by 
some  writers  tlirougli  au  illegitimate  channel 
even  to  the  throne:  but  tlie  possessions  of  Simon 
himself  were  scanty;  necessity  had  compelled 
him  to  sell  the  Coiinty  of  Evrcux  to  Plnlippo 
Auguste ;  and  the  English  Earldom  of  Leicester 
whicli  he  inherited  'naternally,  and  the  Lordship 
of  a  Castle  about  ten  leagues  distant  from  Paris, 
formed  the  whole  of  his  revenues." — E.  Smedley, 
Ilist.  of  France,  eh.  4. 

Ai.so  IN  J.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi,  Hist,  of  the 
Vrusddes  ay'st  the  Albif/cnsci,  eh.  1. — H.  II.  Mil- 
man,  Hint,  of  Ddin  Vhnntianity,  bk.  0,  eh.  8. — 
.1.  Alzog,  Man.  of  Unicerm'  Chureh  Hist.,  period 
2,  eiwch  3,  pt.  1,  eii.  3. — See,  also,  Inquisition: 
A.  D.  1203-1535. 

A.  D.  I2I0-I2I3,— The  Second  Crusade. — 
"  The  comiuest  of  tlie  Viscounty  of  Bezicrs  liad 
rather  inllamcd  than  satiated  tlio  cupidity  of  D ! 
Montfort  and  the  fanaticism  of  Amalric  [legate 
of  the  Pope]  and  of  the  monks  of  Citeaux. 
Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  still  possessed  the 
fairest  part  of  Languedoc,  and  was  still  sus- 
pected or  accused  of  affording  shelter,  if  not 
countenance,  to  his  heretical  subjects.  .  .  .  The 
unhappy  Kaymond  \.-as  .  .  .  ag;iin  excommuni- 
cated from  tlie  Cliriatian  Church,  and  his  domin- 
ions offered  a?  a  reward  to  the  champions  who 
should  e.\ecute  her  sentence  against  him.  To 
earn  that  reward  Do  Jlontfort,  at  the  head  of  a 
new  host  of  Crusaders,  attracted  by  the  promiso 
of  earthly  sjioils  and  of  heavenly  blessedness, 
once  more  inarched  through  the  devoted  land 
[A.  D.  1310],  and  with  him  advanced  Amalric. 
At  <:<\c\\  suci!es.sive  conquest,  slaughter,  rapine, 
and  woes  such  as  may  not  bo  described  tracked 
and  polluted  their  steps.  Heretics,  or  tliose  sus- 
pected of  heresy,  wherever  they  were  found, 
were  compelled  by  the  legate  to  ascend  vast  piles 
of  burning  I'agots'  .  .  .  At  length  the  Crusaders 
rcachedandlaidsiegetotliecityofToulou.se.  .  .  . 
Throwiu'' liimself  into  the  place,  l{)iymond  .  .  . 
succeeded  in  repulsing  Do  Montfort  and  Amal- 
ric. It  was.  however,  but  a  temiiorary  respite, 
and  the  ;)relii(le  to  a  fearful  destruction.  From 
beyond  the  I'ynuices,  at  tlie  head  of  1,000 
knights,  Pedro  of  Arragon  had  marched  to  the 
rescue  of  Kaymond,  his  kinsman,  and  of  the 
counts  of  Foix  and  of  Comminges,  and  of  the 
Viscount  of  Beam,  his  vassals;  and  their  united 
forces  came  into  communication  with  each  other 
at  Muret,  a  little  town  which  is  about  three 
leagues  distant  from  Toulouse.  There,  also  on 
the  13lh  of  September  [A.  D.  1313],  at  the  head 
of  the  champions  of  the  Cross,  and  attended  by 
Seven  bishops,  appeared  Simon  de  Montfort  in 
full  militaiy  array.  The  battle  which  followed 
was  tierce,  short  and  decisive.  .  .  .  Don  Pedro 

3 


was  numbered  with  the  slain.  His  army,  de 
prived  of  his  cominand,  broke  and  dispersed, 
ami  the  whole  of  the  infantry  of  Kaymond  and 
his  allies  were  eitlier  put  to  the  sword,  or  swept 
away  by  the  current  of  the  Garonne.  Toulouse 
immediately  surrendered,  and  the  whole  of  the 
dominions  of  Uaymond  submitted  to  the  cou- 
querors.  At  a  council  subsequently  held  at 
Jlontpcllier,  com|)osed  of  the  arclibisho])s  and 
twenty-eight  bishops,  Do  Montfort  was  unani- 
mously acknowledged  as  prince  of  the  tief  and 
city  of  Toulouse,  and  of  tlie  other  counties  con- 
quered by  tlio  Crusaders  under  his  command." — 
Sir  J.  Stephen,  Lcct's  on  the  Hist,  of  France, 
Icet.  7. 

Ai.po  IN  J.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi,  Hist,  of  Crusadea 
iif/'st  the  Alhi'jciiscs,  ch.  3. 

A.  D.  1217-1229. — The  Renewed  Crusades. 
—  Dissolution  of  the  County  of  Toulouse.  — 
Pacification  of  Languedoc. — "The  cruel  spirit 
of  De  Mimtfort  would  not  allow  him  to  rest 
quiet  in  his  new  Empire.  Violence  and  perse- 
cution marked  his  rule ;  he  sought  to  destroy  the 
Proven(;al  population  by  the  s'vord  or  the  stake, 
nor  could  he  bring  himself  to  tolerate  the  liber- 
ties of  the  citizens  of  Toulouse.  In  1317  the 
Toulousans  again  revolted,  and  war  once  more 
broke  out  betwixt  Count  Raymond  and  Simon 
do  Montfort.  Tiic  latter  formed  the  siege  of  the 
capital,  and  was  engaged  in  repelling  a  sally, 
when  a  stone  from  one  of  the  walls  struck  liiiu 
and  put  an  end  to  his  existence.  .  .  .  Amaury 
de  Jlontfort,  son  of  Simon,  offered  to  cede  to  tlio 
king  all  his  rights  in  Languedoc,  which  he  was 
unable  to  defeud  against  the  old  house  of  Tou- 
louse. Philip  [.ViigiLstiis]  hesitated  to  accept 
the  Important  cession,  and  left  the  rival  houses 
to  the  continuance  of  a  struggle  carried  feebly  on 
by  either  side."  King  Philip  died  iu  1323  and 
was  succeeded  by  u  son,  Louis  VIII.,  who  had 
none  of  his  father's  reluctance  to  join  in  the 
grasping  persecution  of  tlie  unfortunate  people 
of  the  south.  Amaury  de  Montfort  had  been 
fairly  driven  out  of  old  Simon  de  Jlontfort's  con- 
quests, and  he  now  sold  them  to  King  Louis  for 
the  olUce  of  constable  of  France.  "A  new  cru- 
sade was  preached  against  tlie  Albigenses;  and 
Louis  marched  towards  Languedoc  at  the  head 
of  a  formidable  army  in  the  spring  of  tlie  year 
1320.  The  town  of  Avignon  hiul  proferrcd  to 
the  crusaders  the  facilities  of  crossing  the  Rliono 
under  her  walls,  but  refused  entry  within  them 
to  such  a  host.  Louis  having  ariivod  at  Avig- 
non, insisted  oa  passing  through  the  town :  tlio 
Avignonais  .shut  their  gates,  and  defied  the  mon- 
arcli,  who  instanily  forni'-d  the  siege.  One  of 
the  rich  municipalities  of  tiie  soiitli  was  almost  a 
match  for  the  king  of  France.  He  was  kept  three 
months  under  its  walls;  his  army  a  prey  to  fam- 
ine, to  disease  and  to  the  assaults  of  a  brave  garri- 
son. The  crusaders  lost  30,000  men.  The  people 
of  Avignon  at  length  submitted,  but  on  no  dis- 
honourable terms.  This  was  the  only  resistance 
tliat  Louis  experienced  in  Languedoc.  .  .  .  All 
submitted.  Louis  retired  from  his  facile  con- 
quest; he  himself,  and  the  e.'iiefs  of  his  army 
stricken  by  an  epideniy  which  had  prevailed  in 
the  conquered  regions.  The  monarch's  feeble 
frame  .could  not  resist  it;  he  expired  at  Montpen- 
aier.  in  Auvergne,  in  November,  1326."    Louis 

VIII.  was  succeeded  by  his  young  son,  Louis 

IX.  (Saint  Louis),  then  a  boy,  under  the  regency 
of  his  energetic  and  capable  mother,  Blanche  of 


88 


ALBIGENSES. 


ALCANTARA. 


Castile.  "  The  termination  of  the  war  with  the 
Alljigenses,  and  the  paciflcation,  or  it  might  bo 
called  the  aaiuisition,  of  Laiigucdoc,  was  tlio 
chief  aet  of  Queen  Blanche's  regency.  Louis 
VIIL  had  overrun  the  country  without  resistance 
in  liis  last  campaign ;  still,  at  his  departure,  Ray- 
mond VL  again  appearecl,  collected  soldiers  and 
continued  to  struggle  against  the  royal  lieuten- 
ant. For  upward  of  two  years  he  maintained 
himself;  the  attention  of  Blanche  being  occupied 
by  the  league  of  the  barons  against  her.  The 
successes  of  Raymond  VIL,  accomiianied  by 
cruelties,  awalicned  the  vindictive  zeal  of  the 
pojjc.  Liuiguedoc  was  threatened  with  another 
crusade;  Raymond  was  willing  to  treat,  and 
make  considerable  cessions,  in  order  to  avoid 
such  extremities.  In  April,  1229,  a  treaty  was 
signed:  in  it  the  rights  of  De  Mont  fort  were 
passed  over.  About  two-thirds  of  the  domains 
of  the  count  of  I'oulouse  were  ceded  to  the  king 
of  France;  the  remainder  was  to  fall,  after 
Raymond's  death,  to  his  daughter  Jeanne,  who 
by  the  same  treaty  was  to  marry  one  of  the  royal 
princes:  heirs  failing  them,  it  was  to  revert  to 
the  crown  [wliicli  it  did  in  1271].  On  tliesc 
terms,  with  the  liumiliating  addition  of  a  public 
penance.  Raymond  VIL  once  more  was  allowed 
peaceable  possession  of  Toulouse,  and  of  the 
part  of  his  domains  reserved  to  him,  Alplionse, 
brother  of  Louis  IX.,  married  Jeanne  of  Tou- 
lou.se  soon  after,  and  took  the  title  of  count  of 
Poitiers;  that  province  being  ceded  ♦.)  him  in 
apanage.  Robert,  another  brother,  was  made 
count  of  Artois  at  the  Siuiio  time.  Lo  'is  himself 
married  JIargaret,tlie  eldcstdaughterof  Raymond 
Bcrenger,  ccnmt  of  Provence." — E.  E.  Crowe, 
Hist,  of  France,  v.  1,  ch.  2-3.  —  "Tlie  struggle 
ended  ina  vast  increase  of  tlie  power  of  the  French 
crown,  at  the  expense  alilic  of  the  house  of  Tou- 
louse and  of  the  house  of  Aragon.  The  domin- 
ions of  the  count  of  To\ilouse  were  divided.  A 
number  of  liefs,  Boziers,  Narbonno,  Niines,  Albi, 
and  some  other  districts  were  at  once  aimcxed  to 
the  crown.  The  capital  itself  and  its  county 
passed  to  the  crown  flfty  years  later.  .  .  .  The 
name  of  Toulouse,  except  as  the  name  of  the 
city  itself,  now  passed  away,  and  the  new  ac- 
quisitions of  Fran('e  came  in  the  end  to  be  known 
by  the  name  of  the  tongue  which  was  connnon 
to  tliem  with  A(iuitaiue  and  Imperial  Burgundy 
[Provence].  Under  the  name  of  Languedoo 
they  became  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  valu- 
able provinces  of  the  French  kingdom." — E.  A. 
Freeman,  Hint.  Qeog.  of  Kiinipe,  ch.  9. 

The  brutality  and  destructiveness  of  the 
Crusades. — "The  Church  ot  the  Albigenses 
had  been  drowned  in  blood.  These  supposed 
heretics  had  been  swept  away  from  the  soil  of 
France.  The  rest  of  the  Languedocian  peoi)lc 
had  been  overwhelmed  with  calamity,  slaughter, 
and  devastation.  Tlie  estimates  transmitted  to 
ns  of  the  inimbers  of  the  invaders  and  of  the 
slain  are  such  as  almost  surpass  belief.  AVe  can 
neither  verify  nor  correct  t'.icm;  but  we  cer- 
tainly know  that,  during  a  long  succession  of 
years,  Langtiedoc  had  been  invaded  by  armies 
more  ntuncrous  than  had  ever  before  been 
brought  togetlier  in  Eurojiean  warfare  since 
the  fall  of  tlie  Roman  empire.  'VVe  know  that 
these  hosts  were  composed  of  num  inllamed  by 
bigotry  and  unrestrained  by  discipline;  that  they 
Inid  neither  military  pay  nor  magazines;  that 
they  provided  for  all  their  wants  by  the  sword. 


living  at  the  expense  of  the  country,  and  seizing 
at  their  pleasure  both  the  harvests  of  the  peas- 
ants and  the  merchandise  of  the  citizens.  More 
than  three-fourths  of  the  landed  proprietors  had 
been  despoiled  of  their  flefs  and  castles!  In 
hundreds  of  villages,  every  inhabitant  had  been 
massacred.  .  .  .  Since  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the 
Vandals,  the  European  world  had  never  mourned 
over  a  national  disaster  so  wide  in  its  extent  or 
so  fearful  in  its  character." — Sir  J.  Stephen, 
Lects.  on  the  Hist,  of  France,  led.  7. 

ALBION. —  "The  most  ancient  name  known 
to  have  been  given  to  this  island  [Britain]  is 
that  of  Albion.  .  .  .  There  is,  however,  another 
allusion  to  Britain  which  seems  to  carry  us  much 
further  back,  though  it  has  usually  been  ill 
understood.  It  occurs  in  the  story  of  the  labours 
of  Hercules,  who,  after  securing  the  cows  of 
Geryon,  comes  from  Spain  to  Liguria,  where  he 
is  attacked  by  two  giants,  whom  he  kills  before 
making  his  way  to  Italy.  Now,  according  to 
Pomponius  3Iela,  the  names  of  the  giimts  were 
Albiona  and  Bergyon,  which  one  may,  without 
much  hesitation,  restore  to  the  forms  of  Albion 
and  Iberion,  representing,  undoubtedly,  Britain 
and  Ireland,  the  position  of  wliicli  in  the  sea 
is  most  appropriately  symbolized  by  the  story 
making  tliem  sons  of  Neptune  or  the  sea-god. 
.  .  .  Even  in  tlie  time  of  Pliny,  Albion,  as  the 
name  of  the  island,  had  fallen  out  of  use  with 
Latin  authors;  but  not  so  with  the  Greeks,  or 
with  the  Celts  themselves,  at  any  rate  those  of 
the  Goidelic  branch;  for  they  are  probably  right 
who  suiipose  that  we  have  but  the  same  word 
in  the  Irish  and  Scotch  Gwlic  Alba,  genitive 
Alban,  the  kingdom  of  Alban  or  Scotland  beyond 
the  Forth.  AJbion  would  be  a  form  of  the  name 
according  to  tlio  Brythonic  pronunciation  of  it. 
...  It  would  thus  appear  that  the  name  Albion 
is  one  that  has  retreated  to  a  corner  of  the  island, 
to  the  whole  of  which  it  once  applied." — J. 
Rhys,  Cdtia  Britain,  ch.  6. 

Also  in  E.  Guest,  Orirjiuca  Ctllicae,  ch.  1. — 
See  ScoTLANU:  8Tir-9Tii  cicNTiiiiKS. 

ALBIS,  The. — The  ancient  name  of  the  river 
Elbe. 

ALBOIN,  King  of  the  Lombards,  A.  D. 
560-57;!. 

ALCALDE,  — ALGUAZIL.—CORREGI- 
DOR. —  "The  word  alcalde  is  from  the  Arabic 
'  al  cadi,'  the  judge  or  governor.  .  .  .  Alcalde 
mayor  signities  a  judge,  learned  in  the  law,  who 
exercises  [in  Spain]  ordinary  jurisdiction,  civil 
and  criminal,  in  a  town  or  district."  In  the 
Spanish  colonies  the  Alcalde  mayor  was  the  chief 
judge.  "Irving  (Columbus,  ii.  331)  writes  er- 
roneously alguazil  mayor,  evidently  confounding 
the  two  offices.  .  .  .  An  alguacil  mayor,  was  a 
chief  constable  or  high  shcrill."  "  Corregidor, 
a  magistrate  having  civil  and  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion in  the  first  instance  ( 'nisi  priiis')  and  gub- 
ernatorial inspection  in  the  iiolitica!  and_  eco- 
nomical government  in  all  the  towns  of  the  district 
assigned  to  him." — II.  II.  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  tlie 
Pacific  States,  r.  1,  pp.  297  and  2i)0,  foot-notes. 

ALCANIZ,  Battle  of.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1809  (Fekuuauy  — Jl'NE). 

ALCANTARA,  Battle  of  ths  (1580).  See 
PouTt'dAi,;  A.  D.  ir)75)-1580. 

ALCANTARA,  Knights  of.— "Towards 
the  close  of  Alfonso's  reign  [Alfonso  VIII.  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  who  called  himself  '  the  Em- 


34 


ALCANTARA. 


ALEMANNI,  A.  D.  250. 


pcror,'  A.  D.  1120-1157],  may  be  assigned  the 
origin  of  the  miliUiry  order  of  Alcantara.  Two 
cavaliers  of  Salamanai,  don  Suero  and  don 
Gomez,  left  that  city  with  tlic  design  of  choos- 
ing and  fortifying  some  strong  natural  frontier, 
whence  they  could  not  only  arrest  the  continual 
Incursions  of  the  floors,  but  make  hostile  irrup- 
tions th'Mnselves  into  the  territories  of  tlie  misbe- 
lievers. I'roceeding  along  the  banks  of  the 
Coalcs,  tliey  fell  in  with  a  hermit,  Amando  by 
name,  who  encoura.  ^d  thera  in  their  patriotic 
design  and  recomnit  dcil  the  neighbouring  her- 
mitage of  St.  Juliar  5  an  excellent  site  for  a 
fortress.  Having  examined  and  approved  the 
situation,  they  applied  to  the  bishop  of  Sala- 
manca for  permission  to  occupy  the  place:  that 
permission  was  readily  granted :  witli  his  assist- 
ance, and  that  of  tlio  hermit  Amando,  the  two 
cavaliers  erected  a  castle  aroimd  the  hermitage. 
They  were  now  joined  by  other  nobles  and  by 
more  adventurers,  all  eager  to  acquire  fame  and 
wealth  in  this  life,  glory  in  the  next.  Hence  the 
foundation  of  an  order  which,  under  the  name, 
first,  of  St.  Julian,  and  subsequently  of  Alcan- 
tara, rendered  good  service  alike  to  king  and 
clmrcli." — S.  A.  Dunham,  Ilist.  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  bk.  3,  sert.  3,  ch.  1,  dir.  3. 

ALCAZAR,  OR  "  THE  THREE  KINGS," 
Battle  of  (1578  or  1579).    Sec  Mauocco:    The 

AllAU  CONCJUKST  AND  SINCE. 

ALCIBIADES,      The     career      of.      Sec 

Gkkece:  B.  C.  421-418,  and  411-407;  and 
Athens:  B.  C.  415,  and  413-411. 

ALCLYDE. — Uhydderch,  a  Cumbrian  prince 
of  the  sixth  century  who  was  the  victor  in  a 
civil  conflict,  "  fixed  his  hcadi'jarters  on  a  rock 
in  the  Clyde,  called  in  the  Welsh  Alclud  [pre- 
viously a  Koman  town  known  as  Theodosia], 
whence  it  was  known  to  the  English  for  a  time 
as  Alclyde;  but  the  Goidels  called  it  Dunbret- 
tan,  or  the  fortress  of  the  Brythons,  which  has 
prevailed  in  the  slightly  modified  form  of  Dum- 
barton. .  .  .  Alclyde  was  more  than  once  de- 
stroyed by  the  Northm'-n."— .J.  Rhys,  Celtic 
Britain,  ch.  4. — See,  also,  Cumbuia. 

ALCMi^ONIDS,  The  curse  and  banish- 
men*-.  of  the.    See  Athens:  B.  C.  613-505. 

AICOLEA,  Battle  of  (1868).  See  Spain: 
A.  I).  1860-lN,  !. 

ALDIE,  Battle  of.  See  United  States  ok 
Am.:  a.  D.  1803  (June  — July:  Pennsvi,- 
vania). 

ALDINE  press.  The.  See  Pkintino 
AND  THE  Press:  A.  D.  1400-1515. 

ALEMANNIA:  The  Mediaval  Duchy. 
See  Germany:  A.  D.  813-002. 

ALEMANNI,  OR  ALAMANNI:  A.  D. 
2I3'— Origin  and  first  appearance.— "  Under 
Antoninus,  the  Son  of  Severus,  a  new  and  more 
severe  war  once  more  {'  I).  213)  broke  out  in 
Ractia.  This  also  was  v.aged  against  the  Chatti ; 
but  by  their  side  a  second  people  is  named, 
which  we  liero  meet  for  the  first  time  — the 
Alanianni.  Whence  they  came,  we  known  not. 
According  to  a  Roman  writing  a  little  later,  they 
were  a  contlux  of  mi.xed  elements;  the  appella- 
tion also  seems  to  point  to  a  league  of  conununi- 
ties,  as  well  as  the  fact  that,  afterwards,  the 
dillcrent  tribes  comprehended  under  this  name 
stand  forth  — more  than  is  the  case  among  the 
other  great  Germanic  peoples  — in  their  separate 
cliaracter,  and  the  Juthungi,  the  Lentienses,  and 
other  Alamannic  peoples  not  seldom  act  inde- 


pendently. But  that  it  is  not  the  Germans  of 
this  region  who  liere  emerge,  allied  uniier  the 
new  name  and  strengthened  by  the  alliance,  is 
shown  as  well  by  the  naming  of  the  Alainanni 
along  side  of  the  Cliatti,  as  by  the  nifntion  of 
tlie  unwonted  skilfidness  of  the  Alamanni  in 
equestrian  combat.  On  the  contniry,  it  was 
certainly,  in  the  main,  hordes  coming  on  from 
the  East  that  lent  new  strength  to  the  almost 
extinguished  German  resistance  on  the  Rhine;  it 
is  not  improbable  that  the  powerful  Semnones, 
in  earlier  times  dwelling  on  tlie  middle  Elbe,  of 
whom  there  is  no  further  mention  after  the  end 
of  the  second  century,  furnished  a  strong  con- 
tingent to  the  Alamanni." — T.  Mommsen,  Ilist. 
ofllnine,  bk.  8,  ch.  4. —  "The  stJindard  quotation 
respecting  the  derivation  of  the  name  from 
'al'— 'all '  and  m-n— 'man',  so  that  the  word 
(.somewhat  exceptionably)  denotes  'men  of  all 
sorts,'  is  from  Agathias,  who  quotes  Asinius 
Quadratus.  .  .  .  Notwithstanding  tills,  I  think 
it  is  an  open  question,  whetlicr  the  name  may 
not  liave  been  applied  by  the  truer  and  more 
unequivocal  Germans  of  Suabia  and  Francouia, 
to  certain  less  definitely  Germanic  allies  from 
Wurtemberg  and  Baden,  —  parts  of  the  Decu- 
inates  Agri  —  parts  which  may  have  supplied  a 
Gallic,  a  Gallo-Ronian,  or  even  a  Slavonic  ele- 
ment to  the  confederacy ;  in  which  case,  a  name 
so  German  as  to  have  given  the  present  French 
and  Italian  name  for  Germany,  may,  originally, 
liave  applied  to  a  population  other  than  Ger- 
manic. I  know  the  apparently  paradoxical  elc- 
nicuts  in  this  view ;  but  I  also  know  that,  in  the 
way  of  etymology,  it  is  quite  as  safe  to  trans- 
late '  all '  by  '  alii '  as  by  '  omnes':  and  I  cannot 
help  thinking  tliat  the  '  al- '  in  Ale-maniii  is  tlie 
'  al- '  in  '  alir-arto  '(a  foreigner  or  man  of  another 
sort),  '  eli-benzo '  (an  alien),  and  'ali-laiid  '  (cap- 
tivity in  foreign  land).  —  Grimm,  ii.  628. —  Recli- 
saltcrth,  p.  350.  And  still  more  satislied  am  I 
that  the  '  al- '  in  Al-cmauni  is  the  '  al- '  in  Al- 
satia='el-sass'=''ali-satz  '='foreign  settlement.' 
In  other  words,  the  prefix  in  question  is  more 
probably  the  'al-'iii  'else',  thr.n  the  'al-'in 
'  all.'  Little,  however,  of  iirportance  turns 
on  tills.  The  locality  of  the  Alcmannl  was  the 
parts  about  the  Limes  Romanu/.  a  boundary 
which,  in  the  time  of  Alexanuer  Severus, 
Niebuhr  thinks  they  first  broke  tlirougli.  Hence 
they  were  the  Marchmcn  of  the  frontier,  who- 
ever those  Marchmcu  were.  Other  such  March- 
men  were  the  Sucvi;  unless,  indeed,  we  con- 
sider tlio  two  names  as  synonymous.  Zeuss  ad- 
mits that,  between  the  Siievi  of  Suabia,  and  the 
Alomanni,  no  tiuigible  dilTerence  can  bo  found." 

—  R.  G.  LaHian,  The  Cermania  of  Tacitus; 
EjnlegomeiM,  sect.  11. 

Also  in  T.  Smilli,   Arniiniu.i,  pt.  3,  ch.  1. — 
See,  also,  Suevi,  and  Bav.mhans. 
A.    D.   259. —  Invasion   of  Gaul   and  Italy. 

—  The  Alcnianni,  "hovering  on  the  frontiers 
of  the  Empire  .  .  .  increased  the  ge  leral  dis- 
order tliat  ensued  after  the  death  of  Dccius. 
Tliey  inflicted  severe  wounds  on  the  rich 
provinCi!8  of  Gaul;  they  were  the  first  who 
rcraovf ;d  the  veil  that  covered  the  feeble  majesty 
of  Iti.ly.  A  numerous  body  of  the  Alemanni 
penetrated  across  the  Danube  and  through  the 
RhieJan  Alps  into  the  jilains  of  Lombardy,  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  Ravenna  and  displayed  the  vic- 
torious banners  of  barbarians  almost  in  sight 
of  Rome  [A.  D.  25U].     The  insult  anil  the  danger 


86 


ALEMANNI,  A.  D.  250. 


ALEMANNI,  A.  D.  547. 


rekindled  in  tlic  scniite  somi;  sparks  of  their 
ancient  virtue.  IJotli  tlie  Emperors  were  en- 
gaged i!i  far  di.slant  wars  —  Viileriuu  in  the 
Eiist  and  ( jiulienus  on  tlie  Kliinc  "  'I'lic  senators, 
however,  sii<<eeded  in  eonl'ronlinf;  tlie  iindaeions 
invaders  with  a  force  wliich  checked  their  ad- 
vance, and  they  "retired  into  Germany  laden 
with  spoil." — E.  Ciihhon,  Decline  ami  Fall  of  the 
liomaii  Kiiijiire,  eh.  10. 

A.  D.  270. — Invasion  of  Italy. —  Italy  was 
invaded  liy  the  AUinanni,  for  th(!  second  time, 
in  the  riijin  of  Anrelian,  A.  I).  270.  They  rav- 
a;^ed  the  provinces  from  the  Dannhu  to  the  Po, 
and  were  retrealin;;,  laden  with  sjjoils,  when  the 
vigorous  Emperor  intcrcepteil  thera,  on  the 
banks  of  the  former  river.  Half  the  host  was 
permitted  to  cross  the  Danube;  the  other  half 
was  surprised  and  surrounded.  IJut  the.se  last, 
unable  to  regain  their  own  country,  broke 
through  the  Roman  lines  at  their  rear  and  sped 
into  Italy  again,  si>readiiig  havoc  as  they  went. 
It  was  only  after  three  great  battles. —  one  near 
Placentia,  in  which  the  Homans  were  almost 
beaten,  another  on  the  Metaurus  (where  Has- 
drubal  was  defeated),  and  a  third  near  Pavia, — 
that  the  Germanic  invaders  were  destroyed. — 
E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Jloina/i  Em- 
pire, eh.  11. 

A.  D.  355-361.  — Repulse  by  Julian.  See 
Gaii,:  a.  1).  355-301. 

A.  D.  365-367.  — Invasion  of  Gaul.  — The 
Alemanni  invaded  Gaul  in!i(55,  committing  wide- 
spread ravages  and  carrying  away  into  the  for- 
ests of  Germany  great  spoil  and  many  captives. 
The  next  winter  they  crossed  the  lihine,  again, 
in  still  greater  numbers,  defeated  the  Roman 
forces  ami  captured  the  standards  of  the  Heru- 
liau  and  Hatavian  au.\iliaries.  But  Valeutiniau 
was  now  Emperor,  and  he  adopted  energetic 
measures.  Ills  lieutenant  Jovimis  overcame  the 
invaders  in  a  great  battle  fought  near  Chalons 
and  drove  them  back  to  their  own  side  of  the 
river  boundary.  Two  years  later,  the  Emperor, 
himself,  jjassed  the  Rhine  and  inllicted  a  memo- 
nible  chastisement  on  the  Aleniaimi.  At  tho 
same  time  he  strengtliened  the  frontier  defences, 
and,  by  dii)lomatic  arts,  fomented  qmirrels  be- 
tween tlu^  Alemanni  and  their  neighbors,  the 
Burgundians,  whicli  weakemKl  both. — E.  Gib- 
bon. Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
ch.  25. 

A.  D.  378.—  Defeat  by  Gratian. —  On  learn- 
ing that  the  young  Emperor  Gratinu  was  pre- 
paring to  lead  the  military  force  of  Gaul  and  the 
West  to  the  help  of  his  uncle  and  colleague, 
Valens,  against  tho  Goths,  the  Alemanni  swarmed 
across  the  Rhino  into  Gaul.  Gratian  instantly 
recalled  the  legions  that  were  marching  to  Pan- 
uonia  and  encountered  tlu  Gerinan  invaders  in  a 
great  battle  fought  near  Ar'gentaria  (moiU'rn 
t^olmar)  in  the  month  of  May,  A.  D.  378.  The 
Alemanni  were  routed  with  such  slaughter  that  no 
more  than  5,000  out  of  -10,000  to  70,000,  are  said 
to  have  escaped.  Gratian  afterwards  crossed  the 
Rhine  and  humbled  his  troublesome  neighbors 
in  their  own  country. —  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Jioman  Empire,  ch.  20. 

A.  "D.  496 -504.— Overthrow  by  the  Franks. 
—"In  the  year  490  A.  D.  the  Salians  [Salian 
Franks]  began  that  career  of  conquest  which 
they  followed  up  with  scarcely  any  intermission 
until  the  death  of  their  warrior  king.  The 
Aiemaoni,  extending  tUcmsclvcs  from  their  origi- 


nal seats  on  the  right  1    .ikof  the  Rhine,  between 
the  Main  and  the  Danube,  had  pushed  forward 
into  (lermanica   Prima,  where   they   came  into 
collision    with   tlie   Prankish   sid)jects   of    King 
Sigebert  of  Cologne.     Clovis   tlcw  to  the  assist- 
ance of  his  kinsman  and  defeated  the  Alemanni 
in  a  great  battle  in  tho  neighl)ourhood  of  Zlll- 
pich  [called,  conimoidy,  the  battle  of  Tolbiacl. 
lie  then  cslablislied  a  considerable  ninnber  of  his 
Franks  in   the   territory  of  the   Alemaimi,  tlie 
traces  of  whose  residence  are  found  in  the  names 
of  Franconia  and    Frankfort." — \V.    C.   Perry, 
2' he  Franks,  ch.  2. — "  Clovis  had  been  intending 
to  cross  the  Rhine,  but  the  ho.sts  of  the  Alamamii  \' 
came  upon  him,  as  it  seems,  unexpectedly   and     : 
forced  a  battle  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.     He 
seemed  to  be  overmatched,  and  the  horror  of  an 
impending  ilefeat  overshadowed  the    Prankish    ' 
king.     Tlien,  in  his  despair,  he  bethought  him-    " 
self  of  the  God  of  (,'lotilda  [his  queen,  a  Biirguu- 
diau    Christian    princess,    of    the    orthodox    Oi 
Catholic  faith].     Riiising  his  eyes  to  heaven,  ho 
said:  'Oh  Jesus  Christ,  whom  Clotilda  declares 
to  be  the  Son  of  the  living  God,  who  art  said  to 
give  help  to  those  who  a/e  in  trouble  and  who 
trust  in  Thee,  I  humbly  beseech  Thy  succour!  I 
have  called  on  my  gods  and  they  are  far  from 
my  help.     If  Thou  wilt  deliver  me  from  mine 
enemies,  I  will  believe  in  Thee,  and  be  baptised 
in  Thy  name.'    At  this  moment,  a  sudden  change 
was  seen  in  the  fortunes  of  tlie  Franks.     The 
Alamanni  began   to  waver,  they   turned,    they 
fled.     Their  king,  according  to  one  account   was 
slain;    and  the  nation  seems  to  have  accejited 
Clovis  as  its  over-lord."    The  following  Christ- 
mas day  Clovis  was  baptised  at  Reims  and  3,000 
of  his  warriors  followed  the  royal  example.     "  In 
the  early  years  of  the  new  century,  probably 
about  5')3  or  504,  Clovis  was  again  at  war  with 
his    old    enemies,    the    Alamanni.  ....  .  Clovis    ■ 

moved  his  army  into  their  territories  and  won  a  , 
victory  much  more  decisive,  though  less  famous  ; 
than  that  of  406.  Tliis  time  tlie  angry  king  ' 
wo\ild  make  no  such  easj'  terms  as  he  had  done 
before.  From  'heir  pleasant  dwellings  by  the 
:Main  and  the  Ncckar,  from  all  the  valley  of  tho 
Middle  Rhine,  the  terrilied  Alamanni  were 
forced  to  tle(^  Their  place  was  taken  by  Prank- 
ish settlers,  from  whom  all  this  district  received  ■ 
in  the  Middle  Ages  the  name  of  the  Duchy  of 
Francia,  or,  at  a  rather  later  date,  that  of  the 
Circle  of  Franconia.  The  Alamanni,  with  their 
wives  and  children,  a  broken  and  disi>i'ile(l  ho.st, 
moved  southward  t(j  the  sliores  of  the  Lake  of 
Constance  and  entered  the  old  Roman  province  of 
Rhictia.  Here  they  were  on  what  was  held  to 
be,  in  a  sense,  Italian  ground;  and  the  arm  of 
Theodoric,  as  ruler  of  Italy,  as  successor  to  the 
Emperors  of  tho  West,  was  stretched  forth  to 
protect  them.  .  .  .  Eastern  Switzerland,  West- 
ern Tyrol,  Southern  Baden  and  Wttrtomberg  and 
Southwestern  I'.ivaria  ])robably  formed  this  new 
Alaniannis,  which  will  figure  in  later  history  as 
tho '  Diicatus  Alamanniie, '  or  the  Circle  of  Swabia. 
— T.  Iloflgkin,  Italy  and  Ilcr  Inradcrs.  hk.  4,  eh.  9.  « 

Also  TN  P.  Godwin,  Hint,  of  Fr/incc:  Ancient 
Gmd,  hk.  3,  eh.  11.— See,  also,  Suevi:  A.  D. 
460-500;  and  Fuankb:   A.  D.  481-511. 

A.  D.  528-729. -^Struggles  against  the 
Frank  Dominion.  See  Geumany:  A.  D.  481- 
708. 

A.  D.  547.— Final  subjection  to  the  Franks. 
See  Bavaui.v:  A.  D.  547. 


36 


ALKPPO. 


ALEXANDHIA,  B.  C.  283-240. 


ALEPPO:  A.  D.  638-969.— I'likcn  liy  tlio 
Arab  followers  ol'  .Maluiiiu  t  in  l!;iX,  this  tity  was 
rwDViTcil  bv  the  ]Jvziiiiliii(N  in  ;"'.ll.  Sco  IJtzan- 
TiNK  KMiMiii;:  A.  D.  UOii-lO'j:.. 

A.  D.  1260.— Destruction  by  the  Mongols. 
— Tlif  JIonKols,  miiliT  Ivliiil:i  u,  or  llouhifioii, 
brother  of  Maiifru  Khun,  liir  rj;  overrun  Mrso- 
polauiia  and  cxtingiiislicd  lli  Talipliate  at  Hair- 
dad,  crossi'd  the  Kupliratcs  in  tlif  spriuj;  of  1200 
and  advanced  to  Aieppo.  Tlie  city  was  taken 
after  a  siege  of  seven  days  and  fiiven  up  for  live 
days  to  pillage  and  slaughter.  "When  the 
carnage  ceased,  the  streets  were  cumbered  with 
corpses.  ...  It  is  said  that  100,000  women  and 
children  were  sold  as  slaves.  The  walls  of 
Alepjjo  were  i.izcil,  its  mosques  destroyed,  and 
its  gardens  ra\aged."  Damasois  submitted  and 
was  spared.  Kliulagu  was  meditating,  it  is  said, 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  when  news  of  the 
death  of  the  Great  Khan  ealleil  him  to  the  East. 
—II.  n.  Iloworth,  Jlint.  of  (he  Mongols,  pp.  209- 
211. 

A.  D.  1401. — Sack  and  Massacre  by  Timour. 
See  TiMoiii. 

ALESIA,  Siege  of,  by  Caesar.  See  Gaul: 
B.  ('.  ns-ut. 

ALESSANDRIA:  The  creation  of  the  city 
(1168).    See  Italy:  A.  D.  1174-1183. 
ALEUTS,  The.    See  American  Abo.uoi- 

NES:  KSKIMO. 

ALEXANDER  the  Great,  B.  C.  334-323- 
— Conquests  and  Empire.  SeeMACKUONiA,  iVe., 
B.  C.  :i34-;«0,  and  after. . .  .Alexander,  King  of 

Poland,  A.  D.  irjOl-loUT Alexander,  Prince 

of  Bulgaria. — Abduction  and  Abdication.  Sec 
BiuiAUiA:  A.  IJ.  1878-1886. ..  .Alexander  1., 
Czar  of  Russia,  A.  D.  1801-1823. . .  .Alexan- 
der I.,  King  of  Scotland,  A.  D,  1107-1124. . . . 

Alexander    II.,    Pope,    A.    D.    1001-1073 

Alexander  II.,  Czar  of  Russia,  A.  D.  185.5- 

1881 Alexander    II.,    King    of    Scotland, 

A.  1).  1214-1249. . .  .Alexander  III.,  Pope,  A.  D. 
1159-1181.... Alexander  III.,  Czar  of  Russia, 
A.  D.  1881—. . .  .Alexander  III.,  King  of  Scot- 
land, A.  D.  1349-1280. . .  Alexander  IV.,  Pope, 
A.  D.  13,54-1261. . .  .Alexander  V.,  Pope,  A.  D. 
1409-1410  (elected  by  the  Council  of  Pisa).... 
Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1492-1503 Alex- 
ander VII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1655-1007 Alex- 
ander VIII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1089-1091.... Alex- 
ander Severus,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  222-2:35. 

ALEXANDRIA:  B.  C.  332.— The  Found- 
ing of  the  City.— ""Wlien  Alexander  reached 
the  Egyptian  military  station  at  the  little 
town  or  village  of  llhakotis,  he  saw  with 
the  quick  eye  of  a  great  commander  how- 
to  turn  this  petty  settlement  into  a  great 
city,  and  to  make  its  roadstead,  out  of  which 
ships  could  be  blown  by  a  change  of  wind, 
into  a  double  harbour  roomy  enough  to 
shelter  tie  navies  of  the  world.  All  tlmt  was 
needed  wm  to  join  the  island  bv  a  mole  to  the 
continent.  The  site  was  admiriibly  secure  and 
convenien'„,  a  narrow  strip  of  land  "between  the 
Jlediterranean  and  the  great  inland  Lake  Mare- 
otls.  The  whole  northern  side  faced  the  two 
harbours,  which  were  bounded  east  and  west  by 
the  mole,  and  beyond  by  the  long,  narrow  rocky 
island  of  Pharos,  stretching  parallel  with  the 
coast.  On  the  south  was  the  inland  port  of  Lake 
Mareotis.  The  length  of  the  citv  was  more  than 
three  mdes,  the  breadth  more  than  three-quarters 
of  a  mUe;  the  mole  was  above  three-quarters  of 


a  mile  long  and  lix  hundred  feet  broad;  its 
breadth  is  now  doiililed,  owing  to  the  silling  up 
of  the  sand.  Minlern  Alexandria  until  lately 
only  occupied  t'.ic  .nole,  and  was  a  great  town  in 
a  corner  of  the  space  which  Alexander,  with 
large  provision  for  the  future,  measured  out. 
Tiie  form  of  the  new  city  was  ruled  by  tliat  of 
the  sile,  but  the  fancy  of  Alexander  designed  it 
in  Ihc  shape  of  a  Maeeclonian  cloak  or  ddaniy.a, 
such  as  a  national  hero  wears  on  the  (!oiiis  of  i'.ic 
kings  of  Maei'don,  his  ancestors.  TIk^  situation 
is  excellent  for  commerce.  Alexandria,  with  tlic 
best  Egyptian  harbour  on  the  Mediteiraneau, 
and  the  inland  port  coiuiected  with  the  Nile 
streams  and  canals,  was  the  natural  emporium 
of  the  Indian  trade.  Port  Said  is  su|)erior  now, 
because  of  its  graud  artificial  port  and  the 
advantage  for  steamships  of  an  unbroken  sea- 
.oute."— R.  S.  Poole,  Cities  of  H'jmit,  ch.  \%— 
See,  also,  MACiiDO.NiA,  &c. :  B.  C.  3:14-330 ;  and 
Egypt:  B.  V.  333. 

Reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  B.  C.  282- 
246. —  Greatness  and  splendor  of  the  City. — 
Its  Commerce. — Its  Libraries. —  Its  Museum. 
—  Its  Schools.  —  I'lolcmy  Philadelphus,  son 
of  Ptolemy  Soter,  succeeded  to  tlic  ihrone  of 
Egypt  in  283  B.  C.  when  his  father  retired  from 
it  in  his  favor,  and  reigned  until  240  B.  C. 
"Alexandria,  founded  by  the  great  conqueror, 
increased  and  beautilied  by  Ptolemy  Sotcr,  was 
now  far  the  greatest  city  of  Alexander's  Empire. 
It  was  the  first  of  those  new  foundations  which 
are  a  marked  feature  in  Hellenism;  there  were 
many  others  of  great  size  and  importance  — 
above  all,  Antioch,  then  Seleueia  on  the  Tigris, 
then  Nieomedia,  Niea;a,  Apamea,  which  lasted; 
besides  such  as  Lysimacheia,  Antigoueia,  and 
others,  whicli  early  disappeared.  .  .  .  Alexan- 
dria was  the  model  for  all  the  rest.  The  inter- 
section of  two  great  principal  thoroughfares, 
adorned  with  colonnades  for  the  footways,  formed 
the  centre  point,  the  omphalos  of  the  city.  The 
other  streets  were  at  right  angles  with  these 
thoroughfares,  so  that  the  whole  place  was  quite 
regular.  Counting  its  old  part,  Khakotis,  which 
was  still  the  habitation  of  native  Egyptians, 
Alexandria  had  live  quarters,  one  at  least  devoted 
to  Jews  who  had  originally  settled  there  in  great 
numbers.  The  mixed  popidation  there  of  Mace- 
donians, Greeks,  Jews,  and  Egyptians  gave  a 
peculiarly  complex  and  variable  character  to  the 
population.  Let  us  not  forget  the  vast  number 
of  strangers  from  all  parts  of  the  world  whom 
trade  and  politics  brought  there.  It  was  the 
great  mart  where  the  wealt  h  of  Europe  and  of  Asia 
changed  hands.  Alexander  had  opcnetl  the  sea- 
\vay  by  exploring  the  coasts  of  Me(lia  and  Persia. 
Caravans  from  the  heail  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
ships  on  the  Red  Sea,  brought  all  the  wonders  of 
Ceylon  and  China,  as  well  as  of  Further  India,  to 
Alexandria.  There,  too,  the  wealth  of  Spain  and 
Gaul,  the  produce  of  Italy  and  Macedonia,  the 
amber  of  the  Baltic  and  tiie  salt  tisli  of  Pontus, 
the  silver  of  Spain  and  the  copper  of  Cyprus,  the 
timber  of  Macedonia  and  Crete,  the  pottery  and 
oil  of  Greece  —  a  thousand  imports  from  all  the 
Mediterranean  —  came  to  be  cxchauged  for  the 
spices  of  Arabia,  the  splendid  birds  and  embroi- 
deries of  India  and  Ceylon,  the  gold  and  ivory  of 
Africa,  the  antelopes,  "the  apes,  the  leopards,  the 
elephants  of  tropical  climes.  Hence  the  enormous 
wealth  of  the  Lagidic,  for  in  addition  to  the  mar- 
vellous fertility  and  great  population  —  it  is  said 


87 


ALEXANDRIA,  U.  C.  283-240. 


ALEXANDKIA.  U.  C.  282-240. 


Ui  Imvf  Imiii  seven  millions  —  of  Ejjypt,  they 
miide  Jill  the  prollt.s  of  thi^^  enormous  earrying 
tnitle.  We  hh'o  u  t'ood  ideii  of  whiil  the  sphu- 
(lour.s  of  tile  eapiliil  were  by  the  very  full  uc<dunt 
preserved  to  us  by  Athenieus  of  the  (f rent  feast 
which  inaugurated  tlie  reiirn  of  I'liilaih'lphus. 
.  .  .  All  this  seems  idle  pomp,  and  the  doiii;;  of 
an  idle  sybarite.  I'hiladelphiis  wasanythin;;  but 
that.  ...  It  was  be  who  opened  tip  ilie  Kj;yp- 
tian  trade  with  Italy,  and  made  I'uteoli  tlie  Kreat 
port  for  ships  from  Ale.vandria,  which  it  remained 
for  ceiituries.  It  was  he  who  explored  Ktliiopia 
and  the  southern  parts  of  Africa,  and  brou^jht 
back  not  only  the  curious  fauna  to  his  zooIo;,'ieal 
jfardcns,  but  the  (ii>>t  knowledjrc  of  the  Tio^do- 
dytes  for  men  of  scil•ne(^  The  cultivation  of 
.science  aial  of  letters  too  was  so  remarkably  olio 
of  his  pursuits  that  the  pro.i;res8  of  the  Alexan- 
dria of  his  day  forms  an  epoch  in  the  world's 
history,  and  we  mu.st  separate  his  University  and 
its  professors  from  this  siininiary,  and  devote  to 
them  a  .sepanite  section.  .  .  .  The  history  of  the 
orf;ani7.iilioii  of  the  University  and  its  stall  is 
covered  with  almost  impinetrable  mist.  For  the 
Mus(!um  and  Library  were  in  the  strictest  sense 
what  we  should  now  call  an  University,  and  one, 
too,  of  the  Oxford  type,  where  learned  men  were 
invited  to  take  Fellowshijis,  and  spend  their 
leiirned  leisun;  close  to  ob.servatories  in  scienc<'. 
and  a  jrreat  library  of  books.  Like  the  mediiev  al 
universities,  tliisendowineutof  research  naturally 
turned  into  an  eiiLriiie  for  teaching,  as  all  who 
desired  knowledge  Hocked  to  such  a  centre,  and 
persuaded  the  Fcllcw  to  become  a  Tutor.  The 
model  came  from  Athens.  There  the  schools, 
bogiiiiiing  with  the  Academy  of  Plato,  had  a 
fixed  iiropertv  —  u  home  witli  its  surrounding 
pardon,  and  in  order  to  make  this  foundation 
Sure,  it  was  made  a  shrine  where  the  Muses  were 
worshipped,  and  where  the  head  of  the  school,  or 
a  priest  appointed,  performed  stated  sacriticcs. 
This,  then,  being  hehl  in  trust  by  the  successors 
of  the  donor,  who  bccpiealhcd  it,  to  them,  was  a 
propc.Tty  which  it  would  have  b<jon  sacrilegious 
to  invade,  and  so  the  title  Musflum  arose  for  a 
school  of  learning.  Demetrius  the  Phalercaii,  the 
friend  and  protector  of  Theophrastus,  brought 
this  idea  with  him  to  Alexandria,  when  his  name- 
sake drove  him  into  exile  [see  GllKixii:  B.  C. 
307-197]  and  it  was  no  doubt  his  advice  to  the 
tli-st  Ptolemy  which  originated  the  great  foun- 
dation, though  Philadelphus,  who  again  exiled 
Demetrius,  gets  the  credit  of  it.  TIk^  pupil  of 
Aristotle  nioriMiver  impressed  on  the  king  the 
necessity  of  storing  up  in  one  central  repository 
all  that  the  world  knew  or  could  produce,  in 
order  to  ascertain  tlio  laws  of  things  from  a  pro- 
per analysis  of  detail.  Hence  was  founded  not 
only  the  great  library,  which  in  those  days  had  a 
thousand  times  the  value  a  great  library  has  now, 
but  also  observatories,  zoological  gardens,  col- 
lections of  exotic  plants,  and  of  other  new  and 
strange  things  brought  by  exploring  expeditions 
from  the  furthest  regions  of  Arabia  aiul  Africa. 
This  library  and  museum  jjroved  indited  a  home 
for  the  Muses,  and  about  it  a  most  brilliant  group 
of  students  in  literature  and  science  was  formed. 
The  successive  librarians  were  Zenodotus,  the 
grammarian  or  critic;  Callimachus,  to  wliose 
poems  we  shall  presently  return;  Erato.sthenes, 
the  astronomer,  who  originated  the  jirocess  by 
which  the  size  of  the  earth  is  determined  to-day ; 
Appolionius  the  Rhodian,  disciple  and  enemy  of 


Callimachus ;  Aristoplianesof  nyzantiuin,  foundr 
of  a  school  of  jihilological  criticism;  and  Arip'  .- 
elms  of  Samos,  ri'putcd  to  have  been  the  grei.icst 
Clitic  of  ancii'iit  times.  Tlie  study  of  the  text  of 
Homer  was  the  chief  labour  of  Zenodotus,  Aris- 
tophanes, and  Arislarchus.  and  it  was  Aristar- 
clius  who  mainly  tixed  the  form  in  which  the 
Iliad  and  Odys.scy  remain  to  this  day.  .  .  .  The 
vast  collections  of  the  library  and  niii'-eiini 
actually  (U'ti'rmined  the  whole  chamcter  of  the 
literature  of  Alexandria.  One  word  sums  it  all 
up  —  erudition,  wlatlier  in  philosophy,  in  criti- 
cism, in  .science,  even  in  ])oetry.  Strange  to  say, 
they  neglected  not  only  oratory,  for  which  there 
was  no  scope,  but  history,  and  this  we  may  attri- 
bute to  the  fact  that  history  before  Alexander  had 
no  charms  for  Hellenism.  Mythical  Uik,  on  the 
other  hand,  stnuige  uses  and  curious  words,  were 
departments  of  research  dear  to  them.  In  science 
tlicy  did  great  things,  so  did  they  in  geography. 
.  .  .  Hut  were  they  original  in  nothing?  Did 
tlicy  add  nothing  of  theif  own  to  the  splendid 
record  of  Greek  literature?  In  the  next  gener- 
ation came  the  art  of  criticism,  which  Ari.star- 
cliiis  dcvelo|)ed  into  a  real  science,  and  of  that 
we  may  speak  in  its  place;  but  even  in  this 
generation  we  may  claim  for  them  the  credit  of 
three  original,  or  nearly  original,  developments 
in  literature  —  the  pastoral  idyll,  as  wo  have  it 
in  Theocritus;  tlie  elegy,  as  we  have  it  in  the 
Homau  imitatoi-s  of  Philetas  and  Callimachus; 
and  the  romance,  or  love  story,  the  parent  of  our 
modiM-n  novels.  All  these  hiul  early  prototypes 
in  the  folk  songs  of  Sicily,  in  the  love  songs  of 
>Iinincrmus  and  of  Antiniachus,  in  the  tales  of 
^Miletus,  but  still  the  revival  was  fairly  to  be 
called  original.  Of  these  the  pastoral  idyll  was 
far  tlie  mo.st  remarkable,  and  laid  hold  iijion  the 
world  for  ever." — J.  P.  Mahally,  'J'/u:  IStory  oj 
Alfxandev'K  Empire,  ch.  13-14.  —  "There  were  two 
Libraries  of  Alexandria  under  the  Ptolemies,  the 
larger  one  in  the  quarter  called  the  Uruchium, 
and  the  smaller  one,  named  'the  daughter,' in 
the  Serapeuin,  wliicli  was  sittiated  in  the  quarter 
called  Uhacotis.  The  former  was  totally 
destroyed  in  the  conllagration  of  the  Bruehium 
during  Ciesar's  Alexandrian  War  [see  below: 
B.  C.  48-47];  but  the  latter,  which  was  of  great 
value. ^remained  uninjured  (see  Matter,  lluloire 
de  I'Eeok  (l'Ale.niii(lne,  fol.  1,  p.  133«f7.,  237 
seq.)  It  is  not  stated  by  any  ancient  writer 
where  the  collection  of  Pergamus  [sec  Pehoa- 
Mf.M]  was  placed,  which  Antony  gave  to  Cleo- 
patra (Plutarch,  Anton.,  c.  58);  but  it  is  most 
probable  that  it  was  deposited  in  the  Brucliium, 
as  that  quarter  of  the  city  was  now  without  a 
libnuy,  and  tlu^  queen  was  anxious  to  repair  the 
ravages  occasioned  by  the  civil  war.  If  this 
siip])osition  is  (-orrect,  two  Alexandrian  libraries 
continued  to  exist  after  the  time  of  Ciesar,  and 
this  is  rendered  still  more  probable  by  the  fact 
that  during  the  lirst  three  centuries  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  the  Bruehium  was  still  the  literary 
quarter  of  Alexandria.  But  a  great  change  took 
place  in  the  time  of  Aurelian.  This  Ilinperor,  in 
suppressing  the  revolt  of  Firmus  in  Egypt,  A. 
D.  273  [see  below:  A.  D.  273]  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  the  Bruehium ;  and  though  this  state- 
ment is  hardly  to  be  taken  literally,  the  Bruehium 
ceased  from  this  time  to  be  included  within  the 
walls  of  A  xandria,  and  was  regarded  only  as  o 
suburb  of  tne  city.  Whether  the  great  library 
in  the  Bruehium  with  the  museum  and  its  other 


38 


ALEXANDUIA,  n.  C.  282-240. 


ALEXANDRIA.  A.  ».  273. 


literary  establlslimoiits,  pcrisliod  at  this  time,  we 
do  not  know;  but  the  Serapciini  for  llie  next 
ceiiMiry  talies  its  i)la(c  as  tlic  literary  (|iiarter  of 
Alexiindria,  and  l)e(onics  tlie  eliief  library 
In  the  city.  Hence  later  writers  erroneously 
speak  of  tlie  Serapeum  as  if  it  liad  Ih  .  n  from  the 
iH't^inninK  the  iircnt  Alexandrian  library.  .  .  . 
Gibbon  seems  to  think  that  the  whole  of  the 
Serapi'um  was  (le3trovi'<l  [A.  D.  :!'<»,  by  order  of 
the  Kmperor  Theodosius— see  below |;  but  this 
was  not  the  ease  It  would  a|)pearlliat  it  was 
only  the  sanctuary  of  tin;  frod  that  was 
levelled  with  the  jrround,  and  that  the  library, 
the  halls  and  other  buildinj^s  in  the  consecrated 
ground  reniaiiHMl  standing;  lonj;  afterwun's." — E. 
Gibbon,  Ihdine  and  FM  of  the  Human  t.'mpiie, 
c/i.  28.  yiilishy  Dr.  William  N/;»7//.— Concern- 
ing the  rei)ute(l  final  destruction  of  the  Librny 
by    the  Moslems,  see  below:   A.   1).   (lU-tiKi, 

Also  in  O.  Delepierre,  llintorieal  l)i(lu-iiUii:<, 
eh.  3.— S.  Sharpe,  IUkI.  of  Erjupt,  ch.  7,  Hand  12. 
— See,  also,  Xi;o1'I..\t<inus. 

B.  C.  48-47.— Cffisar  and  Cleopatra.— The 
Rising  against  the  Romans.— The  Siege. — 
Destruction  of  the  great  Library.— Roman 
victory. —  Krom  the  battle  held  of  I'liarwdia  (see 
Uo.ME  :  B.  0.  48)  I'cmipeius  lied  to  Alexaudri.i 
in  Egypt,  and  was  treacherously  murdered  as  he 
stepped  on  shore.  Csesar  arrived  a  f(!\v  days 
afterwards,  in  close  pursuit,  and  shed  1ear,s,  it  is 
said,  on  being  shown  bis  rival's  mangled  head, 
lie  had  brought  scarcely  more  than  3,000  of  his 
soldiers  with  him,  and  he  foiuid  Egypt  in  a  tur- 
bulent state  of  civil  war.  The  throne  was  in 
dispute  between  children  of  the  late  king, 
I'tolemipus  Auletes.  Clei;patra,  the  elder  daugh- 
ter, and  Ptolemojus,  a  son,  were  at  war  with 
one  another,  and  ArsinoC,  a  younger  ilaughter, 
was  ready  to  put  forward  claims  (sec  Egypt: 
B.  C.  80-48).  Notwith.standing  the  insignifi- 
cance of  his  force,  Ca'sar  did  not  hesitate  to  as- 
sume to  occupy  Alexandria  and  to  adjudicate  the 
dispute.  But  the  fascinations  of  Cleopatra 
(then  twenty  years  of  age)  soon  made  him  her 
partisan,  and  her  scarcely  disguised  lover.  This 
aggravated  the  Irritation  which  was  ca\ised  in 
Alexandria  by  the  presence  of  Cicsar's  troops, 
and  a  furious  rising  of  the  city  was  provoked. 
He  fortilied  himself  in  the  great  palace,  which 
he  had  taken  possession  of,  and  which  com- 
manded the  causeway  to  the  island.  Pharos, 
thereby  commanding  the  port.  Destroj-ing  a 
large  part  of  the  city  in  that  neighborhood,  he 
made  his  position  exceedingly  strong.  At  the 
same  time  he  seized  and  burned  the  royal  fleet, 
and  th\is  caiiscd  a  contlagratitm  in  which  tiic 
greater  of  the  two  priceless  libraries  of  Alex- 
andria—  the  library  of  the  JDiseum  —  was,  much 
of  it,  consumed.  [See  above:  B.  C.  282-246.] 
By  such  measures  Cajsar  withstood,  for 
several  months,  a  siege  conducted  on  the  part  of 
the  Alexandrians  with  great  determination  and 
animosity.  It  was  not  until  March,  B.  C.  47, 
that  he  was  relieved  from  his  dangerous  situa- 
tion, by  the  arrival  of  a  faithful  ally,  in  the  per- 
son of  Mithridates,  king  of  Persamus,  who  led 
an  army  into  Egvpt,  reduced  "Pclusium,  and 
crossed  the  Nile "  at  the  head  of  the  Delta. 
Ptolemajus  advanced  with  his  troops  to  meet  this 
new  invader  and  was  followed  and  overtaken  by 
Cttsar.  In  the  battle  which  tlion  occurred  the 
Egyptian  army  was  utterly  routed  and  Ptole- 
msus  perished  in  the  Nile.     Cleopatra  was  then 


married,    after    the    Egyptian    fashion,    to    a 

younger  brother,  i',n<l  cslai)lished  on  the  thnme, 
while  .Vrsinor  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Kome. — 
A.  Ilirtius,  Tht  Aluaitdrian  War. 

.Vi,S(»  IN  G.  Long,  DiiiiiiK  of  l/u-  Rumait  He- 
)iuhli<:  r.  T).  ,•//.  26.— C.  Meri'vale,  lliot.  of  Oui 
llomaiiH,  Hi.  18,— S.  S!)  rpe,  IHkI.  of  K/iz/it.  ch.  12. 

A.  D.  116.— Dest.-ct-'on  of  the  Jews.  See 
.I|.;ws:  A.  I).  110. 

A.  D.  215.  —  Massacre  by  Caracalla. — 
"Caracalla  was  the  conunon  ciiiiny  of  iniinkind. 
He  left  the  capital  (and  he  never  iclurned  to  it) 
abo\it  a  year  after  the  nun'der  of  Gcla  [A.  1). 
213].  Tile  rest  of  his  reign  [four  vears|  was 
spent  in  the  .several  provinces  of  liu'  Empire, 
partii'ularly  those  of  the  E:ist,  and  every  jirov- 
iiice  was,  by  turns,  the  scene  of  his  rapine  and 
cniclty.  .  .  .  In  the  midst  of  (leace,  and  upon 
the  slightest  ])rovo(iition.  he  issued  his  commands 
at  Alexandria,  Egypt  |A.  1).  215],  for  a  general 
mas.sacre.  From  a  secure'  post  in  tli(;  temple  of 
Serajiis,  he  viewed  and  din'cted  the  slaughter  of 
m;iny  thousand  citizens,  as  w<'ll  as  strangers, 
without  distinguishing  eillier  tlii^  number  or  the 
crime  of  the  sulTcrcr.s.  " — E.  Gibbon,  Dirline  aiid 
Fall  of  the  Iloman  Fiiijiire,  rh.  0. 

A.  b.  260-272.— Tumults  of  the  Third  Cen- 
tury.—  "Th(;  peophi  of  Alexandri!i,  a  various 
mixture  of  nations,  united  the  vanity  and  incon- 
stancy of  the  Greeks  wiUi  the  superslilioii  and 
obstinacy  of  the  Egyptians.  Tlu;  most  trilling 
occasion,  a  transient; "scarcity  of  ilesli  or  lentils, 
the  neglect  of  un  accustomed  salutation,  u  mis- 
take of  precedency  in  the  public  baths,  or  even 
a  religious  dispute,  were  at  any  time  sulHcicnt 
to  kindle  a  sedition  among  that  vast  multitude, 
whoso  resentments  were  furious  and  implacable. 
After  the  captivity  of  Valerian  [the  Homan  V.m- 
jjcror,  made  pri.soner  by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia, 
A.  I).  200]  and  the  insolence  of  his  son  had  re- 
laxed the  authority  of  the  laws,  the  Alexandrians 
abandoned  themselves  to  the  ungoverncd  rage  of 
their  pas.sions,  and  tlieir  unhappy  country  was 
the  theatre  of  a  civil  war,  wliich  continued  (with 
a  few  short  and  s,ispicious  truces)  above  twelve 
years.  AU  intercourse  was  cut  off  between  the 
several  quarters  of  the  atllicted  city,  every  street 
was  polluted  with  blood,  every  building  ol 
strength  converted  into  a  citadel;  nor  did  the 
tumult  subside  till  a  ccaisiderablo  part  of  Alex- 
andria was  irretrievably  ruined.  The  spacious 
and  magnificent  district  of  Bruchion,  with  its 
[lahvces  and  museum,  the  residence  of  the  kings 
and  philosophers  of  Egyjitr,  is  described,  above  a 
century  afterwards,  as  already  reduced  to  its 
present  state  of  dreary  solitude." — E.  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Human  F/n/n're,  ch.  10. 

A.  D.  273. — Destruction  of  the  Bruchium  by 
Aurelian.  —  After  subduing  Palmyra  and  Us 
(Jueeii  Zenobia,  A.  D.  273,  the  Emperor  Aure- 
lian was  called  into  Egypt  to  pot  down  a  re- 
bellion there,  headed  by  one  Firnius,  a  friend 
and  ally  of  the  Palmyreno  ciueeii.  EIrnuis  had 
great  wealth,  derived  from  trade,  and  from  the 
paper-manufacture  of  Egypt,  which  was  mostly 
in  his  hands,  lie  was  defeated  and  put  to  death. 
"To  Aurelian's  war  against  Firiuus,  or  to  that 
of  Probus  a  little  before  in  Egypt,  may  be  re- 
ferred the  destruction  of  Bruchium,  a  great 
quarter  of  Alexandria,  whicli  according  to  Am- 
mianus  Jiarcellinus,  was  ruined  imder  Aurelian 
and  remained  deserted  e'.ern:^;  ■.  "—.I.  B.  L.  Cre- 
vier,  Jlist.  of  the  Jioin-in  Emperuis,  bk.  27. 


39 


AI-KXAXDUIA,  A.   I).  200. 


AI.EXANDniA,  A.  I).  6-»l-«46. 


A.  D.  296.  —Siege  by  Diocletian.— A  jrciieral 
rcvcplt  of  the  Ariir.iii  |iiiiviii(i  s  of  llic  Hdiimii 
Kiupirc  (KTiirrid  A.  1).  -IMi.  Tlie  l)uibiin>u.< 
triliih  i)f  Ktli' )|>iii  and  the  (h'scrt  wero  hroufflit 
Into  iilllmicc  Willi  till'  proviiuiiils  of  Egypt, 
(Jyri'iiaicu,  CiUlliu^'o  aixi  Muiiritunia,  aiuj  the 
tlaiiio  of  war  was  uiiiviTsal.  Both  the  (.'iiipcrors 
of  Ihc:  tiiiiL',  Diocletian  and  Maxiniiau,  were 
cidlcd  to  the  Alrican  Held.  "  Diocldiau,  on  Ids 
side,  opened  the  (iiinpai>;n  in  Kjfyi't  liy  tlie 
liltfje  of  Alexandria,  cut  olfthe  acpiediicts  which 
conveyed  the  waters  of  the  Nile ii'to every  (jnar- 
tei  '>f  that  innnense  city,  and,  rendering  his 
camp  impregnable  to  the  sidlies  of  the  besieged 
multituih',  lie  jnished  his  reiterated  attacks  with 
caution  and  vigor.  After  a  siege  of  eight 
monlliB,  Ah'Xandria,  wasted  by  the  sword  and 
by  lire,  implored  tlii^  cleinency  of  the  coiKiiieror, 
but  i(.  experienced  the  full  extenlof  his  severity. 
Many  thousands  of  the  citizens  perished  in  a  pro- 
miscuous slaugliler,  and  there  were  few  obnox- 
ious persons  in  Egypt  who  escaped  a  sentence 
eillier  of  death  or  at  least  of  exile.  The  fate  of 
Husiris  and  of  Coptos  was  still  more  melancholy 
than  that  of  Alexandria;  tliose  proud  cities  .  .  . 
were  utterly  destroyed." — E.  Uibbon,  Decline 
and  Full  11/ t/ie  liomtiit  Kiiijiirc,  ch.  18. 

A.  D.  365.  —Great  Earthquake.  See  Eaiith- 
(jtAiii;  IN   riiii  l{oMA.\   Woiii.D:  A.    1).  iJlio. 

A.  O.  389. — Destruction  of  the  Serapeum. 
— "  After  tlie  cilicta  of  Tlieodosius  had  severely 
jirohibited  the  sacrilices  of  the  pagans,  they  were 
still  tolirated  in  the  city  and  temple  of  Serapis. 
.  .  .  The  archepiscopal  throne  of  Alexandria 
was  lilled  by  Theophilus,  the  perpetual  enemy 
of  peace  and  virtue;  u  bold,  bad  man,  whose 
hands  were  alternately  polutcd  with  gold  and 
with  blood.  His  pious  indignation  >va8  excited 
by  the  honours  of  Serapis.  .  .  .  The  votaries  of 
Serapis,  whose  strengtli  and  numbers  were  much 
inferior  to  tlio.se  of  their  antagonists,  rose  in 
arms  [A.  D.  381)]  at  the  instigation  of  the  philo- 
sopher Olympius,  who  exhorted  them  to  die  in 
the  defence  of  tlic  altars  of  the  gods.  These 
pagan  fanatics  fortified  themselves  in  the  temple, 
or  rather  fortress,  of  Herapis;  repelled  the  be- 
siegers by  daring  sallies  and  a  resolute  defence ; 
and,  by  the  inhuman  cruelties  which  they  exer- 
cised on  their  Christian  prisoners,  obtained  the 
last  consolation  of  despair.  The  efforts  of  the 
prudent  magistrate  were  usefully  exerted  for  the 
establishment  of  a,  truce  till  the  answer  of  Tlieo- 
dosius should  determine  the  fate  of  Serapis." 
The  judgment  of  the  emperor  condemned  the 
great  temple  to  destruction  and  it  was  reduced 
fo  a  heap  of  ruins.  "Tlie  valuable  library  of 
Alexandria  was  pillaged  or  destroyed ;  and,  near 
twenty  years  afterwards,  the  appearance  of  the 
empty  shelves  excited  the  regret  and  indignation 
of  every  spectator  whose  mind  was  not  totally 
darkened  by  religious  prejudice." — E.  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  tlie  Iloniun  Empire,  ch.  28. — 
Gibbon's  statement  as  to  the  destruction  of  the 
great  library  in  the  Serapeum  is  called  in  ques- 
tion by  his  learned  annotator.  Dr.  Smith.  See 
above:  B.  C.  282-246. 

A.  D.  413-415.— The  Patriarch  Cyril  and 
his  Mobs. — "His  voice  [that  .if  C^ril,  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  A.  1).  413—144]  inflamed  or 
appeased  the  passions  of  the  multitude:  his  com- 
mands were  blindly  obeyed  by  his  mnnerous  and 
fanatic  parabolani,  familiarized  in  tlieir  daily 
office  with  scenes  of  death ;  and  the  priefects  of 


Egypt  we  "e  a^ved  or  provoked  bv  the  temporal 
poiVer  of  hese  Christian  pontilVs.  Ardent  in 
ilic  iiroseculion  of  heresy,  Cyril  auspiciously 
opened  his  reign  by  oppressing  the  Js'ovatiaus, 
the  most  innocent  and  harmless  of  the  sectaries. 
.  .  .  The  toleration,  and  even  the  i)rivilege8  of 
the  Jews,  who  had  multiplii'd  to  the  number  of 
40,01)0,  weri!  se(Mired  bv  the  laws  of  the  Ciesars 
and  I'toleinies,  and  a  long  prescription  of  7(M) 
years  since  the  I'oiindation  of  Alexandria.  With- 
out any  legal  senlenee,  without  any  royal  man- 
date, tfie  patriarch,  at  the  dawn  of  day,  led  a 
seditious  nudiitude  to  the  attack  of  tlie  syna- 
KOgiics.  Unarmed  and  unprepared,  the  .Tows  were 
incaiialile  of  resi.itanee;  their  houses  of  Jirayer 
weri'  levelled  with  th  groun<I,  and  the  episcojml 
warrior,  after  rewarding  his  troops  with  the 
plunder  of  their  goods,  expelled  from  the  city 
tli<'  remnant  of  the  misbelieving  nation.  Per- 
hajis  he  might  pleai'  the  in.solencc^  of  their 
prosperity,  and  their  iteadly  liatred  of  the  Cliris- 
tiai:s,  whose  blood  tliey  had  recently  shed  in  a 
malicious  or  accidental  tumult.  Such  erinies 
would  have  deserved  Uw.  animadversions  of  the 
magistrate;  but  in  this  promiscuous  outrage  the 
innocent  were  confoundec.  with  the  guilty." — 
E.  Gibbon.  D<rline  mid  Fidl  of  t/ie  liniiiiiii  Km- 
pire,  cli.  47. — "  liefore  long  the  adherents  of  the 
archbishop  were  guilty  of  a  more  atrocious  and 
unprovoked  erinie,  of  the  guilt  of  which  a  deep 
suspicion  attadied  to  Cyril.  All  Alexandria 
respected,  honoured,  took  prid''  in  the  celebrated 
Ilypatia.  She  was  a  ivoman  of  extraordinary 
learning;  in  her  was  centred  the  lingering  knowl- 
edges of  that  Alexandrian  Platonism  cultivated 
by  Plotinus  and  his  school.  Her  beauty  was 
equal  to  her  learning;  her  modesty  commended 
both.  .  .  .  Ilypatia  lived  in  great  intimacy  with 
the  pra'fcct  Orestes;  the  only  charge  whiisjiered 
against  her  was  that 'she  encouraged  him  m  his 
hostility  to  tlie  patriarch.  .  .  .  Some  of  Cyril's 
ferocious  partisans  seized  this  woman,  dragged 
her  from  her  chariot,  ind  with  the  most  revolt- 
ing indecency  tort  her  clothes  off  and  then  rent 
her  limb  from  hmb." — H.  H.  Milinan,  Ui»t.  oj 
Latin  Chrisliin.'ti/,  bk.  2.  r!>   3 

Also  in  C.  Idngsley,  iii/patia. 

A.  D.  616. — Taken  by  Chosroes.  Sec 
Egypt:  A.  D.  610-628. 

A.  D.  641-646. —  The  Moslem  Conquest. — 
The  prec'"!;  «'  I'e  of  events  in  the  Moslem  con- 
qiic'it  of  Egj  pi,  by  Amru,  lieutenant  of  the 
Caliph  Omar,  is  uncertain.  Sir  Wm.  Muir  fixes 
i.,e  flret  surrender  of  Alexandria  to  Amru  in 
A.  D.  041.  After  thut  it  was  reoccupied  by  the 
Byzantines  either  once  or  twice,  on  occasions  of 
neglect  by  the  Arabs,  as  they  pursued  their  con- 
quests elsewhere.  'The  probability  seems  to  be 
that  this  occurred  only  once,  in  646.  It  seems 
also  probable,  as  remarked  by  Sir  W.  Muir,  that 
tlie  two  sieges  on  the  taking  and  retaking  of  the 
city  —  641  and  646  —  have  been  much  confused  in 
the  scanty  accounts  which  liave  come  down  to  us. 
On  the  first  occasion  Alexandria  would  appear  to 
have  been  generously  treated;  while,  on  the 
second,  it  suffered  pillage  and  its  fortifications 
were  destroyed.  IIow  far  there  is_  truth  in  the 
commonly  accepted  story  of  the  deliberate  burn- 
ing of  the  great  Alexandrian  Library —  or  so  much 
of  it  as  had  escaped  destruction  at  tlic  hands 
of  Poman  generals  and  Christian  patriarchs — is 
a  question  still  in  dispute.  Gibbon  discredited 
the  story,  and  Sir  William  Muir,  the  latest  of 


40 


A'.EXANniUA.  A.  D.  n41-«40. 


ALLOBUOGES. 


students  in  Mnhonictnn  history,  declines  even  the 
menliiin  of  it  in  liis  namitivc  of  ilic  cdninicit  of 
E)fypt.  Hut  otiicr  liistoriiiiis  nf  repute  niaintnin 
tlif"i)riil)ul)le  iiccuriicy  of  t lie  tale  told  l)y  Aliul- 
pliarajrus— tliat  ('alll)li  Omar  ordered  tlip  de- 
stnutidii  of  tlie  IJhrary,  on  tlie  ground  tliat, 
if  tlie  hciolts  in  it  ajjn'ed  witli  the  Ivoran  they 
were  useless,  if  they  disagreed  witli  it  they  were 
pornieiou8.—  8i'e  Mahometan  Conqi'est:  A.  D. 
64(1-640. 

A.  D.  815-823.— Occupied  by  piratical  Sar- 
acens from  Spam.     8ee  CUKTI,:  A.  1).  M'j;(. 

A.  D.  1798.— Captured  by  the  French  under 
Bonaparte.     See  Kuanck:   A.  1).  170H  (Mav  — 

AfllfHT). 

A.  D.  i8oi-t8o2.  — Battle  of  French  and 
English.  — Restoration  to  the  Turks.  See 
FliANCK:  A.  I).  1H(M-|H((2. 

A.  D.  1807.— Surrendered  to  the  English. — 
The  brief  occupation  and  humiliating  capitu- 
lation     See  PiiiKs:  A.  1).  1S(MI-1S(I7. 

A.  U.  1840.— Bombardment  by  the  English. 
SeeTlliKs:  A.  D.  Is;il-1H.',0. 

A.  D.  1882.— Bombardment  by  the  English 
fleet. —  Massacre  of  Europeans. —  Destruction. 
SecEoYi'T;  A.  I).  IHT.VISHS,  and  1HH2-18H;!. 

ALEXANDRIA,  LA.,  The  Burning  of. 
See  iNiTKi)  StatksopAm.  :  A.  I).  1H04  (.March 
—  .May:  Lodisia.sa 

ALEXANDRIA  VA.,  A.  D.  i86i  (May).— 
Occupation  by  Uni'/n  troops.—  Murder  of  Col- 
onel Ellsworth,  tiee  I'.mtkd  Statks  op  A.m.  : 
A.  I),  mn  (.May:  VmoiNi.\). 

ALEXANDRIAN  TALENT.    See  Talent. 

ALEXIS,  Czar  of  Russia,  A.  D.  164r>-1670. 

ALEXIUS  I.  (Comnenus),  Emperor  in  the 
East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  1).  1081-1118. 
....Alexius  II.  (Comnenus),  Emperor  in 
the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  V.  I).  1181- 
1183  —  Alexius  III.  (Angelus),  Emperor 
in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  D.  1195- 
l'.JO;j — Alexius  IV.  (Angelus),  Emperor  in 
the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  i).  120^- 

1204 Alexius    V.    (Dncas),     Emperor     in 

the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  1).  1204. 

ALFONSO  I.,  King  of  Aragon  and  Navarre, 
A.  U.  1104-1134. . .  .Alfo  so  I.,  King  of  Castile, 
A.  D.  ]0;2-1100;  and  VI.  of  Leon,  A.  I).  1065- 
llOi).  ...Alfonso  I.,   King  of   Leon    and  the 

Asturias,  or  Oviedo,  A.  1).  730-757 Alfonso 

I.,  King  of  Portugal,  A.  1).  1112-1185.... 
Alfonso  I.,  King  of  Sicily,  A.  D.  1416-1458. . . . 
Alfonso  II.,  King  of  Aragon,  A  D.  1163-1196. 
....Alfonso  II.,  King  of  Castile,  A.  D.  1126- 
1157 — Alfonso  II.,  King  of  Leon  and  th3 
Asturias,  or  Oviedo,  A.  U.  791-842. . .  .Alfonso 

II.,    Kmg    of    Naples,    A.    L).    1494-1495 

Alfonso  II.,  King  of  Portugal,  A.  D.  1211- 
1223...  Alfonso  III.,  King  of  Aragon,  A.  D. 
1285-1291. . .  Alfonso  III.,TCing  of  Castile,  A. 
D.  1158-1214... Alfonso  III.,  King  of  Leon 
and  the  Asturias,  or  Oviedo,  A.  I).  806-910. .  . 
Alfonso  III.,  King  of  Portugal,  A.  D.  1244- 
1279.... Alfonso  IV.,  King  ofAtaeon,  A.  D 
1327-1336  ...Alfonso  lV.,^King  ofLeon  and 
the  Asturias,   or  Oviedo,   A.  1).    925-930.. 

,0-?""°  iX-  ^^°^  °^  Portugal,  A.  D.  1323- 
l^ol  . .  .Alfonso  v.,  Kiag  of  Aragon  and  I.  of 
^.'fi'';'.-^^-  D-  1«6-1458;  I.  of  Naples.  A.  D. 
.443-1408.  ...Alfonso  V.,  King  of  Leon  and 
»ir  ■'^st""as,  or  Oviedo,  A.  D.  999-1027 
Alfonso  v.,  King  of  Portugal,  A.  D.  1438-1481' 


Alfonso    VI.,    King    of   Portugal,  A.   D. 

1656-ltm7. . .  .Alfonso  VII.,  King  of  Leon,  A. 
D.  1109-1126  ..  Alfonso  VIII.,  King  of  Leon, 
A.  D.  1126-1157. . .  A'fonso  IX.,  King  of  Leon, 
A.  I).  1188-1230.  Alfonso  X.,  King  of  Leon 
and  Castile,  A.  I).  12.  .'-12M4  .  Alfonso  XI., 
King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  .\.  I».  1312-1350.... 
Alfonso  XII.,  King  of  Spain,  A.  I).  1874- 
1885. 

ALFORD,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1645).  See 
ScoTt.ANi):  .V.  1>.    1644  lai.'i. 

ALFRED,  called  the  Great,  King  of 
Wessex,  \.  .'>  HTl  901. 

ALGIEr'S  AND  ALGERIA,—  '  The  term 
Algiers  literally  s'jfiiilie.s  'the  Island,' and  was 
derived  from  the  ori^'iiial  construction  of  its 
harbour,  one  side  of  which  was  separated  from 
the  land.  "—M.  HuHsell,  /fiKt.  of  th,'  llnrlxin/ 
Slatcg,  p,  314. —  For  history,  see  Bahiiauv 
Statks. 

ALGIHED,  The.— The  term  by  which  a 
war  is  jiroclainied  among  the  Malinnietans  to  bo 
a  Holy  War. 

ALGONKINS,  OR  ALGONQUINS,  The. 
See  .\mi;ui('an  .Vdouiciinks:  Ai.oonkin  Family. 

ALGUAZIL.     See  Alcalde. 

ALHAMA,  The  taking  of  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1476- 1492, 

ALHAMBRA,  The  building  of  the.  See 
Spain:  A.  I).   1238-1273. 

ALI,  Caliph,  A.  I).  6.55-(i61. 

ALIA,  Battle  of  the  (B.  C.  300).  See  Rome: 
n.  ('.  390-347. 

ALIBAMl  i,  OR  ALIBAMONS,  The. 
See  Amf.iiican  Aiiou'cinks  ;  Miskiiooee 
Family. 

ALIEN  AND  SEDITION  LAWS,  The. 
See  Unitkii  Status  of  Am:  A.  D.  1798. 

ALIGARH,  Battle  of  (1803).  See  India: 
A.  U.  1798-1805. 

ALIWAL,  Battle  of  (1846).  See  India: 
A    I).  1845-1849. 

ALJUBAROTA,  Battle  of  (1385).  See 
Poutuoal:  a.  D.  1383-1385,  and  Spain:  A.  D 
1368-1479. 

ALKMAAR,  Siege  by  the  Spaniards  and 
successful  defense  (1573).  See  Netiieklands: 
A.  I).  1573-1574. 

ALKMAR,  Battle  of  SccFuance:  A.  D. 
1799  (Septemheii — Octoder). 

"ALL  THE  TALENTS,"  The  Ministry 
of.  SeoEsoLANi):  A.  I).  1801-1806,  and  1806- 
1812. 

ALLEGHANS,  The.  See  American  Abo- 
rigines:  Allecilvns. 

ALLEMAGNE.  —  The  French  name  for 
Germany,  derived  from  the  conl'ederaiion  of  the 
Alemanni.     See  Alemaxki:  A.  D.  213. 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  and  the  Green  Mountain 
Boys.     Sec   Vermont.    A.    1).    1749-1774... 
And  the  Capture  of  Fort  T'conderoga.    See 
United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1775  (.May). 

ALLERHEIM,  Bs.ttle  of  (or  Second  battle 
of  Nordlingen,  — 1645.)  See  Germany:  A.  I). 
1640-1645. 

ALLERTON,  Isaac,  and  the  Plymouth 
Colony.  See  MAf.SACiiu.sKTTs  (I'ly.moith):  A. 
D.  1623-1629,  and  after. 

ALLIANCE,  The  Farmers'.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  •  j\.  O.  1877-1891. 

ALLuBROGEIS,  Conquest  of  the.  — The 
AUobrogcs  (see  i-Bdui  ;  also  Gails)  having 
sheltered  the  ehiela  of  the  Sniyes,  when  the  lat- 


41 


..u*- 


ALLOBHOQES. 


ALOD. 


*CT   succumbod  to   the    Romans,    and    having  I 
refused  to  lU•li^•(!^  them  up,  the   proconsul  Cii.  ! 
I)oniiti\iH  marched  liis  army  toward  their  coun- 
try,  U.   C.    I'Jl.     The   Allobroi-'cs  advanced   to 
meet  him  and  were  defeated  at  Vindalium,  near 
the  jimction  of  tlie  Sorgues  willi  the  Hlione.  and 
not  far  from  Avignon,  having  20,000  men  sluiti 
and  'ii,W)i)  talien  prisoners.     The  Arverni,  wl\o 
were  the  allies  of  the  Allobroges,   then  took  tho  ' 
tiehl,  crossing  the  C'evennes  mountains  and  the  j 
liver  Hhonc  with  a  vast  host,  to  attack  the  snuiU  i 
Koman  army  of  IIO.OOO  men,   which  had  passed  | 
under   the    couunand    of    Q.    Fahius   Maxinuis 
vKMiiManus.     <»n  the  Sih  of  August,  B.  ('.  121, 
the   (iaulish   horde   encountered   the   legions  of 
Home,  at  a  point  near  the  junction  of  the  Isere 
and  the  Uhoue,  and  were  routed  with  such  enor- 
mous slaughter  that   150,000  are   said  to  have 
been  slain  or  drowned.     This  battle  settled  the 
fate  of  the  Allobroges,  who  surrendered  to  Home 
without  further  struggle:  but  the  Arverni  were 
not  pursued.     The  liiial  con(iuest  of  that  people 
was  reserved  for  Oitsar.  —  G.   lAmg,  ,Utctine  of 
the  lidiiiaii  Ucpubhc,  c.  1,  ch.  21. 
ALMA,  Battle  of  the.     See  Russi.\:  A   D. 

1854  (St-.1>TF.MIU-.K) 

ALMAGROS     AND     PIZARROS,   The 
quarrel  of  the.    See  I'ljir:  A.  1).  15:!:!-1548. 

ALMANZA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.   1707).     See 
Spain:  A.  1).  1707. 

ALMENARA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1710).     See 
Spain:  A.  1).  1707-1710. 

ALMOHADES,  The.  — Tho  empire  of  the 
Almoravides,  in  Morocco  and  Spain,  which 
originated  in  a  Moslem  missionary  m  vcmont, 
was  overturned  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury by  a  movement  of  somewhat  similar  nature. 
The  agitating  cause  of  tho  revolution  was  a  re- 
ligious teacher  named  Jfahomet  ben  Abdallah, 
who  ro.ie  in  the  leign  of  All  (succes.sor  to  the 
j^rcat  Almoravido  prince,  Joseph),  who  gained 
the  odor  of  sanctitv  at  Morocco  and  who  took 
the  title  of  Al  Meli'di,  or  El  Jlahdi,  the  Leader, 
"giving  himself  out  for  the  person  whom  inanj' 
Midiomelaiis  expect  under  that  title.  As  before, 
the  sect  grew  into  an  army,  and  the  army  grew 
into  an  empire.  The  new  dynasty  were  calli'd 
Almohades  from  Al  Melidi,  and  l)y  his  ajipoint- 
ment  a  certain  Abdelmumen  was  elected  Caliph 
and  Commander  of  the  Faithful.  Under  his 
vigorous  guidance  the  new  kingdom  rapidly 
grew,  till  the  Almohades  ol)tained  (jiuto  tho 
upper  hand  in  Afri<'a,  and  in  1140  they  too 
pas.sed  into  Spain.  Under  AbiU  Imuincn  and  his 
successors,  .Joseph  and  .b'col)  Alman.siir,  tlii^  Al- 
mohades entirely  supplanted  the  Almoravides, 
and  became  more  formidable  foes  than  they  had 
been  to  the  rising  Christian  powers.  .Tacoh  Al- 
niansor  won  in  11U5  the  terrible  batth;  of  Alarcos 
against  Alfonso  of  Castile,  and  carried  his  con- 
quests deep  into  that  kingdom.  Ilis  faiin'  spread 
through  tile  whole  Moslem  world.  .  ,  .  With 
Jacob  .Umansor  pcrislieil  the  glory  of  the  Almo- 
ha<les.  His  successor,  Mahomet,  lost  in  1211 
[June  10)  the  great  batth'  of  Alacab  or  Tolosa 
against -Mfon.so,  and  that  day  may  be  said  to 
liavi'  decided  tlic  fate  of  Malmmelauism  in  Sjiaiu. 
The  Alinohade  dynasty  gr.idually  declined.  .  .  . 
Tiie  Almohades,  like  the  Oinmiails  anil  the  Al- 
moravides, v.iiiish  from  history  amidst  a  scene  of 
contusion  the  details  of  which  it  were  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  rememl.vr."  —  E.  A.  Freeman,  Uint. 
ami  Vom/utnts  of  the  tiiracenn,  het.  5. 


Also  in  II.  Coppfie,  Conquent  of  Spain  by  the 
Arah-Moorii,  bk.  8,  ch.  4.— Sec,  uiso,  Spain  .  A.  D. 
1140-1233. 

ALMONACID,  Battle  of.    See  Spain:   A. 

1).    180!)  (AllUST— NoVK.MIlKli). 

ALMORAVIDES,  The.— During  the  con- 
fusions of  the  nth  century  in  the  Jtosicin  world, 
a  missionary  from  Kairwan  —  one  Abdallah  — 
preaching  the  faith  of  Lslaiii  to  a  wild  tribe  in 
Western  North  .Vfrica,  created  a  religious  move- 
ment which  "naturally  led  to  a  political  one." 
"  The  tribe  now  called  themselves  Almoravides, 
or  more  properly  Morabethah,  which  appears  to 
mean  followers  of  tho  Marabout  or  religious 
teacher  Abdallah  does  not  appear  to  have  Inm- 
self  claimed  more  than  a  religious  authority, 
but  their  princes  Zachariah  anil  Abu  Bekr 
were  comi)letely  guided  by  his  coun.sels.  After 
liis  death  Abu  Bekr  founded  in  1070  the  city 
of  Morocco.  There  he  left  ns  his  lieutenant 
his  cousin  JoseiJh,  who  grew  so  powerful 
that  Abu  Bekr,  by  a  wonderful  exercise  of 
moderation,  abdicated  in  his  favour,  to  avoid 
a  probable  civil  war.  This  Joseph,  when  he  had 
become  lord  of  most  jiart  of  Western  Africa, 
was  requested,  or  caused  himself  to  be  requested, 
to  assume  the  title  of  Emir  al  Momcnin,  Com- 
mander of  the  Faithful.  As  a  loyal  subject  of 
the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  he  shrank  from  such  sacri- 
legious usurpation,  but  he  did  not  scruple  to 
style  liim.self  Emir  Al  Muslemin,  Commander  of 
the  Moslems.  .  .  .  The  Almoraviile.Ioseph  passed 
over  into  Spain,  like  another  Tarik;  he  van- 
quished Alfonso  [the  Christian  prince  of  the 
rising  kingdom  of  (^astile]  at  Zalacca  [Oct.  23, 
A.  D.  1080]  and  then  converted  the  greater  por- 
tion of  Mahometan  Spain  into  an  appendage  to 
his  own  kingdom  of  Morocco.  The  chief  jior- 
tion  to  escape  was  the  kingdom  of  Zaragossa, 
the  great  out-post  of  the  Saracens  in  north- 
eastern Spain.  .  .  .  The  great  cities  of  Andalu- 
sia were  all  brought  under  a  degrading  submis- 
sion to  the  Alinoravidcs.  Their  dynasty  how- 
ever was  not  of  long  duration,  and  it  fell  in  turn 
[A.  D.  1147]  before  one  whose  origin  was  stiik- 
mgly  similar  to  their  own"  [the  Almohades]. — 
E.  A.  Freeman,  Hist,  fid  Conquests  of  the  Sira- 
cens,  Uct.  5. 

Also  in  II.  Coppee,  Conquest  of  Spain  hi/  the 
Arab-Moors,  hk.  8,  ch.  2  and  4. — See,  al90,'PouTU- 
oal:    Eakly  HiSTOiiY. 

ALOD.— ALODIAL.— "  It  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  any  etymological  connexion  ex- 
ists between  the  words  odal  and  alod,  but  their 
signilication  ap])lied  lO  land  is  the  same:  the  alod 
is  the  hereditary  e.itate  derived  from  primitive 
occupation;  for  which  the  owner  owes  no  service 
except  the  personal  obligation  to  ajipear  in  the 
hostanilin  the  council.  .  .  .  The  land  held  in  full 
ownership  might  be  either  an  ethel,  an  inherited 
or  otherwise  acipiired  portion  of  original  allot- 
ment; or  an  estate  created  by  legal  process  out 
of  public  land.  Both  these  are  includeil  in  the 
more  common  term  alod;  but  the  former  looks 
for  its  evidence  in  the  iiedigrce  of  its  owner  or 
in  the  witness  of  the  community,  while  the  lat- 
ter can  produce  the  charter  or  book  by  which 
it  is  created,  and  i  called  boclanil.  As  tho 
priinitive  allnlments  gradually  lost  their  liis- 
lorieal  clmractir,  as  the  primitive  modes  of 
liansfer  became  obsolete,  and  the  use  of  written 
records  took  their  place,  the  ethel  is  lost  sight  of 
in  the  bookland.     All  the  land  that  is  not  so  ac- 


42 


A.LOD. 


AMALFI. 


counted  for  is  folcliind,  or  public  land."— W. 
Stubbs,  Oimsf.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  eh.  3,  strt.  24,  aiid 
ch.  5,  ncct.  30. — "Alodiai  lands  are  conimonly 
opposed  to  beneficiary  or  feudal ;  tlie  loruier  Ijc- 
ing  strictly  proprietary,  while  tlie  latter  depended 
upon  a  superior.  In  tliis  sense  the  word  is  of 
continual  recurrence  in  anciimt  histories,  laws 
and  instruments.  It  .sonietim-js,  however,  bears 
tlio  sense  of  inlicritance.  .  .  .  Hence,  in  tlio 
charters  of  the  c'.eventli  century,  hereditary  flcfs 
arc  frequently  termed  alodia." —  I'l.  Ilallam,  Mid- 
dle Ages,  ch.  'i,  pt.  1,  note. 

Also  in  J.  M.  Kemble,  The  S(t.wi!S  in  England, 
bk.  1,  c7i.  11.— Sec,  also,  Foi.cland. 

ALP  ARSLAN,  Seljouk  Turkish  Sultan, 
A.  I>.  10()3-1073. 

ALPHONSO.     See  Alfonso. 

ALSACE.— ALSATIA:  The  Name.  See 
ALliM.\NM:  A.  1).  213. 

A.  D.  843-870.— Included  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Lorraine.     See  Lohkaink:  A.  I).  843-H70. 

loth  Century. — Joined  to  the  Empire.  See 
LouKAixi;:  A.  D.  <Jll-i)80. 

loth  Century.^  Origin  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg.    See  ArsTULx:  A.  D.  1240-1283. 

A.  D.  1525.  -Revolt  of  the  Peasants.  See 
Geilmany:  a.  D.  1524-ir.2r). 

A.  D.  1621-1622. — Invasions  by  Mansfeld 
and  his  predatory  army.     See  CJfumanv:  A.  D. 

ieai-).623. 

A.  D.  1636-1639. — Invasion  and  conquest  by 
Duke  Bernhard  of  Weimar. — Richelie-j's  ap- 

Sropriation  of  the  conquest  for  France.  Sec 
■eumany:  A.  D.  1034-1039. 

A.  D.  1648. — Cession  to  Frrnce  in  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia.  See  Geu.many:  A.  D. 
1048. 

A.  D.  1659. — Renunciation  of  the  claims  of 
the  King  of  Spain.  See  Fhance  :  A.  D.  1059- 
1001. 

A.  D.  1674-1678.— Ravaged  in  the  Cam- 
paigns of  Turenne  and  Conde.  See  Netiteh- 
LANDS  (Holland):  A.  D.  1074-1078. 

A.  D.  1679-1681.— Complete  Absorbtion  in 
France. — Assumption  of  entire  Sovereignty  by 
Louis  XIV.— Encro.  hments  of  the  Chamber 
of  Reannexation.— Seizure  of  Strasburg. — 
Overthrow  of  its  independence  as  an  Imperis,! 
City.     See  Fkancp;:  A.  D.  1079-1081. 

A.  D.  1744.— Invasion  by  the  Austrians. 
See  Austkia:  A.  I).  1743-1744. 

A.  D.  1871.— Ceded  to  the  German  Empire 
by  France.  See  Fu.\nce:  A.  D.  1871  (J^vncauy 
—May). 

1871-1879.— Organization  of  government  as 
a  German  Imperial  Province.  See  Germany: 
A.  D.  1871-1879. 


ALTA  CALIFORNIA-Upper  California. 
See  Calikohnl\:  A.  1).  ir)43-1781. 

ALTENHEIM,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1675). 
See  .Netiieulands  (1Ioll.\nd):    A.    I).    1674- 

ALTSNHOVEN,  Battle  of  (1793).  See 
Fiiance:  a.  1).  1793(FEimcAUY-Ai-im,) 

ALTHING,  The.  Sec  TiiiNd;  also,  Non- 
MANS— Noutilmen:  A.  D.  800-1100;  and  Scan- 
dinavian States  (Denmark— Iceland):  A.  D. 
1849--1H74. 

ALTIS  The.    See  Olymi-io  Festival. 

<w„  J??^^^^^'      ^'■''^  BuANDENUuua:  A.  D. 
114«  11S2. 


ALTONA:  A.  D.  1713.— Eurned  by  the 
Swedes.  See  Scandinavian  STArE8(SwEDEN): 
A.  D.  1707-1718. 

ALTOPASCIO,  Battle  01(1325).  See  Italy: 
A.  D.  1813-1330. 

ALVA  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS.  See 
Nethep..,  NDS:  A.  D.  1506-1508  to  1573-1574. 

AMADEO,  King  of  Spain,  A.  1).  1871-1873. 

AMAHUACA,  The.  See  Amehican  Abou- 
IQINES:  Andesians. 

AMALASONTHA,  Queen  of  the  Ostro- 
goths.    Se'iKoME:  A.  I).  535-553. 

"MALaKITES,  The.— "Tlie  Amalekites 
weio  usualh'  regarded  as  a  branch  of  tlie 
Edomites  or 'Red-slvins'.  Amaiek,  lilic  Kenaz, 
the  lather  of  the  Kenizzites  or  '  Hunters,' was 
the  grand.son  of  Esau  (Gen.  30: 12,  10).  He  thus 
belonged  to  the  group  of  nations, —  Edomites, 
Ammonites,  and  Moabitcs, —  wlio  s^ood  in  a 
relation  of  clo.se  kinsliij)  I0  Israel.  But  tliey  liad 
preceded  the  Israelites  in  dispossessing  tlie  older 
inhabitants  of  the  land,  and  establisliiiig  tliem- 
selves  in  th'  ir  place.  The  Edomites  liad  partly 
d<'stroycd,  partly  amalgamated  the  Horites  of 
Mount  Seir  (Deut.  3:  12)';  the  3Ioabites  had  done 
the  same  to  tlie  Jjinim,  *  a  i)eople  great  and  manj', 
and  tall  as  the  Aiiakim'  (Dent.  2:  10),  while  tlie 
Ammonites  Uad  e.xtirjjated  and  succeeded  to  the 
Hepliaim  or  'Giants,'  who  in  tliat  part  of  the 
country  were  termed  Zam/.unuuim  (Ueut.  3:  30; 
Gen.  14:  5).  Edoin  however  stood  m  a  closer 
relation  to  Israel  tlian  its  two  more  northerly 
neighbours.  .  .  .  Seiiarate  from  the  Edomites  or 
Amalekites  were  tlie  Kenites  or  wandering 
'smiths.'  They  formed  an  important  Guild  in 
an  age  when  the  art  of  metallurgy  was  conlined 
to  a  few.  In  the  time  of  Saul  -ve  lie;ir  of  tliein 
as  camping  among  the  Amalekites  (I.  Sam.  15:  0.) 
.  .  .  The  Kenites  .  .  .  did  uot  constitute  a  race, 
or  even  a  trilie.  They  were,  at  most,  a  caste. 
But  they  had  originally  come,  like  the  Israelites 
or  the  Edomites,  from  tliose  barreu  regions  of 
Nortiiern  Arabia  wliich  were  peopled  by  the 
Jlenti  of  tlie  Egyptian  inscriptions.  Racially, 
tlierefore,  we  may  regard  them  as  allied  to  the 
descendants  of  Abraham.  While  tlie  Kenites 
and  Amalekites  were  thus  Semitic  in  tlieir  origin, 
tlie  Ilivites  or  'Villagers'  are  specially  asso- 
•^iated  witli  Amorites." — A.  II.  Sayce,  iJaa*  of 
the  Old  Test,  ch.  0. 

Also  in  II.  Ewald,  Hist,  of  Inrael,  bk.  1,  sect. 
4. — See,  also,  Auahia. 

AMALFI. — "  It  was  the  singula'  fate  of  this 
city  to  liave  tilled  up  the  interval  between  two 
periods  of  civilization,  in  neither  of  which  she 
was  ilestined  to  be  distiuguislied.  Scarcely 
known  before  the  end  of  tlie  si.\tli  century, 
Anialtl  ran  a  brilliant  career,  as  a  free  and  trad- 
ing republic  [see  Uo.me:  A.  D.  554-800],  which 
was  chocked  by  the  arms  of  a  conqueror  in  the 
middle  of  the  twelftli.  .  .  .  'I'liere  must  be,  I 
suspect,  some  exaggeration  about  the  commerce 
and  opulence  of  Amalli,  in  the  only  age  when 
she  pos.sessed  any  at  all." — II.  JIallam,  The 
Middle  Ages,  ch.  0,  pt.  1,  teith  note. — "  Amalfl 
and  Atrani  lie  close  togetlier  in  two  .  .  . 
ravines,  the  mountains  almo.st  arching  over  thoni, 
and  the  sea  washing  tlieir  very  house-walls. 
...  It  is  uot  easy  to  imagine  the  time  wlien 
Amalli  and  Atrani  were  one  town,  with  docks 
and  anscnals  and  harbourage  for  their  associated 
tleets,  and  when  these  little  communities  were 
second  in  importance    to  no    naval    power  of 


43 


AMALFI. 


AMAZONS  HIVEli. 


C'hristiiin  Eiiropr.  The  Hyziiiilinf  Empire  lost 
ils  liolil  on  Ittily  (luring  the'  ci;:)!!!!  century;  iind 
after  this  liini'tlic  liislory  of  Caliibriii  is  niiiinly 
concerned  witli  the  republics  of  Niii)les  and 
Amalli.  their  conflict  with  the  Lombard  dukes 
of  Henevento,  their  opposition  to  the  Saracens, 
and  tlieir  linal  subjugation  by  llie  Xorman 
coni|ueror8  of  Sicily.  Hetween  the  year  S'M 
A.  I).,  when  Ainnlli'  freed  itself  from  the  con- 
trol of  Naples  and  the  yoke  of  15enevento,  and 
the  year  11:11,  when  Ho^er  of  Il.nnteville  incor- 
porated the  re|iul)lic  in  his  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  this  city  was  the  foremost  naval  ami 
connnercial  jKU't  of  Italy.  The  burghers  of 
Amalii  elected  their  own  doge;  founded  the 
Hospital  of  Jerusalem,  whence  sprang  the 
knightly  order  of  S.  .lohn ;  gave  their  name 
♦f  the  richest  (juarler  in  Palermo;  and  owned 
trading  establishments  or  factories  in  all  the  chief 
cities  of  the  Eevant.  Their  gold  coinage  of 
'tari'  formed  the  standard  of  currency  before  the 
Florentines  had  stamped  the  lily  and  S.  John  upon 
the  Tuscan  Uoriu.  Their  shipi)iug  regulations 
supplied  Europe  with  a  code  of  maritime  laws. 
Their  scholars,  in  the  darkest  depths  of  the  dark 
ages,  prized  and  conned  a  famous  copy  of  the 
Pandects  of  Justinian,  and  their  seamen  deserved 
the  fame  of  having  tirst  used,  if  they  did  not 
actually  invent,  the  compass.  .  .  .  The  republic 
had  grown  and  nourished  on  the  decay  of  the 
Greek  Empire.  When  the  hard-handed  race  of 
llauteville  absorbed  the  heritage  of  Greeks  and 
Lombards  and  Saracens  in  Southern  Italy  [sec 
Italy  (Southern):  A.  1).  KIOO-IODO],  these 
adventurers  succeeded  in  annexing  Amalii.  But 
it  was  not  tlieir  interest  to  extinguish  the  state. 
On  the  contrary,  they  relied  for  assistance  upon 
the  navies  and  the  armies  of  the  little  common- 
wealth. Xew  powers  had  meanwhile  arisen  in 
the  North  of  Italy,  who  were  jealous  of  rivalry 
upon  the  open  seas;  and  wlien  the  Neapolitans 
resisted  ICiiig  Hoger  in  1185,  they  called  I'isa  to 
their  aid,  and  sent  her  fleet  to  destroy  Amalti. 
The  ships  of  AmalQ  were  on  guard  with  Hoger's 
navy  in  the  Hay  of  Naples.  The  armed  citizens 
were,  under  Roger's  orders,  at  Avcrsa.  Jlean- 
while  the  lioine  of  the  republic  lav  defenceless  on 
its  mountain-girdled  seaboard.  'I'lie  Pisans  sailed 
into  the  harbour,  sacked  the  city  and  carried  oil 
the  famous  Pandects  of  Justinian  as  a  trophy. 
Two  years  later  they  returned,  to  complete  the 
work  of  devastation.  Amalii  never  recovered 
from  the  injuries  and  the  humiliation  of  these  two 
attacks.  It  was  ever  thus  that  the  Italians,  like 
the  children  of  the  dragon's  teeth  which  Cadmus 
sowed,  consumed  each  other." — J.  A.  Symonds, 
Ski'tcKes  <tml  Studicit  in  lUilt/.  pp.  2-4. 

AMALINGS,  OR  AIVIALS.— The  royal 
race  of  the  ancient  Ostraifoths,  as  the  Halthi  or 
IJalthings  were  of  the  Visigoths,  both  claiming  a 
descent  from  the  gods. 

AMAZIGH,  The.     See  Liuyans. 

AMAZONS.— " 'I'lie  Amazons,  daughters  of 
Ares  and  llarmonia,  are  both  early  cn'ations,  and 
frei|uent  reproductions,  of  the  ancient  eiiic.  .  .  . 
.\  nation  of  courageous,  hardy  and  indefatigable 
women,  dwelling  apart  from  men.  permiitins 
only  a  short  tiinponiry  intercourse  for  the  pur- 
pose of  renovating  their  numbers,  and  burning 
out  their  right  brea.st  with  ir  vii^w  of  enabling 
thciii.sclves  to  draw  the  bow  freely,  —  this  was  at 
once  a  general  type  stimulating  to  the  fancy  of 
the  poet,  and  u  theme  eminently  popular  with 


his  hearers.  Nor  was  it  at  all  repugnant  to  the 
faith  of  the  latter  —  who  hail  no  recorded  facts 
to  guide  them,  and  no  other  standard  of  credi- 
bility as  to  the  past  except  such  poetical  narra- 
tives themselves  —  to  conceive  communities  of 
Amazons  as  having  actually  existed  in  anterior 
time.  Accordingly  we  Iind  these  warlike  females 
constantly  reappearing  in  the  ancient  poems,  and 
universally  accepted  as  past  realities.  In  the 
Iliad,  when  rriaiii  wishes  to  illustrate  emphatic- 
ally the  most  numerous  host  in  which  he  ever 
found  himself  included,  he  tells  us  that  it  was 
assembled  in  Phrygia,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sau- 
garius,  for  the  purpose  of  resi.stiiig  the  formida- 
ble Amazons.  When  Hellero])hon  is  to  be  em- 
ployed on  a  deadly  and  iierilous  undertaking,  by 
those  who  indirectly  wish  to  procure  liis  death, 
he  is  despatched  against  the  Amazons.  .  .  .  The 
,\rgoiiautic  heroes  tind  tlu'  Amazons  on  the  river 
ThermOdon  in  their  expedition  along  the  south- 
ern coast  of  the  Euxine.  To  the  same  spot 
llerakles  goes  to  attack  them,  in  the  performance 
of  the  ninth  labour  imposed  upon  him  by  Eurys- 
theus,  for  the  |)urpose  of  ])rocuiing  the  girdle  of 
t  he  Amazonian  iiueen,  Ilippoly  te ;  and  we  arc  told 
that  they  hail  not  yet  recovered  from  the  losses 
sustained  in  this  severe  aggression  when  Theseus 
also  assaulted  and  defeated  them,  carrying  off 
their  (lueen  AntiopO.  This  injury  they  avenged 
by  invading  Attica  .  .  .  and  penetrated  even 
into  Athens  itself;  where  the  final  battle,  hard- 
fought  and  at  one  time  doubtful,  by  which  ThO- 
seus  crushed  them,  was  fcnight  —  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  city.  Attic  antiijuaries  contidently 
pointed  out  the  exact  ijosition  of  the  two  con- 
tending armies.  .  .  .  No  porticm  of  the  ante-his- 
torical epic  appears  to  have  been  more  (leeply 
worked  into  the  national  mind  of  Greece  than 
this  invasion  and  defeat  of  the  Amazons.  .  .  . 
Their  ])roper  territory  was  asserted  to  be  the  town 
and  plain  of  Themiskyra,  near  the  Grecian  colony 
of  Amisus,  on  the  river  Thermodon  [northern 
Asia  ,AIinor],  a  region  called  after  their  name  by 
Homan  historians  and  geographers.  .  .  .  Some 
authors  jilaced  the:r.  i:;  Libya  or  Ethiopia." — 
O.  Grote,  IIM.  of  (Ireece,  pt.  1,  c/i.  11. 

AMAZONS  RIVER,  Discovery  and  Nam- 
ing of  the. — The  mouth  of  the  great  river  of 
South  America  was  discovered  in  liiOO  by  Pin- 
zon,  or  Pinv'cm  (see  A.\ieiiica;  A.  D.  1409-1500), 
who  called  it  '  Santa  Maria  de  )a  Mar  Dulce ' 
(Saint  Mary  of  the  Fresh-AVater  Sea).  "Tills 
was  the  first  name  given  to  the  river,  except  tliat 
older  and  better  one  of  the  Indians,  'Parana,' 
the  Sea;  afterwards  it  was  Maraiion  and  Uio  das 
Amazonas,  from  the  female  warriors  that  were 
supposed  to  live  near  its  banks.  .  ,  .  After  Pin- 
ion's time,  there  were  others  who  saw  the  fresh- 
water sea,  but  no  one  was  hardy  enough  to 
ve.;ture  into  it.  The  honor  of  ils  real  discovery 
was  reserved  for  Francisco  de  Orellana ;  and  he 
explored  it,  not  from  the  east,  but  from  the 
'.vest,  in  one  of  the  most  daring  voyages  that  was 
ever  recorded.  It  was  accident  rather  than 
design  that  led  him  to  it.  After  .  .  .  Pizarro 
had  coiKiucred  Pi'ru,  he  sent  his  brother  Gon- 
zaio,  with  ;t40  Spanish  soldiers,  and  4,000 
Indians,  to  explore  the  great  forest  east  of  Quito, 
'  where  there  were  cinnamon  trees'  The  expe- 
dition started  late  in  15i!0,  and  it  was  two  year.=i 
before  the  starved  and  ragged  survivors  returned 
to  Quito.  Ill  the  course  of  their  wanderings  they 
had  struck  the  river  Coco;  buiUliug  here  a  brig- 


44 


AMAZONS  RIVEU. 


AMEIXAL, 


antine,  they  followed  down  the  current,  a  part  of 
thoin  ill  the  vessel,  a  part  on  shore.  After  a 
while  they  met  some  Indians,  who  tolil  them  of 
a  rich  country  ten  days'  journey  beyond  — a 
country  of  gold,  and  with  plenty  of  provisions. 
Gonzalo  placed.Orellami  in  eoinniand  of  the  biig- 
antine,  and  ordered  liini,  witli  oO  sokliers,  to  go 
on  to  this  gold-ltuul,  and  reti  rn  with  a  load  of 
provision.s.  Orellana  arrived  iit  the  month  of 
the  C'oei)  in  three  days,  but  found  no  provisiims; 
'and  he  considered  that  if  he  should  return  with 
this  news  to  Pizarro,  he  would  not  reach  him  in 
a  year,  on  account  of  thr  strong  current,  and 
that  if  he  remained  where  he  was,  he  would  be 
of  no  use  to  the  one  or  to  the  other.  Not  know- 
ing how  long  Gonzalo  I'izarro  would  take  to 
reach  the  place,  without  consulting  any  one  he 
set  sail  and  prosecuted  his  voyage  onwaril, 
intending  to  ignore  Gonzalo,  to  reach  Spain,  and 
obtain  that  govcriunent  for  himself.'  Down  the 
Nai>o  and  the  Amazons,  for  seven  months,  these 
Spaniards  floated  to  the  Atlantic.  At  times  they 
suffered  terribly  from  hunger:  'There  was 
nothing  to  eat  but  the  skins  which  formed  their 
girdles,  and  the  leather  of  their  shoes,  boiled 
with  a  few  herbs.'  When  they  did  get  food 
they  were  often  obliged  to  tight  hard  for  it ;  and 
again  they  were  attacked  by  thousands  of  naked 
Indians,  who  came  in  canoes  against  the  Spanish 
vessel.  At  some  Indian  villages,  however,  they 
were  kindly  received  and  well  fed,  so  they  could 
rest  while  'luilding  a  new  and  stronger  vessel. 
.  .  .  Onthe26thof  August,  1541,  Orellana  and  his 
men  sailed  out  to  the  blue  water  '  without  either 
pilot,  compass,  or  anything  u.seful  for  naviga- 
tion; nor  did  they  know  what  direction  they 
should  take'  Foilowing  the  coast,  they  passed 
inside  of  the  i.sland  of  Trinidad,  and  so  at  length 
reached  Cubagua  in  September.  From  the  king 
of  Spain  OreUana  received  a  grant  of  the  land 
he  had  discovered ;  but  he  died  while  returning 
to  it,  and  his  company  was  dispei-sed.  ''l  was 
not  a  very  reliable  account  of  the  river  tlui*  was 
given  by  Orellana  and  his  chronicler,  Padre  C'ar- 
bajal.  So  Ilerren,  tells  their  story  of  the  warrior 
females,  and  very  properly  adds:  'Every  reader 
may  believe  as  much  as  he  likes.'" — II.  II. 
Sinitn,  Brazit,  the  Amazons,  ami  the  Oiaat,  eh.  1. 
—In  eh.  18  of  this  same  work  "The  Amazon 
Myth"  is  discussed  at  length,  with  the  re|)orts 
and  opinions  of  numerous  travellers,  both  early 
anil  recent,  eonjerning  it.  —  Mr.  Southey  had  so 
nu»;h  respect  for  the  memory  of  Orellana  that 
he  made  an  effort  to  restore  that  bohl  but  un])rin- 
cipled  discoverer's  name  to  the  great  rivi'r.  "  He 
discarded  Maranon,  as  having  too  much  resem- 
blanei'  to  Maianliam,  and  Amazon,  as  l)eing 
founded  upon  liclion  and  at  the  same  time  ineoii- 
veiiient.  ^Sccordlngly,  in  his  ina]),  and  in  all  his 
references  to  the  great  river  he  (U^uominates  it 
Orellana.  This  decision  of  the  poet-laureate  of 
<!real  Britain  has  not  i)rovi(l  authoritative  in 
Brazil.  O  Aniazonas  is  the  imiversal  appellation 
of  the  great  river  among  those  who  lloat  upon  its 
waters  and  who  live  upon  its  banks.  .  .  .  Pani, 
the  aboriginal  name  of  this  river,  was  more 
appropriate  than  any  other.  It  siirnities  'the 
father  of  waters.'  .  .' .  The  origin  of  tlie  name 
and  mystery  eoncerinng  the  fcnnih;  warriors,  I 
think,  has  been  solved  within  the  last  few  yciirs 
by  the  intn'pid  Mr.  AVallace.  .  .  .  Mr.  Wallace, 
I  think,  shows  conclusively  that  Friar  Caspar 
[Carbajttl]  uud  his  conipunlons  saw  Indian  male 


j  warriors  who  were  attired  in  habiliments  such  a.s 
;  Europeans  would  attribute  to  women.  .  ,  .  I 
am  strongly  of  the  oiiinion  tlnit  the  story  of  the 
Annizons  has  arisen  from  these  feminine-looking 
[  warriors  encountered  by  the  early  voyagers." — 
I  J.  C.  Fletchei-  and  I).  P.  Kidder,  Brazil  "and  the 
i   ]iraziUan»,  ch.  27. 

Ai.so  IN  A.  \K.  Wallace,  Traveli  on  the  Ama- 
zon and  Hill  Nci/ro,  ch.  17. — R.  Southey,  nint.  nj 
\  Jhuizit.  ch.  4  ('•.'  1). 

AMAZULUS,  OR  ZULUS.— The  Zulu 
War.  See  Soi:tii  Afuicv:  TiiI':  AHoiiioiXAi, 
I.Nii.vnnwNTs;  and  the  same:    A.  1).  1877-187S). 

AMBACTI.— "The  Celtic  aristocracy  [of 
Gaul]  .  .  .  developed  the  system  of  retainers, 
that  is,  the  privilege  of  th:  .'lobility  to  surrotmd 
themselves  with  a  muuber  of  hired  mounted  ser- 
vants—  the  ambacti  as  they  were  called  —  and 
thereby  to  form  a  state  within  a  slate;  and, 
resting  on  the  sui)port  of  these  troops  of  their 
own,  they  deflcd  tlie  legal  authorities  and  the 
connnon  levy  and  practically  broke  uji  the  com- 
monwealth. .  .  .  'rius  remarkable  word  [am- 
bacti] miist  have  been  in  use  as  early  as  the 
sixth  century  of  Rome  among  the  Celts  in  the 
valley  of  the  Po.  ...  It  is  not  merely  Celtic, 
however,  but  also  German,  the  root  of  our 
'Amt,'  as  indeed  the  retainer-system  itself  is 
common  to  the  Celts  and  the  Germans.  It  would 
be  of  great  historical  importance  to  ascertain 
whether  the  word  —  and  therefore  the  thing  — 
came  to  the  Celts  from  the  Germans  or  to  the 
G(;rmans  from  the  Celts.  If,  as  is  usually  sup- 
posed, the  word  is  originally  German  and  pri- 
marily signitied  the  servant  standing  in  battle 
'against  the  back'  ('and '-—against,  'bak'= 
baek^  of  his  master,  this  is  not  wholly  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  singularly  early  occurrence  of 
the  word  among  the  Celts.  .  .  .  It  is  .  .  .  prob- 
able that  the  Celts,  in  Italy  as  in  Gaul,  em- 
l)loyed  Germans  chiefly  as  those  hired  servants- 
at-arnis.  The  'Swiss  guard'  would  therefore  in 
that  case  be  .some  thousands  of  years  older  than 
peojde  suppose." — T.  >Iommsen,  lli.it.  of  Rome, 
bk.  5,  ch.  7,  and  foot-note. 

AMBARRI,  The.— A  small  tribe  in  Gaul 
which  occupied  anciently  a  district  between  the 
Saone,  the  Rhone  and  the  Ain. — Napoleon  III., 
Hint,  of  Vmmr,  bk.  3,  eh.  3,  note. 

AMBIANI,  The.     See  Bei.o.k. 

AMBITUS. — liribery  at  elections  was  termed 
ambitus  among  the  Romans,  and  many  unavail- 
ing laws  were  enacted  to  check  it. — W.  Ramsay, 
.Manual  of  llonian,  .ititir/.,  ch.  0. 

AMBl'VARETI,  The.— A  tribe  in  ancient 
Gaul  which  occupied  the  left  bardcof  theMeuse, 
to  the  south  of  the  marsh  of  Peel. —  Napoleon 
III.,  ITiKt.,of  Cicmir,  bk.  3,  ch.  2,  note. 

AMBLEVE,  Battle  of  (716.)  See  Fhanks 
(Mkuovimii.\n  IOmi'ikk):  .V.  1).  r)ll-7.")2. 

AMBOISE,  Conspiracy  or  Tumult  of.  See 
FitANci::  A.  1).  irM!)-t.-,r.l. 

AMBOISE,  Edict   of.     See  Fu.vnce:  A.  D. 

i.-)iii(-i.-)tia 

AMBO'VNA,  Massacre  of.  3ee  Indi.v:  A. 
1).  11)00-1702. 

AMBRACIA  (Ambrakja).     See  Koukyh.\. 

AMBRONES,  The.  See  CiMuiu  and  Teu- 
■ro.NKs:  H.  C.  li:{-102. 

AMBROSIAN  CHURCH.  —  AMBRO- 
SIAN  CHANT.     Sec  Milan:  A.  I).  :i7l-:i!)T. 

AMEIXAL,  OR  ESTREMOS,  Battle  of 
(1663).    .See  Poiituoal:  A.  D.  10;)7-1(WH. 


46 


-^ 


AMERICA. 


FrehUtoric, 


AilERlCA. 


AMERICA. 


The  Name.    See  below:  A.  D.  1500-1514. 

Prehistoric. —  "  Widely  scattered  throughout 
the  United  States,  from  sea  to  sea,  artiticial 
mounds  are  discovered,  which  may  be  enumer- 
ated by  tlie  thousands  or  hundreds  of  thousands. 
They  vary  ^'reatly  in  size;  some  arc  so  small  that 
a  half-dozen  laborers  with  shovels  might  con- 
struct one  of  them  in  a  day,  while  others  cover 
,icres  and  are  scores  of  feet  in  height.  These 
mounds  were  observed  by  the  earliest  explorers 
and  pioneers  of  the  country.  They  did  not 
attract  preat  attention,  however,  until  the 
science  of  areha'ology  demanded  their  investiga- 
tion. Then  they  were  assumed  to  furnisli  evi- 
dence of  a  race  of  people  older  than  the  Indian 
tribes.  Pseud-arehii'ologists  descanted  on  the 
Moiuid-builders  that  once  inhabited  the  land, 
and  they  told  of  swarming  populations  who  had 
reached  a  high  condition  of  culture,  erecting 
temples,  practicing  orts  in  the  metals,  and  using 
hieroglyphs.  So  the  Mound-builders  formed  the 
theme  of  many  an  essay  on  the  wonders  of 
ancient  civilization.  The  research  of  the  past 
ten  or  fifteen  years  has  put  this  subject  in  a 
proper  light.  First,  the  am  als  of  the  Colum- 
bian epoch  have  been  carelully  studied,  and  it 
is  found  that  some  of  the  mounds  have  been  con- 
structed in  historical  time,  while  early  explorers 
and  settlers  found  many  actually  used  by 
tribes  of  Xorth  American  Indians;  so  we  know 
that  many  of  them  were  buildeys  of  mounds. 
Again,  hundreds  and  thou-sands  of  these  mounds 
have  been  carefully  examined,  and  the  works  of 
art  found  therein  have  been  collected  and  assem- 
bled in  museums.  At  the  same  time,  the  works 
of  art  of  the  Indian  tribes,  as  they  were  pro- 
duced before  modification  by  European  cidture, 
have  been  assembled  in  the  same  musuems,  and 
the  two  classes  of  collections  have  been  carefully 
compared.  All  this  has  been  done  with  the 
greatest  painstaking,  and  the  ]\Iound  builder's 
arts  and  the  Indian's  arts  are  found  to  be  sub- 
stantially identical.  No  fragment  of  evidi^ncc 
remains  to  support  the  ligment  of  theory  that 
there  was  an  ancient  race  of  Moiuid-builders 
superior  in  culture  to  the  North  American 
Indians.  .  .  .  That  some  of  these  mounds  were 
built  and  used  in  modern  times  is  proved  in 
another  way.  They  often  contain  articles  mani- 
festly made  by  white  men,  such  as  glass  beads 
and  copper  ornaments.  ...  So  it  chances  that 
to-day  unskilled  aicha'ologi.sts  are  collecting 
many  beautiful  things  in  copper,  stone,  and 
shell  which  were  made  by  white  men  and  traded 
to  the  Indians.  Now,  souk;  of  these  things  are 
fotmd  in  the  mounds;  and  bird  Jiipes.  elephant 
pipes,  banner  stones,  copper  sjiear  heads  and 
knives,  and  maehine-inade  wampiun  are  col- 
lected in  (|uantities  and  sold  at  high  prices  to 
wealthy  aniatcuni.  .  .  .  The  study  of  these 
mounds,  historically  and  arelueologieally,  proves 
that  th'  y  were  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes. 
Some  were  for  sepulture,  and  such  are  the  most 
common  and  widely  scattered.  Others  were 
used  a.s  artiticial  hills  on  which  to  build  com- 
munal houses.  .  .  .  Some  of  the  very  large 
mounds  were  sites  of  large  communal  houses  in 
which  entire  tribes  dwelt.  There  is  still  a  third 
clnsj  .  .  .  constructed  as  places  for  public 
assi'mbly.  .  .  .  But  to  explain  the  mounds  and 
their  uses  wouhl  expand  this  article  into  a  book. 


It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  Mound-builders  were 
the  Indian  tri'oes  discovered  by  white  men.  It 
may  well  be  that  some  of  the  mounds  were 
erected  by  ♦ribes  extinct  when  Columbus  first 
.saw  these" shores,  but  they  were  kindred  in  cul- 
ture to  the  peoples  that  still  existed.  In  the 
southwestern  portion  of  the  United  States,  con- 
ditions of  aridity  prevail.  Forests  nre  few  and 
arc  found  only  at  great  heights.  .  .  .  The  tribes 
lived  in  the  plains  and  valleys  below,  while  the 
highlands  were  their  hunting  grounds.  The 
arid  lands  below  were  often  naked  of  vegetation ; 
and  the  ledges  and  clilTs  that  stand  athwart  the 
lands,  and  the  canyon  walls  that  inclose  the 
streams,  were  everywhere  quarries  of  loose  rock, 
lying  in  blocks  ready  to  the  builder's  hand. 
Jlcnce  these  people  learned  to  build  their 
dwellings  of  stone;  and  they  had  large  com- 
mimal  houses,  even  larger  than  the  structures  of 
woml  made  by  the  tribes  of  the  ea.st  and  north. 
Many  of  these  stone  pueblos  are  still  occupied, 
but  the  ruins  are  scattered  wide  over  a  region  of 
country  embracing  a  little  of  California  and 
Nevada,  much  of  Utah,  most  of  Colorado,  the 
whole  of  New  Slexico  nnd  Arizona,  and  far 
southward  toward  the  Isthmus.  .  .  .  No  ruin 
has  been  discovered  where  evidences  of  a  higher 
cidture  are  foimd  than  exists  in  modern  times  at 
Zuni,  Oraibi,  or  Laguniv.  The  earliest  may  have 
been  built  thousands  of  years  ago,  but  they  were 
built  by  the  ancestors  of  existing  tribes  and 
their  congeners.  A  careful  study  of  these  ruins, 
made  during  the  last  twenty  years,  abundantly 
demonstrates  that  the  pueblo  culture  began  with 
rude  structures  of  stone  and  brush,  and  gradu- 
ally leveloped,  until  at  the  time  of  the  explora- 
tion of  the  country  by  the  Spaniards,  beginning 
about  1540,  it  had  reached  its  highest  phase. 
Zufii  [in  New  SIcxico]  has  been  built  since,  and 
it  is  among  the  largest  and  best  villages  ever 
established  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  without  tlie  aid  of  ideas  derived  from 
civilized  men."  AVit'i  regard  to  the  ruins  of 
dwellings  found  sheltered  in  the  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  or  on  the  shelves  of  cliffs,  or  other- 
wise contrived,  the  conclusion  to  which  all  recent 
archa!ological  study  tends  is  the  same.  "All 
the  stone  pueblo  ruins,  all  the  clay  ruins,  all  the 
cliff  dwellings,  all  the  crater  villages,  all  the 
cavate  chambers,  and  all  the  ttifa-block  houses 
are  fully  accounted  for  without  resort  to  hypothet- 
ical peoples  inhabiting  the  coimtry  anterior  to 
the  Indian  tribes.  .  .  .  Pre-Columbian  culture 
was  indigenous;  it  began  at  the  lowest  stage  of 
savagery  and  developed  to  the  highest,  and  was 
in  many  places  passing  into  barbarism  when  the 
good  queen  sold  her  jewels." — Major  J.  W. 
Powell,  PrehiMorie  Man  in  America;  in  "  The 
Forum,"  January,  1890. —  "The  writer  believes 
.  .  .  that  the  majority  of  American  archiEolo- 
gists  now  sees  no  sufflcient  reason  for  sujiposing 
that  any  mysterious  superior  race  has  ever  lived 
in  any  portion  of  our  continent.  They  And  no 
areha;ological  evidence  proving  tliat  at  the  time 
of  its  discovery  any  tribe  had  reached  a  stage 
of  culture  that  can  properly  be  called  civiliza- 
tion. Even  if  we  accept  the  exaggerated  state- 
1  ments  of  the  Spanish  conquerors,  the  most  intelli 
gent  and  advanced  peoples  found  here  were 
only  8«!mi-borbaiians,  in  the  stage  of  transition 
from  the  stone  to  the  bronze  age,  possessing  no 


4(5 


AMERICA. 

Showing  the  more  Important  of  tho  Journevt 
of  Discovery  and  Early  Settlements. 

REFCRENCr    70    J0URNEV9. 

Cilumbus  ■.—  ■— — -.  .  . . 

J'lspttrtjift  -.—,_.-.-,.,_,-.,_,_,. 

Jo7in  Gibot        — + -r + ■«. 

Miilbua  

Pnnce  tie  Lcvn ^~—.^^.^— 

Ojider  I      (  -  t      I  I  I  ■ 

I>e  Solo  ++++|.++++++>.++^     , 

Oivnuiao  — I — I (._ ,^j_^ ^ 

Cha  hijda  1  n  __ 

Ln:iftf(r  "-     ■ 

JitUlSUn  T1 T MIIITTTITriTn 

Bala  of  SUIula  MtW*. 

>eo  moo 

]}^''  too-      xU^iub 


"Miy  ■-' 


..I  i;:'''^ ' 


AMERICA. 


Hortt  Ditcovery. 


AMERICA. 


written  language,  or  what  can  properly  be 
styled  nu  alphabet,  and  not  yet  having  even 
learned  tlic  use  of  beasts  of  burden." — II.  W. 
Ilaynes,  Prehistoric  Archaoloatj  of  X.  Am.  (o.  1, 
c/i.'O,  of  "  Xurratirc  and  Critical  Hixt.  of  Am."). 
—  "It  may  be  premised  .  .  .  that  llic  Spanish 
adventiu'ers  who  thronged  to  the  New  World 
after  its  lUscovery  found  the  same  nco  of  Red 
Indians  in  the  West  India  Islands,  in  Central 
and  South  Anieriea,  in  Florida  and  in  Jloxieo. 
In  their  mode  of  life  and  means  of  subsisteuco, 
in  their  weapons,  arts,  usages  and  customs,  iu 
their  instituticns,  and  in  their  mental  and  physi- 
cal characteristics,  they  were  the  same  jieople  in 
ditfereut  stages  of  advancement.  .  .  .  Tlierewas 
ndtlicr  a  political  society,  nor  a  state,  nor  any 
civilization  in  America  wlieu  it  was  discovered; 
and,  excluding  the  Eskimos,  but  one  race  of 
Indians,  the  Red  Race." — L.  II.  Morgan,  Houses 
and  lloHsc-Ufe  of  the  American  Aburiyiiies  :  (Om- 
tributioiistoX.  A.  Ethnology,  v.  5.),  ch.  10. — "We 
have  in  this  country  tlie  conclusive  evidence  of 
tlie  existence  of  man  before  the  time  of  the 
glaciers,  and  from  tlio  primitive  conditions  of 
tliat  time,  he  has  lived  here  and  developed, 
through  stages  whicli  correspond  in  many  par- 
ticulars to  the  Homeric  ago  of  Greece." — F.  W. 
Pimiani,  Ilejyt.  I'eubody  Museum  of  Areha'oloyi/, 
IHSO. 

Al.so  IN  L.  Carr,  The  Mounds  of  the  Mississippi 
Vidlei/. — C.  Tliomas,  Burial  Mounds  of  the 
Northern  Sections  of  the  U.  8.:  Annual  Rept.  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  188U-84.— JIarquis  de 
Nadaillac,  Prehistoric  America. — J.  Fiske,  llie 
Viscocery  of  America,  ch.  1. — See,  aluo,  JIexico; 
i^Kiii;;  and  Ameuican  AnoiiioiNios:  Aixkguans, 
C'l]  ::uoKi;i;s,  and  Mayas. 

loth-iith  Centuries. — Supposed  Discover- 
ies by  the  Northmen. — The  fact  that  tlie  Nortli- 
men  knew  of  the  existence  of  the  Western  Con- 
tinent prior  to  the  age  of  Columbus,  was  promi- 
nenlly  brought  l)efore  the  people  of  this  country 
'"   the  year   18;J7,    when  the  Royal  Society  of 


in 


Korthern  Antiquaries  at  Copenhagen  publislied 
tlieir  work  on  the  Antiquities  of  North  America, 
tmder  tile  editorial  supervision  of  the  great  Ice- 
lanilie  scholar.  Professor  Rafn.  But  we  are  not 
to  suppose  that  the  first  general  account  of  these 
voyages  was  th(,n  given,  for  it  has  always  been 
known  that  the  history  (jf  certain  early  voyages 
to  America  by  the  Norllunen  were  i)rescrved  in 
the  libraries  of  Denmark  and  Iceland.  .  .  .  Yet, 
owing  to  tlie  fact  that  tlie  Icelandic  language, 
thougli  simple  in  construction  and  easy  of  acqui- 
sition, was  a  Icingne  not  understood  by  scholars, 
the  subject  lias  until  recent  years  been  sulfered  to 
lie  in  tlie  background,  and  permitted,  through 
n  want  of  interest,  to  share  in  a  measure  the 
treatment  meted  out  to  vague  ami  uncertain  re- 
ports. ...  It  now  remains  to  give;  the  reader 
some  general  accuuiit  of  the  contents  of  the  nar- 
ratives which  relate  more  or  less  to  llie  discovery 
of  the  western  continent.  .  .  The  lirst  extracts 
given  are  very  brief.  Thev  are  taken  from  the 
'Landanama  Book,"  and  re,.ite  to  the  report  iu 
general  circulation,  wliich  indicated  one  Gunni- 
b<>rn  as  the  discoverer  of  Greenland,  an  event 
winch  has  been  lixed  at  the  vear  STli.  .  .  .  The 
next  narrative  relates  to  the  rediscovery  of 
Greenland  by  the  outlaw,  Eric  the  Red,  in  983 
who  there  |)assed  three  vears  in  exile,  and  after- 
wards returned  to  Iceland.  About  the  year  'JSB 
he  brought  out  to  Greenland  a  considerable  colony 


4 


of  settlers,  who  fixed  their  abode  at  Brattahlid, 
in  Ericsflord.  Then  follow  two  versions  of 
the  voyage  of  Biarne  Heriulfson,  who,  in  the 
same  year,  980,  when  sailing  for  Greenland,  was 
driven  away  during  a  storm,  and  saw  u  new 
land  at  the  southward,  which  he  did  not  visit. 
Next  is  given  tliree  accounts  of  the  voyage  of 
Leif,  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  who  iu  the  year  1000 
sailed  from  Brattahlid  to  find  the  land  which 
Biarne  saw.  Two  of  these  accounts  are  hardly 
more  than  notices  of  the  voyage,  but  the  third  is 
of  considerable  length,  and  details  the  successes 
of  Leif,  who  found  and  explored  this  new  land, 
where  he  spent  the  winter,  returning  to  Green- 
land the  following  spring  [having  named  diilcr- 
ent  regions  which  he  visited  Ilelluland,  Mark- 
laud  and  Yinland,  mo  latter  name  indicative  of 
tlie  linding  of  graiics].  After  this  follows  the 
voyage  oi'  Thorvald  Ericson,  brother  of  Leif, 
who  sailed  to  Viiilaiid  from  Oreeiiland,  which 
was  the  point  of  departure  in  all  these  voyages. 
This  expedition  was  begun  in  1003,  and  it  cost 
him  his  life,  as  an  'urow  from  one  of  the  natives 
pierced  his  side,  causing  death.  Tliorstein,  hia 
brotlier,  went  to  seek  Viuland,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  bringing  homo  his  body,  but  failed  in  the 
attempt.  The  most  distinguislied  explorer  was 
Thortinn  Karlsefne,  the  lloiieful,  an  Icelander 
whose  genealogy  runs  biick  in  the  old  Northern 
annals,  through  Danisli,  Swedish,  and  even 
Scotch  and  Irish  ancestors,  some  of  wliom  were 
of  royal  blootl.  In  the  year  1000  ho  went  to 
Greenland,  where  he  met  Gudrid,  widow  of 
Tliorstein,  whom  ho  married.  Aci;oir.panied  by 
his  wife,  who  urged  him  to  the  undertaking,  ho 
sailed  to  Viuland  in  the  spring  of  1007,  with 
thi'ce  vessels  and  100  men,  where  he  remained 
three  years.  Here  his  son  Snorro  was  born.  He 
afterwards  became  the  founder  of  a  great  family 
in  Iceland,  which  gave  the  island  several  of  its 
first  bishops.  Thorlinn  finally  left  Viuland  be- 
cause he  found  it  dillicult  to  sustain  himself 
against  the  attacks  of  the  uatives.  The  next  to 
undertake  a  voyage  was  a  wicked  woman  named 
Freydis,  a  sister  to  Leif  Ericson,  wlio  went  to 
Viuland  in  1011,  where  she  lived  fo  •  a  time  with 
lit  •  two  ships,  iu  the  same  places  occupied  by 
Leif  and  Thorlinn.  Before  she  returned,  she 
caused  the  crew  of  one  ship  to  be  cruelly  mur- 
dered, assisting  in  the  butchery  with  her  own 
liands.  After  this  we  have  what  are  called  the 
Minor  Narratives,  which  are  not  essential." — B. 
F.  Do  Costa,  Prc-Uolundjan  Discovery  of  Am. , Gen- 
eral Introd. — By  those  who  accept  fully  the 
claims  made  for  tlie  Northmen,  as  discoverers  of 
tlie  American  continent  iu  tlie  vojages  believed 
to  be  authentically  narrated  in  these  sagas,  the 
Helluland  of  Leif  is  commonly  identilied  with 
Newfouiidlaud,  Marklaiid  witliNova  Scotia,  and 
Viuland  witli  various  jiarls  of  New  England. 
!Massaeluisetts  Bay,  Cape  Cod,  Nantucket  Island, 
Martha's  Vineyard,  Buzzard's  Bay,  Narragan- 
selt  Bay,  iMount  Hope  Bay,  Long  Island  Soiuid, 
and  New  York  Bay  arc  umong  the  localities 
supposed  to  be  recognized  in  tlie  Nors(?  nami- 
tives,  or  marked  by  some  tnices  of  the  presence 
of  the  Viking  explorers.  Prof.  Gustav  Storm, 
the  most  recent  of  the  Scandinavian  investiga- 
tors of  this  suliieet,  llnds  the  Ilelluland  of  the 
sagas  in  Labrador  or  Northern  Newfoundland, 
Markland  in  Newfoundland,  and  Vinlaiid  iu 
Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton  Island.  —  G.  Storm, 
Htudies  of  tlie  Vinehind  Voyages. — "The  only  dis- 


47 


AMERICA. 


Columbian 
Ditcovery. 


AMERICA,  1484-1492. 


credit  wlikli  has  boon  thrown  upon  tlie  story  of  the 
Vinliind  vnyut'is.  in  the  oycs  cithir  of  scliohir.s  or 
of  the  general  |ml)lic,  lias  arisen  from  t  lie  eager  cre- 
dulity with  which  inirenioiis  aiili(iiiariau.s  have 
now  and  then  tried  to  jirove  more  than  facts  will 
warrant.  .  .  .  Ar<lia'lo!,'ieal  remains  of  the  North- 
men abound  in  Greenland,  all  the  way  froir  Im- 
martinek  to  near  Cajie  Farewell;  the  existence 
of  one  such  relic  on  the  North  American  con- 
tinent has  never  yet  been  proved.  Not  a  single 
veslij;eof  the  Nor.hmen's  presence  here,  at  all 
wortliy  of  credeiu  e,  has  ever  been  found.  .  .  . 
The  most  convincing  proof  that  the  Northmen 
nc  -er  founded  ii  colony  in  America,  south  of 
Uavis  Strait,  is  furni.shed  by  the  total  absence  of 
horses,  cattle  and  other  domestic  animals  from 
the  soil  of  North  America  until  they  were 
brought  hither  by  the  Spanish,  French  and 
English  settlers." — J.  Fiske,  T/ie  DiKcoviri/  of 
America,  ch.  2. — "  \Vliat  Leif  and  Karlsefnc 
knew  they  experienced,"  wi-itos  I'rof.  Justin 
Winsyr,  "and  what  the  sagas  tell  'is  they 
underwent,  must  have  just  the  dilference  be- 
tween a  crisp  narrative  of  personal  adventure 
and  the  oft-repeated  and  embellished  story  of  a 
fireside  narrator,  since  the  traditions  of  the 
Norse  voyages  ■were  not  put  in  the  shape  of 
records  till  about  two  centuries  had  elapsed,  and 
wo  have  no  earlier  inanuscrii)t  of  such  a  record 
than  one  made  nearly  two  hundred  years  later 
still.  ...  A  blending  of  history  and  myth 
prompts  Horn  to  say  that  'sonicof  the  saga? 
were  doubtless  originally  based  on  facts,  but  the 
telling  and  retelling  have  changed  them  into 
pure  myths.'  The  unsympathetic  stranger  soes 
this  in  stories  that  the  patriotic  Scandinavians 
are  over-anxious  to  make  appear  as  genuine 
chronicles.  .  .  .  The  weight  of  probability  is  in 
favor  of  a  Northman  descent  upon  the  coast  of 
the  American  mainland  at  some  point,  or  at 
several,  somewhere  to  the  south  of  Greenland; 
but  the  evidence  is  hardly  that  which  attaches  to 
well  established  historical  records.  .  .  .  There  is 
not  a  single  item  of  all  the  evidence  thus  ad- 
vanced from  time  to  time  which  can  he  said  to 
connect  by  archaiological  traces  the  presence  of 
the  Northmen  on  the  soil  of  North  America 
south  of  Uavis'  Straits."  Of  other  imagined 
pre-Columban  discoveries  of  America,  by  tlie 
Welsh,  bjr  the  Arabs,  by  the  Basques,  &c.,  the 
possibilities  and  i)robabilities  are  critically  dis- 
cussed by  Prof.  Wiusor  in  the  same  connectiou. 
— J.  Winsor,  Karmtiec  and  Vn'lical  Hist,  of 
Am.,  V.  1,  eh.  2,  and  Critical Xulcs  to  the  same. 

Also  in  Bryant  and  Gay,  Pojnilnr  Hist,  of  the 
U.  S.,  ch.  3.— E.  P.  Slaftcr,  Ed.  Voyages  of  the 
Northmen  to  Am.  (Pnnee  Soc,  1877). — The  same. 
Discovery  of  Am.  by  the  Northmen  (N.  U.  llist. 
Sue.,  1888). — N.  L.  Beamish,  Discover!/ of  Am.  by 
the  Northmen, — A.  J.  Weisc,  Discoveries  of  Am., 
ch.  1. 

.  A.  D.  148A-1492.— The  great  project  of 
Columbus,  and  the  sources  of  its  inspiration. 
— His  seven  years'  suit  at  the  Spanish  Court. 
— His  departure  from  Palos. — "  All  attempts 
to  diniinisli  the  glory  of  Columbus'  achievement 
by  proving  a  previous  discovery  whose  results 
were  known  to  him  have  signally  failed.  .  .  . 
Columbus  originated  no  new  theory  respecting 
the  earth's  form  or  size,  though  it  popular  idea 
has  always  prevailed,  notwithstanding  the  state- 
ments of"  the  best  writers  to  the  contrary,  that 
he  is  entitled  to  the  glory  of  the  theory  lis  well 


as  to  that  of  the  execution  of  the  project.  He 
was  not  in  advance  of  his  age,  entertained  no 
new  theories,  believed  no  more  than  did  Prince 
Henry,  his  predecessor,  or  ToscancUi,  his  C(m- 
temjiorary;  nor  was  he  the  first  to  conceive  the 
jwssibility  of  reaching  the  east  by  sailing  west. 
lie  was  however  the  first  to  act  in  accordance 
with  existing  beliefs.  The  Northmen  in  their 
voyages  had  entertained  no  ideas  of  a  New 
World,  or  of  an  Asia  to  the  West.  To  knowl- 
edge of  theoretical  geography,  Columbus  added 
the  skill  of  a  iiractical  navigator,  and  the  iron 
will  to  overcome  obstacles.  He  sailed  west, 
reached  Asia  as  ho  believed,  and  proved  old 
theories  correct.  There  seem  to  be  two  unde- 
cided points  in  that  matter,  neither  of  which  can 
ever  be  settled.  First,  did  his  experience  in  the 
Portuguese  voyages,  the  perusal  of  sonic  old 
author,  or  a  hint  from  one  of  the  few  men 
ac(iuainted  with  old  traditions,  first  suggest  to 
Columbus  his  project  ?  .  .  .  Second,  to  wlnt  ex- 
tent did  his  voyage  to  the  north  [made  in  1477, 
jjrobably  with  an  English  merchantman  from 
Bristol,  in  which  voyage  he  is  believed  to  liav» 
visited  Iceland]  influence  his  plan  ?  There  is  no 
evidence,  but  a  strong  probability,  that  he  heaixl 
in  that  voyage  of  the  existence  of  land  in  the 
west.  .  .  .  Still,  his  visit  to  the  north  was  in 
14r7,  several  years  after  the  first  formation  of 
his  plau,  and  any  information  gained  at  the  time 
could  only  have  been  confirmatory  rather  than 
suggestive." — II.  H.  Bancroft,  lli.it.  of  tin 
Pacific  States,  v.  1,  summary  app.  to  ch.  1. — "Of 
the  works  of  learned  men,  that  which,  according 
to  Ferdinand  Columbus,  had  most  weight  with 
his  father,  was  the  '  Cosmographia '  of  Cardinal 
Aliaco.  Columbus  was  also  confirmed  in  his 
views  of  the  existence  of  a  western  passage  to 
the  Indies  by  Paulo  Toscanelli,  the  Florentine 
philosopher,  to  whom  much  credit  is  due  for  the 
encouragement  he  afforded  to  the  enterprise. 
That  the  notices,  however,  of  western  lands  were 
not  such  as  to  have  much  weight  with  other 
men,  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  difllculty 
which  Columbus  had  in  contending  with  adverse 
geographers  and  men  of  science  in  general,  of 
whom  he  says  he  never  was  able  to  convince  any 
one.  After  a  new  world  had  been  discovered, 
many  scattered  indications  were  then  found  \ja 
have  foreshown  it.  One  thing  which  cannot  be 
denied  to  Columbus  is  that  he  worked  out  hi» 
own  idea  himself.  ...  Ho  first  applied  himself 
to  his  countrymen,  the  Genoese,  who  would  have 
nothing  to  say  to  bis  scheme.  He  then  tried  the 
Portuguese,  who  listened  to  what  he  had  to  say, 
but  with  bad  faith  sought  to  anticipate  him  by 
sending  out  a  caravel  with  instructions  founded 
upon  his  plan.  .  .  .  Columbus,  disgusted  at  the 
treatment  he  had  received  from  the  Portuguese 
Court,  quitted  Lisbon,  and,  after  visiting  Genoa, 
as  it  appears,  went  to  see  what  favour  he  could 
meet  with  in  Spain,  arriving  at  Palos  in  the  year 
1485."  The  story  of  the  long  suit  of  Columbus 
at  the  Court  of  Ferdinand  anil  Isabella;  of  his 
discouragement  and  departure,  with  Intent  to 
go  to  France;  of  his  recall  by  command  of 
Queen  Isabella;  of  the  tedious  hearings  and 
negotiations  that  now  took  place;  of  the  lofty 
demands  adhered  to  by  the  confident  Ctenoese, 
who  required  "to  be  made  an  admiral  at  once, 
to  be  appointed  viceroy  of  the  countries  he 
should  discover,  and  to  have  an  eighth  of  the 
profits  of  tlie  expedition;"  of  bis  second  rebuff. 


48 


AMERICA,  1484-1492. 


Cotitmbinn 
Vucovtry. 


AMERICA,  1492. 


nis  s(^coiiil  (Icparture  for  Frmuc,  iincl  second  re- 
cull  by  IsiilR'llii,  who  liniilly  put  her  hciirt  into 
the  enterpriso  and  iirrsimdcil  her  more  skeptical 
consort  to  us.scnt  to  it  — the  story  of  those  seven 
years  of  the  strufit'le  of  Columlms  to  olitiiiii 
"means  for  his  voyane  is  fiiiniliar  to  all  readers. 
"The  ngreenu'iit"  belnecn  Coluinhiis  and  their 
Catholic  highnesses  was  signed  at  Santa  F6  on 
the  nth  of  April,  1492;  and  Columbus  went  to 
I'alos  to  make  preparation  for  his  voyage,  l)car- 
ing  with  him  an  order  that  the  two  ves.sels  wliieh 
that  city  fnrnislied  annually  to  tlie  crown  for 
three  months  slioidd  be  placed  at  his  disposal. 
.  .  .  The  Pinzons,  rich  men  and  skilful  nniriners 
of  Palos,  joined  in  I  lie  undertaking,  subscribing 
an  eighth' of  the  expenses;  and  thus,  by  these 
united  e.\ertions,  three  vessels  were  manned  with 
90  mariners,  and  provisioned  for  a  year.  At 
length  all  tlic  preparations  were  complete,  and 
on  a  Friday  (not  inauspicious  in  tliis  case),  the 
'iid  of  August,  1492,  after  they  had  all  confessed 
mill  received  the  sacrament,  "tliey  set  stiil  fnm 
the  bar  of  Salte.s,  making  for  tlie  Canary 
Islands."— Sir  A.  Helps,  T/t<i  Spanish  Conqua'- 
ill  America,  bk.  2,  eh.  1. 

Also  in  J.  AVinsor,  Chrintopher  Columbus,  ch. 
5-9,  lui'l  20. 

A.  D.  1492.— The  First  Voyage  of  Colum- 
bus.— Discovery  of  the  Bahamas,  Cuba  and 
Hayti. — Tlie  tliree  vessels  of  Columbus  were 
called  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Pinta  and  the 
Nina.  "All  had  forecastles  and  high  poops, 
but  the  'Santa  Maria'  was  the  only  one  that 
was  decked  amidships,  and  she  was  called  ft  '  nao ' 
or  ship.  Tlie  other  two  were  caravelas,  a 
class  of  small  vessels  built  for  speed.  The 
'Santa  Maria,'  as  I  gather  from  scattered  notices 
in  the  letters  of  Columbus,  was  of  120  to  130 
tons,  like  a  modern  coasting  schooner,  and  she 
carried  70  men,  much  crowded.  Her  sails  were 
11  foresail  and  a  foretopsail,  a  sprit-sail,  a  main- 
sail with  two  bonnets,  and  maintop  sail,  a  niizzen, 
and  a  boat's  sail  were  occasionally  hoisted  on 
the  poop.  The  '  Pinta '  and  '  Nifia '  only  liad 
square  sails  on  the  foremast  and  lateen  sails  on 
the  main  and  mizzcn.  The  former  wns  50  tons, 
the  latter  40  tons,  with  crews  of  20  men  each. 
On  Friday,  the  3d  of  August,  the  three  little 
vessels  left  the  haven  of  Pulos,  and  this  memor- 
able voyage  was  commenced.  .  .  .  The  expedi- 
tion proceeded  to  the  Canary  Islands,  where  the 
rig  of  the  '  Pinta '  was  altered.  Her  lateen  sails 
were  not  adapted  for  running  before  the  wind, 
and  she  was  therefore  fitted  with  square  sails, 
like  the '  Santa  JIaria. '  Repairs  were  completed, 
the  vessels  were  filled  up  with  wood  and  water 
at  Gomcra,  and  the  expedition  took  its  final  de- 
parture from  the  island  of  Qomera,  one  of  the 
Canaries,  on  September  6th,  1492.  .  .  .  Colum- 
bus had  chosen  his  route  most  happily,  and  with 
that  fortunate  prevision  which  often  "waits  upon 
genius.  From  Gomeni,  by  a  course  a  little 
south  of  west,  he  would  run  down  the  trades 
to  the  Bahama  Islands.  From  the  parallel  of 
about  30°  N.  nearly  to  the  equator  there  is 
a  zone  of  perpetual  winds  —  namely,  the 
north-cast  trade  winds  —  always  moving"  in  the 
same  direction,  as  steadily  as"  the  current  of  a 
river,  except  where  they  are  turned  aside  by 
local  causes,  so  that  the  ships  of  Columbus  were 
steadily  carried  to  their  destination  by  a 
law  of  nature  which,  in  due  time,  revealed 
itself  to  that  close  observer  of  her  secrets.     'The 


constancy  of  the  wind  was  one  cause  of  alarm 

among  the  crews,  for  they  tiegan  to  murmur 
that  tlie  provi.sotis  would  all  be  exhausted  if  they 
had  to  beat  against  these  unceasing  winds  on 
the  return  voyage.  The  next  event  which  excited 
alarm  among  the  pilots  was  the  discovery  that 
the  compa.sses  had  more  than  a  point  of  easterly 
variation.  .  .  .  This  was  observed  on  the  17th 
of  September,  and  about  300  miles  westward  of 
the  meridian  of  the  Azores,  when  the  ships  had 
been  eleven  days  at  sea.  Soon  afterwards  the  voy- 
agers found  themselves  surroun<led  by  ma.sses  of 
seaweed,  in  what  is  called  the  Sargasso  Sea,  anci 
this  again  aroused  their  fears.  Tliey  thought 
that  the  ships  would  g(!t  entangled  in  the  beds 
of  weed  and  become  immovable,  and  that  the 
beds  marked  the  limit  of  navigation.  The  cause 
of  this  accumulation  is  well  known  now. 
If  bits  ot  cork  are  put  into  a  ba.sin  of  water, 
and  a  circular  motion  given  to  it,  all  the  corks 
will  be  found  crowding  together  towards  the 
centre  if  the  pool  where  there  is  the  least  motion. 
The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  just  such  a  basin,  the 
Gulf  Stream  is  the  wliirl,  and  the  Sargasso  Sea 
is  in  the  centre.  There  Columbus  found  it,  and 
there  it  has  remained  to  this  day,  moving  up 
aud  down  and  changing  its  position  according  to 
seasons,  storms  and  winds,  but  never  altering  its 
mean  position.  ...  As  day  after  day  passed, 
and  there  was  no  sign  of  land,  the  crews  became 
turbulent  and  mutinous.  Columbus  encouraged 
them  with  liopes  of  reward,  while  he  told  them 
plainly  that  he  had  come  to  discover  India,  and 
that,  with  the  help  of  God,  he  would  persevere 
until  he  found  it.  At  lengtli,  on  the  11th  of  Oc- 
;  tober,  towards  ten  at  night,  Columbus  was  on 
the  poop  and  saw  a  light.  ...  At  two  next 
morning,  land  was  distinctly  seen.  .  .  .  The 
island,  called  by  the  natives  Guanahani,  and  by 
Columbus  San  Salvador,  has  now  been  ascertained 
to  be  Watling  Island,  one  of  the  Bahamas, 
14  miles  long  by  6  broad,  with  a  brackish  lake 
in  the  centre,  in  24°  10'  30"  north  latitude.  .  .  . 
The  difference  of  latitude  between  (Jomera  and 
Watling  Island  is  235  miles.  Course,  W.  5°  S.  j 
distance  8,114  miles;  average  distance  made 
good  daily,  85' ;  voyage  35  days.  .  .  .  After  dis- 
covering several  smaller  islands  the  fleet  came 
in  sight  of  Cuba  on  the  27th  October,  and  ex- 
plored part  of  the  northern  coast.  Columbus 
believed  it  to  be  Cipanjjo,  tlie  island  placed  on 
the  chart  of  Toscanelh,  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  .  .  .  Crossing  the  channel  between  Cuba  and 
St.  Domingo  [or  Hayti],  they  anchored  in  the 
harbour  of  St.  Nicholas  Jlole  on  December  4th. 
The  natives  came  with  presents  and  the  coun- 
try was  enchanting.  Columbus  .  .  named  the 
island  'Espaiiola'  [or  Ilispaniola].  But  with  all 
this  peaceful  beauty  around  him  he  was  on  the  eve 
of  disaster."  The  Santa  !Maria  was  drifted  by 
a  strong  current  upon  a  sand  bank  and  hopelessly 
wrecked.  "It  was  now  necessary  to  leave  a 
small  colony  on  the  island.  ...  A  fort  was 
built  and  named  'La  Navidad,'  39  men  remain- 
ing behind  .supplied  with  stores  and  provisions," 
and  on  Friday,  Jan.  4,  1493,  Columbus  began 
his  liomeward  voyage.  Weathering  a  danger- 
ous gale,  which  lasted  several  days,  his  little 
vessels  reached  the  Azores  Feb.  17,"  and  arrived 
at  Palos  Marcli  15,  bearing  their  marvellous 
news. — C.  li.  Markliam,  The  Sea  Fathct-s,  ch.  3. — 
The  same.  Life  of  Columbus,  ch.  5. — The  statement 
above  that  the  island  of  the  Bahamas  on  whicli 


49 


W?<" 


AMERICA,  14U3. 


Papal  Orant. 


AMERICA,  1493-1490. 


Columbus  first  landcil.  nml  wliidi  ha  cnllpd  Sun 
Hill  viiilor, "  liiiH  now  been  asciTtiiincd  to  be  Watling 
Island  "  Horms  liardlv  justilkd.  Tlio  (nicstion  be- 
tween ^\  atlin^'  Islan'd,  San  Salvador  or  Cat  Island, 
Humana,  or  Attwoixl'sCav,  Mari)?anna,  theGnmd 
Turk,  and  others  is  still  in  disjiule.  Profes- 
sor Justin  Winsor  says  "the  wel),'ht  of  modern 
testimony  seems  to  favor  Watlini;'s  Island;" 
but  at  tlie  .same  timt;  he  thinks  it,  "  (iroliable  that 
men  will  never  (luile  agree  which  of  the  lialia- 
mas  it  was  upon  wliich  tlie.se  startled  imd  cxid- 
tunt  Europeans llrst stepped. "—J.  AVinsor,  C/n/V 
tap/nr  Oil II  mil II n,  ch.  9.  —The  same,  JViirnilieo  mill 
Critical  Hint,  of  Am.,  r.  2,  c/i.  1,  note  li.— 
Professor  John  Fiske,  says:  "All  that  can  be 
positively  asserted  of  Guanahani  is  that  it  was 
one  of  t he  Ilahnmas ;  there  has  been  endless  diseus- 
siou  as  to  which  one,  and  the  i|uestioii  isnotea.sy 
to  settle.  Perhaps  the  theory  of  Captain  Gustavus 
Fo.x,  of  the  United  States  A'avy,  is  on  the  whole 
best  supported.  Captiiin  Fox  maintains  that 
the  true  Guanahani  was  the  little  Island  now 
known  as  Samana  or  Attwood's  Cay.'' — J.  Fisko, 
Tlie  IJiacoci'i-if  of  Ameriea,  ch.  5  (/'.  1). 

Also  in  U.  H.  Coimtand  Geoiktio  buncy,  liipt., 
18^*0,  iipii.  18. 

A.  D.  1493.  — Papal  grant  of  the  New 
World  to  Spain.— "  Spain  was  iit  lliis  time 
coni'.eeted  witli  tlio  Pope  about  a  most  momen- 
tous matter.  Tlie  Genoese,  Cristoforo  Colombo, 
arrived  at  the  Spanish  court  in  March,  140:i, 
with  tlie  astoundin;:  news  of  tlio  discovery  of 
a  new  continent.  .  .  .  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
thought  it  wise  to  secure  a  title  to  all  thiitmight 
ensue  from  their  new  discovery.  The  Pojie,  ns 
Viearof  Clirist,  was  held  to  have  authoni;-'  to 
dispose  of  lands  inliabited  hy  the  hcatlien;  and 
liv  papal  IJtdls  the  discoveries  of  PortULfal 
afoni^  the  African  coast  liad  been  secured.  The 
Portuguese  showed  signs  of  urgingclaims  tothe 
New  \\'orld,  as  being  already  couveyeil  to  them 
by  'the  papal  grants  previously  issued  in  their 
favour.  To  remove  all  cause  of  dispute,  the 
8i)ani.sh  moiuirchs  at  once  had  recourse  to  Alex- 
ander VI.,  wlio  issued  two  Bulls  on  May  4  and  5 
[149;t]  to  determine  therespeetive  right.-'of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  In  tlie  lirst,  the  Poi)o  granted  to 
the  Spanish  moiiarclis  ami  their  heirs  all  lands' 
discovered  or  hereafter  to  be  discovered  in  the 
western  ocean.  In  the  second,  he  delined  his 
grant  to  mean  all  lands  that  might  he  discovered 
west  and  soutli  of  an  iiiiagiimry  line,  drawn  from 
the  North  to  tlie  South  I'ole,  at  the  distau -e  of  a 
hundred  leagues  westward  of  the  Azores  and 
Cape  do  Verd  Islands.  In  the  light  of  our  pres- 
ent knowledge  wo  are  umazed  at  this  simple 
means  of  disposing  of  a  vast  extent  of  the  earth's 
surface."  L  nder  the  Pope's  stupendous  patent, 
Spain  was  able  to  claim  every  part  of  the  American 
Continent  except  tla;  Brazilian  coast. — M.  Crei'^ii- 
ton,  Hist,  of  the  PuiHicy  during  (he  Bcforma- 
(ion,  bk.  5,    ch.  6  (c.    3). 

Also  IN  E.  G.  Bourne,  Tlic  Deinarcntion  Lineof 
Pope.  Alexander  VT.  {Yale  Rex.,  May,  1892).— J. 
Piske,  The  Discovery  of  America,  ch.  6  (f.  1). — J. 
Gordon,  The  Hulls  distributing  Amerieet  (Am.  fyic. 
of  Ch.  Hist.,  T.  4).— See,  also,  below:  A.  I).  1494. 
A.  D.  1493-1496. — The  Second  Voyage  of 
Columbus. — Discovery  of  Jamaica  ana  the 
Caribbeer..  —  .Subjugation  of  Hispaniola. — 
"The  departure  of  Columbus  on  his  second 
voyajru  of  discovery  presented  a  brilliant  con- 
trast to  Ms  gloomy  embarkation  at  Pulos.    On 


the  2.5th  of  September  [149!t],  at  the  dawn  of  day, 
the  bay  of  Cadiz  was  whitened  by  his  licet. 
There  were  three  largo  ships  of  heavy  Imrden 
and  fourteen  caravels.  .  .  .  Before  sunrise  the 
whole  tleet  was  under  way."  Arrived  at  the 
Canaries  on  the  1st  of  October,  Columbus 
])urchascd  there  calves,  goats,  sheep,  hog.s,  and 
fowls,  with  whidi  to  stock  the  island  of 
Hispaniola;  also  "seeds  of  oranges,  lemons, 
hergamots,  melons,  nud  various  orchard  fruits, 
which  were  thus  lirst  introduced  into  tlie  islands 
of  tho  west  from  the  Ilesperides  or  Fortunate 
Islands  of  the  Old  AVorld."  It  was  not  until  the 
i;!th  of  October  that  tho  fleet  left  the  Canaries, 
niid  it  arrived  among  the  islands  since  called  the 
Lesser  Antilles  or  Caribbees,  on  the  I'vcning  of 
Nov.  3  Sailing  through  this  archipelago,  dis- 
covering tlie  larger  island  of  Porto  Rico  (m  the 
way,  ('olundius  reached  the  eastern  extremity 
of  ilispauiola  or  Ilayti  on  tlie  2M  of  November, 
and  arrived  on  tlic  2Tth  at  La  Navidad,  where 
he  had  left  a  garriscni  ten  months  before.  Ho 
found  nothing  but  ruin,  silence  and  the  marks 
of  death,  and  learned,  after  much  inquiry,  that 
his  unfortunate  men,  losing  all  disciidine  after 
his  dejiarture,  had  provoked  the  natives  by  rajia- 
city  and  licentiousness  until  the  latter  rose  against 
them  and  destroyed  them.  Abandoning  the 
scene  of  this  disaster,  Columbus  found  an 
excellent  harbor  ten  leagues  east  of  Jlonte 
Christ!  and  there  ho  began  tho  founding  of  a 
city  which  I'.e  named  Isabella.  "  Isabella  at  the 
present  day  is  (piite  overgrown  willi  forests,  in 
the  midst  of  which  arc  still  to  be  seen,  partly 
standing,  the  pillars  of  tlie  church,  some  remains 
of  the  king's  storehouses,  and  part  of  the  resi- 
dence of  Columbus,  all  built  of  hewn  stone." 
■\Vhi'.e  the  foundations  of  tlie  new  city  were 
being  laid,  Columbus  sent  back  part  of  his  sliiiis 
to  Spain,  and  undertook  an  exploration  of  the 
interior  of  the  island  —  the  n-.ountains  of  Ciliao 
—  where  abundance  of  gold  was  promised.  Some 
gold  washings  were  funnd  —  far  too  scanty  to 
satisfy  the  expectations  01  'be  Sjianiards;  and,  as 
want  and  sickness  soon  made  their  ajipearance 
at  Isabella,  discontent  was  rife  and  mutiny  afoot 
before  tho  year  Inul  ended.  In  April,  1494, 
Columbus  set  sail  w'  di  three  caravels  to  revisit  the 
coast  of  Cuba,  for  a  moro  extended  exploration 
than  he  had  atteiupted  on  the  lirst  discovery.  ' '  He 
supposed  it  to  be  a  cont  ineiit,  and  the  extreme  end 
of  Asia,  and  if  so,  by  following  its  shores  in  the 
proposed  direction  he  must  eventually  arrive 
at  Calliaj  and  those  other  rich  and  commercial, 
thoug'i  semi-barbarous  countries,  described  by 
Manlevillc  and  Marco  Polo."  Reports  of  gold 
le^l  him  southward  from  Cuba  until  he  discovered 
i  lie  island  which  ho  called  Santiago,  but  which 
has  kept  its  native  name,  Jamaica,  signifying  the 
Island  of  Springs.  Disappointed  in  the  Bcarcli  for 
gold,  he  soon  returned  from  Jamaica  to  Cuba 
and  sailed  along  its  southern  coast  to  very  near 
the  western  extremity,  confirming  himself  and 
his  followers  in  the  belief  that  they  skirted  the 
shores  of  Asia  and  might  follow  them  to  the  Red 
Sea,  if  their  ships  and  stores  were  equal  to  so 
long  a  voyage.  "Two  or  three  days'  further 
sail  would  have  carried  Columbus  round  the 
extremity  of  Cuba;  would  have  dispelled  his 
illusion,  and  might  have  given  an  entirely  differ- 
ent course  to  his  subsequent  discoveries.  In  his 
present  conviction  he  lived  and  died;  believing 
to  his  last  hour  that  Cuba  was  tho  extremity  of 


50 


AMERICA,  1403-1400. 


CabtiVi 
Vitcoverie: 


AilERICA,  1407. 


the  Asiatic  continent."  Returning  eastward,  lie 
visileil  .Tiiniaiea  again  and  ijurposed  some  furtlicr 
exploration  of  tlio  Caribbeo  Islands,  when  liis 
toils  and  anxieties  ovcreatne  him.  "  lie  fell  into 
a  deep  lethargy,  resembling  deiitli  itself.  His 
erew,  alarmed  at  this  profound  torpor,  feared 
that  death  was  really  at  Imnd.  They  abandoned, 
therefore,  nil  further  ])r().se<ution  of  the  voyage; 
and  sl)reading  their  .sails  to  the  cast  wind  so 
lirevalent  in  those  seas,  bore  Cohmibus  back,  in 
a  state  of  eoniiilctc  insensibility,  to  the  harlior 
of  Isabella,"— Sept.  4.  Reeoverinp:  conscious- 
ness, the  iidmiial  was  rejoiced  to  find  his 
brother  IJartholonicw,  from  whom  bo  had  b?en 
Bcpiiratcd  for  y('iirs,  and  who  had  been  sent  out 
to  him  from  Spain,  in  command  of  tliree  slnps. 
Otherwi.se  there  was  little  to  give  jileasurc  to 
Colimdius  when  he  returned  to  IsaliLHa.  His 
followers  were  again  disorganized,  again  at  war 
with  the  natives,  whom  they  plundered  and 
licentiously  abused,  and  a  mischief  making 
prie-st  hiul  goiio  back  to  Sjiaiii,  along  with 
certain  intriguing  otlicers,  to  make  complaints 
and  set  enmities  astir  at  the  court.  Involvc^d  in 
war,  Columbus  prosecuted  it  relcntle.s.sly, 
reduced  the  island  to  submission  and  the 
natives  to  servitude  and  nusery  by  heavy 
exactions.  In  JIarcli  1400  he  returned  to  Sjjain, 
to  defind  bim.self  again.st  tlic  machinations  of 
his  enemies,  transferring  the  government  of 
Ilispaniola  to  his  brother  Bartholomew. — AV. 
Irving,  JJfe  and  VotjngcH  of  Ciilurnhns,  bk.  0-8 
(!).  1-2). 

Also  in  II.  II.  Baiicroft,  IliKt.  of  the  Pdrifie 
States,  V.  1,  eh.  3. — J.  Winsor,  ChriM'iphcr 
Columbus,  ch.  12-14. 

A.  D.  1494. —  The  Treaty  c»  fordesillas. — 
Amended  Partition  of  the  New  World  between 
Spain  and  Portugal. — "When  speaking  or  writ- 
ing of  the  con(piest  of  America,  it  is  generally 
belirved  that  the  only  title  upon  which  were 
basid  the  con(iuests  of  Spain  and  Portugal  was 
the  famous  V;\\k\\  IJidl  of  partition  of  the  Ocean, 
of  1493.  Few  modern  authors  take  into  consid- 
eration that  this  Bull  was  amended,  upon  the  pe- 
tition of  the  King  of  Portugal,  by  the  [Treaty  of 
Tordesilhus],  signed  by  both  powers  in  1494, 
augmenting  the  portion  assigned  to  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  partition  made  between  them  of  the 
Continent  of  America.  Tlie  aie  of  mcriiliaii  fixed 
by  this  treaty  as  a  dividing  line,  which  gave  rise, 
owing  to  the  ignorance  of  the  age,  to  so  many 
diplomatic  congresses  and  interminable  contro- 
versies, may  now  be  traced  l)y  any  student  of 
elementary  mathematics.  Tins  line  .  .  .  runs 
along  the  meridian  of  47°  32'  00"  west  of  Green- 
wicli.  .  .  .  The  name  I!ra/,il,  or  '  tierra  del  Bra- 
zil,' at  that  time  [the  middle  of  the  ICth  century] 
referred  oidy  to  the  i)art  of  tlie  continent  pro- 
ducing the  dye  wood  so-called.  Nearly  two 
centuries  Inter  tlie  Portuguese  advanced  toward 
the  South,  and  the  name  Brazil  then  covered  the 
new  posses-sions  they  were  acquiring."— L.  L. 
Dominguez,  Iniroil.  to  "  The  Coiiquaitofthe  River 
Plate  "  (IIaki:yt  Soc.  Pubs.  No.  81). 

A.  D.  1497,— Discovery  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Continent  by  John  Cabot.— "The  achieve- 
ment of  Columbus,  revealing  the  wonderful  truth 
of  which  the  germ  may  have  existed  in  the 
imngiuatiou  of  every  thoughtfid  mariner,  won 
[in  En'gland]  the  admiration  which  lielonged  to 
genius  that  seemed  more  divine  than  human; 
und  •  there  was  great  talk  of  it  in  all  tlie  court  of 


Ilcnry  VII.'  A  fteling  of  disappointment  re- 
mained, that  a  series  of  dis-asters  had  ilefeated 
tlie  wisli  of  the  illustrious  Genoese  to  make  his 
voyage  of  essay  uiulir  tlie  Hag  of  England.  It 
was,  therefore,  not  dilUciilt  for  John  t'abot,  a 
denizen  of  Venice,  residing  at  Bristol,  to  interest 
that  politic  king  in  plans  for  discovery.  On  the 
Sthof  March,  i  190,  be  obtained  under  the  grdit 
seal  a  commi.ssioii  empowering  himsi'lf  and  ';.is 
three  sons,  or  either  of  them,  their  lieirs,  or  their 
de|nities,  to  sail  into  the  eastern,  western,  or 
northern  sea  with  a  licet  of  five  sliips,  at  their 
own  expense,  in  search  of  islands,  jirovinccs,  or 
regions  hitherto  unseen  by  Christian  people;  to 
alllv  tlio  banners  of  Kngland  on  city,  island,  or 
continent;  and,  as  vassals  of  the  English  crown, 
to  possess  and  occupy  the  territories  that  might 
bo  found.  It  was  further  stipulated  in  this  '  most 
ancient  American  State  jiaper  of  England,' that 
the  iiatentees  should  be  strictly  liound,  on  every 
return,  to  land  at  the  port  of  Bristol,  and  to  p.ay 
to  the  king  one-liftli  part  of  their  gains;  wliilo 
the  exduilvo  right  of  frennenting  all  tin;  coun- 
tries tlint  might  be  found  was  reserved  to  them 
and  to  their  assigns,  without  limit  of  time. 
Under  this  patent,  which,  at  the  first  diie(ttiou  of 
English  enterprise  towanl  America,  embodied  tlio 
worst  features  of  monoi)oly  and  commercial 
restriction,  .lolin  Cabot,  taking  with  him  his  son 
Seb.astian,  embarked  in  quest  of  new  i.slands  and 
a  passage  to  Asia  liy  the  imrth-wcst.  After  sail- 
ing prosperously,  as  be  reported,  for  701)  leagues, 
on  the  24th  day  of  .lune,  early  in  \U<:  inori  '  g, 
almost  fourteen  months  before  C'olumbiis  on  his 
third  voyage  came  in  sight  of  the  main,  and 
more  tlian  two  years  before  Amerigo  Vespucci 
sailed  west  of  the  Canaries,  ho  discovered  the 
western  continent,  probalily  in  the  latitude  of 
about  .'50°  degrees,  among  the  dismal  clilTs  of 
Labrador.  lie  ran  along  the  coast  for  many 
leagues,  it  is  said  even  for  300,  and  landed  on 
what  ho  considered  to  be  the  territory  of  the 
Grand  Cham.  But  he  encountered  no  human 
bein^,  although  there  were  marks  that  the  region 
was  inhabited.  Ho  planted  on  the  hind  a  largo 
cross  with  the  flag  of  England,  and,  from  alfec- 
tion  for  the  republic  of  Venice,  he  added  the  ban- 
ner of  ,St.  Mi.rk,  which  lia<l  never  been  borno  so 
far  before.  On  his  homeward  voyage  he  saw  on 
his  right  liand  two  islands,  which  for  want  of 
provisionsi  he  couUl  not  stop  to  explore.  After 
an  absence  of  three  months  the  great  discoverer 
re-entered  Bristol  harbor,  where  due  honors 
awaited  him.  The  king  gave  him  money,  and 
encouraged  him  to  continue  his  career.  The  ])eo- 
ple  called  him  the  great  admiral;  he  dressed  in 
silk;  and  the  English,  and  even  Venetians  who 
chanced  to  bo  at  Bristol,  ran  after  him  with  such 
zeal  that  he  could  enlist  for  a  new  voyage  as 
many  as  lie  pleased.  ...  On  the  third'  day  of 
the  month  of  February  next  after  his  return, 
'John  Kaboto,  Venecian,'  accordingly  obt.ained 
a  power  to  take  up  sh'ps  for  another  voyage,  at 
the  rates  fixed  for  those  employed  in  the  service 
of  the  king,  and  once  more  to  set  sail  with  as 
many  companions  as  would  go  with  him  of  their 
own  will.  With  this  license  every  trace  of  John 
Cabot  disappears.  lie  may  liaVc  died  before 
the  summer;  but  no  one  knows  certainly  the 
time  or  the  place  of  his  end,  and  it  has  not  even 
been  ascertained  in  what  country  this  tinder  of  a 
continent  first  saw  the  light.'"' — G.  Bancroft, 
Uiat.  of  the  U.  S.  of  Am.  (Author's  last  Revision), 


61 


AMEUICA,  1407 


Amrrirtit 
I'cfpuciiu. 


AMEUICA,  1407-140a. 


pt.  1,  <•//.  1. —  In  tlio  ("ritic;il  Kssiiy  npppnflod  to 
A  dmpliT  (in  llio  voyiit'cH  of  tlu'  ('alidts,  in  tin" 
Aarniliretiiiil  Ciilirnl  Hint.  >>/  Am.,  there  i.t  ])iili- 
)islie(i,  for  tlu-  lirsl  time,  iiii  Kii(;lisli  Iriinslalidn 
of  II  (liHi)iit(li  frnm  l{)iinicin(l(Mle  honeinii,  envoy 
of  the  I)nkn  of  .Milan  to  Ileniy  VII.,  written 
Aug  24,  1107,  iukI  giving  iin  luconnt  of  the  voy- 
age from  which  '.Master  John  Caliolo,"  'a  Veiii'- 
tiiin  fellow,'  liiul  just  reliirneil.  This  paper  was 
hrouu'ht  to  light  in  \»>>'>.  from  the  State  Archives 
of  Milan.  lieferring  to  the  dispatch,  and  to  n 
li'tter,  also  ((uoted,  from  the  '  Venetian  Calen- 
dars,' written  Aug.  'J:t,  1407,  hy  Lorenzo  Pas- 
qiialigo,  ft  merchant  in  I.oM<lon,  to  his  hrotliors  in 
Venice,  Mr.  (  liarlcs  Doane  says:  "  These  lettei-s 
are  siilUcient  lo  show  that  North  America  was 
discovered  by  .I<ihn  Caliot,  the  name  of  Seli.istian 
l)cing  nowhere  mentioned  in  tliein,  and  that  the 
discovery  was  made  in  1407.  The  jilace  which 
ho  lirst  sighted  is  given  on  the  map  of  1")44 
[a  map  of  tSttbastian  Catiot,  disc(iverc<l  in  Ger- 
many in  184;ij  as  the  north  i)art  of  Cap(!  IJreton 
Island,  on  which  is  inscribed  '  prima  ticrra  vista,' 
whieli  was  reac  bed,  according  to  the  Legend,  on 
the  2Uh  of  June.  Pasi[naligo.  the  only  one  who 
mentions  it,  says  he  coasted  liOl)  leagues.  Mr. 
lirevoort,  who  "accepts  the  statement,  thinks  ho 
made  the  ])eriphi.s  of  the  (Jnlf  of  St.  L.iwreiice, 
passing  out  at  the  Straits  of  Ifellc  Isle,  and  thence 
home.  .  .  .  The  extensive  sailing  nj)  and  down 
the  coast  deseril)ed  by  elironiclcrs  from  conversa- 
tions with  Sebastiail  Cabot  many  years  afle"'- 
wnrds,  though  apparently  told  as  occurring  on 
the  voyage  of  discovery  —  as  on'.v  one  voyage  is 
over  mentioned  —  must  have  taken  jilace  on  a 
later  voyage." — C.  Dcane,  Nurrnl i re.  unil  Criti- 
cal I/i.'.t,  of  Am.,  V.  3,  (7i.  1,  Vfil.  /v'mk.v. 

Also  IN  IJ.  IJiddle,  Manoir  of  Selxiniian  Cabot, 
rh.  1-8. 

A.  D.  14971498.  — The  first  Voyage  of 
Americus  Vespucius.  —  Misunderstandings 
and  diiputes  concerning  it. — Vindication  of 
the  Florentine  navigator. — His  exploration 
of  4,000  miles  of  continental  coast. —  "Our 
information  conccriung  Anu'ricus  Vespucius, 
from  tlie  early  part  of  tlu'  year  140G  tuitil  after 
his  return  from  the  Portuguese  to  the  Spi.nish 
service  in  the  latter  part  of  l.ltM,  rests  primarily 
upon  his  two  famous  letters;  llie  one  addressed 
to  his  old  patron  Lorenzo  di  Pier  France.sco  de.' 
Medici  (a  cousin  of  Lorenzo  llw^  .Magiii(icent)aMd 
■written  in  .March  or  Ai>ril,  ITiO;!,  giving  an  ac- 
count of  his  third  voyage;  tlie  other  addressed 
to  his  old  school-fellow  Piero  Sodcrini  [tlien 
Gonfidoni(*rc  of  Florence]  and  dated  from  Lisbon, 
September  4,  l.'iiM,  giving  a  brief  account  of 
four  voyages  winch  he  had  made  under  various 
commanders  in   the  capacity  of  astronomer  or 

fjilot.  These  letters  .  .  .  became  siieedily  jjopu- 
ar,  and  many  editions  were  published,  more 
csi)erially  in  Prance,  Germany,  and  Italy.  .  .  . 
The  letter  to  Sodcrini  gives  an  account  of  foiu- 
voyages  in  which  the  writer  took  part,  the  tiist 
two  In  the  service  of  Spain,  the  other  two  in  the 
service  of  Portugal.  'I'lu^  lirst  expedition  .sailed 
from  Cadiz  :\Iay  10,  1407,  and  returned  October 
1"),  1408,  after  having  exphned  a  coast  so  long 
as  to  seem  unquestionably  that  of  11  continent. 
This  voyage,  as  we  shall  see,  was  concerned 
with  parts  of  Anu'Hca  not  visited  again  until 
1518  and  l.'in.  It  discovered  nothing  that  was 
calculated  to  invest  it  with  mucli  importance  in 
Spain,  though  it  by  no  means  passed  without 


notice  there,  ns  has  often  been  wrongly  asserted. 
Outside  of  S|)ain  it  c.imc  to  attract  more  atten- 
tion, but  in  an  unfortunate  way,  for  a  slight  but 
very  .serious  crri>r  in  proof-reading  or  editing,  in 
the  most  important  of  the  Latin  veisions,  caused 
it  after  a  wliilo  to  be  practically  idenlitlcd  witli 
the  second  voyagr',  made  two  years  later.  This 
<'onfusion  eventually  led  to  most  outrageous 
imputations  upon  the  goo<l  name  of  Americus, 
which  it  has  been  left  for  the  present  centtiry  to 
remove.  Tlie  second  v<iyag(^  of  Vespucius  was 
that  in  which  he  aecom])anied  Alonso  de  Ojeda 
and  Juan  de  la  Costa,  from  May  20,  140iJ,  to 
June,  l.-)00.  They  explored  the  northern  coast 
of  South  America  from  some  point  on  what  we 
would  now  call  the  north  coast  of  Praz.il,  ns  far 
as  the  Pearl  Coast  visited  by  Columbus  in  the 
piccciling  year;  and  ti  (  y  went  beyond,  as  far  as 
the  tJiilf  of  Maracaibo.  Hire  the  siiuadroii 
seems  to  have  liecoine  divided,  Ojeda  going  over 
to  llispaniola  in  September,  while  VespiU'itis 
remained  cruising  till  February.  ...  It  is  cer- 
tainly much  to  be  regretted  that  in  the  narrative 
of  his  tirst  expedition,  Vespucius  did  not  hajipen 
to  mention  tlio  name  of  the  chief  commauder. 
.  .  .  However  ...  he  was  writing  not  for  us, 
but  for  his  friend,  and  he  told  Soderini  only  what 
he  thought  would  interest  him.  ...  Of  the 
letter  to  SiMlcrini  the  version  which  has  played 
the  most  important  part  in  history  is  the  Latin 
one  tirst  pulilishcd  at  the  jiress  of  the  little 
college  at  Saint-Die  in  Lorraine,  April  2,5  (vij 
Kl'JMaij),  l.W?.  .  .  .  It  was  translated,  not  from 
an  original  text,  but  from  an  intermediate  French 
version,  which  is  lost.  Of  hitc  years,  however, 
we  have  detected,  in  an  excessively  rare  Italian 
text,  the  original  fi'(un  which  the  famous  Lor- 
raine version  was  ultimately  derived.  ...  If 
now  wc  compare  this  ]uinutive  text  with  the 
Latin  of  the  Lorraine  version  of  l.')07,  we  observe 
that,  in  the  latter,  one  proper  name  —  the  Indian 
name  of  a  jdace  visited  by  Americus  on  his  lirst 
voyage  —  has  been  altered.  In  the  original  it  is 
'Lariab;'  in  the  Latin  it  has  become  'Parias.' 
Tills  looks  like  an  instance  ot  injudicious  editing 
on  the  part  of  the  Latin  translator,  although,  of 
course,  it  may  be  a  case  of  careless  proof-reading. 
Lariab  is  n  (picer-looking  word.  It  is  no  woiuler 
tliiit  ft  schohir  in  his  stuily  among  the  mountains 
of  Lorraine  could  make  iiotliing  of  it.  If  lie  liad 
happened  to  lie  acquainted  with  the  language  ui 
the  llua.stccas,  who  dwelt  at  that  time  about  tlie 
river  Paiiuco  —  licrceanddreadc  '  enemies  of  their 
southern  neighbours  tlu;  Aztecs — ho  would 
have  known  that  names  of  placys  in  that  region 
were  apt  to  end  in  ftb.  .  .  .  But  fts  sucli  facts 
were  quite  beyond  our  worthy  translator's  ken, 
we  cannot  much  biame  him  if  he  felt  that  such 
a  word  as  Lariab  needed  doctoiing.  Parias 
(Paria)  was  known  to  be  the  native  name  of  a, 
region  on  the  western  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
so  Lariab  becnme  Parias.  As  the  distance  from 
the  one  place  to  the  other  is  more  than  two  thou- 
sand miles,  this  little  eraendiition  shifted  the 
scene  of  the  first  voyage  beyond  nil  recognition, 
and  cast  the  whole'  subject  into  an  outer  dark- 
ness where  there  has  been  much  groaning  and 
gnashing  of  teeth,  A  nother  curious  circumstance 
came  in  to  conlirm  this  error.  On  his  first  voy- 
age, shortly  before  arriving  at  Lariab,  Vesi)u- 
cius  saw  an  Indian  town  liuil'.  over  the  water, 
'like  Venice.'  He  counted  44  large  wooden 
houses,  'like  barracks,'  supported  ou  liuge  tree- 


52 


AMERICA,  1497-1408. 


AmerirUH 
Vespuctiu, 


AMEUICA,   1407      'iS. 


trunk!)  onil  commuiilciitiii)?  with  ciicli  other  by 
liri(lf,'i'S  thiit  foiihl  bi'drawii  \ip  in  cunc  of  (lander. 
Tliis  inav  well  liuvc  l)tcii  a  villajri'  of  comiiiuiial 
li()ii!*fs  of  tlic  Clionlals  on  llio  coast  of  Tabasco; 
but  suili  viila){cs  were  aftcrwarils  seen  on  tlic 
(iulf  of  Alani<ail)o.  ami  one  of  tlicni  was  calicd 
Venezuela,  or  '  l.ittic^  Venice,'  a  name  Hinco 
sprea-!  over  n  territory  nearly  twice  as  larjje  as 
!•  riine('.  ISo  t'le  anipliil)iou3  town  descrilu'il  l)y 
Vespucliis  was  incoiit ineutly  nioveil  to  Muracaibo, 
as  if  vliere  could  be  only  one  such  place,  as  if 
tliat  style  of  defensive  l)uildinj,'  had  not  l)een 
coiuinon  enough  in  many  i.j;''''  "'»'  i"  many  )>arts 
cf  the  earth,  from  ancient  Switzeiiand  to  modern 
iSiaiu.  .  .  .  Tlius  ill  spite  bf  the  latitudes  and 
lonu'ituiles  distinctly  stated  by  Vespuclus  in  his 
letter,  did  Lariab  and  the  little  wooden  Venice 
get  shifted  from  tlie  Gulf  of  Jlexieo  to  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America.  Now  there  is 
no  question  that  Vespucius  in  Ids  second  voyage, 
with  Ojeda  for  captain,  did  .sail  elong  that  coast, 
visiting  the  gulfs  of  I'aria  luid  JIaracaibo.  This 
was  in  the  sumnuT  of  14i)!»,  one  year  after  a. 
part  of  the  same  coast  had  Uen  visited  by  Col- 
luubus.  Hence  in  u  later  period,  long  after  the 
actors  in  tliesc  scenes  had  been  gathered  unto 
their  fatliers,  luid  when  people  had  begun  to 
wonder  how  tlie  Xew  World  could  ever  have 
<(inie  to  be  called  America  instead  of  Columbia, 
it  was  suggested  that  the  first  voyage  described 
by  Vespucitis  must  bu  merely  a  clumsy  and  fic- 
titious duplicate  of  tlie  second,  and  that,  he 
invented  it-aud  thrust  it  back  from  1499  to  1407, 
in  order  tliat  he  might  be  accredited  with  '  the 
discovery  of  the  continent'  one  year  in  advance 
of  Ills  friend  Columbus.  It  was  assumed  that  he 
must  have  written  his  letter  to  Soderini  with  the 
liase  intention  of  supidauting  liis  frieii<l,  and  that 
tlie  shabby  device  was  successful.  This  expla- 
nation seemed  so  simple  and  intelligible  that  it 
became  (piile  generally  adopted,  and  it  held  its 
ground  until  tlie  subject  began  to  be  critically 
studied,  and  Alexander  von  Humboldt  showeil, 
about  sixty  years  ago,  that  the  first  naming  of 
America  occurred  in  no  such  way  as  had  been 
supposed.  As* soon  as  we  refrain  from  j)roject- 
iug  our  modern  knowledge  of  geography  into  the 
past,  as  soon  as  w<!  pause  to  consider  how  these 
great  events  eppeared  to  the  actors  themselves, 
the  absurdity  of  this  accusation  against  Ameri- 
cus  becomes  evident.  We  are  told  that  he  falsely 
pretended  to  have  visited  Paria  and  JIaracaibo 
in  1497,  in  order  to  claim  jiriority  over  Colum- 
bus in  the  di-,eoverv  of  'the  continent.'  AVliat 
continent  V  Wljeu  Vespucius  wrote  tliat  letter  to 
tioderiiii,  neither  he  nor  an)  body  else  suspected 
that  what  we  now  call  America  had  been  dis- 
covered. The  only  continent  ot  which  there 
could  lie  any  question,  so  far  as  supplanting 
Columlms  was  coucerucd,  was  Asia,  liut  in 
lo04  Columbus  was  generally  supposed  to  have 
discovered  the  continent  of  Asia,  by  his  new 
route,  in  1492.  ...  It  was  M.  Varnlmgen  who 
lirst  turned  inquiry  on  this  subject  in  the  right 
direction.  .  .  .  Having  taken  a  correct  start  by 
simply  following  the  words  of  Vespucius  him- 
self, from  a  primitive  text,  without  reference  to 
any  iireconceived  theories  or  traditions,  JI.  Varn- 
hagea  liuds  "  tliat  Amcricus  in  his  first  voyage 
made  land  on  the  northern  coast  of  Honduras; 
"  that  he  sjiiled  annind  Yucatun,  and  found  his 
aquatic  village  ot  communal  houses,  his  little 
w  ooden  Venice,  on  the  shore  of  Tabasco.    Thence, 


&' 


after  a  flglit  with  tlie  natives  in  which  a  few 
tawny  prisoners  were  ca|)tiired  and  carried  on 
board  the  caravels,  Vespuciu.s  seems  to  have 
taken  a  straight  course  to  the  Huasteca  country 
by  Tanipieo,  witliout  toucliing  at  points  in  the 
region  subject  or  tributary  to  tlie  Aztec  eoiifed- 
criiey.  This  Tampico  country  was  what  Vespii- 
(  understood  to  be  called  Lariab.  He  again 
ives  llie  latitiuh^  delinitt'ly  and  correctly  as  '-It" 
and  he  mentions  a  few  interesting  eircum- 
stances.  He  saw  the  natives  roasting  a  diMid- 
fiilly  ugly  animal,"  of  whidi  he  gives  what 
seems  to  be  "an  excellent  description  of  the 
iguana,  the  flesh  of  which  is  to  this  day  an  ini- 
])ortant  article  of  food  in  tropical  Anieriea.  .  .  . 
After  leaving  tills  country  of  Lariab  the  ships 
kept  still  to  the  northwest  for  a  short  distance, 
and  then  followed  the  windings  of  the  coast 
for  870  leagues.  .  .  .  After  traversing  the  870 
leagues  of  crooked  coast,  the  slii|is  found  them- 
selves 'in  the  liiiest  harbour  in  the  world'  Iwliich 
M.  Varnhageii  supposed,  at  tirst,  to  have  been 
in  Chesapeake  Hay,  but  afterwards  reached  coii- 
clusi(ms  pointing  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Capo 
Canaveral,  on  the  Florida  coast].  It  was  in  .June, 
1498,  tliirtecn  months  since  tlicy  had  started  from 
Hpaiii.  .  .  .  Tliey  spent  seven-and-thirty  days  in 
this  unrivalled  harbour,  i)reparing  for  llie  homo 
voyage,  and  found  the  natives  very  hospitable. 
These  red  men  courted  the  aid  of  tlie  white 
strangers,"  in  an  attack  which  they  wished  to 
make  upon  a  fierce  race  of  cannibals,  who  inhab- 
ited certain  islands  some  dislat>ee  out  to  sea. 
The  Spaniards  agreed  to  the  expedition,  and 
.saileil  late  in  August,  t.iking  seven  of  the  friendly 
Indians  for  guii'.es.  "After  a  week's  voyage 
they  fell  in  with  tlie  islands,  sonic  peopled,  others 
uninhabited,  evidently  the  Uermudas,  (ibO  miles 
from  Cape  Ilatteras  as  the  crow  flies.  Tlio 
k;|)aiiiards  landed  on  an  island  called  Iti,  and  had 
u  brisk  fight,"  resulting  in  the  capture  of  more 
than 'JOO  prisoners.  Seven  of  tliese  were  g' ,en 
to  the  Indian  guides,  who  paddled  home  with 
tliem.  "  '  AV'c  also  [wrote  Vespucius]  set  sail 
for  Spain,  with  !J22  prisoners,  slaves;  and  arrived 
in  llie  iiort  of  Cadiz  on  the  lolli  day  of  October, 
1498,  where  we  were  well  received  and  sold  our 
slaves.'.  .  .  The  obscurity  in  wliicli  lliis  voy- 
age has  so  long  been  enveloped  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  fact  tliat  it  was  not  followed  up  fill  many 
years  had  elapsed,  and  the  reason  for  this  iieg!i'ct 
inipres.se8  upon  us  forcibly  the  imiiossibility  of 
understanding  the  history  of  the  l)iscovery  of 
Anieric."  unless  we  bear  in  mind  all  the  attend- 
ant ('ireumstances.  One  might  at  first  suppose 
that  a  voyage  which  revealed  some  4,000  miles  of 
the  coast  ot  North  America  would  have  attracted 
much  attention  in  Spain  and  have  become  alto- 
gether too  famous  to  be  soon  forgotten.  Such 
an  'argumcul,  however,  loses  sight  of  tlie  tact 
that  these  early  vovagers  were  not  trying  to  'dis- 
cover America.'  'hiere  was  nothing  to  astonish 
them  in  the  existence  ot  4,000  miles  of  coast 
line  on  tliis  side  of  the  Atlantic.  To  their  minds 
it  was  simply  the  coast  ot  Asia,  about  which 
they  knew  nothing  except  from  JIarco  Polo,  and 
the  natural  effect  of  such  a  voyage  as  this 
would  bo  simi)ly  to  throw  discredit  upon  that 
traveller." — J.  Fiske,  The  Discovery  of  America, 
ch.  7  (i).  2). 

Also  in  :  C.  E.  Lester  and  A.  Foster,  Life  and 
Voyages  of  Americas  Vespucius,  pt.  1,  ch.  7. — J. 
Winsor,  Christopher  Columbus,  ch.  15. 


63 


AMERICA,  1498. 


Sebastian 
Cabot. 


AMERICA,  1498-ir)05. 


A.  D.  1498.— Voyage  and  Discoveries  of 
Sebastian  Cabot.— The  ground  of  English 
claims  in  the  New  World.— "Tlic  sun  of  .lolm 
C'liliot,  Scliastian,  is  not  mcntiiini'd  in  this  piilcnt 
[issued  1)V  Henry  VII.,  Feb.  3,  1  tOHj,  as  he  had 
Wa  ill  that  (if  I-lflti.  Yet  ho  alone  protited  by 
it.  For  the  father  is  not  again  nienliniied  in  con- 
iiettion  with  tiie  voyaire.  .  .  .  .Seliastian  was 
now,  if  Humboldt's  "suiipositlon  is  true  tliat  he 
was  born  in  1477,  a  young  num  of  about  20  or  21 
years  of  age.  And  iis  he  lii.d  become  prolieienl 
in  astronomy  and  nnthematies,  and  liail  gained 
naval  exiwricMce  in  the  voyage  he  had  made  in 
company  with  liis  father;  and  as  he  knew  better 
than  any  one  else  hi^  father's  views,  and  .iLso  the 
position  of  the  newly  discovered  n.'gioiis,  he  may 
•low  have  well  appeared  to  Henry  as  a  lit  person 
for  till!  conimand  of  another  expedition  to  the 
northwest.  Two  slii|)S,  manne(i  with  M)  marin- 
ers and  volunteers,  were  ready  for  him  "aily  in 
the  spring  of  1498;  and  he  sailed  witli  thcni  from 
Hristol.  proliably  in  the  beginning  of  tin!  month 
of  May.  We  have  no  certain  information  regard- 
ing his  route.  15ut  he  appears  to  'lave  directed 
his  course  again  to  the  country  which  he  had 
seen  the  year  before  on  the  voyage  with  his 
father,  our  [ircsent  Labmdor.  lie  .sailed  along 
the  coast  of  this  country  so  far  north  that,  even 
in  the  month  of  July,  he  encountered  much  ice. 
Observing  at  the  same  time,  to  his  great  dis- 
pleasure, that  the  coast  was  trending  to  the  east, 
lie  resolved  to  give  up  a  fiirtlier  ailvance  to  the 
north,  and  returned  in  a  southern  direction.  At 
Kcwfoiindland,  he  prob.ibly  came  to  anchor  in 
8onu!  jiort.  a. id  refreshed  his  men,  and  retittcd  his 
Vfsselsaflertheir  Arctic harilshiiis.  .  .  .  He  prob- 
ably was  the  lirst  lishernianon  the  banksorshores 
of  Newfoundland,  which  through  him  became 
famous  ill  Kuropi!.  (^ailing  from  Newfoundland 
southwest,  he  kept  the  .oast  in  view  as  inueli  as 
])ossible,  on  his  right  side,  'always  with  the  intent 
to  lind  a  jiassage  and  open  water  to  India.'  .  .  . 
After  having  ioiinded  Capo  Cod,  he  niu:jt  have 
felt  fresh  hope.  He  saw  a  coast  runni.ig  to  the 
west,  mid  ojieii  water  before  him  in  that  direc- 
tion. It  is  Iherefi  re  nearly  lertain  that  he  en- 
tered soniewliat  that  broad  .;ulf,  in  the  interior 
corner  of  which  lies  the  harlioi'  of  New  York. 
.  .  .  From  a  statement  cont.iined  in  the  work  of 
I'eler  Martyr  it  appears  .  .  .  certain  that  Cabot 
landed  on  some  jilaces  of  the  coast  along  which 
he  sailed.  This  author,  relating  .1  conversation 
which  he  had  with  his  friend  Cabot,  on  the  sub- 
ject of  his  voyage  of  1498,  .'.ays  that  Cabot  told 
liiin  '  he  bad  found  on  most  of  the  places  copper  or 
brass  among  the  aborigines.' .  .  .  From  another 
authority  we  learn  that  lu!  captured  some  of  these 
aborigines  and  brought  them  to  England,  when! 
they  lived  and  were  seen  a  few  years  afte.  his 
return  by  the  English  chronicler,  iJobert  Fabyan. 
It  is  not  stated  at  what  iilace  he  captu'cd  those 
Indians ;  but  it  was  not  customaiy  with  the  navi- 
gators of  that  time  to  take  on  lioan!  the  Ind'ans 
until  near  the  time  iif  their  leaving  the  country. 
Cabot's  Indians,  thi'refore,  w^'re  iiroliably  cap- 
tured on  .»ome  shore  south  of  New  York  harlior. 
.  .  .  The  soulhern  terminus  of  his  voyag(!  is 
Iirotty  well  ascertained.  He  himself  informed 
his  friend  Peter  Martyr,  that  he  went  as  far 
south  I's  iibi  u!  '•".  latitude  of  the  Strait  of  Gib- 
riiUivr,  that  is  ,,  say,  about  30^  north  latitude, 
which  is  r.eur  that  "of  Cape  llatteras.  .  .  .  On 
their  ri'turn  from   the'r  lirst  voyage  of   1497, 


the  Crtliots  believed  that  they  Imil  iliscovered 
jiortions  of  Asia  and  so  pro{!lainie(l  it.  But  the 
more  extensive  discoveries  of  the  second  voyage 
corrected  the  views  of  Sebastian,  ind  revealed  to 
him  nothing  but  a  wild  and  barbarous  coast, 
stretching  through  iiO  degrees  of  latitude,  from 
071°  to  M°.  The  discovery  of  this  impassable 
barrier  across  his  passage  to  Cathay,  as  lie  often 
complained,  was  a  sore  displeasure  to  him.  In- 
stead of  the  rich  possessions  of  China,  which  he 
hoped  to  reach,  he  was  arrested  by  a  New  found 
land,  .savage  and  uncultivated.  A  spirited  Ger- 
man author.  Dr.  G.  M.  Asher,  in  his  life  of  Henry 
Hudson,  published  in  London  in  181)0,  observes: 
'  The  disjileasure  of  Cabot  involves  the  scientific 
discovery  of  a  new  world.  He  was  the  first  to 
recognize  that  a  new  and  unknown  continent 
was  lying,  as  one  vast  barrier,  between  Western 
Eurojic  and  Eas'ern  Asia. "...  AVhen  Cabot  made 
proposals  in  the  following  year,  1499,  for  another 
expedition  to  the  same  regions,  he  was  supported 
neither  by  tlie  king  nor  the  merchants.  For  sev- 
eral years  tlit!  scheme  for  the  discovery  of  a 
north-western  route  to  Cathay  was  not  much 
favored  in  England.  Nevertheless,  the  voyt'.gc 
of  this  gifted  and  enterprising  youth  along  the 
entire  coast  of  the  present  United  States,  nay 
along  the  whole  extent  of  that  great  continent, 
in  which  now  the  English  race  and  language  pre- 
vail and  nourish,  has  always  been  considered  as 
the  true  beginning,  the  foundation  and  c(nner- 
sto;ie,  of  all  the  English  claims  and  possessions 
in  the  northern  half  of  America." — ^'J.  G.  Kohl, 
JHiil.  of  tho  Discireery  of  M<ii,.t;  ch.  4. 

Also  i.n:  U.  Biddle,  Memoir  of  iSchaMian  Cabot, 
ch.  1-10.— J.  F.  Nicholls,  Life  of  Sebastian  Cabot, 
ch.  5. 

A.  D.  1498-1505.- The  Third  and  Fourth 
Voyages  cf  Columbus. — Discovery  of  Trini- 
dad, the  northern  coast  of  S.  America,  the 
shores  of  Central  America  and  Panama. — 
When  Columbus  reached  Spain  in  June,  1490, 
"Ferdinand  and  Isabella  received  him  kindly, 
gave  him  new  honors  and  promised  him  other 
outlits.  Enthusiasm,  however,  had  died  out  and 
delays  took  place.  The  reports  of  the  returning 
ships  did  not  correspond  with  the  jiictures  of 
^larco  I'olo,  and  the  newfound  world  was 
thought  to  be  a  very  poor  India  after  all.  Most 
people  were  of  this  mind;  though  Columbus  was 
not  disheartened,  and  the  public  treasury  was 
re;.dily  opened  for  a  third  voyage.  Coronel 
sailed  early  in  1498  with  two  ships,  and  Colum- 
bus followed  with  si.x,  embarking  at  San  Lucas 
on  the  SOtli  of  JIay.  He  now  discovered  Trini- 
dad (July  iU),  which  he  named  either  from  its 
three  peaks,  or  from  the  Holy  Trinity;  struck 
the  northern  coast  of  South  America,  and  skirted 
what  was  later  known  as  the  I'earl  coast,  going 
as  far  as  the  Island  of  Margarita.  He  wondered 
at  the  roaring  fresh  waters  which  tiic  Oronoco 
pours  into  the  Gulf  of  Pearls,  as  he  called  it,  and 
he  half  believed  that  its  e.\uberant  tide  came 
from  the  ter-estrial  paradise.  Ho  touched  tho 
so 't  hern  coast  of  I  lay  ti  on  the  IlOth  of  August. 
Here  already  his  colonists  bad  established  a  for- 
tified post,  and  fninuled  the  town  of  Santo 
Domingo.  Hi^'  brother  Bartholomew  had  ruled 
energetically  during  the  Admiral's  absence.  1ml 
ho  had  not  prev<nti'd  a  revolt,  which  was  headed 
by  Uoldan.  Columbus  on  his  arrival  found  the 
insurgents  still  defiant,  but  he  was  able  after  11 
while  to  reconcile  them,  and  he  even  succeeded 


54 


AMERICA,  1498-1505. 


iMst  Voi/tiijes 
of  Columbus. 


AMERICA,  1490-1500. 


in  nttachinR  Hcildan  wnrmly  to  liis  interests. 
Columbus'  iibst'ncu  from  Spain,  however,  left  his 
good  niime  witliout  sponsoi-s;  and  to  satisfy 
detractors,  a  new  commissioner  was  sent  over 
with  enlarged  powers,  even  with  autlioritv  to 
supersede  Columbus  in  general  conunand.  if 
necessary.  This  emissary  \vas  Francisco  de  Bo- 
biulilla,  "who  arrived  nt  Siinto  Domingo  with  two 
caravels  on  the  2;id  of  August,  1.500,  tinding 
Diego  in  eonnnand,  liis  brother,  the  Admiral, 
being  alisetit.  An  issue  was  at  once  made. 
Diego  refused  to  accede  to  the  commissioner's 
orders  till  t'olumlnis  returned  to  juilge  the  case 
himself;  so  Hobadilla  assinned  charge  of  the 
crown  ])roperty  violently,  tooli  po.ssessiim  of  tlie 
Admiral's  house,  and  wiien  Columbus  returned, 
he  with  his  l)rotlier  was  arrested  and  put  in  iron.s. 
In  this  condition  tlie  prisoners  were  placed  on 
shipboard,  and  sailed  for  Spain.  The  captain  of 
the  sliip  olT.  .'I'd  to  remove  the  manacles:  but 
Colum!)US  would  not  permit  it,  being  determined 
to  land  in  Sjiain  bound  as  he  was;  and  .so  lie  did. 
The  effect  of  his  degradation  was  to  his  advant- 
age; sovereigns  and  |)eople  were  sliocked  at  tlie 
sight;  and  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  hastened  to 
malie  amends  by  receiving  him  with  renewed 
favor.  It  was  soon  apparent  that  evcrytliing 
reasonatjle  would  be  granted  him  l)y  the  mon- 
arclis,  and  that  he  coidd  have  all  he  miglit  wisli 
short  of  receiving  a  new  lea.sc  of  power  in  tlie 
islands,  which  the  sovereigns  were  deterinined 
to  see  paeilled  at  least  before  Columbus  should 
again  assume  governmentof  them.  Tlie  Admiral 
had  not  forgotten  his  vow  to  wrest  the  Holy 
Seimlchro  from  tlie  Inlidel;  but  the  monarch's 
did  not  accede  to  his  wisli  to  undertake  it..  Dis- 
appointed in  tins,  he  proposed  a  new  voyage; 
and  getting  tlie  royal  countenance  for  this 
scheme,  he  was  supplied  with  four  vessels  of 
from  fifty  to  seventy  tons  each.  ...  He  sailed 
from  Cadiz,  May  9,  1503,  accompanied  by  his 
brotlier  Bartholomew  and  his  son  Fernando. 
The  vessels  reached  San  Domingo  June  '.21). 
Bobudilla,  whose  rule  of  a  year  and  a  half  had 
been  an  unhappy  one,  had  g"iveii  place  to  Nicho- 
las de  Ovaiido;  and  the  licet  whicli  brought  the 
new  governor— with  Maldonado,  Las  Casas  and 
otliers  —  now  lay  in  the  harbor  waiting  to  receive 
Bobudilla  for  the  return  voyage.  Columbus  had 
been  instructed  to  avoid  llispaniola;  but  now 
tliat  one  of  his  vessels  leaked,  and  he  mrded  to 
make  repairs,  he  .sent  a  boat  ashore,  asking  per- 
mission to  enter  the  harbor.  He  was  refused, 
though  a  storm  was  impending.  He  sheltered 
his  vessels  as  bi's',  he  ('(add,  and  rode  out  the 
gale.  The  lleet  which  hail  on  board  Bobudilla 
and  Roldan,  with  their  ill-gotten  gains,  was 
wrecked,  and  these  enemies  of  (kilumlms  were 
di-owned.  The  Admiral  found  a  small  harbor 
where  he  could  make  his  repairs;  and  then,  ,iuly 
14,  .sailed  westward  to  tiiul,  as  he  supposeil, 
the  richer  portions  of  India.  .  .  A  landing  was 
made  on  the  coast  of  Honduras,  August  14. 
Three  days  later  the  explorers  landed  again 
fifteen  leagues  farther  east,  and  took  po.ssession 
of  the  country  for  Spain.  Still  east  they  went; 
nnd,  in  gratitude  for  safety  after  a  haig  storm, 
they  named  a  cape  which  thev  rounded,  Oracias 
a  Dios— a  name  still  preserved  at  the  point 
wliere  the  coast  of  Honduras  begins  to  trend 
southward.  Columbus  was  now  lying  ill  on 
his  bed,  placed  on  ileck,  and  was  half  the  time 
ill    revery.     Still    the   vessels    coasted    south," 


along  nnd  beyond  the  shores  of  Costa  Rica ;  then 
turned  with  the  bend  of  the  coast  to  the  north- 
ea.st,  until  they  reached  Porto  Bello.  as  we  call 
it,  where  they  found  houses  and  orchards,  and 
pa.ssed  on  '  to  the  farthest  spot  of  Bastiilas' 
explorini:,  who  had,  in  1.501,  sailed  westward 
along  the  nortliern  coast  of  South  America." 
There  turning  back,  Columbus  altem|(ted  to 
found  a  colony  at  Veragna,  on  the  Costa  Hica 
coast,  where  signs  of  gohl  were  tempting.  But 
the  gold  proved  scanty,  the  natives  hostile,  and, 
the  Admiral,  withdrawing  his  colony,  siiiletl 
away.  "He  abandoned  one  worm-eaten  caravel 
at  Porto  Bello,  and,  re.'iching  .b.maica,  beached 
two  otiicrs.  A  year  of  disappointment,  grief, 
nnd  want  followed.  Columbus  clung  to  his 
wrecked  vessels.  His  crew  alternately  mutinied 
at  his  side,  and  roved  about  the  island. 
Ovando,  at  His]ianiola,  heard  of  his  str.iils,  but 
only  tardily  and  scantily  re!ic\ed  him.  Tiie  dis- 
contented werelinally  huniblnl;  and  .some  ships, 
despatched  by  the  Admiral's  agent  in  Santo 
Domingo,  at  last  readied  him  and  brought  him 
and  his  companions  to  that  i)lace,  where  Oviindo 
reccivi-d  him  with  ostentatiinis  kindness,  lodging 
I'im  in  his  liouso  till  Ci>lumbus  departed  for 
Spain,  Sept.  1'-.',  1.504."  Arriving  in  Spain  iu 
Xovember,  disheartened.,  broken  with  disease, 
neglected,  it  was  not  until  the  following  Jlay 
that  he  had  strength  c'.iough  to  goto  tiie  court  at 
Segovia,  and  then  only  to  be  coldly  received  by 
King  Ferdinand  —  Isabella  being  dead.  "While 
.still  hope  was  deferred,  the  inlirmitics  of  age  and 
a  life  of  hardships  brouglit  ('olumbus  to  his  end; 
and  on  Ascension  Day,  the  iiOlli  of  May,  1500,  he 
died,  with  his  sou  Diego  and  a  few  devoted 
friends  b^'  his  bedside." — ,1.  Winsor,  y((rntticc 
<inil  Criliriil  llixt.  of  \i».,  r.  ii,  eh.  1, 

Also  in:  H.  II.  'Bancroft,  Ifixt.  <>f  the.  Pticific 
Sliiti's,  V.  1,  eh.  3  iiKil  4. — W.  Irving,  Life  ami 
[oi/cti/en  of  (''iliimhiis,  M:  10-18  (c.  'i). 

A.  D.  1499-1500.— The  Voyage-!  and  Dis- 
coveries of  Ojeda  and  Pinzon.— The  Second 
Voyage  of  Amerigo  Vespucci. — Oiii'  of  the 
most  daring  and  resolute  of  the  adventurei's  who 
accomiianied  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage 
(in  149;!)  was  Alon/.o  de  Ojeda.  Ojeda  (luarrelled 
with  the  .Vilmiral  and  returiic('.  to  Spain  in  1498. 
Soon  afterwards,  "he  was  provided  by  the 
Bishop  Fonseea,  Columbus'  enemy,  with  a 
fragment  of  the  map  which  the  Admiral  had 
sent  to  Ferdinand  and  Lsabella,  showing  the  dis- 
coveries which  he  had  iiiade  in  livi  last  voyage. 
Y  'til  this  assistance  Ojv-da  .set  sail  for  Siailh 
America,  accompanied  by  the  p'lot,  .Tuau  de  la 
Cosa,  who  had  accompanied  C  ilumlms  in  his 
first  great  voyage  in  149i,  and  if  whom  Colum- 
bus complained  that,  '  bein;'  a  clever  man,  he 
went  ntiout  saying  tliat  he  knew  more  than  he 
did,' and  also  by  Amerigo  Vespucci.  They  set 
sail  oil  the  20th  of  Jlay,  1499,  with  four  vessels, 
and  after  a  pa.s.sage  of  21  days  came  in  sight  of 
the  continent,  200  leagues  east  of  the  Oronoco. 
At  the  end  of  .Iiine,  they  landed  on  tin  shores  of 
Surinam,  in  si.\  degrees  of  ncntli  latitude,  and 
proceeding  west  saw  the  mouths  of  the  Kssei|uibo 
and  Oronoco.  Passing  the  Boca  del  Drago  of 
Trinidad,  tliey  coasted  westward  till  ttiey  reached 
the  Capo  de  la  Vela  in  Granada.  It  was  in  this 
voyage  that  was  discovered  the  Gulf  to  which 
Ojeda  gave  the  name  of  Venezuela,  or  Little 
Venice,  on  account  of  the  cabins  built  on  piles 
over  the  water,  a  mode  of  life  which  brought  to 


55 


AMKUICA,  1499-1500. 


Third  I'oyagit 
of  I'espuciua. 


AMERICA,  ISOO-inu. 


his  mind  tlic  wnter-city  of  tlie  Adriiitic.  From 
till'  AiiuTicuii  loast  (Jji.'ilii  went  to  tlie  Caril>l)('<' 
islaiiils,  mill  on  llir!  Oili  of  Scptcmhcr  iva(lii<l 
Ya;;uimi),  in  llispaniola.  where  lie  raised  a 
revolt  iicainst  llie  aiulinrily  of  Coluiiibiis.     His 

i>laiis,  however,  were  friislraled  hy  IJoldau  and 
Cseobar,  the  delegates  of  Coliiniliiis,  and  he  was 
<'omi)elled  to  withdraw  from  the  island,  ^)n  the 
filh  of  i''el)niary,  1")00,  he  returned,  earrying 
with  him  to  lacliz  an  e.xtraordinary  inimher  of 
slaves,  from  wliieli  he  realized  an  enormous  .sum 
of  money.  At  the  beginning  of  December,  llit!', 
the  same  year  in  which  Ojecla  .set  sail  on  his  last 
voyage,  another  eoinpanioii  of  Columbus,  iu  his 
(list  voyage,  Vieent-  Yafiez  I'iuzon,  sailed  from 
I'alos,  was  the  first  to  cro3.s  the  line  on  the 
American  si<le  of  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  20th 
of  .January,  l.'itH),  discovered  Cape  St.  Augustine, 
to  which  ii('  gave  the  name  of  Calio  ,Santa  Maria 
de  la  Consolaeion,  whence  returning  northward 
lie  followed  the  westerly  trending  coast,  and  so 
discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  which  he 
named  I'aricura.  Within  a  month  after  his  de- 
parture from  I'alos,  he  was  followed  from  the 
Banie  [lort  and  on  the  same  route  by  Diego  de 
Lepe,  who  was  the  lirst  to  discover,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Oronoeo,  by  means  of  a  closed  vessel, 
wlii(  h  oidy  opened  when  it  reached  the  bottom 
of  the  water,  that,  at  a  depth  of  eight  fathoms 
and  a  half,  the  two  lowest  fathoms  were  salt 
water,  but  all  above  was  fresh.  Lepe  also  made 
the  observation  that  licyond  Cajie  .St.  Augustine, 
which  he  doubled,  as  well  as  I'inzon,  the  coast 
of  Brazil  trended  .south-west." — H.  II.  Major, 
J.iff  iif  I'n'iicc  lli'iin/  (if  J'orl'ir/iil,  c/i.  19. 

Al.so  in:  W  Irving,  Life  and  Vnyaijcs  of 
C'lliiiiihii.t,  r.  ;i,  ell.  l-JJ. 

A.  D,  1500.— Voyages  of  the  Cortereals 
to  the  far  North,  and  of  Bastidas  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien. — "The  Portuguese  did  not 
overlook  the  north  while  making  their  imiiortant 
discoveries  to  the  south.  Two  vessels,  probably 
in  the  spring  of  l.'jOU,  were  sent  out  under 
Uaspar  C'orlereal.  No  journal  <ir  chart  of  the 
voyage  is  now  in  existence,  hence  lillle  is  known 
of  its  object  or  results.  Still  nioie  dim  is  a 
previous  voyage  ascribed  by  Conleiro  to  .Jorto 
Vaz  Cortereal,  father  of  Gasiiar.  .  .  .  Touelii'ig 
lit  the  Azores,  Oaspar  Cortereal,  jiossibly  I'olkiw- 
ing  Cabot's  charts,  struck  the  coast  of  Newfound- 
land north  of  Cape  Hace,  and  sailing  north 
di.seovered  a  land  which  he  called  Terra  Verde, 
perhaps  Greenland,  but  was  .stopped  by  ice  at  a 
river  which  be  named  Hio  X'.'vado,  wlmse  loca- 
tion is  unknown.  Cortereal  returned  to  Lisbon 
before  the  end  of  VM).  .  .  .  In  Oelober  of  this 
same  year  itiMlrigo  de  Bastidas  sailed  from  Cadiz 
with  two  vessels.  Touching  tlu!  shores  nf  South 
America  near  Isla  Verde,  which  lies  bet  ween 
(iuadalupe  and  the  main  I.md,  he  followed  the 
coast  westward  to  K'  Uelrete,  or  jierliaps  Nombre 
de  Dios  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darii  n,  in  about  9=' 
30'  north  lun,  !e.  Keturning  '.le  was  wrecked 
on  Lspauol.i  toward  the  end  of  l.")01,  and  reached 
Cadi/,  in  S<'ptember,  l.'iO'.V  This  being  the  lirst 
nuthciitic  voyage  by  Eur'.peans  to  the  territory 
herein  deliiicd  iw  llie  I'acilic  States,  sucli  inci- 
dents as  are  known  will  be  given  hereafter." — 
II.  11.  Bancroft,  iJinl.  if  the  Pncifif  SIhUd,  v.  1,  p. 
111!. — "  \Vc  have  Las  Cas.is's  authority  for  say- 
ing that  BastiihuS  was  a  humane  man  toward  the 
Indians.  Indcjd,  he  ufterwurds  hist  his  iife  by 
tlds  liupmuity;  for,   when  govuri'.or  of   Suutii 


Martha,  not  consenting  to  harass  the  Indians,  be 
.so  alienated  his  men  that  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him,  and  he  was  murdered  in  his 
bed.  The  renowned  Vasco  Nui'iez  [de  Balboa] 
was  in  this  e.xpedi'iou,  anil  the  knowledge  he 
gained  there  had  the  greatest  inlluence  on  the 
fortunes  of  his  varied  and  eventful  life." — Sir 
A.  Helps,  Sjuiiiix/i  ('oiii/iiint  ill  Am.,  hk.  5,  ch.  1. 

Also  i.n:  .1.  G.  Kohl,  Hint,  of  llie  iJis.oeern  if 
}fiiiiie,  ch.  •). — H.  Biddle,  .Veiiwir  of  tilxistiiiii 
Cii/x/t,  bk.  'i,  rh.  ;!-.'). — See,  also,  Newkound- 
i..\nd:  a.  1).  l.Wl-1.5r8. 

A.  D.  1500-1514.— Voyage  of  Cabral. — The 
Third  Voyage  of  Americus  Vespucius. — Ex- 
ploration of  the  Brazilian  coast  for  the  King 
of  Portugal. — Curious  evolution  of  the  conti- 
nental name  ".America." — "  Alfairs  now  be- 
came curiously  complicated.  King  Lmanuel  of 
I'ortugal  intrusted  to  Tedro  Alvarez  de  Cabral 
the  command  of  a  fleet  for  Hindustan,  to  loUow 
uj)  the  work  of  Gama  and  establish  a  Porlu- 
guese  centre  of  trade  on  the  .Malabar  coast. 
This  licet  of  13  vessels,  carrying  about  1,300 
men,  sailed  from  Lisbon  March  9,  l.WO.  After 
passing  the  Cape  Verde  Lslauds,  JIa.cl'.  2~,  I'l  r 
some  reason  not  clearly  known,  whether  driven 
by  .stormy  weather  or  seeking  to  avoid  the  calms 
that  were  apt  to  be  troublesome  on  t!"'  Guinea 
coast,  Cabral  took  a  somewhat  mori  Avesterly 
cour^;?  than  he  realized,  and  on  Ajiril  22,  after  a 
weary  jirogrcss  averging  less  than  00  miles  per 
day,  he  found  himself  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  not 
far  beyond  *lie  limit  reached  liy  Lepe.  .  .  . 
Approaching  it  iu  l'ucIi  a  way  Cabral  felt  sure 
that  this  coast  must  fail  to  the  east  of  the  papal 
meridian.  Accordingly  on  May  day,  a*  I'orto 
Seguro  in  latitude  10°  liO'  S.,  he  took  li.rmal 
]iiis.se.ssion  of  the  country  for  I'oritigal,  and  .s;'iit 
Caspar  de  Lenios  in  one  of  his  sliijis  back  t.' 
Lisbon  with  the  news.  On  May  22  Cabral 
'veiglied  anchor  and  stood  for  tiie  (.'ape  of  Good 
Hope.  ,  .  .  Cabral  called  the  land  he  had  found 
Vera  Cruz,  a  name  which  ]iresenlly  became  Santa 
Cruz;  but  when  Lenios  arrived  in  J.,is!)on  with 
the  news  he  had  with  him  some  gorgeous  jiaro- 
(picls,  and  ani'ing  the  earliest  names  on  ol  '  maps 
of  tliv;  Jirazilian  coast  we  liiid  '  liimd  of  I'aro- 
(lUets'and  'Land  of  the  Holy  Cro.ss.'  The  lainl 
lay  oliviously  so  far  to  the  east  that  Spain  '.'ould 
not  deny  that  at  last  there  was  something  for 
I'ortugal  out  in  the  'ocean  sea.'  ^luch  interest 
was  felt  at  Lisbon.  King  Eniamiel  began  to 
prepare  an  e.vpcdition  for  exploring  this  new 
coast,  and  wished  to  .secure  the  services  of  some 
eminent  jiilot  and  cosmographei  familiar  with 
the  western  waters.  Overtures  were  made  to 
Americus,  a  fact  which  jiroves  that  he  hail 
already  won  a  high  reputation.  The  overtures 
were  accepted,  for  what  reason  we  do  not  know, 
and  .soon  after  his  re! urn  from  the  voyage  with 
Ojeda,  iirobably  in  the  autumn  of  ITiOO,  Ameri- 
cus passed  from  the  service  of  Spain  into  that  of 
Portugal.  .  .  .  On  May  11,  l.'iOl,  Vespuciu.s, 
who  was  evidently  iirincipal  pilot  and  guiding 
spirit  in  this  voyage  under  unknown  skies,  set  sail 
from  J-isbon  w  itli  three  caravels.  It  is  not  (piite 
clearwho  was  chief  captain,  butSI.Varnhngenlias 
found  reasons  for  believing  that  it  was  u  certain 
Don  Nuno  Manuel.  The  tlrst  halt  was  made  on 
the  African  coast  at  Capo  Verdo,  the  lirslf  week 
iu.]uue.  .  .  .  After  07  days  of 'the  vilest  weather 
ever  seen  by  man '  they  reach(!d  the  coast  of 
Brazil  in  latitude  about  5°  S.,  on  the  evcuiug 


56 


AMERICA,  1500-t514. 


Namincj  of 
America. 


AMERICA,  1500-1514. 


of  the  Ifith  of  August,  tlie  festival-day  of  San 
Koque,  wliose  name  was  accordingly  given  to 
the  cape  before  wliicli  they  drojiped  anclior. 
From  tliis  point  they  slowly  followed  the  coast  to 
the  soiilliward,  ftopiiing  now  and  then  to  exam- 
ine the  country.  .  .  .  It  was  not  until  All  Saints 
day,  tlie  lirst  cf  November,  tliat  they  reael'ed 
the  bay  ii;  latitude  VP  S.,  whicli  is  still  known 
by  the  name  wlii('h  they  gave  it,  Hahiade  Todos 
Santos.  On  New  Year's  ciay,  150',',  tliey  arrived 
at  llie  noble  bay  wlierc  54  years  later  the  chief 
city  of  Ura/.il  was  founded.  They  would  seem 
to  "have  nnst.aken  it  for  tlie  mouth  of  another 
huge  river,  like  some  tliat  had  already  been  seen 
in  this  strange  world;  for  they  called  it  Kio  de 
Janeiro  ( Uiver  of  .lamiary).  Thence  by  February 
15  they  had  passeilCapeSanta  JIaria,  when  they 
left  the  coast  and  took  a  southeasterly  course  out 
into  the  ocean.  Amerieus  gives  no  satisfactory 
reason  for  tins  change  of  direction.  .  .  .  I'er- 
hai)S  he  may  have  looked  into  tlie  inoutli  of  the 
river  La  I'lata,  which  is  a  bay  more  tl  .in  a  hun- 
dred miles  wide;  and  the  sudden  westward 
trend  of  the  shore  may  have  led  him  I  )  suppose 
that  lie  had  reached  the  end  of  the  continent. 
At  any  rate,  he  was  now  in  longitude  more  than 
twenty  degrees  west  of  the  meridian  of  Capo 
San  Koipie,  and  theref<ire  uiuiuestionably  out  of 
Portuguese  waters.  Clearly  there  was  no  use  in 
going  on  and  diseovc  iig  lands  which  could 
belong  only  to  Spain.  This  may  account,  I 
think,  for  the  change  of  direction."  The  voyage 
southeastwardly  was  ])ursued  until  the  little 
fleet  had  reached  the  icy  ami  rocky  coast  of  the 
island  of  South  Georgia,  in  latiliide  54°  S.  It 
was  tlien  decided  to  turn  homeward.  "  Ves- 
pucius  .  .  .  headed  s.raiglit  N.  N.  K.  through 
the  huge  ocean,  fur  Sierra  Leone,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  more  than  l,OU()  miles  was  made —  with 
wonderful  atfuracy,  though  V'espucius  says 
nothing  ;ibout  that  — in  33  days.  .  .  .  Thence, 
after  some  further  delay,  to  Lisbon,  where  they 
arrived   on   the   7th   of    September,    1.J03.  .  .  . 

Vmong  all  the  voyages  made  during  that  event- 
ful period  there  was  none  that  as  a  teat  of  navi- 
gativn  su-pa.ssed  this  third  of  Vespucius,  and 
there  was  none,  except  the  first  of  Columbus, 
that  outranked  it  in  iiistorical  importance.  For 
it  was  not  only  a  voyage  into  the  remo'est 
stretches  of  the  Sea  of  Darkness,  but  it  vas 
prei'miiiently  an  incursion  into  the  antipodal 
world  of  the  Southern  hemisphere.  ...  A 
coast  of  continental  e.\tcnt,  beginning  so  near 
the  meridian  of  tlie  Cape  Verde  i.slands  and  run- 
ning southwesterly  to  latitude  35°  S,  ;;nd  per- 
haps beyond,  did  not  (it  into  anybody's  scheme 
of  things.  ...  It  was  land  unknown  to  the 
ancients,  and  Vespucius  was  right  in  saying  that 
he  had  beheld  there  things  "by  the  thousand 
which  I'liny  had  never  r.ientioned.  It  was  not 
strange  that  he  should  call  it  a  'New  World,' 
and  ill  meeting  with  this  phrase,  on  tliis  first 
occasion  in  which  it  appears  in  any  document 
with  reference  to  any  part  of  what  we  now  call 
Anicrica,  the  reader  must  be  careful  not  to  clothe 
it  witli  tlui  meaning  whicli  it  wears  in  our  mod- 
ern eyes.     In  using  tliu  expression  '  New  Worhl ' 

Vespucius  was  not  tliinking  of  the  Florida  coast 
which  he  had  visited  on  a  former  voyage,  nor  of 
the  'islands  of  Isidia' discovered  by  Columbus 
nor  even  of  the  Pearl  Coa.st  which  he  had  fol- 
lowed after  tlie  Adiuiml  in  exploring.  The 
expression    occurs    iu   lus    letter    to    Lorenzo 


do'Medici,  written  from  Lisbon  in  March  or  April, 
1.503,  relating  solely  to  this  third  voyage.  The 
letter  begins  as  follows:  '  I  have  formerly  writ- 
ten to  you  at  sullicient  length  about  my  return 
from  those  new  countries  which  in  the  siiijis  and 
at  the  expense  and  command  of  the  most  gracious 
King  of  Portugal  we  have  .sought  and  found. 
It  is  proper  to  call  them  a  new  world.'  Observe 
that  it  is  only  the  new  countries  visited  on  this 
third  voyage,  the  countries  from  Cape  San 
I{o(iue  southward,  that  Vespuci.  r  thinks  it 
projier  to  call  a  new  world,  and  here  is  liis  reason 
for  .so  calling  them:  '  Sinc(^  among  our  ancestors 
tliere  was  no  knowledge  of  them,  and  to  all  who 
hear  of  the  affair  it  is  most  novel.  For  it  tran- 
scends the  ideas  of  the  ancients,  since  nio:,[  of 
tliem  say  that  beyond  the  eiiuator  to  the  south 
there  is  no  continent,  but  only  the  .sea  which 
ihey  calleil  the  Allantit,  and  if  any  of  them 
asserted  the  existence  of  a  ( (iiitinent  there,  they 
found  many  reasons  for  refusing  to  consider  it  a 
habitable  country,  liut  this  last  voyage  of  mine 
has  i)roved  that  this  opinion  of  tlieirs  was 
cr.'oneous  and  in  every  way  contrary  to  the 
facis. '  .  .  .  This  exi)ression  '  Novus  .Mundiia,' 
thus  occurring  in  a  private  letter,  liad  a  remark- 
able career.  Early  in  .Tune,  1.5((3,  about  the  time 
when  Amerieus  wasstarting  on  his  fourth  voyage, 
Lorenzo  died.  By  the  lieginning  of  1.5()4,  a 
l-atin  version  of  the  letter  [translated  by  (iiovanni 
Gioeondo]  was  printed  and  pulilished.  with  the 
title  '  jMundus  Novus.'.  .  .  The  littl"  four- 
leaved  tract,  '  Mundus  Novus,'  turned  lUit  to 
be  the  great  liteniry  success  of  the  day.  JI. 
Harisse  has  described  at  least  eleven  Latin  edi- 
tions ])robabl)'  pubiislied  in  the  course  of  1.504, 
and  by  1500  not  less  than  eight  editions  of  Ger- 
man vc:rsions  had  liecn  i.ssued.  Intense  curiosity 
was  aiou.sed  by  this  aiiiiounce-nciit  (d'  tin'  exis- 
tence of  a  populous  hind  beyond  Ihe  equator  and 
unknown  (could  such  a  filing  be  possible)  to  the 
ancients," — wlio  did  know  something,  at  least, 
about  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Asiatic  continent 
whicli  Columbus  was  supposed  to  have  reached. 
The  "Novus  .Mundus,"  so  named,  began  soon  to 
be  represented  on  maps  and  globes,  generally  a.s 
a  great  island  or  iiuasi-continent  lying  on  and 
below  the  cciuator.  "Europe,  Asi.a  and  Africa 
were  the  three  i)arls  of  the  earth  (lu'cviously 
known],  and  so  this  opposite  region,  hitherto 
Unknown,  but  mentioned  liy  Mela  and  indicated 
by  Ptolemy,  was  the  Fourth  P.irt.  We  can  now 
begin  to  undersland  the  intense  and  wildly 
atisorbing  interest  with  which  jieoph!  read  the 
brief  story  of  the  third  voyage  of  Vespucius, 
and  wc  can  .see  that  in  the  nature  of  that  interest 
tlierc  was  nothing  calculated  to  bring  it  into  com- 
parison with  l\w.  work  of  Columbus.  Tlie  two 
navigators  were  not  regarded  as  rivals  in  doing 
the  same  tiling,  but  as  men  who  had  done  two 
very  dilfereiit  things;  and  logivecredittoone  was 
by  no  means  e(|uivaleiit  to  withholding  credit 
from  .the  other."  In  1507,  .Martin  Waldsee- 
mlUler,  profes,sor  of  geograiihy  at  Saint-Die, 
published  a  small  treatise  entitled  "('osmo- 
graphie  Introduetio,"  witli  that  second  of  the  two 
known  letters  of  Vespucius  —  the  (iiw.  addressed 
to  SoderinI,  of  which  an  account  is  given  abovo 
(A.  I).  1407-1498)— appemled  to  it.  "In  this 
rare  book  occurs  the  first  suggestion  of  tlie  name 
America.  After  having  trei.led  of  the  division 
of  the  earth's  inhabited  surface  info  three  parts 
—  Europe,    Asia,    and    Africa  —  WuldsecinUller 


01 


AMERICA,  irm-ir>U. 


AMERICA,  1.509-1511. 


speaks  of  tlic  discovery  of  a  Fourtli  Pnrt,"  and 
Hiiys:  '■  '  WhcrcfDre  I  "do  not  sec  wliat  is  riglilly 
toliiiidcT  us  from  callini;  it  Ann'rige  or  AiiicTiia, 
i.  0.,  the  land  of  Amcricu;*,  after  its  discc)verer 
Aincrlcuii,  a  man  of  sai^'aeioiis  mind,  since  liotli 
Kuriipe  and  Asia  liave  got  tlieir  names  from 
wiiincn.'  .  .  .  Siicli  were  tlie  winged  words  Imt 
for  wliieli,  as  .\I.  IIariss(;  reminds  us.  tlie  western 
liemispliere  ndglit  liave  come  to  lie  linown  as 
Atlantis,  or  llesperides.  or  Santa  Cruz,  or  Xew 
India,  or  perhaps  Columbia.  ...  In  about  a 
(piarter  of  a  century  the  first  stage  in  the  devel- 
opnieiU  of  the  naming  of  America  liaci  been 
completed.  That  stage  consisted  of  live  distinct 
steps;  1.  Americus  called  the  regions  visited  by 
him  liiyond  the  iMiiuitor  '  a  new^world  '  beeau.se 
they  were  unknown  to  the  ancients;  2.  Giocondo 
maile  this  striking  phrase  '-Mundus  Novus'  iato 
a  title  for  his  translation  of  the  letter.  .  .  ;  3. 
the  name  Mundus  Novus  got  placeil  upon  sev- 
eral maps  as  an  e(iuivalent  fur  Terra  .Sanctiu 
Crucis,  or  what  we  call  lira/il;  t.  the  sugges- 
tion was  made  that  .Mundus  Novus  was  the 
Fourth  I'art  of  the  earth,  and  miglit  jiroperly  be 
named  America  after  its  discoverer;  o,  the  name 
America  thus  got  placed  ujKjn  several  maps  [the 
first,  so  far  lis  known,  being  a  map  ascribed  to 
liconaiilo  da  Vinci  and  ]uiblished  about  1,511, 
and  the  second  a  globe  made  in  1.51.5  by  .lohanu 
Sehouer,  at  Niireud)erg|  as  an  e((uivalent  feu- 
what  we  call  Brazil,  and  sometimes  came  to 
stand  alone  as  an  e(iuivalent  for  what  we  call 
•South  America,  but  still  sigiiitied  only  a  part  of 
the  dry  land  beycaid  the  Atlantic  to  which 
Columbus  iiad  led  the  way.  .  .  .  Tliis  wider 
meaning  (of  South  America]  became  all  the 
more  lirndy  established  as  its  narrower  meaning 
was  usnrpeil  by  the  name  lirazil.  Tliree  cen- 
turies before  tlu'  time  of  ( 'olnnd)Us  the  red 
dye  wood  called  brazil-wood  was  an  article  of 
conuneree,  under  that  .«anie  name,  in  Italy  and 
Spain.  It  was  one  of  the  valuable  things 
brought  from  the  East,  and  when  the  Portu- 
guese fo\uid  the  same  dye-wood  abiuulaut  in 
thos<'  tropical  forests  that  had  seemed  so  beauti- 
fid  ;<)  V'espucius,  the  name  lirazil  soou  became 
fastened  upon  the  country  and  helped  to  .set 
free  the  name  America  fron\  its  local  associa- 
tions." Wlicn,  in  time,  and  by  slow  degrees, 
the  great  fact  was  learned,  that  all  the  lands 
found  lieyond  the  Atlantic  by  Columbus  and 
his  successors,  formed  iiarl  of  one  continental 
system,  and  were  all  to  be  embraced  in  the  con- 
ception of  a  New  World,  the  name  which  had 
become  synonymous  with  Xew  World  was  then 
naturally"  extended  to  the  whole.  The  evolu- 
tionary iirocess  of  the  naming  of  the  western 
he;uis|iliere  as  a  whole  was  thus  n)ade  complete 
in  1.511,  by  Mer-ator,  who  spread  the  name 
America  in  lar.g<'  letters  upon  a  globe  which  he 
constructed  that  year,  so  that  part  of  itappeiired 
upon  the  northern  and  part  upon  the  southern 
continent. — J.  Fislse,  The  Dhcoccry  of  j.  merica, 
c!i.  1  (i\  2). 

Also  in:  AV.  B.  Scnife,  Amcricn  :  Its  (leoi/raph- 
t'l-iil  llii^toni,  sect.  4.— U.  II.  -Mii.jor,  Ufe  of 
Pi-inct  Jlciirt/  of  Portiir/nl,  eh.  10. —,J.  Winsor, 
Ji'ii'ratire  mid  Vntiatl  Hint,  of  Am.,  v.  2,  cli.  2, 
notes.— 1\.  11.  Haucroft,  Uist.  of  the  Bteifie  Stntes, 
r.  1,  /(/>•  lli)-H2,  mid  123-12,5. 

A.  D.  1501-1504.— Portuguese,  Norman  and 
Breton  fishermen  on  the  Newfoundland  Banks. 
See  Nkwfolndi,.\nu;  A.  1).  1.501-1578. 


A.  D.  1502.— The  Second  Voyage  of  Ojeda. 

— The  first  voyage  of  AUjuzo  de  Ojeda,  from 
which  he  returned  to  Spain  i'  June  1.500,  was 
profitable  to  nothing  but  his  reputation  as  a  bold 
and  eiUerpri.sing  explorer.  Uy  way  of  reward, 
he  was  given  "a  grant  of  laud  in  llispauiola, 
and  likewise  tlu-  government  of  Coquibacoa, 
which  place  he  had  discovered  [and  which  he  had 
called  Venezuela].  He  wasauthorized  to  titouta 
number  of  ships  at  his  own  expense  and  to  pros- 
ecute discoveries  on  the  coast  of  Terra  Firma. 
.  .  .  With  foiu-  vessels,  Ojeda  .set  sail  for  the 
Canaries,  in  1.503,  and  thence  luoceeded  to  the 
Gulf  of  Paria,  from  which  locality  he  found  his 
way  to  Co(nnl)acoa.  Not  liking  this  poor 
country,  he  sailed  on  to  the  "  .v  of  Honda, 
where  he  determined  to  found  '  is  settlement, 
which  was,  however,  destined  be  of  short 
duration.  Provisions  very  soon  became  scarce; 
and  one  of  his  iiartncrs,  who  ha<l  been  sent  to 
procure  supplies  from  .Jamaica,  failed  to  return 
until  t)jeda's  followers  were  almost  in  a  state  of 
mutiny.  The  result  was  that  the  whole  colony 
set  .sail  for  Ilispainola,  taking  the  governor  with 
them  in  chains.  All  that  Ojeda  gained  by  his 
expedition  was  tliat  he  at  leiiglh  came  oil  wimier 
in  a  lawsuit,  the  costs  of  wiiicli,  however,  left 
him  a  ruined  man." — H.  G.  Watson,  .Spmiis/i  itial 
I'orliir/iie.ie  S.  Am.,  M:  1,  eh.  1. 

A.  D.  1503-1504.— The  Fourth  Voyage  of 
Americus  Vespucius. —  First  Settlement  in 
Brazil. — In  .June,  1.5o;i,  "Amerigo  sailed  again 
from  Lisbon,  with  si.x  .ships.  The  object  of  this 
voyage  was  to  di.scover  a  certain  island  called 
Melclia,  which  was  supposed  to  lie  west  of  Cali- 
cut, and  to  be  as  famous  a  mart  in  the  commerce 
of  the  Indian  world  as  Cadiz  was  in  Kurope. 
Tliey  made  the  Cape  do  Verds,  and  then,  con- 
trary to  the  judgment  of  Vespucci  and  of  all  the 
tleet,  the  Cominaudei  ])ersisted  in  standing  for 
Serra  Leoa."  The  Commander's  ship  was  lost, 
and  Vespucci,  with  oue  vessel,  only,  reached  the 
coast  of  the  Xew  World,  llnding  a  p(at  which 
is  thought  to  have  been  Pahia.  Here  "  tliey 
waited  above  two  months  in  vain  expectation  of 
being  joined  by  the  rest  of  the  squadron.  Having 
lost  all  hope  of  ihis  they  coasted  on  for  2(i0 
leagues  to  the  Southward,  and  there  took  port 
agiun  in  18°  S.  ;!5'  W.  of  the  meridian  of  Lis- 
bon. Here  they  reuiidned  live  nuinths,  upon 
good  terms  with  tlie  natives,  with  whom  some 
of  the  jiarty  i)euetrated  forty  leagues  into  the 
interior;  and  Ikm-c  they  erected  a  fort,  in  which 
they  left  24  men  who  had  been  saved  from  the 
Commander's  ship.  They  gave  them  12  guns, 
besides  other  arms,  and  provisions  for  six 
mouths;  then  loaded  with  bra/.il  [wood],  sailed 
homeward  and  returned  in  safety.  .  .  .  The 
honour,  therefore,  of  having  formed  i!.e  first 
settlement  in  this  country  is  due  to  Amerigo 
Vespucci.  It  does  uot  appear  tliat  any  further 
attention  was  as  this  time  paid  to  it.  .  .  .  Put 
the  cargo  of  brazil  which  Vespucci  had  brought 
home  tempted  private  adventurers,  who  wero  ! 
content  with  peaceful  gains,  to  trade  thither  for  | 
that  valuable  wooii;  and  this  trade  became  so  i,-, 
well  known,  that  in  consecpicnce  the  (oast  and  | 
the  whole  country  obtained  the  name  of  IJrazil,  ^ 
notwithstanding  the  holier  appellation  [Santa 
Cruz]  which  Cabral  had  given  It." — R.  Southey, 
Jlist.  of  linnil,  r.  1,  eh.  1. 

A.    D.    1509-151 1.— The     Expeditions     of 
Ojeda  and  Nicueaa  to  the  Isthmus.— The  Set- 


68 


AMERICA,  1509-1511. 


Settlement  at 
Darien. 


AMERICA,  1509-1511. 


tlement  at  Darien.  —  "For  several  years  after 
his  ruinous,  thougli  siircessful  lawsuit,  we  lo.se 
all  traees  of  Almizo  (le  Ojeda,  excepting  that  we 
are  told  he  nintle  anotlier  voyage  to  Coquiliacoii 
[Venezuela],  in  1505.  No  record  remains  of  this 
exiH'dition,  which  seems  to  have  been  equally 
unprolitablo  with  tlie  preceding,  for  we  lind 
him,  in  l.")US,  in  tlie  island  of  Hispaniola  as  poor 
in  purse,  though  as  jiroud  in  spirit,  as  ever.  .  .  . 
About  this  lime  tlie  cupidity  of  King  Ferdinand 
w;is  greatly  excited  by  the  "accounts  by  Colum- 
bus of  thegold  mines"of  Veragua,  in  which  the 
adnural  fancied  he  had  discovered  the  Aurca 
Chersonesus  of  the  ancients,  whence  King  Solo- 
mon jiroeured  the  gold  used  in  building  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem.  S'-b.sequent  voyagers  had 
corroborated  the  opini'  of  Columbus  as  to  the 
general  riches  of  the  cc  of  Terra  Firma;  King 
Ferdinand  resolved,  therefore,  to  found  regular 
colonies  along  that  coast,  and  to  place  the  whole 
under  some  capable  commander."  Ojeda  was 
recommended  for  this  post,  but  found  a  conii)eti- 
tor  in  one  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  Spanish  court, 
Diego  de  Xicuesa.  "King  Feriinand  avoided 
the  dilemma  by  favoring  both;  not  indeed  by 
furnishing  them  with  ships  and  mor.ey,  but  bj' 
granting  patents  and  dignities,  which  copt  noth- 
ing, and  might  bring  rich  returns.  lie  divided 
that  part  of  the  continent  which  lies  along  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien  into  two  provinces,  tlie 
boundary  line  running  through  the  Gulf  of 
Uraba.  The  eastern  part,  extending  to  Capo  do 
la  Vela,  was  called  New  Andalusia,  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  it  given  to  Ojeda.  The  otlier  to  the 
west  [called  Castilladcl  Oro],  including  Veragua, 
and  reacliing  to  Cape  Gracias  ft  IJios,  was  as- 
signed to  Nicuesa.  The  island  of  Jamaica  was 
given  to  the  two  governors  in  connnon,  as  a  place 
whence  to  draw  supplies  of  provision.s."  Slender 
means  for  the  equipment  of  Ojeda's  expedition 
Were  supplied  by  tlic  veteran  jiilot,  Juan  de  la 
Cosa,  who  accompanied  him  as  his  lieutenant. 
Nicuesa  was  more  amply  provided.  The  rival 
armaments  arrived  at  San  Domingo  about  the 
same  time  (in  1509),  and  much  quarreling  be- 
tween the  two  conunandcrs  ensued.  Ojeda 
found  a  notary  in  San  Domingo,  Martin  Fer- 
nandez  de  Enciso,  who  had  niouc}'  which  he  con- 
sented to  invest  in  the  enterprise,  and  who  prom- 
iswl  to  follow  him  with  an  additional  sliip-load  of 
retruits  and  supiilies.  Under  this  an'angemeut 
Ojeda  made  ready  to  sail  in  advance  of  his  com- 
petitor, embarking  Nov.  10,  1509.  Among  those 
who  sailed  with  iiim  was  Francisco  Pizarro,  tlie 
future  loiKiueror  of  Peru.  Ojeda,  by  his  energy, 
gained  time  enough  to  nearly  ruin  li'is  expedition 
before  Xieuesa  reached  the"  scciK';  for,  having 
landed  at  Carlhagena,  he  made  war  upon  the  na- 
tives, pursued  lliem  rcckles.sly  into  the  iiiteri(U'of 
the  country,  with  70  men,  and  was  overwhelmed 
by  the  desperate  savages,  escaping  with  only  one 
companion  from  their  poisoned  urrows.  His 
faithful  friend,  the  pilot,  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  was 
among  the  slain,  at.d  Oiedahimself,  hilling  in  the 
forest,  was  nearly  d:. id  of  hunger  and  exposure 
when  found  and  rescued  by  a  sei'rcliing  pnrrv 
from  his  ships.  At  this  juncture  the  licet  of  Ni- 
!  iiesa  made  its  appearance.  Jealousies  were  for- 
gotten in  a  common  rage  against  the  natives  and 
the  two  expeditions  were  joined  in  an  attack  on 
the  Indian  villages  which  spared  nothing.  Nicu- 
esa  thon  proceeded  to  Veragua,  while  Ojeda 
founded  a  town,  which  he  called  Sau  Sebastian, 


nt  the  oa.st  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Uralia.  Incessantly 
hara.ssed  bj-  the  natives,  terrilicd  by  the  effects  of 
the  jjoLson  which  these  used  in  their  warfare,  and 
threatened  with  starvation  by  the  rapid  exhaustion 
of  its  supplies,  the  settlement  lost  courage  and 
hoi)e.  Enciso  and  his  promised  ship  were  waited 
for  in  vain.  At  length  there  came  a  vessel  which 
certain  piratical  adventurers  at  Hispaniola  had 
stolen,  and  which  brought  some  welcome  pro- 
visions, e.igcrly  bouglit  at  an  exorbitant  price. 
Ojeda,  half  recovered  from  a  jjoisoned  wound, 
wliieh  he  had  treated  heroically  with  red-hot 
plates  of  iron,  engaged  the  pirates  to  convey  him 
to  Hispaniola,  for  tlio  procuring  of  suiJidies. 
The  voyage  was  a  disastrous  one,  resulting  in 
shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Cuba  and  a  month  of 
desijcrate  wandering  in  the  morasses  of  the  island. 
Ojeda  survived  all  these  perils  and  sull'ering.s, 
made  his  way  to  Jamaica,  and  from  Jamaica  to 
San  Domingo,  found  that  his  partner  Enciso  had 
sailed  for  the  colony  long  before,  with  abundant 
supplies,  but  could  Icaru  nothing  more.  Nor 
could  he  obtain  for  himself  any  means  of  return- 
ing to  San  Sebastian,  or  of  di.spatehing  relief  to 
the  place.  Sick,  penniless  and  disheartened,  he 
went  into  a  convent  and  died.  Meantime  the 
despairing  colonists  at  San  Sebastian  waited  until 
death  had  made  them  few  enough  to  be  all  taken 
on  board  of  the  two  little  brigantines  which  were 
left  to  them ;  then  they  sailed  away,  Pizarro  in 
command.  One  of  the  brigantines  soon  went 
down  in  a  squall;  the  other  made  its  way  to  llie 
harbor  of  Carlhagena,  where  it  found  the  tardy 
Enciso,  searching  for  his  colony.  Enciso,  under 
his  commission,  now  took  conmiand,  and  insistetl 
upon  going  to  San  Sebasiian.  There  the  old  ex- 
periences were  soon  renewed,  and  even  Enciso 
was  ready  to  abandon  the  deadly  place.  The 
latter  had  brought  with  him  a  needy  cavalier, 
Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  —  so  needy  that  ho 
smuggled  himself  on  board  EucLso's  ship  in  a 
cask  to  escape  his  creditors.  Vasco  Nunez,  wlio 
had  coasted  this  region  with  ISastidas,  in  1500, 
now  advised  a  removal  of  tlie  colony  to  Darien, 
on  the  opposite  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  "Uraba.  His 
advice,  which  was  followed,  proved  good,  and 
the  hopes  of  the  settlers  were  raised;  butEneiso's 
modes  of  government  proved  irksome  to  them. 
Then  Balboa  called  atte'ition  to  the  fact  that, 
when  they  crossed  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  they  passcil 
out  of  the  territory  covered  by  the  patent  to 
Ojeda,  uiiil(>r  which  Eu;mso  was  commissioned, 
and  into  that  granted  to  Nieuesa.  On  this  sug- 
gestion Enciso  was  promi)tly  depo.sed  and  two 
alcahlcs  were  elected,  Balboa  being  one.  While 
events  in  one  corner  of  Nieuesa's  domain  wero 
thus  establishing  a  colony  for  that  ambitious  gov- 
ernor, he  himself,  at  the  other  extremitv  of  it, 
was  faring  badly.  He  had  sulTered  hardships, 
separation  from  most  of  his  command  and  long 
abandonment  on  a  desolate  coast;  had  rejoined 
his  followers  after  great  sufferinir,  only  to  suller 
yet  more  in  their  company,  until  less  than  one 
hundred  remained  of  liie  "TOO  who  sailed  with 
liiin  a  few  months  before.  The  selllement  at 
Veragua  had  been  deserted,  and  another,  named 
Nombre  de  Dios  undertaken,  with  no  improve- 
ment of  circuinstinces.  In  tliis  situation  ho  was 
rejoiced,  at  last,  by  the  arrival  of  one  of  his  lieu- 
tenants, Rodrigo  tie  Colmenares,  who  came  with 
supplies.  Colmenares  brought  tidings,  moreover, 
of  the  prosperous  colony  at  Darien,  which  he  had 
discovered  on  his  way,  with  an  invitation  to 


39 


AMERICA,  1509-1511. 


nincot'rrjf  nf 
the  I'aciflc. 


AMEUICA,  1513-1517 


Nicucsa  to  cniiu.'  nml  iissiimo  the  novprnnu'nt  of  it. 
IIu  acccptfii  IIh;  iiivilaliiiii  with  <liliL,!.t;  but, 
alii.s!  tilt!  comimniity  at  Diirk'H  liiul  rcpi'iitcil  i>f 
it  licforc!  he  niulictl  lli"m,  and  tlicy  refused 
to  receive  liini  wlieii  ho  arrived.  Permit  led  linally 
to  land,  lie  was  seized  Ijy  a  treaelierous  iwi'ly 
aiiuiii)^  tlio  colniii.si.s—  to  wlioiii  Ualboa  is  said 
to  liave  opiiosed  all  the  resistaiiee  in  liis  power  — 
was  put  on  lioard  of  an  old  and  crazy  lirigaiiline, 
Willi  seventeen  of  liis  friends,  and  eonipelled  to 
talv(!  an  oath  that  lie  would  siul  straight  to  Spain. 
"'I'he  frail  li.irk  set  sail  on  the  tinst  of  Mareli, 
1511,  and  steered aeross  the  Caril)bcaii  Sea  for  the 
island  of  Ilispaniola,  but  was  i.ever seen  or  heard 
of  more." — W.  \r\\iii;, Life  and  Vui/dyis  of  Coliim- 
bu,i  fintl  hiti  (,oinjianiifn:t,  v.  3. 

Ai.st)  I.N-  H.  H.  Haneroft,  Jfist.  of  the  Pacific 
StiitiK,  V.  \,ch,  C. 

A.  D.  151 1. —  Tha  Spanish  conquest  and  oc- 
cupation of  Cuba.     See  C,'i;iia:  A.  1).  1511. 

A.  D.  1512. —  The  Voyage  of  Ponce  de  Leon 
in  quest  of  the  Fountain  of  Youth,  and  his 
Discovery  of  Florida. —  "Whatever  may  have 
been  the  Southernmost  point  reached  by  Cabot 
in  coasting  Aineriea  on  his  return,  it  is  certain 
that  he  did  not  hmd  in  Florida,  and  that  the 
honour  of  first  exploring  that  country  is  due  to 
tluan  Ponco  de  Leon.  This  cavalier,  who  was 
governor  of  Puerto  Kieo,  induced  by  the  vague 
traditions  circulated  by  the  natives  of  the  West 
Indies,  that  thiic  was  a,  country  in  the  north 
possessing  a  fountain  whose  waters  restored  the 
aged  to  youth,  made  it  an  object  of  his  ambition 
to  be  the  first  to  discover  this  marvellous  region. 
With  this  view,  he  resigned  the  governorship, 
and  set  sail  with  three  caravels  on  the  3d  of 
March  1512.  Steering  N.  J  N.,  he  came  upon  a 
country  covered  with  flowers  and  verdure;  and 
as  the  ilay  of  his  discovery  hapjicned  to  bo 
Palm  Sunday,  called  by  the  Spaniards  '  Pasqiia 
Florida,'  he  gave  it  the  name  of  Florida  from  this 
cireumstanee.  He  landed  on  the  2d  of  A])ril,  and 
took  i)ossession  of  the  coinitry  in  the  name  of 
the  king  of  Ca.stile.  The  warlike  people  of  the 
coast  of  Cautio  (a  name  given  by  the  Indians  to 
all  the  coimtry  lying  between  Cape  Cifiaveral 
and  the  southern  point  of  Florida)  soon,  how- 
ever, cotni)elled  him  to  retreat,  and  he  pursued 
his  exploration  of  the  coast  as  far  as  30°  8'  north 
latitude,  and  on  the  8th  of  May  doubled  Cape 
Cailaveral.  Then  retracing  his  course  to  Puerto 
Kico,  in  the  hope  of  flndiug  the  island  of  liimini, 
which  he  believed  to  be  the  Land  of  Youth,  and 
described  by  the  Indians  as  ojiposito  to  Florida, 
he  di^icovered  the  liahamas,  and  some  other 
islands,  jireviously  uidiuown.  Bad  weathercom- 
pelling  him  to  ptit  into  the  isle  of  Guanima  to 
repair  damages,  he  despatched  one  of  his  cara- 
vels, tinder  the  orders  of  Jaun  Perez  de  Ortubia 
ami  of  the  pilot  Anton  de  Alamiuos,  to  gain  in- 
formation respecting  '.iie  desired  l.iiul,  which  he 
had  as  yet  been  totally  unable  to  discover.  He 
returueil  to  Puerto  Uieo  on  the  21st  of  Sejitem- 
lier;  a  few  days  afterwards,  Ortubia  arrived  also 
with  news  of  Uimini.  Heieiiorted  that  ho  had 
e.\|)lored  the  i.slaiid, — which  he  described  as 
large,  well  wooded,  and  watered  by  numerous 
'reams, —  but  ho  had  failed  in  discovering  the 

iiutain.  Oviedo  places  IJiinini  at  40  leagues 
west  of  the  island  of  Bahama.  Thus  all  the  ad- 
vantages which  Ponce  de  Leon  promised  himself 
from  tills  voyage  turned  to  the  (irolit  of  geogra- 
phy :   the   title  of  '  Adelantado   of   Bimiui   and 


Florida,'  whieh  was  conferred  upon  him,  was 
purely  honorary;  but  the  route  taken  by  him  in 
order  to  return  to  Puerto  Hico,  showed  the  advan- 
tage of  making  the  homeward  voyage  to  Spain  by 
the  Bahama  Channel." — W.  B.  Uye,  lutrod.  t<: 
"  Discorevy  niid  CoiKjtiesl  of  Tcvra  Flonila,  hy  » 
yentkman  of  Elvm"  (Uakluyt  Soc,  1851). 

Also  IN  G.  H.  Fairbanks,  Hint.  ofFloriila,  ch.  1. 

A.  D.  1513-1517.— The  discovery  of  the 
Pacific  by  Vasco  Nuflez  de  Balboa. — Pedra- 
rias  D'.vila  on  the  Isthmus. — Willi  Enci.so  de- 
posed from  authority  and  Nicuesa  sent  adrift, 
Vasco  Nunez  do  Ba.'boa  seems  to  have  easily 
held  the  lead  iu  aifairs  at  Darien,  though  not 
without  much  opposition ;  for  faction  and  turbu- 
lence were  rife.  Enciso  was  permitted  to  carrj 
his  grievances  and  complaints  to  Spain,  but  Bal- 
boa's colleague,  Zamudio,  went  with  him,  and 
another  comrade  proceeded  to  Hispauiola,  both 
of  them  well-furnished  with  gold.  For  the  quest 
of  gold  had  succeeded  at  last.  The  Darien  ad- 
venturers had  found  considerable  quantities  in 
the  possession  of  the  surrounding  natives,  and 
were  gathering  it  with  greedy  hands.  Balboa 
had  the  prudence  to  establish  friendly  relations 
with  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  neigh- 
boring caciques,  whose  comely  daughter  he  wed- 
ded—  according  to  the  easy  customs  of  the 
country  —  and  whose  ally  he  became  in  wars  with 
the  other  caciques.  By  gift  and  tribute,  therefore 
as  well  as  by  plunder,  he  harvested  more  gold 
than  any  be  ro  him  had  found  since  the  ransack- 
ing of  the  New  World  began.  But  what  they 
obtained  seemed  little  compared  with  the  treas- 
ures reported  to  them  as  existing  beyond  the 
near  mountains  and  toward  the  south.  One  In- 
dian youth,  sou  of  a  friendly  cacique,  particu- 
larly excited  their  imaginations  by  the  tale  which 
ho  told  of  another  great  sea,  not  far  to  the  west, 
on  the  southward-stretching  shores  of  which 
were  countries  that  teemed  with  every  kind  of 
w  ealtli.  lie  told  them,  however,  that  they  would 
need  a  thousand  men  to  fight  their  way  to  this 
Sea.  Balboa  gave  such  credence  to  the  story 
that  ho  sent  envoys  to  Spain  to  .solicit  forces  from 
the  king  for  an  adequate  expci'ition  across  the 
mountains.  Tliey  sailed  in  October,  1513,  but 
did  not  arrive  in  Spain  until  the  following  May. 
They  found  Balboa  in  much  disfavorat  the  court. 
Enciso  and  the  friends  of  the  unfortunate  Nic- 
uesa had  unitedly  ruined  him  by  their  complaints, 
and  the  king  had  caused  criminal  proceedings 
against  him  to  be  commenced,  ileantimc,  some 
inkling  of  these  hostilities  had  reached  Balboa, 
himself,  conveyed  by  a  vessel  which  bore  to  him, 
at  the  same  time,  a  commission  as  captain-gen- 
eral from  the  authorities  in  Ilispaniola.  He  now 
resolved  to  become  the  discoverer  of  the  ocean 
which  his  Indian  friends  described,  and  of  the 
rich  lamb  bordering  it,  before  his  enemies  could 
interfere  with  him.  "Accordingly,  early  in  Sep- 
tember, 1513,  ho  set  out  on  his  renowned  expe- 
dition for  finding  Uio  other  sea,' accoinpauicd 
by  100  men  w  ell  armed,  and  by  dogs,  which  were 
of  more  avail  than  men,  and  by  Indian  slaves 
to  carry  the  burdens.  Ho  went  by  sea  to  the  ter- 
ritory of  his  father-in-law.  King  Careta,  by  whom 
he  was  well  received,  and  accoinpanieil  by  whose 
Indians  he  moved  on  into  Ponc.ha's  territory." 
(Juieting  the  fears  of  this  cacique,  ho  jiassed  his 
country  without  lighting.  The  next  chief  encoun- 
tered, named  Quaro(iua,  attempted  resii''ince, 
but  was  routed,  with  a  great  slaughter  0!  his 


60 


AMERICA,  1513-1517. 


FinrUtig  o/ 
Mexico. 


AMERICA,  1517-1518. 


people,  and  Bnlhoa  puslicd  on.  "On  the  25th 
of  September,  151:),  he  cnnio  iienr  to  tlie  top  of  a 
mountain  from  whenee  the  South  Sen  wii.s  visi- 
ble. Tlio  distance  from  Ponclm's  cliief  town  to 
this  poh't  was  forty  leagues,  reelioncd  tlien  six 
(lays  journey;  but  Vasco  Nunez  aud  his  men 
took  twenty-five  days  to  aee()mi)lisli  it,  as  they 
suffered  much  from"  tlie  roughness  of  the  ways 
and  from  the  want  of  provisions.  ,V  little  before 
Vnsco  Nuflez  reached  the  height,  Quarcqua's  In- 
dians informed  him  of  his  near  apiiroacli  to  tlio 
sea.  It  was  a  sigl\t  in  beholding  which,  for  tlie 
first  time,  any  man  would  wish  to  be  alone. 
Vasco  Nuiiez  bade  his  men  sit  down  while  ho 
ascended,  and  then,  in  solitude,  looked  down 
upon  the  vast  Pacific  —  the  first  man  of  the  Old 
World,  so  far  as  wo  know,  who  had  done  so. 
Falling  on  his  knees,  ho  gave  thanks  to  God  for 
the  favour  .shown  to  him  in  hi-:  being  permitted 
to  discover  the  Sea  of  the  South.  Tiicn  with  his 
hand  be  beckoned  to  his  men  to  come  up.  When 
they  had  come,  both  he  and  they  knelt  down  and 
poured  forth  their  thanks  to  God.  lie  tlien  ad- 
<lressed  them.  .  .  .  Having  ,  .  .  addressed  his 
men,  Vasco  Xuiicz  jiroceeded  to  take  formal 
possession,  on  behalf  of  the  kings  of  Castile,  of 
the  sea  and  of  all  that  was  in  it;  and  in  order  to 
make  memorials  of  the  event,  ho  cut  down  trees, 
formed  cnxsses,  and  heaped  up  stones.  IIi^  also 
inscribed  the  names  of  ihe  monaichs  of  Castile 
upon  great  trees  in  the  vicinity."  Afterwards, 
when  he  had  descended  the  western  slope  and 
found  the  shore,  "  he  entered  tiie  sea  np  to  his 
thighs,  having  his  sword  on,  and  with  his  shield 
in  liis  hand ;  then  he  called  the  l)y-stan<iers  to 
witness  how  he  touched  witli  his  person  and  took 
jiossession  of  this  sea  for  the  kings  of  Castile,  anil 
declared  tliat  he  woidd  defenif  the  possession  of 
it  against  all  comers.  After  this,  Vasco  Nunez 
made  friends  in  the  usual  manner,  first  conquer- 
ing and  tlien  negotiating  with  "  the  several  chiefs 
or  caciqties  whoso  territories  came  in  his  way. 
He  explored  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  finding 
much  wealth  of  pearls  in  the  region,  and  re- 
turned to  Darien  by  a  route  which  crossed  the 
isthmus  considerably  farther  to  the  north,  reach- 
ing his  colony  on  the  29th  of  January,  1514,  hav- 
ing been  absent  nearly  five  months.  "  lli.s  men 
at  Darien  received  him  with  exultation,  and  }ie 
lost  no  time  in  sending  his  news,  '  sucli  sigr.il 
and  new  news,'  ...  to  the  King  of  Spain,  nc- 
companying  it  with  rich  presenis.  His  letter, 
which  gave  a  del  ailed  account  of  his  journey, 
and  which,  for  its  length,  was  compared  by 
Peter  JIartyr  to  the  celebrated  letter  that  came 
to  the  senate  from  Tiberius,  contained  in  every 
page  thanks  to  God  that  he  liad  escaped  from 
such  great  dangers  and  labours.  Both  the  letter 
and  the  presents  were  intrusted  to  a  man  named 
Arbolanche,  who  depr  -ted  from  Darien  about  the 
beginning  of  March,  t514.  .  .  .  Vasco  Nunez's 
messenger,  Arbolanche,  leacliod  the  court  of 
Spain  toolatn  for  his  master's  interests."  Tlio 
hitter  Imd  already  been  superseded  in  the  Gov- 
ernor.shin,  and  his  successor  was  on  the  way  to 
take  his  authority  from  him.  The  new  gover- 
nor was  one  Pedraria.s  Do  Aviln,  or  Davila,  ns 
the  n.imo  is  sometimes  written;— an  envious  and 
inalignant  eld  man,  under  whoso  rule  on  the 
isthmus  the  destructive  energy  of  Spanish  con- 
quest rose  to  its  meanest  and  most  heartless  and 
brainless  development.  Conspicuously  exposed 
as  lie  was  to  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  Pedra- 


rias,  Vasco  Nuflez  was  probably  doomed  to  ruin, 
in  some  form,  from  IIk^  first.  At  one  time,  in 
1510,  there  seemed  to  be  a  proini.se  for  him  of 
alliance  with  his  all-powerful  enemy,  by  a  mar- 
riage with  one  of  the  governor's  daughters,  and 
he  received  the  comiiiaiid  of  an  expedition  which 
again  crossed  the  isllimus,  carrying  ships,  and 
began  the  exploration  of  the  Pacific.  Hut  cir- 
eiimstanCt'S  soon  arose  whicli  ga\e  Pedrarias  an 
opportunity  to  accu.se  the  exiilore.'of  trea.soniiblc 
designs  and  to  accomplish  his  arrest  —  Francisco 
Pizarro  being  tlic  otiicer  fitly  charged  with  the 
execution  of  the  governor's  warrant.  Brought 
in  chains  to  Aria,  Vasi'o  Nunez  was  suiiiinarily 
tried,  found  guilty  and  led  forth  to  swift  death, 
laying  his  head  iijion  the  block  (.V.  D.  1517). 
"Thus  perished  Viisco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  in  the 
forty-second  year  of  his  age,  tlie  man  who,  since 
the  time  of  Columbus,  had  shown  the  most  states- 
manlike and  wariiorliko  powers  in  that  part  of 
the  world,  but  whose  career  only  too  much  re- 
sembles that  of  Ojeda,  Nicuesa,  and  the  other  un- 
fortunate commaiiikrs  who  devastated  those 
beautiful  regions  of  the  earth."  —  Sir  A.  Helps, 
Spaninh  Conquest  in  Am.,  bk.  6  (p.  1). —  "If  I 
have  npplietf  strong  terms  of  denunciation  to 
Pcdraias  Davila,  it  is  because  ho  unquestionably 
deserves  it.  lie  is  by  far  the  worst  man  who 
came  oflicially  to  the  Now  World  during  its 
early  government.  In  this  all  authorities  agree. 
And  all  agree  that  Vasco  Nunez  was  not  deserv- 
ing of  death."— II.  H.  Bancroft,  IlUt.  offhcPcusi- 
fic  StaUs,  V.  1,  ch.  8-12  (foot-note,  p.  458). 

Ai.so  IN  AV.  Ir.'ing,  Life  and  Voyages  of  Col- 
unibiis  and  ?ii,i  Companinn.i,  v.  3. 

A.  D.  1515.- Discovery  of  La  Plata  by 
Juan  de  Solis.  See  Pakaih  ay:  A.  I).  151,")- 
1557. 

A.  D.  1517-1518.— The  Spaniards  find 
Mexico. — "An  hidalgo  of  Cuba,  named  Her- 
nandez de  Cordova,  sailed  with  three  vessels  on 
an  expedition  to  one  of  the  neighbouring 
Bahama  Islands,  in  quest  of  Indian  slaves  (Feb. 
8,  1517).  Ho  encountered  a  succession  of  heavy 
gales  whicli  drove  him  far  out  of  his  course,  and 
at  tlie  end  of  three  weeks  he  found  himself  on  a 
strange  and  unknown  coast.  On  lauding  and 
asking  the  name  of  the  country,  he  was  answered 
by  the  natives  'Tectelan,'  meaning  'I  do  not 
understand  you,'  but  which  tlio  Spaniards,  mis- 
interpreting into  the  name  of  the  place,  easily 
corrupted  into  Yucatan.  Some  writers  give  a 
dllTerent  ct_>mology.  .  .  .  Bernal  Diaz  says  the 
word  came  from  the  vegetable  '  yuca '  and  '  tale,' 
the  name  for  a  hillock  ia  which  it  Is  planted. 
.  .  .  !M.  Waldeck  finds  a  much  more  plausible 
derivation  in  the  Indian  word  '  Oiiyouckatan,' 
•listen  to  what  they  say.'.  .  ,  Cordova  had 
landed  on  the  north-eastern  end  of  the  peninsula, 
at  CapoCatoche.  He  was  astonished  at  the  size 
and  solid  materials  of  the  buildings  constructed 
of  stone  and  lime,  so  different  from  the  frail 
tenements  of  reeds  and  rushes  which  formed  the 
habitations  of  the  islanders.  He  was  .struck, 
also,  v.ith  the  higher  cultivation  of  the  soil,  aiul 
with  the  ilelicate  texture  of  the  cotton  garments 
and  gold  ornaments  of  the  natives.  Everything 
indicated  a  civilization  far  superior  to  anything 
he  had  before  witnessed  in  the  New  'World.  He 
saw  the  evidence  of  a  different  race,  moreover, 
in  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  people.  .  .  .  Where- 
ever  they  lunded  they  were  met  with  the  most 
deadly  hostility.     Cordova  liimself,  in  one  of  his- 


61 


AMERICA,  1517-1518. 


I'liliage  of 
Muyellan. 


A^IEIUCA,  Ijl9-lj.i4. 


gkinni.shcs  ".vitli  the  Iiiiliiiiis,  received  more  tliiiu 
11  dozen  woliiiils,  and  (iiit-  only  of  his  piirty 
escaped  unliurt.  At  leiij^ili,  wlien  he  liad 
coasted  llie  peninsula  as  far  us  C'anipeachy,  lie 
returned  to  Cuba,  wliieli  he  reached  ufler  an 
absi'nce  of  several  inontlis.  .  .  .  TIk-  reports  he 
had  hrouirht  hack  of  the  country,  and,  still  more, 
the  spi'ciiMens  <if  curiously  wrought  ;:old,  con- 
vinced Velasijuez  [L''overnor  of  Cuba]  of  the  ini- 
porlance  of  this  discovery,  and  ho  orepared 
with  all  despat<h  to  avail  I'imself  of  it.  lie 
aceor(lin),dy  litted  j)Ut  a  little  scpiadron  of  four 
vcssils  lor  the  newly  discovered  lands,  and 
I)laced  it  under  the  coininaiid  of  his  nei)he\v, 
.Juan  de  Grijalva,  a  man  on  whose  jirobity, 
prudence,  and  attachincnt  to  himself  lie  kianv 
lie  could  rely.  The  licet  left  the  jiort  of  St.  Jai^o 
de  Cuba,  May  1,  1.'518.  .  .  .  Grijalva  soon 
passed  over  to  tlic  continent  and  coasted  the 
peninsula,  touchin:^  at  the  same  places  us  his 
predecessor.  Kver3'where  ho  vas  struck,  like 
liiin,  with  the  e\ideiices  of  a  hiiflier  civilization, 
espe<nally  in  the  architecture;  as  ho  well  might 
he,  since  this  was  the  region  of  those  extraordi- 
nary remains  which  have  bcconio  recently  the 
subject  of  so  inucli  speculation.  IIo  was  aston- 
ished, also,  at  the  si.irlit  of  larjic  stone  crosses, 
evidently  objects  of  worship,  which  he  mot  with 
in  various  ]  daces,  ^{eiiiiiidcd  by  these  circum- 
stances of  his  own  country,  ho  gave  the  penin- 
sula the  name  Xew  Spain,  a  naiiio  since  ap- 
propriated to  a  much  wiiler  i-xteiit  of  territory. 
AVherever  Grijalva  landed,  he  experienced  the 
same  unfriendly  reception  as  Cordova,  though 
ho  sulTered  less,  being  better  i)ri'pared  to  meet 
it."  He  suecieded,  however,  at  last,  in  opening 
a  friendly  cont'ercnce  and  tralUn  with  one  of  tho 
chiefs,  on  the  l{io  do  Tabasco,  and  "  had  the 
satisfaction  of  receiving,  for  a  few  worihhss 
toys  JK  .1  trinkets,  a  rich  treasure  of  jewels,  gold 
ornaments  and  vessels,  of  the  r'.ost  fantastic 
forms  and  workini.nsliip.  Grijalva  now  tliought 
that  in  '  his  successful  trallic  —  successful  beyond 
his  most  sang'-ilne  cxiK'Ctations  —  he  had  accom- 
plished the  chief  object  of  his  mission."  He 
therefore  dis])atclicd  Alvarado,  one  of  his  cap- 
tains, to  Velas(iuez,  with  the  treasure  acquired, 
and  continued  his  voyage  along  the  coast,  as  far 
as  the  ])roviiue  of  Pauuco,  returning  to  Cuba  at 
the  enil  of  about  six  months  from  bis  departure. 
"On  reaching  the  Island,  he  was  surprised  to 
learn  that  unotlier  and  more  formidable  arma- 
ment had  !)een  tilted  out  to  follow  up  his  own 
discoveries,  and  to  lind  orders  at  tho  same  time 
from  the  go\'eriior,  couched  in  no  very  courieous 
langmiLre.  to  repair  at  once  to  St.  ,Iago,  He  was 
received  by  that  personage,  not  merely  with  cold- 
ness, but  with  reproaches,  for  having  neglected 
.so  fair  an  opportunity  of  establishing  a  colony  in 
the  country  lie  had  "visited." — W.  II.  I'roscott, 
Ctiiiijiiixt  "f  Mtxifii,  Ilk.  'J,  i-h.  1. 

Al.so  IN:  C.  St.  J.  I'ancourt.  Hut. of  Yiimtnn, 
ch.  l-i. — Heriial  Diaz  tiel  Castillo,  Memoirs,  v.  1, 
eh.  2- lit. 

A.  D.  1519-1524.— The  Spanish  Conquest  of 
Mexico,     Sec  ,Mk\ico:  .V.  1).  i.")l!t-l.V.'4. 

A.  D.  1519-152,,.— The  Voyage  of  Magellan 
and  Sebastian  del  Cano. — The  Nevy  World 
passed  and  the  Earth  circumnavigated. — The 
Congress  at  Badajos. — Fernando  Magellan,  or 
-Magalhaes,  was  "a  disalfected  Portuguese  gen- 
tleman w  ho  had  served  his  country  for  live  years 
iu  tho  Indies  under  Albuquerque,  and  uuderiituod 


well  the  secrets  of  tho  Eastern  trade.  Iu  1517, 
conjointly  with  his  geographical  and  astronomi- 
cal friend,  Kuy  Falorio,  another  unrequited  Por- 
tuguese, he  otferod  his  services  to  the  Simnlsli 
court.  At  the  same  time  these  two  friends  pro- 
jiosed,  not  only  to  prove  that  the  Moluccas  were  | 
within  the  Spanish  lines  of  demarkation,  but  to  I 
discover  a  jiassago  thither  dilTerent  from  that 
used  bv  the  Portuguese.  Their  schemes  were 
listened  to,  adojited  and  carried  out.  Tho  Straits 
of  Magellan  were  discovered,  the  broad  Soulii 
Sea  was  crossed,  tho  Ladrones  and  the  Phil- 
l!l)iiies  were  iiis])ected,  the  Jloluceas  wore  passed 
through,  tho  Ci.pe  of  Good  Hope  was  doubled 
on  the  homeward  voyage,  and  the  globe  was 
circuinnavigati'd,  all  'in'  less  than  thri'o  years, 
from  1.J19  tfp  1,")*2.  JIagellan  lost  his  life,  and 
only  one  of  his  live  ships  roturneil  [under  Sebiii- 
tian  del  Cano]  to  tell  the  marvelous  story.  The; 
magnitude  of  the  enterprise  was  etiualled  only 
by  the  magnitude  of  tho  results.  The  globe  for 
the  Urst  time  began  to  assume  its  true  character 
and  size  iu  tho  minds  of  men,  and  the  minds  of 
men  began  soon  to  grasp  and  utilize  tho  results 
of  this  circumnavigation  for  the  enlargement  of 
trade  and  commerce,  and  for  tho  benetit  of  geog- 
raphy, astronomy,  mathematics,  and  the  other 
sciences.  This  wonderful  story,  is  it  not  told  in 
a  thousand  books  ?  ,  ,  .  The  Portuguese  in  India 
and  the  Spiceries,  as  well  as  at  homo,  now  seeing 
the  inevitable  conflict  approaching,  were  thur- 
ouglily  aroused  to  the  im])ortaiice  of  inaintaiuiiig 
their  righl.s.  They  openly  asserted  them,  and 
Iironounced  this  trade  with  the  Moluccas  by  the 
Spanish  an  encroachment  ou  their  prior  discov- 
eries and  possession,  as  well  as  a  violation  of  the 
Papal  Compact  of  1494,  and  preiiared  theiuselves 
energetically  for  defense  aud  olTense.  Ou  the 
oilier  hand,  the  Spaniards  as  openly  declared 
that  jMagellan's  licet  carried  the  first  Christians 
to  tho  Moluccas  and  by  friendly  imercourso  wiili 
the  kings  of  those  islands,  reduced  tlieni  to  Chris- 
tian subjection  and  brought  back  letters  and 
tribute  to  Ca!sar.  Hence  these  kings  and  their 
people  came  under  tho  protection  of  Charles  Y. 
llesides  this,  the  Spaniards  claimed  that  the 
Moluccas  were  within  the  Spanish  half,  and  were 
therefore  doubly  theirs.  .  .  .  I'datters  thus  wax- 
ing hot.  King  John  of  Portugal  begged  Charles 
V.  to  delay  (lispatching  his  new  fleet  until  the 
disputed  points  could  bo  discussed  and  settled. 
Charles,  who  boasted  that  ho  had  rather  bo  right 
than  rich,  consented,  and  tho  ships  were  sinid. 
These  two  Christian  princes,  who  owned  all  the 
newly  discovered  and  to  be  discovered  parts  of 
the  whole  world  between  them  by  deed  of  gift 
of  tho  Pope,  agreed  to  meet  in  Congress  at 
Badajos  by  their  representatives,  to  discuss  and 
settle  all  matters  in  ilisputo  about  the  division  of 
their  patrimony,  and  to  dotiue  and  stake  out 
their  lands  and  waters,  both  parties  agroeiiiL'  to 
abide  by  the  decision  of  the  Congress.  Accord- 
ingly, iu  the  early  spring  of  1,524,  up  wont  to 
this  little  border  town  four-and-tweuty  wise 
men,  or  thereabouts,  chosen  by  each  prime. 
Thev  comprised  the  tirst  judges,  lawyers,  mathe- 
maticians, astronomers,  cosmogiapliers,  naviga- 
tors and  pilots  of  tho  land,  among  wlio.se  names 
were  many  honored  now  as  then — such  as  Fer- 
nando Columbus,  Sebastian  (Jabot,  Estovan 
Gomez,  Diego  lUbero,  etc.  .  .  .  Tho  debates  and 
proceedings  of  this  Congress,  as  reported  by  Peter 
Martyr,  Oviedo,  uud  Goiuura,  are  very  amusing. 


62 


AMERICA,  1519-1534. 


Voyages  of 
Verrdzano. 


AMERICxV,  1523-1524. 


hut  no  rpgu!iir  joint  decision  could  bo  ronchod, 
tlie  Portuguose  dcclininj;  to  subscrilx'  to  the  ver- 
dict of  tlio  Spmiiiirds,  inasmucli  iis  it  deprived 
tliem  of  tlio  .^lollU■Cll8.  So  eiieh  pnrty  pulilislicd 
nnd  proelainicd  its  own  decision  after  tlie  Con- 
gress brolio  up  in  eonfusion  on  the  last  day  of 
May,  l")3t.  It  was,  however,  tacitly  understood 
that  the  Moluccas  fell  to  Spain,  wliile  IJrazil,  to 
the  extent  of  two  hundred  leagues  from  Cape 
St.  Augustine,  fell  to  tlie  Portuguese.  .  .  . 
However,  much  good  resulted  from  this  tirst 
geographical  Congress.  The  extent  and  breadth 
of  the  Pacific  were  appreciated,  anil  tlie  inlluence 
of  the  Congress  was  soon  after  seen  in  the  greatly 
improved  maps,  globe<,  and  charts." — H.  .Ste- 
vens, //['«<.  aixl  (ieog.  Notes,  U.-jS-ISSO. — "For 
three  months  and  twenty  days  he  [.Mngellanl 
sailed  ou  the  Pacific  and  never  saw  inhabited 
land.  He  was  compelled  by  famine  to  strip  olt 
the  pieces  of  skin  and  leather  wherewith  his 
rigging  was  here  and  there  bound,  to  soak  them 
in  the  sea  nnd  then  soften  thera  with  warm 
water,  so  as  to  make  a  wretched  food;  to  cat  the 
sweepings  of  the  sliip  and  other  loathsome  mat- 
ter; to  drink  water  gone  putrid  by  keeping;  nnd 
yet  he  resolutely  held  on  his  course,  though  lii.s 
men  were  dying  daily.  ...  In  the  whole  his- 
tory of  human  undertakings  there  is  nothing  that 
exceeds,  if  indeed  there  is  anything  that  cciuals, 
this  voyage  of  Magellan's.  That  of  Columbus 
dwindles  away  in  comparison.  It  is  a  display  ot 
superhuman  courage,  superhuman  persever- 
ance."— J.  W.  Draper,  Iliat.  of  the  Intellectual 
Derclnpmcnt  of  Europe,  c!i,  16. — "The  voyage  [of 
Magellan]  .  .  .  was  doubtless  the  greatest  feat 
ot  navigation  that  has  ever  been  performed,  and 
nothing  can  he  imagined  that  would  surpass 
it  e.vcept  a  journey  to  some  other  planet.  It  has 
not  the  uni(|ue  historic  position  of  the  first  voy- 
age of  Columbus,  which  brought  together  two 
streams  of  human  life  that  had  been  di.sjoined 
.since  the  Glacial  Period.  But  nr,  an  nchieve- 
moiil  in  ocean  navigation  that  voyage  of  Colum- 
bus sinks  into  insignificance  by  the  side  of  it, 
and  when  the  earth  was  n  second  time  encom- 
passed by  the  greatest  English  sailor  of  his  age, 
tlie  advance  in  knowledge,  as  well  as  the  ditt'cr- 
ent  route  chosen,  had  much  reduced  the  difli- 
culty  of  the  performance  When  we  consider 
the  frailness  ot  the  ships,  the  immeasurable  ex- 
tent of  the  unknown,  the  mutinies  that  were 
prevented  or  quelled,  nnd  'ho  hardships  that 
were  endureil,  we  can  have  no  hesit.ition  in 
Speaking  of  Alagellan  as  the  prince  of  naviga- 
tors."— J.  Fiske,  T/ie  Discovery  of  America,  ch,  7 
(V.  2). 

Also  in  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderlev,  The  First 
Voyage  round  the  Worlil  (Ihkliiyt  S>c.,  1874). — 
U.  Kerr,  Collection  of  Voi/(i(/c.i.  v.  10. 

A.  D.  1519-1525.— The  Voyages  of  Garay 
and  Ayllon.— Discovery  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi.— Exploration  of  the  Carolina 
Coast. — In  l.")19,  Prancisco  do  Garay,  governor 
of  .laniaica,  '  '  •  had  been  one  of  the  companions 
of  Columhii  liis   second    voyage,   having 

heard  of  the  ss  and  beauty  of  Yucatan, 

"at  his  own  cU.i:  .sent  out  four  ships  well 
equipped,  nnd  with  -ood  pilots,  under  the  com- 
mand ot  Alvarez  Alonso  do  Pineda.  His  pro- 
fessed object  was  to  search  for  some  strait,  west 
of  Florida,  which  was  not  yet  certainly  known 
to  form  a  part  of  the  co'ntinent.  The  strait 
having  boon  sought  for  in  vain,  his  ships  turned 


toward    the    west. 


tho 


attentively    exnmining 
ports,   rivers,  inhabitants,  and    everything   efse 


fy   exnmmi 

, ,   ,   .       (1    everythii  „ 

that  seemed  worthy  of  remark;  and  especially 
noticing  the  vast  volume  of  wa'er  brought  down 
by  one  very  large  stream.  At  last  they  came 
upon  the  track  of  Cortes  near  Vera  Cruz.  .  .  . 
The  can'fully  <lrawn  map  of  the  jiilots  showed 
di.stinetly  tlie  Mississippi,  which,  in  this  earliest 
authentic  trace  of  its  outlet,  bears  the  name  of 
the  Espiritu  Santo.  .  .  .  Hut  Garay  thought  not 
of  the  Jlississippi  and  its  valley:  he  coveted 
necesa  to  the  wealth  of  Jlexico;  and,  in  \r>i'i, 
lost  fortune  and  life  ingloriously  in  a  dispute 
with  Cortes  for  the  governinei.t  of  the  country 
on  the  river  Painico.  A  voyage  'or  slaves 
brought  the  Spaniards  in  l.-iSO  still  farther  to  tho 
north.  A  coniiiany  ot  seven,  of  whom  tho  most 
distinguished  was  Lucas  V'asquez  do  Ayllon, 
fitted  out  two  slave  ships  from  St.  Dominc-o,  in 
quest  ot  laborers  for  their  i>lantations  nnd  mines. 
From  'C  Bahama  Islamls  they  passed  to  the  coiist 
of  South  Carolina,  whicli  was  called  Chicora. 
The  Combahee  river  received  tho  nrine  of 
Jordfin;  tho  name  of  St.  Helena,  whose  day  is 
the  18th  of  August,  was  given  to  a  cape,  but 
now  belongs  to  tho  sound."  Luring  a  largo 
number  of, tho  confiding  natives  on  board  their 
ships  the  adventurers  treacherously  set  sail  with 
them ;  but  jne  of  tho  vessels  foundered  at  sea, 
and  most  01  th.  'japtives  on  tho  other  sickened 
and  died.  Vasipiez  d3  Ayllon  was  rewarded  for 
his  treacherous  exploit  hy  being  authorize  1  and 
appointed  to  make  the  coiiqaest  of  Chicora. 
"For  this  bolder  enterprise  the  undertaker 
wasted  his  fortune  in  preparatiors;  in  1525  his 
largest  ship  was  stranded  in  the  river  Jordan; 
many  of  his  men  were  killed  by  the  natives;  uiul 
he  himself  escaped  only  to  suffer  from  the  con- 
sciousness of  having  done  nothing  worthy  of 
honor.  Yet  it  may  be  that  ships,  sailing  under 
his  nuthority,  made  the  discovery  of  the  Chesa- 
peake and  named  it  tlio  bay  of  St.  Miiry;  and 
perhaps  even  entered  the  bay  of  Delaware,  which, 
in  Spanish  geographv,  was  called  St.  Christo- 
pher's. "—G.  Bancroft,  Jlist.  of  the  U.  S.,  pt.  1, 
ch.  2. 

Also  in  II.  11.  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the  Pacifie 
States,  r.  4,  ch,  11,  ami  v.  5,  eh.  G-7. — W.  G. 
Simms,  Ilist.of  S.  (jirolina,  bk:  1,  ch.  1. 

A.  D.  1523-1524.  —  The  Voyages  of  Verra- 
zano.  —  First  undertakings  of  France  in  the 
New  Vw  orld.  —  "IL  is  constantly  admitted  in  our 
history  that  our  kings  paid  no  attention  to  Amer- 
ica before  the  year  1523.  Then  Francis  I.,  wisli- 
iiig  to  excite  tho  emulation  of  his  subjects  in 
li'^'.-.rd  to  navigation  and  comnnrce,  as  he  had 
already  so  successfully  in  regara  i.  the  sciences 
I  lid  fine  arts,  ordered  .John  Verazani,  who  was  in 
his  service,  to  go  and  explore  the  New  Lands, 
which  began  to  bo  much  talked  of  in  France. 
.  .  .  Verazani  was  accordingly  sent,  in  1.52.1,  with 
four  ships  to  discover  North  America ;  but  our 
historians  have  not  spoken  of  his  first  expedition, 
and  wo  shouU'  bo  in  ignorance  of  it  now,  luul 
not  Itainusio  /reserved  in  his  great  collection  a 
letter  of  Vera,  ani  himself,  addi  'ssed  to  Francis  1. 
and  dated  D  'ppe,  .July  8,  1524.  In  it  ho  sup- 
poses the  ki.ig  already  informed  of  tho  success 
and  details  of  the  voyage,  so  that  ho  contents 
himself  with  stating  that  he  sailed  from  Dieppe 
in  four  vessels,  which  he  had  safely  brought  back 
to  that  port.  In  January,  1524,  he  sailed  with 
two  shljis,  the  Dauphine  and  the  Normande,  to 


63 


AMERICA,  1523-1524. 


Viscovery  of 
I-etru. 


AilElUCA,  1524-152S. 


cruise  against  the  Spiiuiiirds.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  siiine  your,  (ir  larly  in  tlii'  next,  lie  nijiiiii 
flltwl  out  the  Duupliiiii',  on  which,  einbiirking 
with  50  Mien  iiml  provisions  for  ei^ht  niontlis,  lie 
first  Kiiiled  to  tlie  isliuul  of  MiKlcini." — Fiilhcr 
(,'hiirlevoi.x,  JM.  of  Stw  Frauee  (I runs.  Iii/ J.  (I. 
Slu,i).  bk.  1.—  "On  the  17lli  of  .lanuiiry,  1.524.  he 
[V'critiziiiio]  parted  from  the 'Islas  dosiertas.'a 
well-known  little  group  of  islands  near  Jladeira, 
and  sailed  at  first  westward,  running  in  25  days 
500  leafiues,  with  a  light  and  pleasant  easterly 
breeze,  nlonjf  the  norlliern  liorder  of  the  trade 
winds,  in  aliout  30^  N.  His  track  was  conse- 
quently nearly  like  tliat  of  I'oUiinbus  on  his  liist 
voyage.  On  the  1 1th  of  February  he  met  '  with 
as  violent  u  liiirritnne  as  any  ship  ever  en- 
countered.' But  he  weathered  "it,  and  pursued 
his  voyage  to  the  west,  '  with  a  little  deviation 
to  the  north;'  when,  after  having  sailed  2-1  days 
and  400  leagues,  he  descried  a  new  country  which, 
as  he  suppoHi'd,  had  never  before  been  seen 
either  by  modern  or  ancient  navigators.  The 
country  was  very  Inw.  From  the  above  des- 
cription it  is  evident  that  Verrazauo  came  in 
siglil  of  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States  about 
the  lOlli  of  .March,  1.524.  He  places  his  land-fall 
in  31°  X.,  whicli  is  the  latitude  of  Cape  Fear." 
lie  tirst  sailed  southward,  for  about  50  leagues, 
ho  states,  looking  for  a  harbor  and  finding  none. 
lie  then  turned  northward.  "I  infer  that  V^'iia- 
zano  saw  little  of  the  coa.st  of  South  Carolina 
and  notliing  of  that  of  Georgia,  and  that  in  these 
regions  he  can,  at  most,  be  called  the  discoverer 
only  of  the  coast  of  North  Carolina.  ...  lie 
rounded  Capo  llattcras,  and  at  a  distance  of  about 
50  leagues  came  io  another  shore,  where  ho  an- 
chored and  sp  nt  several  days.  .  .  .  This  was 
the  second  principal  landing-place  of  Veriazano. 
If  wo  reckon  50  leagues  from  Capo  Ilatteras,  it 
would  fall  scanewhere  upon  tlie  east  coast  of  Del- 
aware, in  latitude  38°  N.,  where,  by  some 
authors,  it  is  tliouglit  to  have  been.  But  if,  as 
appears  most  likely,  Verrazano  reckoned  his  dis- 
tance here,  as  he  iliil  in  other  cases,  from  his  last 
anchoring,  and  not  from  Cape  Ilatteras,  we  must 
look  for  his  second  landing  somewhere  south  of 
the  entrance  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  near  the  en- 
trance to  Albemarle  Sound.  And  this  better 
agrees  with  the  'sail  of  100  leagues'  which  Ver- 
razano says  he  made  from  his  second  to  his  third 
landing-place,  in  New  York  Bay.  .  .  .  lie  found 
at  this  third  lauding  station  an  excellent  berth, 
where  he  came  to  anchor,  well-protected  from 
the  winds,  .  .  .  and  from  ■which  he  ascended 
the  river  in  his  boat  into  the  interior.  He  foun(l 
the  shores  very  thickly  settled,  and  as  he  passed 
up  half  a  league  further,  ho  discovered  a  most 
beautiful  lake  ...  of  three  leagues  in  circum- 
ference. Here,  more  than  30  canoes  came  to  him 
witli  a  multitude  of  people,  who  seemed  very 
friendly.  .  .  .  This  description  contains  several 
accounts  whicli  make  it  still  more  clear  that  the 
Bay  of  New  York  was  the  scene  of  these  occur- 
rences."— Verrazano'a  anchorage  having  been  at 
Gravesend  Bay,  the  river  which  ho  entered  being 
the  Narrows,  and  the  lake  he  found  being  the 
Inner  Harbor.  From  New  York  Bay  Verrazano 
s!iiled  eastward,  along  the  southern  shore  of 
Long  Island,  and  following  the  New  England 
coast,  touching  at  or  describing  points  which  are 
identified  with  Narragansett  Bay  and  Newport, 
Block  Island  or  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  Ports- 
mouth.    His  coasting  voyage  was  pursued  as  far 


a.s  SO"'  N.,  from  which  point  he  sailed  homeward. 
"He  entered  the  [xjrl  of  Dieppe  early  in  July, 
1524.  His  whole  exploring  expedition,  from 
Madeira  and  back,  had  accordingly  lasted  but 
tiveand  ah.ilf  months." — .1.  O.  Kohl,  llht.  of  the 
Diiteuvenj  af  Muiius  (Me.  Hint.  Soc.  Coll.,  2d  Series, 
V.  1),  eh.  8. 

Also  i.n  O.  Dexter,  Cortcreal,  Verrazano,  tie. 
{Xdrnitire  and  Critical  Hist,  of  Am.,  v.  4,  ch.  1). 
—  Ilclatioii  of  Verrazano  (A'.  }"".  lliat.  Sue.  Coll., 
r.  1,  and  A'!  S.,  v.  1). — J.  C.  hrt-vooTt,  Verrazano 
the  A'ariyator. 

A.  D.  1524-1528. — The  Explorations  of 
Pizarro  and  Discovery  of  Peru.  —  "Tlie  Soiitli 
Sea  having  lieeu  di.seovercd,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Tierra  Finne  having  been  conquered  and 
pacified,  the  Governor  Pedrarias  de  Avila 
founded  and  settled  the  cities  of  Panama  and  of 
Nata,  and  the  town  of  Nombre  do  Dios.  At  this 
time  the  Captain  Francisco  Pizarro,  son  of  the 
Captain  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  u  knight  of  the  city  of 
Truxillo,  was  living  in  the  city  of  Panama; 
possessing  his  house,  bis  farm  and  his  Indians, 
as  one  of  the  principal  people  of  the  land,  which 
indeed  lie  always  was,  having  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  conquest  and  settling,  and  in  the 
service  of  his  Majesty.  Being  at  rest  and  in  re- 
pose, but  full  of  zeal  to  continue  his  labours 
and  to  perform  other  more  distinguished  services 
for  the  royal  crown,  he  .sought  permission  from 
Pedrarias  to  discover  that  coast  of  the  South 
Sea  to  the  eastward.  He  spent  a  large  part  of 
his  fortune  on  a  good  ship  which  ho  built,  and 
on  necessary  supplies  for  the  voyage,  and  he  set 
out  from  the  city  of  Panama  on  the  14th  day  of 
the  in<mth  of  November,  in  the  year  1524.  lie 
had  112  Spaniards  in  his  company,  besides  some 
Indian  servants.  He  commenced  a  voyage  in 
which  they  suffered  many  hardships,  the  season 
being  winter  and  impropitious. "  From  this 
unsuccessful  voyage,  during  which  many  of  his 
men  died  of  hunger  and  disease,  and  in  tlie 
course  of  which  ho  found  no  country  that 
tempted  his  cupidity  or  his  ambition,  Pizarro  re- 
turned after  some  months  to  "the  laud  of 
Panama,  landing  at  an  Indian  village  near  the 
island  of  Pearls,  called  Chuehaina.  Thence  he 
sent  the  shii)  to  Panama,  for  she  had  become  un- 
sea worthy  by  reason  of  the  teredo;  and  all  that 
had  befallen  was  reported  to  Pedrarias,  while 
the  Captain  remained  behind  to  refresh  himself 
aud  his  companions.  When  the  ship  arrived  at 
Panama  it  was  found  that,  a  few  days  before, 
the  Captain  Diego  de  Almagro  had  sailed  in 
search  of  the  Captain  Pizarro,  his  companion, 
with  another  ship  and  70  men."  Almagro  and 
his  party  followed  the  coast  until  they  came  to 
a  great  river,  which  they  called  San  Juan  [a  few 
miles  north  of  the  port  of  Buenaventura,  in  New 
Granada].  .  .  .  They  there  found  signs  of  gold, 
but  there  being  no  traces  of  the  Captain  Pizarro, 
the  Captain  Almagro  returned  to  Chucharaa, 
where  he  found  his  comrade.  They  agreed  that 
the  Captain  Almagro  should  go  to  Panama,  re- 
pair the  ships,  collect  more  men  to  continue  the 
enterprise,  and  defray  the  expenses,  which 
amounted  to  more  than  10,000  castellanos.  At 
Panama  much  obstruction  was  caused  by 
Pedrarias  and  others,  who  said  that  the  voyage 
should  not  be  persisted  in,  and  that  his  Majesty 
would  uot  be  served  by  it.  The  Captain  Alma- 
gro, with  the  authority  given  him  by  his  com- 
rade, was  very  constant  in  prosecuting  the  work 


04 


AMEIUCA,  1534-1528. 


Cnrtier  in  Ihe 
at.  Lawrence. 


AMEllICV,  1534-1535. 


he  liiid  commenced,  iiiid  .  .  .  Pedraria8  was 
forceil  to  allow  him  to  eiignse  men.  lie  set  out 
from  Pannmii  wllli  110  men;  and  went  to  tlio 
I'lace  where  Pi/.arro  waited  with  nnollier  50  of 
the  llrst  110  who  sailed  with  him,  and  of  llie  70 
wlio  accompanied  Almagro  when  lie  went  in 
search.  The  other  130  were  dead.  Tlu^  two 
cajitains,  in  their  two  hliips,  sailed  witli  UiO  men, 
anil  coasted  along  the  land.  When  they  thought 
they  saw  signs  of  lial)italions,  they  went  on 
slioVe  in  three  canoes  tliey  had  with  tiiem,  rowed 
by  1(0  men,  and  so  they  sought  for  provisions. 
Tliey  continued  to  sail  in  this  way  for  three 
years,  sulfering  great  hardships  from  hunger 
and  cold.  The  greater  part  of  the  crews  died  of 
hunger,  insomucli  that  there  were  not  50  surviv- 
ing, ami  during  all  tliose  three  years  they  dis- 
covered no  good  land.  All  was  swamp  and  in- 
imdated  country,  without  inhabitants.  The 
good  coimtry  they  <liscovere(l  was  as  far  as  the 
river  San  .Inan,  where  the  Captain  Pi/.arro  re- 
mained with  the  few  survivors,  sending  a  cap- 
tain with  the  smaller  ship  to  discover  some  good 
land  further  along  the  coast.  He  sent  the  other 
ship,  with  the  Captain  Diego  de  Almagro  to 
Panama  to  get  more  men."  At  the  end  of  70 
days,  the  cxjiloring  ship  came  l)ack  with  good 
reports,  and  with  specimens  of  gold,  silver  and 
cloths,  found  in  a  country  further  south.  "As 
soon  as  the  Captain  Almagro  arriveil  from 
Panama  with  a  ship  laden  with  men  and  horses, 
the  two  shii)s,  with  their  conuuanders  and  all 
their  peo])le,  set  out  from  the  river  San  .Inan,  to 
go  to  that  newly-discovered  land.  But  the 
navigation  was  dilllcult:  they  were  detained  so 
long  that  the  provisions  were  exhausted,  and  the 
people  were  obliged  to  go  on  shore  iu  search  of 
supplies.  lie  ships  reached  the  bay  of  San 
Mateo,  and  M)me  villages  to  which  the  Spaniards 
gave  the  name  of  Santiago.  Next  they  came  to 
the  villages  of  Tacamez  [Atacames,  on  the  coast 
of  modern  Kcnador],  on  the  sea  coast  further 
on.  These  villages  were  seen  by  the  Christians 
to  bo  largo  and  well  peoi)led:  and  when  90 
Spaniards  had  advanccil  a  league  bcj'ond  the 
villages  of  Tacamez,  more  than  10,000  Indian 
warriors  enconntereil  them ;  but  seeing  that  the 
Christians  intended  no  evil,  and  did  not  wish  to 
take  their  goods,  but  rather  to  treat  them  peace- 
fully, with  much  love,  the  Indians  desisted  Irom 
war.  In  this  laud  there  were  abundant  supplies, 
and  tlie  people  led  well-ordered  lives,  the  vil- 
lages having  their  streets  and  squares.  One 
village  liad  more  than  2,000  houses,  and  others 
were  smaller.  It  seemed  to  the  captains  and  to 
the  other  Spaniards  that  nothing  could  be  done 
in  that  lard  by  reason  of  the  smallncss  of  their 
luunbera,  which  rendered  them  uuablu  to  cope 
with  the  Indians.  So  they  agreed  to  load  the 
ships  with  the  supplies  to  be  found  in  the 
villages,  imd  to  return  to  an  island  called  Gallo, 
where  they  would  be  safe  until  the  ships  arrived 
at  Panama  with  the  news  of  what  liad  been  dis- 
covered, and  to  apply  to  the  Governor  for  more 
men,  in  order  that  the  Captains  might  bo  able  to 
continue  their  undertaking,  and  conquer  tlic 
land.  Captain  Almagro  went  in  the  Rhips. 
Many  persons  had  written  to  the  Governor 
entreating  him  to  order  the  crews  to  return  to 
Panama,  saying  that  it  was  impossible  to  endure 
more  hardships  than  they  had  suffered  during 
the  lust  three  years.  The  Governor  ordered  that 
all  those  who  wished  to  go  to  Panama  might  do 


80,  wliile  tliose  who  desired  to  continue  the  <lis- 
coveries  were  at  liht  rty  to  remain.  Sixteen  men 
stayed  with  Pi/.arro,  and  all  the  rest  went  back 
in  the  ships  to  Panama.  The  Captain  Pizarro 
was  on  that  island.for  live'  months,  when  oiu)  of 
the  ships  returned,  iu  which  he  continued  the 
discoveries  for  a  hundred  leagues  further  down 
the  coast.  They  found  many  villages  anil  great 
riches;  and  they  brought  away  more  specimens 
of  gold,  silver,  and  ('lotlis  than  had  been  foiuul 
before,  which  were  presented  by  the  natives. 
The  Captain  returned  becau.se  the  time  graiUed 
by  the  governor  had  expired,  anil  the  last  day 
of  the  jieriod  had  been  rc;iclieil  wlit  n  he  entered 
the  port  of  Panama.  The  two  Captains  were  so 
ruined  that  they  could  no  longer  prosecute  their 
undertaking.  .  .  .  The  Captain  Francisco  Pi/.arro 
was  only  able  to  borrow  a  little  more  than  l.lKJO 
<astellanos  anioi.g  his  friends,  with  which  sum 
he  went  to  Ca.stile,  and  gave  an  account  to  his 
Majesty  of  the  great  and  signal  services  he  had 
l)erformed." — V.  de  Xeres  (Sec.  of  Pi/.arro),  Ac- 
fiiKiil  iif  ihc  I'mriiii-i' I'f  Ciuco  ;  ti:  and  ctl.  hi/  G. 
Ji.  MarklutmAlliildiiu't  S/c,  1872). 

Also  in:  W.  II.  Prcseott,  JfUt.  of  the.  Conquett 
ofl'a-n,  bk.  3,  cli.  2-4  (<■.  1). 

A.  D.  1525. — 'Ihe  Voyage  of  Gomez.  Sec 
Canao.v  (Nkw  Fii.vNiK):  Tui;  N.\mks. 

A.  D.  1526-1531.  —  Voyage  of  Sebastian 
Cabot  and  attempted  colonization  of  La  Plata. 
See  P.vii.voiAv:  A.  D.  1515-1. "i.")7. 

A.  D.  1528-1542. — The  Florida  Expeditions 
of  Narvaezand  Hernando  de  Soto. — Discovery 
of  the  Mississippi.  See  Plouida:  A.  D,  1528- 
1542. 

A.  D.  1531-1533. —  Pizarro's  Conquest  of 
Peru,  See  Pi;ni  :  A.  I).  1.52«-1.5;J1,  and  1.5:!1- 
1533. 

A.  D.  1533. — Spanish  Conquest  of  the  King- 
dom of  Quito.     See  EciADoit. 

A.  D.  1534-1535.— Exploration  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  Montreal  by  Jacques  Cartier. — 
"At  last,  ten  years  after  [the  voyages  of  Verra- 
zano],  Philip  Cliabot,  Admiral  of  France,  induced 
the  king  [Francis  I.]  to  resume  the  project  of 
founding  a  French  colony  in  the  Xew  World 
whence  the  Si)aniards  daily  drew  such  great 
wealth ;  and  he  i)resented  to  him  a  Captain  of  St. 
JIalo,  by  name  Jacijues  Cartier,  wliose  merit  lie 
knew,  and  whom  that  prince  accepteil.  Cartier 
having  received  his  instructions,  left  St.  Malo  tho 
2d  of  April,  1534,  with  two  ships  of  00  tons  and 
123  men.  He  steered  west,  inclining  slightly 
north,  and  liad  such  fair  winds  that,  on  the  10th 
of  Jlay,  he  niad(!  Cape  Bonavista,  in  Newfound- 
land, at  46'^  north.  Cartier  found  the  land  there 
still  covered  witli  snow,  and  the  shore  fringed 
with  ice,  so  that  lie  could  not  or  dared  not  stop. 
He  ran  down  six  degrees  south-southeast,  and 
entered  a  port  to  whicli  he  gave  the  name  of  St. 
Catharine.  Thence  he  turned  back  north.  .  .  , 
After  making  almost  the  circuit  of  Newfound- 
land, though  without  being  able  to  satisfy  him- 
self that  it  was  an  island,  he  took  a  southerly 
course,  crossed  the  gulf,  approached  the  conti- 
nent, and  entered  a  very  deep  bay,  where  ho 
si'ffered  greatly  from  heat,  whence  he  called 
it  Chaleurs  Baj'.  He  was  charmed  with  the 
beauty  of  'ho  country,  and  well  pleased  with  tho 
Indians  that  he  met  and  with  whom  ho  ex- 
changed some  goods  for  furs.  ...  On  leaving 
this  bay,  Cartier  visited  a  good  part  of  the  coasts 
around  the  gulf,  and  took  possession  of  the  couu- 


AMKIUCA,   l.VU-ir.3r). 


Canada. 


AMEIUCA,  IMl-lOOU. 


try  In  the  iiiimc  of  llir  must  Cliiistimi  kinp,  as 
ViTii/iiiii  had  <Iiini'  in  all  llii'  places  wliciv  he 
liinilcil.  Ill-  sit  sail  au'airi  mi  the  l-ltli  of  August 
U)  rctmii  111  Kraniv,  aial  rcachi'd  St.  Malo  safely 
on  tlii^  .')th  of  Bi'plcnihcr.  .  .  .  On  the  report 
wliiih  he  iiia(l(!  of  liis  voyage,  the  cotirt  eoii- 
clndeil  that  it  would  he  useful  to  Kraiice  to  have 
a  set  I  lenient  in  that  part  of  America;  tmt  no  one 
lool<  this  affair  more  to  heart  than  the  Vice- 
Atlmiial  (Miarlrsde.Mony,  Sieiirde  la  Mailleniye. 
This  iiolile  olitaineil  u  new  commission  for  Car- 
tier,  more  ample  than  the  first,  and  fravc  him 
three  ships  well  cc|uipped.  This  licet  was  ready 
about  llie  middle  of  .May,  and  {'artier  .  .  .  cm- 
barkiil  on  Wednesday  the  lOth."  Ilis  tlin'O 
vessels  were  se|)ariited  by  violent  storms,  hut 
found  one  anotlKT,  near  the  close  of  .Inly,  in  the 
gulf  which  was  their  appointed  place  of  rendez- 
vous. "On  the  1st  of  All  trust  had  w  eat  lier  drove 
hllii  to  take  refuge  in  the  port  of  St.  Nicholas,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  on  the  north.  Here  Car- 
tier  planted  a  cross,  with  thi'arnisof  France,  and 
remained  until  the  7tli.  This  port  is  almost  the 
only  spot  ill  Canada  that  1ms  kept  the  name 
given  hy  Ciirtier.  .  .  .  On  the  10th  the  three 
vessels  re-entered  the  ;;ulf.  and  in  honor  of  the 
saint  whose  feast  is  cekhnited  on  that  day.  Car- 
tier  f:ave  the  jjulf  the  name  of  St.  Lawrence;  or 
ratlur  he  gave  it  to  a  bay  lyinj;  between  Anti- 
costi  Island  and  the  north  shore,  whence  it  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  i;ult  of  which  this  bay  is 
Imrt;  and  because  the  river,  bi-fore  that  called 
{iver  of  Canada,  empties  into  the  same  gulf,  it 
insensibly  aci|uircd  tlie  name  of  St.  Lawrenee, 
which  it  still  bears.  .  .  .  The  three  vessels  .  .  . 
aseciKled  the  liver,  and  on  the  1st  of  September 
they  entereil  the  river  Sagucnay.  Cartier  merely 
rcconnoilered  the  mouth  of  this  river,  and  .  .  . 
hastene<l  to  seek  a  port  where  his  vessels  might 
winter  in  safety.  Eight  leagues  above  I.sle  au.v 
C'oudres  he  found  another  much  larger  and  hand- 
somer island,  all  co.crcd  with  trees  and  vines. 
He  called  it  liacchus  Island,  but  the  name  has 
been  changed  to  Isle  d'Orlean.s.  The  author  of 
1li(^  relation  to  this  voya<^e,  printed  under  the 
mime  of  Cartier,  preti  mis  that  only  here  the 
country  tiegins  to  be  called  Canada,  liiit  he  is 
surely  mistaken;  for  it  is  certain  that  from  the 
earliest  times  the  Indians  gave  this  name  to  the 
whole  eouiiliy  along  the  river  <m  both  sides,  from 
its  mouth  to  the  Sagiien.iy.  From  Bacchus 
Island,  Cartier  proceeded  to  "a  little  river  which 
i.s  ten  leagues  off.  and  comes  f'om  the  north;  he 
called  it  I{ivii^re  de  SleCroi.x,  because  In:  entered 
it  on  the  l-llli  of  September  (Feast  of  the  K.xalta- 
tion  of  the  Holy  Cross);  but  it  is  now  commonly 
called  Iliviere  de  JaecpK's  Cartier.  The  day  after 
his  arrival  he  received  a  visit  from  an  Indian 
chief  named  Domiacona,  whom  the  author  of  the 
relation  of  that  voyage  styles  Lord  of  Canada. 
Cartier  treated  with  this  cjiief  l>y  means  of  two 
ludii.ns  whom  he  had  taken  to  France  the  year 
before,  and  who  knew  a  little  French.  They 
informcil  Domiacona  that  the  strangers  wished 
to  go  to  Ilochelaga,  which  seemed  to  trouble  him. 
Ilochelaga  was  a'  pretty  large  town,  situated  on 
an  island  now  km  -n  under  the  name  of  I.sland  of 
Montreal.  Cartier  had  heard  much  of  it,  and 
was  loth  to  return  to  France  without  seeing  it. 
Tlic  rea.son  why  this  voyage  troubled  Donnacona 
was  that  the  lieople  of  "ilochelaga  were  of  a  dif- 
ferent nation  fiom  his,  and  that  he  wished  to 
prolit  exclusively  by  the  advautivges  which  he 


hoped  to  derive  from  the  slay  of  the  French  in 
his  countrv."  Proceeding  with  one  vessel  to 
Lake  St.  I'ierrc,  atid  thence  in  two  boats.  Car 
tier  reached  HiKhelaga  Oct.  'J.  "The  shape  of 
the  town  was  round,  and  tlii'ee  rows  of  palisades 
inclosed  in  it  about  50  tunnel  shaped  cabins,  each 
over  OO  paces  long  and  14  or  15  wide.  It  was 
entered  by  a  single  gate,  above  which,  as  well 
as  along  the  first  palisade,  ran  a  kind  of  gallery, 
reached  by  ladders,  and  well  provided  with 
Iiieces  of  rock  and  pebbles  for  the  defence  of  the 
lilace.  The  inhabitants  of  the  town  sjioke  the 
Huron  language.  They  received  the  Frcncli 
very  well.  .  .  .  Cartier  visited  the  niountain  at 
the  foot  of  which  the  town  lay,  and  gave  it  the 
name  >f  Mont  Hoyal,  which  has  beccaiie  that  of 
the  wliole  Island  [Montreal].  From  it  he  dis- 
covered a  great  extent  of  country,  the  night  of 
which  charmed  him.  .  .  .  He  left  Ilochelaga  on 
the  fltli  of  October,  and  on  the  11th  arrived  at 
Sainte  Croi.x."  AVintering  at  this  place,  when' 
his  crews  siilTered  terribly  from  the  cold  and 
from  scurvy,  he  returned  to  France  the  following 
spring.  "  Some  authors  .  .  .  pretend  that  Car- 
tier,  disgusted  with  Canada,  dissuaded  tlie  king, 
his  master,  from  further  thoughts  of  it ;  and 
Cliamjilain  seems  to  have  been  of  that  opinion. 
I5ut  this  does  not  agree  with  what  Cartier  him- 
self says  in  Iiis  memoirs.  .  .  .  Cartier  in  vain 
extolled  the  country  which  ho  bad  di.seovered. 
His  small  returns,  and  the  wretched  condition  to 
which  his  men  hud  been  reduced  by  cold  and 
scurvy,  persuaded  most  that  it  wotdd  never  be 
of  any  use  to  France.  Great  stress  was  laid  on 
the  fact  that  he  nowhere  saw  any  appearance  of 
mines;  and  then,  even  more  than  now,  a  strange 
land  which  produced  neither  gokl  nor  silver  was 
reckoned  as  nothing." — Father  Cliarlevoi.x,  Jlixt. 
(if  ycin  Fraiire  (Inins.  In/  J.  0.  Shea),  hk._\. 

Also  in:  H.  Kerr,  Otiteml  Call,  of  ]oi)iu/ei>,  ]>t. 
2,  Ilk:  3,  f//.  12  (r.  0).— F.  X.  Oarneau,  Jlist.  of 
Ciiiiiiilii,  r.  1,  fli.  2. 

A.  D.  1535-1540. — Introduction  of  Printing 
in  Mexico.  See  I'ltiNTiMi,  ttc. :  A.  1).  l.");!."!- 
1700. 

A.  D.  1535-1550. — Spanish  Conquests  in 
Chile.     See  Cltil.i-::  A.  1).  1450-1724. 

A.  D.  1536-1538. — Spanish  Conquests  of 
New  Granada.  See  CoLo.MurAN  Statks:  A.  1). 
ir,;ni-ir.il. 

A.  D.  1541-1603. — Jacques  Cartier's  last 
Voyage.— Abortive  attempts  at  French  Colo- 
nization in  Canada. — "Jean  Francois  de  la 
Hoiiue,  lord  of  Hoberval,  a  gentleman  of  Picardy, 
was  the  most  earnest  and  energetic  of  tho.se  who 
desired  to  colonize  the  hinds  discovered  by 
Jac([ues  Cartier.  .  .  The  title  and  authority 
of  lieutenant-general  was  conferred  upon  him; 
his  rule  to  extend  over  Canada,  IIoc/iela;ca, 
Saguenay,  Newfoundland,  IViIe  Isle,  Carpon, 
Labrador,  La  Grand  Baye,  and  Baccalaos,  with 
the  delegated  rights  and  powers  of  tiio  Crown. 
This  patent  was  dated  the  15th  of  January, 
1.540.  Jacques  Cartier  was  named  second  iu 
command.  .  .  .  Jacques  Cartier  sailed  on  the 
28d  of  May,  1541,  having  provisioned  his  tieet 
for  two  years."  He  remained  on  the  St.  Ltiw- 
rence  until  the  following  June,  seeking  vainly 
for  the  fabled  wealth  of  the  land  of  Saguenay, 
finding  tlie  Indians  strongly  inclined  to  a 
treacherous  lio8lilit,v,  and  sulfering  severe 
hardsliips  during  tiic  winter.  Entirely  dis- 
couraged and  disgusted,  lie  abandoned  his  under- 


66 


AMERICA,  iMi-inoa 


Hairkim  and 

the  HUltv  Tfilite. 


AMERICA,  1S62-1507. 


taklriR  curly  in  the  Riinimcr  of  IMO,  mid  siiilcd 
for  Iionic.  Ill  the  roiid  of  St.  John's,  Ncwfoiiiiil- 
huicl,  Ciirticr  met  his  tiirdy  cliitf,  Hoherviil,  just 
coniinj,'  to  join  him;  but  no  pcrKUasion  could 
induce  the  disiippoinlcd  explorer  to  turn  ))iick. 
"To  iivoid  the  cliiinee  of  ;in  open  rupture  with 
Roherviil,  the  lieulenant  silently  weijihed  iinelior 
(iuriuf;  the  ninlit,  and  made  all  sail  for  France. 
Tills  in^florious  withdrawal  from  the  enterprise 
paraly/.ed  Rohcrval's  power,  and  deferred  the 
per..ianent  settlement  of  (iinada  for  generations 
iIk'II  unhorn.  Jacques  Cartier  died  soon  after 
his  return  to  Europe."  Roherval  proceeded  to 
Canada,  built  ii  fort  at  Ste  Croi.\,  four  lea^nes 
west  of  Orleans,  sent  back  two  of  his  three  ships 
to  Eranee,  and  remained  through  the  winter 
with  liis  colony,  havini;  a  troubled  lime.  There 
is  no  certain  accr)nnt  of  the  endini;  of  tli(!  enter- 
prise, but  it  ended  in  failure.  For  half  a  cen- 
tury afterwards  there  was  little  attemjjt  made 
by  the  French  to  eiiloni/e  any  jiart  of  New 
France,  though  the  French  tisheries  on  the  New- 
foundlaiHl  Uaiik  and  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Eawrcnec 
were  steadily  growini;  in  activity  and  import- 
ance. "  When,  after  tifty  years  of  civil  strife,  the 
strong  and  wi.se  sway  of  Henry  IV.  restoreil 
rest  to  troubled  France,  the  spirit  of  discovery 
again  aro.se.  Tin;  Mar(iuis  de  la  Hoche,  a  Breton 
gentleman,  obtained  from  the  king,  in  l.'iiJB,  a 
patent  granting  the  same  powers  that  l{ol)erval 
iind  posses.se(l. "  Hut  La  Roche's  undertaking 
proved  more  disaslrou.s  than  Roberval's  had  been. 
Yet.  there  lia<l  been  enough  of  successful  fur- 
trading  opened  to  stimulate  enterprise,  despite 
tliese  misfortunes.  "Private uilventurers,unpro- 
tected  by  any  special  privilege,  began  to  barter 
for  the  rich  peltrii'S  of  the  Canadian  hunters. 
A  wealthy  inerehant  of  St.  ^lalo,  named  Pont- 
grave,  was  the  boldest  and  most  successful  of 
these  traders;  lie  made  several  voyages  to  Ta- 
(loussae,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sagueiiay,  bringing 
bat'k  each  time  u  rich  cargo  of  rare  and  valuable 
furs."  In  1000,  Pontgravu  efTected  a  partner- 
ship with  one  Chauvin,  a  naval  captain,  vvlio 
obtained  a  patent  from  the  king  giving  him  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade;  but  Chauvin  died  in  1J03 
witlumt  having  succeeded  in  ostablisliing  even  a 
trading  post  at  Tiidoussac.  Dc  Chattc,  or  De 
Chastes,  governor  of  Dieppe,  succeeded  to  llie 
privileges  ol  Chauvin,  an<l  founded  a  company 
of  merchants  at  Rouen  [1003]  to  undertake  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  Can.ida.  It  was 
under  the  auspices  of  this  company  that  Samuel 
Cliamplain,  the  founder  of  New  France,  came 
upon  the  scene.— E.  Warburton,  The  Conquest  of 
CaiMila,  i\  1,  ch.  3-3. 

Also  in  :  F.  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France  in, 
the  Xetiy  World:  Champlain,  c' ,  1-2. 

A.  D.  1562-1567.— The  slave  trading  Voy- 
ages of  John  Hawkins.— Beginnings  of  Eng- 
lish Enterprise  in  the  New  World.— "Tlic 
history  of  English  America  begins  with  the 
three  slave-trading  voyages  of  John  Hawkins, 
luade  in  the  years  l-'JOS,  1.564,  and  1507.  Noth- 
ing that  Englishmen  had  done  in  connection 
with  America,  previously  to  those  vov.iges,  had 
any  result  worth  recording,  England  had 
known  the  New  World  nearly  seventy  j  ears,  for 
John  Cabot  reached  it  shortly  after  its  d"  Ty 
by  Columbus;  ami,  as  the  tidings  of  >ie  is- 
covery  spread,  many  English  .'idventurc 
crossed  the  Atlantic  to  the  A  merican  coast, 
as  years  passed,  and  the  cxe'.'teraent  of  ncvelty 


subsided,  the  English  voyages  to  America  had 
become  fewer  and  fewer,  and  at  length  ceased 
altogether.  It  is  easy  to  account  for  this. 
There  was  no  opening  for  con'(uest  or  plunder, 
for  the  Tudors  were  at  i)eace  with  tlie  Spanish 
sovereigns:  and  there  could  be  no  territorial 
occupation,  for  the  Papal  title  ;)f  S|iain  and 
Portugal  to  the  whole  of  the  new  continent 
could  not  be  disputed  by  CiitlMlie  England. 
No  trade  worth  having  existed  wi»h  the  natives; 
and  Spain  and  Portugal  kept  the  trade  with 
their  own  settlers  ill  their  own  hands.  ...  As 
the  plantalicms  in  America  grew  and  multiplied, 
the  demand  for  negroes  rapidly  increased.  The 
Spaniards  h.id  no  African  .settlements,  but  the 
Portuguese  had  many,  and,  with  the  aid  of 
French  and  English  adventurers,  'hey  procured 
from  these  settlements  slaves  enough  to  supply 
both  themselves  and  the  Siianiiirds.  Hut  tho 
Brazilian  plantations  grew  so  fast,  about  the 
middle  of  the  century,  that  they  absorbed  the 
entire  supiily,  and  the  Spanish  (  'onisl.s  knew 
not  where  to  look  for  negroes.  'I  penury  of 
slaves  in  llie  Spanish  Indies  hcciu  e  known  to 
the  English  and  French  captains  w  bo  frei|uented 
the  Guinea  coast;  and  John  Hawkins,  who  had 
been  engaged  from  boyhood  in  the  trade  with 
Spain  and  the  Canaries,  resolved  in  l.'iO'J  to  (ako 
a  cargo  of  negro  slaves  to  Hispiuiiola.  The 
little  squadron  with  which  he  executed  this 
project  was  the  lirst  English  scjuadron  which 
navigated  the  AVest  Indian  seas.  This  voyage 
opened  those  .seas  to  the  English.  Englaml  had 
not  yet  broken  with  Spain  and  tlie  law  excluding 
English  vessels  from  trading  with  th(i  Sjianisli 
colonists  was  not  strictly  enforced.  The  trade 
was  profitable,  and  Hawkins  found  no  dilliculty 
in  disiiosing  of  his  cargo  to  great  advantage.  A 
meagre  note  .  .  .  from  the  pen  of  Hakliiyt  con- 
tains .ill  that  is  known  of  the  first  American 
voyage  of  Hawkins.  In  its  details  it  must  have 
(closely  resembled  the  second  voyage.  In  tho 
first  voyage,  Jiowever,  Hawkins  had  no  occasioa 
to  carry  his  wares  further  than  three  ports  on 
the  northern  side  of  Ilisiianiola.  Thesi!  jiorts, 
far  ■:,\\i  f  from  San  Domingo,  the  capital,  were 
already  well  known  to  the  French  smugglers.  He 
did  not  venture  into  the  Caribbean  Sea;  and 
having  loaded  his  ships  with  their  return  cargo, 
he  made  the  best  of  his  way  back.  In  his 
second  voj'agc  ...  he  entered  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  still  keeping,  however,  at  a  safe  distance 
from  San  Domingo,  and  sold  his  slaves  on  the 
mainland.  This  voyage  was  on  a  much  larger 
scale.  .  .  .  Having  sold  his  slaves  in  the  conti- 
nental ports  [South  American],  and  loaded  his 
vessels  with  hides  and  other  goods  bought  with 
the  produce,  Hawkins  determined  to  strike  out  a 
new  patli  and  sail  home  with  the  Gulf-stream, 
which  would  carry  him  northwards  past  the 
shores  of  Florida.  Sparke's  narrative  .  .  . 
proves  that  at  every  jjoint  in  these  expeditions  the 
Engnsliman  was  following  in  tho  track  of  the 
French.  He  had  French  pilots  and  seamen  on 
board,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  one  at  least 
of  these  had  already  been  with  Laudonniere  in 
Florida.  The  French  seamen  guided  him  to 
Laudonniere's  settlement,  where  his  arrival  was 
nwX  oi)portune.  Thev  then  pointed  him  the 
way  by  the  coast  of  North  America,  then  uni- 
versally know  in  tho  mass  as  New  France,  to 
Newfoundland,  and  thence,  with  the  prevail- 
ing westerly  winds,  to  Europe,     This  was  tho 


m 


AMERICA,  \rm\rM7 


Drake's 
Viiyaijea. 


AMERICA,   1572-1,'580. 


pioneer  voyngf  made  l)y  Euglislimcn  nloiiR 
coasts  nftcrwiirils  famous  ia  liistory  tliroujili 
English  (oloni/.atiou.  .  .  .  The  extremely  iiit'i- 
estiiii?  narrative  .  .  .  given  .  .  .  from  tlie  ]i  mi 
of  Jolm  Sparlve,  one  of  Ilawliins'  i;ent'.,'men 
companions  .  .  .  contains  tlie  (irst  information 
conecrnini;  America  and  its  natives  wlilcli  avs 
puhlislied  in  ICngland  by  an  English  eye-wit- 
ness." Hawkins  planned  a  thiid  voyage  in 
l.^Ofl,  but  the  remonstrances  of  the  Spanish  king 
caused  him  to  he  sfopjied  Iiy  the  English  court. 
He  sent  out  his  ships,  ho  "ver,  and  they  came 
iKrnie  in  due  time  richly  freighted,  —  from  what 
source  is  not  known.  "In  another  year's  time 
the  aspect  of  things  liad  changed."  England 
was  venturing  into  war  with  Spain,  "and  Haw- 
kins was  now  able  to  execute  his  plans  without 
restraint,  lie  founded  a  permanent  fortified 
factory  mi  the  Guinea  cna-^t.  where  negroes 
might"  be  collected  all  the  V'  round.  Tlience 
lie  sailed  for  tlie  West  li  ■  a  third  time. 
Young  Francis  Drake  sailiii  with  him  in  com- 
niuiid  of  the  '.Judith,'  a  small  vessel  of  lifty 
tons."  The  voyage  )ia.!  a  pro'^ixTous  beginning 
and  a  disastrous  ending.  After  disposing  of 
most  of  their  slaves,  they  were  driven  by  storm.4 
to  take  refuge  in  the  Mexican  liort  of  Vera 
Cruz,  and  tliere  they  were  attacked  liy  a  Spanish 
1!<  et.  Dral*  in  the  ".Tudith"lind  I'lawkiiis  in 
.iiother  small  vessel  escajied.  iiut  ll,:'  latter 
was  overcrowded  with  men  ami  oliliged  to  ])ut 
hr"'  of  them  ashore  on  the  ..Mexican  coimt.  The 
majority  of  those  lift  on  board,  as  well  as  a 
majority  iif  Drake's  crew,  died  on  the  voyage 
liome,  and  it  was  a  miseniblt  remnant  that 
landed  in  Kngland,  in  .lamiary,  15(50. — E.  J. 
Payne,  Vnymja  nf  the  Eliznhctlian  Sumen  to 
Am.,  cli.  1. 

Also  in:  The  llmrkinn  Voi/iif/eii;  ed.  by  C.  1{. 
Marhhitm  {Iln/dni/t  Sic,  A".  57). — R.  Southey, 
Lici/i  iif  tht  Jlritixh  Ailiiiinilx.  i\  '.i. 

A.  b.  1572-1580. — The  Piratical  Adventures 
of  Drake  and  his  Er.rompassinf;  of  the  World. 
— "Erancis  Drake,  the  iirst  of  the  Kiiglish  I,uc- 
caneers,  was  one  of  the  twelve  childrvn  of  Ed- 
ward Drake  of  Tavistock,  in  Devonslnri  ,  a 
staunch  I'rotestant,  who  had  lied  his  native 
place  to  avoid  ])ersecutioii,  and  had  then  become 
a  ship's  chaplain  Drake,  like  Colun'.bus,  had 
been  a  seaman  by  profession  from  boyhood ;  and 
.  .  .  had  served  as  a  young  man,  in  conniiand 
of  the  .ludith,  under  Hawkins.  .  .  .  Haw- 
kins had  conlined  himself  to  smu-gling:  Drake 
advanced  from  this  to  piracy.  This  practice 
was  authorizt  .  liy  law  in  the  luitUUe  ages  for 
the  purpose  of  recoverii.g  debt.s  or  damag"S 
from  the  sulrjeets  of  another  natiim.  Tlej  Eng- 
lish, esjiec.  Uy  those  of  the  west  country,  were 
the  most  forinidable  pirates  in  the  woiid ;  and 
the  whole  nation  was  by  this  time  roused  a^  liust 
Sp.iiii,  in  coiisetiuunce  of  the  ruthless  war  waged 
against  I'rotestani^sn,  in  the  Netherlands  by 
Philip  II.  Drake  liad  accouuLs  of  his  own  to 
settle  with  the  Spaniards.  Tlunigli  Elizabeth 
had  not  declared  for  the  revolted  States,  ami 
imrsued  a  shifting  policy,  her  interests  and 
theirs  were  identical;  and  it  was  with  a  view 
of  cutting  oil  those  supjilies  of  gold  and  silver 
from  Aniericii  which  enabled  Philip  to  bribe 
politicians  and  pay  soldiers,  in  pursuit  of  his 
jiolicy  of  aggression,  that  the  famous  voyage 
was  autl)  irized  by  English  statesmen.  Drake 
had    receutlv  mailc  more  thuu  one  successful 


voyage  of  plunder  to  the  Araericnn  const."  In 
.July,  1573,  he  surprised  tlie  Spanish  town  of 
Nonibre  do  Dios,  which  was  tl'.e  shipping  port 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  Isthmus  f(n'  the 
treasures  of  Peru.  His  men  made  their  way 
into  the  royal  treasure-hou.sc.  where  they  laid 
hands  on  a"  heap  of  liar-silver,  70  feet  hmg,  10 
wide,  and  10  high;  but  Drake  himself  hail  re- 
ceiveil  a  wound  which  comixdlcd  the  pirates  to 
retreat  with  no  very  large  part  of  the  splendid 
booty.  In  the  winter  of  1578,  with  the  help  of 
the  runaway  slaves  on  the  Isthmus,  known  as 
Cimarroiics,  he  crossed  the  Isthnuis,  looked  on 
the  Pacific  ocan,  approached  witiiin  .=iglit  of 
the  city  of  Panama,  and  .va\  laid  a  transportatiou 
party  conveying  gold  to  ^sombre  de  Dios;  but 
was  disappointed  of  his  pn^y  by  the  excited  con- 
duct of  some  of  his  men.  When  he  saw,  on  this 
occasion,  the  great  ocean  be^-ond  th"  Isthnuis, 
"Drake  then  and  there  resolved  to  lie  the 
pioneer  of  England  in  the  Pacific;  and  on  this 
resolution  he  solemnly  besought  tlie  blessing  of 
God.  Nearly  four  years  elajised  before  it  was 
executed;  for  it  was  not  until  November,  1577, 
that  Drake  embarked  on  his  famous  voyage,  in 
the  cour.se  of  which  he  proposed  to  plunder  Pern 
itself.  The  Pcruviiin  ports  were  unfortified. 
The  Spaniards  knew  them  to  be  by  nature  abso- 
lutely secured  from  attack  on  tlu!  north;  and 
they  never  dreamed  that  the  English  jiirates 
would  lie  daring  enough  to  pas>,  the  terrible 
straits  of  Magellan  ami  I'tli'^'k  them  fnim  the 
south.  Such  was  the  pla  1  of  Drake;  and  it  was 
executed  with  complete  success."  He  sailed 
from  Plymouth,  Dec.  13,  1577,  with  a  fleet  of 
four  >cssels.  and  a  pinnace,  but  lost  one  of  the 
si"  !  afiei-  had  cnteri'd  the  Pacific,  in  a  storm 
which  dro  !iim  .southward,  and  which  made 
him  the  di.s.  verev  of  Cape  Horn.  Another  of 
his  shi;is,  seji  ■  ed  fnim  the  s(|iiadrou,  returned 
'■  mie,  and  a  thud,  while  alteni|iting  to  do  the 
same,,  '.las  lost  in  the  river  Plate.  Drake,  in  his 
own  vessel,  the  Golden  Hind,  procee(h'd  to  the 
Per'iviaii  coasts,  where  he  cruised  until  he  had 
taken  and  iilundercd  a  score  of  Sjianish  ships. 
"  r.aden  with  a  rich  booty  <if  Peruvian  treasure 
he  <leeined  it  unsafe  to  return  by  the  way  tiii'.t  ho 
came.  He  therefore  resolved  to  strik(!  acro.ss  the 
Paiific,  and  for  this  purjiose  maih'  the  latitude 
in  which  this  voyage  was  usually  peri'.>rmed  by 
the  Slianisli  government  vessels  which  sailed 
annually  from  Acainiico  to  the  Philippi.ies. 
Drake  thus  reached  the  coast  of  California, 
where  the  Indiars,  delighted  beyond  ineasur  ■  by 
presents  of  clothing  and  trinkets,  invited  hiin  to 
remain  and  rule  over  them.  Drake  took  pos- 
session of  th(!  country  in  the  name  <if  the  (Jueeii, 
and  refitted  liis  vessel  in  preparation  for  the 
unknown  perils  of  the  Pacific.  The  place  where 
he  landed  must  have  been  cither  the  great  nay 
of  San  Praucisco  [per  contra.,  see  C".\i  iKonM.v; 
A.  I).  1840-1847]  or  the  small  1  y  of  Bodega, 
which  Mes  a  few  leagues  furtlicr  north.  The 
greai  seaman  had  already  coasted  five  degrees 
more  to  the  northward  before  finding  u  suitable 
liarlionr.  He  bel':ved  him.self  to  be  the  first 
European  who  had  coasted  these  shores;  but  it 
is  now  well  knov.n  that  Spanish  exj>h)rers  hiul 
preceded  him.  Drake's  circunuiavigatioii  of 
the  globe  was  thus  no  deliberate  feat  of  seaman- 
ship, but  the  necessary  residt  of  circumstances. 
The  voyage  mad*'  in  nnae  than  oik'  way  a  grcit 
epoch  'in    English    nautical    history,"     Dniko 


68 


AMERICA,  1572-1580. 


Raicujtt'tt 
First  Colony. 


AMERICA,  1584-1586. 


reached  Plvninuth  on  Ins  return  Sept.  20,  1.580. 

E,  J.  Pavno,  Voi/d'jcs  of  the  ElizaMluiii  Seamen, 

pp.  141-143. 

Also  in  F.  t'letclicr,  The  World  Bncompaf-ird 
buSirF.  Drake  (Ifiihliiyt  Soe.,  1854).— J.  Barrow, 
Lift  of  Drake.— 11  Southey,  Lives  of  British 
AditiiniKi,  r.  3. 

A.  D.  1580.— The  final  founding  of  the  City 
of  Buenos  Ayreb.  ^^(■e  AiuiKNTiNii  HicrLULic: 
A.  1).  l.-|SO-17T7. 

A.  D.  15S3.— The  Expedition  of  Sir  Hum- 
phrey Gilbert. — Formal  possession  taken  of 
Newfoundland. — In  1578,  Hirlliiniiihrey  Gill.ort, 
an  Englisli  gentleman,  of  Devonshire,  whoso 
younger  half-hrothcr  was  t'-n  more  famous  Sir 
"Walter  Rjilcigh,  obtained  from  Queen  Elizabeth 
a  charter  cinpowering  him,  for  the  ne.tt  six 
years,  to  discover  "such  remote  heathen  and 
barbarous!  lands,  not  actually  possessed  by  any 
Christian  ))rinee  or  people,''  as  he  might  be 
shrewd  or  fortu,.ata  enough  to  find,  and  to  oc- 
cupy the  same  as  their  proprietor.  Gilbert's  first 
expedition  was  attempted  the  next  year,  with 
Sir  Waller  Raleigh  associated  in  it;  but  misfor- 
tunes drove  back  the  adventurers  to  port,  and 
Spanish  intrigue  jircvented  their  sailing  again. 
"  In  June,  1583,  Gilbert  sailed  from  Cawsand  Bay 
with  live  vessels,  with  the  general  intention  of 
discovering  and  colonizing  tlie  northern  i)arfs  of 
America.  It  w"r  '.„  lirst  colonizing  exiiedition 
which  left  tie  s'atires  of  Great  Britain;  and  the 
narr.itive  of  the  expedition  by  Hayes,  who  com- 
laanded  one  of  Gilhert's  vessel;,,  forms  the  first 
pngo  in  the  ?.i.':*.,..>  of  English  colonization. 
Gill  .'rt  did  no  more  than  go  through  the  empty 
fii'-..  of  taking  possession  of  the  Island  of  Kew- 
fc.iilland,  to  which  the  ICnglish  name  formerly 
apjilied  to  the  continent  in  general  .  .  .  was 
now  restricted.  .  .  .  Gilbeit  dallied  here  too 
long.  When  he  set  sail  to  cross  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  and  take  possession  of  Cajie  Breton 
and  Xovii  ,Seotia  the  season  was  too  far  advanced ; 
one  of  his  largest  ships  went  (l.)wn  witlif  all  on 
1 'i;u(l,  including  the  Hungarian  scholar  Par- 
nienius,  •vho  had  come  out  as  the  historian  of 
tlic  expedition;  the  stores  were  exhausted  and 
the  crews  dispirit"'!,  anu  Gilbert  resolved  ou 
sailing  home,  intending  to  return  an<l  prosecute 
his  discover!'  i  the  next  spring.  Ou  the  home 
voyage  the  little  vessel  in  which  he  was  sailing 
foundered;  and  the  pioneer  of  English  coloniza- 
tion found  a  watery  grave.  .  .  .  Gilbert  was  a 
man  of  courage,  piety,  ami  learning.  He  was, 
howevu",  an  indilTerent  seaman,  and  quite  in- 
competei.t  for  the  ta.sk  of  colonization  to  which 
he  had  set  his  hand.  The  misfortunes  of  his  ex- 
pedition induced  Aniadiu  and  Barlow,  who  fol- 
lowed in  hs  steps,  to  abandon  the  northward 
voyage  ana  sail  to  the  shores  intended  to  be  oc- 
cupied by  the  easier  but  more  circuitous  route  of 
the  Canaries  and  the  W.'st  Indies." — E.  J. 
Payne,  Voyiges  of  the  EliMliethan  Seamen,  pp. 
173-174.— "On  Monday,  the  9th  of  September, 
in  the  afternoon,  the  frigate  [the  'Squirrel ']  was 
near  cast  away,  oppressed  by  waves,  yet  nt  that 
time  recovered ;  and  giving  fcrth  signs  of  joy, 
the  general,  .sitting  abaft  with  a  book  in  liis 
hand,  crieil  out  to  us  in  the  '  Hind  '  (so  oft  as  we 
did  approach  within  hearing),  '  We  are  as  near 
to  heaven  by  sea  as  by  land,'  reiterating  the  same 
speech,  well  beseeming  a  soldier  resolute  )•• 
Je;!U8  Christ,  as  I  can  testify  be  was.  On  the 
same  Monday  night,  about  twelve  o'clock,  or  not 


long  after,  the  frigate  being  ahead  of  tis  in  the 
'Golden  Hind,'  siuhlenly  her  lights  were  out, 
whereof  as  it  were  in  a  moment  we  Icwt  the 
sight,  and  withal  our  watch  cried  the  General  was 
ctist  away,  which  was  too  true;  for  in  that 
moment  the  frigate  was  devoured  and  swallowed 
up  by  the  sea.  Yet  sidl  we  looked  out  all  that 
night  and  ever  after,  until  we  arrived  upon  the 
coast  of  England.  ...  In  great  torment  of 
weather  and  peril  of  drowning  it  pleased  jod  to 
.send  safe  home  the  'Golden  Hind,'  which  arrived 
in  Falmouth  on  the  22d  of  September,  being 
Sunday.'  —  E.  Hayes,  A  lie  part  of  the  Voi/age  l/i/ 
Sir  Ilumphrey  Oilbcrt  {repriried  in  Payne's 
Yoyages). 

Also  in  E.  Edwards,  Life  of  liahigh,  v.  1,  eh. 
5. — H.  Ilakluyt,  Principal  yaci'jations;  cd.  by 
E.  Ooldmiiid,  r.  12. 

A.  D.  1584-1586.— Raleigh's  First  Coloriiz- 
irg  attempts  and  failures.  —  "The  task  in 
which  Gilbert  had  failed  was  to  be  undertaken 
by  one  better  qualilicd  to  carry  it  out.  If  any 
Englishman  in  that  age  seemed  to  be  marked  out 
as  the  fo'under  of  a  colonial  empire,  it  was 
Raleigh.  Like  Gilbert,  he  had  studied  books; 
like  Drake  he  could  ride  men.  .  .  .  The  associa- 
tions of  his  youth,  and  the  training  of  his  early 
manhood,  fitted  him  to  sympathize  with  the  aims 
of  .3  half-brother  Gilbert,  and  there  is  little 
reason  to  doubt  that  Raleigh  had  a  share  in  his 
undertaking  and  his  failure.  In  1584  he  obtained  a 
patent  precisely  similar  to  Gilbert'.s.  His  first  step 
showed  the  thoughtful  an<l  well-planned  .system 
rn  which  he  began  his  task.  Two  ships  were 
.-icnt  out,  iv.i  with  any  idea  of  settleiiu  ut,  but  to 
examine  and  report  ujion  the  country.  Their 
commanders  were  Arthur  Barlow  and  Philip 
Amidas.  To  the  former  we  owe  tlie  cxiant 
record  of  the  voyage:  the  name  of  the  latter 
would  suggest  that  ho  was  a  foreigner.  Whether 
by  chance  or  design,  tlicy  took  a  more  .southerly 
course  than  anj'  of  their  predecessors.  On  tli? 
2d  of  July  the  presence  of  shallow  water,  and  a 
smell  of  sweet  flowiTs,  warned  them  that  land 
was  near.  The  promise  thus  given  was  amply 
fnlliUed  upon  their  approach.  The  sight  before 
them  was  far  diirerent  from  that  which  had  met 
the  eyes  of  Iloro  and  Gilbert.  Instead  of  the 
bleak  coast  of  Newfoundland,  Barlow  and 
Amidas  looked  upon  a  .scene  which  might  recall 
the  softness  of  tlie  ^lediterranean.  .  .  .  Coasting 
along  tor  about  120  mile.s,  the  voyagers  reached 
an  inlet  and  with  some  dilliculty  entered.  Tluy 
then  solemnly  took  po.<-^ession  of  the  land  in  tho 
Queen's  name,  and  then  delivercil  it  over  to 
Raleigh  according  to  his  patent.  They  soon  dis- 
covered that  tho  land  upon  whii  '>  they  had 
touched  was  an  island  about  20  miles  long,  and 
not  above  six  broad,  named,  as  they  afterwards 
learnt,  R(;auoke.  Beyond,  separating  them  from 
the  mainland,  lay  an  eiiclo.sed  sea,  studded  with 
more  than  a  hundred  fertile  and  well-wooded 
islets."  Tho  Indians  jiroved  friendl;, ,  and  were 
described  by  Bar'ow  as  being  "  iiioiit  gentle,  lov- 
ing and  faithful,  void  of  all  guile  and  treasiai, 
and  such  iis  live  after  the  iiianner  of  the  golden 
age."  "The  report  which  the  voyagers  took 
homo  spoke  as  favourably  of  the  land  it.self  as  of 

i  inhitbitants.  .  .  .  With  them   tliey   brought 

'  vo  of  tho  savages,  named  Wanchcse  and  Mau- 

eo.    A  probal'le  tradition  tells  us  that  the  queen 

herself  named  tho  country   Virginia,   and  that 

linleigh's  knighthood  was  the  reward  and  ac- 


60 


AMEKICA,  1584-1580. 


iMst  Colony 
of  lioanoke. 


AMERICA,  1587-1590. 


kn()wle(lf,'incnt  of  liis  success.  On  the  strength 
of  this  report  l{iileif;h  at  once  made  preparations 
for  a  settlement.  A  lleet  of  seven  sliips  was  pro- 
vided for  the  eonveyanee  of  108  settlers.  Tlie 
fleet  was  under  the  c<iniman(l  of  Sir  Kicliard 
(iienville,  wlio  was  to  establish  the  settlement 
unil  leave  it  imder  the  char.L'o  of  Ralph  Lane. 
.  .  .  On  the  yili  of  April  [l'>S'>]  the  eniiirrants 
set  sail."  For  some  reason  not  well  explained, 
the  lleet  made  n  eireuil  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
loitered  for  live  weeks  at  the  island  of  St.  John's 
and  at  llispauiola,  reaehini^  Virginia  in  the  last 
days  of  .June.  IJinirrels  between  the  two  com- 
manders. Grenville  and  I.ane,  had  already  begun, 
and  both  seemed  equally  ready  to  provoke  the 
enmity  of  the  natives.  In  August,  after  explor- 
ing some  sixty  miles  of  the  coast,  Grenville  re- 
turned to  England,  promising  to  come  back  the 
next  spring  with  new  colonists  and  stores.  The 
stltlemenl,  thus  left  to  the  care  of  Lane,  was 
established  "at  the  north-east  corner  of  the  island 
of  Roanoke,  whence  the  .settlers  ccmld  conunand 
the  strait.  There,  even  now,  choked  by  vines 
and  \m(lerwood,  and  here  and  there  broken  by 
the  crumbling  remains  of  an  earthen  bastion, 
may  be  traced  the  outlines  of  the  ditch  which 
enclosed  the  camp,  some  forty  yards  square,  the 
home  (>f  the  first  English  settlers  in  the  .Xew 
AVorld.  Of  the  doings  of  the  settlers  during  the 
winter  nothing  is  reconhnl,  but  by  the  next 
spring  their  prospects  looked  gloomv.  The  In- 
dians were  no  longer  friends.  .  .  .  The  settlers, 
unable  to  make  fishing  weirs,  and  without  seed 
corn,  were  entirely  d;  i.ciiiVjnt  on  the  Indians  for 
their  daily  fcXHl.  Under  the.e  circumstances, 
one  would  have  supposed  that  Ijane  would  have 
best  emiiloyed  himself  in  guarding  the  .settle- 
I'^ent  and  impioving  ils  condition,  lie,  however, 
thought  otherwise,  and  ai)plied  himself  to  the 
ta.sk  of  exploring  the  neighbouring  territory." 
But  a  wide  combination  of  hoslih  Indian  tribes 
had  been  formed  against  the  English,  and  their 
situation  became  fronulay  to  day  more  imperilled. 
At  the  beginning  of  June,  l.')bfl,  Lane  fought  a 
hold  battle  with  the  savages  and  routed  them; 
but  no  sign  of  Grenville  appeared  ami  the  pros- 
pect looked  hopeless.  Ju.st  at  this  juncuire,  a 
great  English  lleet,  sailing  homewards  from  a 
piratical  expedition  to  the  Spanish  JIain,  luuler 
tlic  famous  Captain  Drake,  came  to  anchor  at 
Roanoke  and  olfered  succor  to  the  disheartened 
colonists.  With  one  voice  they  petitioned  to  be 
taken  to  England,  and  Drake  received  the  whc  'e 
party  on  board  his  ships.  "The  help  of  which 
the  colonists  had  desjiaired  was  in  reality  elo.se 
nt  hand.  Scarcely  had  Drake's  lleet  left  tlio  coast 
when  a  ship  well  furnished  bv  Raleigh  with  need- 
ful supplies,  reached  Virginia,  and  "after  search- 
ing forthedeiiarted  settlers  returned  toKiio;l,i„(l. 
Ai.  nit  a  for'-iight  later  Grenville  himself  arrived 
with  'hree  sliip.s.  lie  spent  some  time  in  the 
coiuurj  exploring,  seardiingfor  the  settlers,  and 
at  last,  unwilling  to  lo.se  iiosscssion  of  the  coun- 
try, lamled  fifteen  men  atKoanoke  veil  supplied 
for  two  years,  and  then  set  sail  for  Emiland, 
nlnndering  the  A/ores,  ainl  doing  much  damage 
to  the  Spaniards."—,).  A.  Doyle,  T/ir  Eiif/linh  ui 
Aiiuiioi  :  \'irtiiiii(i,  (fr.,  eh.  ■{.—"  It  seems  to  l)j 
generally  admitted  that,  when  Lane  and  hiscom- 
pany  went  back  to  England,  they  carried  with 
them  tobacco  as  one  of  the  product.:  of  the  coun- 
try, wha'h  they  presented  to  Ral  igh,  as  the 
planter  of  the  colony,  uud  by  hhn  it  was  brought 


into  use  in  England,  and  gradually  in  other 
European  countries.  The  autliorities  are  not  en- 
tirely agreed  upon  this  point.  Josselyn  says: 
"I'obaceo  lirst  brought  into  England  by  Sir  Joh!i 
Hawkins,  but  lirst  brought  into  use  by  Sir 
Walter  Kawleigh  many  years  after.'  Again  ho 
says :  "  Xow  (say  some)  Yobacco  was  first  brought 
into  England  by  >lr.  Ralph  Lane,  out  of  Virginia. 
Others  will  l.ave  Tobacco  to  be  first  brought  into 
England  from  I'eru,  by  Sir  Francis  Drake's 
iMari  lers.'  "amdeii  fixes  its  introduction  into 
England  by  Ralph  Lane  and  the  men  brought 
back  with  him  in  the  ships  of  Drake,  lie  says: 
'And  these  men  which  were  brought  back  ivere 
the  lirst  that  I  know  of,  which  brought  into 
England  that  Indian  plant  which  tliey  call  To- 
bacco and  Xieotia,  and  use  it  against  crudities, 
being  taught  it  by  the  Indians.'  Certainly  from 
that  time  it  began  to  be  in  great  requ(  si,  and  to 
be  sold  at  a  high  rate.  .  .  .  Among  the  108  men 
left  in  the  colony  with  Ralph  Lane  in  1585  was 
Air.  Thomas  Ilariot,  a  man  of  a  strongly  mathe- 
matical and  i-cienlilic  turn,  whose  services  in  this 
connection  were  greatly  valued.  He  remained 
there  an  entire  year,  aiid  went  back  to  England 
in  1580.  He  wrote  out  'i  full  account  of  his  ob- 
servations in  tlie  Xew  World." — I.  N.  Tarbox, 
Sir  Walter  lliileigh  and  his  Colony  (Prince  Hoc, 
1884). 

Also  in  T.  Harlot,  Driff  and  true  Rejwt  (lie- 
jnintcd  in,  aljovc-namcd Prince,  Soc.  Publication). — 
F.  L.  Hawks,  Hint,  of  N.  Carolina,  v.  1  (contain- 
iiifj  reprints  of  Lane's  Account,  Ilariot'a  Rcjwrt, 
lie. —  Original  Doc's  ed.  by  E.  E.  Hale  (Arelia- 
ol<ir/ia  Americana,  v.  4). 

A.  D.  1587-1590. —-The  Lost  Colony  of 
Roanoke.  —  End  of  the  Virginia  Llndertak- 
ings  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  -  "  Ualeigl.,  undis- 
mayed by  lo.sses,  determined  to  plant  an  agricul- 
tural state;  to  send  emigrants  with  their  wives 
and  families,  who  should  make  their  homes  in 
the  Xew  World;  and,  that  life  and  i)roperty 
might  bo  secured,  in  •January,  1587,  he  granted  a 
charter  for  the  settlement,  and  a  municipal 
government  for  the  city  of  'Raleigh.'  John 
AVhitc  was  ni)pointed  its  governor;  and  to  him, 
with  eleven  assistants,  tfie  administration  of  the 
colony  was  intrusted.  Transpoit  ships  were 
l)re]iared  at  the  expense  of  the  proprietary; 
'(Juecn  Elizabeth,  the  godmother  of  Virginia,' 
deelined  contributing  'to  its  education.'  Em- 
barking in  April,  in  July  t'ley  arrived  on  the 
coast  of  North  C'arolina;  they  were  saved  from 
the  dangers  of  Cape  Fear;  and,  passing  Cape 
Hatteras,  they  hastened  to  the  i  ,le  of  Roanoke, 
to  search  for  the  handful  of  men  whom  Gren- 
ville had  left  there  as  n  garrison.  They  found 
the  tenements  deserted  and  overgrown  with 
weeds;  human  bones  lay  scattered  on  t''c  field 
where  wild  deer  were  reposing.  The  fort  was 
in  ruins.  Xo  vestige  of  surviving  life  appeared. 
The  instructions  of  Raleigh  had  designated  the 
place  for  the  new  settlement  on  the  bay  of 
Cliesapeaki.  Rut  Feri  audo,  the  naval  ollicer, 
eager  to  renew  a  profitable  trallic  in  the  West 
Iialies,  refu.sed  his  assistance  in  exploring  the 
coast,  and  While  was  compelled  to  remain  on 
Roanoke.  ...  It  was  th<Me  that  in  Jidy  the 
foundat'ons  of  the  city  of  l{aleigli  were  laid." 
Rut  the  colony  was  doomed  to  disaster  from  the 
beginning,  being  quickly  involved  in  warfare 
with  the  surro, Hiding  natives.  "With  the  re- 
turning sliip  White  embarked  for  England,  un- 


0 


AJrERICA,  1587-1590. 


Xea  England. 


AMERICA,  1603-1005. 


der  the  excuse  of  interceding  for  rc-cnforcements 
and  supplies.  Yet.  on  the  18th  of  August,  nine 
days  previous  to  his  dopaituie,  liis  daugliter 
Eleanor  Dare,  the  wife  of  one  of  the  as.sistants, 
gave  l)irlh  to  a  female  cliiUl,  the  first  olVsprinir 
of  Englisli  parents  on  the  soil  of  the  United 
States.  The  infant  was  named  from  the  place 
of  its  hirtli.  The  colcmy,  now  compose<l  of  81) 
men,  17  women,  and  two  children,  whose  names 
are  all  preserved,  might  reasonably  hope  for  the 
speedj'  return  of  the  governor,  as  ho  left  with 
them  his  daughter  and  his  grandchild,  Virginia 
Dare.  The  farther  hi.story  of  this  plantation 
is  involved  in  gloomy  uncertainty.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  'the  city  of  Ualeigli,'  thcrcmigrants  from 
England  and  the  first-born  of  America,  await(!d 
death  in  tbe  land  of  ihcir  ado])tion.  For,  when 
White  reached  England,  ho  found  its  attention 
absorl)od  by  the  threats  of  an  invasion  frjm 
Spain.  .  .  .  Yet  Raleigh,  whose  i)atriotism  did 
not  diminish  his  generosity,  found  means,  in  April 
1.588,  to  despatch  White  with  supplies  in  two  ves- 
sels, But  the  comjjany,  desiring  a  gainful  voy- 
age rather  than  a  safe  one,  ran  in  chase  of  prizes, 
till  one  of  them  fell  in  with  men  of  war  from 
Udchelle,  and,  after  a  l)loody  fight,  w.as  bo'irded 
and  rificd.  Uotli  ships  were  comjielled  to  rctiun 
to  Kngland.  The  delay  was  fatal:  the  English 
kiugdoni  and  the  Protestant  refonnatiou  were  in 
''anger;  nor  cotdd  tin;  pocrr  colonists  of  Roanoke 
be  again  remembered  till  aft  jr  the  discomlituroof 
the  lnvincil)le  Armada.  Even  then  Sir  Walter 
Ridcigh,  who  had  already  incurred  a  fruitless 
expense  of  £40,000,  found  his  impaired  fortune 
insullicicnt  for  further  attempts  at  colonizing 
Virginia.  He  therel'ore  used  tlio  privilege  of  his 
patent  to  endow  a  company  of  merchants  and  ad- 
venturers with  large  concessions.  Among  the 
men  who  thus  obtained  an  assignment  of  tlic  pro- 
prietary's rights  in  Virginia  is  found  the  name  of 
Richard  Ilakluyt;  it  connects  tlie  first  efforts  of 
England  in  North  (^arolina  with  the  linal  coloniza- 
tion of  Virginia.  Tlic  coloiusts  at  Roanoke  had 
emigrated  with  a  charter;  the  instrument  of 
Mareli,  1589,  was  not  an  assignment  of  Raleigh's 
patent,  'lut  the  extension  of  a  grant,  already  lield 
under  its  sanction  by  increasing  the  number  to 
whom  the  rights  of  that  charter  belonged.  More 
than  another  year  elapsed  before  White  could 
return  to  seardi  I'or  Ids  colony  and  his  daughter; 
and  then  the  island  of  Roanoke  was  a  desert. 
An  inscription  on  the  bark  of  a  tree  p  >intcd  to 
C'roatan;  but  the  season  of  llie  year  and  tni>  dan- 
gers fnau  storms  were  pleaded  "as  an  excuse  for 
nu  inuneili  ite  return.  TIk;  conjecture  has  been 
hazarded  that  the  deserted  colony,  neglected  by 
their  own  countrymen,  were  hospitably  adopted 
into  Uie  tribe  [the  C'roatansJ  of  Hatteras  Indians. 
Raleigh  long  cherished  the  hope  of  discovering 
some  vestiges  of  tlieir  ex-slence,  and  sent  at  his 
own  charge,  and,  it  is  said,  at  live  several  limes. 
to  search  for  his  liege  men.  Hut  imagination 
reeeivcd  no  helj)  in  its  attempts  to  trace  thi!  fate 
of  (he  colony  of  I'.oanoke."— O.  Bancroft,  Jli.it.  «/' 
1/,^  U.  K.  pt.  1,  eh.  5  (i).  1).— "The  Croatans  ot 
to-day  claim  descent  from  the  lo.st  colony 
Their  habits,  disposition  and  mental  characteris- 
tics show  tiaces  both  of  savage  ami  civilized 
ancestors.  Their  language  is  the  English  of  :!00 
years  ago,  and  their  names  are  in  many  cases 
tlie  same  as  those  i)orne  by  the  original  ciilonists. 
No  other  theory  of  their  origin  has  been  ad- 
vanced."—S.    li.    Weeks,    The  Lost   Colony  of 


Roanoke  (Am.  Hist.  Ass'n  Papers,  v.  5,  ;)/.  4). — ■ 
"This  last  expedition  [of  W^hite,  searching  for 
liis  lost  colony  I  was  not  despatched  b_\'  Raleigh, 
but  by  his  successors  in  t!ie  American  patent. 
Anil  our  history  is  now  to  take  leave  of  that 
illustrious  nii.n,  witli  whose -schemes  and  enter- 
liriscs  it  ceases  to  have  any  further  connexion. 
The  ardour  of  his  mind  was  not  exhausted,  ))ut 
diverted  by  r.  nudtiplicity  of  new  and  not  less 
arduous  inidertakings.  .  .  .  Desirous,  at  tin; 
sani'j  time,  that  a  project  which  he  had  carried 
so  far  should  not  be  entirely  abandoned,  and 
hoping  that  the  spirit  of  conunerce  woidd  pre- 
serve an  intercourse  with  Virginia  lliat  might 
lernunati'  in  a  colonial  establishment,  he  con- 
sented t"  assign  his  patent  to  Sir  Thoiras  Smith, 
and  a  company  of  merchants  in  London,  who 
uiidertook  to  establish  and  maintain  a  trallic 
between  England  and  Virginia.  ...  It  ap- 
peared very  soon  tliat  Raleigh  had  transferred 
liis  patent  to  liands  very  dilferent  from  his  own. 
.  .  .  Satisfied  with  a  pa!tr_,-  trafiic  carried  on 
by  a  few  small  vessels,  they  n.ade  no  attempt  to 
take  possession  of  the  country:  and  at  the  jieriod 
of  Elizabeth's  death,  not  a  single  Englislimnn 
was  settled  in  yVmerica." — J.  Grah;iine,  Hist,  of 
the  llise  and  Pvoi/ reus  of  the  U.  S.  of  N.  Am.  till 
1088,  (7/.  1. 

Ai.so  IN  \\.  Stith,  Hist,  of  17,.,  hh:  1.  — F.  L. 
I   ILiwks,  Hist,  of  X.  a.  r.  1,  X'.i.  7-8. 

A.  D.  1602-1605.— The  Voyages  of  Gosnold, 
Pring,  and  Weymouth.— The  First  English- 
men in  New  England. — Barlbolomew  Gosnold 
was  a  WestorEngland  mariner  who  had  served 
in  the  expeditions  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  to  the 
Virginia  coast.  Under  his  commaiuC  in  the 
sjuing  of  lliO'i,  "  with  the  consent  of  Sir  Waller 
lialeigh,  and  at  the  cost,  among  others,  of  Henry 
Wriolliesley,  Earl  of  Southampton,  the  accom- 
plished patron  of  Shakespeare,  a  small  vessel, 
called  the  Concord,  was  equipped  for  expli^ration 
in  'the  north  part  of  Virginia,'  witli  a  view  to 
the  establishment  of  a  colony.  At  tills  lime,  in 
the  last  year  of  I  ho  Tudor  dynasty,  and  nineteeu 
years  after  the  fatal  termination  of  Gilbert's 
cnlerprise,  t'lcrc  was  no  European  inhabitant  of 
North  America,  except  those  of  Spanish  birth  in 
Florida,  and  some  twenty  or  thirty  French,  the 
miserable  relics  of  two  frustrated  attempts  to 
scllle  what  they  called  New  France.  Gosnold 
sailed  from  Falmouth  with  a  comjmny  of  thirty- 
two  persons,  of  whom  eight  were  seamen,  and 
twenty  were  to  become  planters.  Taking  a 
straight  course  across  the  Atlantic,  instead  of  the 
indirect  course  by  the  Canaries  and  the  West 
Indies  which  had  iieen  'lithcrto  pursued  in 
voyages  to  Virginia,  at  the  end  of  seven  weeks 
he  saw  land  in  iMassachusetts  Ray.  probably  near 
what  is  now  Salini  Harbor.  Here  a  boat  came 
olT,  of  Hasiiue  build,  manned  by  eight  natives, 
of  whom  two  or  three  were  dres.sed  in  Europeaii 
clollics,  indicating  the  presence  of  earlier  foreign 
vovagers  in  these  waters.  Next  he  stood  to  the 
southward,  and  his  ".n'-v  took  great  (|iiaiitilics  of 
codlisii  liy  a  bead  lai...,  .  d  by  him  for  that 
rea.son  C^pe  Cod,  the  uiunc,  .vliich  it  retains. 
Gosnold,  Rrereton,  and  three  others,  went  on 
si  >re,  the  lirst  Englishmen  who  are  known  to 
have  set  foot  upon  the  soil  of  Massachusetts. 
.  .  .  Sounding  Ids  way  cautiously  along,  tirst 
in  .1  soullu'ily,  and  llicn  in  a  westerly  direction, 
and  urobably  pa.ssing  to  the  south  of  Nantucket, 
Gosnold  next   landed  on  a  small   island,  now 


71 


AMERICA,  1002-1605. 


Jimiaon'H 
ExjftoraUuns. 


AMERICA,  1C09. 


culled  No  Mail's  I.aiiil.  Tn  this  lie  giive  tlio 
liiinit!  of  Martlia's  Vineyard,  since  transferred  to 
tlic  lurirer  island  fiirtlu-  north.  .  .  .  South  of 
liuzzard's  Bay,  and  separated  on  the  south  by 
the  Vineyard  Sound  from  Martlia's  Viueyard,  is 
scattered  tlie  group  denoted  on  modern  maps  as 
tlie  Elizabeth  Islands.  The  .soiithwestcrnmost 
of  tlie.se,  now  known  by  the  Indian  name 
of  Cuttyliunk,  was  denominated  by  Gosnold 
Elizabeth  Island.  .  .  .  Here  Gosnold  found  a 
liond  two  mile.s  in  eircumference,  separated  from 
the  .sea  on  one  side  by  a  beach  thirty  yards  wide, 
and  enclosing  'a  rocky  islet,  containing  near  an 
acre  of  ground,  full  of  wood  and  rubbish.'  This 
islet  was  lixed  ujinn  for  a.  settlement.  In  three 
weeks,  while  a  part  of  tlie  company  were  absent 
on  a  trailing  expedition  to  the  mainland,  the  rest 
dug  and  stoned  a  cellar,  prepared  timber  and 
built  a  house,  which  tliey  fortilied  with  palisades, 
and  thatched  willi  sedge.  Proceeding  to  make 
an  inventory  of  their  provisions,  they  found  that, 
litter  supplying  the  vessel,  which  was  to  take 
twelve  men  on  the  return  voyage,  there  would 
be  a  sulliciency  for  only  six  weeks  for  the 
twenty  men  who  would  remain.  A  dispute 
arose  upon  the  question  whether  the  pariy  to  be 
left  behind  would  receive  i>  share  in  the  proceeds 
of  the  cargo  of  cedav,  sassi  fras,  furs,  and  other 
commodities  which  liad  been  collected.  A  small 
parly,  going  out  in  riuest  of  sliell-fisli,  was 
attackeil  by  some  Indiiins.  'With  men  having 
already,  it  is  likely,  little  stuniach  for  such 
cheerless  work,  these  cii'cuiiistances  easily  led  to 
the  decision  to  abandon  for  the  present  the 
Ki-heme  of  a  settlement,  and  in  the  following 
mouth  the  adventurers  sailed  for  England,  and, 
after  a  voyage  of  five  weeks,  arrived  at  Exiiiouth. 
.  .  .  The  c.vpeditiou  of  Gosnold  was  preguunt 
with  consequences,  though  their  development 
was  slow.  The  accounts  of  the  hitherto  iiiiknowu 
country,  whitli  were  circulated  by  his  company 
on  their  return,  excited  an  earnest  interest." 
The  next  year  (April,  1003),  JIartin  Pring  or 
Prynne  was  sent  out,  by  several  merchants  of 
Bristol,  with  two  small  vessels,  seeking  cargoes 
of  .sassafras,  which  had  ac(iiiire<l  fi  high  value  on 
account  of  suiiposed  mcdiciral  virtues.  Pring 
coasted  fnan  -Maine  to  Martha's  Vineyard, 
Secured  his  desired  cargoes,  and  pave  a  gooil 
account  of  the  country.  Two  years  later  (.Marc'.i, 
100.")),  Lord  Southampton  and  Lord  Wardoiir 
sent  n  vessel  commanded  by  George  Weymouth 
to  reconnoitre  the  same  coast  with  an  eye  to 
settlements.  Wevmouth  ascended  either  the 
Kennebec  or  the  I'euobscot  river  some  30  or  00 
miles  and  kidnapped  live  natives.  "Except  for 
this,  and  for  some  addition  to  the  knowleilge  of 
the  local  geoirraphv,  the  vovage  was  fruitless. " 
— I.  (i.  Palfri'y,  j'/iKt.  of  A'.'  Kii;/.,  r.  1,  ,/(.   2. 

Also  in  M(Im.  Hist.  Sic.  Coll.,  'M  Sriea,  v.  8 
(1843). — 1.  McKeeii,  On  the  Voyiir/e  of  Uco.  M'ey- 
month  (Miiinr  lli.it.   '-or.  toll.,  v.  .')). 

A.  D.  1603-1608.— The  First  French  Settle- 
ments in  Acadia.  See  ('AN.\i).\  (Ni;w  EllA.Ni  i:); 
A.  1).  UiO:i-l(;u.""),  and  IfiOO-KKW. 

A.  D.  1607.— The  founding  of  the  English 
Colony  of  Virginia,  and  the  failure  in  Maine. 
See  ViU(;i.NJ.\:  A.  I).  lOlM.-KiUT,  and  after;  and 
M.mnk:  a.  1).  1007-lOOS. 

A.  D.  1607-1608.— The  First  Voyages  of 
Henry  Hudson.— "The  lirsl  recorded  voyage 
made  l>y  Henry  Hudson  was  u.ndertak"-!  .  ." . 
for  the  Muscovy  or  Russia  Company  [o(  Eng- 


land]. Departing  fn  11  Grave.seiid  the  first  of 
May,  1007,  with  tl..  intention  of  sailing  straight 
across  the  north  pole,  bv  the  north  of  what  Is 
now  called  Greenland,  ifudson  fount!  that  this 
land  stretched  further  to  the  eastward  than  he 
had  anliciiiated,  and  that  a  wall  of  ice,  along 
which  he  coasted,  extended  from  Greenland  to 
Spitzbergen.  Forced  to  reliiuiuish  the  hope  of 
finding  a  passage  in  th<;  latter  vicinity,  he  once 
more  atteiujitcd  the  entrance  of  Davi.s'  Straits  by 
the  north  of  Greenland.  Tliii  design  was  also 
friist.ated  and  he  apiiarcutly  renewed  the  at- 
tempt in  a  lower  latitude  and  nearer  (Greenland 
on  his  homeward  voyage,  lu  this  cruise  Hudson 
attained  a  higher  degree  of  latitude  than  any 
previous  navigator.  .  .  .  He  reached  England  on 
his  return  on  the  loth  September  of  that  vear 
[1007].  .  .  .  Ou  the  22d  of  April,  1008,  Henry 
Hudson  luenceu  his  second  recorded  voyage 
for  tl  .Liiscovy  or  Russia  Company,  with  the 
design  f  Minding  a  Jiassage  to  tlie  East  Indies 
by  tlie  norlh-east.'^' .  .  .  On  the  3d  of  June,  1C08, 
liud.sou  li;;d  reached  the  most  northern  point  of 
Isorway,  and  on  the  lltli  was  in  latitude  7u'  24', 
between  S|utzbergeu  and  Kova  Zeinbla. "  Fail- 
ing to  pass  to  the  north-east  beyond  Nova 
Zenibla,  he  returned  to  England  in  August. — J. 
JI.  Read,  Jr.,  Jli.it.  Inquiry  Conccniing  Jlcnry 
Ihuimn,  pp.  133-133. 

Also  in  G.  M.  Ashcr,  Henry  lludnon,  the 
Kai-i'jdtordhihlinit  .S/i'.,  1800). 

A.  D.  1608-1616.— Champlain's  Explora- 
tions in  the  Valley  of  th?  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  See  C.vnap.v  (New  Fhaxc:;^; 
A.  IJ.  KiDS-lOU,  and  lOU-1010. 

A.  D.  1609. — Hudson's  Voyage  of  Discovery 
for  the  Dutch. —  "The  failure  of  two  expedi- 
tions daunted  the  eiuerpriso  of  Hudson's  em- 
ployers [the  Muscovy  Company,  in  England], 
tlie3'  could  not  daiinl  the  couiiigc  of  the  great 
navigator,  who  was  destined  to  become  the  rival 
of  Sniilli  and  of  Chani|)lain.  He  longed  co  tempt 
once  more  the  dangers  of  the  northern  seas ;  and, 
repairing  to  Holland,  he  offered,  in  the  service  of 
the  Duteli  East  India  Comjiany,  tocxpkiie  the  icy 
wastes  in  search  of  the  coveted  passage.  The 
voyage  of  Smith  to  Virginia  stimulated  desire; 
the  Zcidaiiders,  fearing  the  loss  of  treasure,  ob- 
iccted ;  but,  by  the  inlluehco  of  Balthazar 
Mouclieron,  the  directors  for  Amsterdam  re- 
solved on  equipping  a  small  vessel  of  discovery; 
and,  on  the  4tli  day  of  April,  1000,  the  '  ( 'rescent ' 
[or  '  Half-Moon,  ns  the  name  of  the  little  ship 
is  more  commonly  translated],  commanded  by 
lliulson,  and  maimed  by  a  mixed  crew  ol  Eng- 
lishmen and  Hollanders,  his  son  being  of  the 
number,  set  sail  for  the  north-western  passagn. 
JIasses  of  ice  impeded  the  navigation  towards 
NovaZembla;  Hudson,  who  had  examined  the 
maps  (d'  Jolin  ."^mitli  of  Virginia,  turned  to  die 
west;  and  passing  beycmd  Greenlund  and  New- 
foundland, and  running  down  the  coast  of 
Acadia,  ho  anchored,  probably,  in  the  mouth  of 
the  Penou.scct.  Then,  following  the  track  of 
(iosuold,  ho  came  u]  on  the  jironiontory  of  Cape 
Cod,  and.  believing  himself  its  first  discovorer, 
gave  it  the  name  <d'  New  Holland.  Long  after- 
wards, it  was  claimed  ns  the  north-eastern  bwiud- 
ary  of  Now  Netherlands.  From  the  sands  of 
Cape  Cod,  he  steered  u  southerly  course  till  he 
vas  opposite  the  entrance  into  the  bay  of  Vir- 
ginia, whore  Hudson  remembered  that  his  couu- 
trymcn  were  planted.     Then  turning  again  to 


72 


AMERICA,  1009. 


Captain 
John  Smith. 


AMERICA,  1014-1015. 


tho  north,  he  discovered  the  Delaware  Bay,  c.v- 
amincd  its  currents  and  its  soundings,  and,  with- 
out going  on  sliorc,  toolc  note  of  the  aspect  of 
tlie  country.  On  tlie  3d  day  of  Scptemljcr, 
almost  at  llio  time  when  Champlain  was  invad- 
ing Xew  York  from  tho  nortli,  less  tlian  live 
nnnths  after  tlio  truce  witli  Spain,  which  gave 
tho  Netherlands  a  diplomatic  existence  as  a 
state,  tho  'Crescent'  ancliored  within  Sandy 
JIooIj,  and  from  tho  ueigliboring  shores,  that 
were  crowned  with  'goodly  oaljcs,'  attracted 
frequent,  visiu  from  the  natives.  After  a  weeii's 
delay,  Hudson  sailed  tliro.igh  tho  Xarrows,  and 
at  the  mouth  of  tho  river  ancliored  in  a  liarI)or 
which  was  pmnounceil  to  bo  very  good  for  all 
winds.  .  .  .  Ton  days  were  employed  i:i  explor- 
ing the  river;  the  first  of  Europeans,  Iludsim 
went  sounding  his  way  above  t'x  Highlands, 
till  at  last  tlio  '  Crescent '  had  sailed  some  miles 
beyond  the  city  of  Hudson,  and  a  boat  had  ad- 
vanced a  little  beyond  Alljany.  Frequent  inter- 
course was  held  with  the  astonished  natives  [and 
two  batlles  fought  with  them].  .  .  .  Having 
completed  his  discovery,  Hudson  descended  the 
stream  to  which  time  iias  given  his  name,  and  on 
the  -Itli  day  of  Octolier,  about  tho  season  of  tlie 
return  of  John  Smitli  to  England,  lie  set  sail  for 
Eurojio.  ...  A  hapjiy  return  voyage  brought 
tlio  'Crescent'  iuto  liartniouth.  Hudson  for- 
warded to  his  Dutch  employers  a  brilliant  ac- 
count of  his  discoveries;  but  ho  never  revisited 
the  lands  which  he  eulogized:  and  th«;  Dutcli 
East-India  Company  refused  to  search  further  for 
the  north-western  jiassage." — Ct.  Bancroft,  Jlint. 
of  the  U.  S.,  ch.  1.5  {orpt.  2,  ch.  VZ  of  "  Authur\' 
iMst  Rcciniiin"). 

Also  i.v  II.  R.  Clf.vki.and,  Life  of  Ifeiin/ 
Ihidmn  (Lib.  of  Am.  Bio;/.,  v.  10),  ch.  3-4.  — R. 
Juet,  Joantiil  of  IIiulioiCii  Voyage  (X.  Y.  Hint. 
Soc.  C'o/l.,  Second  /fi-rics,  v.  1). — J.  V.  N.  Yates 
and  J.  W.  Jloullon,  Jlist.  of  the  State  of  JV.  1' 
pt.  1. 

A.  D.  1610-1.614. — The  Dutch  occupation 
of  New  Netherland,  and  Block's  coasting 
exploration.  See  New  Yokk:  A.  1).  1010- 
1014. 

A.  D.  1614-1615.— The  Voyages  of  Capt. 
John  Smith  to  North  Virginia.  -The  Naming 
of  the  country  New  England. —  "From  the 
time  of  Ciipt.  Smith's  departure  from  Virginia 
[see  ViuGixrA:  A.  I).  1007-1010],  till  the  year 
1014,  there  is  a  chasm  in  his  biographv.  .  .  . 
In  1014,  proliably  by  his  advice  and  at  liis  sug- 
gestion, an  expedilinn  was  fitted  out  by  soiiic 
London  incrcliants,  in  tiie  e.xpense  of  which  ho 
also-  shared,  for  tlie  jiurposes  of  trade  and  dis- 
covery ill  New  England,  or,  as  it  was  then  called. 
North  Virginia.  ...  In  March,  1014,  ho  set  sail 
from  London  with  two  ships,  one  commanded 
by  himself,  and  the  otlier  liy  Captain  Thomas 
Hunt.  Tliey  arrived,  April  30tli,  at  the  island 
of  Manhegiii,  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  where  tliey 
built  seven  boats.  The  purposes  for  which  thev 
were  sent  were  to  capture  whales  and  to  search 
for  mines  of  gold  or  copper,  which  were  said  to 
be  there,  and,  if  these  failed,  to  inalvc  uf)  a  canro 
of  fish  and  furs.  Of  mines,  they  found  no  indi- 
cations, and  they  found  whale-tisliiiig  a  'costly 
conclusion;'  for,  altliough  tlvy  saw  many,  anil 
chased  tliem  too,  tliey  succeeded  in  tjilting"  none. 
They  thus  lost  the  best  part  ot  tlie  fishing  season ; 
but,  after  giving  -ip  their  gigantic  gaiiio,  they 
ddigeiitly  employed  the   months  of  July  and 

7 


August  in  taking  and  curing  codfish,  an  humble, 
but  more  lain  prey.  Willie  tlio  crew  were 
tlius  enipldwd.  Captain  Smitli,  with  eight  men 
in  a  small  boat,  surveyed  and  examined  the 
whole  coast,  from  Penobscot  to  Capo  Cod,  traf- 
ficking with  tlic  Indians  for  furs,  and  twice 
lighting  with  tliem,  and  taking  such  ob.serva- 
tions  of  tlie  prominent  points  as  enabled  him  to 
coiLsiruct  a  map  of  tlio  country'.  Ho  then  sailed 
for  England,  where  ho  arrived  in  August, 
within  six  monllis  after  his  departure.  He  left 
Captain  Hunt  beliind  him,  witli  orders  to  dispose 
ot  his  cargo  of  tisli  in  Spain.  L'nfortunately, 
Hunt  was  a  sordid  .'ind  unprincipled  inisereant, 
who  resolved  to  make  his  countrynieu  odious  to 
the  Indians,  ami  thus  jirevent  the  establislmient 
of  a  permanent  colony,  which  would  diminish 
tlie  la.'ge  gains  he  aiul  a  few  others  derived  by 
monopolizing  a  lucrative  traOic.  For  this  pur- 
pose, having  ilecoyed  '~4  of  the  natives  on  board 
his  ship,  ho  carried  them  off  and  sold  them  as 
slaves  in  the  port  of  Malaga.  .  .  .  Ca|itain 
Smitli,  upon  his  return,  presentc'd  his  map  of 
the  country  between  Penoliseot  and  Cape  Cod  to 
Prineo  Charles  (.afterwards  Cliarlcs  I.),  with  a 
reipiest  that  he  would  substitute  others,  instead 
of  tlio  'barbarous  names'  which  had  been  given 
to  particular  places.  Smith  himself  gave  to  tho 
country  the  name  of  New  England,  as  he 
expressly  states,  and  not  Prince  Charles,  as  is 
commonly  suppos<'d.  .  .  .  The  first  port  into 
which  Captain  Smith  put  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land was  Plymoutli.  There  ho  related  his 
adventures  to  some  of  bis  friends,  'who,'  he 
says,  'as  I  supposed,  were  interested  in  the  ilead 
patent  of  this  unregarded  country.'  Tho  Ply- 
moutli Company  of  _ad  venturers  to  North  Vir- 
ginia, by  nattering'  hopes  and  large  promises, 
induced  him  to  engage  his  services  to  them." 
Accordingly  in  3!arcli,  101.5,  ho  sailed  from 
Plymoutli,  witli  two  vessels  under  bis  command, 
bearing  10  settlers,  besides  tlieir  crew.  A  storm 
dismasted  Smitli's  ship  and  Irovo  her  back  to 
Plymuutli.  "His  consort,  commanded  by 
Thomas  Dermcr,  meanwhilo  proceeded  on  her 
voyage,  and  returned  with  a  profitublo  cargo  in 
August;  but  the  object,  which  was  to  elfect  a 
])ermanont  settlement,  was  frustrated.  Captain 
Smitii's  vessel  was  probably  found  to  bo  so 
much  shattered  as  to  render  it  inexpedient  to 
repair  her;  for  we  lind  that  he  set  sail  a  second 
time  from  Plymouth,  on  the  21lli  of  June,  in  a 
small  bark  of  00  tor.s,  manned  by  30  men,  and 
carrying  with  him  tlio  same  10  settlors  he  had 
taken  before.  But  an  evil  destiny  seemed  co 
hang  over  this  enterprise,  and  to  make  the  voy- 
age a  succession  of  disastera  and  disappoint- 
ments." It  ended  in  Smith's  capture  by  a  pirat- 
ical French  fleet  and  his  deteiilioii  for  some 
months,  until  he  made  a  daring  escape  in  a  small 
boat.  "Whilo  ho  had  been  detained  on  board 
tlio  French  pirate,  in  order,  as  he  says,  'to  keep 
my  jierplcxed  thougii.s  from  too  miich  medita- 
tion of  my  miserable  e.itate,'  ho  employed  liim- 
S(df  in  writing  a  uariali\e  of  Ids  two  voyages  to  • 
New  England,  and  an  account  of  tho  country. 
This  was  publislied  in  a  (luarlo  form  in  June, 
1010.  .  .  .  Captain  Smilh's  work  on  New  England 
was  the  first  ;o  recomniend  that  country  as  11 
place  of  settlement.  "—Ct.  S.  llillard.  Life  of 
Cant.  John  Smith  (ch.  14-15). 

Also  in  Capt.  John  Smith,  Description  of  K 
Eng. 


\S 


AMERICA,  IfilO. 


77k  Buceaneert. 


AJIEHICA,   1639-1700. 


A.  D.  1619.— Introduction  of  negro  slavery 

into  Virginia.     Scr  Vihhima;  A.  D.  Ifili). 

A.  D.  1620.—  The  Planting  of  the  Pilgrim 
Colony  at  Plymouth,  and  the  Chartering  of 
the  Council  for  New  England.  Sec  .Mass.v- 
t  lllM/ns  (I'l.YMorTll  t'or.oNY):  .V.  I).  Ki'JO;  iiiul 
Ni;rt-  Hscil..\M>:   \.  I).  1I1',MI-1  ()!>;!. 

A.  D.  1620.— Formation  of  the  Government 
of  Rio  de  La  Plata.  Sue  Auoentink  Kk- 
I'l  111,1.-:    \.  1).  !.■)«()- 1777. 

A.  D.  1621.— Conflicting  claims  of  England 
and  France  on  the  *'orth-eastern  coast. — 
Naming  and  graiiti:  of  Nova  Scotia.  Set' 
Nkw  Kx.u.and:  A.  D.  l(>'il-l(i:!l. 

A.  D.  1629. — The  Carolina  grant  to  Sir 
Robert  Heath.— "  Sir  Kdlxit  Heath,  lUtonioy- 
jiiiicnil  ti)  Charlrs  I.,  obtiiincd  a  prant  of  the 
laiiils  liftwciii  the  Mbtlli  [;!()tli  Vl  dogrep  of  nortli 
latitude  to  the  river  St.  Matlieo.  His  charter 
bears  date  of  October  5,  Ki'^iO.  .  .  .  Tlu^  tenure 
is  declared  lo  be  as  ample  as  any  bisliop  of 
l>urliaiii  I  Palatine],  in  the  Uiiiudom  of  England, 
ever  held  mid  enjoyed,  or  ought  or  could  of  right 
have  held  and  enjoyed.  Sir  Kobert,  his  heirs 
und  a.ssigiis,  are  conslitiiteil  the  true  and  absolute 
lords  and  proprietors,  and  the  country  is  erected 
into  a  province  by  the  name  of  Carolina  |or 
Car(ilaiia|,  and  the  islands  are  to  be  called  the 
Carolina  islands.  Sir  Robert  conveyed  his  right 
some  time  aflcr  to  the  earl  of  .Vrundel,  Tliis 
nobleman,  it  is  said,  planted  several  |iarts  of  his 
aciiui.sitiou.  but  his  iitlein|it  to  coloni/e  was 
checked  by  the  war  with  Scotland,  and  after- 
wards the  civil  war.  Lord  Maltravers.  who  soon 
lifter,  on  his  father's  death,  became  carl  of 
Arundel  and  Sussex  .  .  .  made  no  attempt  to 
avail  himself  of  the  grant.  .  .  .  Sir  Koliert. 
Heath's  grant  of  land,  to  the  soulliwanl  of 
Virginia,  perhaps  the  most  extensive  pos.session 
ever  owned  by  an  individual,  remained  for  a 
long  time  almost  aksolutely  waste  and  unculti- 
vated. .  This  v.ist  extent  of  territory  occui)ied  all 
the  country  between  the  libtli  and  IWth  degrees 
of  northern  latitude,  which  embraces  the  pres- 
ent states  of  Xorth  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
[Alabama |,  Tennessee,  !Mi.ssissip])i,  and,  with 
very  little  exceptions,  the  whole  slate  of 
Louisiana,  and  the  territory  of  East  and  West 
Florida,  a  considerable  part  of  the  state  of 
Missouri,  the  Mexican  provinces  of  Texas, 
Chiulmha  itc.  The  grantee  had  taken  pos,ses- 
sion  of  Un\  country,  soim  after  he  had  obtained 
his  title,  whieli  he  afterwards  had  conveyed  lo 
the  earl  of  Arundel.  Henry  lord  .Maltravers  ap 
pears  lo  have  obtained  ;«>me  aid  from  the  prov- 
ince of  Virginia  in  IIWO,  at  the  desire  of  (;iiarlcs 
I.,  for  the  settlement  of  Carolana,  and  the  coun- 
try had  since  become  the  property  of  a  Dr.  Cox ; 
yel.  at  this  time,  there  were  two  ]Miiiits  (mly  in 
which  incipient  English  setllemenis  could  be 
discerned;  the  one  on  the  northern  .-liore  of 
Albemarle  Soimd  and  the  streams  that  How  into 
it.  The  population  of  it  was  ve:y  thin,  and  the 
greatest  portion  of  it  was  on  tlu'  liorth-east  bank 
of  Chowan  river.  The  settlers  had  come  from 
that  part  of  Virginia  now  known  as  the  County 
of  Nansemond.  .  .  .  They  had  been  joined  by  a 
number  of  (Quakers  and  other  sectaries,  whom 
the  spirit  of  intolerance  had  driven  from  New 
England,  and  some  emignxiits  from  Bermudas. 
.  .  .  The  other  settlement  01  the  English  was  at 
ihe  mouth  of  Cape  Tear  river;  .  .  .  those  who 
composed  it  liml  come  thither  from  New  England 


in  lOoO.  Their  attention  was  confined  to  rearing 
cattle.  Tl  cannot  now  be  ascertained  whether 
the  assignees  of  Carolana  ever  surrendered  the 
charter  under  which  it  was  held,  nor  whether  it 
was  considered  as  having  become  vacated  or 
obsolete  by  non-user,  or  by  any  other  means." — 
F.  X.  JIartin,  IIM.  of  A\  Cnroliiw,  r.  1,  eh.  5 
and  7. 

A.  D.  1629.— The  Royal  Charter  to  the  Gov- 
ernor and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 
Sec   MASsAciiusKTrs:     A.    1).    I(i23-l(;21),    The 

DOUC'IIESTKII  CoMTANY. 

A.  D.  1629-1631. — The  Dutch  occupation  of 
the  Delaware.  See  Uki.awaue:  A.  I).  10'.29- 
lOiil. 

A.  D.  1629-1632. — English  Conquest  and 
brief  occupation  of  New  France.  See  Canada 
(Nf.wFuanik):  a.  I).  11128 -KWi, 

A.  D.  1632.— The  Charter  to  Lord  Balti- 
more and  the  founding  of  Maryland.  .S'e 
3Iakvi,anii;  A.  1).  IftW.  and  A,  1).  I(i;i;!-lfi;i7. 

A.  D.  1638. — The  planting  of  a  Swedish 
Colony  on  the  Delaware.  Sec  Delaware: 
A.  1).  10;iS-l(ilO. 

A.  D.  1639-1700. — The  Buccaneers  and  their 
piratical  warfare  with  Spain.  —  "The  ITth 
century  gave  birth  to  a  class  of  rovers  wholly 
distinct  Irom  any  of  their  jiredecessors  in  the 
annals  of  the  world,  dill'.'iing  as  widely  in  their 
plans,  org:;nization  and  exploits  as  in  the  princi- 
ples tliat  governed  their  acti  ns.  .  .  .  After  the 
native  iniiabilants  of  Haiti  had  been  exterini- 
iiated,  and  the  Spaniards  liad  sailed  farther  west, 
a  few  adventurous  men  from  Normandy  settled 
on  the  shores  of  the  island,  for  the  purpose  of 
hunting  th(i  wild  bulls  and  hogs  wliicli  roamed 
at  w'll  through  the  forests.  The  small  island  of 
Tort  igas  was  their  market;  thither  they  repaired 
with  heir  salted  and  smoked  meat,  their  hides, 
Ac,  ih'd  disposed  of  them  in  exchange  for  pow- 
der, le.'d,  u!h1  other  necessaries.  The  places 
where  ihese  semi-wild  hunters  jircpared  the 
slaughtered  carcases  were  called  'boucans,'  and 
they  themselveij  beeaine  known  as  IJuccaneers. 
Probably  the  world  has  never  before  or  since  wit- 
iies.se(lsuclian  extraordinary  association  as  tlieira. 
Unburdened  by  women-folk  or  cliil('''en,  these 
men  lived  in  couples,  reciprocally  rendering  each 
other  services,  and  having  entire  community  of 
property  —  a  condition  termed  by  them  niatclot- 
nge,  from  the  word  'matelot,'  by  which  they 
addressed  one  another.  ...  A  man  on  joining 
the  fraternity  completely  merged  his  identity. 
Each  memlier  received  a  nickname,  and  no  at- 
temi>t  was  ever  made  to  in((uire  into  his  antece- 
dents. When  one  of  their  number  married,  ho 
ceased  to  be  iv  buccaiiecr,  having  forfeited  his 
ineinber.ship  by  so  civilized  a  proceeding.  He 
might  cont.niie  lo  dwell  on  the  coast,  and  to 
hunt  cattle,  but  he  was  no  longer  a  'matelot' — 
as  a  Benedick  he  had  degenerated  to  a  '  colonist.' 
.  .  .  Uncouth  and  lawless  though  the  bucca- 
neers were,  the  sinister  signilication  now  attach- 
ing to  their  name  would  never  have  been  merited 
had  it  not  been  for  the  unreasoning  jealousy  of 
the  Spaniards.  Tlie  hunters  were  actually  a 
source  of  (irolit  to  that  nation,  yet  from  an  in- 
sane antipathy  to  strangers  the  dominant  race 
resolved  op  exterminating  the  settlers,  i'.ttacked 
whilst  dispersed  in  pursuance  of  their  avjcations, 
the  latter  fell  easy  victims;  many  of  tnem  were 
wantonly  massacred,  others  dragged  in'.o  slavery, 
.    .    .    Breathing    hatred    and    vengeance,    'the 


74 


AMERICA,  1639-1700. 


AMEUICA,  1713. 


brethren  of  the  coast'  united  their  scattered 
forces,  and  a  war  of  horiible  n'prisals  com- 
nienee'd.  Fresli  Iroojis arrived  from  fSpain,  wliilst 
tlie  ranlis  of  tlie  huecaneers  were  filled  by  adven- 
turers of  all  nations,  nlhired  by  love  of  pliuider, 
and  lired  with  indi^'iiation  at  the  cruelties  of  the 
aggressors.  .  .  .  Tlic  Spaniards,  utter'y  failing 
to  oust  their  opponents,  hit  upon  a  new  ex- 
pedient, so  short-sighted  th.it  it  reUects  but  little 
ered't  on  their  statesmanship.  This  w:is  the 
externunation  of  the  .'lorned  cattle,  by  which  the 
biieeaneers  derived  their  means  of  subsistence;  ii 
L'cneral  slaughter  took  place,  an<l  the  breed  was 
almost  extirpated.  .  .  .  The  pulled  up  arrogance 
of  th(!  Spaniard  was  curbed  by  no  prudential 
consideration;  calling  upon  every  saint  ia  his 
calendar,  and  raining  curses  on  the  heretical 
bnceaneers,  he  deprived  them  of  their  legitimate 
occupation,  and  created  wilfully  a  set  of  desper- 
ate enemies,  who  harassed  the  colonial  trade  of 
an  empire  already  betraying  signs  of  feeldencss 
with  tiie  pertiui  city  of"  wolves,  and  who  oidy 
desisted  when  her  commerce  had  been  reduced 
to  insignilicaneo.  .  .  .  Devoured  by  an  undying 
liatred  of  their  assailants,  the  buccaneers  de- 
veloped into  a  new  association  —  the  freebooters." 
— f.  II.  Eden,  Tin  Wcxt  Indits,  ch.  3.— "The 
moiiarclis  both  of  England  and  Franca,  but 
espeeiallv  the  former,  connived  at  and  even  en- 
courageil  the  freebooters  [a  name  which  thi! 
pronunciation  of  Freni'h  sailors  transformed 
into  '  llibnstiers,'  while  that  corruption  became 
Aiiirlicized  in  its  turn  and  produced  the  word 
tililnistersl,  whose  services  coidd  be  obtained  in 
time  of  war,  and  whose  actions  could  be  dis- 
avowed in  time  of  peace.  Thus  buccaneer, 
tilibuster,  and  sea-rover,  were  for  the  most  part 
at  leisure  to  liinit  wild  cattle,  and  to  pillage  and 
massacre  the  Spaniarils  wherever  tliey  foiuid  an 
opportunity.  When  not  on  some  marauding  ex- 
pedition, they  followed  the  ehiuse."  The  ))iratical 
biieeaneers  were  first  organized  under  a  leader 
in  Hiiii),  the  islet  of  Tor'uga  being  their  favorite 
rendezvous.  "  So  rapid  was  tlie  growth  of  their 
.selllenieats  that  in  1041  we  lind  governors  ap- 
lioiiited,  and  at  San  Ohristobal  a  governor-general 
named  Ue  Poincy,  in  charge  of  the  French 
lilibuslers  in  the  Indies.  I>uring  that  year 
Tortuga  was  garrisoned  by  Frencli  troops,  and 
the  Englisli  were  driven  out,  both  from  that  islet 
and  from  Santo  Domingo,  securing  harboraae 
elsewhere  in  the  islands,  Xevertlieless  corsairs 
of  botli  nations  often  made  common  cause.  .  .  . 
In  [li;,j 1 1  Tortuga  was  again  recaptured  by  the 
Spai  iards,  but  in  1000  fell  once  niin'e  into  the 
ham's  of  the  French;  and  in  their  coiujuest  of 
.Ta-.iaica  in  10,').')  the  JSritish  troops  were  re(!n- 
I'orceil  by  a  large  party  of  buccaneers."  The 
tirst  of  the  more  famous  buccaneers,  and  ap- 
|iarenlly  the  most  ferocious  among  them  all,  was 
a  Frenchman  called  Francois  L'Olonnois,  who 
harried  the  coa,st  of  Central  .Vmerica  between 
1000-100.5  with  six  ships  and  700  men.  At  the 
same  time  another  buccaneer  named  ^lansvelt, 
was  rising  in  fame,  and  with  him,  as  second  in 
comniaiid,  a  Welshman,  Henry  Morgan,  who  be- 
came the  most  notorious  of  all.  In  1008,  Jlorgan 
attaeUed  and  captured  the  strong  town  of  I'ortu- 
bello,  on  the  Isthmus,  committing  indescriliable 
atrocities.  In  1071  he  crossed  the  Isthmus, 
defeated  the  Spaniards  in  battle  and  gained 
pos.sessiim  of  the  great  and  wealthy  citv  of 
Panama  —  the   largest  and  richest  in  the  New 


World,  rontainiiig  at  the  time  !}0,000  inhabitants. 
The  city  was  pillaged,  fired  and  totally  destroyed. 
'I'lic  exploits  of  this  nillian  and  the  stolen  riches 
wliich  he  carried  home  to  England  soon  after- 
ward, gained  the  honors  of  liiiightliood  for  him, 
from  tiie  worthy  hands  of  Charles  II.  In  lOHO, 
the  buccaneers  under  one  Coxon  again  crossed 
;he  Isthmus,  seized  Panama,  which  had  been 
considerably  rebuilt,  and  captured  tlu  le  a 
Spanish  fieet  of  four  ships,  in  which  they 
launched  themselves  upon  the  Pacific.  From 
that  tlmetiicir  iiliindcring operations v.erc  chielly 
dircctiMl  against  the  Pacific  coast.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  17th  century,  the  war  l)ctwecii  Eng- 
land and  France,  and  the  Iloiirbon  alliance  of 
Spain  with  France,  brouglit  about  the  .liscour 
ngement,  the  decline  and  finally  the  extinction 
of  the  buccaneer  organization. — II,  II.  Bancroft, 
llUt.  of  the  Pacific  l<tat':s:  Central  Am.,  v.  2,  ch. 
2C-?0. 

Also  IN  W.  Thornbury,  The  liitceaneers. — A. 
O.  Exquenielin,  7//i<.  of  the  Ihiccamcrs. — J. 
IJuniey,  Hist,  of  the  Buccmicra  of  Am. — See, 
also,  J.vMAic.v:  A.  D.  10,'-.,5-1790. 

A.  D.  1655.— Submission  of  the  Swedes  on 
the  Delaware  to  the  Dutch.  See  Dklawauk: 
A.  1).   10-;0-10r)0. 

A.  D.  1663. — The  grant  of  the  Carolinas  to 
Monk,  Clarendon,  Shaftesbury,  and  others. 
See  XoiiTii  Cauoi.ina:  A,  I).   100;!-1070. 

A.  D.  1664. — English  conquest  of  New 
Nethorland.     Sec  Nuw  Youk:  A.   D.  1004. 

A.  D.  1673. — The  Dutch  reconquest  of  New 
Netherlana.     Sic  New  Yoiui:  A.  I).  107:i. 

A.  D.  1673-1682. — Discovery  and  explora- 
tion of  the  Mississippi,  by  Marquette  and 
La  Sa'Ie.—  Louisiana  named  and  possessed 
by  the  French.  See  Canada  (Niiw  Fhanck); 
A.  I).  1034-107;{.  and  100U-10S7. 

A.  D.  1674. — Final  surrender  cf  New  Neth- 
erland  to  the  English.  See  2S'etiieki.a>:us 
(lI(>i,i..\.ND):  A.  n.  1071. 

A.  D.  1681.— The  proprietary  grant  to  Wil- 
liam Penn.     See  Pi;xnsvi,vama:  A.   I).  1081. 

A.  D.  1680-1697.— The  first  Inter-Colonial 
War:  Kini  William's  War  (The  war  of  the 
League  of  Augsburg).  See  Canada  (Ni;w 
FUANCE):  A.  D.  1080-1690;  10yj-lGU7;  also, 
3S'i;wKoiNDi,AN"D:  A.  D.  1094-1097. 

A.  D.  1690. — The  first  Colonial  Congress. 
See  I'Nnia)  Statks  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1090;  alsi  , 
Canada  (Ni;w  FiiANCK):  A.   I).  1089-1090. 

A.  D.  1698-1712. — The  French  colonization 
of  Louisiana. — Broad  claims  of  France  to  the 
whole  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  See  Loiisi- 
ana:  a.  1).  1098-171^. 

A.  D.  1700-1735. — The  Spread  of  French 
occupation  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  on 
the  Lakes.  8ee  Canada  (New  Fuance):  A.  D. 
17(M)-17:i.-). 

A.  D.  1702. — Union  of  the  two  Jerseys  as  a 
royal  province.     Sec  New  Jehsev:  A.  I).  1088- 

I7;i8. 

A.  D.  1702-1713.— The  Second  Inter-Co- 
lonial War:  Queen  Anr.c's  War  (The  War  of 
the  Spai.ish  Suc(:es<=:an\ — Final  acquisition  of 
No/a  Scotia  by  the  F.nrlish.  Sec  New  Enu- 
i.and:  A.  I).  17();3-1710;  Cus'ada  (New  Fk^vnce): 
A.  I).  1711-1713. 

A.  D.  1713.— Division  of  territory  between 
England  and  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 
See  Canada  (New  Fiiance)  •  A.  I).  1711- 
1713. 


70 


AMERICA,  A.  D.  1729. 


AMEUICAN  ABORIGINES. 


A.  D.  1729.— End  of  the  proprietary  gov- 
ernment   in      North    Carolina.      See    Noktii 

L'Aiioi.iNA:  A.   1).  l(iMS-17~".t. 

A.  D.  1732.— The  colonization  of  Georgia 
by  General  Oglethrope.  Sic  (ii.oUdiA:  A.  1). 
I7;t.>- ;-:!!». 

A  D.  1744-1748.— The  Third  Inter-Colon- 
ial War:  King  George  s  War  (The  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession).  See  New  Enoi.and: 
A    I)    1711;  171.");  iiml  17iri-17-(S. 

A.  D.  1748-1760. — Unsettled  boundary  dis- 
putes of  England  and  France. — The  fourth  and 
last  inter-colonial  var,  calUd  the  French  and 
Indian  War  (The  Seven  Years  War  of  Europe). 
— English  Conquest  of  Canada.  Sio  Canada 
(Ni:\v  FuA.NCE):  A.  D.  175l>-17r);i;  17()0:  Nova 
Scotia:  A.  D.  1741)-17.w;  1755,  (Jiiio (Valley): 
A.  D.  1718-1751;  175-1;  1755;  Cai-e  Breton 
iM.A.NU:  A.  D.  1758-1700. 

A  D.  1749. — Introduction  of  negro  slavery 
into  Georgia.     See  CrKouciA;  \.  1).  17135-174!). 

A.  D.  1750-1753. — Dissensions  among  the 
English  Colonies  on  the  eve  of  the  great 
French  War.  Seo  U.mted  .Srvncs  ot'  A.M.: 
A.  1).  175i)-175;l. 

A.  D  1754. — The  Colonial  Congress  at 
Albany.— Franklin  s  P'.an  of  Union.  See 
L'.MTKii  Stati;s  oi'  A.M.:  A.  T).  1751. 

A.  D.  1763.— The  Peace  of  Paris.— Canada, 
Cape  Breton,  Newfoundland,  and  Louisiana 
east  of  the  Mississippi  (except  New  Orleans) 


ceded  by  France  to  Great  Britain. — West  of 
the  Mississippi  and  Ne'w  Orleans  to  Spain.— 
Florida  by  Spain  to  Great  Britain.     See  Sevks 
Ykahs  \\\n. 
A.  D.  1763-1764.— Pontiac's  War.     See  Pou- 

TIAC'S  WaU. 

A.  D.  1763-1766,  — Growing  discontent  of 
the  English  Colonies. — The  question  of  taxa- 
tion.— The  Stamp  Act  and  its  repeal.  Sec 
United  Stati-.s  of  Am.  :  A  I).  1700-177.5,  to  1700. 

A.  D.  1766-1769. —  Spanish  occupation  of 
New  Orleans  and  Western  Louisiana,  and  the 
revolt  against  it,  .See  Louisiana :  A.  i).  17(i(j- 
170.H,  iiud  1700. 

A.  D.  1775-1783.— Independence  of  the  Eng- 
lish colonies  achieved.  See  United  States  ok 
A.M. :  \  I).  1775  (.Vi'iiii.)   to  1783  (SEi'TEMincii). 

A.  D.  1776.— Erection  of  the  Spanish  Vice- 
royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  See  Auoentine 
Reithi.ic:  a.  I).  1580-1777 

A.  D.  1810-1816.— Revolt,  independence  and 
Confederation  of  the  Argentine  Provinces, 
Se(!  AiuiK.NTiNE  Uei-uhlic:  a.  I).  1800-18:30. 

A.  D.  1818. — Chilean  independence  achieved. 
See  Chile:  A.  D.  1810-1818. 

A.  D.  1820-1821. — Independence  Acquired 
by  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  States. 
See  Me.vico:  A.  D.  18-'0-1820,  uiul  Centual 
Ameuka:  a.  D.  1821-1871. 

A.  D.  1824. — Peruvian  independence  won  at 
Ayacucho.    SecPKUU:  A.  D.  1820-1820. 


AMERICAN     ABORIGINES. 


Linguistic  Classification. —  In  the  Seventh 
Annual  Report  of  the  l!\ire:m  of  Ktiinnloiry  (for 
18S.5-80,  jHililislu'tlin  USJU),  :\Iiijor  ,1.  W.  I'cWell, 
the  Dirii  torof  the  Bureau,  has'iriveii  aelassilica- 
tion  of  the  lani^uajjes  of  the  North  Ameriean  nbo- 
riTJne.s  based  Ujicntlie  most  recent  investigations. 
Tlie  followiiigisalist  of  families  of  speech,  orlin- 
tCulstic,  stocks,  which  are  deliiied  and  named: 
"Adaizan  [identilled  since  the  publication  of 
this  list  as  being  but  i)art  of  the  Caddoan  stock]. 

—  Algonimian,  —  Athapascan.  —  Attacajian. — 
BeotluiUau. — Caddoan.— Cliimakuan.— Chimari- 
liaii. — Cliinnnesyan. — Cliiiiookan.— Chitimachan. 
— Chumaslian. — Coaliuiltcean. — Copelian. — Cos- 
tanoan. — Eskiman;in. — Esselenian. — Iroquoian. — 
Kalapooiiui.— .'varaniiawaii. — Kcrcsaii. — Kiowan. 
— -  Kituanahan.  —  Koluschan.  —  Kulaiiapaii.  — 
Xusiiii. — I.utujimian. — ;\Iariposan. —  ^loquclum- 
iiaii. — -Arusklioireau. — Natclician. —  Palailmihan. 

—  I'imaii. —  Pujiinaii.—  Quoratean.—  Salinui. — 
Salislian.  — Sastean. —  Shaliap*iaii. — Slioshoncuu. 
— Siouan.— Slii'.la.iretaii.— 'rakilmaii.--Tarioan. — 
Timu(|iianan.—Toiiikaii.— Tonka  wan.— Uchean. 

—  \\'aiilat|)uan.— "WaUeslian. — Washoan. — AVeit- 
spckan.  — Wislioskan.  —  Vokonan.  —  Yauan. — 
Yiikian. —  Ynman.  —  Zunian. " —  Tliese  families 
are  severally  defined  in  the  summary  of  in 
formation  given  below,  and  the  rcla'tioiis  to 
tliem  of  all  tribes  liaving  any  historical  impor- 
f.ince  are  shown  by  cross-references  and  ollicr- 
^yise;  but  many  other  groupings  and  associa 
tions,  and  many  tribal  names  not  scientificall,' 
recognizcl,  are  likewise  exliil)ited  here,  for  the 
reason  that  they  have  a  signifiv.ince  in  history 
and  are  the  subjects  of  frequent  allusion  in 
litcri'ture, 

Abipones.    See  below :  Pampas  Tkibks. 


Abnakis,  or  Abenaques,  or  Taranteens.— 

'•The  Abnakis  wire  called  Taranteens  l)y  the 
English,  and  Owcn.igungas  by  the  New  Y'orkers. 
.  .  .  We  must  admit  that  a,  large  jjortion  of  the 
North  American  Indians  were  called  Abnakis, 
if  not  by  themselves,  at  least  by  others.  Tliis 
word  Abnaki  is  found  spelt  Abenaques,  Abenaki, 
Wapanacbki,  and  'NVabenakies  by  diftereut;  writ- 
ers of  various  nations,  each  adopting  the  manner 
of  spelling  according  to  the  rules  of  pronunci- 
ation of  their  resp.ective  native  languages.  .  .  . 
The  word  generidly  received  is  spelled  thus, 
Abnaki,  but  it  should  be  'Waubanaghi,'  front 
the  Indian  word  '  waubnnbau,'  desiguating  the 
people  of  the  Aurora  Borealis,  or  in  general,  of 
the  plate  where  the  sky  commences  to  appear 
white  at  the  breaking  of  the  day.  ...  It  has 
been  diflicult  for  different  writers  to  determine 
tlie  miml)er  of  nations  'T  tribes  comprehended 
under  this  word  Abnaki.  It  being  a  general 
word,  by  itself  designates  tlie  people  of  the  east 
or  noiUieast.  .  .  .  ^,V'e  find  that  the  word  Abu.aki 
was  applied  iu  general,  more  or  less,  to  all  the 
Indians  of  the  East,  by  persons  who  were  nut 
much  acquainted  with  the  aborigines  of  the 
country.  On  the  contrary,  the  rnrly  writers  and 
otliers  well  aciiuainted  witli  the  natives  of  New 
Prance  and  Acadin,  and  the  Indians  themselves, 
by  Abnakis  alwavs  pointed  out  a  particular 
nation  existing  noi;li-westahd  south  of  the  Ken- 
nebec river,  and  they  ne\er  designated  any 
other  people  of  liie  Atlantic  shore,  from  Cape 
JIatteras  to  Newfoundland.  .  .  .  The  Abnakis 
had  five  great  villages,  two  amongst  the  French 
colonies,  which  must  be  the  village  of  St. 
.loseph  or  Sillery,  and  that  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  both  iu  Canada,  three  on  the  head  waters. 


70 


AMERICAN  ABORiaiXES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


or  nlonR  three  rivers,  between  Acmliii  and  New 
Kngliuui.  Those  three  rivers  are  tliu  Kennebec, 
tlie  Androseoggin,  and  tlie  Saco.  .  .  .  Tlio  na- 
tion of  the  Alinaliis  Ix-ar  evident  niarlts  of  hav- 
ing lueii  an  original  peoi)lo  in  tluir  name,  man- 
ners, and  iangiiage.  Tliey  sliow  a  liind  of  eivil- 
'zation  which  must  be  the  etfeet  of  anti(iuity, 
and  of  a  past  tlourislnng  age."— E.  Vetroniilc, 
,  The  Ahnaki IiuUiins(M<tine Hist.  Soe.  Call.,  v.  C).— 
See,  also,  below:  Al.(iON'(i:r.\N  F.\mily.— For 
some  account  of  the  war^  of  the  Abnakis,  with 
the  New  England  colon'os,  see  C'.\nad.v  (Nkw 
Fu.\XCK);  A.  I).  1089  1000,  and  1092-1097; 
New  England:  A.  l>.  1075  (.July— Sbpt.); 
1702-1710,  1711-17l:.i;  and  Nova  Scotia:  A.  I). 
17i:!-17;iO. 

Absarokas,  Upsarokas,  or  Crows.  See 
below:  Sioi;an  Family. 

Acawoios.    See  below:   C'Anins   and  tiieih 

KlNI>TlI-.D. 

Acolhuas.     See  JIexico.  A.  D.  132o-1503. 

Adais.*- -These  Indiiiiis  were  a  "tribe  who,  ac- 
cordi.ig  to  Dr.  Sibley,  lived  al)out  the  year  1800 
near  the  old  Spanish  fort  or  mis.sion  of  Adaize, 
'about  40  miles  from  Xiilrliitoelies.  below  the 
Yattassees,  on  a  lake  eallcil  Lac  Mac  don,  which 
communicates  with  the  division  )f  Red  River 
that  passes  by  Bayou  Fierre  '  [Lewis  and  Cliirke]. 
A  vocabulary  of  about  250  words  is  all  that  re- 
mains to  us  of  their  language,  which  aecoiiling 
to  the  collector.  Dr.  Sibley,  'dilVers  from  all 
others,  and  is  so  dilllcult  to  speak  or  \niderstand 
that  no  nation  can  speak  ten  words  of  it.  ...  A 
recent  comparison  of  this  vocabulary  by  Mr. 
Oatschet.  with  several  Caddoan  dialects,  has  led 
to  the  discovery  that  a  consicU-rable  percentage 
of  tlie  Adi'ii  words  have  a  more  or  kss  remote 
allirity  with  Caddoan,  and  he  regards  it  as  a 
Caddoan  dialect." — J.  W.  Foivell,  Scrciilh  An. 
Urjinrt,  Bureau  of  KthiwUMiy,  pp.  •l.)-40. —  See 
preceding  ])age. 

Adirondacks. — "This  is  a  terra  bestowed  by 
the  Iroquois,  in  deris'on,  on  the  tribes  who 
appear,  at  an  early  day,  to  have  descended  the 
Utawas  river,  and  occupied  the  left  banks  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  above  the  present  site  of 
tjuebec,  about  the  close  of  the  loth  century.  It 
is  said  to  signify  men  who  eat  trees,  iu  allusiou 
to  their  using  the  bark  of  certain  trees  for  food, 
when  reduced  to  straits,  iu  their  war  e.xcurs,  us. 
The  French,  who  entered  the  St,  Livwreuco  from 
the  gulf,  called  the  same  people  Algonciuius  — 
a  generic  appellation,  which  has  been  long 
employed  and  come  into  universal  use,  among 
historians  and  philologists.  According  to  early 
accounts,  the  Adirondacks  had  preceded  the 
Iroquois  in  arts  and  attainment "."—11.  II. 
Schoolcraft,  Kotes  on  the  Iroquois,  Ji.  5.— See, 
also,  below:  luoquois  Confedeuacy:  Tueh; 
CoNQUiisra,  &c. 

iEsopus  Indians.  See  below:  Aloonquian 
Family. 

Agniers.— Among  several  names  which  the 
Mohawks  (see  below:  Iiioquois)  bore  in  early 
colonial  history  was  that  of  the  Agniers.— F. 
Parkrann,  llie  Connpiraey  of  Pontiac.  r.  1,  ji.  9, 
foot-  note. 

Albaias.     See  below:  Pampas  Tuibes. 

Aleuts.     See  below;  Eski.mauan  Family. 

Algonquian(Algonkin)  Family.—"  About  the 

period  1500-1000,  those  related  tribes  whom  wo 

nov   know  by  the  name  ol  Algonkins  ^\erc  at  ihe 

height  of  their  prosperity.     They  occupied  the 

•  See  Note,  Appendix  E. 


Atlantic  coast  from  the  Savannah  rivron  the  south 
to  the  strait  of  Belle  Isle  on  the  north.  .  The 
dialects  of  all  these  were  related,  and  evidently  at 
some  distant  day  hud  been  derived  from  the  same 
primitive  tongue.  Which  of  thciu  had  preserved 
the  ancient  forms  most  closely,  it  may  be  prema- 
ture to  decide  positively,  but  tin;  tendency  of 
modern  studies  has  been  to  assign  that  place  to 
the  Cree  —  the  northernmost  of  idl.  We  camiot 
erect  a  genealogical  tree  of  the.se  dialects.  .  .  . 
We  may,  howi'vcr,  group  them  in  such  a  manner 
as  roughly  to  indicate  their  relationship.  This 
I  do"  —  in  tlie  following  list:  "Cree. — Uld 
■Vlgonkin. —  ilontagnais.  — Cliipeway,  Ottawa, 
I'oltawattomie,  .Miami,  Peoria,  Pea,  Piankisliaw, 
Kaskaskia,  Menominee,  Sue.  Fo.\.  Kikapoo. — 
Sheslmtapoosh,  SecolTeo,  Jlicmac,  -Melisceet, 
Etchcmin,  Abnaki. —  Mohegan,  Massachusetts, 
Shawnee,  Miiisi,  Uiiami,  Unalachtigo  [the  lust 
three  named  forming,  together,  the  nation  of  the 
Lenape  or  Dclaware.s],  Nanlicoke,  Powhatan, 
Pampticoke.  —  Blackfoot,  Gros  Ventre,  .Shey- 
enne.  .  .  .  All  the  Algoukin  nations  who  dwelt 
north  of  the  Potomac,  on  the  east  shore  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  and  iu  the  basins  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  rivers,  claimed  near  kinship 
and  an  identical  origin,  and  were  at  times  united 
into  a  loose,  defensive  confederacy.  By  the 
western  and  southern  tribes  they  were  col- 
lectively known  as  Wapanaclikik — •  those  of  the 
eastern  region' — which  in  the  form  Abnaki  is 
now  conlined  to  the  remnant  of  a  tribe  in  ^Maine. 
.  .  .  The  members  of  the  confederacy  were  the 
Mohegans(.Mahicanni)  of  the  Hudson,  who  occu- 
pied the  valley  of  that  river  to  the  falls  above 
the  site  of  Albany,  the  various  New  >Iersey 
tribes,  the  Delawares  proper  on  the  Delaware 
river  and  its  branches,  including  the  .Aliiisi  or 
Monseys,  among  tlio  mountains,  the  Nn?iticokes, 
between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Atlantic,  and 
the  small  tribe  called  Canal,  Kanawhas  or 
Ganawese,  whose  towns  were  on  tributaries  of 
the  Potomac  and  Patuxent.  .  .  .  Linguistically, 
the  MohcgiMis  were  more  closely  allied  to  the 
tribes  of  New  England  than  to  those  of  the 
Delaware  Valley.  Evidently,  most  of  the  tribes 
of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  were  compara- 
tively recent  offshoots  of  'he  parent  .steiu  on  the 
Hudson,  supposing  the  course  of  migration  had 
been  eastward.  .  .  .  The  Nanticokes  occupied 
the  territory  between  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
ocean,  except  its  southern  extremity,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  under  the  control  of  the 
Powhaten  tribe  of  Virginia." — D.  G.  Brinton, 
The  lj:nnpc  and  their  Lerjenils,  ch.  1-2. — "  Jlolie- 
gaiis,  Munsees,  jManhattans,  ^Iet^iacs,  and  other 
alhliated  tribes  and  bauds  of  Algonduia  lineage, 
inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  and  ihe 
islands,  bay  and.seaboardof  New  York, including 
Long  Islanil,  during  the  early  penods  of  the  rise 
of  the  Iroipiois  Confederacy.  .  .  .  The  Jlohegans 
finally  retired  over  the  Highlands  east  of  them 
into  tlie  valley  of  the  llousator.i-.  The  JIunsccs 
and  Nanticokes  retired  to  the  Delaware  river  and 
reunited  with  their  kindred,  the  Lenapees,  or 
modern  Delawares.  The  ^Manhattans,  and 
numerous  other  bands  and  sub-tribes,  nielted 
awiiy  under  Ihe  intluence  of  licpior  and  died  in 
their  tracks." — II.  R.  Schoolcraft,  yuttitonthe 
Iror/'i'iin,  ch.  5. —  "  On  the  basis  of  a  dilTcrence 
in  (lialeci,  that  portion  of  the  Alg(m(iuin  Indians 
wnieh  dweit  in  New  England  has  been  classed  in 
two  divisions,  one  consisting  of  those  who  in- 


77 


AMEHICAX  \noIUGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


hatiilcci  wliiit  is  now  the  Slate  of  Miiinc,  nearly 
up  toils  ueslein  bonier  the  oiIkt  corisistiiii;  of 
the  r<'st  of  tiu'  native  population.  The  .Maine 
Indians  may  have  heen  some  l.'i.lMK)  in  niiinlHi', 
or  sotnewhat  less  than  a  thinlof  tlienalive  popu- 
lation of  New  Hn!,'laiiil  That  portion  of  llieni 
\vlioflw<'lt  furthest,  lowarilstheeasl  were  known 
1)V  the  name  of  Ktclehemins.  The  Abenacjuis. 
inebiiliriir  the  Tarratiiies,  hunleil  on  both  sidesof 
the  I'eiiobseot,  ami  westwanl  as  far  as  the  Sai'o, 
if  not  ipiile  to  the  I'lscilaipia.  The  tribes fou ml 
in  tile  rest  ot  New  Knirlaml  weri!  ile-ii^'iiateil  by 
II  greater  variety  of  names.  The  lioiiu.'  ot  the 
Peiiaeook  or  I'awtuekel  Indians  was  in  the 
Koiillieast  eorni'V  of  what  is  now  New  Ilainpshire 
and  the  eonliguous  re,u;ioii  of  .Massaehuselts. 
Next  dwelt  the  Massaeliusetts  tribe,  alonj;  the 
bay  of  that  name.  Then  wen^  found  sueei'ssively 
the  I'okanokets,  or  Wampanoags,  in  the  south- 
easterly refiioii  of  Massachusetts,  and  by  IJuz- 
zard's  and  Narraiiansetl  nays;th<^  Narrajransetts, 
with  a  tributary  raee  called  Nyanties  in  what  is 
now  the  western  part  of  the  State  of  RIkhIo 
I.sland;  the  I'eipiots,  betweiai  the  NarraLmnsett.s 
and  the  river  formerly  called  the  Pecpiot  River, 
now  the  Thames;  ami  t lie  Muli(^;?aus,  spreading 
themselves  beyond  the  River  t'ouneetieut.  In 
the  central  region  of  Massachusetts  were  the 
Nipiuucks,  or  >iipiiets;  and  along  Cape  Cod  were 
the  Nausets,  who  ap])eared  to  have  owed  some 
fealty  to  thi;  PoUanokets,  The  New  England 
Indians  exhibited  an  inferior  type  of  humanity. 
.  .  .  Though  lleet  and  agile  when  excited  "to 
some  occasional  elTort,  they  were  found  to  be  in- 
capable of  continuous  labor.  Heavy  and 
lihli'gmalii',  they  scarcely  wept  or  smiled." — 
J.  <i.  I'all'rev,  Oiiiij)fnili'iii.i  Hint,  of  N.  J'Jii'/., 
bk.  1,  <•//.  a  (/•.  1).— "The  vMvy  of  the 
'  ('ahohatatea,'  or  Mauritius  River  [i.  c.,  the 
Hudson  River,  as  now  iiamiMl|  at  the  time  Hud- 
son lirst  iscended  its  waters,  was  inliabitc^d, 
chielly,  by  two  aboriginal  races  of  Algoiuiuin 
lineage,  afterwards  known  among  the  English 
colonists  by  the  generic  names  of  Moheguns 
iind  Mincees.  The  Dutch  generally  called 
'ho  Mohcgans,  Mahicans;  and  the  Mincees, 
Sauhikans,  These  two  tribes  were  subdivided 
into  numerous  minor  bamls,  each  of  which 
liad  a  distiiu^tive  name.  The  tribes  on  the 
east  side  of  the  river  were  generally  .^[ohe- 
gaus;  those  on  the  west  side,  Mincees.  They 
were  hereditary  enemies.  .  .  .  Long  Island,  or 
'Sewau-liacky,'  was  occupied  by  thcsavage  tribe 
of  Metowacks,  which  wassubdivided  into  various 
clans.  .  .  .  StJiten  Island,  on  thi'  ojiposite  side 
of  the  bay,  was  inhabited  by  the  ^lonatons.  .  .  . 
Inland,  to  the  west,  lived  the  ]{aritaus  and  the 
Hackinsaeks;  while  the  regions  in  Itie  vicinity  of 
the  well-kiK  wu  '  llighland.s,'  south  of  Sandy 
Hook,  were  i.ihabited  by  i;  band  or  sub-tribe 
called  the  Nevesincks  or  Navisiuks.  .  .  .  To  the 
south  and  west,  covering  the  centre  of  New 
Jersey,  were  the  Aqnuniachukesuml  the  Stanke- 
kans;  while  the  Niwiey  of  the  Delaware,  north- 
ward from  the  Schuylkill,  was  inhabited  by 
yaricais  tribes  of  the  Eeiiapc  race.  .  .  .  The 
isla  (I  of  the  ^lanhattans  "  was  occupied  by  the 
tribe  which  received  that  name  (see  M.vxii.wi'AN). 
Ou  the  shores  of  the  river,  above,  dwelt  the 
Tuppans,  the  Wecki[uaesgeeks,  the  Siut  Sings, 
"whose  chief  village  was  named  Cssin-Sing, 'or 
'  the  Rlace  of  Stones, '  "  the  Rachami,  the  Waoriii- 
ucks,  the  Wappiugers,  and  the  \Varouawaukongs. 


"Further  north,  an<l  occupying  the  present 
counliesof  Ulster  and  fJreene,  were  the  jliiKpni 
elans  of  .Minnesineks,  Nanticokes,  Mincees,  anil 
Hilawares.  These  clans  had  i)resse(l  onwanl 
fiiiin  the  upper  valley  of  the  Delaware.  .  .  .  They 
were  generally  known  among  the  Dutch  as  the 
.Esopus  Indians."— J.  It.  lirodhead.  J/int.  of 
the  State  of  .\.  )'.,  r.  1,  <■/(.  '•i7^"'Y\\i'  area  for- 
im^rly  occupied  by  tlie  Algonquian  family  w;h 
more  ex;"'isive  than  that  ot  any  other  linguistic 
stock  in  Nor'h  America,  their  territory  reaching 
from  I.abiiido  •  'othe  Rocky  .Mountains,  and  from 
Churchill  River  of  Hudson  Hay  as  far  south  at 
least  us  Pamlico  Sound  of  North  Carolina.  In 
the  easter.i  part  of  this  territory  was  an  area 
occupied  liy  Iroquoiau  tribes,  surrounded  on 
•dmost  all  sides  by  their  Algonquian  neighbors. 
On  the  south  the  Algonquian  tribes  were  Imr- 
dered  by  tlio.se  of  Irixiuoianand  Siouan  (Catawba) 
stock,  on  the  southwest  and  west  by  the  ^lusk- 
hogean  and  Siouan  tribes,  and  ou  the  northwest 
by  the  Kitunahan  and  the  great  Athapaseun 
families,  while  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  and 
the  eastern  shore  of  Hudson  Hay  they  caine  in 
contact  with  the  Eskimo,  who  were  gradually 
retreating  before  them  to  the  north.  In  New'- 
foundland  they  encountered  tliv  Ueothukan 
family,  consisting  of  but  a  single  tribe.  A  portion 
of  the  Shawnee  at  some  early  period  had  sep- 
arated from  the  main  body  of  the  tribe  in  central 
Tennessee  and  i)Ushed  tiieir  way  down  to  the 
.Savannah  River  in  South  Carolina,  where,  known 
as  Savannahs,  they  carried  on  destructive  v 'irs 
with  the  surrounding  tribes  until  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18lh  century  they  were  tinally 
driven  out  and  joined  the  Delaware  in  the  north. 
Soon  afterwards  the  rest  of  the  tribe  was  expellej 
by  the  Cherokee  and  Chicasa,  who  thencefor- 
ward claimed  all  the  country  stretching  north  to 
the  Ohio  River.  The  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho, 
two  allied  tribes  ot  this  stock,  bad  l)ecome  sej)- 
arated  from  their  kindred  on  the  north  and  had 
forceil  tlieir  way  through  hostile  tribes  across  the 
.Missouri  to  the  IJlack  Hills  country  of  South 
Dakota,  and  more  recently  into  Wyoming  and 
Colorado,  thus  forming  the  advance  guard  of 
the  Algonquian  stock  in  that  direction,  having 
the  Siouan  tribes  behind  them  and  those  of  the 
Slioshonean  family  in  front.  [The  following  arc 
thej  principal  tribes:  Abnaki,  Algonquin,  Ara- 
l)aho,  Clieyenne,  Jonoy,  Cree,  Delaware,  Po.v, 
Illinois,  Kickapoo,  Mahican,  Massachuset,  Me- 
nominee, Miami,  Jlicniae,  ilohegau,  Montagnais, 
Mo'ilauk,  ^.Munsee,  Nanticoke,  Narragauset, 
Nauset,  Nipmuc,  Ojibwa,  Ottawa,  Pamlico,  Pen- 
nacook,  Pequot,  Piaukishaw,  Pottawotomi,  Pow- 
hatan, Sac,  Shawnee,  Siksika,  '\Vami>anoag, 
Wappinger.  The  present  number  of  the  Algon- 
(Uiiaii  stock  isaboutSJ.j, 000,  of  whom  abouttW^OOO 
are  in  Canada  and  the  remaimler  iuthe  United 
States." — J.  W.  I'owiiW,  iicvcuth  Annual  licport, 
Bureau  of  Ethiiolor/r/,  pj).  47-48. 

Also  in  J.  W.  Do  Forest,  Hist,  of  the  Indians 
of  Vonnecticut. — A.  Gallatin,  Synojmis  of  the 
Indian  lYilieii  ( Arcka'olur/ia  Anteriaiiut,  v.  i), 
iutro.,  sect.  2.— S.  Q.  Drake,  Aboriginal  liaees  of 
N.  Am.,  bk.  2-8. — See,  also,  below:  Del.vwauics; 

lIotUK.^NS;   SlIAWANESt ;  SUStJUISIIANXAS;   O.IIll- 

WAs;  Illinois.— For  the  Indian  wars  of  New 
England,  see  Niiw  Kngland:  A.  D.  1037  (The 
PKiiL'OT  W'Aii):  A.  D.  1074-1675  to  107«-l(i78 
(Ivixu  Philip's  Wau).  — See,  also,  Pontiac's 
Wau. 


78 


AMEHICAX  ABOUIOIXES. 


AMKUICAX  .  noHIOINES. 


Alibamus,  or  Alabamas.     Sci'  Ih'Idw:  >Ir.<K- 
iKMMAN  Family. 
Alleghans,    or    Allegewi,    or    Talligewi.— 

'■Tlic  iiMcst  tiilic  of  llic  Unilcil  Slates,  i)f  wliicli 
llicrr  is  iidistiiiil  tniditidii,  Hire  the  AUcKlmiis. 
'I'lic  term  is  iiii-pcliiiitcil  ill  the  |iriiiii|iiil  cimiiidf 
iiiDUiilaiiis  travcrsinir  the  coiiiitiy.  Tliis  trilie,  at 
all  iiiiliiiui'  prriocl,  liail  the  .seat  i)f  their  power 
iu  tlie  ')lii(>  Valley  ami  its  eoiilliieiit  slieiiiiis. 
wliicli  \V(  le  tile  sites  of  their  niiiiK'lous  towiH 
Mini  villaires.  Tliey  appear  (irii^inally  li>  have 
liiirne  the  name  of  Alii,  or  Alle.i;.  and  hence  the 
Miiiiies  of  Talli.\'e\vi  anil  Allei;e\vi.  (Trans.  Am. 
I'lii.  Hoc,  vol.  1.)  I!y  addiii;,'  to  the  nidieal  of 
this  word  the  jiartiele  'haiiy 'or 'gliany,' iiieaniiiir 
river,  they  ile.scril)ed  the  jjrineipal  scene  of  their 
residence— namely,  the  Allcgliaii_v,  or  Uiver  of 
tli<>  Alli'L'iians,  liow  called  Ohio.  The  word 
Ohio  is  of  Iroiiuois  origin,  and  of  a  far  later 
period;  li;iviiiir  hecii  bestowed  by  them  after 
their  eoiU|iiest  of  the  country,  in  alliance  with 
tile  Lenapees,  or  ancient  Delawares.  (Phi. 
Trans.)  The  term  was  aoplied  to  the  entire 
river,  from  its  conlliieiice  with  the  Mississippi, 
t>  its  oriirin  in  the  liroad  spurs  of  the  Alle- 
irliaiiics,  ill  New  York  and  I'ennsylvania.  .  .  . 
There  are  evidences  of  antii(iio  labors  in  the 
alluvial  i)laius  and  valleys  of  the  Scioto,  !Miami, 
and  Muskingum,  the  Wabash,  Ka.skaskia,(.'ahokia, 
and  Illinois,  denoting  that  the  aneie'it  Alleglmns, 
and  their  allies  and  confederates,  ci;ltivated  the 
soil,  and  were  semi-agriculturists.  These  evi- 
dences have  been  t.'accd,  at  late  periods,  to  the 
fertile  table-lands  of  Indiana  and  Michigan. 
The  tribes  lived  in  lixed  towns,  cultivating 
exti'nsive  fields  of  the  zca-iii:ii/.e ;  and  also,  as 
deiiote<I  by  recent  discoveries,  .  .  .  of  some 
species  of  beans,  vines,  and  esculents.  They 
were,  in  truth,  the  ukjuiiI  buihlers." — II.  ij. 
.Selioolcraft,  Infunniitioit  ■/■iKjHcliiir/  the  Iiuliitn 
'J'ribis,  jit.  5,  ]).  i;W. — This  conclusion,  to  which 
Mr.  bchoolcraft  had  arrived,  tliat  the  ancient 
Alleghans  or  Tallegwi  were  the  mound  builders 
of  llie  Ohio  Valley  is  being  sustained  by  later 
investigators,  and  seems  to  have  become  an 
accepted  opinion  amimg  those  of  highest 
authority.  The  Alleghans,  moreover,  are  being 
ideiitilied  with  the  Cherokecs  of  later  tinu.'s,  in 
whom  their  race,  once  suppo-sed  to  be  extinct, 
has  apparently  survived;  while  the  fact,  long 
suspected,  that  the  Cherokee  language  is  of  the 
Iro.iuois  family  is  being  proved  by  the  latest 
studies.  According  to  Indian  tradition,  the 
Alleghans  were  driven  from  their  ancient  scats, 
long  ago,  by  a  combination  against  them  of  the 
I.eniipe  (Delawares)  and  the  Mengwo  (Iroquois). 
The  route  of  their  migrations  is  being  traced  by 
the  character  of  the  mounds  which  they  built, 
and  of  the  remains  gathered  from  the  iiiounds. 
"The  general  movement  [of  retreat  before  the 
Iroipiois  and  Lenape]  .  .  .  must  have  been 
southward,  .  .  .  and  the  exit  of  the  Ohio  iiiound- 
Imilders  was,  iu  all  probability,  up  the  Kaimwah 
Valley  on  the  samej  Hue  that  the  Chetokees 
appear  to  have  followed  in  reaching  then- 
historical  locality.  ...  If  the  hypothesis  here 
advanced  be  correct,  it  is  apparent  that  the 
Cliurokees  eutered  the  imiuediate  valley  of  the 
>Iississippi  from  the  northwest,  striking  it  iu  the 
region  of  Iowa."— C.  Thoiuus,  The  Pmljkm  of  the 
Ohio  Moumh  (Bureau  of  Ethiiologi/,  1880). 

Also   in  The    same.  Burial    Mouiuh  of  the 

Sorlhcrn  Sections  of  the  If.  *'.  {Fifth  An.  liept. 

C 


of  the  Bureiiu  of  /■Jihiioloi/i).  18*1-84).-.!.  Ilecke- 
welder,  Arct.  of  the  Indinn  ydlions.  eh.  1. — 
See,  below:  Clli;ii()KKKS.  and  Iiioyrols  C'oNKKU- 
KiiA(v;  also  .VMi;iit(  A.  I'nioiiisiniiic. 

Amahuacas.     See  below  :   .\ni>i;sl\ns. 

Andastes.     See  below:   StsijficiiANNAii. 

Andesians. — "The  term  Andesians  or  An- 
tesiaiis.  is  used  with  geographical  rather  than 
ethnologie.-d  limits,  and  embrai'es  a  nuniber  of 
tribes.  First  of  these  are  the  C'ofau  in  Kipiador, 
east  of  Chimbora/o.  They  fought  valiaiitly 
against  the  Spaniards,  and  in  limes  past  killell 
many  of  the  missionaries  .sent  among  them. 
Xow  they  are  greatly  reduced  and  have  become 
more  gentle.  The  lluamalioya  are  their  near 
neighbors.  The  .Hvara,  west  of  the  river  I'as- 
taca,  are  a  warlike  trilic.  who,  po.ssibly  through 
a  mi.xture  of  Spanish  blood,  have  a  Kuropeau 
cast  of  couutciiancc  and  a  beard.  The  half 
Christian  Napoortiuijo  audtheir  peaceful  neigh- 
bors, the  Zaporo,  live  on  the  IJio  Xapo.  The 
Yameo,  living  on  the  lower  Chambiva  and  cross- 
ing the  Maranon,  wandering  as  far  as  Saryacu, 
have  a  clearer  complexion.  The  Facamora  and 
the  Yuguarziaigo  live  on  the  .Maranon,  where  it 
leaves  its  northerly  <'ours(,'  and  bends  toward  the 
cast.  The  Cochiijuima  live  on  the  lower  Vavari: 
the  JIayonina,  or  Uarbudo,  oii  the  usiddle  l.'cayali 
beside  the  Caiiipo  and  Cocliibo,  the  most  terrible 
of  South  Americau  Indians;  they  dwell  in  tliu 
woods  between  the  Tapiche  and  the  .Maranon, 
and  like  the  Jivaro  have  a  heard.  The  Fano,  who 
formerly  dwelt  in  the  territory  of  I.alaguiia,  but 
who  now  live  in  villages  on  the  upper  L'cayali, 
are  Christians.  .  .  .  Their  language  is  the  prin- 
cipal one  on  the  river,  and  it  is  shared  by  seven 
other  tribes  called  collectively  by  the  mission- 
aries Jlanioto  or  ilayuo.  .  .  .  AVithiu  the  woods 
on  the  right  bank  live  the  Amahuaca  and  Sha- 
caya.  On  the  north  lliev  join  the  Hemo,  a  pow- 
erful tribe  who  arc  distinguished  from  all  the 
others  by  the  custom  of  tattooing.  Outside  this 
Fano  linguistic  grouj)  stand  the  Canipa,  Campo, 
or  Antis  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Feruvian  (,'or- 
dilleiaat  the  source  of  the  Rio  15eni  and  its  tribu- 
taries. The  Choutiuiuiros,  or  Firu,  now  occupy 
almost  entirely  the  bank  of  the  L'cayali  below  the 
Pachilia.  The  Mojos  or  JIoxos  live  in  the  Bolivian 
provii.ce  of  JIoxos  with  the  small  tribes  of  the 
Baurc,  Itonair.a,  Facaguara.  A  number  of 
smaller  tribes  belonging  to  the  Antesian  group 
need  not  bo  enumerated.  The  late  Frofessor 
James  Orton  described  the  Indian  tribes  of  the 
territory  between  Quito  ami  the  river  Aniazou. 
The  Najio  approach  the  typ(>  of  the  Quichua. 
.  .  .  Among  all  the  Indians  of  the  "roviucia  del 
Orieute,  tlio  tribe  of  .Jivaro  is  one  or  the  largest. 
These  people  are  divided  into  a  great  number  of 
sub-tribes.  All  of  these  speak  the  dear  musical 
Jivaro  language.  They  are  muscular,  active 
men.  .  .  .  The  Morona  are  cannibals  in  the  full 
.sen.se  of  the  word.  .  .  .  The  Campo,  still  very 
little  known,  is  perhaps  the  largest  Indian  tribe 
iu  Eastern  Fern,  and,  according  to  .some,  is 
reliited  to  the  Inca  race,  or  at  least  with  th"ir 
successors.  Thoy  are  said  to  be  cannibals, 
though  James  Orton  does  not  think  this  po.ssiblc. 
.  .  .  T'lc  nearest  neighbors  of  the  Campo  are  the 
Chontakiro,  or  (Jhontaciuiro,  or  Chomiuiro,  called 
also  Firu,  who,  accoriling  to  Paul  Marcoy,  are 
said  to  be  of  the  same  origin  with  the  Campo, 
but  the  language  is  wholly  dilTercnt.  .  .  .Among 
the  Fano  people  are  the  wild  Couibo ;  they  arc 


79 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


the  most  interesting,  but  are  jinssing  into  extinc- 
tifin." — The  StaiiiUtrd  Nulural  llintorji  (./.  S. 
KiiKjuley.  «1.),  V.  6,  ?//<.  227-231. 

Apache  Group.*-rM(Ur  llic  ficiienil  iminc  of 
the  .Vpiiihcs  '  I  incluiU'  nil  llic  savaire  tribes 
roMiiiiii};  iIiioulIi  New  ^Mexico,  the  iiortli-wcstcrii 
|i(irliiiii  of  'IVxas,  a  small  part  of  uorthcni 
Mexico,  and  ,Vri/.ona.  .  .  .  Owing  to  their  rov- 
ing proelivilji'S  anil  incessant  raiils  they  are  leil 
lirst  in  oik!  direction  and  then  in  another.  In 
general  terms  they  may  he  said  to  range  about 
as  follows:  The  Comanches,  Jetans,  or  Nauni. 
consisting  of  three  tribes,  the  C'onianches  projK'r, 
the  Vamparacks,  anil  Tenawas,  inhabiting 
northern  Texas,  easlorii  Chihualiiia,  Xuevo  Leon, 
('■lahiiila,  Duraiigo,  and  portions^  of  .south- 
western N'ew  .Mexico,  by  language  iiUied  to  the 
(Shoshone  family ;  the  Apaches,  who  call  them- 
selves iShis  Inday,  or  'men  of  the  woods,' 
and  whose  tribal  divisions  are  the  t'liiricaguis, 
('oyotero.s,  Faraoncs,  (Jilenos.  Lipanes,  l.laii- 
eros,  .Mescaleros,  .Mimbrenos,  Natages,  I'elones, 
I'iiialenos.  Tejuas,  Tontos,  aial  Va(|Ueros, 
roaming  over  New  .Mexico,  Arizona,  North- 
western Texas,  Chihuahua  and  Sonora,  and 
who  are  allied  by  language  to  the  great 
Tinneh  family;  the  Navajos,  or  Tenuai,  'men,' 
US  tliey  designate  themselves,  having  linguistic 
allinities  with  the  .\j)ache  naliim,  with  which 
they  are  .>ionulimes  classed,  living  in  and  around 
the  Sierra  de  los  .Mimbres;  the  .Mojaves.  occupy- 
ing both  b.uiksof  the  Colorado  in  .\lojave  Valley  ; 
the  llualapais,  near  the  head-waters  of  Bill 
Williams  Fork;  tiie  Yunias,  un  the  east  bank  of 
the  Colorado,  near  its  junction  with  the  Rio 
Gila;  the  Cosninos,  who,  like  the  llualapais,  are 
sonietinu'S  included  in  the  Apache  nation,  rang- 
ing through  the  MogoUon  >Iounlains;  and  tlic 
Yampais,  between  Bill  Williams  Fork  and  the 
Rio  llassayampa.  .  .  .  The  Ai)ache  coimtry  is 
prol)ably  the  most  desert  of  all.  ...  In  both 
mountain  and  desert  the  lierce,  rapacious  Apache, 
inured  from  childhood  to  hunger  and  thirst,  and 
heat  and  cold,  finds  safe  retreat.  .  .  The 
I'ueblos  .  .  .  are  nothing  but  partially  recliiimed 
Apaches  or  Comanches." — II.  11.  Baiier-if!, 
ydtii-f  UiiCiK  of  til)',  I'licific  Stdtin.  v.  1,  ell.  5. — 
Dr.  Brinton  jirefers  the  name  Yuma  for  the 
whole  of  the  Apache  Group,  conlining  the  name 
Apache  (that  being  the  Yiuna  word  for  "light- 
ing men")  to  the  one  tribe  so  called.  "It  has 
also  been  .allcd  the  Katchan  or  Cuchan  stock." 
— 1).  G.  I'rinton,  I'lie  Aiiitrienii  Iture.,  p.  lOU. — 
See,  also,  below:  Aiii.\rAs<  an  Family. 

Apalaches. — "  Among  the  aboriginal  tribes  of 
the  I'nited  States  perhaps  noi.e  is  n  "e  enig- 
malicul  than  the  A]iala(  lies.  They  are  mentioned 
as  an  important  nation  by  many  of  the  early 
French  and  Spaiush  travellers  and  historians, 
their  name  is  presi'rved  by  a  bay  and  river  on 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Jlexico,  and  by  the 
great  eastern  coast  range  of  mountains,  and  has 
been  apjilied  by  ethnologists  to  a  family  of  cog- 
nate nations  that  iound  their  hunting  grounds 
from  the  jMississippi  to  the  Atlantic  and  from  the 
Ohio  river  to  the  Florida  Keys;  vet,  strange  to 
.say,  their  own  race  and  jilace  have  been  but 
guessed  at."  The  derivation  of  the  name  of  the 
Ajialaches  "has  been  ii  'iiiU'Slio  vexata'  anuing 
Inilianologists. "  We  must  "  consider  it  an  in- 
dication of  ancient  coniH'ct ions  with  thesmitheru 
contlnenf,  and  in  itself  u  pure  Carib  word 
'Apiilicho'    iu    the    Tumuuaca    dialect   of    the 

*  Bee  Note,  Appendix  E.  fiA 


Qiiaranay  Stem  on  the  Orinoco  signifies  'man,' 
and  llie  earliest  apf)lication  of  the  name  in  the 
northern  continent  was  as  the  title  of  the  chief 
of  a  country,  'I'liomme  par  excellence,'  and 
hence,  like "  very  many  other  Indian  tribes 
(.Vpaches,  Lenni  Lenape,  Illinois),  his  subjects 
assumed  by  eminence  the  ])roud  appcllatiim  of 
'The  .Men'.'  .  .  We  have  .  .  .  found  that 
though  no  general  migration  took  place  from  the 
continent  .southward,  nor  from  the  islands  north- 
ward, yet  there  was  a  considerable  intercoune 
in  both  directions;  that  not  only  the  natives  of 
the  greater  and  lesser  Antilles  and  Y'ucat;in,  but 
also  numlars  of  the  Guaranay  stem  of  the 
southirn  continent,  the  Caribs  proper,  cros.sed 
the  Straits  of  Florida  and  founded  colonies  on 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  that  their 
cii.stoms  and  languaco  became  to  a  certain  extent 
grafted  ujjon  those  of  the  early  possessors  of  the 
soil;  and  to  this  foreign  langimge  the  name 
Apalache  behmgs.  As  previously  .stated,  it  was 
used  as  a  generic  title,  apjilied  to  a  confederation 
of  nvmy  nations  at  one  time  luulcr  the  domina- 
tion of  one  chief,  whose  jiower  probably  ex- 
tended from  the  Alleghany  mountains  on  the 
north  to  the  .shore  of  the  Gulf;  that  it  included 
tribes  speaking  a  tongue  closely  akin  to  the 
Choktah  is  evident  from  the  fraginents  we  have 
remaining.  .  .  The  location  of  the  tribe  in 
after  vears  is  very  uncertain  Dumont  jilaced 
them  m  the  northern  part  of  what  is  now  Ala- 
bama and  Georgia,  near  the  mountains  that  bear 
their  name.  That  a  portion  of  them  did  live  in 
lliis  vicinity  is  corroborated  by  the  historians  of 
South  Carolina,  who  say  that  Colonel  Moore,  in 
1703,  found  them  'between  the  liead-waters  of 
the  Savaimah  and  Altamaha.' ,  .  .  According  to 
all  the  Spanish  atithorities,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  dwelt  iu  the  region  of  country  between  the 
Suwannee  and  Aiipalachicola  rivers  —  vet  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  Apalachicoios.  .  . 
They  certainly  had  a  large  and  prosperous  town 
iu  this  viciniiy,  said  to  contain  1,000  warriors. 
...  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  these  were 
dilTerent  branches  of  the  same  confederacy.  .  .  . 
In  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  they 
sufTered  much  from  the  devastations  of  the  Eng- 
lish, French  and  Creeks.  .  .  .  About  the  time 
Spain  regained  jiossessiou  of  the  soil,  they 
migrated  to  the  West  and  settled  on  the  Bayou 
Rapide  of  Red  River,  Here  they  had  a  village 
numbering  about  50  souls." — I).  Q.  Brinton, 
Notes  on  the  Floridiaii  Peninsula,  eh.  2. — See, 
also,  below :  Muskiiookan  Family. 
Apelousas.    Sl'cTe.kas:  The  Aboriginal  in- 

ItAIllTANTS. 

Araicu.     See  below :  Glck  on  Coco  Gitour. 
Arapahoes.   See  above:  Aloonql'Ian Family. 
Araucanians.     See  Ciiilk. 
Arawaks,  or  Arauacas.    See  below:  Cauihb 
AND  Tiiiiin  IvinnuiiiJ. 
A.icunas.     See   below:    Caiuub  and  tueiu 

KiNIUKI). 

Arikaras. 
Family. 

Arkansas.     See  below:  Siouan  Family. 

Assiniboins,     See  below:  Sioi:an  Fa-Mily. 

Athapascan  Family.-—  Chippewyans.—  Tin- 
neh. —  Sarceesf —  "This  name  [Athapascans 
or  Athabascans]  has  been  api)lied  to  a  class  of 
tribes  who  are  situated  north  of  the  groat 
Churchill  river,  and  north  of  the  source  of  the 
fork  of  the  Saskat<'hawine,  extending  westward 


See  below  ^  Pawnke  (Caddoan) 


AMERICAN  ABOniGINES. 


AMEKICAK  ABORIGINES. 


till  within  about  150  miles  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
.  .  .  The  inline  is  tlerived.  arbitrarily,  from 
Lake  Athabasca,  wliich  is  now  more  generally 
called  the  Lake  of  the  Hills.  Surrounding 
this  lake  extends  the  tribe  of  the  Chii)pcwyans, 
a  people  so-called  by  the  Kenistenoa  ami  Chip- 
pewas,  because  lliey  were  found  to  be  clothed, 
in  some  i)rimary  encounter,  in  tlie  scanty  garlj 
of  the  fisher's  skin.  .  .  .  AV'e  arc  informed  liy 
Mackenzie  that  the  territory  occujtied  by  the 
Chippewyans  extends  between  the  parallels 
of  00°  and  05°  north  and  longitiides  from 
100°  to  110°  west."  — II.  K.  Schoolcraft,  In- 
furmation  liesjk'ctiiif/  the  IntUan  I'rihcn,  jit,  5, 
p.  173. — "The  Tinneli  may  be  divided  into  four 
great  families  of  nations,  namely,  the  Chippe- 
wyans, or  Athabascas,  living  between  Hudson 
Ray  and  the  Koeky  Jlountains;  the  Tacullies,  or 
Cairiers,  of  New  Caledonia  or  North-western 
Britisli  America;  the  Kutchins,  occupying  both 
banks  of  the  Upper  Yukon  and  itu  Iribntiu-ies. 
from  near  its  mouth  to  the  Mackenzie  River,  and 
the  Kenai,  inhabiting  the  interior  from  (he  lower 
Yukon  to  Copiier  River." — II.  II.  Bancroft, 
T/w,  Kdtiix  Rues  of  the  Pacific  States,  eh.  2. — 
"  Tlie  Indian  tribes  of  Alaska  and  the  adjacent 
region  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  .  .  .  .  1. 
Tinneh  —  Chippewyans  of  authors.  .  .  .  Father 
retilol  diseusses  tlie  terms  Atliabaskans,  Chip- 
pewayans,  Montngnais,  and  Tinneh  as  applied 
to  this  group  of  Indians.  .  .  .  This  great  family 
includes  a  large  number  of  American  tribes  ex- 
tending from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie 
south  to  the  borders  of  ^lexico.  The  Apaches 
and  Navajos  belong  to  it,  and  the  family  seem* 
to  intersect  the  continent  of  North  America  in  a 
norti  erly  and  southerly  (direction,  principally 
along  the  Hanks  of  the  Rocky  Moimtains.  .  . 
The  designation  [Tinneh]  proposed  by  Messrs. 
Ross  and  Gibbs  lias  been  accepted  by  most 
modern  ethnologists.  ...  3.  T'linkets,"  which 
familv  includes  the  Yakutats  and  other  groups. 
— W.'II.  Dall,  Trilics  of  the  Extreme  Korthwcst 
(Contributions  to  X.  Am.  Kthiwtoi,;/,  i:  1). — 
"Wlierever  found,  tlie  members  of  this  groii]) 
present  a  certain  family  resemblance.  In  ap- 
l)earance  they  are  tall  and  strong,  the  forehead 
low  with  prominent  superciliary  ridges,  the  eyes 
slightly  oblique,  the  nose  prominent  but  wide 
toward  the  base,  tlie  mouth  large,  tlu^  hands  and 
feet  small.  Their  strength  and  endurance  are 
often  phenouienal,  but  in  the  North,  at  lea.u. 
their  longevity  is  slight,  few  living  beyond  fifty. 
Intellectually  they  r.mk  below  most  of  their 
neiglibors,  and  nowhere  do  tlu!V  appear  as  fos- 
terers of  the  germs  of  civili/.ation  AVherc,  as 
among  the  Navajos,  we  find  them  having  .some 
repute  for  the  nieehanieal  arts,  it  turns  out  that 
this  is  owing  to  having  captured  and  adopted  the 
menibersof  more  gifted  tribes.  .  .  .  Agriculture 
was  not  iiractised  either  in  the  north  or  souiii, 
the  only  exception  being  the  Navajos,  and  with 
tliera  the  insi)iralion  came  fn.n  otiier  slocks. 
.  .  .  The  mo.st  cultured  of  their  bands  were  the 
Navajos,  whose  name  is  said  to  signify  'large 
cornfields,'  from  their  extensive  agriculture. 
When  the  Spaniards  first  met  them  in  1541  they 
Were  tillers  of  tlu^s<iil,  erected  large  granaries  for 
their  crops,  irrigated  their  fields  by  artificial 
water  courses  or  aceijuias,  and  lived  iii  substan- 
tial dwellings,  i)artly  underground;  but  they  had 
not  then  learned  the  art  of  weavi.ig  the  eelo 
brated    'Niivujo  bliuikcts,'  that  being  u    later 


acquisition  of  their  arti.sans." — 1).  G.  Brinton, 
The  Aiiicricaii  Uoce,  pp.  09-72. —  Sec,  above, 
APACiii;  Gitot'p,  and  Blackkkkt. 

Atsinas  (Caddoes).*  See  Inflow:  Blackfket. 

Attacapan  P'amily. — "Derivation  Prom  a 
Choctaw  word  meaning  'man-eater.'  Little  is 
known  of  the  tril)e,  the  language  of  whicli  forms 
the  basis  of  the  present  family.  The  sole  know- 
ledge possessed  by  Gallatin  was  deiivc^d  from  a 
vocabulary  and  soiiu-  scanty  information  fur- 
nished by  Dr.  .John  Sibley,  who  collected  his  ma- 
terial in  the  year  1805.  Gallatin  states  that  the 
tribe  was  recluci  d  to  50  men.  .  .  .  Jlr.  Gatschet 
collected  some  3.000  words  and  a  considerable 
body  of  text.  Ilis  vocabulary  dilVers  considtr- 
ably  from  the  one  furnished  by  Dr.  Sibley  and 
published  by  Gallatin  .  .  .  The  above  material 
seems  to  show  that  the  Attaca|)a  language  is  dis- 
tinct fnmi  ali  others,  except  po.ssibly  the  Chiti- 
maclian," — .1.  W.  Powell,  Seccnth  Annual  lit  port, 
liurKVi  of  Ethiioloim,  p.  57. 

Aymaras.    See  Pehu. 

Aztecs  See  below:  Mayas;  also  Mexico: 
A.  D.  1335-1503 ;  and  Aztec  and  Maya  Pictuue 
Writing. 

Bakairi.    See  below:  Cakids. 

Balchttas.     See  below :  Pampas  Tkiuks. 

Bannacks,    Seeljelow:  Suosiionean  Family. 

Barbudo.    See  aiiove:  Amjksians. 

Bare.     See  b>  low    Gi:ck  oil  Coco  Guoup. 

Baure.     See  aliove :   Amdesians. 

Beothukan  Family. — Tlie  Beothuk  were  a 
tribe,  now  extinct,  which  is  believed  to  have 
oecupiiid  the  whole  of  Newfoundland  at  the  tirao 
of  its  dis;><)very.  What  is  known  of  the  language 
of  the  Beothuk  indicates  no  relationship  to  any 
other  Ameiiean  tongue — J.  W.  Powell,  Scvcntl- 
Annual  liept.  of  the  liurtau  of  Ethnolor/y,  p.  I'i . 

Biloxis.     See  below:  SioUA.x  Fa.mh.v. 

Blackfeet,  or  Siksikas.— '  Tlu^  trilie  that  w  uu- 
ilered  the  furthest  from  the  primitive  home  of  the 
stock  [the  Alg(aiquian|  were  the  Blackfeet,  or 
Sisika,  which  word  Iris  this  signilieatiou,  It  is 
(1l  rived  from  their  earlier  habitat  in  the  valley  of 
llie  Red  river  of  the  north,  where  the  soil  was 
dark  and  blackened  their  moccasins.  Their 
bands  include  the  Blood  or  Kenai  and  the  Piegan 
Indians.  Half  a  century  ago  they  were  at  the 
h^  iui  of  a  eonfi'deracy  wliieh  embraced  these  and 
also  the  Sarcee  (Tiiine)  and  the  Atsina  (Cuddo) 
nations,  and  numbered  about  30,000  souls.  They 
have  an  interesting  mythology  and  an  unusual 
knowledge  of  the  constellatiims. " — D.  G.  Briu- 
ton.  The  Aiaeriam  llace,  p.  79. —  See  above: 
AuiONijiiiAN  Fa.mily;  and.  below:  Flatiieads. 

Blood,  or  Kenai  Indians.  See  above :  Black- 
1'-i;et. 

Botocudos.     Seebelov/:  Tupi. — Guauani. — 

Tui'UYAS. 

Brule'.     Se(!  below :  Sioian  Famii-v. 
Caddoan  Family.    See  below.  Pawnee  (Cad- 
KoA.N)  Family;  see,  also,  Texas:  Tiiic  Ahohio- 

INAL  InIIAIUTANTS. 

Cakchiquels.  See  below:  Quiches,  and 
Mayas. 

Calusa.     See  below:  Tu.MLquANAN  Family. 

Cambas,  or  Campo,  or  Campa.  See  above: 
Andkkians;    also,    I'ximvia:    AnomoiNAL   In- 

IIAIUTANTS. 

Cattares.    See  Ecuadok. 
Canas.     See  Peuu. 

Canichatias.  Sec  Bolivia:  Abohiuinal  In- 
uajhtantb. 


*  Oee  Note,  Appendix  L. 


81 


AMKKICAN  AKOmOIXES 


AMKRICAN  ABOHIGINES. 


Caniengas.  Si.'u  below;  luoiiiois  C'onfkd- 
i;iiA<v. 

Cariay.     Spc  below:  GrcK  oil  Coco  Giiovp. 

Caribs  and  their  Kindred.  —  "Tlio  -niirlikf 
iitul  Miiyicliliiiir  clianiclrr  (if  tlicso  pcopli',  so 
dillcri'iit  from  tl!;it  of  thi'pusilliiniiuoiis  niilioiis 
nrouiiil  llicm,  iiiiil  tlio  wide  scopi!  of  their  enter- 
prises iiml  w,.:iileriii!rs,  like  those  of  the  noninil 
tribes  of  the  OM  World,  entitle  them  to  (lis- 
tin.;:iii--he(l  iitteiition.  .  .  .  The  trnilitionul  lu- 
(?onnls  of  their  oriirin,  tlionirh  of  course  extremely 
viigiio,  are  yet  eapuble  of  being  veriflctl  to  a 
preat  deirree  by  treojrraidiical  facts,  and  open  one 
of  the  rich  veins  of  cnrioiis  iiKjiiiry  and  specula- 
tion which  abound  in  the  Xew  World.  They 
are  said  to  havenii);rated  from  the  remote  valleys 
emb(>some(l  in  the  Analaehian  niotuiiains.  The 
earliest  accomits  we  have  of  them  rei)resent  them 
with  weapons  in  their  hands,  continually  en- 
gaged in  wars,  winniiif:  their  way  and  shift- 
in!:  their  abode,  tuitil,  in  I'.iO  course  of  timi;,  they 
found  themselves  at  the  extremity  of  Florida. 
Uere,  abandoning  the  northern  continent,  they 
passed  over  to  tlio  Lueayos  [Bahamas],  and 
thence  gradually,  in  the  jirocess  of  years,  from 
island  to  island  of  that  vast  verdant  eh.ain,  which 
links,  ns  it  were,  the  end  of  Florida  to  the  coast 
of  Paria,  on  the  southern  continent.  The  archi- 
pelago extending  from  Porto  Hico  to  Tobago 
WM  their  stronghold,  and  the  island  of  Guada- 
loupe  in  a  manner  their  citadel.  Hence  they 
maile  their  expeditions,  and  .spread  the  terror  of 
their  name  through  all  the  surrounding  countries. 
Swarms  of  them  landed  upon  the  southern  con- 
tinent, and  overran  .some  parts  of  terra  firma. 
Traces  of  them  have  been  (lis(H)Vered  far  in  the 
interior  of  that  vast  cotintry  ilnough  which  Hows 
the  (Iroonoko.  The  Huteh  found  colonies  of 
them  on  the  banks  of  the  Iliouteka,  which  emp- 
ties into  the  Surinam;  along  the  Ksquibi,  the 
Maroni,  and  other  iiv(rs  of  Guayana;  and  in  the 
coiuitry  watered  by  t)ie  windings  of  the  Cay- 
eime  " — AV  I'n  ;'g,  Life  nml  Voyiujea  of  Coliim- 
bii.%  W-  0,  rh.  3  (B.  1). — "To  this  account  [sub- 
stantially as  given  above]  of  the  origin  of  the 
Insular  C'liaraibes,  the  generality  of  historians 
have  given  their  assent;  nut  there  are  d(nib*,s 
uttending  it  that  ar_  n(5t  easily  solved.  If  [mey 
n''grii'.(i  fr(, II  Florida,  the  imperfeet  state  anil 
natural  C(nirsi'  of  their  navagation  induce  a  be- 
lief that  traces  of  them  would  have  been  found 
on  those  islands  which  are  near  to  the  Florida 
shore;  yet  the  natives  of  the  Bahamas,  when  dis- 
coveretl  by  Columbus,  were  evidently  a  similar 
people  to  those  of  Ilispaniola.  Besides,  it  is 
Kufllciently  knuwn  that  there  existed  anciently 
manv  numerous  and  powerful  tribesof  Charailx'S 
on  the  southern  peninsula,  extending  from  the 
river  Oronoko  to  Es.seiiuebe,  and  throughout  the 
whole  province  of  Surinam,  even  to  Brazil,  some 
of  which  still  maintain  their  independency.  .  .  . 
I  incline  therefore  to  the  opinion  of  Jlartyr,  and 
conclude  that  the  islanders  were  rather  a  colony 
fron\  the  Charaibes  of  South  America,  than  from 
any  nation  of  the  North.  Hochefort  admits  that 
tlifir  own  traditions  referred  constantly  to  Gui- 
ana."—  B.  Edwards,  JJigl,  of  lint.  t'olonUiiin  the 
W.Indie>,bk.  1,  ch.  2.— "The  Carabisc-e,  Cara- 
beesi,  Charaibes,  Caribs,  or  Galibis,  originally 
ix-cunied  [in  Guiana]  the  principal  rivers,  but  as 
the  Dutch  encroached  upon  their  possessions 
they  retired  inlniul,  ami  are  now  daily  dwind- 
ling away.      According  to  Mr   llillhoiise,  they 


could  formerly  uuister  nearly  l.OfK)  fighting  men, 
but  are  now  [1^.55]  scarcely  able  to  raise  a.  tenth 
part  of  that  number.  .  .  .  The  smaller  islands 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea  were  formerly  thickly 
])opulated  by  this  tribe,  but  now  not  a  trace  of 
tliem  remains  " — 11.  O.  Dalton,  Hist,  of  British 
(liiidiin,  V.  1,  rh.  1. — E.  F.  iin  Thurn,  Avtoiifj 
the  Indians  of  (iniuiKi,  ch.  C.  —  "H(;cent  ro- 
,';'arcbes  have  shown  that  the  original  home  of 
the  stock  was  south  of  the  Amazon,  and  prob- 
ably in  the  highlands  at  the  head  of  the  Tapajoz 
river.  A  tribe,  the  Bakairi,  is  still  resident 
there,  v.hoso  language  is  a  ptire  and  archaic 
form  of  the  Carib  tongue." — D.  G.  Brinton,  J{a- 
ct'.i  (1 11(1  Peoples,  p.  208.  —  "Belated  to  the  Caribs 
stand  a  long  li.st  of  small  tribes  .  .  .  all  inhabit- 
ants of  the  great  primeval  forest  in  and  near 
Guiana.  The)'  may  have  characteristic  dilTeren- 
ccs,  but  uoiKi  worthy  of  mention  are  known.  In  • 
bixlily  appearance,  according  to  all  accounts, 
these  relative's  of  the  Caribs  are  '".autifid.  In 
(Jeorgetown  the  Artuiacas  [or  Arawaks]  are  cele- 
brated for  their  beauty.  They  are  slender  and 
graceful,  and  their  features  handsome  and  regu- 
lar, the  face  having  a  Grecian  profile,  and  the 
skin  being  of  a  reddish  cast.  A  little  farther  in- 
land we  lind  the  Macushi  [or  JMaeusis],  with  a 
lighter  complexion  and  a  Hoinan  nose.  These 
two  types  are  repeated  in  other  tribes,  except  in 
the  Taruini,  who  are  decidedly  ugly.  In  mental 
characteristics  great  similarity  prevails." — The 
Stiuidard  Xntnrtil  Jli.itnrji  (J.  S.  Kin'jsley,  ri!.),p. 
'i'M. — "The  Arawaks  occupied  on  the  continent 
the  area  of  the  modern  Guiana,  between  the 
Corentyn  and  llu;  Pomeroori  rivers,  and  at  one 
time  all  the  West  Indian  Islands.  From  some  of 
them  they  were  early  driven  'jy  the  Caribs,  and 
within  40  years  of  the  date  of  Columbus'  first 
voyage  the  Spanish  had  exterminated  nearly  all 
on  the  islands.  Their  course  of  migration  had 
been  from  the  interior  of  Brazil  northward;  their 
di»tant  relations  are  still  to  be  found  between  the 
headwaters  of  the  Paraguay  ;ind  Schiugu  rivers." 
— n.  G.  Brinton,  l!(tces  nml  Peoples,  p.  '..'OS-aOO.— 
"Th(^  Kapohn  (Acawoios,  Waikas,  Ac)  claim 
kindred  with  the  Caribs.  .  .  .  The  Acawoios, 
thoigh  resolute  and  determined,  are  less  hasty 
and  impetuous  than  the  Caribs.  .  .  .  According 
to  their  tradition,  one  of  their  hordes  removed 
[to  the  Upper  Demerera]  .  .  .  from  the  Jlasa- 
runi.  The  I'arawianas,  who  originally  dwelt  on 
the  Demerera,  having  been  exterminated  by  the 
continual  incursions  of  the  Caribs,  the  AVaika- 
.Vcawoios  occupied  their  vacant  territory.  .  .  . 
The  JIacusis  .  .  .  are  supposed  l)y  some  to  have 
formerly  inhabited  the  baidcs  of  the  Orinoco. 
...  As  they  are  industrious  and  unwarlike,  the/ 
have  been  the  prey  of  every  savage  tribe  around 
them.  Tlie  Wapisianas  an^  sujjposed  to  have 
driven  them  nortlnvard  and  taken  possession  of 
their  country.  The  Brazilians,  as  well  as  the 
Caribs,  Acawoios,  &e.,  have  long  been  in  the 
habit  of  enslaving  them.  .  .  .  The  Arecunas 
have  been  accustomed  to  descend  from  the 
higher  lands  and  attack  the  Macusis.  .  .  .  This 
tribe  is  said  to  have  formerly  dwelt  on  the  banks 
of  the  Uaupes  or  Ucayiui,  a  tributary  of  the  Rio 
Negro,  .  .  The  Warnus  appear  to  have  been 
the  moiit  ancient  inliabitants  of  the  land  Very 
little,  however,  can  be  gleaned  from  them  re- 
specting their  early  history.  .  .  .  The  Tivitivaa, 
mentioned  by  Italeigh,  were  ])robably  a  branch 
of  the  Warnus,  whom  he  calls  Qnarawetes."— 


18 


AMERICAN  ABOHIOINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


^V,  II.  Bn'tt,   Indian  Tribes  of  Ginaiin,  jit.  3,  ch. 

Caripuna.   Soo  brlow:  Guck  ou  Coco  Gltorp. 

Cat  Nation,  or  Eries.  Scobtloxv:  llimixs, 
&i'.,  1111(1  luoiiioiH  Co.m'kukhacy:  Tiikiu  Cox- 
(jrKsTs.  itc. 

Catawbas,  or  Kataba.  Sec  bilow:  Siouan 
Family;  nlso,  TiMUiiiANAS. 

Cayugas.     Seo  below:  Ikoquois  Conpedek- 

A(  V. 

Chancas.     Seo  PEur. 

Chapas,  or   Chapanecs.     See  below:    Zapo- 

tW^,   KTC. 

Cherokees. —  "The  Cherokee  tribe  has  lon.ij 
been  a  puzzling  factor  to  students  of  ethnology 
ami  N'orth  Aiiierieau  languages.  Whether  to  bo 
considered  an  abnormal  offshoot  from  one  of  the 
well-known  Indian  stocks  or  families  of  North 
America,  or  the  renuiant  of  some  tin(lct<;rmiiied 
or  almost  extinct  family  which  has  merged  into 
another,  appear  to  be  questions  yet  unsettled." 
— C.  Thomas,  Jiurinl  MduiuIs  of  the  Nortltcrn  Sec- 
tions of  the  U.  S.  (Fifth  Annual  Rtpt.  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnolorji/.  1883-4).— Facts  which 
tend  to  identify  tlio  Cherokees  with  the  ancient 
"mound-builders"  of  the  Ohio  Valley  —  the  Al- 
leghans  or  Tallipewi  of  Indian  tradition  —  are 
set  forth  by  Prof.  Thomas  in  a  later  paper,  on 
the  l^obleni  of  the  Ohio  Mounds,  published  by 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  in  1889  [seo  above: 
Ali.koh.vxs]  and  in  a  little  book  published  in 
1890,  entitled  "The  Cherokees  in  Pre-Columbian 
Times."  "Tlio  Cherokee  nation  has  jirobably 
occupied  a  more  prominent  place  in  the  affairs 
and  history  of  what  is  now  the  United  States  of 
America,  since  the  date  of  the  early  European 
settlements,  than  any  other  tribe,  nation,  or  con- 
federacy of  Indians,  unless  it  bo  possible  to  ex- 
cept the  powerful  and  warlike  lea,guo  of  the 
Iroquois  or  Six  Nations  of  New  York.  It  is  al- 
most certain  that  tlicy  were  visited  at  a  very 
early  period  [l")4(l]  folli>wing  the  discovery  of  the 
American  continent  Ijy  that  daring  and  enthusi- 
astic Spaniard,  Fernando  do  Soto.  ...  At  the 
time  of  the  English  settlement  of  the  Caroliiias 
tlie  Clierokees  occupied  a  diversified  and  well- 
watered  regio'i  of  country  of  large  extent  upon 
the  waters  of  tlio  Catawba,  Broad,  Saluda,  Keo- 
wee,  Tugaloo,  Savannah,  and  Coosa  rivers  on 
the  cast  and  south,  and  several  tributaries  of  the 
Tennessee  on  the  north  and  west.  ...  In  sub- 
sequent years,  through  frequent  and  long  con- 
tinued conllicts  with  the  ever  advancing  white 
settlements,  and  tliu  succcs.sivo  treaties  whereby 
the  Cherokees  gradually  yielded  portions  of  their 
%  domain,  the  location  and  names  of  their  towns 
were  continually  changing  un'il  tin;  final  removal 
of  the  nation  [1H36-1839]  west  of  the  Mi.ssis.sippi. 
.  .  .  This  removal  turned  the  Cherokees  back  iu 
the  calendar  of  progress  and  civilization  at  least 
a  (piarter  of  a  century.  The  hardships  and  ex- 
posures of  the  journey,  couple<l  with  the  fevers 
and  malaria  of  a  radically  different  climate,  cost 
the  lives  of  pcrhai)s  10  per  cent,  of  their  total 
popidatijn  Tlie  animosities  and  turbulence 
horn  of  the  treaty  of  1HI15  not  only  occasioned 
the  loss  of  many  lives,  but  rendered  property  in- 
secure, and  in  consequence  diiniuished  the  zeal 
and  industry  of  the  entire  ccmimunity  in  its  ac- 
cumulation- A  brief  period  of  comparative 
(puct,  however,  was  again  characterized  by  an 
advance  toward  u  higher  civilizutiou.  Fi.e 
years  after  their  removal  we  find  from  the  re- 
•See  Note.  Appendix  E.  gn 


port  of  their  agent  that  they  are  again  on  the 
increa.se  in  population.  .  .  .  With  the  exception 
of  occasional  drawl)acks  —  the  res\ilt  of  civil 
feuds  —  the  j)rogress  of  the  nation  in  ediualion, 
industry  and  civilization  o  ntinued  mil II  the 
outbreak  of  the  rebellion.  At  this  period,  from 
the  best  attainable  information,  the  Cherokees 
numbered  21,(K)0  souls.  The  events  of  the  war 
brought  to  them  more  of  desolation  and  ruin 
than  nerhaps  to  any  other  community.  Raided 
and  .sacked  altcrnatel3',  not  only  by  the  Confed- 
erates and  Union  forces,  but  by  tlic  vindictive 
ferocity  and  hate  of  their  own  factional  divis- 
ions, their  cotuitry  became  a  blackened  and  deso- 
late waste.  .  .  .  The  war  over,  and  the  work  of 
reconstruction  '. ommenced,  found  them  number- 
ing 14,000  inqioverished,  heart-broken,  and 
revengeful  people.  ,  .  .  To-d.iy  their  country  is 
more  jjrosperous  than  ever.  They  number 
22,000,  a  greater  iiopulatlon  than  they  have  had 
at  any  previous  period,  except  jicrhaiis  just 
prior  to  the  date  of  the  treaty  of  183.1,  when 
those  east  added  to  those  west  of  the  Jllssi.ssippi 
are  stated  to  have  aggregated  nearly  25,000  peo- 
ple. To-day  they  have  2,300  scholars  attend- 
ing 75  schools,  established  and  supported  by 
themselves  at  an  aiinind  expense  to  the  nation  of 
nearly  $100,000.  To-day,  13,000  of  their  jieoplo 
can  read  and  18,000"  can  speak  the  Eng- 
lish language.  To-day,  5,000  brick,  frame  and 
log-houses  are  occupied  by  them,  and  they  have 
04  churches  witli  a  memliersliip  of  several  thou- 
sand. They  cultivate  100,000  acres  of  land  and 
have  an  additional  150,000  fenced.  .  .  .  Tliej' 
have  a  constitutional  form  of  gov<  rnment  predi- 
catcu  iipon  that  of  the  United  States.  As  a  ride 
their  laws  are  wi.se  and  benelicent  and  are  en- 
forced with  strictness  and  justice.  .  .  .  The 
present  Cherokee  population  is  of  a  compo-.ltc 
character.  Kenuiants  of  other  nations  or  tribes 
[Delawarcs,  Shawnees,  Creeks,  Natchez]  have 
from  time  to  time  been  ai.sorbedand  admitted  to 
full  participation  in  the  beneli'sof  Cherokee  citi- 
zenshii)." — C.  C.  Koycc,  The  Cherokee  Nation  of 
IniUaiis  {Fifth  Annua/.  Jiipt.  of  the  Bureau  of 
E/hnoloy//,  1883-84).— This  elaborate  paper  by 
Mr.  Uoyce  is  a  narrative-  in  detail  of  the  ollicial 
relations  of  the  Cherokees  with  the  colonial  and 
federal  governments,  from  their  first  treaty  with 
South  Carolina,  in  1721,  down  to  the  treaty  of 
April  27,  1808  —"As  early  as  1798  Barton  com- 
pared the  Cheroki  language  with  that  of  the 
lro(piois  and  stated  his  helief  that  there  was  a 
connection  between  them.  .  .  .  Mr.  Hale  was 
the  llrst  to  give  formal  expression  to  his  belief  in 
tlie  allinity  of  the  Cheroki  to  Iriapiois.  Recently 
ext  'usive  Cheroki  vocabularies  have  come  into 
possession  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnologv,  and  a 
caieful  comparisini  of  them  wi'h  ample  Irorpiois 
material  has  been  made  by  Mr  Hewitt.  The  re- 
sult is  con'incing  iiroof  of  the  relationship  of 
the  two  languages.  — J.  W.  Powell,  Sirenth  An- 
nual Uepl.  <f  the  Bureau  of  Fthnolot/y,  p.  77.* 

Also  i;;  S.  G.  Drake,  The  Alxiriginal  Ilaees  of 
X  Am.,  bk.  4,  eh.  13-10.— See,  above:  Ai.r.K- 
(iiiANs. —  See,  also,  for  an  account  of  the  Che- 
rokee War  of  1759-1701,  South  Cakolina:  A.  D 
1759-1701;  and  for  "I^rd  Dunmore's  War," 
Oiiio(Vaixey).  a   n  1774. 

Cheyennes,  or  Sheyennes.    Sec  above-   At,- 
ooN(iiiAN   Family 

Chibchas. —  The  most  northerly  group  of  the 
tribes  of  the  Andes  "are  \\w  Cundinaiiiiiieu  of 


AMERICAN  AnOHIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


the  tnMfi  lands  of  PojTota.  At  tlic  time  of  tlic 
coM(|iicst  I  lie  walcrslu'd  of  tlic  Mag<lal('na  was 
rx'cupicil  hy  the  Cliihclia.  or,  as  tlicy  witc  iiilli'd 
l)y  tile  Siianiards,  Muyscas.  At  that  liint!  tlio 
Cliil)clia  wi'Ti:  tlio  most  iKiwcrful  of  all  tlio 
autoclitlionoiis  trilns,  liad  a  loii^  liisfory  lichiiid 
thrill,  were  well  alvaiKcd  I  iward  (■ivilizaticiii, 
to  which  iMiiiicioiis  aiiti<)iiilics  l.car  witness. 
The  (^liihrha  of  to-day  no  loni;cr  speak  tin;  wcU- 
dcvclopcd  and  musical  Iani;uac:('  of  their  forc- 
fallieis.  It  hecaiiie  exlinct  iiliiiilt  17i!0,  and  it 
cm  now  only  he  inferred  Ironi  cxistiiii;  diiiKcIs 
of  il ;  these  arc  the  laiif^uaj^cs  of  the  Turiero,  a 
trill"  dwclliiii;  north  of  Ro.i^ota,  and  of  the  Itoco 
Indians  wlio  live  in  tlu;  nci^^hhorliooil  of  the 
cclehrated  Emerald  mines  of  Mu/.o. " —  T/w  Hldii- 
rhird  .\'tttiiriil  i/ixlori/  (J.  S.  Kiiiff.ilfi/,  erf.)  v.  0,  p. 
SI."). —  "As  potters  and  goldsmiths  they  [the 
Chihcha]  ranked  among  the  tincst  on  the  conti- 
nent."— I).  U.  nrinlon,  limciaml  PtoplcH,  p.  273. 
— Sec,  also,  Colo-Mbian  St.\tes:  A.  D.  151!0- 
17:11. 

Chicasas.  See  hehuv:  Mi'sivIiogean  Family; 
also.  I.oiisiANX:    A.  I).   17li)-1750. 

Chichimecs.     See  >!i;xi(i):    A.  ■*).  132.")-l.-,()2. 

Chimakuan  Family. —  "The  Cliimakiini  arc 
said  to  liavi'  hecn  formerly  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  tribes  of  Paget  Sound.  Their 
warlike  habits  early  tended  to  diminish  their  num- 
bers, and  when  visited  by  Gibbs  in  IH.-ii  ihey 
counted  only  about  70  individuals.  This  small 
remnant  occuiiied  some  \h  small  lodges  on  Port 
Towns  'nd  liay," — J.  W.  Powell,  Sfteulh  AiininU 
Hcji'trt,  liid'Cdii  iif  KthiKiliigji,  p.  03. 

Chimarikan  Family. — "According  to  Powers, 
this  f.imily  was  reprcsi'iited,  so  f:vr  as  known,  by 
two  tribes  in  Califnrni.i,  one  the  ('liinnil-a-kw(', 
living  on  New  River,  a  branch  of  tli(^  Trinity, 
the  other  the  C'liiniariko,  residing  upon  the  Trin- 
ity itself  from  Itnrnt  Rincli  up  to  tlie  mouth  of 
N'orlli  Pork,  California.  The  two  tribes  are  .said 
to  have  been  as  numerous  formerly  as  the  Ilujia, 
by  whom  they  wen  overcome  and  nearly  exter- 
minated. Upon  the  arrival  of  tlii'  Ameriians 
only  3.")  of  the  Ohimalakwc  were  left." — .1.  W. 
Powell,  Sii nth  Annual  Ueport,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
noljit/!/,  p,  03. 

Chinantecs.     See  below:    ZAroTlX's,  etc. 

Chiriookan  Family. — "The  bank.s  of  the  Col- 
umbia, from  the  Grand  Dalles  to  it.=  nioutli.  belong 
to  the  two  braneliesof  theTsinfik  [or  CliinookJ 
nation,  whicii  meet  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Kowlit/.  River,  and  of  vhieli  an  almost  nominal 
remnant  is  left.  .  .  .  T\u;  position  of  the  TsinQk 
previous  to  their  depopulation  was,  as  at  once 
appc  irs,  most  important,  oce",i]iying  both  sides  of 
the  great  artery  <.f  Oregon  for  a  distance  of  300 
miles,  they  |)ossesscd  the  principal  Hiorouglifarc 
between  the  interior  aial  the  ocean,  boniidless 
resources  of  provisions  01  various  kinds,  and  facil- 
ities for  trade  almost  une(piallcd  on  the  Paci- 
fic."—  G.  Giblw,  'J'n'l.,:f  of  ir<.«/  ]\'(m/iiii</l()n  and 
X.  II'  OiYi/nn  (Contn'li.  to  X.  A.  Kthndhuj)/,  v.  1), 
;).  1<U. —  .See,  also,  below:  Fi. vtiiicads. 

Chippewas.  See  below  ;  0,iiiiwas;  and 
above:    Ai.iio  .(jfiAN  Family. 

Chippewyans.  See  below  :  Athapascan 
Famii.v. 

Choctaws.    See  below:  MtsKiionEAN  Family. 

Chontals  and  Popoloflas.-"  According  to 
the  census  of  IHHI)  there  were  Id, (I'M)  Indians  in 
Mexico  belonging  (o  the  Familia  Choiilixl.  No 
such  family  exists.     I'he  word  'chontulli '  in  thu 


Nahuatl  langua-^e  rx'ans  simply  'stranger,' and 
was  applied  !•;  '.;  ■  Xaliuas  to  any  ])eop!e  other 
tiiaii  their  own.  According  to  the  Mexican 
statistics,  the  Chontals  arc  fouinl  in  the  states  of 
Mexico,  PiK'lila,  Oaxaca,  Guerrero,  Tabasco, 
Guatemala  and  Nicaragua.  A  siiniliar  term  is 
'popoloca,'  which  in  Nahuatl  means  acoar.se 
fellow,  one  s|)eaking  badly,  that  is,  broken 
Nahuatl.  The  Popolocas  liavc^  also  hecn  erected 
into  an  ethnic  entity  by  some  etiinographers, 
with  as  little  justice  as  the  Chontallis.  They 
ar<'  stated  to  have  lived  in  the  provinces  of 
Puebla,  Oaxaca,  Vera  Cruz,  Mechoacan  and 
(iuatemala." — I).  G.  Rrinton,  The  Anwrivnn 
li'vv.  pp.  Uti-lTia. 

Chontaquiros.     Sec  above:  Anuksians. 

Chumashan  Family. —  "  i)erivation:  From 
Chuniash,  the  name  of  the  Santa  Rosa  Islanders. 
The  several  dialects  of  this  family  Inivu  long 
been  known  under  the  group  or  fiimily  name, 
'Santa  Barbara,"  which  seems  first  to  have  been 
used  in  a  comprehensive  sense  by  Latham  iu 
18.50,  who  incliKled  under  it  three  languages,  viz. : 
Santa  Rarbara,  Santa  Inez,  and  Sau  Lii's  Obispo. 
The  term  has  no  siiecial  pertinenco  as  a  family 
designation,  except  from  the  fact  that  the  Santa 
ISarliara  Mission,  around  which  one  of  the  dia- 
lects of  the  family  was  spok(Mi,  is  perhaps  more 
widely  known  than  any  of  the  others." — J.  W. 
Powell,  ti'mnth  Annual  Iteport,  Bureau  of  Etli- 
nnlmiji,  p.  67. 

Cliff-dwellers.     See  Amehioa:   PnEiiisTonic. 

Coahuiltecan  Family. —  "Derivation:  From 
the  name  of  the  ^Mexican  State  Coahiiila.  This 
family  appears  to  have  included  numer  us  tribes 
in  southwestern  Texas  and  iu  Mexico.  ...  A 
few  Indians  still  survive  who  speak  (me  of  Iha 
dialects  of  this  family,  and  in  188(>  .Mr.  Gatschet 
collected  vocabularies  of  two  tribes,  the  Come- 
crudo  and  Cotoname,  who  live  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
at  J, as  Prictas,  State  of  Tamaulipas." — J.  W. 
Powell,  Sunth  Annual  liept  ,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
noliii/j/,  p.  08. 

Coajiro,  or  Guajira. — "An  exceptional  posi- 
tion is  taken,  in  many  respects,  by  the  Coajiro, 
or  Guajii'a,  who  live  on  the  peninsula  of  the 
same  name  on  the  northwestern  boundary  of 
Venezuela.  Bounded  on  all  siiles  by  so-called 
civilized  [)eoples,  this  Indian  tribe  is  known  to 
have  maintained  its  indcpcnileiice,  and  acquired 
the  well-deserved  reputation  for  cruelty,  a  tribe 
which,  in  many  respects,  can  be  classed  with  the 
A])aclies  and  t'oinanchcs  of  New  Mexico,  the 
Aiaucani.uis  of  Chili,  and  the  Guaycara  and 
Giiaraiii  on  the  Parana.  The  Coajiro  are  mostly 
large,  with  chestnut-brown  complexion  and 
black,  sleek  hair.  While  all  the  other  eoast 
tribes  have  adojited  the  Spanish  language,  the 
Coajiro  lii!"e  preserved  their  own  speech.  They 
are  the  especial  foes  of  the  other  peoples.  No 
one  is  given  entrance  into  their  land,  and  they 
live  with  their  neighbors,  the  Venezuelans,  in 
constant  hostilities.  They  have  fine  horses, 
which  they  ki  tv  how  to  ride  excellently.  .  .  . 
They  have  m;.  _;  rous  herds  of  cattle.  .  .  .  They 
follow  agriculture  a  little." — 7'he  Standard  AV;(- 
ural  Ifistorn  (J.  S.  KinijHky,  «/.),  r.  fl,  p.  243. 

Cochibo.     See  above:  Andesians. 

Cochiquima.     See  above:  Andesians. 

Coco   Group,      See    below:  QiicK    oil    Coco 

(iH"ll". 

Coconooiis.    Sec  below:  Mauipohan  Family. 
Cofan,    See  above;  Andbhianh. 


84 


AMEIUCAX  A;'J0KIGINE8. 


AMKUICAN  AI10UIGINE8. 


ColUs.    Sco  Pkuu. 

Comanohe^^.  Scf  .jclow:  Siiosiionean  Fam- 
ily, aud  Klu,.AN  Famii-y;  mid  iibovu:  Al'Afllli 
Giioi  r. 

Conestogas.     See  below:  Sl'squeiiannas. 

Conibo.    .See  above:  Andkhians.  | 

Conoys.     See  above:  Aiaioscjuian  Family.       | 

Copehan  Family. — "The  territory  of  the  Cope-   | 
liiiri  fiiiiiily  is  bouiiiled  on  the  north  by  Mount   ■ 
Sli:ist;i  and  I  lie  territory  of  the  Sustean  and  Lutu- 
;iiuian  families,   on  tlie  east  l)y  the  territory  of 
the  Paluihnihan,  Yanan,  and  Punjunaii  families, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  bays  of  San  Pablo  and 
Suisiiii  and  the  lower  waters  of  the  Sacramento."   ! 
— J.  W.  Powell,  Scirnth  Ann  mil  liept.,  Bureau  of 
Ethii(>liiii!i,  j).  (ii). 

Costanoan  Family. — "Derivation:  From  tho 
Spanish  eostano,  '  eo.islinen. '  Under  this  group 
name  Latham  included  live  tr  s  .  .  .  wliieli 
were  luuler  the  supervision  of  t"  iission  Dolores. 
.  .  .  The  territory  of  tlie  Cos  .noan  family  ex- 
tends from  the  Golden  Gate  to  a  point  near  the 
.southern  end  of  Jlonterey  Hay.  .  .  .  The  surviv- 
ing Indians  of  the  once  populous  tribes  of  this 
family  are  now  scattered  over  several  counties 
and  probably  tlo  not  number,  uU  told,  over  iiO 
individuals,  as  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Ilenshaw 
iu  1MS8.  Most  of  these  are  to  be  found  near  the 
towns  of  Santa  Cruz  ami  Monterey." — J.  W. 
Powell,  Sei^enth  Annual  litpt.,  Bureau,  of  Eth- 
iiuliKjii,  p.  71 . 

Creek  Confederacy. — Creek  Wars.  See 
below:  MusiiiiouiiAN  Family;  also  United 
States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  1813-1814  (August— 
Ai'Uil);  andFLOuiDA:  A.  D.  1810-1818. 

Crees.     See  above :  Aloo.nquiax  Family. 

Cr-  \tdns.     See  America:  A.  D.  1587-1590. 

Crows  (Upsarokas,  or  Absarokas).  See 
below:  SiouAN  Family. 

Cuatos.     See  below:  Pampas  TitiuES. 

Cunimare.  See  below:  Guck  oil  Coco 
Giioci'. 

Cuyriri  or  Kiriri.  See  beiow :  Guck  ou  Coco 
Giioii'. 

Dakotas,  or  Dacotahs,  or  Dahcotas.  See 
below :  SiouA.N  Family  and  Pawnee  (Cauuoan) 
Family. 

Delawares,  or  Lenape. — "The  proper  name 
of  the  Delaware  Indians  was  and  is  Leniipu  (ii  as 
in  father,  e  as  a  in  mate).  .  .  .  The  Lenape 
were  divided  into  three  sub-tribes: — 1.  Tiie 
.Miiisi,  Mouseys,  Montheys,  Munsees,  or  Jlini- 
.siiiks.  2.  The  Unami  or  Wonameys.  i3.  The 
I'nalachtigo.  No  explanation  of  these  designa- 
tions will  be  found  in  Ileckowelder  or  tho  older 
writers.  From  investigations  among  living  Dela- 
wares, carried  out  at  my  request  by  Mr.  Horatio 
Hale,  it  is  evident  that  they  are  wholly  geo- 
grapiiical,  and  refer  to  the  location  of  these  sub- 
tribes  on  the  Delaware  river.  .  .  .  The  Jlinsi 
liv(Hl  in  the  moiintainous  region  at  tho  head 
waters  of  the  Delaware,  above  the  Forks  or 
junction  of  iIk-  Lehigh  river,  .  .  .  The  Uuamis' 
territory  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Delaware  river 
e.xtended  from  the  Lehigh  Valley  southward.  It. 
was  with  them  tuid  their  soiuheru  neighbors,  th(! 
I'nalachtigcs,  that  Pitnn  dealt  for  the  land  ceded 
to  him  in  the  Indian  deed  of  1082.  The  Minsis 
did  not  take  part  in  the  transaction,  and  It  was 
not  until  t7:i7  that  tlu^  Colonial  authorities  treated 
directly  with  the  latter  for  the  cession  of  their 
territory.  The  Uualaehtigo  or  Turkey  totciin  had 
its  principal  .seat  ou  the  aiUueuts  of  the  Delaware 


near  where  Wilmington  now  stands." — D.  O. 
Brinton,  The  Lenajte  and  Their  Ixi/ends,  eh.  3. 
— "At  the  .  .  .  time  when  William  Penn  landed 
in  Pennsylvania,  the  Delawares  had  been  subju- 
gated and  madi!  women  by  the  Five  Nations.  It 
is  well  known  that,  according  to  that  Indian  mode 
of  expression,  the  Delawares  were  henceforth 
prohibited  from  making  war,  and  placed  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  conquerors,  who  did  not 
even  allow  sales  of  land,  in  the  actual  itossession 
of  the  Delawares,  to  be  valid  widiout  their  appro- 
b:iti(jn.  AVMlliani  Penn,  his  descendants,  and  the 
Stale  of  Pennsylvania,  accordingly,  alwiiys  i)ur- 
chased  the  right  of  po.s.session  from  the  Delawares, 
and  that  of  Sovereignty  from  the  Five  NatioiLs. 
.  .  .  The  use  of  arms,  though  from  very  differ- 
ent causes,  was  equally  pro.hibited  to  the  Dela- 
wares and  to  the  Quakers.  Thus  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Pennsylvania  ami  of  West  New  .Jersey  by 
the  I5riti.sh,  comniene(Ml  under  tl:>'  most  favorable 
auspices.  Peace  and  the  utmost  harmony  i)rc- 
viuled  for  more  thai  si.xty  ye.'irs  betweci  the 
whites  and  the  Indians;  for  the.se  were  for  the 
first  time  treated,  not  only  justly,  but  kindly,  by 
tho  colonists.  Hut,  however  gradually  and 
peaceably  their  lands  might  have  been  purchased, 
tho  Delawares  found  themselvi^s  at  last  in  the.same 
situation  as  all  the  other  Indians,  without  lauds 
of  their  own,  and  therefore  without  means  of 
suljsistcnce.  They  were  compelled  to  seek 
refuge  on  the  waters  of  the  Su.s(iuelianna,  as 
tenants  at  will,  ou  lands  belonging  to  their  hated 
conquerors,  the  Five  Nations.  Kven  there  and 
on  the  Juniata  they  were  encroached  upon.  .  .  . 
Under  those  circumstapces,  many  of  the  Dela- 
wares determined  to  remove  west  of  tho  Alle- 
ghany Jlounlains,  and,  about  the  j'ear  1740-50, 
obtained  from  their  ancient  allies  and  uncles,  the 
Wyandots,  the  grant  of  a  derelict  tract  of  land 
lying  principally  <iu  the  Muskingum.  The  great 
body  of  the  nation  was  still  attached  to  Peunsyl- 
vaiiia.  But  the  grounds  of  complaint  increased. 
The  Delawares  were  encouraged  by  tho  western 
tribes,  and  by  the  French,  to  shako  off  tho  yoke 
of  the  Six  Nations,  and  to  join  iu  the  war  against 
their  allies,  tho  British.  Tlie  iro;itier  settlements 
of  Pennsylvania  were  accordi'igly  attacked  both 
by  the  Delawares  and  the  bl.:iwnoes.  And, 
although  peace  was  made  with  vliem  at  Easton  in 
in  1758,  and  the  coucjucst  of  (;au.i.la  put  an  end 
to  the  general  war,  both  tho  Sliawuoes  and  Dela- 
ware ,  removed  altogether  iu  170^j  beyond  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  ;  .  .  The  years  1705-1795 
are  the  true  period  of  the  i«  •."cr  and  importance 
of  the  Delawares.  United  with  the  Shawiiocs, 
who  were  settled  on  the  Scioto,  they  sustained 
during  the  Seven  Years'  War  the  declining  power 
of  France,  and  arrested  for  some  years  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Briti.sh  and  American  arms. 
Although  a  portion  of  the  nation  adhered  to  the 
Amerieans  during  the  War  of  Independence,  the 
main  body,  together  with  all  the  western  nations 
made  common  cause  with  the  British.  And, 
after  the  short  truce  which  followerl  the  treaty  of 
17o*!t,  they  were  again  at  the  head  of  the  western 
confederacy  in  tiieir  last  struggle  for  indepen- 
dence. Placed  by  their  geographical  situation  in 
the  front  of  battle,  they  were,  during  those 
three  wars,  the  aggressors,  and,  to  the  last 
moment,  the  most  active  and  formidable  enemies 
of  America.  The  decisive  victory  of  General 
Wayne  (1794),  dissolved  the  confederacy ;  and  the 
Delawares  were   tho  greatest  sufferers   by  the 


85 


AMEUICAN  AUORIOINES. 


a:«eiuc'ax  aboijigines. 


trciity  of  (irc'cnvillp  of  IT!)")."  After  this,  the 
^rrciitrr  |iait  (if  the  Dclaniircs  were  si'ttU'd  on 
White  I{iver,  liidiaim,  "till  tlieyear  1819,  when 
they  linnlly  ceiled  llieir  clai.n  to  tlic  United 
Slates.  TlVisc  residing  there  were  tlien  reilueed 
to  alHiut  H0()  souls.  A  nuniher  .  .  .  liad  pre 
vioiisly  removed  to  Cnnadii ;  nnd  it  is  dillicult  to 
aseerti'iin  IIk'  situation  or  numhers  of  the  residue 
at  tills  time  [IWitl].  'I'liose  «lio  have  lately 
removed  west  of  the  Mississippi  are.  In  an  esti- 
mate of  the  War  Department,  eom|iuted  at  4lK> 
soids.  Former  einijtratlons  to  that  (|uarter  liad 
however  'aken  ida<e,  and  several  snnill  dispersed 
hands  are,  it  is  l)elleve<l,  tniited  witli  the  f^eneeas 
anil  some  other  trihes." — A.  Gallatin,  Si/iioiisik  of 
till'  liiiliiiii  'J'filiiii  (.[rf/(ii(ili)f/i(i  Aiiirrieiiini,  c.  2), 
iiitroil..  Kii't.  "J. — See,  ahovc:  Al.(i<>X(jl'IAN  F.\M- 
u.v;    helow:    Sii.wanksic,  and   P.wvnki-:  (C.M)- 

IMl.VN)  K.\MII.V. — Also,   I'oNTIAC's 'W.Ml;    r.MTKl) 

Htati:sok  Am.  :  A.  I).  ]T(i.")-17fl8;  and  Mohavian 
1{iiktiiui;n;  nnd,  for  an  aeeount  of  "Lord  Dun- 
niore's  War, "  see  Ohio  (\'ai-i.i;y);  A    D.  1?74. 

Eries.  See  l)elow-  lIinioNs,  &c,  and  Iiio- 
tiiois  C'oNFi-;Di;uAev:  TiiKiu  Conijuests,  &c. 

Eslcimauan  Family. — "Save  a  slight  inter- 
nii.'cture  of  European  settlers,  the  Eskimo  are 
tlie  onlylnhabltanlsof  the  shores  of  Arctic  Amer- 
ie.i,  and  of  both  sides  of  D.vvis  Strait  and  Haf- 
fin  Hay,  iucludlii);  Greenland,  as  well  as  n  tract 
of  about  400  niile.s  on  the  Bchring  Strait  coast 
of  Asia.  Southward  they  extend  ns  fur  as  about 
no'  N.  L.  on  the  eastern  side,  (ilP  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  America,  and  from  ri.>°  to  00^  on 
the  shores  of  Hudson  Hay.  Only  on  the  west 
the  Eskimo  near  their  frontier  arc  interrupted 
(m  two  small  spots  of  the  coa.st  by  the  Indians, 
named  Kennayans  and  Ugalenzes,  who  have 
there  advanced  to  the  scasliore  for  the  sake  of 
Ashing.  These  coasts  ot  Arctic  America,  of 
course,  also  comiirlse  all  the  surrounding  islands. 
Of  these,  the  Aleutian  Islands  form  an  excep- 
tional group;  the  inhabitants  of  these  on  the  one 
hand  (listiuctly  dillering  from  the  coast  people 
hero  mentioned,  while  on  the  other  they  show  a 
closer  relationship  to  the  Eskimo  than  any  other 
nation.  The  Aleutians,  therefore,  may  be  cou- 
sidereil  as  only  an  abnormal  branch  of  the 
Eskimo  nation.  ...  As  regards  their  northern 
limils,  the  Eskimo  ]ieople,  or  at  least  remains  of 
their  habitations,  have  been  found  nearly  as  far 
north  as  any  Arctic  explorers  have  hitherto 
advanced;  and  very  possibly  bands  of  them  may 
live  still  farther  to  the  north,  ns  yet  iiuite 
unknown  to  lis.  ...  On  comparing  the  Eskimo 
with  the  neighbouring  nations,  their  physical 
complexion  certaiidy  seems  to  point  at  an 
Asiatic  origin;  hut,  as  far  as  we  know,  the 
latest  investigations  have  also  shown  a  tran- 
sitional link  to  exist  between  the  Eskimo  nnd 
the  otliT  American  nations,  which  would  suf- 
liciently  indicate  the  possibility  of  a  common 
origin  from  the  same  continent  As  to  their 
mode  of  life,  the  Eskimo  decidedly  resemble 
their  American  neighbours.  .  .  .  With  regard  to 
their  language,  the  Eskimo  also  appear  nkin  to 
the  American  nations  in  regard  to  its  decidedly 
polysynthetic  structure.  Here,  liowever,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  meet  with  some  very  remarkable 
similarities  between  the  Eskimo  idiom  and  the 
language  of  Siberia,  belonging  to  the  Altaic  or 
Finnish  group.  .  .  .  According  to  the  Sagas  of 
the  Icelanders,  they  were  already  met  with  on 
the  east  coast  of  Gwenlaud  about  the  year  lOOO, 

•  Bee  Note,  Appendix  E.  |^ 


mill  almost  at  the  .same  time  on  the  east  const  of 
the  American  continent.  .  .  .  Between  the  years 
1000  and  i;(0(l  they  do  not  seem  to  have  occupied 
the  land  south  of  05^  N.  L.  on  the  west  const  of 
Greenland,  where  the  Scandinavian  colonies 
were  then  situated.  But  the  colonists  seem 
to  have  been  aware  of  their  existence  in 
higher  latitudes,  and  to  have  lived  in  fear  of  an 
attack  by  them,  since,  in  the  year  1206,  an 
expedition  was  sent  out  for  the  purpose  of 
exploring  the  abodes  of  the  Skrajlings,  as  they 
were  called  bv  the  colonists.  .  .  .  About  the 
year  14.)0,  the  last  accounts  were  received  from 
the  colonies,  and  the  way  to  Greenland  was 
entirely  forgotten  in  the  mother  country.  .  .  . 
The  features  of  the  natives  in  the  Southern  pnrt 
of  Greenland  indicate  a  mixed  descent  from  the 
Scanilinavians  and  Eskimo,  the  former,  how- 
ever, not  having  left  the  slightest  sign  ot  any 
inlluence  on  the  nationality  or  culture  of  the 
present  natives.  In  the  year  138.5,  OroeMland  was 
discovered  anew  by  John  Davis,  and  found 
inhabited  exclusively  by  Eskimo." — II.  Rink, 
J'dli'H  ami  Tiutditions  of  the  Bukimo,  iutrod.  atuC 
eh.  0. — The  same,  'I'/ie.  Enkiino  tribes. — "In  1809, 
I  proposed  for  tlie  Aleuts  and  people  of  Innuit 
stock  collectively  the  term  Oiarians,  as  indicative 
of  their  coastwise  distribution,  and  as  supplying 
the  need  of  a  general  term  to  designate  a.  very 
welldefiucd  race.  .  .  .  The  Orarians  are  divided 
into  two  well-marked  groups,  namely  the 
Innuits,  comjirising  all  the  so-called  Eskimo  and 
Tnskis,  and  the  Aleuts. "— W.  II.  Doll,  Tribes  of 
the  Extreme  Nurthiccst  (Ointrib.  to  N.  A.  Eth- 
iiitlof/!/,  i:  1\  pt.  1. 

Esselenian  Family. — "The  present  family 
was  iiiduded  by  Latham  in  the  heterogeneous 
group  called  by  him  Salinas.  .  .  .  The  term 
Salinan  [is  now]  restricted  to  the  San  Antonio 
and  San  Miguel  languages,  leaving  the  present 
family  .  .  .  [to  he]  called  Esselenian,  from  the 
name  of  the  single  tribe  Esseleu,  of  which  it  is 
(•omposed.  .  .  .  The  tribe  or  tribes  composing 
this  family  occupied  a  narrow  strip  ot  the  C'ah- 
fornia  coast  from  .Monterey  Bay  south  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  Santa  Lucia  Mountain,  a  distance 
of  about  50  miles." — J.  W.  Powell,  iieveiith  Aii- 
iiiKil  liipt..  liiinau  of  Ethnoloffj/,  pp.  75-70. 

Etchemins.   See  above :  Ai.oo.NCiUiAN  Family. 

Eurocs,  or  Yuroks.    See  below:  Modocs,  &c. 

Five  Nations.  Sec  below:  luoijuois  Con- 
Fi;i)i:UA(Y, 

Flatheads  (Salishan  Family).^"  The  name 
Flathead  was  commonly  given  to  the  Choctaws, 
though,  says  Du  Pratz,  lie  .saw  no  reason  why 
they  should  bo  so  distinguished,  when  the  prac- 
tice of  llattening  the  head  was  so  general.  And 
in  the  enumeration  just  cited  [Documentary  Hist, 
of  N.  Y.,  v.  1,  p.  24]  the  ne.\t  paragrai)h  ...  is: 
'  The  Flathi'ads,  Cherakis,  Cliicachas,  and  Totiris 
are  included  under  the  n,>ine  of 'Flatheads  by  the 
Iroquois." — M.  F.  Force,  Some  Edrly  yutices  of 
the  Iiuliaiis  of  Ohio,  p.  32. — "The  Salish  .  .  . 
are  distinctively  known  as  Flatheads,  though 
the  custom  of  deforming  the  cranium  is  not 
confined  tolhcin." — D.  O.  Brinton,  The  Ameri- 
ciin  liiiec,  p.  107. —  "In  .  .  .  early  times  the 
hunters  and  trappers  could  not  discover  why 
the  Blackfeet  and  Flatheads  [of  Montana]  re- 
ceived their  respective  designation.s,  for  the 
feet  of  the  former  are  no  more  inclined  to  sable 
than  any  other  part  of  the  body,  while  the  heads 
of  the  latter  possess  their  fair  proportion  of 


AMEIUCAN  ABOUiaiNES. 


AMEHK'AX  AHOUIGIXES. 


nitumlity.  Imk'i'd  it  is  only  below  the  falls  and 
ra|)iils  tlmt  roal  Flathcads  appear,  and  at  the 
niiiiitli  (if  the  Columbia  that  they  llourish  most 
siipernaturally.  The  tribes  who  pnieliee  thi- 
eiistdin  of  tlattcniiii;  the  head,  and  who  lived  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  dilfered  little  from 
caeh  other  in  laws,  manners  or  euslonis,  and  were 
composed  of  the  Cathlamahs,  Killmueks,  Clat- 
sops,  Chinooks  and  Chilts.  The  abominalile 
CMstiim  of  flattening  their  heads  prevails  amoni^ 
lliem  all."— P.  Honiin,  JM.  Skcteh  of  the.  Fliit- 
Imitl  Iiidiou  Kiitioii,  j).  IT. — In  >lajor  Powell's 
linguistic  classification,  the  "  Sulishan  Familv  " 
(Flathead)  is  given  a  distinct  jilace.— J.  \V. 
Powell,  tltnnt/t  AniiiKil  liept.  of  the  Biimin  of 
Elhuoloijy.  p.  103. 

Fox  Indians.  See  above:  Ai.ooNQfiAN 
F.\Mii.y,  and  below,  S.\cs  Ac. —  For  an  account 
of  the  massacre  of  Fox  Indiansat  Detroit  in  1713, 
see  Can.\da  (New  Fhance):  A.  I).  1T11-I7i;i. 
—For  nn  account  of  the  Black  Ilawk  War,  see 
Illinois:  A.  D.  1833. 

Fuegians.     See  below:  P.\TA0ONiANg. 

Gausarapos  or  Guuchies.  Sec  below:  Pam- 
pas TltlllKS. 

Ges  Tribes.  Sec  below:  Ttin. — Qiiauani. — 
Tltuyas. 

Gros  Ventres  (Minnetaree  ;  Hidatsa).*  Sec 
below:  HiDATSA;  also,  above:  Ai.uoNquiAN 
Family. 

Guaicarus.     Sec  below :  Pampas  Tkiues. 

Guajira.     Sec  above:  Coa,iii(o. 

Guanas.     Sec  below:  Pampas  TitiisEs. 

Guarani.     Sec  below :  Ti  pi. 

Guayanas.     Sec  below :  Pampas  Tkiiieb. 

Guck  or  Coco  Group. — An  extensive  linguistic 
gn>i  pof  tribes  in  Brazil,  on  and  north  of  the  Ama- 
zon, extending  as  far  as  the  Orinoco,  has  been 
called  the  Guek,  or  Coco  group.  '  There  is  no 
common  name  for  the  group,  that  here  used 
meaning  a  father's  brother,  ii  very  inijiortant  iier- 
soiiage  in  these  tribes.  The  Gu.  k  group  em- 
braces a  large  number  of  tribes.  .  .  .  We  need 
enumerate  but  few.  The  Cuyriri  or  Kiri:'  (also 
known  as  Sabaja,  Pimenteifas,  etc.),  number 
aDout  3,000.  Some  of  them  are  half  civilized, 
some  are  wild,  and,  without  restraint,  wander 
ahmU,  csiK'cially  in  the  mountains  in  the  Prov. 
iiice  of  Pernambuco.  The  Araicu  live  on  tin 
lower  Amazon  and  the  Toeantins.  Xext  come 
the  .Manaos,  who  have  a  prospect  of  nuiintaining 
tli< mselves  longer  than  most  tribes.  With  them 
i.s  connected  the  legend  of  the  golden  lord  who 
washed  dm  gold  dust  from  his  limbs  in  a  lake 
[see  Ya.  DouiDo].  .  .  .  The  Uirina,  Bare,  and 
C'ariay  live  on  tlie  Hio  Negro,  the  Cunimare  on 
the  .hirua,  the  JIaranha  on  the  .lutay.  AVhethcr 
the  Chamicoco  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Paraguay, 
belong  to  the  Guck  is  uncertiun.  Among  the 
trilies  which,  though  very  much  mixed,  are  still 
to  be  enumerated  with  the  Guek,  are  the  Tecuna 
and  the  Passe.  In  language  the  Teeunas  show 
many  similarities  to  the  Ges;  they  live  on  the 
«e>lc'rn  borders  of  Brazil,  and  extend  in  Ecpiador 
tci  ihe  Pasta(,'a.  Among  them  occur  iieculiar 
niiisnues  which  strongly  recall  those  found  on 
the  northwest  coast  of  North  America.  ...  In 
the  same  district  belong  the  Uaupe,  who  are  no- 
ticeable from  the  fact  that  they  live  in  barracks, 
indeed  the  only  tribe  in  South  America  in  which 
this  cust(mi  appears.  The  communistic  houses 
»f  the  Uaupc  are  called  '  malloca ; '  they  arc  build- 
ings of  about  130  feet  long,  75  feet  wide,  and  30 


hiirh,  in  which  live  a  band  of  about  100  persons 
in  13  families,  each  of  the  latter,  however,  in  it.s 
own  room.  .  .  .  Finally,  complex  tribes  of  the 
most  ditl'ercnt  nalionality  are  comprehended 
under  names  which  indicate  oidy  a  eonmion  w:iy 
of  life,  but  are  also  incorrectly  used  as  elhno- 
giaphic  names.  These  are  I'aripuna,  .Alura,  and 
.Miranlia,  all  of  whom  live  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Madeira  Hiver.  Of  the  Caripuna  or 
tIailn-Avri  (both  terms  sigiufy  '  watermen'),  who 
are  mixed  with  (^uieliua  blood,  it  is  related  that 
they  not  only  ate  human  llesh,  but  even  cured  it 
for  preservation.  .  .  .  Formerly  the  .Miira  .  .  . 
were  greatly  fean'd;  this  once  powerful  and 
populous  tribe,  however,  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  at  the  end  of  the  last  centiuy  by  the 
Jluiidruco;  the  remnant  is  scattered.  .  .  .  The 
JIurn  arc  the  gypsies  among  the  Indians  on  the 
Amaz(m;  and  by  all  the  other  tribes  they  are 
regarded  with  a  certain  degree  of  contempt  as 
])ariahs.  .  .  .  Much  to  be  feared,  even  among  the 
Indians,  are  also  the  Jliranha  (i.  e.,  rovers,  vaga- 
bonds), a  still  populous  tribe  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Japura,  who  seem  to  know  nothing  but 
war,  robbery,  murder,  and  man  hunting." — 
2'he  SUtmliinl  yoturnl  llhtory  (J.  S.  Kingsley, 
ed.),  V.  6,  pp.  245-348. 

Also  in  F  Keller,  The  Ammon  and  Madeira 
Rivers,  eh  ^aiidli. —  II.  W.  Bates,  A  Niituralist 
on  the  Hirer  Amaions,  eh.  7-13. 

Guuchies.     See  below:    Pampas  TninF.s. 

Haclcinsacks.  See  above  :  Aloonc^uian 
Family. 

Haidas.     See  below:     Sicittaof.tan  Family. 

Hidatsa,  or  Minnetaree,  or  Grosventres?— 
"The  llidat.sa,  ^Miniiotaree,  or  Grosventre  In- 
dians, are  one  of  the  three  tribes  which  iit  pres- 
ent inhabit  the  permanent  village  at  Fort  Ber- 
thold,  Dakota  T(  rrilory,  and  hunt  on  the  waters 
of  the  Upper  Missnuri  and  Yellowstone  Rivers 
in  .Northwestern  Dakota  and  Eastern  .Montana. 
The  history  of  this  tribe  is  .  .  .  intimately  C(m- 
iiceted  with  that  of  the  iioliticallv  allied  tribes  of 
the  Aricarccs  and  Maudans."  The  name,  Gros- 
ventres,  was  given  to  Ihe  j.eople  of  this  tribe 
"  by  the  early  French  and  Canadian  adventurers. 
The  same  name  was  applieil  also  to  a  tribe, 
tottdly  distinct  from  these  in  language  and 
(>rigin,  which  lives  some  hundreds  of  miles  west 
of  Fort  Bert  hold;  and  the  two  nations  are  now 
distinguished  from  one  another  as  Grosvcntres  of 
the  Missouri  and  Grosventres  of  the  Prairie.  .  .  . 
Edward  Unifreville,  who  traded  on  the  Saskatche- 
wan Kiver  from  1784  to  1787,  .  .  .  remarks: 
.  .  .  '  They  [the  Canadian  French]  call  them 
Grosventres,  or  Big-Bellies;  and  without  any 
reason,  as  they  are  as  comely  and  as  well  made 
as  any  tribe  whatever.'.  .  .  In  thc^  work.s  of 
many  travellers  they  are  culled  Minnctarees,  a 
name  which  is  spelled  in  various  ways.  ,  .  . 
This,  although  a  Hidatsa  word,  is  the  name  ap- 
plied to  them,  not  by  themselves,  but  by  the 
JIandans;  it  signifies  'to  cross  the  water,' 
or  '  they  crossed  the  w.'iter.  '.  .  .  Hidatsa  was 
the  name  of  the  village  on  Knife  Hiver 
farthest  fror  the  Missouri,  the  village  of 
those  whom  .jcwis  and  C'larke  ccmsidered  the 
Minnetarees  proper."  It  is  the  name  "now  gen- 
erally used  by  this  peop'"  to  designate  them- 
selves."—  W.  Matthews,  .thnogriiphji  and  Phil- 
ology of  the  Ilidatna  Indiana,  pt.  1-3  (U.  S. 
Gcolofj,  and  Geo;/.  8nrvey,  /■'.  V  ITayden,  Min. 
Pub.,  Ko.  7).— Sec  also,  below:  biouA.N  Family. 


*  See  Note,  Appendix  E. 


87 


AMEUICAN  AB(^rUGINE9. 


AMERICAN  AHOUIGINES. 


Hitchitis.   S«!  Mow:  Muskhooean  Family. 

Horikans.— Xorlli  iif  tlic  M((hcKaiii<.  who  oc 
ciipii'il  llii'  rust  liiinU  lit'  till'  liiiilsdri  Hivcr 
opposilc  Alliiiiiy,  iinil  covcriiii,'  the  picsciil  conn- 
tics  (if  ('iiliiinliiii  mill  Wriissclacr,  dwelt  tlio  Al- 
>;i)iikiii  liilii'  of  Horikans,  "wjinsc  liiiiitin}; 
({riiiimU  appi'ur  to  Imvi;  cxtcMilrd  from  the 
watt'is  of  llic  Coiilircticut,  across  llio  Orccii 
Mountains,  to  the  borili  is  of  thai  licaiillfiil  lake 
liianicil  Ijikc  (Jci)rj;c  hy  the  too  loyal  Sir  Wil- 
liam .I:iliiisonl  which  "tnifjht  now  well  hear 
their  sonorous  name." — J,  H,  Urodheiid,  Hint. 
of  th,  Sl.it,  „f  .V,    )',,  /).  77. 

Huamaboya.     See  ahove;    Andksians. 

Huancas.     See  l'i;m'. 

Huastecs.     See  hclow:    Mayas. 

Huecos,  or  Wacos.  See  helow:  Pawnee 
(Cadiida.n)  Family. 

Humas,  or  Oumas,  See  helow:  Mubkuo- 
<ikan  Family. 

Hupas.*  See  helow:    MoDiiis,  A;( . 

Hurons,  or  Wyandots. — Neutral  Nation. — 
Eries. —  "The  peninsula  helweeu  the  Lakes 
Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario  was  occupied  hy  two 
(listiuut  peoples,  s|)eaking  dialects  of  the  Iro- 
<iui)is  lonRUe.  The  Hiu'onsor  Wyandots,  includ- 
ing the  trihe  called  hy  the  French  the  Dionondii- 
dies,  or  Tohaeco  Nation,  dwelt  among  the 
forests  which  hordcred  the  eastern  shores  of  the 
fresh  water  sea  to  which  they  liavu  left  their 
name;  wliile  the  Neutral  Nation,  so  called  from 
their  neutrality  in  the  war  between  the  llurons 
and  the  Five  Nations,  inh;il)ited  tlie  northern 
wliores  of  Lake  Eric,  and  even  extended  their 
oastern  Hank  acro.ss  the  strait  of  Niagara.  The 
population  of  the  Hurons  has  been  variou.sly 
staled  at  from  lO.OItO  to  aO,000  souls,  but  proba- 
bly did  not  exceed  the  former  estimate.  The 
Franciscans  and  the  .Jesuits  were  early  among 
them,  and  from  their  descriptions  it  is  apparent 
that,  in  legends,  and  superstitions,  manners  and 
lialiits,  religious  observances  and  .social  customs, 
they  were  closely  a.ssimilatcd  to  tlicir  brethren 
of  the  Five  Nations.  .  .  .  Like  the  Five  Nations, 
the  Wyandot,  were  in  .some  measure  an  agricul- 
tural people;  they  bartered  the  surplus  products 
of  their  maize  llelds  to  surrounding  tribes, 
usually  receiving  fish  in  exchange;  and  this 
trafllc  was  so  considerable  that  the  Jesuits  .styled 
their  country  the  Granary  of  the  Algonipiins. 
Their  jirosperity  wis  rudely  broken  hy  the  hos- 
tilities of  the  Five  Is  itions;  for  though  the  con- 
tli'  ting  p::rtie3  were  not  ill  matched  in  point  of 
ii.nnhers,  yet  the  united  counsels  and  ferocious 
energies  of  the  confederacy  swept  all  before 
them.  Ill  the  year  Kifl),  in  the  depth  of  winter, 
their  warriors  invaded  the  country  of  the  Wyan- 
dots. stormed  their  largest  villages,  and  involved 
all  within  in  indiscriminate  .slaughter.  The  sur- 
vivors tied  in  panic  terror,  luid  the  whole  nation 
was  breken  and  dispersed.  Some  found  refuge 
among  t!ie  Fri'iieh  of  Canada,  where,  at  the 
village  of  l.,orette,  near  Quebec,  their  descendants 
still  remain;  others  were  incorporated  with  tlieir 
comiuerors,  wliile  others  again  tied  northward, 
beyond  Lake  Superior,  and  sought  an  asylum 
among  the  ••vastcs  which  bordered  on  tins  uortli- 
eastcru  lauds  of  tlie  Dahcotjih.  Driven  back  hy 
those  fierce  bi>o«-h\mters,  they  ne.xt  estjiblished 
themselves  about  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  the  shores;  and  islands  in  the  uortliern  parts  of 
Lake  Huron.  Tlience,  about  the  year  1880,  they 
descended  to  Detroit,  where  they  formed  u  per- 

*  See  Note,  Appeudix  K.  3g 


innnent  settlement,  and  where,  by  tlieir  superior 
valor,  capacity  and  address,  lliey  soon  acquired 
an  ascendancy  over  the  surrounding  Algoni|uins. 
The  ruin  o'  'le  Neutral  Nation  followed  close 
on  that  of  tin  .I'yandots,  to  whom,  according  to 
.Jesuit  authority,  they  bore  -.i::  e.xact  resemblance 
in  character  and  manners.  The  Seneeas  soju 
found  means  to  i)ick  a  iiuairel  with  them;  they 
were  assailed  by  all  the  strength  of  the  in.satiablc 
confederacy,  and  within  a  few  years  their 
destruction  as  a  nation  was  complete." — F. 
I'arkman,  ?'A(i  (''i/mjiimri/  nf  l'<iiif/iii;ch.  I. — The 
same,  T/ic  Ji«iiitn  in  So,  h  Aiiti'ficti,  eh.  I. — 
■'Thellrst  in  this  locality  [namely,  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Stiite  of  New  York,  on  and 
around  the  site  of  the  city  of  Buffalo],  of  whom 
history  makes  mention,  were  the  Attiouandar- 
onk,  or  Neutral  Nation,  called  Kahkwas  by 
the  Seneeas.  Tliey  had  tlieir  council-tires  along 
"he  Niagara,  hut  iirincipally  on  its  western  side. 
Their  hunting  grounds  extended  from  the  Gen- 
esee nearly  to  the  eastern  shores  of  Lake  Huron, 
embracing  a  wide  and  important  territory.  .  .  . 
They  are  first  mentioned  hy  Champlaiu  during 
liis  winter  visit  to  the  Hurons  in  1015  .  .  .  but 
ho  was  unable  to  visit  tlieir  f-rritory.  .  .  .  Tlie 
peace  which  this  peculiar  people  had  so  long 
maintained  with  the  Iroqu  lis  was  destined  to  be 
broken.  Some  jealousies  uid  collisions  occurred 
in  1(U7,  which  culminated  in  open  war  in  1650. 
One  of  tlie  vilhiges  of  the  N:utral  Nation,  nearest 
the  Seneeas  and  not  far  from  the  site  of  our  city 
[BulTalo],  was  captured  in  the  autumn  of  the 
latter  year,  and  another  the  eusuiug  spring.  So 
well-directed  au''  energetic  were  the  blows  of 
the  Irocpiois,  that  tirj  total  d-jstruction  of  the 
Neutral  Nation  was  speedily  accomplished.  .  .  . 
The  survivors  were  adopteil  by  their  connuerors. 
...  A  long  period  intervened  between  the 
destruction  of  the  Neutral  Nation  and  the  per- 
manent occupation  of  their  country  by  the  Sen- 
eeas,"—  which  latter  event  occurred  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  Seneeas  from  the  Genesee 
Valley,  hy  the  expedition  under  General  Sulli- 
van, "in  1779,  during  the  Hevolutiouarv  War. 
"Tliey  never,  as  a  nation,  resumed  th.'ir  ancient 
seats  along  the  Genesee,  but  sought  and  found  a 
new  home  ou  the  secluded  banks  and  among  the 
basswood  forests  of  the  I)6-syo-wrt,  or  Buffalo 
Creek,  whence  they  had  driven  the  Neutral 
Nation  130  years  before.  ...  It  has  been  as- 
sumed hy  many  writers  that  the  Kahkwas  and 
Eries  were  identical.  This  is  not  so.  The  latter, 
according  to  the  most  reliable  authorities,  lived 
.south  of  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Erie 
until  they  were  destroyed  by  the  Iroquois  in 
1055.  The  Kahkwas  "were  exterminated  by 
them  as  early  as  1051.  Ou  Coronelli's  map, 
published  in  1CW8,  one  of  the  villages  of  the 
latter,  called  '  Kahouagoga,  a  destroyed  nation," 
is  located  at  or  near  the  site  of  Buffalo." — O.  II. 
Marshall,  The  yiiKjuni  Frontier,  pp.  5-8,  unci  ' 
foot-note. — "Westward  of  the  Neutrals,  along 
the  Southeastern  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  and  stretch- 
ing as  far  east  as  the  Genesee  river,  lay  the 
country  of  tlie  Eries,  or,  as  they  were  denomi- 
nated "by  the  Jesuits,  '  Jja  Nation  Chat,' or  Cat 
Nation,  who  were  also  a  member  of  the  Hurou- 
Iro(iuois  family.  The  name  of  the  beautiful 
lake  (m  whose  margin  our  city  [Buffalo]  was 
cradled  is  tleir  most  enduring  monument,  as 
Lake  Huron  js  that  of  the  generic  stock.  They 
were  called  Jiu  Cat  Nation  either  because  that 


AMEHICAN  AIJOUIGIXES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


inlcri'stlnp  but  mischievous  nniinnl,  tlm  raccoon, 
wliirli  th(^  holy  fiitlicrs  rrroiR'i^.isly  chisscd  in 
till'  Iclinc  f,'<'"><i  Wiis  the  tolcin  of  tlirir  k'lidiiiif 
<l!m.  or  sc])t,  or  in  consniiicnci'  of  the  iilmndiincc 
of  that  iiianiniul  whhin  tluir  territory. " — \V.  ('. 
liryaiit,  Intinxtinn  Airliitflnijiciil  Slmliai  i,i  tiiiil 
iihiiil  hiiffohi,  p.  li.— Mr.  Schook'inft  cither 
iduntilit's  or  confwsfs  the  Erics  and  tin;  Xcntral 
Nation.— II.  U.  Sclioolcnifl,  SMc/i  „f  t/w.  Hist. 
of  l/ii'  Andeiit  Erim  (liifuniiution  IIcijm  ct i ny  (In: 
tmUun  Tri.i'H,  }it.  4,  ;;.  197). 

Also  in  J.  G.  Shea,  Inqiiirieii  Itaijwcliii;/  t/if 
Uf  yfiitnil  Xation  (miiu;  pt.  4,  ;;,  204).— 1). 
Wilson,  The  IIiiivii-InKjiKu'n  of  (Minida  (Tniim. 
I!,j!/,i/  S(m:  of  Caiimhi,  1884).— I'.  I).  Chirko, 
{Jriijin  (tiid  fnitlitioitiil  Iliat.  of  tlw  Wi/aiiUdtlcK. 
— \V.  Ketchuni,  Jlixt.  of  Jliiffiilo,  v.  1,  r/i.  1-3.— 
N.  li.  Crai;,',  77«,'  (Jhkii  Time,  c.  1,  ;;.  225.— Sue 
Ik'Iow:  Iiiocjuois  Co.nkedkuacv;  also,  Can.\d.v 
(Nkw  PliANXE):  A.  I)  1008-1011;  1011-1010; 
lfl;t4-l«52;  1040-1700.— See,  nlso,  1'onti.vc's 
Waii,  and  for  an  aecount  of  "Lord  Uunniorc's 
War,". see  Ohio  (Vali.iov):  A.  I).  1774. 

Illinois  and  Miamis. — "Passing  the  country 
of  the  Lcnapo  and  tlio  Shawanoes,  and  dcstend- 
ing  the  Oliio,  tlio  traveler  would  have  found  its 
valley  cliieth'  occupied  by  two  iu;tious,  tile 
I'ianiis  or  Twighnvees,  ou  the  Wabasli  and  its 
Iraneliijs,  and  the  Illinois,  who  dwelt  in  the 
ucigldjorhood  of  the  river  to  which  they  have 
given  their  name,  while  jiortious  of  them  ex- 
tended beyond  the  Jlississippi.  Though  never 
subjugated,  as  were  the  Lenape,  both  the 
Jliainis  and  the  Illinois  were  reduced  to  the  last 
c.vtreniity  by  the  n^peated  attacks  of  the  Five 
Nations;  and  the  Illinoi.s,  iu  particular,  suffered 
so  inueli  by  these  and  other  wars,  that  the  popu- 
lation of  ten  or  twelve  thousand,  ascribed  to 
them  by  the  early  French  writers,  had  dwindled, 
during  the  first  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, to  a  few  small  villages." — F.  Parkman, 
CoitujiifMi/  of  Pontiuc,  eh.  1. — See,  also,  above: 
Aloomji'ian  Family;  and  below:  Sacs,  Ac; 
also  C'AXADA  (New  Fu.unce):  A.  D.  1009-1087. 

Incas,  or  Yncas.     See  Peuu. 

Innuits.     See  above :  Eskimauan. 

lowas.  See  below :  Siol'an  Family,  and  Paw- 
ni;k.  (Caouoan)  Family. 

Iroquois  Confederacy.—  Iroquoian  Family. 
— "  At  the  outset  of  tlie  10th  Century,  when  the 
live  tribes  or  nations  of  the  Inxiuois  confederacy 
first  became  known  to  EurOjK^an  explorers,  tliey 
were  found  occupying  the  \  alleys  and  uplands 
of  northern  New  York,  in  that  picturesque  and 
fruitful  region  whicli  stretches  westward  from 
the  head-waters  of  the  Hudson  to  the  Genesee. 
The  .Mohawks,  or  Caniciigas  —  as  they  sliould 
properly  be  called  — po.sse.sscd  the  :Mohawk  Hiver, 
and  ccjvered  Lake  George  and  Lake  Chamiilain 
witli  their  flotillas  of  large  canoes,  managed  with 
the  boldness  and  skill  which,  hereditary  iu  their 
descendants,  make  them  still  tliebest  boatmen  of 
the  North  American  rivers.  West  of  the  Canien- 
gas  the  Oneidas  held  the  small  river  and  lake  which 
liear  tlieir  name.  .  ,  .  AVest  of  the  Oneidas,  the 
imperious  Onondagas,  the  central  and,  iu  some  re- 
spects, the  ruling  nation  of  the  League,  possessed 
the  two  lakes  of  Onondaga  and  Skaneateles,  to- 
gether with  the  common  outlet  of  this  inland  lake 
system,  the  Oswego  River  to  its  issue  into  Lake 
Ontario.  Still  proceeding  westward,  the  lines  of 
trail  and  river  led  to  the  long  and  winding  stretch 
of  Lake  Cayuga,  about  which  were  clustc'red  the 


towns  of  the  people  who  gave  their  name  to  the 
l;ike  ;  and  beyond  Ihein,  over  the  wide  e.vpan.se 
i>f  hills  and  dales  surrounding  Lakes  Seneca  and 
Caiiandaigua.  were  scattered  the  populous  vil- 
lages of  the  Senecas.  more  correctly  called  Sonon- 
ti>wanas,  or  Mountaineers.  SiU'h  were  the  iinmes 
and  abodes  of  the  alliid  nations,  members  of  the 
far-famed  Kanonhiomii,  or  Leni;ue  of  I'nileil 
Households,  who  were  destined  to  become  for  a 
time  the  most  notable  and  powerful  community 
among  the  native  tribes  of  North  America.  The 
region  whicli  has  been  described  was  not, however, 
Iheorigiiial  seat  of  those  nations.  They  belonged 
to  that  linguistic  family  which  is  known  to  ethnol- 
ogists as  the  Huron-Iroi[uois  stock.  This  stock 
comprised  the  Ilurons  or  Wyandots,  the  Atli- 
wandaronks  or  Netitral  Nation,  the  lr<M[Uois,  the 
Erics,  the  AndastesorCo.iestogas,  the  Tusearoras 
and  some  smaller  bunds.  The  tribes  of  this  family 
occupied  a  long  irregular  area  of  inland  tern- 
lory,  stretching  from  Canada  to  North  Carolina. 
The  northern  nation.s  went  all  clusK'red  about 
the  great  lakes;  the  southern  bands  held  the  fer- 
tile valleys  bordering  the  headwaters  of  the 
rivers  which  flowed  from  the  Allegheny  moun- 
tains. The  hmguages  of  all  these  tribes  showed 
a  close  allinity.  .  .  .  The  evidence  of  language, 
so  far  as  it  has  yet  been  examined,  seems  to  show 
that  the  Huron  elans  were  the  older  menroers  of 
the  group;  and  the  clear  and  i)ositive  traditions 
of  all  the  surviving  tribes,  Ilurons,  Iroijuois,  and 
Tusearora,  i)oint  to  the  lower  St.  Lawrcnc(!  as 
the  earliest  known  abode  of  their  stock.  Hero 
the  first  explorer,  Cartic'r,  found  Indians  of  this 
stock  at  Iloclielag..  and  Stadacone,  now  the  sites 
of  Montreal  and  (Quebec.  ...  As  their  numbers 
increased,  dissensions  arose  The  bi'e  swarmed, 
and  band  after  band  moved  off  to  the  west  and 
south.  As  they  spread  they  encountered  |)eoplo 
of  other  .stocks,  with  whom  they  had  freiiucnt 
wars.  Their  most  constant  and  most  dreaded 
enemies  were  the  tribes  of  the  Algonkiu  family, 
a  fierce  and  restless  people  (jf  northeru  origin, 
who  everywhere  surrounded  them.  At  one 
period,  however,  if  the  concurrent  traditions  of 
both  Iro(juois  and  Algonkins  can  be  believed, 
these  contending  races  for  a  time  stayed  their 
strife,  an<l  unilid  their  forces  iu  an  alliance 
against  a  common  and  formidable  foe  This  foe 
was  the  nation,  or  perhaps  the  confederacy,  of 
the  Alligewi  or  Talligewi,  the  .semi-civilized 
'  .Mound-builders'  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  who  have 
left  their  nanu!  to  the  Allegheny  river  and  moun- 
tains, and  wliosi^  vast  earthworks  are  .still,  after 
half-a-centtiry  of  study,  the  perjilexity  of  arclue- 
ologists.  A  desperate  warfare  ensued,  which 
lasted  about  a  hundred  years,  and  ended  in  the 
c<miplete  overthrow  and  destruction,  or  expul- 
sion, of  the  Alligewi.  The  survivors  of  the  con- 
([Uered  peoi)le  fled  southward.  .  .  .  Tlic  time 
which  has  elapsed  since  the  overthrow  of  the 
Alligewi  is  variously  estimated.  The  most  prob- 
able conjecture  places  it  at  a  period  about  a 
thousiind  years  before  the  present  day.  It  was 
ajiparently  soon  after  their  expulsion  that  the 
tribes  of  the  Huron-Irocjuois  and  the  Algonkiu 
stocks  scattered  themselves  over  the  wide  region 
south  of  the  Great  Lakes,  thus  left  open  to  their 
occupancy." — II.  Hale,  Jiitrud.  to  Iroquois  Book 
of  Jlites. —  After  the  coining  of  the  Europeans 
into  the  New  World,  the  French  were  the  first  to 
be  involved  in  hostilities  with  the  IrcKpiois,  and 
their  early  wars  with  them  produced  a  hatred 


§9 


AMKI'.ICA.N  AHOltlOlNKS. 


AMKUICAN  AIJOIUOINES. 


wlii(  li  couUl  ncv'-r  lie  ('.\lin>;ui.sli<(l.  IIiiii-  the 
Ellt:liHli  were  ii'lc  to  win  the  alliiincc  i>(  ,,  c  Five 
Niilions,  wlicii  llicy  slriiL't-'lid  with  Kniiicc!  for 
the  riuislcry  nf  llic'  Xoitli  Aincricaii  ((intiiu'iit, 
ntiil  the  V  cmid  their  victory  to  lh:it  iilliaiuo,  proh- 
ably,  more  than  to  any  oilier  single  eaiise.  Enir- 
lanil  still  rdaiiKd  thu  raitlit'iil  rriiiiil>hi|)  and 
alliance  of  the  Iro(|Uoi-;  wlicti  she  came  to  a 
HtriiifL'le  with  her  own  colonies,  and  all  the  tribes 
except  the  Oik  iilas  were  in  arms  ajiainst  tlii' 
Americans  in  the  Uevolulion.iry  War.  "  With 
the  restoration  of  piiKc  the  political  transactions 
of  till!  Leajjiie  were  substantially  closed.  This 
was,  in  cflect,  the  termination  of  their  political 
existence.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  Tniteil  States 
was  extended  over  tlu'ir  anciiiil  territories,  and 
from  that  time  forth  they  became  dependent 
nations.  Durinnthe  jiro^fress  of  the  Hevobition. 
the  .Molmwks  abandoned  tlicir  country  and  re- 
moved to  Canada,  llnally  establishing  themselves 
partly  upon  Orand  Hiver,  in  thu  Xia.nara  penin- 
sula, and  jiartly  near  Kingston,  where  they  now 
reside  upon  two  reservations  secured  to  them  by 
tlie  IJritish  govermnent.  .  .  ,  The  Jiolicy  of  the 
State  of  New  York  [toward  the  Irocpiois  nations] 
wasever  justand  humane.  Although  llieircoiin- 
Iry,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  O.ieidas, 
might  have  been  considered  as  forfeited  by  tlie 
event  of  the  Hevolution,  yet  the  govermnent 
never  enforced  the  rights  ()f  coiupiest,  l)ut  ex- 
tinguished the  Indian  title  to  the  country  by 
purchase,  and  treaty  stipulations.  A  jiortion  of 
the  Oneida  nation  [who  had  sold  their  lands  to 
the  State,  from  timt  to  time,  excepting  one  small 
reservation]  emigrated  to  a  reservation  on  the 
river  Thamesin  Canada,  where  about 40()()f  them 
now  [IH'ilJ  reside.  Another  and  a  larger  band 
removed  to  tJreeii  Hay,  in  Wisconsin,  where  they 
still  make  their  homes  to  the  number  of  700. 
But  11  small  part  of  the  ii  .lion  have  remained 
aroimd  the  seat  of  their  an'  lent  coimcil-lire  .  .  . 
near  Oneida  Castle,  in  thi,  coiiniy  of  Oneida." 
The  Onondagas  "still  r'iaiii  their  bcautifid  and 
secluded  valley  of  On.vndaga,  with  sudicieut  ter- 
ritory for  their  comfortable  maintenance.  About 
150  biKmdagas  now  reside  with  the  Senecas; 
another  party  are  established  on  Grand  Kiver,  in 
Canada,  anil  a  few  have  removed  to  the  west. 
.  .  .  In  the  brief  space  of  twelve  years  after  the 
lirst  house  of  the  white  man  was  erected  in  Cay- 
uga county  (17.Si))  the  whole  mition  [of  the  Cay- 
ugas)  was  uprooted  and  gone.  In  1705,  they 
reded,  by  treaty,  all  their  lands  to  the  State,  with 
the  exception  of  one  reservati(m,  which  they  fin- 
ally abandoned  aoout  tlic  vear  1800.  A  portion 
of  them  removed  to  Green  i5ay,  another  to  Grand 
River,  and  still  another,  and  a  iinicli  larger  band, 
settled  at  Sandusky,  in  Ohio,  from  w  hence  they 
were  removed  by  goverument,  ii  few  years  since, 
hito  the  Indian  territory,  west  of  the  ilissis.sippi. 
About  120  still  reside  among  the  Senecas,  in  west- 
ern New  York.  .  .  .  The  Tiisearoras,  after  re- 
moving from  the  Oneida  territory,  tinally  located 
near  the  Niagara  river,  in  the  vicinity  o'f  Lewis- 
ton,  on  a  tract  given  to  them  by  the  Senecas. 
.  .  .  The  residue  of  the  Senecas  are  now  shut  up 
within  three  small  rcsirvations,  the  Tonawanda, 
the  Cattaraugus  and  the  Alleguuy,  which,  united, 
would  not  cover  the  area  of  <me  of  the  lesser 
comitiea  of  the  State."  —  L.  II.  Morgan,  The 
Lfitijitc  of  the  Ir'ii/iioia,  hk.  1,  ch.  1. —  "The  In- 
dians of  the  State  of  New  Y'ork  number  about 
5,000,  and  occupy  lands  to  the  estimated  extent 


peopl( 
Indiai 


f  H7,OT7  acres.  With  few  exceptions,  thoe 
ire  the  direct  clescendants  of  the  native 
ians,  who  otu  i'  possessed  and  controlled  tlit' 
soil  of  the  entire  State." — liijit.  of  Sjucidl  Com. 
Ifi  Inrmtiiiiilc  tin'  Indiiiu  I'rolilcm  of  the  State  of 
y.  y..  1HH9.—  II.  If.  Schoolcraft,  y'oti^on  the  Iro- 
i/Koin. —  F.  I'arkman,  'J'hc  ('oiiKj)iiiii\i/  if  J'^mtinr, 
i-h.  1.  — C.  Coldcn,  llUt.  <//  the  Fire  ludidii,  An- 
tioiiK. —  J.  Fiskc,  Diaeoeerji  (f  Ainerieii,  eh.  1. — In 
1715  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Inxiuois  Con- 
federacy became  Six  Nations,  by  the  admission 
of  tlie'l"u.scaroras,  from  N.  Carolina. —  See  below: 
Inovirois  Tiiim-:s  ov  Tin-:  Sotrit. —  On  the 
relationship  between  the  Iro((Uois  and  the  Cher- 
okees,   see  above:  Ciii;i!(i]C1':ks. 

Iroquois  Confedciacy. — Their  Name. — "  Tlie 
origin  and  proper  meaning  of  the  wurd  Iroquois 
are  doubtful.  All  that  can  be  said  with  cer- 
tainty is  that  Ihcexplanation  given  by  Charlevoix 
cannot  possibly  be  correct.  The  niime  of 
Ir(i((uois,  he  says,  is  purely  French,  and  lias 
been  formed  from  the  term  'hiro,'  'I  have 
spoken,'  a  word  by  which  these  Indians  close  all 
their  speeches,  aial  'koue,'  which,  when  long 
drawn  out,  is  a  cry  of  sorrow,  and  when  briefly 
utt<'red  is  an  exclamation  of  .joy.  .  .  .  Hut  .  .  . 
Cham|)lain  had  learned  the  name  from  his 
Indian  allies  before  he  or  any  other  Frenchman, 
so  far  as  is  known,  had  ever  seen  an  Iryijuois. 
It  is  i)robable  that  the  origin  of  the  word  is  to 
besought  ill  the  Huron  hiiiguage:  yet,  as  this 
is  similar  to  the  Iroipiois  tongue,  an  attemiit 
may  be  made  to  liiid  a  solution  in  the  latter. 
According  toUruyas,  the  word  '  garokwa  '  meant 
a  pipe,  and  also  a  piece  of  tobacco,  —  and,  in  its 
verbal  form,  to  smoke.  This  word  is  found, 
somewhat  disguised  by  aspirates,  in  the  Book  of 
Hites,  —  denighroghkwayen, — '  Ictus  two  .smoke 
togetlicr.'.  .  .  In  the  indeterminate  form  the 
verb  becomes  '  ierokwa,'  which  is  certainly  very 
near  to  Iroquois.  It  might  be  rendered  '  they  who 
smoke,'  or  "they  who  u.se  to>acco,'or,  bVietiy, 
'the  Tobacco  People. '  This  naiie,  the  Tobacco 
Nation  ('Nation  du  Petim ')  whj  given  by  the 
French,  and  ^robablj' also  by  the  ...''ronkhs,  to 
one  of  the  Il'ion  tribes,  the  TionontaKJ,  noted 
for  the  excellent  tobacco  wliich  they  raised  and 
sold.  The  Iroipiois  were  eiiually  well  known 
for  their  cultivatiim  of  this  plant,  of  which  they 
had  a  choice  variety. " — II.  Hale,  Ivo(juoi.i  Book 
if  Rites,  <ij)p. ,  note  A. 

Iroquois  Confederacy.  —  Their  conquests 
and  wide  dominion.  —  "The  luojcct  of  a 
League  [among  the  'Five  Nations'  of  the  Iro- 
([UoLsJ  originated  with  the  Onondagas,  among 
whom  it  was  lirst  suggested,  as  a  means  to 
enable  them  more  ellectually  to  resist  the  i)res- 
siire  of  contiguous  nations.  The  epoch  of  its 
establi.shiiieiil  cannot  now  be  decisively  ascer- 
tained; although  the  circumstances  attending  its 
formation  are  still  iireserved  by  tradition  with 
great  minuteness.  These  traditions  all  refer  to 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Onondaga  lake,  as  the 
pla.e  where  the  Iroquois  chiefs  assembled  in 
gereral  congress,  to  agree  upon  the  terms  and 
principles  of  the  compact.  .  .  .  After  the  forma- 
tion of  the  League,  the  Irociiiois  rose  rapidly  in 
power  and  influence.  ,  .  .  With  the  lirst  con- 
sciousness of  rising  power,  they  turned  their 
longcherished  resentment  upon  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  who  had  oppressed  them  in  their  infancy 
as  a  nation,  and  had  expelled  them  from  their 
country,  in  the  lirst  struggle  for  the  ascendancy. 


90 


AMEIilCAX  ABORIGINES. 


AMEHICAX  ABORIGIXES. 


i    171 


...  At  the  cm  of  French  discovery  (15!!.")),  tlie 
hitler  iiiilioii  [the  Adiroiidiieksl  iippeiir  to  hav<' 
lii'cii  dispossessed  of  their  original  conntry,  and 
ilriveu  down  the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  (i"ue))ee. 
...  A  new  era  commenced  witli  tlie  Iro(jiiois 
iipDii  tlie  e.stalilislmieut  of  tlie  Dutch  tradiug- 
pii>l  at  Orange,  now  Alliaiiy,  in  1015.  .  .  . 
I'ljciidly  relations  were  established  between  the 
In.tpiois  '.ind  the  Dutch,  wiiieh  continued  witli- 
(piit  internipt'on  until  the  latter  surrendered 
llieir  pos.sessioiis  ujioii  the  Hudson  to  tlie  Eng- 
lish ill  1004.  During  tiiis  period  a  trade  sprang 
up  between  tlie'ii  in  furs,  wliica  the  Iroipiois  ex- 
eliaiiged  for  European  falir,.-,,  but  more  efi- 
iicciidly  for  lirearnis,  in  ilie  use  of  which  they 
iieic  afterwards  destined  to  become  so  expert. 
Tile  J'.iiglish,  in  turn,  cultivated  tlu^  saim^  re'.a- 
tidiis  of  friendship.  .  .  .  With  the  iiosse.ssion  of 
lii'earnis  coninienced  not  oiilv  the  rapid  eleva- 
tiiai,  but  absolute  .supr'inat  of  the  Iroipuiis 
over  other  Indian  nations.  In  V'AS,  they  tx- 
liclled  the  Xeiiter  Nation  i'rom  the  Niagara  pen- 
insula and  established  a  ]ierinanent  settlement  at 
the  Mioiilh  of  that  river.  They  nearly  exlerniin- 
uted,  in  KmIJ,  the  Erics,  who  occupied  the  south 
siile  of  Lake  Erie,  and  from  thence  east  to  the 
Ucnesee,  and  thus  possessed  them.selves  of  the 
wli(]|e  area  of  western  New  York,  and  the  nortli- 
eia  jtart  of  (Jliio.  About  the  year  1070,  after 
tliiy  had  Ihially  completed  the  dispersion  and 
siilijugation  of  the  AdirondaeUs  and  llurons, 
tliey  ticcpiired  pos.session  of  the  whole  country 
between  lakes  Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  of 
till  iiorlli  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  to  the 
moiilli  of  the  Ottawa  river,  near  ^Montreal.  .  .  . 
Thi'V  also  made  constant  inioads  upon  the  Ne^w 
Kiiulaiid  Indians.  .  .  .  In  1080,  the  Senecas  with 
(iili)  warriors  invaded  the  country  of  the  Illinois, 
upiiii  tlie  borders  of  the  iMississippi,  while  La 
Salle  was  among  the  latter.  ...  At  various 
times,  both  before  and  after  this  period,  the  Iro- 
(jUois  turned  their  warfare  against  the  Cherokees 
upon  the  Tennessee,  and  the  Catawbas  in  South 
C'anilina.  .  .  .  For  about  a  century,  from  the 
year  lUtlU  to  the  year  1700,  the  Iroc;\iois  were  in- 
volved in  an  almost  uninterrupted  warfare.  At 
the  elo.se  of  this  period, they  hacl  subdued  and  held 
in  maninal  subjection  all  the  iiriiieipal  Indian  na- 
tions occupying  the  territories  wliich  are  now 
eiiibraeed  in  the  states  of  New  York,  Delaware, 
JIaiyland,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  the  north- 
ern and  western  parts  of  Virginia,  '^hio,  Kcn- 
tucUy,  Northern  Tennessee,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
ilicliigan,  a  portion  of  the  New  England  States, 
and  the  iirincipal  i)art  of  Upper  Canada.  Over 
these  nations,  the  haughty  and  imperious  Iro- 
tjuois  exercised  a  constant  supervision.  If  any  of 
them  became  involved  in  domestic  difflculties,  a 
delegation  of  chiefs  went  among  them  and  re- 
stored traiKpiillity,  prescribing  at  the  same  time 
their  fulure  conduct." — L.  II.  Jlorgan,  League  of 
t/ic  Iiwjuoin,  bk.  1,  (•/(.  1. — "Their  [the  Iroquois's] 
war-parties  roamed  over  half  America,  and  their 
iianif  was  a  terror  from  the  Atlantii;  to  the  Mis- 
.sissippi ;  but  when  we  ask  the  numerical  strength 
of  the  dreaded  confederacy,  when  we  discover 
that,  in  the  days  of  their  greatest  triumphs, 
their  united  cantons  could  not  have  mustered 
4,000  warriors,  we  stand  amazed  at  the  folly  and 
dissension  which  left  so  vast  a  region  the  i)rey 
of  a  handful  of  bold  marauders.  Of  the  cities 
and  villages  now  so  thickly  scattered  over  the 
lost  domain  of  the  Iroquois,  a,  single  one  might 

•  See  Note,  Appendix  E.  91 


boast  a  more  numerous  ])opulati<m  than  all  the 
live  unilcil  tribes. "  —  F.  I'arknian,  The  Connjiir- 
itejl  (if  I'liidiar.  i-li.   1. 

Iroquois  Confederacy:  A.  D.  1608-1700. 
— Thtir  wars  with  the  French.  See  (.'.vnad.v 
(Ni;w  Fu.\N(e;):  A.  D.  1008-1011;  1011-1010; 
1034-1052;  1040-1700;  1006. 

Iroquois  Confederacy :  A.  D.  1648-1649. — 
Their  destruction  of  the  Hurons  and  the 
Jesuit  Missions.  See  ('.\.nai).k  (Ni;\v  Fii.VNCE): 
A,  I).  V'l  !4-105-' ;  also,  above,  HluoNs, 

Iroquois  Confederacy :    A.    D.  1684-1744.— 
Surrenders  and  conveyances  to  the  English. 
See  Ni;v,-    Voiti;:    A.    D.    KiSl,   and  17-'(i;  ViK 
(;ima:  a.  D.  1744;  Ohio  (Vai.i.kv):  A.  D.  1748- 
1754;  UxiTKi)  Status  of  A.m.  :  A.  1).  1705-1708. 

Iroquois  Confederacy:  A.  D.  1778-1779. — 
Their  part  in  the  War  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution. See  U.NiTKi)  States  oi' Amkuica;  A.  1). 
1778  (.luNi;— NovK.Mwsn)  and  (July);  and  1770 

(AliasT — SEPTKMnLli). 

Iroquois  Tribes  of  the  South  *  "The 
s(Hitliern  Iroipiois  tribes  occupied  Ch  nvan  Hiver 
audits  tributary  streams.  'I'hey  wire  bounded 
on  the  east  by  tlie  mo.st  southerly  Le'.ape  tribes, 
who  were  in  iiossession  of  the  \  .w  country  along 
the  sea  shores,  and  those  of  Albemarle  ami 
Pamlico  Sounds.  Toward.s  the  south  and  the 
west  they  extended  beyond  the  river  Neiise. 
They  appear  te  have  been  known  in  Virginia,  in 
early  times,  under  i'.ie  'ime  of  Monaeans,  as  far 
north  as  Jaincs  Pivi  r.  .  .  .  Lawson,  in  his 
account  of  the  North  Cirolina  Indians,  enumer- 
ates the  Chowans,  tm,  Meherrins,  and  the  Not- 
toways,  as  having  together  05  warriors  in  the  vcar 
1708.  But  the  .Melierrins  or  Tuteloes  anil  the 
Nottoways  inhabited  respectively  the  two  rivers 
of  that  name,  and  were  principally  seated  in 
Virginia.  We  have  but  indistinct  notices  of  the 
Tulcloes.  ...  It  appears  by  Beverly  that  the 
Nottoways  had  preserved  their  independence 
and  their'mimbers  later  Uian  the  Powhataiis,  and 
that,  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  they  had 
still  130  warriors.  They  do  not  appear  to  have 
migrated  from  their  original  seats  in  a  body.  In 
the  year  18'i0,  they  are  said  to  have  been  reduced 
to  37  souls,  aud  were  stili  in  possession  of  7,000 
acres  in  Southamp'iou  county,  Virgiuin,  which 
had  been  at  au  early  date  reserved  for  them. 
.  .  .  The  Ttiscaroras  were  by  far  the  most 
l)owerful  uatiou  in  North  Carolina,  aud  occupied 
all  the  residue  of  the  territory  in  that  colony, 
which  has  been  described  as  inhabited  by 
Iroquois  tribes.  Their  principal  seats  in  1708 
were  0.1  the  Nei'se  aud  the  Taw  o»  Tar  rivers, 
and  according  to  Lawson  they  had  1,200  warriors 
in  fifteen  towns."  lu  1711  the  Tuscaroras 
attacked  the  English  colonists,  massacring  130 
in  a  single  day,  aud  a  tierce  war  ensued.  "In 
the  autumn  of  1712,  all  the  inhabitants  south  and 
southwest  of  ChowiMi  Uiver  were  obliged  to  live 
iu  forts;  and  the  Tuscaroras  expected  assistance 
from  the  Five  Nations.  This  coidd  not  have 
been  given  without  involving  the  confederacy  in 
a  war  with  Great  Britain;  and  the  Tuscaroras 
were  left  to  their  own  resources.  A  force,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  southern  Indians  under  the 
command  of  Colonel  Jloore,  was  again  sent  by 
the  government  of  South  Carolina  to  assist  the 
nortliern  Colonies.  He  besieged  and  took  a  fort 
of  the  Tuscaroras.  .  .  .  Of  800  prisoners  000 
were  given  up  to  the  Southern  Indians,  who 
carried  them  to  South  Carolina  to  sell  them  us 


AMKKICAN  ABOUIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


8l:ivc8.  The  Eastern  Tuscnroriis,  who<"  principal 
town  •as  on  the  Taw,  twenty  miles  above 
Washinni  m,  irnniediiitely  made  (lenee,  an<l  a 
portion  was  settled  a  few  years  after  north  of 
the  Koanoke,  near  Windsor,  where  they  con- 
tinued till  the  year  180:?.  But  the  great  body  of 
tlie  nation  removed  in  lTll-15  to  the  Five 
Nations, was  reeeiveil  as  the  Sixtli,  and  has  since 
sliared  their  fate."— A.  (iallatin.  ,Si/ni>piiiii  of  the 
Jmlidii  7'nV«a  (Airtutohirjia  Americana,  t.  2), 
iiilroil.,  Kt'ct.  'I. 

Also  in  .1.  W.  Moore,  IfM.  of  N.  Carolina, 
r.  1,  ch.  13.  — See,  also,  above:  luoquois  Cos- 
Fi;iii;n.\cy. 

ItOCOS.     See  above:  (,'lltllcnAS. 

Itonamos,  or  Itonomos.  See  above:  Andk- 
glANs;  also  Bolivia:  Auoiiloi.VAL  lN'iiAHlT.\yT8. 

Jivara,  or  Jivaro.     See  above:  Andksianh. 

kah-kwas.     See  above:     lIiiioNs.  Ac. 

Kalapooian  Family.—"  Under  this  family 
name  Scolder  ((laces  two  trdies,  the  Kalapooian, 
iiihabitiii},'  '  the  fertile  Willamat  jilains'  and  the 
Yamkallie,  who  live  'more  in  tlie  interior, 
towards  the  sources  of  the  Willamat  River.' .  .  . 
The  tribes  of  the  Kalapooian  family  iidiabited 
the  valley  of  Willamette  River,  UreROn,  above 
the  falls.'' — 1.  \V.  To  well,  lien  nth  Annual  liept., 
UidUitii  (if  Elhidiliiii,,,  p.  81. 

Kanawhas,  or  Ganawese.  See  above: 
Aloo.mji  IAN  Tamily. 

Kansas,  or  Kaws,     See  below  :  SiouAX. 

Kapohn.     See    aliove:    Cakmis    and    tiii:iu 

KlNDHKIV 

Karankawan  Family.— "The  Karaid<awa  for- 
merly dwell  iii)on  the  Te.\an  coast,  accordinj;  to 
Sililey,  ujion  an  island  or  jKninsida  in  the  Bay  of 
St.  Beriiaid  (.Matairorda  Bay).  .  .  .  In  1884  Mr. 
Gatschet  found  aTonkaweat  Fort  Gritlin,  Texas, 
who  chimed  to  have  formerly  lived  among  the 
Karankawa.  From  hima  vocabulary  of  twenty- 
live  terms  was  obtained,  which  was  all  of  the 
language  he  remembered.  The  vocabulary  .  .  . 
such  as  it  is,  represents  all  of  the  language  that  is 
e.\tant.  Judged  by  this  vocabidary  the  language 
seems  to  bo  distinct  not  only  from  the  Attakapa 
but  from  all  others." — .1.  W.  Powell,  He.vcnth 
Annual  Utpor.t,  lluiraii  of  Ethnoliijn,  p.  80. 

Karoks,   or  Cahrocs.     See  below :    Modocs. 

Kaskaskias.  See  ubovc:  Algonquian  Fam- 
ily. 

Kaus,  or  Kwokwocd.  See  below:  Kuban 
Famil.v. 

Kaws,  or  Kansas.     See  below  :  SIOUAN. 

Kenai,  or  Blood  Indians,*  See  above:  Black- 

KHET. 

Keresan  Family. — "The  .  .  .  pueblos  of 
Iv'eresan  stock  .  .  .  are  situated  in  New  ilexieo 
on  the  upper  Kio  Grande,  on  several  of  its  small 
western  atUuents,  and  on  the  Jcmez  and  San 
Jo.su,  which  also  are  tributaries  of  the  Rio 
Grande." — J.  W,  Powell,  tkMnth  Annual  Rept., 
lluri.iu  of  ElhnoUnjji,  p.  8^. — See  Pueblo. 

Kikapoos.  See  above:  Ai,(ioN(jiiiAN  Family, 
and  below:  Sacs.  Ari.,  and  Pawnee (Caddoan) 
Family. 

Kiowan  Family, — "Derivation:  From  the 
Kiowa  word  K6-i,  plural  Ko-igu,  meaning 
'  Kayowe  man.'  The  Comanche  term  kiiyowG 
means  'rat.'  The  author  who  llrsl  formally 
separated  this  family  appears  to  hav('  been 
Turner.  .  .  .  Ttirner,  upon  '.he  strength  of  a 
vocabulary  furnisluHl  by  Lieut.  Whipple,  dis- 
iitiuts  froiii  the  opinion  expressed  by  Pike  and 


others  to  the  effect  that  the  language  is  of  the 
same  stock  as  the  Comanche,  and.  while  admitting 
that  its  relationship  to  Comanche  is  greater  than 
to  any  other  family,  thinks  that  the  likeness  is 
merely  the  result  of  long  intercommunication. 
His  opinion  that  it  is  entirely  <listinct  from  any 
other  language  has  been  indorsed  by  Buscli- 
mann  and  other  authorities.  The  family  is  rep- 
resented by  the  Kiowa  tribe.  So  intimately 
associated  with  the  Comanelies  have  the  Kiowa 
been  since  known  to  history  that  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  their  ])ristine  home.  .  .  .  Pope  deli- 
nitely  locates  the  Kiowa  in  the  valley  of  the 
Upper  Arkansas,  and  of  its  tributary,  the  Purga- 
tory (Las  Animas)  River.  This  is  in  .substantial 
accord  with  the  statements  of  other  writers  of 
about  the  same  period.  Schermerhorn  (1812) 
pl;u:es  the  Kiowa  on  the  Jic;ids  of  the  Arkansas 
and  Platte.  Earlier  still  they  appear  upon  tlie 
headwaters  of  the  Platte.'  — J.  W.  Powell, 
Sfirnth  Annual  licjurl,  ISnreaa  of  Ethnologi/,  p. 
84. 

Kiriri,  Cuyriri.  See  above:  Guck  ou 
Coco  GitoiTr. 

Kitunahan  Family. — "This  family  was  based 
upon  a  tribe  variously  termed  Kitunaha,  Kutenay, 
Cootenai,  or  Flatbow,  living  on  the  Kootenay 
River,  a  branch  of  tlie  Columbia  in  Oregon." — 
J.  W.  Powell,  Seventh  Annual  Itept.,  Bureau  of 
Kthnoloijij,  p.  85. 

Klamaths.     See  below :     JIoDOca. 

Koluschan  Family. — "  Derivation:  From  the 
Aleut  word  kolosh,  or  more  properly,  kalu;;a, 
meaning  'dish,'  the  allusion  being  to  the  dish- 
shaped  lip  ornaments.  This  family  was  based 
by  Gallatin  upon  the  Koluschcn  tribe  (the 
Tshinkitani  of  .'Marchand),  '  who  inhabit  the 
islands  and  the  [Pacilie]  coast  from  the  COth  to 
the  55tli  degree  of  north  latitude.'" — J.  W. 
Powell,  Seccnth  Annual  Rept,  Ditrcau  of  Eth- 
nology, p.  80. 

kulanapan  Family. — "The  main  territory 
of  the  Kuhmapan  family  is  bounded  on  tlie 
west  by  the  Pacilie  Ocean,  on  the  east  by  the 
Yukiau  and  C!opehan  territories,  on  the  north  by 
the  watershed  of  the  Russian  River,  and  on  the 
south  by  a  line  drawn  from  Bodega  Head  to  the 
south'vest  corner  of  the  Yukian  territory,  near 
Santa  Rosa,  Sonoma  County,  California.  "—J.  W. 
Powell,  Seventh  Annual  Rept.,  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nolofj!/,  p.  88, 

Kusan  Family."*—"  The  '  Kaus  or  Kwokwoos' 
tribe  is  merely  mentioned  by  Hale  as  living  on  a 
river  of  tlie  sanK!  name  between  the  Unnjua  and 
the  Clamet." — J.  W.  Powell,  Seventh  Annual 
Rept.,  Hurcau  of  JJthnoloffi/,  p.  89. 

Kwokwoos.     See  above :   Kusan  Family. 

Lenape.      See     above:      Delawahes. 

Machicuis.     Sec  below :  Pampas  Tuibes. 

Macushi,      See  above:    Caiiibb  and  theiu 

KiNDUED. 

Manaos.     See  above:  GucK  ou  Coco  QuoUP. 

Mandans,  or  Mandanes.  See  below :  Biouan 
Family, 

Manhattans.  See  above :  Alooncjuian  Fam- 
ily, and,  also,  Manhattan  Island. 

Manioto,  or  Mayno.    See  above:  Andesians. 

Mapochins.     See  Chile:  A.  D.  1450-1724. 

Maranha.  See  above:  Guck  oh  Coco 
Guotii". 

Maricopas,     See  below :  Pueblos. 

Mariposan  Family. — "  Derivation:  A  Spanish 
word  meuuiug  '  buttcrlly,'  applied  tu  a  county  iu 


*  See  Note,  Appendix  E. 


93 


AMERICAN  ABOUIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABOUIGINES. 


Ciiliforiiia  iiiid  siibspquciitly  taken  for  the  family 
name.  Lntliiini  mentions  tlio  reMiniints  of  three 
(lislinet  bunds  of  the  C^oconooii,  eaeli  with  its 
own  lanfinage,  in  the  north  of  Mariposa  County. 
Tliese  are  classed  together  under  the  above 
name.  More  recently  the  tribes  speaking 
lanjiuages  allied  to  the  CoeonTin  have  been 
treated  of  under  the  family  name  Yokut.  As, 
however,  the  stock  was  established  by  liathamon 
a  sound  basis,  his  name  is  here  restored." — J.  \V. 
I'owell,   ty.Fcnth  Annual  Jlept,,  Burcm  of  Eth- 

""/",'/.'/.  ;'■  fO- 

Mascoutins,  or  Mascontens.  See  below: 
8a(S,  iV:('. 

Massachusetts.  '  See  abo\e;  Ai.gonquian 
Family. 

Mataguayas.     See  Bolivia:  Ahoiugixal  in- 

HAIllTANrS. 

Mayas. — "In  his  second  voyage,  Columb\is 
heard  vague  rumors  of  a  mainland  westward 
from  Jamaica  and  Cuba,  at  a  distance  of  ten  days' 
journey  in  a  canoe.  .  .  .  During  his  fourth  voy- 
age (ir)()3-4),  when  he  was  exploring  the  Gulf 
southwest  from  Cuba,  he  picked  \ip  a  canoe 
laden  with  cotton  clothing  variously  dyed.  The 
natives  in  it  gave  him  to  understand  that  tOey 
were  merchants,  and  came  from  a  land  called 
Maia.  This  is  the  lirst  mention  in  history  of  the 
territory  now  called  Yucatan,  and  of  the  race  of 
the  .Mayas;  for  although  a  i)rovince  of  similar 
name  was  found  in  the  we.stern  extremity  of  the 
island  of  Cuba,  the  similarity  was  accidental,  as 
the  evidence  is  conclusive  that  no  colony  of  the 
Mayas  was  found  on  the  Antilles.  .  .  .  Maya 
was  the  patrial  name  of  the  natives  of  Yucatan. 
It  was  the  proper  name  of  the  northern  portion 
of  the  peninsula.  No  single  province  bore  it  at 
the  date  of  the  Conquest,  and  probably  it  had 
been  handed  down  as  a  generic  term  from  the 
period,  about  a  century  before,  when  this  whole 
district  ^,■as  united  under  one  government.  .  .  . 
Whatev^.r  the  primitive  meaning  and  lirst  appli- 
cation of  the  name  Maya,  it  is  now  \ised  to  signify 
speeilieally  the  aborigines  of  Yucatan.  In  a  more 
extended  sense,  in  the  expression  '  the  Maya 
family,'  it  is  understood  to  embrace  all  tribes, 
wherever  found,  who  speak  related  dialects  pre- 
sumably derived  from  the  .same  ancient  stock  as 
the  Maya  proper.  .  .  .  The  total  number  of 
Indians  ;)f  pure  blood  speaking  the  JIaya  proper 
may  be  estimated  as  nearly  or  (iuitc2()t),000,  most 
of  them  in  the  political  limits  of  the  department 
of  Vueatan;  to  these  should  be  added  nearly 
100,000  of  mixed  blood,  or  of  European  descent, 
who  use  the  t(mgue  in  daily  life.  For  it  forms 
one  of  the  rare  examples  of  American  languages 
possessing  vitality  enough  not  only  to  maintain 
its  groimd,  but  actuu.iy  to  force  itself  on  Euro- 
pean settlers  and  supplant  their  naiive  speech. 
.  .  .  The  Mayas  did  no'  claim  to  be  autoch- 
thones. Their  legends  referred  to  their  arrival 
by  llie  sea  from  the  East,  in  remote  times,  under 
the  leadersliip  of  Itzamna,  their  hero-god,  and 
also  to  a  less  numerous  immigration  from  the 
West,  which  was  coimected  with  the  history  of 
another  liero-g(«i,  Kukul  V&n.  The  lirst  of  these 
appears  to  be  wholly  mythical.  .  .  .  The  second 
tradition  deserves  more  attention  from  the  his- 
torian. ...  It  cannot  bo  denied  that  the  JIayas, 
the  Kiehes  [or  Qui'dies]  and  the  Cakchiquels,  in 
their  most  venerable  traditions,  claimed  to  have 
migrated  from  tlie  north  or  west  from  some  part 
of  the  prc80Dt  country  of  Mexico.     These  tra- 


ditions receive  additional  importance  from  tiic 
presence  on  the  shores  of  the  Jlexiean  Gulf,  on 
the  waters  of  the  river  Panuco,  north  of  Vera 
(^ruz,  of  a  pronnnent  branch  of  the  Maya  family, 
the  lluastecs.  The  idea  suggests  itself  that 
these  were  the  rear-gmu'd  of  a  great  migration  of 
the  Maya  family  from  the  north  toward  the 
south.  Support  is  given  to  this  by  tli>  dialect, 
wliich  is  most  closely  akin  to  that  of  the  .  ^endals 
of  Taba.sco,  the  nearest  Maya  race  totlu-  outhof 
them,  and  also  by  very  ancient  traditions  of  the 
Aztecs.  It  is  noteworthy  that  these  t  wo  partially 
civilized  races,  the  .Mayas  and  the  Aztecs, 
though  dilfering  radically  in  language,  had 
legends  which  claimed  a  comnuinity  of  origin  in 
some  indelinitely  remote  past.  We  find  these  on 
the  Maya  si<le  narrated  in  the  sacred  book  of  the 
Kiehes,  the  Poiiol  Vuh.  in  tlie  Cakcbiipiel 
'Records  of  Tecjian  Atillan,'  and  in  various 
l)urc  .Maya  .sources.  .  .  .  Theannalsof  the  Aztecs 
contain  i'reiiiient  allusions  to  the  lluastecs." — D. 
G.  Brinton,  The  .^fdi/ii  dhn/iiiclen,  introd. — 
"  Closely  cnvc^loped  in  the  dense  forests  of  Chia- 
pas, Gautemala,  Yucatan,  and  Honduras,  tho 
ruins  of  several  anc'.ent  cities  have  been  discov- 
ered, which  are  far  superior  in  extent  and  mng- 
nillcence  to  any  seen  in  Az*ec  territory,  and  of 
which  a  delailed  description  may  be  found  in  the 
fointh  volume  of  this  work.  .Most  of  tluse  cities 
were  abandoned  and  more  or  less  unknown  at  the 
time  of  the  [Spanish]  Con<(Uest.  They  bear 
hieroglyiihic  iuscrii)lions  apparently  identical  in 
character;  in  other  respects  they  resend)le  each 
other  more  than  they  resemble  the  Azt  'c  ruins  — 
or  even  other  and  apparently  later  works  in 
Guatennda  and  Honduras.  All  these  remains 
bear  evident  marks  of  great  antiquity.  ...  I 
deem  the  groimds  sullieient  .  .  .  lor  accepting 
this  Ceutr.il  American  civilizati<in  of  the  past  as  a 
fact,  referring  it  not  to  an  extinct  ancient  race, 
but  to  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  Jieoples  still 
occupvlng  the  country  with  the  Spaniards,  and 
applying  to  it  the  name  JIaya  as  that  of  the  lan- 
guage which  has  claims  as  strong  as  any  to  lie 
considered  the  mother  tcmgue  of  the  linginstic 
fanuly  mentioned.  .  .  .  There  are  no  data  by 
which  to  lix  the  period  of  the  original  JMaya 
empire,  or  its  downfall  or  breaking  up  into  rival 
factions  by  civil  and  foreign  wars.  The  cities  of 
Yucatan,  as  is  clearly  shown  by  Jlr.  Stephens, 
were,  many  of  them,  oceupit<l  by  the  des'jcnd- 
ants  of  the  biulders  <lown  t'^  the  conquest,  and 
contain  some  renmaritsof  woc^l-work  still  in  good 
preservation,  although  some  of  the  structures 
appear  to  be  built  on  the  ruins  of  others  of  a 
somewhat  dilTerent  type.  Palenque  and  Cojian, 
on  the  contrary,  have  no  traces  of  wood  or  other 
perishable  material,  and  were  .  iinhabited  and 
probably  unknown  in  the  Kit'i  ceutury.  The 
loss  of  the  key  to  what  nv  ■  have  lieen  an 
advanced  system  of  hieroglyphics,  wliile  the 
spoken  language  survive<l,  is  also  an  indication 
of  great  antiquity,  conllrmed  by  the  fact  that  the 
tiuiche  structures  of  Gmitemala  differed  materi- 
ally from  those  of  the  more  ancient  epoch.  It  is 
not  likely  that  the  .Maya  empire  in  its  integrity 
contintncl  later  than  tlie  ;!(i  or  4th  century, 
although  its  cities  may  have  been  inhabited  much 
later,  and  I  should  tix  the  epoch  of  its  highest 
power  at  a  date  i)receding  rather  than  following 
the  Christian  era.  "—II.  H.  Bancroft,  A'<(^'(v  Uaet* 
of  the  "tiHJic  t<tates,  v.  2,  ch.  'i;  v.  4,  ch.  8-0/  «. 
5,  rA.  11-13. 


98 


AMERICAN  ABOKIGIXES. 


AMEHICAN  AB0HIG1NE9. 


Also  ix  Marquis  dp  Nnclaillac,  PnhiMorle 
Aiiiericii.  rh.  (1-7. — .1.  J..  Stephens,  IncuUitts  of 
Trdiiiia  YnntUni;  tiitd  'J'nirH  in  Ci  ntriilAmtrica, 
ilr. — 13.  y\.  \i)riii;iii,  UainhUs  in  Yiimtiiii. — 
D.  Cliariiay,  Anricut  Citim  of  the  Nfir  M'oHd. — 
Sec,  also,  ".Mexico:  Ancient,  and  Aztec  A^•D 

M.W.V  I'lCTniE-WuITINd. 

Mayoruna,  or  Barbudo.     See  above :    Ande- 

SI.\NS. 

Menominees.  Seeabove:  Aloonqcian  Fam- 
ily, ami  Sa(  s,  Arc. 

Mctoacs.     Sec  above:  Ai.oonquian  Family. 

Miamis,  orTwightwees.  Sec  above:  Aloon- 
tji  lA.N  Family,  Ii.i.i.nois,  and  Sacs,  Ac. 

Micmacs.     See  above:  Ai.c,<iN(iriAX  Family. 

Mingoes. — "  The  name  of  .Minjro,  or  ^lenirwe. 
by  vliieli  Ihe  Iroquois  were  known  to  the  Dela- 
w'ares  and  Ihe  oilier  southern  Algonkin.s,  is  said 
to  bo  a  eoiitraetion  ot  Ihe  Leiiape  word  '  ^la- 
hoiigwi,' ineaninjr  the  'Peopli!  of  the  Sprinjjs.' 
The  Iroquois  po.sses.sed  the  head-waters  of  Ihe 
rivers  wliieh  lloweil  throufih  the  eountry  of  the 
Delawares." — II.  Hale,  'I'lie.  Ir>i(jiii>ia  Ihok  of 
Jiitis.  iipiK,  Holt'  .1. 

Minneconjou.     See  below:    SiofAN  Family. 

Minnetarees.*  See  above:  IIid.vtsa;  and 
below;  SiotAN  Family. 

Minquas.  See  below:  Scscjcehanxas;  and 
above:  Ai.o(iN(;riAN  Family. 

Minsis,  Munsees,  or  Minisinks.  See  above: 
Di;i.AWAiii:s,  and  Ai  iioNtjcjAN  Favii.y. 

Miranha.     See  above:  GccK  ok  CocoGitour. 

Missouris.     See  below:  Siovan  Family. 

T^ixes.     See  below:  Zapotecs,  etc. 

Mixtccs.     See  below :  Zatotecs.  etc. 

Mocovis.     .Sec  below  :  Pami'\s  TluuEs, 

Modocs  (Klamaths) ,  and  their  California 
..d  Oregon  neighbors.— "The  piineipal  tribes 
oecujiviiig  Ibis  region  [of  Northern  California  i 
from  l{o,i;ue  Uiver  on  the  uorlh  to  the  Eel  Hiver.  i 
south]  are  Ihe  Klamaths,  who  live  on  the  head  • 
waters  of  llie  river  and  on  the  shores  of  the  hxkv.  { 
of  that  name;  the  Modocs,  on  Lower  Klamath 
Lake  and  aloni;  Lost  Kiver;  the  Sha.stas,  to  the  I 
south-west  of  the  Lakes;  the  Pitt  Hiver  Indians; 
the  Kuroes,  on  the  Klamath  Hiver  between 
AVeitspek  and  the  coast;  the  Cahroes,  on  the 
Klamath  Hiver  from  a  short  distance  above  the 
junction  of  the  Trinity  to  the  Klamath  Moun- 
tains; the  Iloopahs  [or  llupas,  a  tribe  of  the 
AthaDafcau  Family]  in  Hoopali  Vallev  on  I'  e 
Trinity  near  its  junction  with  the  Klamatu; 
nunu'rous  tribes  on  the  coast  from  Kel  liiver  and 
Humboldt  Bay  north,  such  as  the  Weeyols, 
Wallies,  Tolewabs,  etc.,  and  the  Hoguc  Kiver 
Indians,  on  and  about  the  river  of  that  name. 
The  Northern  Califoriuans  are  in  every  way 
superior  to  the  ecniiiil  and  southern  tribes." — 
H.  H.  Bancroft.  I'/if  \,ilirc  Rdct's  <if  the  Pacific 
/S/ij^.",  r,  1,  (7/.  4. — "On  the  Klamath  there  live 
lliic<'  distinct  tribes,  called  the  Yiirok,  Ka-rok, 
and  -Alo-dok,  which  names  are  said  to  mean, 
respect iv<'ly,  'down  the  river,'  'up  the  river,' 
and  '  head"  of  the  river.'  .  .  .  The  Karok  are 
probably  the  llnest  tribe  in  California.  .  .  . 
lloopa  Valley,  on  the  Lower  Trinity,  is  the 
home  of  [the  Hii-pi'i].  Ne.\t  after  the"  Ka-rok 
they  are  Ihe  line.st  race  in  all  that  re;;ion,  and 
they  ev(>n  excel  them  in  their  stateeraft,  and  in 
the  sinjinlar  influence,  or  jierhaps  brute  force, 
which  llicy  exercise  over  the  vicinal  tribes. 
They  ail'  the  Homans  of  Northern  California  in 
their  valor  and  tlieir  wide-reaching  dominions; 

•  See  Note,  Appendix  E.  94 


they  arc  the  French  in  the  extended  diffusion  of 
their  languaiie."  TheModoks,  "on  the  whol<> 
.  .  .  are  ratlier  a  cloddish,  indolent,  ordinarily 
good-nature(l  race,  but  treacherous  nt  bottoni, 
sullen  when  anirered,  notorious  for  keeping 
Punic  faith.  But  their  bravery  nobody  can 
impeach  or  deny;  their  heroic  and  long  defense 
of  tlieir  stronghold  against  the  appliances  of 
modern  civilized  warfare,  including  that  arm  so 
awful  to  savages  —  the  artillery  —  was  almost 
the  onlv  feature  that  lent  respectability  to  their 
wretched  tragedy  of  the  Lava  Beds  [1873]."— S. 
Powers,  Trilies  of  California  (Coiitribiiiioihi  t:i 
X.  A.  Ethnology,  r.  3),  ch.  1,  7,  ami  27.— "The 
home  of  the  Klamath  tribe  of  soulhwcsteru 
Oregon  lies  upon  the  eastern  slope  of  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  Cascade  Bange,  and  very 
nearly  coincides  with  what  we  may  call  the 
I'.ead  waters  of  the  Klamath  Hiver,  the  main 
course  of  which  lies  in  Northern  California. 
.  .  .  The  main  seat  of  the  Jlodoc  peojile  was  the 
valley  of  Lost  Hiver,  the  shores  of  'I'lile  and  of 
Little  Klamath  Lake.  .  .  .  The  two  main  bodies 
forming  the  Klamath  ])eople  are  (1)  the  Klamath 
Lake  Indians;  (2)  the  Jlodoc  Indian.s.  TI;o 
Klamath  Lake  Indians  number  more  than  twice 
as  many  as  the  Modoc  Indians.  They  speak  the 
northern  dialect  ami  form  the  nortlieru  chief- 
taincy. .  .  .  The  Klamath  people  possess  no 
historic  traditions  going  further  back  in  time 
than  a  century,  for  the  simple  reason  that  there 
Wiis  a  .strict  law  prohibiting  the  mention  of  the 
person  or  acts  of  a  deceased  individual  by  using 
liis  name.  .  .  .  Our  present  knowledge  does  not 
allow  us  to  connect  the  Klamath  language 
gem  .ilogically  with  any  of  the  other  languages 
compared,  but  ...  it  stands  as  a  linguistic 
family  for  it.self."— .v.  S.  Gatschet,  The  Klamath 
Iiitliiins  (Contributions  to  N.  A.  Ethnology,  r.  2, 
jit.  1). —  In  Major  Powell's  linguistic  classiBca- 
lion,  the  Klamath  and  Modoc  dialects  are  em- 
braced in  a  fa.nily  called  tbe  Lutuamian  Family, 
derived  from  a  Pit  Biver  word  signifying 
"hike;"  the  Yuroks  in  a  family  called  the 
AVeitspekan;  and  the  Pit  Biver  Indian  dialects 
are  provisionally  set  ajiart  in  a  distinct  family 
named  the  Palaihnihan  F"amily. — J.  AV.  Powell, 
S'ccnth  Annual  Jfcport,  Bureau  of  Ethnolof/ii,  pp. 
89  and  97. 

Mohaves  (Mojaves).  See  above:  Apacue 
Giioip. 

Mohawks.      See     .ibove: 

FEDEltACV 

Mohegans,  or  Mahicans. 
ooN(jiiAN  Family;  and  below: 
uians;  also.  New  EnolaNd: 

Montagnats.     See  above : 


Ihckjuois     Con- 

See  above:    \h- 
Stockhhidoi;  In- 
A.  I).  1037. 
Aloonquian  Fam- 
ily; and  Athapascan  Fa.mily. 

Montauks.   See  above:  Aloonquian  Family. 

Moque.jmnan  Family. — "Derivation:  From 
the  river  and  hill  of  the  same  name  in  Calaveras 
County,  California.  ...  It  was  not  until  IH'iO 
that  the  distinctness  of  the  linguistic  family  was 
fully  set  forth  by  Latham.  Under  the  head  of 
Jloqueluniiie,  this  author  gathers  several  vocabu- 
laries representing  ditfcrent  languages  and  dia- 
lects of  the  same  stock.  These  are  the  Talatui 
ot  Hale,  the  Tuol-.imno  from  Schoo'craft,  the 
Sonoma  dialects  us  represented  by  the  Tshoko- 
yem  vocabulary,  the  Choeiiyem  and  Youkiousmo 
iialernostcrs,  and  the  Olanientke  of  Kostro- 
mitonov  in  Biler's  Beitrllge.  .  .  .  The  Moipie- 
luinnuu  family  occupies  the  territory  buuuded 


AMEIUCAN  ABOKIGINES. 


AMEUI'  aN  aborigines. 


on  the  north  by  the  Cosumne  River,  on  tlie  south 
tiy  the  Fresno  River,  on  tlie  O'lst  by  thb  Sierru 
Nevada,  and  on  tlie  west  b:  the  San  Joaquin 
River,  witli  tlio  exception 'of  a  strip  on  the  cast 
l)ank  occupied  by  tlie  Cliolovonc.  A  part  of 
tliis  family  occiiines  also  a  territory  boiuided  on 
the  south  by  San  Francisco  Bay.  "—J.  W.  Powell, 
Sircnth  Annual  liipt.,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  pj). 
92-93. 

Moquis.     See  below:  Pueblos. 

Moroiia.     See  above:  Andehians. 

Moxos,  or  Mojos.  See  above:  Andesians; 
alsii,  Hoi.ivi.v:  AiiouiriiNALlxii.vuiT.vsT8. 

Mundrucu.     See  below :  Tupl 

Munsees.  S"e  above:  Delaw.vues,  and  Al- 
fioN(iii  AN  Family;  also  Manhattan  Island. 

Mura.     See  above:  GrcK  on  Coco  Guorp. 

Muskhogean,  or  Maskoki  Family. — "Amoni; 
till'  vaiicius  nationalities  of  the  Gulf  territories 
tlieMrskoki  family  of  tribes  occupied  a  central 
and  eonunanding  position.  Not  only  the  large 
extent  of  tciTitory  held  by  them,  but  also  their 
numbers,  tlieir  prowess  in  war,  and  a  certain 
(legiec  of  mental  culture  and  self-esteem  made 
of  the  JIaskoki  one  of  the  most  important  groups 
in  Indian  history.  From  their  ethnologic  con- 
dition of  later  times,  wo  infer  that  these  tribes 
have  extended  for  many  centuries  back  in  time 
fn)m  the  Atlantic  to  tlie  Mississippi  and  beyond 
tliat  river,  and  from  tlie  Apalachian  ridge  to  the 
Gidf  of  Mexico.  'With  sliort  intermissions  they 
kept  up  warfare  with  all  the  circumjacent  Indian 
comnr.mities,  and  also  among  each  other.  .  .  . 
The  irresolute  and  egotistic  policy  of  these  tribes 
often  caused  serious  dilUculties  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  English  and  French  colonies,  and 
some  of  them  constantly  wavered  in  their  adlie- 
.sion  between  the  French  and  the  English  cause. 
The  American  government  overcame  their  ojipo- 
sition  easily  whenever  a  coiitlict  presented  itself 
(the  Seminole  War  forms  anexn|ition),  becau.se, 
like  all  the  Indians,  they  nevi  r  knew  how  to 
unite  against  a  common  foe.  The  two  main 
branches  of  the  stock,  the  Creek  and  the  Cha'hta 
[or  C'lioetaw]  Indians,  were  constantly  at  war, 
and  the  remembrance  of  their  deadly  conflicts 
has  now  jiassed  to  their  descendants  in  the  form 
of  folk  lore.  .  .  .  The  only  characteristic  by 
which  a  subdivision  of  the  family  can  be  at- 
tempted, is  that  of  language.  Following  their 
juicient  topographic  location  from  cast  to  west, 
we  obtain  the  following  .synopsis:  First  branch, 
or  Maskoki  proper;  The  Creek,  ilaskokalgi  or 
Maskoki  proper,  settled  on  Coosa,  Tiillapoo.sn, 
Upper  and  Middle  Chatahuchi  river.s.  From 
these  branched  olf  by  segmentation  the  Creek 
portion  of  the  Seiiiinoles,  of  the  Yiimassi  and  of 
the  little  Yamaeraw  community.  Second,  or 
Apalachian  branch:  This  southca.stern  division, 
wiiich  may  be  called  also  'a  parte  potiori'  the 
Iliuhiti  connection,  anciently  comprised  the 
trilie.'j  on  the  Lower  Chatahuchi  river,  and,  casi, 
from  there,  the  extinct  Apalaehl,  the  Slikasuki, 
an  1  the  llitchiti  portion  of  the  Seniinolcs,  Yii- 
massi and  Yamacraws.  Third,  or  Alibanui 
branch,  comprised  the  Alibamu  villages  on  the 
river  of  that  name ;  to  them  belonged  the  ICoas- 
siti  and  Witnmka  on  Coosa  river,  its  northern 
ntllueiit.  Fourth,  Western  or  Cha'htii  [Choctaw] 
branch;  From  the  main  peoi)le,  the  Cha'hta, 
set,  d  in  the  middle  portions  of  the  State  of  Mis- 
sissippi, the  CIdcasa,  Paseagoula,  Biloxi,  Iluma, 
and  other  tribes  once  became  separated  through 


segmentation.  Tlie  strongest  evidence  for  n  com- 
munity of  origin  of  the  JIaskoki  tribes  is  fur- 
nished by  the  fact  that  their  dialects  belong  to 
one  linguistic  family.  .  .  .  Maskoki,  Maskogi, 
isti  IMaskoki,  designates  a  single  person  of  the 
Creek  tribe,  and  forms,  as  a  colh^ctive  plural, 
Maskokiilgi,  the  Creek  conununity,  the  Creek 
people,  the  Creek  Indians.  English  authors  write 
this  naini^  Muscogee.  Muskhogee,  and  its  plural 
Muscogulgee.  Tlie  first  syllable,  as  pronounced 
by  the  Creek  Indians,  contains  a  clear  short  a. 
.  .  .  The  accent  is  usually  laid  on  the  mid- 
dle syllable:  Maskoki.  JInskogi.  None  of  tliq 
tribes  are  able  to  explain  the  name  from  their 
own  language.  .  .  .  Why  did  the  English  colo- 
nists call  them  Creek  Indliins?  Because,  when 
the  English  traders  entered  tlie  JIaskoki  country 
from  Charleston  or  Savannah,  they  hiid  to  cross 
a  number  of  streams  or  creeks,  especially  between 
the  Chatahuchi  and  Savannah  rivers.  Gallatin 
thought  it  iirobable  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  adjacent  to  Savannah  river  were  called 
Creeks  from  an  early  time.  ...  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  Cha'hta  territory  several  tribes,  repre- 
sented to  be  of  Cha'hta  lineage,  iippenr  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  main  body,  and  are  always  men- 
tioned separately.  The  French  colonists,  la 
whose  annals  they  ligure  extensively,  call  them 
Mobilians,  Tohonies,  I'a.scogoulas,  liiloxis,  Mou- 
goulachas,  Bayogoulas  and  Ilunuis  (Ouiiias). 
They  have  all  disappeared  in  our  eiioch,  witli  tiie 
exception  of  the  Biloxi  [.Major  Powell,  in  the 
Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnol- 
ogy, places  t!ic  Biloxi  in  the  Siouan  Family],*of 
whom  scattered  remnauls  live  in  tlie  fcn-ests  of 
Loui-siana,  south  of  the  Red  I'iver." — A.  S.  Gats- 
cliet,  ,1  Mif/ndi'in  L(!/cn(l<'ft/(C  Crii klntltiiim,  r.  1, 
pt.  1. — "  Tlio  I'chees  and  the  Natches,  who  are 
both  incorporated  in  the  piuskhogec  or  Creek] 
confederacy,  speak  two  (iistinct  languages  alto- 
gether dilTerent  from  tlie  Muskhogee.  The  Nat- 
ches, a  residue  of  the  well-known  nation  of  that 
name,  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Mississipjii,  and 
joined  the  Creeks  less  than  one  hundred  years  ago. 
The  original  seiits  of  the  Ucliees  were  east  of  the 
Coosa  and  iirobably  of  tlie  Chatalioochee;  and 
they  consider  themselves  as  the  most  ancient  in- 
habitants of  the  country.  They  may  have  been 
the  same  nation  which  is  called  Apalaclies  in  the 
accounts  (^f  De  Soto's  expedition.  .  .  .  The  four 
great  Southern  nations,  according  to  tlie  estimates 
of  the  War  Department  .  .  .  consist  now  [1830] 
of  67,000  souls,  viz.:  The  Cherokees,  lo.OOO;  the 
Choctaws  (18,500),  the  Chioa.sas  (5,500),  24,000; 
the  Mu.skhogees,  Seminoles,  and  llitchittees, 
20,000;  the  tjchees,  Alibamons,  Coosadas,  and 
Natches,  2,000.  The  territory  west  of  tlic;  Mis- 
sissippi, given  or  offered  to  them  by  the  United 
States  in  exchange  for  tlieir  lands  east  of  that 
river,  contains  4b,(M)0,000  acres,  exclusively  o" 
what  may  be  alhttted  to  the  Chicasas." — A.  Gal- 
latin, tlyiioimD  of  (he  Indian  Trihes  (Arcluvolorjia 
A  :  ■  i'nna,  v.  2),  wet.  iJ. — See  below:  Seminoles. 
!./U.".quito,  or  Mosquito  Indians. — "That  por- 
tion of  Honduras  known  as  the  Musiiuito  Coast 
derived  its  name,  not  from  the  abundance  of 
those  troublesome  inscct.s,  but  from  a  native 
tribe  who  at  the  discovery  occupied  the  shore 
near  Blewfield  Lagiwin.  'I'hey  are  an  intelligent 
people,  short  in  stature,  unusually  dark  in  color, 
with  finely  cut  features,  and  small  straight  noses 
—  not  at  all  negroid,  except  where  there  has 
been  an   admixture   o^  blood.    They  number 


•See  Note,  Appendix  E. 


95 


AMKIUCAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


alxmt  0,0(10,  ii:iriy  of  whcini  liiiv(^  bucn  partly 
civili/,i'(i  l>v  llie  i-liorls  of  iiiissioniiries,  who  liuve 
rt'il'.iceil  the  hiiiKiniKi!  to  writing'  anil  ])iil)lislio(l 
1e  it  11  ii umber -.f  works.  The  Tmii,'las  arc  onu 
of  the  Bilb-trilics  of  the  Musiiiiitos." — 1).  G. 
Briiiton,  I'/w  Aint  rimn  Itnce,  p.  163. — Sec,  also, 
Nicakaoua:  ^  1).,  18r,0. 
Nahuas.     See  Mkxico,  Anxient:   Jiie  Maya 

AND  .N  A  111' A  PkOI'I.KS. 

Nanticokes.     See  above  :   Au)o.N(iUiAN  Fam- 

TI.V. 

Napo.    See  above:  Anuksians. 

Narragansetts.  See  above:  .Vuionijitian 
Family;  also  JtiioDi:  Island:  A.  I).  lOIiO;  ami 
Ni;\v  Enoi.axi):  A.  I).  1037;  1074-1075;  167r); 
and  107«-l(i78. 

Natchesan  Family. — When  tli'  Freneh  first 
entered  the  lower  .Mississippi  valley,  they  found 
the  Natchez  |Na'htelii]  o(cu!)yin)^  a  region 
of  country  lliat  now  .surrotinds  the  city 
which  bears  their  nante.  "By  the  persevere 
hig  curiosity  of  Gallatin,  it  is  established 
that  the  Natchez  were  distinguished  from 
the  tribes  around  them  less  by  their  customs 
and  the  degree  of  their  civilization  limn  by  their 
language,  which,  as  far  as  comparisons  have 
bi'eu  instituted,  has  no  etymological  allinity  with 
any  other  whatever.  Here  again  the  imagina- 
tion too  readily  invents  theories;  and  the  tradi- 
tion has  been  widely  received  that  the  dominion 
of  the  Natchez  once  extended  even  to  the 
Wabash.  History  knows  them  o:''y  ns  a  feeble 
and  inconsiderable  nation,  who  in  iMe  18th 
century  attached  themselves  to  the  confed-^racy 
ol  the  Creeks."— O.  Bancroft,  Hint,  of  the  U.  S. 
(Aiithor'n  last  lYi'.),  V.  2,  p.  07. — '■  Chateaubriand, 
in  his  charming  romances,  and  some  of  the  early 
French  writers,  who  often  drew  upon  their  fancy 
for  their  facts,  have  thrown  an  interest  around 
the  Natchez,  as  a  semi-civilized  and  noble  race, 
that  lias  i)assed  into  history.  We  find  no  traces 
of  civilization  in  their  architecture,  or  in  their 
social  life  and  customs.  Their  religiim  was 
brutal  and  bloody,  indicating  an  Aztec  origin. 
They  were  perlldious  and  cruel,  an<l  if  they  were 
at  nil  superior  to  the  neighboring  tribes  it  was 
probably  due  to  the  district  they  occupied  —  the 
most  beautiful,  lieallhy  and  productive  in  the 
valley  of  the  Jlississippi  —  and  the  inllucnce  of 
its  attractions  in  subslituling  permanent  for 
temporary  occupation.  The  residence  of  lla^ 
grand  chief  was  merely  ii  spacious  cabin,  of  one 
apartment,  with  a  mat  of  ba.sket  work  for  his 
bed  and  a  log  for  his  pillow.  .  .  .  Their  govern- 
ment was  an  absolute  despotisi.i.  The  supreme 
chief  was  master  of  their  labor,  their  proi)crty, 
and  their  lives.  .  .  .  The  Natchez  consisted  c.\- 
clusively  of  two  classes  — the  Blooil  Royal  and 
its  connexions  and  the  common  people,  the 
Mich-i-iniolii-(iuipe,  or  Stinkards.  The  two 
classes  understood  each  other,  but  spoke  a  dif- 
ferent dialect.  Tlieir  customs  of  war,  their 
treatment  of  prisoners,  their  ceremonies  of 
marriage,  their  feasts  and  fasts,  their  sorceries 
and  witchcraft,  dilfered  very  little  from  other 
savages.  Father  Charlevoix,  who  visited  Nat- 
chez in  1731,  sjiw  no  evidences  of  civilization. 
Their  villages  consisted  of  a  lew  cabins,  or  rather 
ovens,  without  windows  ai:J  rm)fed  with  uiat- 
tiug.  The  house  of  the  Sun  was  larger, 
piastered  with  mud,  and  a  narrow  bench  for  a 
seat  and  bed.  No  other  furniture  in  the  mansion 
of  tins  grand  digultary„w  ho  has  been  described 


by  imaginative  writers  as  the  peer  of  Monte- 
zuma!"— J.  F.  II.  Claiborne,  J/(W»«'/);)i,  c.  1,  f/i. 
4. — In  1739,  the  Natchez,  maddened  by  insolent 
oppressions,  plannefl  and  executed  u  general 
niassacr'!  of  the  French  within  their  territory. 
As  a  consetpience,  the  tribe  was  virtually  ex- 
terminated within  the  following  two  years. — C. 
Gay.irre,  l.nuininim,  itx  Colmiial  Hint,  and 
limniutre,  Udmriisjift.  '3  luul  5, — "The  Na'htchi, 
according  to  fiallatin,  a  residue  of  the  well- 
k'own  nation  nf  that  name,  came  from  the 
bi.nks  of  the  Mississippi,  and  joined  the  Creek 
less  than  one  iiundred  years  ago.  The  seashore 
from  .Mobile  to  the  llississippi  was  then  in- 
habited by  several  small  tribes,  of  which  the 
Na'htchi  was  the  principal.  Before  1730  the 
tribe  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  Natchez,  Jlis.s., 
along  St.  Catherine  Creek.  After  their  disper- 
sion by  the  French  in  1730  most  of  tlie  remainder 
joined  the  Chicasa  and  tifterwards  the  Upper 
Creek.  They  are  now  in  Creeli  and  Cherokee 
Nations,  Indian  Territory.  The  linguistic  rela- 
ticms  of  the  language  spoken  by  the  Taensa  tribe 
have  long  been  in  doubt,  and  it  is  possible  they 
will  ever  remain  so." — J.  W.  Powell,  Seventh 
Annual  liept.,  'iiimin  af  Ethiiolofiij,  p.  90. —  See 
Louisiana:  A.  I).  1719-1750.  —  See,  also,  above: 
Mt.'SKiiouEAN  Family. 

Natchitoches.*  See  Texas:  The  Aboihginal 
Iniiaiutants. 

N^usets.     See  above:   Aloonquian  Family. 
Navajo3.     See  above:   Atiiai-ascax  F.vmily, 
and  Ai'ACiiK  Oiioup. 

Neutral  Nation.  See  above :  Hurgns,  &c.  ; 
and  litoijLois  Confeukuacy:  Tiieik  Co.S'- 
(jlTESTS,  in:. 

Nez  Perces,  or  Sahaptins. — "Tlie  Sahaptins 
or  Nez  Perces  [the  Shahaptian  Family  in  iMajor 
Powell's  classilication] ,  w  i  ih  t  heir  alii  liated  t  ribes, 
occupied  the  middle  and  upper  valley  of  the 
Columbia  and  its  atilueuts,  and  also  the  passes  of 
the  mountains.  They  were  in  contiguity  with 
the  Shoshones  and  the  Algonkin  Blackfeet,  thus 
holding  an  important  i)osition,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  the  Pacitic  tribes.  Hav- 
ing the  commercial  instinct  of  the  latter,  they 
made  good  use  of  it." — D.  G.  Brinton,  Tht 
American,  Itace,  p.  107. 

Also  in  .1.  W.  Powell,  Seivnth  Annual  llept. 
of  the  liureuit.  of  Ethnoloi/)/,  p.  100. 

Niniquiquilas.    See  below:     Pampas Tuides. 

Nipmucs,  or   Nipnets.     See  abo'  e :    Aloon- 

ijuiAN  Family  ;  also,  New  Englanp:  A.  D.  1074- 

1075;  1075;  and  1070-1078 (Ki.no  I'liiLip's  WAii). 

Nootkas.     See  belov/:     W..kabhan  Family. 

Nottoways.     Sec  above:     liiO(iUoi8  Tuibes 

Ol.'  THE  South. 

Nyantics.  See  above :  Aloonciitian  F.vmily. 
Ogalalas.  Sec  below;  Siouan  Family. 
Ojibwas,  or  Chtppei^as. — "Tlie  <  ibways, 
with  their  kindred,  the  Pottawattaiuus,  and 
their  friends  the  Ottawas, —  the  latter  of  whom 
were  fugitives  from  the  eastward,  whence  they 
Iiad  lied  from  the  wrath  of  the  Iroquois, —  were 
banded  into  a  sort  of  confederacy.  Tlicy  were 
closelj'  allied  in  blood,  language,  manners  ami 
character.  The  Oj  ibways,  by  far  the  most 
numerous  of  the  three,  occupied  the  Lisiu  of 
Lake  Superior,  and  extensive  luljiicent  rcigious. 
In  llieir  boundaries,  the  career  of  Iroquois 
coiuiuest  found  at  length  n  check.  I'he  fugitive 
Wyandols  sought  refuge  iu  tlie  Ojibwiiy  hunt- 
lug  grounds;  uud  tradition  lelutcs  that,"  at  the 


•See  Mote,  AppeudU  E. 


96 


AMKRICAN  ABOUIGINE8. 


AMERICAN  ABOmCJIJiES. 


outlet  of  Lake  Superior,  an  Iroquois  war-party 
ouce  L'ucountcrcd  a  disastrous  repulse.  lu  their 
iikhIc  of  life,  they  were  far  inorc  rude  than  tin; 
Iro(|Uois,  or  even  the  southern  Aljronquin 
tribes." — F.  Parknian,  Conspirncy  of  Po/iliac, 
ch.  1. — "The  name  of  the  tribe  ni)peiirs  to  he 
recent.  It  is  not  met  with  in  the  older  writers. 
The  French,  who  were  the  earliest  to  meet  them, 
in  their  tribal  seat  at  the  falls  or  Saidt  de  Ste 
>Iarie,  named  them  Saulteur,  from  this  circum- 
stance. Jl'Kenzie  tises  the  term '  Jibway,'  as  the 
equivalent  of  this  term,  in  his  voyages.  They 
are  referred  to,  with  littlo  dilTerenco  in  the 
orthdgraphv,  in  General  Washington's  report,  in 
17.")4,  of  his  trip  to  Lc  liieuf,  on  Lake  Erie; 
hut  are  first  recognized,  among  our  treaty-tribes, 
in  the  general  treaty  of  Greenville,  of  1794,  in 
which,  with  the  Otiawas  they  ceded  tlie  island 
of  jlichilimackinac,  and  certain  dependencies, 
conceded  by  them  at  former  peritMls  to  the 
French.  .  .  .  The  Chippewas  arc  conceded,  by 
writers  on  American  philology  ...  to  speak 
one  of  the  i)urest  forms  of  the  Algonquin." — 
II.  U.  Schoolcraft,  Information  respecting  the 
llist..  Condition  and  Proapscts  of  the  Indian 
Tribes,  pt.  5,  p.  142. 

Also  in  G.  Copway,  The  Ojibicai/  Nation. — 
J.  O.  Kohl,  Kitchi-gami. — See,  also,  Pontiac's 
\V.\u;  and  above:  AliOONQUi an  Family. 

Omahas.  See  below:  Siouan  Family,  and 
Pawnek  (Caddoan)  Family. 

Oneidas.     Sec  above:   luotjuois  Confedeb- 

ACV. 

Onondagas.     See  above:    luoquois  Confed- 

KUACY. 

Orejones.     See  below:  Pampas  Tkibes. 

Osages.  See  below:  Siouan  Family,  and 
PAwMit:  (Caddoan)  Family. 

Otoes,  or  Ottoes.  See  below :  Siouan  Family, 
and  Pawnee  (Caddoan)  Family. 

Otomis. — "According  to  Aztec  tradition,  the 
Otomis  were  the  earliest  owners  of  the  soil  of 
Central  3Ie.\ico.  Their  language  was  at  the 
conquest  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  of 
any  in  this  portion  of  the  continent.  Its  central 
regions  were  the  States  of  Queretaro  and  Guan- 
ajuato. .  .  .  The  Otomis  are  below  the  average 
sUiture,  of  dark  color,  the  skull  markedly  dolicho- 
cephalic, tilt  no.se  short  uud  flattened,  the  eyits 
slightly  oblique." — 1).  0.  Urinton,  The  Ameri- 
can ]{:uv,  p.  i;!.1. 

Ottawas.  See  above:  Algonquian  Family, 
uud  Ojibwas. — See,  also,  Pontiac's  War. 

Pacaguara.     See  above :  Andesians. 

Pacamora.     See  above:  Andesians. 

Pamlicoes.    See  above:  Alcioncjuian  Fa.mIly. 

Pampas  Tribes.  — "The  chief  tribe  of  the 
Pampas  Indians  was  entitled  Querandis  by  the 
Spaniards,  al'.hough  tlu^y  called  themselves  Pe- 
Imelches  [or  Puclts  —  that  is,  the  Eastern].  Vari- 
ous segments  of  tlu'se,  under  different  names, 
occupied  the  immense  tract  of  ground,  bet\V(uii 
the  river  Parana  and  the  republic  of  Chili.  The 
C^uerandis  .  .  .  were  the  great  opponents  to 
Bettlemcnt  of  the  Spaniards  in  Buenos  Ayres. 
.  .  .  The  Ancas  or  Aracaunos  Indians  [see 
C'hile]  resided  on  tlie  west  of  tlie  Pampas  near 
Chili,  and  from  time  to  time  assisted  the  CJueran- 
ilis  in  transporting  stolen  cattle  acniss  the  Cor- 
ililleras.  The  southern  part  of  the  Patniias  was 
occupied  by  the  Balehitas,  Uhilehes,  Telmel- 
tlits,  and  others,  all  of  whom  were  brunches  of 
the  original  CjuelcUus  horde.     The  Guuraui  In- 


dians were  the  most  famous  of  the  South  Ameri- 
eiiii  races.  .  .  .  Of  the  (luayauas  lion  let  hen;  were 
several  tribes  —  independent  of  each  other,  and 
speaking  diiferent  idioms,  although  having  the 
same  title  of  race.  Their  territory  extended 
fr<im  the  river  Guarai,  one  of  the  aflluents  into 
the  Uruguay,  for  many  leagues  nortlivards, 
and  stretched  over  to  tiie  I'arana  opjwsite  the 
city  of  Corpus  Clnisti.  They  were  some  of  the 
most  vigorous  o|)poiients  of  the  Spanish  invaders. 
.  .  .  Tlie  Xalicurgas  Indians,  who  lived  up  to 
near  21°  S.  hit.  were  reput<'d  to  dwell  in  caves, 
to  be  vcrv  limited  in  number,  and  to  go  entirely 
naked.  'I  hcCiau.sarapos,  or  (iuuchies  dwelt  in  the 
marshy  districts  near  wlieic  the  river  Gausarapo, 
or  Guuchie,  h;is  its  soiiice.  This  stream  enters 
from  the  cast  into  the  Paraguay  at  11)'^  10'  ^0"  3. 
lilt.  .  .  .  The  Cuatos  lived  inside  of  a  lake  to 
the  west  of  the  river  Paraguay,  and  constituted 
a  very  small  tribe.  .  .  .  The  Orejones  dwelt  on 
the  eastern  brows  of  the  mountains  of  Santa 
Lucia  or  San  Fernando  —  close  to  the  western 
side  of  Paraguay  river.  .  .  .  Another  tribe,  the 
Niniqui(iuilas,  had  likewise  the  names  of  Potre- 
ros,  Siinanos,  Barccnos,  anil  Lathanos.  They 
occupied  a  forest  which  began  at  about  10'^  S. 
hit.,  some  leagues  baekward  from  the  river  Para- 
guay, and  separated  the  Oraii  Chaco  from  the 
province  of  Los  Chiquitos  in  Peru.  .  .  .  The 
Guanas  Indians  were  divided  into  eight  separate 
segments,  for  each  of  whieli  there  was  a  particu- 
lar and  diiferent  name.  They  lived  between  20° 
and  22°  of  S.  hit.  in  the  Gran  (Jliiico  to  the  west  of 
Paraguay,  and  they  were  not  known  to  the  Span- 
iards till  the  latter  crossed  the  last-named  river 
in  l(i7!5.  .  .  .  The  Albaias  and  Payagiias  Indians 
.  .  .  in  former  times,  were  the  chief  tribes  of  the 
Paraguay  territory.  .  .  .  The  Albaias  were 
styleil  Machieuis  and  Enimgas  by  otiier  authors. 
At  the  time  of  the  Spaniards'  arrival  here,  the 
Albaias  occupied  the  Gran  Chaco  side  of  the 
river  Paraguay  from  20°  to  22°  S.  hit.  Here 
they  entered  into  a  treaty  ollensive  and  defen- 
sive with  the  I'ayaguas.  .  .  .  The  joined  forces 
of  Albaias  and  Pavuguas  had  managed  to  extend 
their  territory  in  10715  down  to  24°  7'  S.  on  the 
eastern  side  of  Paraguay  river.  .  .  .  The  Al- 
baias were  a  very  tall  and  muscular  race  of 
l)eople.  .  .  .  The  Payagu-  Indians,  before  and 
up  to,  as  well  as  after,  m;  jjcriod  of  the  eiai- 
quest,  were  sailors,  and  ilomim^ered  over  the 
river  Paraguay.  .  .  .Tiie  Guaiearus  lived  lai  the 
Chaco  side  of  Paraguay  river  and  subsisted  en- 
tirely by  hunting.  From  the  barbarous  cu.stom 
which  their  winiien  had  of  inducing  abortion  to 
avoid  the  jiain  m'  troiibli;  of  child-bearing,  they 
became  exterminated  socm  after  the  conquest. 
.  .  .  The  Tobas,  who  have  also  the  titles  of 
Nateciet  and  Yncanabaite,  wvtv  among  the  best 
fighters  of  the  Indians.  They  occupy  the  Gran 
Chaco,  cliielly  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Verniejo, 
and  between  that  and  tlie  Pileoniayo.  Of  these 
there  arc  some  remains  in  tlu;  i)reseiit  day.  .  .  . 
The  Jlocovis  are  likewise  still  to  be  founil  in  the 
Chaco.  .  .  .  Tlie  Abipones,  who  were  also  styled 
Ecusgina  and  Quiubanabuite,  lived  in  the  Chaco, 
so  h)w  down  as  28°  south.  This  was  the  tribe 
with  whom  the  Jesuits  incorporated,  when  they 
erected  the  city  of  San  Genminio,  in  the  Gran 
Chaco,  and  nearly  opposite  Goya,  in  1741^."  — T. 
J.  Hutchiusim,  1% Parana,  cii.  8-7.— "The  Abi- 
pones inhabit  [in  the  18th  century]  the  i>rovince 
Chaco,  the  centre  of  all  Paraguay ;  they  have  no 


97 


A.MKKICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


fixed  .'ihodcs,  III)!'  any  bouiKliirii'S.  cxirpt  what 
f<'ar  of  tlicir  iiciiflilKjurs  lias  cstalilislud.  Tlicy 
roam  cxtciisivi'ly  in  every  direction,  wlienever 
the  oiiporluiuly  of  iitl.iekinj:  their  enemies,  or 
tlie  necessilv  of  avoiding  them  renders  a  journey 
advisable.  1"he  norlhern  sliore  of  the  I{io  (Jrande 
or  Berniejo,  wliieli  the  Indians  call  Inatf'.  was 
their  native  land  in  the  last  century  |lhe  17th]. 
Thence  they  removed,  to  avoid  the  war  carried 
ou  apiinst  Cliaeo  hy  the  Spaniards  .  .  .  and, 
migratiii!;  towards  tli<^  south,  took  I'.o.ssession  of 
n  vallev  formerly  held  by  the  CalchtKiuis.  .  .  . 
From  what  rcfrion  their  ancestors  came  there  is 
uo  room  for  conjecture. " — M.  Dobrizholler,  Arrt. 
ofllieAliipri/itD,  r.  2,  r/i.  1.  —  "The  Abipoiies  aro 
iu  general  above  the  middle  stature,  and  of  a 
robust  constitution.  In  stimmer  tiiey  fjo  (juite 
naked;  but  in  winter  cover  themselves  with 
skins.  .  .  .  They  paint  themselves  all  over  with 
dilferent  colotirs."— Fathe.  Charlevoix,  Hint,  of 
I'liriif/iKii/,  bk.  7  (r.  1). 

Also  in  The  Shimlonl  Kuturiil  Iliittory  {J.  S. 
Kin'iKkii.  eti.),  v.  ^, pji.  'SM-'H't'i. — See,  also,  below: 
Ti  Ti.— Giah.vxi. 

Pampticokes.       See     above:     Algonijui.kn 

F.\MII.V. 

Pano.     See  above:  Andkshns, 

Papagos.  See  below:  Pi.M.vx  F.\Mii,Y,  and 
Pi-K.m.os. 

Parawianas.  See  above:  C.\hib8  and  tueiu 
KiM)iii;i>. 

Pascogoulas.      See     above:       Muskhooean 

F.VMII.Y. 

Pass£.     See  above:  GrcK  ou  Coco  GitofP. 

Patagonians  and  Fuegians. —  "  The  Patago- 
nians  call  themselves  Chonek  or  T/oiieca,  or 
Inaken  (men,  people),  and  by  their  Pampeaii 
neighbors  are  referred  to  asTelimdChe,  southern- 
ers. They  do  not,  however,  l)elong  to  the  Au- 
canian  stock,  nor  do  they  resemble  tlie  I'ampcaus 
physically.  They  are  celebrated  for  their  stature, 
many  of  them  reaching  from  six  to  six  feet  four 
inches  in  height,  and  built  iu  luoportion.  In 
color  tliev  are  a  reddish  brown,  and  have  aipiiline 
noses  and  good  foreheads.  They  lare  little  for  a 
sedentarv  life,  and  ronm  the  coast  as  far  north  as 
the  Rio  \egro.  .  .  .  Ou  the  inho.spitahle  shores 
of  Tierra  del  Fncgo  there  ilwell  three  nations  of 
diverse  stock,  hut  ou  about  the  same  jtlane  of 
culture.  One  of  these  is  the  Yahgans.  or  Vajioos, 
on  the  Ikagle  (!anal;  the  second  is  theOuas  or 
Aonik,  to  the  north  and  east  of  these;  and  the 
third  the  Aliculufs,  to  the  north  ami  west.  .  .  . 
The  opinion  has  been  advanced  by  Dr.  Deniker 
of  Paris,  that  the  Fuegians  represent  the  oldest 
type  or  variety  of  the  American  race.  Ho  be- 
lieves that  at  one  time  this  type  occupied  the 
whole  of  South  America  south  of  the  Amazon, 
and  that  the  Tapuyasof  Brazil  and  the  Fuegians 
are  its  surviving  meuibers.  This  interesting 
theory  deiiiiinds  still  further  evidence  before  it 
can  be  accepted."— U.  G.  Brinton,  I'/ic  Ameticnn 
liwv.  pp.  ;j'>7-332. 

Pawnee  Family  (named  "Caddoan"  l)y 
Major  I'owelll.— "  I'lie  Pawnee  Family,  Ihougii 
some  of  its  branches  have  long  been  known, 
is  perhaps  in  history  and  language  cme  of  tlie 
least  understood  of  "the  important  tribes  of  the 
West,  In  lK)th  respects  it  seems  to  constitute 
n  distinct  group.  During  recent  years  its 
extreme  northern  and  southern  branches  have 
evinced  a  tendency  to  blend  with  surrounding 
stocks;  but  the  central  branch   constituting  the 

98 


Pawnee  proper,  maintains  still  in  its  advanced 
decadence  a  bohl  line  of  demarcation  between 
itsilf  and  all  adjacent  tribes.  The  members  of 
the  family  are :  The  Pawnees,  the  Arikaras,  the 
Caddos,  the  lluecos  or  Wacos,  the  Keechies,  the 
Tawaccmies,  and  the  Pawnee  Picts  or  Wichitas. 
The  last  five  may  be  designated  as  the  Southern 
or  Red  Hivcr  branches.  At  the  date  of  the  Louis- 
iana |)urclias('  the  Caddos  were  living  about  4(1 
miles  northwest  of  where  Shreveport  now  stands. 
Five  years  earlier  their  residence  was  upon  Clear 
Lake,"  in  what  is  now  Caddo  Parish,  This  spot 
tliev  claimed  was  the  i)lace  of  their  nativity,  and 
t!icirresidencefrom  time  immemorial,  .  .  .  They 
have  a  tradition  that  they  are  the  jiarent  stock, 
from  which  all  the  sou  them  branches  liave  sprung, 
and  to  some  extent  this  claim  has  been  recog- 
nized. .  .  .  The  live  [southern]  bands  are  now 
all  gathereil  upon  a  reserve  .secured  for  them  in 
the  Indian  Territory  by  the  Go\crument.  .  .  . 
In  many  respects,  their  method  of  building 
lodges,  their  equestrianism,  and  certain  social 
and  tribal  usages,  they  (juite  closely  resemble  the 
Pawnees.  Their  connection,  however,  with  the 
Pawnee  family,  not  fill  recently  ii  vcr  mentioned, 
ismaiidy  a  matter  of  vague  coiijecture.  .  .  .  The 
name  I'awnee  is  most  probably  derived  from  '  pii- 
rlk-I,'  a  horn;  and  seems  to  have  been  once  used 
by  the  Pawnees  themselves  to  designate  their 
peculiar  scalp-lock.  From  the  fact  that  this  was 
the  most  noticeable  feature  iu  their  costume,  the 
name  came  naturally  to  be  the  denominative  term 
of  the  tribe.  The  word  iu  this  use  once  ])robably 
em))raccd  the  Wichitas  (i.  e.,  Pawnee  Picts)  and 
the  Arikaras.  .  .  .  The  true  Pawnee  territory 
till  as  late  as  I*j;(  may  l)e  described  as  extending 
from  the  Niobrara  soiith  to  the  Arkansas.  They 
freciuently  hunted  considerably  beyond  the  Ar- 
kansas; tradition  says  as  far  as  the  Canadian. 
...  On  the  east  they  claimed  to  the  Missouri, 
though  in  eastern  Nebraska,  by  a  sort  of  tacit 
permit,  the  Otoes,  Poncas,  and  Omalias  along 
that  ,stream  oecui)ied  lands  extending  as  far  west 
as  till'  Elkhorn,  In  Kansas,  also,  ea.st  of  the  Big 
Blue,  they  had  ceased  to  exercise  any  direct  con- 
trol, as  several  remnants  of  tribes,  the  Wyandots, 
Delawares,  Kickai)oos,  and  lowas,  had  been  .set- 
tled there  and  wi'ic  living  under  the  guardian- 
shi])  of  the  I'liited  States.  .  .  .  On  the  west  their 
grounds  were  marked  by  no  ntitural  l)ouudary, 
but  iiuij-  perhaps  be  described  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  mouth  of  Snake  River  on  the  Niobniru 
southwest  to  the  North  Platte,  thence  south  to 
the  Arkansiis.  .  .  .  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  how- 
ever, that  they  held  altogether  undisturbed  pos- 
session of  this  territory.  On  the  north  they  were 
incessantly  harassed  by  various  liands  of  the  Da- 
kotas,  while  upon  the  south  the  Osages,  Conian- 
ches,  Clieyeimes,  Arapahoes  and  Kiowas  (the  last 
three  originally  northern  tribes)  were  eciually  re- 
lentless in  their  hostility.  .  .  .  In  183;J  the  Paw- 
nees surrendered  to  the"  United  States  their  cbim 
upon  all  the  above  described  territory  lying  south 
of  the  I'latte.  In  1858  all  their  remaiiiing  terri- 
tory was  ceded,  except  a  reserve  30  miles  long 
and  15  wide  upon  the  Loup  Fork  of  the  Platte, 
its  ea.stcrn  limit  beginning  at  Beaver  Creek.  In 
1874  they  sold  this  tract  and  removed  to  a  reserve 
secured  for  them  by  the  Government  in  the  In- 
dian ';'erritory,  between  the  Arkansas  and  Cimar- 
ron at  their  junction."— J.  B.  Dunbar,  T/ie 
Pdinie4  Indiam(Mag.  of  Am.  HM.,  April,  1880, 
V.  4). 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


Ai,so  IX  O.  B.  Grinnell,  Pawnee  ILro  Stnriai. 
—  I).  O.  Briiiton,  Tite  American  liaiv,  j'p.  U.')-!)7. 
—.1.  W.  Powell,  iktenth  An.  liept.  of  the  Burmu 
of  Ethnolofiji,  ]).  50. — Soo,  nlso,  ubovc:  Adais  utid 

Bl.ACKFEKT. 

Payag^as.     Scealiovi-:  Pampas  Thibes. 

Penuelches,  or  Puelts.  Sco  ubovo:  Pampas 
TiiiiiKs, 

Penacooks,  or  Pawtucket  Indians.  Sec 
aliiivi':  Ai.ooNijiiAN  Family. 

Peorias.     Si'c  above :  Ai.uonquian  Family. 

Pequots.  St'o  above:  Algonijiian  Family; 
and  below:  Shawanese;  also,  New  Enolanu: 
A.  D.  1037. 

Piankishaws.  Sec  above:  Algonquian  Fam- 
ily, and  .Sacs,  itc. 

Piegans.     See  above:  Blackfeet. 

Piman  Family. — "Only  a  small  portion  of  the 
territory  oeenpied  by  this  family  is  ineluded 
williin  the  United  States,  the  greater  portion 
bciii):  in  Mexieo,  where  it  e.xtends  to  the  Gulf  of 
Calit'ornia.  The  family  is  rejiresented  in  the 
IJiiled  States  by  three  tribes,  Pima  alta, 
Sobaipuri,  and  Papajro.  The  former  liavc  lived 
for  at  least  two  centuries  with  the  Maricopa  on 
the  Gila  Hiver  about  ItiO  miles  from  the  moutiL 
The  Sobai))uri  oeenpied  the  Santa  Cruz  and  San 
IVdro  Rivers,  tributaries  of  the  Gila,  but  are  no 
longer  known.  The  Papago  territory  is  much 
more  e.xtensive  and  extends  to  the  south  across 
the  border." — J.  W.  Powell,  iScctnt/i  Annual 
Kept.,  Ihiirau  of  Etluwlugy,  pp.  98-09.  —  See 
below:  PrKliLOS. 

Pimenteiras.  See  above:  Guck  or  Coco 
Gitori', 

Piru.     See  above :    Anuicsiaxs. 

Pit  River  Indians.    See  above;  Modoc8(Kla- 

SLVTUS),  &c. 

Piutes.     See  below:  Siiosiioxean  Family. 

Pokanokets,  or  Wampanoa^s.  See  above: 
Aloo-s^i  IAN  Family;  also,  ><kw  P^xviLA.M): 
A.  I).  1074-1075;  1075;  1070-1078 (Kino  Philips 
Wau). 

Ponkas,  or  Puncas.  See  below:  Sioi:ax 
Family: andabove:  Pawnee(Caudoan)Family. 

Popolocas.    See  above:   Chont.\L8. 

Pottawatomies,  See  above:  Aloonqui.vn 
Family,  Ojibwas,  and  Sacs,  &c. 

Powhatan  Confederacy. — "At  the  time  of 
the  first  settlement  by  the  Euroiieans,  it  has 
been  estimated  that  there  were  not  more  than 
2(1,000  Indians  within  the  limits  of  the  State  of 
Virginia.  Within  a  circuit  of  00  miles  from 
Jamestown,  Captain  Smitli  says  there  were 
about  5,000  souls,  and  of  these  scarce  1,500  were 
warriors.  The  wliole  territory  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea  was  occupied  by  more 
than  40  tribes,  30  of  w'lom  were  united  in  a  con- 
federacy under  Powhatan,  whose  (hmiinions, 
hereditary  and  acquired  by  conquest,  comprised 
llie  whole  coimtry  between  the  rivers  .lames  and 
Potomac,  and  extended  into  the  interior  as  far  as 
the  falls  of  the  principal  rivers.  Campbell,  in 
his  History  of  Virginin,  states  the  number  of 
Powhatan's  sul  lects  to  have  been  8,000.  Pow- 
hatan was  a  remaikable  man;  a  sort  of  savage 
Napoleon,  who,  by  the  force  of  his  character  and 
the  superiority  of  his  talents,  had  raised  himself 
from  the  rank  of  a  petty  chieftain  to  something 
of  imperial  dignity  uid  power,  lie  had  two 
places  of  abcKle,  one  called  Powhatan,  where 
Uiihmond  now  stands,  and  the  other  at  VV'erowo- 
comueo,  on  the  north  side  of  York  River,  within 


the  present  county  of  Gloucester.  .  .  ,  Besides 
the  large  confederacy  of  which  Powhatan  was 
the  chief,  there  were  two  others,  with  which 
that  was  often  at  war.  One  of  these,  called  the 
-MaiHiahoaes,  con.sisted  of  eight  tribes,  and  occu- 
pied till!  country  between  the  Rappahannoc 
and  York  rivers;  the  other,  consisting  of  (ive 
tribes,  was  called  the  Monacans,  and  was  settled 
lietween  York  and  .lames  r.vers  above  the  Falls. 
There  were  also,  iu  a<ldition  to  these,  many  scat- 
tering and  independent  tribes." — G.  S.  llillard, 
/■'/'■  ofCiipt.  Jofiii  '^niilh  {/.i/zniri/  of  Am.  J>i"f/.), 
c/t.  4.  —"The  Engi.sh  invested  sivage  life  witii 
all  the  dignity  of  European  courts.  Powhatan 
was  styled  'King,'  or  'Emperor,'  hi-;  |irin(ipal 
warriors  were  lords  of  the  kingdom,  his  wives 
were  queens,  his  daughter  was  a 'princess,' 
and  his  cabins  were  his  various  se:its  of  resi- 
dence. ...  In  his  younger  days  Powhatan  had 
been  a  great  warriia-.  llerediiarily,  In'  was  the 
chief  or  werowance  of  cigiit  tribes;  through  con- 
questliisdominicaisbad  beenextended.  .  .  .  The 
name  of  his  nation  and  the  Indian  appellation  of 
the  James  Hiver  was  Powhatan,  lie  himself 
pos.sessed  several  names." — K.  Eggleston  and 
L.  E.  Seelye,  I'ocahinitn.'i.  cli.  3. 

Also  in  Capt.  John  Smith,  Dmcripiion  of  17/- 
giuiit,  and  General  llintorie  of  \'a.  (Arber'i 
reprint  of  Works,  pp.  05  and  300). — See,  also, 
above:  Ai.ooxgiiAX  Fa.mily. 

Puans.     See  below:   Siouan  Family. 

Pueblos. —  "The  non-iumiadie  semi-civilized 
town  and  agricultural  peoples  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  ...  I  call  the  Pueblos,  or  Towns- 
people, from  pueblo,  town,  iioitulation,  jicople, 
a  name  given  by  the  Spaniards  to  siicli  inhabi- 
tants of  this  region  as  were  found,  when  first 
discovered,  permanently  locateil  in  comiiaratively 
well-built  towns.  Strictly  spetdiing,  the  term 
Pueblos  applies  only  to  the  villagers  settled  along 
the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  and  its 
tributaries  between  latitudes  34"^  45'  and  30° 
30',  and  although  the  name  is  employed  as  a 
general  appellation  for  this  division,  it  will  be 
used,  for  the  most  iiart,  only  in  its  narrower  and 
popular  sense.  In  this  division,  besides  the 
before  mentioned  Pueblos  projjer,  are  embraced 
the  Moquis,  or  villagers  of  eastern  Arizona,  and 
the  non-nomadic  agricultural  nations  of  the  lower 
Gila  river, —  the  Pimas,  ilaricopas,  Papagos, 
and  cognate  tribes.  The  country  of  the  Towns- 
people, if  we  may  credit  Lieutenant  Simpson, 
is  one  of  '  almo.st  universal  barrenness,'  yet  inter- 
spersed with  fertile  sj.ots ;  that  of  the  agricultural 
nations,  though  dry,  is  more  generally  pro- 
ductive. The  fame  of  this  so-called  civilization 
reached  Mexie }  at  an  early  day  .  .  .  in  exagger- 
ated rumors  i,f  great  cities  to  the  north,  which 
prompted  the  expeditions  of  Marco  de  Niza  in 
1530,  of  Coronado  in  1540,  and  of  Espejo  in  1580 
[1.583].  These  adventurers  visited  the  north  in 
quest  of  the  fabulous  kingdoms  of  tjuivira, 
Tontonteac,  Marata  and  others,  in  which  great 
riches  were  said  to  exist.  The  name  of  (Juivira 
was  afterwards  api)lied  by  them  to  one  or  more 
of  the  pueblo  cities.  The  name  Cibola,  from 
'Cibolo,'  ^lexican  bull,  'bos  bison,'  or  wild  ox  of 
New  Mexico,  where  the  Spaiuards  first  encoun- 
tered butf.do,  was  given  to  seven  of  the  towns 
which  were  afterwards  known  as  the  ':ieven 
Cities  of  (;ibola.  But  most  of  the  villages  known 
at  the  present  day  were  mentiofied  in  the  reports 
01  the  early  expeditious  by  their  present  names. 


99 


AMERICAN  AHOUIOINES. 


AMEHICAN  ABORIGINES. 


.  .  .  Tlic  towns  (if  the  I'lii'blos  arc  csscntiiilly 
imi(|ii(',  mid  iin;  the  doiiiiimnt  fcuturc  of  tlicsi' 
iiborijiirml.s.  Some  of  tlii'iu  iiro  sitiiiitol  in 
viilli'js,  others  on  mesas;  somctiMies  tlicy  are 
planted  on  eh'viitions  ahnostinacocssiljlc,  reached 
only  by  arthieial  Kra<lcs.  or  by  steps  cut  hi  tlie 
solid  KK'k.  Some  of  the  towns  are  of  an  ellipti- 
cal shaiie,  while  others  are  square,  a  town  helm,' 
frecpiently  hut  a  block  of  bnildinps.  Thus  a 
I'ueblo  consists  of  one  or  more  scpnires,  each 
enclosed  by  three  or  fonr  l>uil(lini;sof  from  300  to 
400  fi.et  in  leiiKlli,  and  about  bit)  feet  in  width 
at  the  base,  and  from  two  to  seven  stories  of 
from  eight  to  nine  feet  each  in  hei),'ht.  .  .  .  The 
stories  are  built  in  a  series  of  ^'radations  or  re- 
treatini,'  surfaces,  deereasiiif;  In  size  as  they  rise, 
thus  forming  a  succession  of  terraces.  In  some 
of  the  towns  tlie.se  terraces  are  on  both  sides  of 
the  buildim,';  in  others  they  face  only  towards 
the  outside;  while  again  in  others  they  are  on 
the  inside.  These  terraces  are  about  six  feet 
wide,  and  extend  around  the  three  or  four  sides 
of  the  S(iuare,  forming  a  walk  for  the  occupants 
of  the  story  resting  upon  it,  and  a  roof  for  the 
Story  beneath;  so  witli  tin'  stories  above.  As 
there  is  no  inner  communication  with  one  another, 
the  only  means  of  mounting  to  them  is  by  ladders 
which  stand  at  convenient  distances  along  the 
several  rows  of  terraces,  and  tli<'y  ma\'  be  drawn 
up  at  pleasure,  thus  cutting  olf  all  unwelcome 
intrusion,  The  outside  walls  of  one  or  more  of 
the  lower  stories  are  entirely  solid,  having  no 
openings  of  any  kind,  with  the  exception  of,  in 
some  towns,  a  few  loopholes.  ...  To  enter  the 
rooms  on  the  ground  floor  from  the  out.side,  one 
must  mount  the  ladder  to  the  tirst  balcony  or 
terrace,  then  desci'iid  through  a  trap  door  in  the 
tloor  by  another  laiUler  on  the  inside,  .  .  .  The 
several  stories  of  these  huge  structures  are 
divided  into  multitudinous  ciimpartnicnts  of 
greater  or  less  size,  wliicli  are  apportioned  to  the 
several  families  of  the  tril)l^" — 11.  II.  Uancroft, 
Kdtiri-  ItiieiHdf  thf  Pufifie  Stdtfn,  r.  1,  r/i.  5. — 
"There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Cibola  is  to  be 
looked  for  in  Xcw  Mexico.  .  .  .  We  cannot  .  .  . 
refuse  to  adopt  the  views  of  General  .Simp.son 
and  of  Mr.  \V.  \V.  II.  Davis,  and  to  look  at  the 
pueblo  of  ZuiSl  as  occupying,  if  not  the  actual 
site,  at  least  one  of  the  sites  within  the  tribal 
area  of  the.  Seven  CUties  of  Cibola.  Xor  can  we 
refuse  to  identify  Tusayan  with  the  Moqui  dis- 
trict, and  Acuco  witli  Acoma." — A.  F.  Ban- 
(lelier,  Hint.  Introil.  to  Stiidicji  among  t?ie  Sedentari/ 
ImliitiiK  (if  K.  Me.vicn  (Papers  of  the  Arc/i(Toloi/. 
Inst,  if  Am.:     Am.  fleries,  r.   1). 

Ai.so  IX  ,1.  II.  Simpson,  T/ic  Maivh  of  Coro- 
nado. — L.  H.  Alorgaii,  llouses  and  House-life  of 
the  Am.  Aborigines  (Contributions  to  JV'  Am. 
Ethnologi/,  r.  4),  eh.  6. — P.  H.  Gushing,  Mi/ 
Adcenturcs  in  Ziini  (Century,  v.  3-J). — The  same, 
Fhurth  Annual  liept.  of  the  liureaii  of  EthtMlom/ 
(1883-83).  yi/).  478-180.— F.  W.  Blackiiiar,  Spanish 
Institutions  of  the  Southitest,  eh.  10. — See,  also, 
AMtniic.t,  Phkiiistouic,  and  above:  Piman 
Family,  and  Krrksan  Family. 

Pujunan  Family.  —  "The  following  tribes 
were  placed  i.i  this  group  by  Latham :"Pujuni, 
Secumne,  Tsamak  of  Hale,  and  the  Cuslina  of 
Sch(X)lcraft.  The  name  adopted  for  the  family 
is  the  name  of  a  tribe  given  by  Hale.  This  was 
one  of  the  two  races  into  which,  ii))on  the  infor- 
mation of  Captain  Sutter 'as  derived  by  Mr. 
Dana,  all  the  Sacramento  tribes  wore  believed  to 


be  divi<led.  '  These  races  resembled  one  another 
in  every  respect  but  language. ' .  .  .  The  tribes 
of  this  family  liave  been  carefully  studied  by 
Powers,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  most  all 
we  know  of  their  distribution.  They  occupied 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Sacramento  in  California, 
beginning  soiik!  80  or  100  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  extended  northward  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  Pit  River."—.!,  W.  Powell,  Seeenth 
Annual  Ilept.,   Hureaii  of  Kthnologi),  pp.  90-100. 

Puncas,  or  Ponkas.  See  below:  Siouan 
Family;  and  above;  Pawnee  (Cauuoan) 
Fa.mily. 

Purumancians.  See  Chile:  A.  I).  1450- 
17124. 

Quapaws.     See  below :  Srou.w  Family. 

Quelches.     See  above:  PA.\ri'AHTiiinKs. 

Querandis,  or  Pehuelches,  or  Puelts.  See 
above:  Pami-as  TuiiiKs. 

Quiches. —  Cakchiquels.— "  (Jf  the  ancient 
races  of  America,  those  which  approached  the 
nearest  to  a  civilized  condition  spoke  related  dia- 
lects of  a  tongue,  which  from  its  principal  mem- 
bers lias  been  called  the  Maya-Quiche  linguistic 
stock.  Even  to-day,  it  is  estimated  that  half  a 
million  persons  use  these  dialects.  They  are 
scattered  over  Yucatan,  Ouatemala,  and  the  ad^a- 
<'ent  territory,  and  one  branch  formerly  occupied 
the  hot  lowlands  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  north 
of  Vera  Cruz.  The  ijo-callcd  '  metropolitan 'dia-  , 
lects  are  those  spoken  relatively  near  the  city  of 
Guatemala,  and  include  the  Cakchiquel,  the 
(Juichc,  the  Pokonchi  and  the  Tzutuhill.  They 
are  quite  closely  allied,  and  are  luutuaKy  intelli- 
gible, resembling  each  other  about  as  much  as  did 
ill  ancient  Greece  the  Attic,  Ionic  an<l  Doric  dia- 
lects. .  .  .  The  civilization  of  these  people  was 
such  that  they  used  various  mnemonic  signs, 
approaching  our  nlpliabet,  to  record  and  recall 
their  mythologj'  and  history.  Fragments,  more 
or  less  complete,  of  tliese  traditions  have  been 
lireserved.  The  most  notable  of  them  i:i  the 
national  legend  of  the  Quiches  of  Guatemala,  the 
so-called  Popol  Vuh.  It  was  written  at  an  un- 
known date  in  the  Quiche  dialect,  by  a  native 
who  was  familiar  with  the  ancient  records." — D. 
G.  Brinton,  Essaj/s  of  an,  Americanist,  p.  104. 

Also  in  The  same,  ^lH«a/s  «/</i«  Cakchiquels. 
— II.  II.  Bancroft,  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific 
States,  eh.  11. — See,  also,  above:  Mayas. 

Quichuas.    See  Pehtj. 

Quijo.     See  above :  Andesians. 

Quoratean  Family . — ' '  The  tribes  occupy  both 
banks  of  the  lower  Klamath  from  a  range  of 
hills  a  little  above  Happy  Camp  to  the  jutictiou 
of  the  Trinity,  and  the  Salmon  River  from  its 
mouth  to  its  sources.  On  the  north,  Quoratean 
tribes  extended  to  the  Athapascan  territory  near 
the  Oregon  line." — .1.  W.  Powell,  Seventh  Annual 
Rept.,  liureau,  of  Ethnology,  p.  101. 

Rapid  Indians. — A  name  applied  by  various 
writers  to  the  Arapalioes,  and  other  tribes. 

Raritans.     See  above:  ALGON<iUiAN  F.uiily. 

Remo.     See  above :  Andesians. 

Rogue  River  Indians.*  See  above:  MoDOCS, 

ETC. 

Rucanas.     See  Peuu. 

Sabaja.     See  above:   Guck  ok  Coco  Guoi!i'. 

Sacs  (Sauks),  Foxes,  etc.— "The  Sauks  or 
Saukies  (White  Clay),  and  Fo.\es  or  Outagamies, 
so  called  by  the  Europeans  and  Algonkius,  but 
whose  true  name  is  Musquakkiuk  (Red  Clay),  are 
in  fact  but  one  nation.    Tlr  <;h  missionaries 


•See  Note,  Appendix  & 


100 


AMERICAN  AB01UGINE8. 


AMERICAN  AQORIGINES. 


on  coming  first  in  contact  with  them,  in  the  year 
lB6r),  lit  once  found  tlmt  they  spoke  the  same  lan- 
jiuiige,  and  that  it  dillered  from  the  Alf;onl<in, 
tlioujili  belonging  to  tlie  same  stock ;  and  also  that 
tills  liingiiage  was  common  to  the  Klckapoos, 
and  to  those  Indians  they  called  Maskontcns.  This 
last  nation,  if  it  ever  "had  an  existence  as  a  dis- 
tinct tribe,  has  entirely  disa])peared.  But  we  are 
informed  by  Charlevoix,  and  Mr.  Schoolcraft  cor- 
roborates the  fact,  that  the  word  '  Jlasconteiick ' 
means  a  country  without  woods,  a  prairie.  The 
name  Mascontons  was  therefore  used  to  designate 
'  prairie  Indians.'  And  it  appears  tliat  they  con- 
sisted principally  of  Sauks  and  Klckapoos,  with 
an  occasional  mixt\ire  of  Pntowotamies  and 
Miamis,  who  probably  came  there  to  hunt  the 
Uuflalo.  The  country  a.ssigned  to  those  ^'ascon- 
teus  lay  south  of  the  Fox  River  of  LaU  Michi- 
gan and  west  of  Illinois  River.  .  .  .  When  first 
discovered,  the  Sauks  and  Foxes  had  f'  ■iv  seats 
toward  the  southern  extremity  of  Greei  Hay,  on 
Fox  River,  and  generally  farther  east  than  the 
country  wli'Ch  they  lately  occupied.  .  .  .  By  the 
tre.ity  of  1801,  the  Sauks  and  Fo.xes  ceded  to  the 
United  States  all  their  lands  east  of  .  .  .  the 
Mississippi.  .  .  .  The  Kickapoos  by  various 
treaties,  1809  to  1819,  have  also  ceded  all  the'> 
lands  to  the  United  States.  They  claimed  all  the 
coiu'try  between  the  Illinois  River  and  the 
\Val)ash,  north  of  the  parallel  of  latitude  jjassing 
by  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  and  south  of  the 
Kankakee^  River.  .  .  .  The  territory  claimed  by 
the  .Miamis  and  Fiankishaws  may  be  generally 
stated  as  having  been  bounded  east  wardly  by  the 
.Maumeo  River  of  Lake  Erie,  and  to  have  in- 
cluded all  the  country  drained  by  the  Wabash. 
The  I'iankishaws  occupied  the  country  border- 
ing on  the  Ohio." — A.  Gallatin,  tSyitopsis  of  the 
IiuUan  Tribes  {Arelueologia  Aineriaiiut,  r.  2), 
introil.,  sect.  2. — The  Mascontens,  or  Mascoutins, 
"  seldom  appear  alone,  but  almost  always  in 
connection  with  their  kindred,  the  Ottagamies  or 
Foxes  and  the  Kickapoos,  and  like  them  bear  a 
character  for  treachery  and  deceit.  The  three 
tribes  may  have  in  earlier  days  formed  the  Fire- 
Xation  [of  the  early  French  writers],  but,  as 
Gallatin  observes  in  the  Archreologia  Americana, 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  Mascoutins  were 
ever  a  distinct  tribe.  If  this  be  so,  and  there  is 
no  reason  to  reject  it,  the  disappearance  of  the 
name  will  not  be  strange." — J.>  G.  Shea,  linef 
Hescarches  Uespectiiif/  the  Mascoutins  (Schoolcraft's 
Information  Respecting  Indian  Tribes,  pt.  4,  p. 
245).— See  above,  Algonqiii.\n  F.\mii,y. — For  an 
account  of  the  Blofk  Hawk  War  see  Illinois, 
A.  1).  1832. 

Sahaptins.     See  above :  Nez  Pkuies. 

Salinan  Family. — This  name  is  given  by 
JIajor  Powell  to  the  San  Antonio  and  San  Sliguel 
dialects  spoken  by  two  tribes  on  the  Salinas 
River,  Monterey  County,  California. — J.  W. 
Powell,  Seventh  Annual  lieport,  Bureau,  of  Eth- 
noloijji,  p.  101. — See  Esselenian  Family. 

Saiishan  Family.     Scj  above :  Flatheaus. 

Sanhikans,  or  Mincees.  See  above:  Aloon- 
QLiAX  Family. 

Sans  Arcs.     See  below:  Siou.vn  Family. 

Santees.*  See  below :  Siouan  F^vmily. 

Sarcce  (Tinneh).*  See  above :  Blackfeet. 

Sastean  Family. — "The  single  tribe  upon  the 
language  of  which  Hale  based  his  name  was 
located  by  him  to  the  southwest  of  the  Lutuami 
or  Klamath  tribes.  .  .  .  The  former  territory  of 

•See  Note,  Appendix  E.  .  \0\ 


the  Sastean  family  is  the  region  drained  by  the 
Klamath  River  and  its  tributaries  from  the 
western  base  of  the  Cascade  range  to  the  point 
where  tin?  Klamath  Hows  through  tlu^  ridge  of 
hills  east  of  Happy  Cami),  which  forms  the 
boundary  between  th"  Sastean  and  the  (Juoratean 
families.  In  ad'lition  to  this  region  of  the  Kla- 
math, the  Shasta  extended  over  the  Si.skiyou 
raiiire  northward  as  far  as  Ashland,  Oregon." — 
.f.  \\.  Powell,  S  lenth  Annual  Iie]it.,  Bureau  of 
Etlinolofiy,  /),  lOti. 
Savannahs.  See  above:  Aloonquian  Family. 
Seminoles.— "The  term  'semanole,'  or  '  isti 
Simanole,'  signitles  'separatish'  ot  'runaway,' 
and  as  a  tribal  name  ])oints  to  the  Indians  who 
left  the  Creek,  especially  the  Lower  Creek  settle- 
ments, for  Florida,  to  live,  Inint,  and  lish  there 
in  independence.  The  term  does  not  mean  '  wild,' 
'savage,'  as  freciuently  stated;  if  ajiplied  now  in 
this  sense  to  animals,  it  is  l)eeause  of  its  original 
meaning,  'what  has  become  a  runaway.'.  .  . 
The  Seminoles  of  modern  times  are  a  ])eoplo 
compounded  of  the  following  elements:  separa- 
tists from  the  Lower  Creek  and  Hitchiti  towns; 
renuiants  of  tribes  partly  civilized  by  the 
Spaniards;  Yanui.ssi  Indians,  and  sonu'  negroes. 
.  .  .  The  Seminoles  were  always  regarded  us  a 
sort  of  otitcasts  by  the  Creek  tribes  from  which 
they  had  seceded,  and  no  doubt  there  were 
reasons  for  this.  .  .  .  These  Indians  showed,  like 
the  Creeks,  hostile  intentions  towards  the  thirteen 
states  during  and  after  the  Revolution,  and  con- 
jointly with  the  Upper  (.'reeks  on  Tallapoos;i 
river  concluded  a  treaty  of  frien<lship  with  the 
Sp'.niards  at  Pensacola  ui  Jlay,  1784.  Although 
imder  Spanish  control,  the  Seminoles  entered  into 
hostilities  with  the  Americans  in  1793  and  181'2. 
In  the  latter  year  Payne  niiko  [' King  Payne'] 
was  killed  in  a  battle  at  Alachua,  and  his  brother, 
the  infiuential  Bowlegs,  died  soon  after.  These 
unruly  tribes  surprised  and  massacred  American 
settlers  on  the  Satilla  river,  Georgia,  in  1817,  and 
another  confiict  began,  which  terminated  in  the 
'  destruction  of  the  Mikasuki  and  Suwanec  river 
;  towns  of  the  Seminoles  by  General  Jackson,  in 
!  April,  1818.  [See  Flohida:  A.  I).  1810-1818.] 
After  the  cession  of  Florida,  and  its  incorporation 
into  the  American  Union  (1819),  the  Seminoles  gave 
u  p  all  their  territory  by  the  treaty  of  Fort  Moultrie, 
Sept.  18th,  1823,  receiving  in  exchange  goods  and 
annuities.  When  tlie  government  concluded  to 
move  these  Indians  west  of  the  Jlississippi  river, 
a  treaty  of  a  conditional  character  was  con- 
cluded with  them  at  Payui;'s  landing,  iu  1832. 
The  larger  portion  were  removed,  but  the  more 
stubborn  p:»rt  dissented,  and  thus  gave  origin  to 
one  of  the  gravest  conllicts  which  ever  occurred 
between  Indians  and  whites.  The  Seminole  war 
begun  with  the  massacre  of  Major  Dade's  com- 
mand near  Wahoo  swamp,  December  28th,  1835, 
and  coutiinied  with  unabated  fury  for  five  years, 
entailing  an  immense  expenditure  of  money  aiuj 
lives.  [See  Flouida:  A.  D.  1835-1843.]  A 
number  of  Creek  warriors  joined  the  hostile 
Seminoles  in  1838.  A  census  of  the  Seminoles 
taken  iu  1823  gave  a  population  of  3,899,  with 
800  negroes  belonging  to  them.  The  population 
of  the  Seminoles  in  the  Indian  Territory  amounted 
to  2,087  iu  1881.  .  .  .  There  are  some  Seminoles 
now  in  Miixico,  who  went  there  with  their  negro 
slaves." — A.  S.  Gatschet,  ^1  iligrution  legend  of 
the  Creek  Indians,  c.  1,  pt.  1,  sect.  2. — "  Ever  since 
the  first  settlement  of  th>.ie  Indians  in  Florida 


AMERICAN  AUG  UIG  INKS. 


AMEUICAN  ABORIGINES. 


tlit'V  liiivc  been  cngngpil  in  n  strife  with  tlie 
wliitcs.  ...  In  tlic  iiimnifiioiH  jn(lf;nu'nt  of 
unprcjudiccil  writers,  tlie  whites  liiive  ever  l)een 
in  tlie  wroiiK- " — I*.  G.  IJrintoii,  Nutcn  on  the 
FloriiUiiii  I'minmilii,  p.  MH— "  Tliero  were  in 
Florldii,  Oelober  1,  1880,  of  tlie  Indiana  com- 
iiionlv  known  ii.s  Seminole,  308,  Tliey  coosti- 
tilled'  ;(7  families,  livini,'  in  33  eamps,  which  were 
jratliered  into  five  widely  separated  groups  or 
settlements.  .  .  .  This  people  our  Goveriiinent 
1ms  never  been  able  to  conciliate  or  to  conquer. 
.  .  .  Tlie  .Seminole  have  always  lived  within  our 
borders  as  aliens.  Il  is  only  of  late  years,  and 
tliriiUL'li  natural  iiecessilies",  that  any  friendly 
intereoiirso  of  white  man  and  Indian  has  been 
secured.  .  .  .  The  liidians  have  appropriated  for 
their  service  souk;  of  tlie  products  of  European 
civilization,  such  as  weaiions,  implements, 
domestic  utensils,  fabrics  for  clotliini,',  itc. 
Mentally,  excepting  a  few  religious  ideas  which 
they  received  long  ago  from  the  teaching  of 
Hpanish  niissionari(?s,  and,  in  the  southern  settle- 
ments, excepting  some  few  Spanish  words,  the 
Seminole  have  accepted  and  appropriated  prac- 
tically nothing  from  the  white  man." — C.  Mac- 
Cauley,  The  f>emiHi>lc  IiitHdiiii  of  Florhhi  (Fifth 
An.  Ikpt.  of  the  Jiiire/iu  of  Ethnology,  1883-84), 
intn/tl.  null  ch.  4. 

Also  in  ,J.  T.  Sprague,  I'he  Fhrida  War. — 
8.  G.  Drake.  The  A/Hin'f/iiuil  liiicesof  N.  Am.,  hk. 
4,  ell.  0-31. — See,  also,  above:  Muskuooean 
F.\.\iii.v. 

Senecas;  their  name.  —  "How  this  name 
originated  is  a  '  ve.xata  (lUiestio'  among  Indo- 
antiiiuariaiis  and  etymologists.  The  least  i)lausi- 
blo  .supjiositiou  is,  that  the  name  has  any 
reference  to  the  moralist  Seneca.  Some  hav 
supposed  il  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Dutch  term 
for  Vermillion,  cinebar,  or  cinnabar,  under  the 
a.ssumption  that  the  Senecas,  being  the  most 
warlike  of  the  Five  Nations,  u.scd  tliat  pigment 
more  than  the  others,  and  thus  gave  origin  to 
the  name.  This  hypothesis  is  suiiported  by  no 
authority.  .  .  .  The  name  '  Sennecas '  first 
appears  on  a  Dutch  map  of  1010,  and  again  on 
.lean  de  Laet's  map  of  1033.  ...  It  is  claimed 
by  some  that  the  word  may  be  derived  from 
'Siuiieko.'c,'  the  Algoniiuin  name  of  a  i:ibe  of 
Indians  spoken  )f  in  Wassenaer's  Histoiy  of 
Europe,  on  the  iiuthority  of  Peter  Barentz,  who 
traded  with  them  about  the  year  1020.  .  .  . 
Without  assuming  to  solve  the  mystery,  the 
writer  contents  himself  with  giving  some  data 
wliieh  may  possibly  aid  others  in  arriving  at  a 
reliable  conclusion.  [Here  follows  a  discussion 
of  the  various  forms  of  name  by  which  the 
S(!iiecas  designated  themselves  and  were  known 
to  til--  Hurous,  from  whom  the  Jesuits  first 
heard  of  them.]  By  dropping  the  neuter  pre- 
li.'k  O,  the  national  title  became  'Nan-do-wah- 
gaali, '  or  '  The  great  hill  people,'  as  now  used  by 
the  Senecas.  ...  If  the  name  Seneca  can  legiti- 
mately be  derived  from  the  Seneca  word  '  Nan-do- 
wah-gaair.  .  .  it  can  only  be  done  by  prelixing 
'Son,'  as  was  the  custom  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
dropping  all  unnecessary  letters.  It  would  then 
form  the  word  '  Son-non-do-wa-ga,'  the  first  two 
and  last  syllables  of  which,  if  the  French  sounds 
of  the  letters  are  given,  are  almost  identical  in 
pronunciation  with  Seneca.  The  chief  dilllculty, 
however,  would  be  iu  the  disposal  of  the  two 
superliuous  syllables.  They  may  have  been 
dropped  in  the  process  of  contraction  so  common 


in  the  composition  of  Indian  words  —  a  result 
which  would  be  (juite  likely  to  occur  to  a  Seneca 
name,  in  its  transmissicm  through  two  other 
languages,  the  Mohawk  and  the  Dutch.  The 
foregoing  (pieries  and  suggestions  are  thrown 
out  for  what  they  are  worth,  in  the  absence  of 
any  more  reliable  theory." — O.  II.  Marshall, 
J/tHtori-ntWi-itiii;/.'),  p.  231. — See  above:  Ikoqiiois 
Co.NFKDKUACV,  and  HuHoNS,  ice. — See,  also,  I'ox- 
Ti.vc's  Wak,  and  for  an  accouit  of  Sullivan's  ex- 
[ledition  against  the  Senecas,  see  United  States 
uv    Am.;    a.   D.   1779  (AudUsT  —  Sei'te.mheh). 

Shacaya.     See  above:  Andesians. 

Shahaptian  Family.  Sec  above:  Nez 
1'eiu  i';s. 

Shastas.     See  above:  Sastean  Family. 

Shawanese,  Shawnees,  or  Shawanoes.  — 
"Adjacent  to  the  Lenape  [or  Delawares  —  see 
above],  and  associated  with  them  in  some  of  the 
mo.st  notable  pas.sagea  of  their  history,  dwelt  the 
Shawanoes,  the  Chaouunons  of  the  French,  a 
tribe  of  bold,  roving,  and  adventurous  spirit. 
Their  eccentric  waiidering.s,  their  sudden  appear- 
ances and  disappearances,  perplex  Iheantiipiary, 
and  defy  research;  but  from  various  scattered 
notices,  we  may  gather  that  at  an  early  period 
they  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Ohio ;  that,  be- 
coming embroiled  with  the  Five  Nations,  they 
shared  the  defeat  of  the  Andastes,  and  about  the 
year  1073  tied  to  escape  destruction.  Some  found 
an  asylum  in  the  country  of  the  Lenape,  where 
they  lived  tenants  at  will  of  the  Five  Nations; 
others  .>ouglit  refuge  in  the  Carolinas  and 
Florida,  wlierc,  true  to  their  native  instincts, 
they  soon  came  to  blows  with  the  owners  of  the 
soil.  Again,  turning  northwards,  they  formed 
new  settlements  in  the  vallej'  of  the  Ohio,  where 
they  were  now  sullered  to  dwell  in  iicace,  and 
where,  at  a  later  period,  they  were  joined  by 
such  of  their  brethren  as  had  found  refuge 
among  the  Lenape."  —  F.  Parkman,  The  Cun- 
itpiraey  of  Pontine,  ch.  1. — "The  Shawnees  were 
not  found  originally  in  Ohio,  but  migrated  there 
after  17.jO.  They  were  called  Chaouanons  by 
the  French  and  Shawanoe;;  by  the  English.  The 
English  name  .Shawano  changed  to  Shawanee, 
and  recently  to  Shawnee,  Chaouanou  and 
Shawano  are  obviously  attempts  to  represent  the 
same  sound  by  the  orthograply  of  the  two  re- 
spective languages.  .  .  .  Jludi  industry  has 
been  used  by  recent  writers,  especially  by  Dr. 
Brintou,  to  trace  this  nomadic  trite  to  its  original 
home;  but  I  think  without  success.  .  .  .  We 
first  find  the  Shawano  in  actual  history  about  the 
year  1000,  and  living  along  the  Cumberland  river, 
or  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee.  Among  the 
conjectures  as  to  theirearlier  history,  the  greatest 
probability  lies  for  the  present  with  the  earliest 
account  —  the  account  given  by  Perrot,  and  ap- 
parently obtained  by  him  from  the  Sh.'iwanoes 
themselves,  about  the  year  1080  —  tlu.t  they 
formerly  lived  by  the  lower  lakes,  and  were 
<lriven  thence  by  the  Five  Nations." — W.  F. 
Force,  Some  Edrly  Nuticca  of  the  Indians  of  Ohio. 
— "Tlieir  [the  Shawnee's]  dialect  is  more  akin 
to  the  Mohegan  than  to  the  Delaware,  ai.'d 
when,  in  1093,  they  lirst  appeared  in  the  arei: 
of  the  Eastern  Algonkin  Confederacy,  they 
can. "  as  the  friends  and  relatives  of  the  former. 
They  were  divided  into  foitr  bands  " —  Piqua, 
liroperly  Pikoweu,  ^lequachake,  Kiscapokoke, 
Chilicotlie.  "Of  these,  that  which  settled  in 
Pennsylvania  ■•"'as  the  Pikoweu,  who  occupied 


102 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


ami  giive  their  imme  to  tlio  Pcqvm  vnllcv  in  Laii- 
(lister  county.  Ai'cordinjr  to  ancient  Moliogan 
tradition,  tlic  Now  Knj^land  PcchkhIm  were  nicin- 
licrs  of  tlii.s  l)and." — I).  O.  Hrinton,  Th<;  Ijeiiniie 
iiiiil  Ihiir  L<r/iii>li>.  e/i.  2. —  Tlic  same,  The  H hair- 
iices  ami  thiir  Mii/rntiniiii  {Ilint.  Mitfi.,  v.  U), 
IHOO).— "TlieSliawanese,  wliose  vllla.i;es  were  on 
tlie  western  bank  [of  llic  Sus(iuelianna]  came 
iiili)  the  valley  [of  \Vyomin!;|  from  tlieir  former 
localities,  at  tli(^  'forks  of  tlie  Delaware'  (the 
jimction  of  the  Delaware  and  Lchiftli,  at  Eastoii), 
to  which  point  tiiey  had  been  induced  at  some 
remote  period  to  eini^'ratc  from  llieir  earlier 
home,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Wabasli,  in 
tlie  'Ohio  re^tion,'  upon  tlie  invitation  of  the 
Delawares.  Tliis  was  Iii<lian  diplomacy,  for  the 
Delawares  wen;  desirous  (not  being  upon  llie 
most  friendly  terms  willi  tiu!  Jlinitos,  or  .Si.\ 
Nations)  to  aceuniulale  a  force  against  tliose 
powerful  neighbors.  But,  as  might  be  expected, 
they  (lid  not  long  live  in  peace  with  their  new 
allies.  .  .  .  The  Sliawaiics(;  [about  IT.").'),  or  soon 
after]  were  driven  out  of  the  valley  by  their 
more  powerful  neighbors,  the  Delawares,  and 
the  contlict  which  resulted  in  their  letiving  it 
grew  out  of,  or  was  precipitated  by,  a  very 
trilling  incident.  While  the  warriors  of  the 
Delawares  were  engaged  iii)on  the  mountains  in  a 
hunting  expedition,  a  number  of  8(iua\vs or  female 
Indians  from  Mauglnvauwame  were  gather- 
ing wild  fruits  along  the  margin  of  tin;  river 
below  the  town,  where  tli(;y  foiind  a  number  of 
Shawanese  scpiaws  and  their  children,  who  Had 
crossed  tlic  river  in  their  canoes  upon  (lie  same 
Imsiness.  A  child  belonging  to  the  .Shawanese 
having  taken  a  large  gra.ssliopper,  a  (piarrel  arose 
among  the  children  for  the  possession  of  it,  in 
which  their  mothers  soon  took  part.  .  .  .  The 
quarrel  became  general.  .  .  .  Upon  the  return 
of  the  warriors  both  trilies  prepared  for  battle. 
.  .  .  The  Shawanese  .  .  .  were  not  able  to  sus- 
tain the  conflict,  and,  after  the  loss  of  about  half 
tlieir  tribe,  the  remainder  were  forced  to  lice  to 
their  own  side  of  the  river,  shortly  after  which 
they  abandoned  their  town  and  removed  to  the 
Ohio."  This  war  between  the  Delawares  mid 
Shawanese  has  been  called  the  Grasshopper  War. 
—  L.  H.  Miner,  The  Valley  of  Wyoming,  p.  33.— 
Sec,  also,  above,  Ai.(ion(juian  Famit.y,  and  Dela- 
WAiiEs. —  See,  also,  Pontiac's  Waii;  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1765-1708;  and  (for  an 
account  of  "Lc"d  Dunnioro's  War")  see  Ohio 
(Valley);  A.  I).  1774. 

Sheepeaters  (Tukuarika).  See  below;  Suo- 
8IIONEAN  Family. 

Sheyennes.    See  above ;  Aloonqcian  Family. 

Shoshonean  Family. —  "This  important 
family  occupied  a  large  jiart  of  th(!  great  interior 
basin  of  the  United  States.  Upon  the  north 
Shoshonean  tribes  extended  far  into  Oregon, 
meeting  Shaliaptian  territory  on  about  the  44th 
Iiarallel  or  along  the  Blue  ^lountains.  Upon  the 
northeast  the  eastern  limits  of  the  pristine  habi- 
tat of  the  Shoshonean  tribes  are  unknown.  The 
narrative  of  Lewis  and  Clarke  contains  the 
explicit  statement  that  the  Sho.shoni  bands  en- 
countered upon  the  Jefferson  River,  whose  sum- 
mer home  was  upon  the  head  waters  of  the 
Columbia,  formerly  lived  within  their  own 
recollection  in  the  plains  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  whence  they  w(!re  driven  to  their 
niomitain  retreats  by  the  Jliunetaree  (AtsiiuO, 
who  had  obtained  tirearms.  .  .  .  Later  a  divi- 

•See  Note.  Appendix  E 


sion  of  the  Bannock  held  the  (Inest  portion  of 
Southwestern  Montana,  whence  apparently  tli(>y 
were  being  pushed  westward  across  the  moun- 
tains by  Blackfcet.  Upon  the  east  the  Tukuarika 
or  Shet-peatcrs  held  the  Yellow.stone  Park 
country,  where  they  were  bordered  by  thcSioiian 
territory,  while  tlie  Washiiki  occupied  soiilli- 
wcstern  Wyoming,  Nearly  the  ciiliic  nioun- 
lai:ious  part  of  Cohirado  was  held  by  the  several 
..'ids  of  tin;  Ule,  the  eastern  and  .southeastern 
parts  of  the  Stale  being  held  respectively  by  tlio 
Arapaho  and  Cheyenne  (.Vlgoii(|uian),  and  the 
I\aiow(;  (Kiowan),  To  the  soutlica.sl  the  Ute 
couiK.y  iiiciiided  the  northern  drainage  of  the 
San  .luan,  extending  farther  cast  a  short  dis- 
tance into  New  .Mexico.  Tlii;  Coniancln;  divi- 
sion of  llie  family  extended  farther  cast  than  any 
other.  .  .  .  Bourgi'iiiont  found  a  Comaniho 
tribe  on  the  upper  KaiLsas  River  in  1724.  Accord- 
ing to  Pike  the  Comanche  territory  bordered 
the  Kaiowo  on  the  north,  the  former  occupying 
the  head  waters  of  the  Upper  Red  River,  Arkan- 
sas and  Rio  Grande.  IIow  far  to  the  southward 
Shoshonean  tribes  extended  at  this  early  period 
is  not  known,  thmigii  the  (evidence  tends  tosliow 
that  they  raided  tar  down  int'>  Texas,  to  the  terri- 
tory tliey  have  occupied  in  more  recent  years, 
viz.,  the  extensive  ])laiiis  from  the  Rocky  iU^un- 
tains  eastwiird  into  Indian  Territory  and  Texaa 
to  about  'J7°.  Upon  the  .soutli  Shoshonean  teiri- 
tory  was  limited  generally  by  the  Colorado 
River  .  .  .  while  the  Tusayan  (.Moki)  had  es- 
tablished their  seven  i)iieblos  ...  to  the  east  of 
the  Colorado  Chiciuito.  In  the  southwest  Sho- 
shonean tribes  had  pushed  across  C.ilifornia,  oc- 
cupying a  wide  band  of  country  to  the  Pacitic." 
—  .1.  W.  Powell,  iHi-iittli  Aiiiiiiiil  Jiijit.,  It'iiritu 
of  Ktliiiiiluini,  pji.  109-110.— "The  Pah  Utes  oc- 
cupy the  greater  jiart  of  Nevada,  and  extend 
southward.  .  .  .  The  Pi  Utes  or  Piutes  inhabit 
AV'estern  Utah,  from  Oregon  to  New  Jlexico. 
.  .  .  The  Gosh  Utes  [Gosuitcs]  inhabit  the  coun- 
try west  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  extend  to  the 
Pah  Utes."— H.  II.  Bancroft,  yutirc  liactK  of 
the  Pacific  States,  o.  1,  ch.  4. 

Siksikas,  or  Sisikas.    See  above ;  Blackpeet. 

Siouan  Family.— Sioux.*— "  The  mitions 
wliidi  speak  the  Sioux  language  may  be  con- 
sidered, in  reference  both  to  their  respective 
dialects  and  to  tlieir  geographical  jiosition,  as 
consisting  of  four  8ub(livisions,  viz.,  the  Winne- 
bagoes;  the  Sioux  proper  and  the  Assiniboius; 
the  Minetaro  group;  and  the  Csagesand  other 
southern  kindred  tribes.  The  Winnebagocs,  so 
called  by  the  Algonkins,  but  called  Puans  and 
also  Otcliagras  by  the  French,  and  Horoje  ('  fish- 
eaters ')  by  the  Omahaws  and  other  southern 
tribes,  call  themselves  Ilochungonih,  or  the 
'  Trout '  nation.  The  Green  Bay  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan derives  its  French  name  from  theirs  (Baye 
dcs  Puans).  .  .  .  According  to  the  W^ar  Depart- 
ment they  amount  [1830]  to  4,000  souls,  and  ap- 
pear tociiltivatethesoil  to  a  considerable  degree. 
Their  jirincipal  scats  nre  on  the  Fox  River  of 
Lake  Michigan,  and  towards  the  heads  of  the 
Rock  River  of  the  Jlississippi.  ...  The  Sioii." 
proper,  or  Naudowessics,  names  given  to  ihtin 
by  the  Algonkins  and  the  French,  call  thcms'jlvcs 
Dahcotns,  and  .sometimes  'Ocliente  Shakoans,' 
or  the  Seven  Fires,  and  are  divided  into  seven 
bands  or  tribes,  closely  connected  together,  btit 
apparently  independent  of  each  other.  Th(;y  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  French 


108 


AMEUICAN  AHOUIUINES. 


AMERICAN  AUOUI0INE.S. 


iH'fiirr  llic  yi'iir  HW,  .  .  .  'I'lii' four  moat  luHtfrii 
trllMs  of  tlic  DalKotiis  lire  known  liy  tlic  niinic 
of  the  Mi'nili'walikiintoan,  iir  '(icns  dii  Ltic,' 
Wulikpiitoiin  anil  Walikpakot.ian,  or  '  I'coiiU- 
of  llic  LravcM,'  and  Sisiloans.  .  .  .  Tlic  tlirco 
westerly  Iriliis,  the  Valiktoni'  tlie  Yanktonans, 
iind  tlie'Tetonn,  wander  tietwecM  tlii'  Mississippi 
uikI  tl  (•  .Missouri.  .  .  .  Tlie  Assinil)i)ins  (Stono 
Iiidiiiiis),  as  tliey  lire  <'alled  liy  the  Al>,'()iikins, 
are  a  Dalicota  tribe  separated  from  tlie  rest  of 
the  natidii.  anil  on  that  aceoinit  called  llnha  or 
Hehels,'  liy  the  oIIkt  Sioux.  They  are  said  to 
have  niadepart  i)rii,Mrnilly  of  the  Yauktons.  .  .  . 
Aiiiitlier  trilie.  called  Sliey'''ii>c>*  <ir  t 'heyennes, 
were  at  no  very  remote  period  seatcil  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Ued  Kiver  of  Lake  Wiiniipek.  .  .  . 
("arver  reckons  them  as  one  of  the  Sioux  tribes; 
and  .Mackenzie  iid'orins  us  that  they  were  driven 
away  by  the  Sioux.  They  now  [IHifllJ  live  on 
the  lieailwaters  of  the  river  Sheyeniie,  a  south- 
western tributary  of  the  .Missouri.  ...  I  have 
been,  liowever,  assuri'd  by  a  well-informed  person 
who  trades  with  them  that  Ihey  speak  a  distinct 
luliKtlage,  for  which  there  is  no  Kuropean  inter- 
preter. .  .  .  Till' .Minetares(Minetareeaiid  .Miiie- 
taries)  consist  of  three  tribes,  speaking  three 
dilXerent  languaKcs,  which  belonj;  to  ii  common 
stock.  Its  lilUiiities  with  the  Daheota  arc  but 
remote,  but  have  appeared  sulllcient  to  entitle 
them  to  be  considered  as  of  the  same  family. 
Two  of  thus*' tribes,  the  Mandaiies,  whosiMUim- 
bor  does  not  exceed  1,500,  and  the  stationary 
Minetares,  .imoimtinH:  to  ;i,()00  souls,  includini; 
those  called  Amialmwas,  cultivate  the  soil,  and 
live  in  villages  situated  on  or  near  tlie  Jlissouri, 
between  17'  and  -18°  north  latitude.  .  .  .  Tlie 
third  .Miiieture  tribe,  is  that  known  by  the  name 
of  the  ('row  or  Upsaroka  [or  Absarokii]  nation, 
probably  the  Keehcetsas  of  Ijcwis  and  t'larke. 
They  are  an  erratic  tribe,  who  hunt  south  of  the 
Mis.souri,  between  the  Little  Missouri  and  the 
southea.sterii  branches  of  the  Yellowstone  Kiver. 
.  .  .  The  southern  Sioux  consist  of  eight  tribes, 
s|)eakiiig  four,  or  at  most  live,  kindred  dialects. 
Their  territory  originally  extended  along  the 
Mississippi,  from  lielow  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas  to  the  forty -tirst  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude. .  .  .  Their  hunting  grounds  extend  as  far 
west  as  the  Stony  Mountains;  but  they  all  culti- 
viite  the  soil,  and  the  most  westerly  village  on 
the  Missouri  is  in  about  100°  west  longitude. 
The  three  most  westerly  tribes  are  the  Quappas 
or  Arkansns,  at  the  iiiuutli  of  the  river  of  that 
name,  and  the  Usages  and  Kansas,  who  inhabited 
the  country  sotith  of  tlu^  Missouri  and  of  the 
river  Kansas.  .  .  .  The  Osages,  properly  Wiiu- 
saslie,  were  more  numerous  and  powerful  than 
any  of  the  neighbouring  tribes,  and  perpetually 
at  war  with  all  the  other  Indians,  without  ex- 
cepting the  Kmsas,  wlio  speak  the  same  dialect 
■with  themselves.  They  were  originally  divided 
Into  Great  and  Little  b.sages;  but  about  forty 
years  ago  almost  one-half  of  the  mition,  known 
by  the  name  of  f'haneers,  or  Clermont's  Hand, 
separated  from  tlie  rest,  and  removed  to  the 
river  Arkansa.  The  villages  of  those  several 
subdivisions  are  now  [1830]  on  the  headwaters 
of  tile  river  Osage,  and  of  the  Verdigris,  a 
northern  tributary  stream  of  the  Arkansa.  They 
amount  to  about  5,1)00  souls,  and  have  ceded  a 
portion  of  their  lands  to  the  United  States,  re- 
serving to  themselves  a  territory  on  the  Arkansa. 
south  of  38°  north  latitude,  extending  from  95° 


to  100'  west  longitude,  on  a  breadth  of  45  to  SO 
miles.  The  territory  allotted  to  the  Cherokees, 
the  Creeks  and  the  ChiH-taws  lies  south  of  that  of 
the  Osage,  .  .  .  The  Kansas,  who  have  always 
lived  on  the  river  of  that  name,  have  been  at 
peace  with  the  Osage  for  the  last  thirty  years, 
and  intermarry  with  tlicm.  Tliev  amount  to 
1,500  souls,  and  occupy  a  tract  of  about  !t, 000,000 
acres.  .  .  .  The  live  other  tribes  of  this  sub- 
division are  the  lov.ays,  or  I'ahoja  (Grey  Snow), 
the  Missouris  or  Xeijehe,  the  Ottoes,  or  Wali- 
tootahtah,  tlu^  Omahaws,  or  Malms,  and  the 
I'uncas.  .  .  .  All  the  nations  speaking  languages 
Ix'longing  to  the  Great  Sioux  Family  may  .  .  . 
lie  computed  at  more  than  50,000  souls." — A., 
(Jallatin,  Sjimijms  of  tin-  liitlinit  Trihm  (Arc/ueo 
liiijiii  Ami'ricitnii,  i\  'i),  mrt.  -t. — "Owing  to  tli<^ 
fact  that  '  Sioux '  is  a  word  of  reproach  and 
means  snake  or  enemy,  the  term  has  been  dis- 
carded by  many  later  writers  as  a  family  dcsigua- 
lioii,  and  '  Dakota,'  which  sigiiitles  friend  or 
ally,  has  been  employed  in  its  stead.  The 
two  won's  are,  however,  by  no  means  prop- 
erly synonymous.  The  term  '  Sioux  '  was  used 
by  Gullatin  in  a  comprehensive  or  family 
sense  and  was  applied  to  all  the  tribes  collec- 
tively known  to  him  to  speak  kindred  dialects  of 
a  widespread  language.  It  is  in  this  sense  only, 
as  applied  to  the  linguistic  family,  that  the  term 
is  here  employed.  The  term  '  Daheota'  (Dakota) 
was  correctly  applied  by  (ialliitin  to  the  Dakota 
tribes  proper  as  distinguished  from  the  other 
members  of  the  linguistic  family  who  are  not 
Dakotas  in  a  tribal  sense.  The  u.se  of  the  term 
with  this  signiticatioii  should  lie  perpetuated. 
It  is  only  recently  that  a  delinite  decision  has 
been  reached  respecting  the  relationship  of  the 
Catawba  and  Woccoii,  the  latter  an  extinct  tribe 
known  to  have  been  linguistically  related  to  the 
Catawba.  Gallatin  thought  that  he  was  able  to 
discern  some  allinities  of  the  Catawban  language 
with  'Muskhogec  and  even  with  Choctaw,' 
though  these  were  not  suflicient  to  induce  him  to 
class  tliem  together.  Mr.  Gat.scliet  was  the  tlrst 
to  call  attention  to  the  presence  in  the  Catawba 
language  of  a  considen'.ble  number  of  words 
having  a  Siouan  allinity.  Kccently  Mr.  Dorsey 
has  made  a  critical  examination  of  all  the 
Catawba  linguistic  material  available,  which  has 
been  materially  increased  by  the  labors  of  Jlr. 
Gatschet,  and  the  result  seems  to  justify  its  in- 
clusion as  one  of  the  dialects  of  the  widespread 
Siouan  family."  The  principal  tribes  in  the 
Siouan  Family  named  by  ^lajor  Powell  are  the 
Dakota  (including  Santeo  Sis.seton,  AYahix'tou, 
Yankton,  Yanktonnais,  Teton,  —  the  latter  em- 
bracing Brule,  Sans  Arcs,  Blackfeet,  ^Minnecon- 
jou.  Two  Kettles,  Ogalala,  Uucpapa),  Assinaboin, 
Omaha,  Poiica,  Kaw,  O.sage,  (juapaw,  Iowa, 
Otoe,  Missouri,  Winnebago,  Mandan,  Gros  Ven- 
tres, Crow,  Tutelo,  IMloxi  (see  Muskiiooean 
Fa.mii,y),  Catawba  and  Woccou. — J.  W.  Powell, 
Nereuth  Annual  liept.  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnotoiiij. 
p.  113. 

Ai-.so  IN  ,1.  O.  Dorsey,  Migrations  of  Siouan 
Triht'K  (Aimrimn  Xaturaliet.  r.  20,  March). — 
The  sniue,  Ililoxi  Indians  of  Ijntisiana  (V.-P. 
aMn.s.'i  A.  A.  A.  S.,  1803), — Sec,  above:  Hidatsa. 

Sissetons.    See  above  Siouan  Familv. 

Six   Nations.      See  above:     Iuo<juoi8  CoN- 

FEDEIIACV, 

Skittagetan  Family. — "A  family  designa- 
tion .  ,  ,  retained  for  the  tribes  of  the  Queen 


104 


AMEUICAN  AUOUiaiNES. 


AMEIUCAN  ABOIUGINES. 


Clmrldttc  ArcliipflftKo  which  have  usually  bpi'u 
<iiI1(m1  llaiilii.  Krotii  n  ((iinimrisoii  of  lUv  V(«iil)U- 
hirics  (if  the  llaidii  laii.i;iiaf;c  with  otliiTs  of  lliu 
luiKlihoriiitr  Kcilusclmii  family,  Dr.  Krariz  Hoas 
is  iiiclinc<l  to  cDiisiiU'rlliat  tliclwoaro  jjiniclically 
nlalcd.  Till!  two  laiiKuaf;cs  |)os.s<'ss  a  consider- 
alile  number  of  words  in  common,  l)Ut  a  more 
lliiiroufrh  investigation  is  requi-ile  for  tlie  settle- 
iiicnt  of  the  <niestion." — .1.  W.  I'owell,  Seent/i 
Aiitiuiil  Hi'/it.,  Ihiinni  of  h'thimliif/!/,  j).  I'JO. 

Snakes.     Seealiove:  Shohiionkan  Family. 

Stockbrid^e  Indiana. — '■The  Htoekbridfiu  In- 
dians \veaM)nKinally  a  part  of  tli(!  Ilousatannuck 
Tril)e  (.Moliegans],  "to  whom  the  l,cjj;islature  of 
Massachusetts  granlc(l  or  secured  a  township 
Jaflerward  called  .Sum  kliridijej  in  the  vear  17!iO. 
Tlieir  number  was  increased  by  Waijpinjjers  and 
.Moliikanders,  and  perha])s  also  by  Indians  be- 
loniiinf;  to  several  other  trilieit,  both  of  N'ew 
Ijiirland  and  New  York.  Since  their  removal  to 
.New  Slockbridfre  and  Hrotlierlon,  in  tlie  w<'Stcrn 
parts  of  Xew  York,  tJie^  hav(^  been  joined  bv 
.Miilu'irans  and  other  Iialians  from  Ea.st  Connecti- 
cut, and  even  from  Rhode  Islanil  and  Lon^ 
I'-laml." — A.  (iallalin,  Synojm.i  nf  Inilidn  Trilim 
(Arclufologin.  AmtrimiKi,  r.  '2),  p.  115. 

Also  in  A.  Holmes,  AuimUdf  Am.,  1730  (c.  2). 

—  S.  Ct.  Drake,  Aborit/iiitil  Uiiivn,  p.  15. 
Susquehannas,  or  Andastes,  or  Conestogas. 

—  "Duleh  and  Swedisli  writers  speak  of  a  tribe 
called  .Min(iiiiis;  .  .  .  the  French  in  Canada  .  .  . 
make  freipient  allusions  to  the  Gandastojrues 
(more  brietlv  Andastes),  a  tribe  friendly  to  their 
allies,  tlu'  lliirons,  and  jturdy  enemies  of  the 
Irixpiois;  later  still  Pennsylvania  writers  speak 
of  tlie  Conestojias,  the  tribe  to  which  Lojfan  be- 
loiijred,  and  the  trilic  which  peri.shed  at  the 
haiiils  of  the  Fa.xton  boys.  Although  Gallatin 
in  liis  map,  followed  by  Bancroft,  i)lace(l  the 
Andastes  near  Lake  Erie,  my  researches  led  me 
to  correct  this,  and  ideutify  the  Husiiuehannas, 
Mimpia,  Anda.stes  or  OandastoKUos,  and  Cones- 
liinas  as  being  all  the  same  tribe,  the  first  name 
beiiii;  apparently  an  appellation  given  them  by 
the  Virginia  tribes;  the  second  that  given  them 
liy  the  AlgoiKiuins  on  the  Delaware ;  while  Gan- 
dastogue  as  the  French,  or  Concstoga  as  the 
English  wrote  it,  was  their  own  tribal  name, 
meaning  cabin-pole  men,  Nutio  Perticarum, 
from 'Anda.sta,' a  cabin-pole.  .  .  .  Prior  to  1(500 
the  Siis(|uehaunas  and  the  Mohawks  .  .  .  came 
iiihi  ciillision,  and  the  Susquehannas  nearly  ex- 
tciiiiiiiated  the  Jlohawks  in  a  war  which  lasted 
ten  years."  In  16-47  they  offered  their  aid  to  the 
Iluroiis  against  the  Iroiiuois,  having  1,300  war- 
riors trained  to  the  use  of  lire-arms  by  three 
Swedish  soldiers;  but  the  propo.sed  alliance 
failed.  During  the  third  quarter  of  the  17th 
century  they  seem  to  have  been  in  almost  con- 
tinuous war  with  the  Five  Nations,  until,  in 
1075,  they  were  completely  overthrown.  A 
party  of  about  100  retreated  into  Maryland 
aud  became  involved  there  in  a  war  with  the 
eiilonists  and  were  destroyed.  "The  rest  of 
tlie  tribe,  after  making  overtures  to  Lord  Balti- 
more, submitted  to  the  Five  Nations,  and 
were  allowed  to  retaiu  their  ancient  grounds. 
When  Pennsylvania  was  settled,  they  became 
known  as  Conestogas,  aud  were  always  friendly 
to  the  colonists  of  Penn,  as  they  ha<l  been  to  the 
Dutch  and  Swedes.  In  1701  Canoodagtoh,  their 
king,  made  a  treaty  with  Penn,  aud  in  the  docu- 
ment they  are  styled  Miuquas,  Conestogas,  or 


Susqueii.mni.^..  They  appear  as  a  tribe  In  a 
treaty  in  174'2,  but  were  dwindling  away.  In 
1703  the  feeble  remnant  of  the  tribe  begamc  in- 
volved i;,  the  frencral  suspicion  entertained  by 
the  colonists  against  the  red  men,  arising  out  of 
nia.ssacres  on  the  borders.  To  escape  danger  the 
l>oor  creatures  t(«)k  refuge  in  Lancaster  jail,  and 
Ui'Tv  they  were  idl  butchered  bylhePa.xton  boy.s, 
who  burst  into  the  jilace.  Pafkman,  in  his  Con- 
spiracy of  I'ontiac,  p.  414,  details  the  sad  story. 
The  last  interest  of  lliis  unfortunate  tribe  centres 
in  Logan,  tlie  friend  of  the  white  man,  whoso 
spec(^h  is  so  familiar  to  all,  that  we  must  regret 
that  it  has  not  sustained  the  historical  scrutiny  of 
Hrantz  Mayer  (7'(l/((/l(/y'H^' ,■  </;•  /xv/k/i  <tii<l('<ipt.  ^ 
Michiid  Ciraiii),  Mun/tiiitil  'lint.  .Sl/c,  ^flll/,  1051; 
aiul  Sro.  Allxiiiy,  1H07).  Logan  was  a  Cones- 
toga,  in  other  wonls  a  Sus(|uelianna. " — J.  G. 
Shea,  Sotf  40  to  Guifr/i:  Atnop'ii  V/mnietir  nf  the 
I'rorince of  Mit ri/lti ml  (lloinia'a  liiliUntliecii  Aiutri- 
eitiKi,  5).  —  See,  also,  above:  IlKHii'oii  Conkku- 
i:uA(V. 
Tachies.     See  Te.\as:    The  auukkiinai.  in- 

IIAUITANTS  AND  THE  NAME. 

Tacullies.    See  below:  Athapascan  F.'.mily, 

Taensas.     See  Natchesan  Family. 

Takilman  Family.*— "  This  name  was  pro- 
posed by  y\v.  (Jatschet  for  a  distinct  language 
spoken  on  the  coast  of  Oregon  about  the  lower 
Kogiie  Hiver." — J.  W.  Powell,  Stcinth  Aiiiiiud 
Jii'/it.,  liiiiiiiuof  Ethiiohiiji/,  p.  li\. 

Talligewi.     See  above:  Ai.i.eohans. 

Tafioan  Family.  —"The  tribes  of  this  family 
in  the  United  States  resided  exclusively  u|>on  the 
lUo  Grande  and  its  tributary  valleys  from  about 
33Mo  about  30".  "—.1.  W.Powelf,  S,  eaith  Aii- 
iiiiiil  Hcpt.,  liiinaii  of  Kthiioluijn,  p.  122. 

Tappans.     See  above:  Aloonijiuan  Family. 

Taranteens  or  Tarratines.     See  above :  Au- 

NAKIS;also,  ALOONyl.lAN  Fa.mily. 

Tarascans. —  "  The  Tarascaus,  so  called  from 
Taras,  the  name  of  a  tribal  god,  had  the  reputa- 
I  Ion  of  being  the  tallest  and  handsomest  pcojilu 
of  Mexico.  They  were  the  inhabitants  of  the 
present  State  of  Michoacan,  west  of  the  valley  of 
Mexico.  According  to  tlieir  oldest  traditions,  or 
perhaps  those  of  their  neighbors,  they  had  mi- 
grated from  the  north  in  company  with,  or  about 
tlie  same  time  as,  the  Aztecs.  For  some  300 
years  before  the  coneiuest  they  had  been  a  seden- 
tary, semi-civilized  people,  maintaining  their  in- 
dependence, and  progressing  steadily  in  culture. 
When  first  encountered  by  the  Spaniards  they 
were  quite  equal  and  in  some  respects  ahead  : 
the  Nahuas.  ...  In  their  costume  the  Taru.,j08 
liiffered  coiisiderabl  v  from  their  neighbors.  Tlie 
feather  garments  which  they  manufactured  sur- 
passed all  others  iu  durability  and  beauty.  Cot- 
ton was,  however,  the  usual  materinl  "  —  D.  G. 
Brintou,  Tlie  American  Jiace,  p.  130. 

Tarumi.     See  above:  CAiiiBii  anutueik  Kln- 

DllED. 

Tecuna.    See  above :    GucK  on  Coco  O'loup. 

Tehusl  Che.     See  above:   Pataoonians. 

Telmelches.     See  above :  Pampas  Tiudes. 

Tequestas.  See  below:  Tlmuquaxan  Family. 

Tetons.     See  above :  Siouan  Family. 

Teutecas,  or  Tenez.  See  below :  Zapotecs, 
etc. 

Timuquanan  Family.  —  The  Tequestas.  — 
"  Beginning  at  the  southeast,  we  first  meet  the 
historic  Timucua  family,  the  tribes  of  which  are 
extinct  at  the  present  time.  ...  In  the   10th 


•See  Note,  AppenUbc  E. 


105 


AMKKICAX  ABOUIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


CPiittirv  the  Timuciia  ii:!i:i'iit<!(l  the  norllicrii 
nixl  iiii(l(ll<'  portiim  <if  llic  pcninstilii  of  Floridii. 
1111(1  allliough  tlifir  cxiK  t  limits  to  the  north 
nn?  uiiknonn,  tlioy  hold  a  portion  of  Florida 
liord(:rinf(  on  Ocofgia,  and  s<-nic  u{  tlio  coast 
islands  in  tlic  Atlantic,  ocean.  .  .  .  The  people 
received  il.snaine  from  one  of  their  villages  called 
Tiniagoa.  .  .  .  Tlie  naiiK;  mean.;  '  lunl,' '  ruler,' 
'master'  ('atiiiuica,'  waited  upon,  'niuea,'  by 
servants,  'ali'i,  and  tlie  people's  name  i.s  writ- 
ten Atimuea  early  in  the  18lh  century.  .  .  .  The 
langiiaKC'i  spolieii  by  tlie  (alusa  and  by  the  peo- 
ple ne.\t  in  order,  tlie  Te((iiesta,  are  unknown  to 
us.  .  .  .  The  Caliisa  held  the  southwestern  e,\- 
treniity  of  Florida,  and  their  tribal  name  is  left 
recorded  in  Calusahntchi,  a  riversouth  of  Tampa 
bay.  .  .  .  Of  the  Tecpicsta  people  on  tlie  .south- 
eastern end  of  the  ]ieiiinsula  we  know  still  less 
than  of  the  ('aliis,a  Indians.  Tliere  was  a  tradi- 
tion thai  they  were  the  same  people  which  !  ':\ 
the  Iliihama  oi  Lucayo  Islands.  " — A.  S.  ai- 
Kchet,  ,1  Miyrntioii  Liijend  <'f  the  Creek  Indirtim, 
r.  1.  pt.  1. 

Tinneh.    Sei?  above ;  Atiiap.vscan  Family. 

Tivitivas.  See  above:  ("Aiiiii  and  tiieik 
KiMirtKi). 

Tlascalans.  .^eo  JIexico  ;  A.  1).  1519  (Junb 
— Ocroiiicii). 

T'linkets.    See  above:  Atiiai'Ascan  Fa.mily. 

Tobacco  Nation.     See  above:  1Ii:hons;  and 

InoiJfOIH  CONKKIIICU.VCV:    TllEIlt  NAME. 

Tobas.    See  above:  Pampas  TitiiiEP. 

Toltecs.     See  ^Ikxicd,  Ancient. 

Tonikan  Family. — "The  Tonika  arc  known 
to  have  occupied  tliri'C  localities:  First,  on  the 
Lower  Ya/.oo  River  (ITOO)  ;  second,  east  shore  of 
Mississippi  River  (about  1T04);  third,  in  Avoy- 
elles Parish,  Louisiana  (181T).  Near  Marksville, 
the  county  seat  of  that  parish,  about  twenty-live 
are  now  liviiis-  ' — '.  W.  Powell,  Seeenth  Annual 
lie/it.,  lliirain  nf  Ethmihtgii,  p.  Vi'). 

"Tonka wan  Family. — "The  Tonkawa  were  a 
iniirratory  |ieople  and  a  coUiivies  ucntiuni,  whose 
earliest  haliitat  is  unknown.  Their  lirst  inen- 
tion  occurs  in  ITllI;  at  that  time  and  ever  since 
they  roamed  in  the  western  and  southern  parts 
of  what  is  now  Texas.  " — .1.  W.  Powell,  tictenth 
Anniiiil  liept.,  liiiraii of  Et/inoloi///,  p.  ViG. 

Tontos.     See  above :  Apache  Group. 

T'^romonos.     See  Bolivia:   Aikihioinal  in- 

IIAlin'ANTS, 

Totonacos.  —  "The  lirst  natives  whom  Cortes 
met  on  landing  in  Jlexico  were  the  Totonacos. 
They  ""cupied  the  territory  of  Totonicapau,  now 
includ  ,  in  the  State  of  Vi'ra  Cruz.  According 
to  traditions  of  their  own,  they  had  resided  there 
800  years,  most  of  which  time  they  were  inde- 
pendent, though  a  few  generations  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Spaniards  tliey  had  been  subjected 
by  the  arms  of  the  .Montezumas.  .  .  .  Sahagun 
descrilies  tlicm  as  almost  white  in  color,  tlieir 
heads  artilicially  deformed,  but  their  features 
regular  and  handsome.  Robes  of  cotton  be.inli- 
fully  dyed  served  thimi  for  garments,  and  their 
feet  were  covered  with  sandals.  .  .  .  These 
people  were  highly  civilized.  Cempoalla,  their 
ojipilal  city,  was  situate  about  live  miles  from  the 
sea,  at  the  juiH  ti;;;; 'if  two  streams.  Its  houses 
were  of  brick  and  mortar,  and  each  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  small  gartlen,  at  the  foot  of  which 
a  .stream  of  fresh  water  was  conducted.  .  .  . 
The  atliiiities  of  the  Totonacos  arc  dittlcult  to 
make  out.  .  .  .  Their  language  has  many  words 


from  JIaya  roots,  but  it  has  also  many  more 
from  the  Nahiiall." — I).  G.  Urinton,  1" he  Ameri- 
can liaee,  p.  KiO. 

Tukuarika.    See  above :  Siiosiionean  F.vmily. 

Tupi. —  Guarani. — Tupuyas. — "The  first  In- 
dians with  whom  the  Portuguese  came  iu  con- 
tact, on  the  discovery  of  Brazil,  called  themselves 
Tupinama,  a  term  derived  by  Barnhagen  from 
Ttipl  anil  .Alba,  .something  like  warrior  or  noble- 
man; by  ^lartiiis  from  Tupi  and  Ananiba  (rela- 
tive) with  the  signification  'belonging  to  the 
Tupi  tribe.'  Tlie.sc  Tupi  dwell  on  the  east  coast  of 
Brazil,  and  with  their  language  the  Portuguese 
were  soon  familiar.  It  was  found  especially  ser- 
viceable as  a  means  of  communication  with  other 
tribes,  and  this  led  the  Jesuits  later  to  develoji  it  as 
much  as  possible,  and  introduce  it  as  a  uni'.ersal 
language  of  intercourse  with  the  Savages.  Thus 
the  '  lingua  geral  Brasilica'  aro.se,  which  must  bo 
regarded  as  a  Tupi  with  a  Portuguese  pronun- 
ciation. The  result  was  a  suriirising  one,  for  it 
really  succeeded  in  forming,  for  the  tribes  of 
Brazil,  divided  in  language,  a  universal  means 
of  communication.  Without  doubt  the  wide  ex- 
tent of  the  Tujii  was  very  favorable,  especially 
since  on  this  side  of  the  Andes,  as  far  as  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  the  continent  of  South  America 
was  overrun  witli  Tupi  hordes.  .  .  .  Von  ilar- 
tius  has  endeavored  to  trace  their  various  migra- 
tions and  abodes,  by  which  they  have  acquired 
a  sort  of  ubiijuity  in  tropical  South  America. 
.  .  .  This  history  .  .  .  leads  to  the  supposi- 
tion that,  had  the  discovery  been  delayed  ii  few 
centuries,  the  Tupi  might  have  become  the  lords 
of  eastern  South  America,  and  have  spread  a 
higher  culture  over  that  region.  The  Tupi 
family  inny  bo  divided,  according  to  their 
lixed  abodes,  into  the  southern,  northern, 
eastern,  western,  and  central  Tupi;  all  these  are 
again  divided  into  a.  num'  er  of  smaller  tribes. 
The  southern  Tupi  are  usually  called  Guarani 
(warriors),  a  n:unc  which  the  Jesuits  lirst  in- 
troduced. \l  cannot  be  determined  from  which 
direction  they  came.  The  gr"atest  number  arc 
in  Paraguay  and  the  Argentine  province  of  Cor- 
rientes.  The  Jesuits  brought  tliem  to  a  very 
high  degree  of  civilization.  Tlie  casteru  Tupi, 
the  real  Tupinamba,  an;  scattered  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  from  St.  Catherimi  Island  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon.  They  are  a  very  weak 
tribe.  They  say  tliey  came  from  the  south  and 
west.  The  northern  Tupi  are  .a  weak  and  widely 
scattered  remnant  of  a  large  tribe,  and  are  now 
in  the  province  of  Para,  on  iho  island  of  Marujo, 
and  along  both  banks  of  the  Amazon.  ...  It 
is  somewhat  doubtful  if  this  peaceable  tribe  arc 
really  Tupi.  .  .  .  The  central  Tupi  live  in 
several  free  hordes  between  the  Tocantins  and 
Madeira.  .  .  .  Cutting  oft'  the  heads  of  enemies  is 
in  vogue  among  them.  .  .  .  The  Mundrucu  are 
especially  the  head-hunting  tribe.  The  western 
Tupi  all  live  in  Bolivia.  'I'liey  are  the  only  ones 
who  came  in  contact  with  the  Inca  empire,  and 
their  character  and  nianners  show  the  inlluence 
of  this.  Some  are  a  picture  of  idyllic  gayety 
and  patriarchal  mildness." — The  StuntJard  J\'nt 
iir.il  Jfixt.  {J.  S.  Kin<id<'!i,ed.)  c.  (!,  yi;).  248-240. 
— "In  freiiuciit  contiguity  with  the  Tupis  was 
another  stock,  also  widely  dispersed  tlirough 
Brazil,  called  tlii^  Tupuyas,  of  whom  the  Boto- 
cudos  in  eastern  Brazil  are  the  most  iirominent 
tribe.  To  them  also  belong  the  Ges  nations, 
south  of  tlie  lower  Amazon,  and  others.     They 


Km 


AMERICAN  ABOUIGINES. 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


are  on  a  low  grade  of  culture,  going  quite 
naked,  not  cultivating  the  soil,  igiioriint  of  pot- 
tirv,  and  with  jjoorly  made  canoes.  They  are 
doiiehoceplialic.  and  nuist  have  inhabited  the 
countrvalong  time." — D.  G.  Brinton,  liacta  and 
Piojihs.  lip.  209-2T0. 

Turiero.     See  above :  Ciiidchab. 

Tuscaroras.  See  above:  luoQtrois  CoNi'ED- 
Ei!A(  V,  and  Ihocjiois  Thiuks  or  thk  Soith. 

Tuteloes.     See  above:  SiouAN  Family. 

Twightwees,  or  Miamis.  Seo  above:  Illi- 
Kois. 

Tvyo  Kettles.     See  above:  SiofAN  Family. 

Uaupe.     See  above :  Gi:cK  ou  Coco  Gkoup. 

Uchean  Family. — "  The  pristine  homes  c'  the 
Ymlii  are  not  now  traceable  with  any  degree  of 
certainly.  The  Yuchi  are  supposed  to  have 
been  visited  by  l)e  Soto  during  liis  memorable 
niiueli,  and  the  town  of  Colitaeliiqui  chronicled 
by  liim,  is  believed  by  many  investigators  to 
liiive  stood  at  Silver  iJlulf,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Savannah,  about  25  miles  below  Augusta. 
If,  as  is  supposed  bj'  some  authorities,  Cotita- 
clii(iui  was  a  Yuchi  town,  this  would  locate  the 
Yiiclii  in  a  section  which,  when  first  known  to  the 
whites,  was  occupied  by  the  Shawnee.  Later 
the  Yuchi  appear  to  have  lived  somewhat  farther 
down  the  Savaimah." — J.  W.  Powell,  Scteiith 
Ahiiudl  Jiept.,  JJitnau  of  Ethiiohffi/,  p.  120. 

Uhilches.     See  above :  Pami'As  Thibes. 

Uirina.    See  above:  Guck  ou  Coco  Gkocp. 

Uncpapas.     Sll- above:  Souan  Family. 

Upsarokas,  or  Absarokas,  or  Crows.  See 
aliove:  Siou'AN  y  .  ui.i 

Utahs.     Si'tr  i.hove:  Siiosiionean  Family. 

WabenaLit.=  '^rAbnakis.  See  above :  Abna- 
liis. 

Wacos,  or  Huicos.  See  above:  Pawnee 
(Cahdoan)  F.xMily. 

Wahpctons      Seeatiovi.:    SiouAN  Family'. 

Waiilatpiiaii  Family. — "Hale  establiahcd 
this  family  an,i  ;;laced  under  it  the  CailloiLX  or 
CaMisi  or  A\  illetpoos,  and  the  Molele.  Their 
lu'ail(niart.:!!i  as  indicated  by  Hale  are  the  upper 
liart  of  ;iie  Walla  AValla  River  and  the  country 
about  Mo'.iits  Hood  and  Vancouver." — J.  AV. 
Powell,  Seventh  AuMtc!  Report,  Bureau  of 
Elhiiol'if/!/,  ]),  127. 

Waikas.  See  above:  Cauibs  and  their 
KiNi)iii;i). 

Wakashan  Family.—  "  The  above  family 
nanio  was  based  ui)on  a  vocabidary  of  the 
Widiash  Indians,  who,  according  to  Gallatin, 
'  inhaliit  the  island  on  ^\hich  NootUa  Sound  is 
situated.'.  .  .  The  term  '  Wakash '  for  this 
groui)  of  languajjcs  has  since  been  generally 
ignored,  and  in  Its  place  Nootka  or  Nootka- 
C'oliunbian  has  been  adopted.  .  .  .  Though  by 
no  means  as  appropriate  a  designation  as  could 
be  found,  it  seems  clear  that  for  tlie  so-called 
Wakasli,  Newittee,  and  other  r'died  languages 
usually  assembled  under  the  Nootka  family,  the 
term  Wakash  of  1830  has  i)riority  a'ld  must  be 
retained." — J.  "W.  Powell,  t<ei-enih  Annual  lie- 
ixnl.  IhimiH  of  Ethnolnrjji,  pp.  129- 130. 

Wampanoags,  or  Pokanoketi.     See  above: 

PoKANOKETS. 

Waplsianas.    See  above :  Cauibs  Ai-,":>  tueik 

KlMUil'.I). 

Wappingers.    Seo  above :  Aloonqclan  Fam- 
ily, 
Waraus.    Seeubove:  Caiubs  and  their  Kin- 

DllKU. 


Washakis.    .'^ee  above:  Siioshoxean  Family. 

Washoan  Family. — "This  family  is  repre- 
.senti  d  by  a  single  well  known  tribe,  whose  range 
extended  from  Reno,  ou  the  line  of  the  Central 
I'aeili';  Railroad,  to  the  lower  end  of  Carson 
Valley." — J.  W.  Powell,  Strenth  Annual  Re- 
port, liuveitu  of  Ethiiulofjji,  p.    731. 

Wichitas,  "or  Pawnee  Picts.  Sec  above: 
Pawnee  (Cadmoan)  Family. 

Winnebagoes.     See  above:  Siouan  Family. 

Wishoskan  Family.— "This  is  a  small  and 
obscure  lingui.stic  family  !ind  little  is  known  cim- 
cerning  the  dialects  composing  it  or  of  the  tribes 
which  speak  it.  .  .  .  The  area  occupied  by  the 
tribes  speaking  dialects  of  this  language  was  the 
coast  frcmi  a  little  below  the  nioulh  of  Eel  Ri\  er 
to  a  little  north  of  JIad  River,  including  I'.ar- 
ticularly  the  country  alioiit  Humboldt  IJay." — 
J.  W.  Powell,  Sienth  Annual  Repurr,  liuraiuof 
Etlni'il'iiji/,  p.  133. 

Witumkas.  See  above:  Muskiiooean  Fam- 
ily. 

Woccons.     See  above:  Siouan  Fa.mily'. 

WyandotS.     See  above:    IIuuoNS. 

Yamasis     and     Yamacraws.      S  ?    above: 

Ml'SKIKKJEAN  FaJ  M  Y. 

Yamco.     See  alove:"  Andesians. 

Yanan  Family. — "The  eastern  boundary  of 
the  Yanan  territorv  is  formed  by  a  range 
of  moiatains  a  livile  west  of  Lassen  Butto 
and  terminating  near  Pit  River;  the  northern 
boundary  by  a  line  ruiming  from  northeast  to 
southwest,  passing  near  the  northern  side  of 
Round  Moimtain,  three  miles  from  Pit  River. 
The  western  boundary  from  Redding  southward 
is  on  an  average  10  miles  to  the  east  of  the 
Sacramento.  North  of  Redding  it  averages 
double  that  distance  or  about  20  miles." — .1.  W. 
Pl  VLdl,  Hfeiit/i  Annual  Rejtort,  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  p.  13.j. 

Yanktons  and  Yanktonnais.  Sec  above: 
SioiAN  Family. 

Yncas,  or  incas.    Sve  Peru. 

Yuchi.     Sic  above:  Uciiean FamiLY. 

Yuguarzongo.     See  above:  Andesians. 

Yukian  Family. — "  Round  Valley,  California, 
sub.seciuently  made  a  reservation  to  receive  the 
Yuki  and  other  tril)es,  was  formerly  the  chief 
seat  of  the  tribes  of  tlie  family,  but  they  also 
extended  across  the  mountains  to  the  coa.st. " —  J. 
W.  Powell,  l<ei('iith  Annual  Rejx/rt,  Bureau  of 
Elhnohy;/,  o.  VM. 

Yuman  Family. — "  The  center  of  distribution 
of  the  tribes  of  lliis  family  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  the  lower  Colorado  and  Gila 
Valleys." — J.  W.  Powell,  S-Centh  Annual  Re- 
]>ort.  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  137. — See  above: 
Apache  Group. 

Yuncas.    See  Peru. 

Yuroks  or  Eurocs.     See  above:  Modocs,  &c. 

Zaporo.     See  above:  Andesians. 

Zapotecs,  Mixtecs,  Zoques,  Mixes,  etc.  — 
"The  greater  part  of  Gaxaca  [Mexico]  aial  the 
neighboring  regions  are  still  occupied  bv  the 
Zapytees,  who  call  themselves  Uidjaza.  'riieru 
are  now  about  205,000  of  them,  about  50,000  of 
whom  speak  nothing  but  their  lative  tongue.  lu 
ancient  times  they  constituted  a  i)owerful 
independent  state,  the  citizens  of  whicli  seem  to 
have  been  quite  as  highly  civilized  as  any  mem- 
ber of  the  Aztec  family.  They  were  agricul- 
tural ami  sedentjiry,  living  in  vilhiges  and 
cuustructiug  buildiugs  of  stone  uud  murtar.     Tho 


im 


AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


AMMON. 


most  rcmiirkiiblc,  but  by  no  mcuns  tho  only, 
8|M!cim('nH  of  Uivsc  still  icnmining  arc  the  ruins 
of  Alitla.  .  .  .  Tlie  Mixtccs  adjoined  tlio 
Ziipotocs  to  the  west,  extending  along  the  coast 
of  the  Pueilio  to  about  the  present  port  of 
Acapulco.  In  eulturo  they  were  equal  to  the 
ZajHitees.  .  .  .  The  inountain  regions  of  the 
istlimusof  Tehuantepeeand  the  adjacent  portions 
of  lh(  stales  of  Chiapas  an<l  Oaxaea  are  the 
habitats  of  tlie  Zoques,  Mixes,  and  allied  tribes. 
The  early  historians  draw  a  terrible  picture  of 
their  valor,  savagery  and  cannibalism,  which 
reads  more  like  talesto  deter  the  Si)aniards  I'nim 
approaching  their  domains  than  truthful 
accounts.  However  this  may  be,  they  have 
been  for  hundreds  of  years  a  peaceful,  ignorant, 
timid  i)art  of  the  population,  homely,  lazy  and 
drunken.  .  .  .  The  faint  traditions  of  these 
peoples  jiointed  to  the  South  for  their  origin. 
.  .  .  The  Chinantecs  inluibitcd  Chinantla,  which 
is  a  part  of  the  slate  of  Oaxaea.  .  .  .  The 
Chinantecs  had  been  reduced  by  the  Aztecs  and 
severely  oppressed  by  them.  Hence  they 
weleonied  the  Spaniards  as  deliverers,  .  .  .  Other 
names  by  which  thev  are  mentioned  are  Tenez 
and  Teutccas.  ...  In  si>eaking  of  the  province 
of  Chiapas  the  historian 'Ilerrera  informs  us  that 
it  derived  its  name  from  the  pueblo  so-called, 
"whose  inhabitants  were  the  most  remarkable  in 
New  Spain  for  their  traits  and  inclinations.' 
They  had  early  accpiired  the  art  of  horsemanship, 
they  were  skillful  in  all  kinds  of  music,  excellent 
p.iinters,  carried  on  a  variety  of  arts,  and  were 
withal  very  courteous  to  each  other.  One  tra- 
dition was  that  they  had  reached  Chiai)us  from 
Nicaragua.  ...  Hut  the  more  authentic  legend 
of  the  Ciiapas  or  Chapanecs,  us  Ihey  were  pro- 
perly called  from  their  totemie  bird  the  Chapa, 
the  red  macaw,  recited  that  the  whole  stock 
moved  down  from  a  northern  latitude,  following 
down  the  I'acilic  coast  until  they  came  to 
Soconusco,  wheri^  they  divided,  one  part  enter- 
ing the  mountains  of  Chiapas,  the  other  pro- 
ceeding on  to  Nicaragim." — D.  G.  Sriuton, 
T/ie  Aiiifricon  Jiiire,  pp.  IIO-MO. 

Ai,s<)  IN  A.  Uandelier,  Itcpt.  of  Arducologieal 
Tour  in  .\f(xic:>. 

Zoques. — See.nbove:  Z.VfOTECS,  ETC. 

ZuBian  Family. —  "  Derivation:  From  the 
("ochili  term  ^Uunyi,  .said  to  mean  'the  people  of 
the  long  nails,'  referring  to  the  surgeons  (tf  Zuili 
who  always  wear  some  of  their  nails  very  long 
(Cushing)!"— ,1.  AV.  Powell,  Scanth  Xnuual 
Jkjiort,  Buriiiu  of  KlhtioUyii,  p.  138, — See, 
above,  Pueblos;  also,  Amehicv:  Prehistoric. 

AMERICAN  CIVIL  WAR.  See  Uniti;i) 
St.\ti:s  ok  Am.  :  A.  1).  IHliO  (Nove.mher— Ue- 
rEMiu;ii),  and  after.— Statistics  of.  Sec  same: 
A.  1).  IHO.")  (M.w). 

AMERICAN  KNIGHTS,  Order  of.  See 
Unhei)  ST.\ri;s  01' Am,;  A.  I).  1801  (October). 

AMERICAN  PARTY,  The.  Sec  United 
St.vtes  OF  Am.  :  A.  I).  \Kvi. 

AMERICAN  SYSTEM,  The.  Seo  Tariff 
Ia:(iisi..\Tio.s  (United  Stateb):  A.  D.  181(1- 
18'J1, 

AMHERST,  Lord,  The  Indian  Adminis- 
tration ol.    See  India;  A.  I).  lH;>:j-lH3;i. 

AMHERST'S  CAMPAIGNS  IN  AMER- 
ICA. See  Canada  (New  FranceV  A.  D.  17.58 
to  1700. 

AMICITI^,    Sec  Guilds  of  Fi„.vders. 


AMIDA,  Sieges  of. — The  ancient  city  of 
Ainida,  now  Diarbekr,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Upper  Tigris  was  thrice  taken  by  the  Persians 
from  the  Romans,  in  the  course  of  the  long  wars 
between  the  two  nations.  In  the  lirst  instance, 
A.  D.  !i59,  it  fel'  after  a  terrible  siege  of  seventy- 
three  day.s,  conducted  by  I  he  Persian  king  Sapor 
in  pcr.son,  and  was  given  uj)  to  pillage  and 
sla'ighter.  the  Roman  commanders  crucilied  and 
the  few  stirviving  inhabitants  dragged  to  Persia 
as  slaves.  The  town  was  then  abandoned  by  the 
Persians,  repeopled  by  the  Romans  and  re<'overed 
its  prosperity  and  strength,  only  to  pass  through 
a  similar  experience  again  in  502  A.  U. ,  when  it 
was  besieged  for  eighty  days  by  the  Persian  king 
Kobad,  carried  by  storm,  and  most  of  its  inhabit- 
ants slaughtered  or  enslaved.  A  century  later, 
A.  D.  005,  Cliosroes  took  Amida  once  more,  but 
.vith  less  violence. — G.  lijiwliuson,  tkvcnth  Gnat 
Oriental  Monarehi/,  eh.  9,  19  and  34. — See,  also, 
Persia:  A.  D.  226-027. 

AMIENS. — Origin  of  name.    See  IJelo.e. 

A.  D.  1597. — Surprise  by  the  Spaniards. — 
Recovery  by  Henry  IV.  See  France:  A.  D. 
1593-1598. 

A.  D.  1870. — Taken  by  the  Germans.  See 
France:  A.  I).  1870-1871. 

AMIENS,  The  Mise  of.  Sec  Oxkord,  Pro- 
visions ok. 

AMIENS,  Treaty  of  (1527).— Negotiated  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  between  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
land and  Francis  1.  of  France,  establishing  an 
alliance  against  the  Em])eror,  Charles  V.  Tlu; 
treaty  was  scaled  and  sworn  to  in  the  cathedral 
church  at  Amiens,  Aug.  18,  1527. — J.  S.  Brewer, 
lieiiiii  if  llcnrii  VIII.,  r.  2,  cli.  'id  and '28. 

AMIENS,  Treaty  of  (1801).  See  France: 
A.  1).  1801-1802. 

AMIN  AL,  Caliph,  A.  U.  809-813. 

AMIR. — Au  Arabian  title,  signifying  chief  or 
ruler. 

AMISIA,  The.— The  iineient  name  of  the 
river  Ems. 

AMISUS,  Siege  of.— The  siege  of  Amisus  by 
LucuUus  was  one  of  the  important  operations  of 
the  Third  Mithridatic  war.  The  city  was 
on  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  between 
the  rivers  Ilalys  and  Lycus;  it  is  repre- 
sented in  .site  by  the  modern  town  of  Sam- 
soon.  Amisus,  whidi  was  besieged  in  73  B.  C. 
held  out  until  th(!  following  year.  Tyninnio  the 
grammarian  was  among  the  i)risoners  taken  and 
sent  to  Rome. — G.  Long,  iJtdinc  of  the  lionuiii, 
liejuihlic,  r.  3.  ch.  1  and  2. 

AMMANN.— This  is  the  title  of  the  Mayor  or 
President  of  the  Swiss  C'omiuunal  Council  or 
Gemeinderath.  Sec  Switzeki.and:  A.  D.  1848- 
1890. 

AMMON,  The  Temple  and  Oracle  of.— The 
Ammonium  or  Oasis  ot  Anniion,  in  the  Libyan 
desert,  which  was  visitiid  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
has  been  identitied  with  the  oasis  now  known  as 
the  Oasis  of  Si  wall.  "The  Oasis  of  Siwah  w.as 
(irst  visited  and  described  by  Browne  in  1792; 
and  its  identity  with  that  of  Amnion  fully  estab- 
lished by  Major  Uenncll  (' Geog.  of  Herodotus,' 
pp.  577-591).  .  .  .  The  site  of  the  celebrated 
temple  and  oracle  of  Amnion  was  first  discovered 
by  Air.  Hamilton  in  ISr''  'Its  famous  orach; 
was  frequently  visited  _,  jiccks  from  Cyrene, 
us  well  as  irom  other  jwrts  of  the  Hellenic  world, 
and  it  vied  in  reputation  with  those  of  Delphi 


108 


AMMON. 


ASIPIIIKTYONIC  COUNCIL. 


and  Dmlona." — E.  II.  Biinbury,  IliM.  of  Ar.cicnt 
(hog.,  eh.  H,  scet.  1,  nndch.  12,  ncrt.  1,  and  lutte  E. 
— An  expedition  of  50,000  men  sent  by  Cambyses 
to  Ammon,  B.  ().  525,  is  snid  to  liave  perished  in 
tlic  desert,  to  tlie  last  man.  See  Eoypt;  B.  C". 
52.")-;?;i2. 

AMMONITES,  Tiie.— Aceording  to  tlic  iiar- 
nitive  in  Gene.sis  .\i.\ ;  !30-;i9,  tlie  Ammonites 
were  de.scended  from  Ben-Ammi,  son  of  Lot's 
second  daugliter,  as  tlie  Jloabites  came  from 
Moab,  the  eldest  daughter's  son.  The  two  people 
are  much  as.sociated  in  Biblical  history.  "It  is 
Imrd  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that,  while  Moab 
was  the  settled  and  civilized  half  of  tl>o  nation  of 
Lot,  the  Bene  Ammon  formed  its  predatory  and 
IJedouin  section." — G.  Grove,  Diet,  of  the  Bible. — 
See  Jews:  Tin;  Eauia' IIubuew  IIi'stohy;  also, 

MoAltlTES. 

AMMONITI,  OR  AMMONIZIONI,  The. 

See  Florence:  A.  D.  1358. 

AMORIAN  DYNASTY,  The.  See  Byzan- 
tiNB  E.MPIBE:  A.  D.  820-1057. 

AMORIAN  WAR,  The. —The  Byzantine 
Emperor,  Theophilus,  in  war  with  the  Saracens, 
took  and  destroyed,  with  peculiar  animosity,  the 
town  of  Zapetra  or  Sozopetra,  in  Syria,  which 
hapjiencd  to  be  the  birthplace  of  the  reigning 
caliph,  Motassem,  son  of  llaroun  Alraschid.  The 
calii)h  had  condescended  to  intercede  for  the  place, 
and  his  enemy's  conduct  was  personally  insult- 
ing to  him,  as  well  as  atrociously  inhumane.  To 
avenge  the  outrage  he  invaded  Asia  Jlinor,  A.  D. 
838,  at  the  head  of  an  enormous  army,  with  the 
special  purpose  of  destroying  the  birthplace  of 
Theoiihilus.  The  unfortunate  town  which  suf- 
fered that  distinction  was  Amorium  in  Phrygia, 
— whence  the  ensuing  war  was  called  the  Amorian 
War.  Attempting  to  defend  Amorium  in  the 
fleld,  the  Byzantines  were  hopelessly  defeated, 
am',  the  doomed  city  was  left  to  its  fate.  It  made 
an  heroic  resistance  for  tifty-live  days,  and  the 
siege  is  .said  to  have  cost  the  caliph  70,000  men. 
But  he  entered  the  place  at  last  with  a  merciless 
Bword,  and  left  a  heap  of  ruins  for  the  inoiniment 
of  his  riivenge. —  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  lloman  Empire,  eh.  52. 

Ai.so  IN  G.  Finlay,  If  int.  of  the  Byzantine  Em- 
pire, from  716  to  1057,  b/c.  1,  eh.  3,  sect.  2. 

AMORITES,  The.  — "The  Ilittites  and 
Ainorites  were  .  .  .  mingled  together  in  the 
mountains  of  Palestine  like  the  two  races  wliidi 
etiniologists  tell  us  go  to  form  the  modern  Kelt. 
But  the  Egyj^tian  monuments  teat'h  ua  that  they 
were  of  very  dilTerent  origin  and  character.  The 
Ilittites  were  a  people  with  yellow  skins  and 
'  Jlongoloid '  features,  whose  receding  foreheads, 
oblicpie  eyes,  and  protruding  upper  jaws,  are  rep- 
resented as  faithfully  on  their  own  monuments 
as  they  are  on  those  of  Egypt,  so  that  we  cannot 
accuse  the  Egpytian  artists  of  caricatiu'ing  their 
enemies.  If  the  Egyptians  have  made  the  Ilit- 
tites ugly,  it  was  because  they  were  so  in  reality. 
The  Ainorites,  on  the  contrary,  were  a  tall  antl 
handsome  i)eople.  They  are  depicted  with 
white  skins,  blue  eyes,  anil  reddish  hair,  all  the 
chiiraeteristics,  in  fact,  of  the  white  race.  Mr. 
Petrie  points  out  their  resemblance  to  the  Dar- 
diniians  of  Asia  Minor,  who  form  an  intcr- 
nieiliale  link  between  the  white-skinned  tribes  of 
the  Greek  seas  and  the  fair-complexioned  Libyans 
of  Northern  Africa.  The  latter  are  still  found  in 
large  immbers  in  the  mountainous  regions  which 
stretch  eastward  from  Morocco,  and  are  usually 


known  among  the  French  under  the  name  of 
Kabyles.  The  traveller  who  first  meets  with 
them  in  Algeria  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  their 
likeness  to  a  certain  part  of  tlie  population  in  the 
British  I.sles.  Their  clear-white  freckled  skins, 
their  blue  eyes,  their  golden-red  hair  and  tall 
stature,  remind  him  of  the  fair  Kelts  of  an  Irish 
village ;  and  when  we  find  that  their  skulls,  which 
are  of  the  so-called  <loliclioeephalie  or  '  long- 
headed '  type,  are  the  same  a.s  the  skulls  discov- 
ered in  the  i)rehisloric  cromlechs  of  the  country 
they  still  inhabit,  we  may  conclude  that  tliey 
represent  the  modern  descendants  of  the  white- 
skinned  Libyans  of  the  Egpytian  monuments. 
In  Palestine  also  we  still  come  across  representa- 
tives of  a  fair-coniplexio..ed  blue-eyed  race,  in 
whom  we  may  see  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Ainorites,  just  as  we  see  in  the  Kabyles  the  des- 
cendants of  the  ancient  Libyans.  We  know  that 
the  Am()rite  type  continued  "to  exist  in  Judah  long 
after  the  Israelitish  coniiuest  of  Canaan.  The 
eai>tives  taken  from  the  southern  cities  of  Judah 
bv  Shishak  in  the  time  of  Helioboam,  and  de- 
picted by  him  upon  the  walls  of  the  great  temple 
of  Karnak,  are  people  of  Ainorite  origin.  Their 
'rcnilar  profile  of  sub-aquiline  cast,'  as  Mr. 
Tc  ins  describes  it,  their  liigh  cheek-bones  and 
ni:i  A  expression,  are  the  features  of  the  Amor- 
ites,  and  not  of  the  .lews.  Tallness  of  stature 
has  always  been  a  distinguishing  chanicteristie  of 
the  white  race.  I  lence  it  was  that  the  Anakim, 
the  Ainorite  inhabitants  of  Hebron,  seemed  to 
the  Hebrew  spies  to  be  as  giants,  while  they 
themselves  were  but  'as  grasshoppers'  by  the 
side  of  them  (Num.  xiii:  33).  After'the  Israel- 
itish invasion  remnants  of  the  Anakim  were  left 
in  Gaza  and  Gath  and  Ashkelon  (Josh.  xi:33), 
and  in  the  time  of  David,  Goliath  of  Gath  and  his 
gigantic  family  were  objects  of  dread  to  their 
neighbors  (3  Sam.  xxi:  15-22).  It  is  clear,  then, 
that  the  Ainorites  of  Canaan  belonged  to  the 
same  white  race  as  the  Libyans  of  Northern  Af- 
rica, and  like  them  preferred  the  mountains  to 
the  hot  plains  and  valleys  below.  The  Libyans 
themselves  belonged  to  a  race  which  can  be 
traced  through  the  peninsula  of  Spain  and  the 
western  side  of  France  into  the  British  Isles. 
Now  it  is  curious  that  wherever  this  particular 
branch  of  the  white  race  lias  <'xlen(led  it  has  been 
accompanied  by  a  particular  form  of  cromlech, 
or  sei)ulcliral  chamber  built  of  large  uncut  stones. 
.  .  .  It  has  been  necessary  tQ  enter  at  this  length 
into  what  has  been  discovered  concerning  the 
Ainorites  by  recent  reseai'ch,  in  order  to  show 
how  carefully  they  should  bf  distinguished  fnmi 
the  Ilittites  with  whom  they  afterwards  inter- 
mingled. They  must  have  been  in  possession  of 
Palestine  long  before  the  Ilittites  arrived  there. 
Tliev  extended  over  a  much  wider  area. " —  A.  H. 
Sayce,  The  Ilittiten,  eh.  1. 

AMPHIKTYONIC  COUNCIL.  —  "An 
Amphiktyonic,  or,  more  correctly,  an  Ampliik- 
tionic,  body  was  an  assembly  of  tlic  tribes  who 
dwelt  around  any  famous  temple,  gathered  to- 
gether to  manage  the  alTaiis  of  that  temple. 
Tliere  were  other  Amphiktyonic  Assemblies  in 
Greece  [besides  that  of  DelphiJ,  amongst  which 
that  of  the  isle  of  Kalaureia,  olT  the  coast  of 
Argolis,  was  a  body  of  some  celebrity.  The 
Anipliiktyons  of  Delphi  obtained  greater  import- 
ance than  any  other  Ainphiktyons  only  because 
of  the  greater  importance  of  the  Delphic 
sanctuary,    and    beeau.se    it    incidentally    hap- 


109 


AMl'lIIKTVONIC  COU>XIL. 


AMSTERDAM. 


pencil  tliiit  tlie  frrciitcr  part  of  tlie  Greek  nil- 
tinii  hail  some  kind  of  reprcsentiitiDU  among 
tliiMii.  llut  that  body  could  not  be  looked 
upon  as  a  perfert  representation  of  the  Greek 
nation  whieli,  to  postpone  othi  bjections  to  its 
ooMslii".',i.in,  f'Mind  no  place  fi  r  m)  lariie  a  fnic- 
tion  of  the  llillenic  body  as  the  Arkadians. 
Slill  the  Ainph  ktyons  of"  Delphi  undoubtedly 
came  nearer  than  aiiv  other  existing  body  to  the 
iliaracterof  a  j:eni''al  repri'sentation  of  all  G'  eece. 
It  is  iherefore  easy  to  und'Tstand  how  the  .elig- 
imis  functions  of  such  a  body  might  incidentally 
avxume  a  political  character.  .  .  Once  or  twice 
lliiii,  in  the  course  of  Greciiiii  history,  we  do 
linil  the  Amphiklyonic  body  acting  with  real 
ilignity  in  the  name  of  united  Greicr.  .  .  . 
Though  the  list  of  member,  of  the  Council  is 
given  with  some  slight  variations  by  ditTerent 
authors,  all  agree  in  making  the  constituent 
inemlM'rs  of  the  union  tribes  and  not  cities.  The 
representatives  of  the  Ionic  and  Doric  races  sat 
and  voted  as  single  meml)i'rs,  side  by  side  with 
the  representatives  of  petty  peoples  like  the 
MagnOsians  and  I'hthiotic  Achaians.  When  the 
<'ouncil  was  first  formed.  Dorians  and  lonians 
were  doubtless  mere  tribes  of  northern  Greece, 
and  the  prodigious  (h'velopment  of  the  Doric  and 
Ionic  races  in  after  times  made  no  dilTerence  in 
its  constitution.  .  .  .  Tlie  Ami)hiktyonic  Coun- 
cil was  not  e.xactlv  a  diplomatic  congres.s,  but  it 
was  nuieh  more  l!ke  a  diplomatic  congress  than 
it  was  like  the  governing  assembly  of  any  com- 
monwealth, kingdom,  or  federation.  The  I'yla- 
goroi  and  llieromnOmones  were  not  e.vactly 
Ambassadors,  btit  they  were  nuich  more  like 
Ambassadors  than  they  were  like  meml)ers  of  a 
British  Parliament  or  even  an  American  Congress. 
.  .  .  The  nearest  apjiroach  to  the  Amphik- 
lyonic Council  ill  modern  times  would  be  if  the 
College  of  Cardinals  were  to  consist  of  members 
chosen  by  the  several  Homaii  Catholic  nations  of 
Kiirope  and  America." — E.  A.  Freeman,  llht.  of 

Fllkriil  ISnrf..   r.    I,  ,•/(.  li. 

AMPHILOCHIANS,  The.    See   Ak.vun.v- 

KI.\NS. 

AMPHIPOLIS.— This  town  in  Macedonia, 
occupying  an  important  situation  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  river  SIrymon,  just  below  a  small 
lake  into  which  it  widen.s  near  its  mouth,  was 
originally  called  "The  Nine  Ways."  and  was  the 
scene  of  a  horrible  human  sacrilicc  made  by 
Xerxes  on  his  nnirch  into  Greece. — Thirlwall, 
Hint,  iif  On'icc,  rh.  \'i. —  't  was  subsequently 
taken  by  the  Athenians,  h.  C.  437,  and  made 
it  capital  city  by  them  [see  Atiiicxs:  li.  C. 
44()-4;i7|.  dominating  the  surrounding  district,  its 
name  being  changed  to  Ampliipolis.  During  the 
I'clopomiesian  War  (H.  C.  424),  the  able  Laecdiu- 
monian  general,  Brasidas,  led  a  small  army  into 
Macedonia  and  succeeded  in  capturing  Atnphi- 
polls,  which  caused  great  dismay  and  discourage- 
ment  at  Athens.  Thucydides,  the  historian,  was 
one  of  the  generals  held  responsible  for  the  dis- 
aster and  he  was  driven  as  aconseiinence  into  the 
fortunate  e.  lie  which  produced  the  composition 
of  his  history.  Two  years  later  the  Athenian 
demagogue-leader,  Cleon,  took  conunaud  of  an 
expedition  sent  to  recover  Ampliipolis  and 
other  points  in  Macedonia  and  Thrace.  It  was 
disastrously  beaten  and  Cleon  was  killed,  but 
Brasidas  fell  likewise  in  the  battle.  Whether 
Athens  suflFered  more  from  licr  defeat  than 
Sparta  from  her  victory  is  u  question.  —  Thucy- 


dides, Hutory,  hk.  4,  itect.  103-135,  bk.  5,  seet.  1-11. 
— Sec,  also,  Atiikns:  B.  C.  460-454,  and  Gkkkck: 
B.  C  424-4'.il.  —  Ampliipolis  was  taken  bv  Philip 
of  Macedon,  B.  C.  ;i.").S.  — Sec  Ghekce:  15.  C. 
;t5<J-:i.-.8. 

AMPHISSA,  Siege  and  Capture  by  Philip 
of  Macedon  (B.  C.  339-338).  See  Gueece: 
B,  c.  :i.^)7-:!:!(). 

AMPHITHEATRES,  Roman.  — "There 
was  hardly  a  town  in  the  [HomaiiJ  empire  which 
had  not  an  ampliitheatre  large  enough  to  contain 
vast  multitudes  of  spectators.  The  savage  ex- 
citement of  gladiatorial  combats  .seems  to  have 
been  almost  necessary  to  the  Hoiuan  legionaries 
in  their  short  intervals  of  inaction,  and  was  the 
first  recreation  for  which  they  provided  in  the 
places  where  they  were  stationed.  .  .  .  Gladia- 
torial coml)ats  were  held  from  early  times  in  the 
Forum,  and  wild  beasts  huntcil  in  the  Circus; 
hut  until  Curio  built  his  celebrated  double 
theatri'  of  wood,  which  could  be  made  into  au 
amphitheatre  by  turning  the  two  semi-circular 
portions  face  to  face,  we  have  no  record  of  any 
special  building  in  the  peculiar  form  afterwards 
adopted.  It  may  have  been,  therefore,  that 
Curio's  mechanical  contrivance  first  suggested 
the  elliptical  shape.  ...  As  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture, the  ampliitheatrcs  are  more  remarkable 
for  the  mechanical  skill  and  admir.ible  adaptation 
to  their  purpose  disi)layeil  in  them,  than  for  any 
beauty  of  shape  or  decoration.  The  liugest 
of  all,  the  Coliseum,  was  ill-proportioned  and 
uni)leasing  in  its  lines  when  entire." — 1{.  Burn, 
liiiiiii  (Uitl  tin'  (^impii'iitii,  intn/d. 

AMPHORA.— MODIUS.  —  "  The  [Roman] 
unit  of  capacity  was  the  Amplioru  or  (Jua- 
drantal.  which  contained  a  cubic  foot  .  .  .  equal 
to  r>.(W7  imperial  gallons,  or  5  gallons,  3  quarts, 
1  i>int,  3  gills,  nearly.  The  Amphora  was  the 
unit  I'lir  both  liquid  and  dry  measures,  but  the 
latter  was  generally  referred  to  the  Modius, 
which  contained  one-third  of  an  Amphora.  .  .  . 
The  Culeus  was  eipial  to  30  AmplionB. " — W. 
Ramsav,  Murmalof  limitiin  Antiii..  eh.  13. 

AMklTSAR.     See  Sikhs. 

AMSTERDAM :  The  rise  of  the  city,— 
"In  13().')  a  low  and  prolitless  marsh  upon  the 
coast  of  Holland,  not  far  from  the  coiitines  of 
Utrecht,  had  been  |)arlially  drained  by  a  dam 
rai.scd  upon  the  hitherto  s(|iiandered  stream  of 
the  Amstel.  Xear  this  ilani  a  few  huts  were 
tenanted  by  poor  men  who  earned  a  scanty  live- 
lihood by  tishiiig  in  the  Zuyder  Sea;  but  so 
uninviting  seemeil  that  barren  and  desolate  spot, 
that  a  century^  later  Amstel-dam  was  still  au 
obscure  seafaring  town,  or  rather  hamlet.  Its 
subsequent  progress  was  luon'  rapid.  The  spirit 
of  the  land  was  stirring  withih  it,  and  every  por- 
tion of  it  thrilled  with  new  energy  ami  life. 
Some  of  the  fugitive  artizaiis  from  Flanders  saw 
in  the  thriving  village  safety  and  peace,  and 
added  what  wealth  they  had,  and,  what  was 
better,  their  manufacturing  intelligence  anil 
skill,  to  the  humble  handet's  store.  Amsteldaia 
■was  early  admitted  to  the  fellowship  of  the 
Ilanse  League;  and,  in  1343,  having  outgrowa 
its  primary  limits,  required  to  be  enlarged.  Fur 
this  nn  expensive  process,  that  of  driving  piles 
into  thfc  swampy  plain,  was  necessary;  and  ii 
this  circumstance,  no  doubt,  it  is  owing  that  the 
date  of  each  successive  enlargement  has  been  so 
nccumtely  rcconied." — W.  T,  McCullugh,  Lulus- 
trial  Uiatory  of  Three  Nations,  ml,  2,  c7i.  9. 

10 


AMT. 


ANABAPTISTS. 


AMT  -AMTER.  See  PjANDINAVian 
States  iinmauk  —  Iceland):  A.  D.  1840- 
1874:  aiKi  die  siimL-(NouwAY):  A.  I).  1814-1813. 

AMURATH  I.,  Turkish  Sultan,  A.  I).  1350- 
1389....Amurath  II.,  A.  1).  1431-1451.... 
Amurath  III.,  A.  1).  1574-1595. ..  .Araurath 
IV.,  A.  1).  1623-1040. 

AMYCLiE,  The  Silence  of.— Amvclic  was 
the  chief  city  of  Laconiu  while  that  district  of 
Peloponnesus  was  occupied  by  the  Achreans, 
before  the  Doric  invusiou  and  before  the  rise  of 
Sparta.  It  maintained  its  independence  against 
the  Doric  Spartans  for  a  long  periotl,  but  suc- 
cumbed at  length  under  circumstjinccs  which 
gave  rise  to  a  proverbial  saying  among  the 
Greeks  concerning  "the  silence  of  Amvcla'." 
"  Tlie  peace  of  AmycUu,  wo  are  told,  had  been 
so  often  disturbed  by  false  alarms  of  the 
eucniy's  approach,  thnt  at  length  a  law  was 
passeil  forbidding  such  reports,  and  the  silent 
city  was  taken  by  surprise." — C.  Thirlwall, 
JftKt.  of  (Irfcce,  ch.  7. 

AMYTHAONIDiE,  The.    See  Auoos.— An- 

OOIJS. 

AN,  The  City  of.     See  Ok. 
ANABAPTISTS      OF       MONSTER. - 

"MUnster  is  a  town  in  Westphalia,  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  walled  round,  with  a  noble  cathedral  and 
niiuiy  churches;  but  there  is  one  peculiarity 
al)()ut  !Mllnster  that  distinguishes  it  from  all 
othiT  old  German  towns;  it  has  not  one  old 
church  spire  in  it.  Once  it  had  a  great  many. 
How  comes  it  that  it  now  has  none?  In  Mtlnster 
lived  a  draper,  KuipperdoUing  by  name,  who 
was  much  e.\cited  over  the  doctrines  of  Luther, 
and  he  gathered  many  people  in  his  house,  and 
spoke  to  them  bitter  words  against  Ihe  Pope,  the 
bishoi)s,  and  the  clergy.  The  bishop  at  this 
time  was  Francis  of  Waldcck,  a  man  much  in- 
clined himself  to  Lutheranism ;  indeed,  later,  ho 
proposed  to  s>ip;iress  Catholicism  in  the  diocese, 
as  he  wanted  to  seize  on  it  and  appropriate  it  as 
a  possession  to  his  family.  Moreover,  in  1544, 
lie  joineil  the  Protestant  princes  in  a  league 
against  the  Catholics;  but  ho  did  not  want  things 
to  move  too  fust,  lest  he  should  not  be  able  to  se- 
cure the  wealthy  See  as  personal  property. 
Knipperdolling  got  a  young  ])ri(;st,  named  Uott- 
maini,  to  preach  in  one  of  the  churches  against 
the  errors  of  Catliolicism,  and  he  was  u  man  of 
such  tiery  elo(iuence  that  he  stirred  up  a  mob 
which  rushed  through  the  town,  wrecking  the 
churches.  The  mob  became  daily  more  daring 
and  threatening.  They  drove  the  priests  out  of 
the  town,  and  some  of  the  wealthy  citizens  fled, 
not  knowing  what  woidd  follow.  The  bishop 
would  have  yielded  to  all  the  religious  innova- 
tions if  the  rioters  had  not  threatened  his  tem- 
poral position  and  revenue.  In  1538  the  pastor, 
Rottniaun,  began  to  preach  against  the  baptism 
of  infants.  Luther  wrote  to  him  remonstrating, 
but  in  vain.  The  bishop  was  not  in  the  town ; 
he  was  at  Slinden,  of  whicli  See  ho  was  bishop  as 
well.  Finding  that  the  town  was  in  the  hands 
of  Knipperdolling  and  Uottmann,  who  were  con- 
flseating  the  goods  of  the  churches,  and  exclud- 
ing those  who  would  not  agree  with  their  opin- 
ions, the  bishop  advanced  to  the  i)lace  at  the 
head  of  some  soldiers.  Mllnster  closed  its  gates 
against  him.  Negotiations  were  entered  "into ; 
the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  was  called  in  as  paciflca- 
tor,  and  articles  of  agreement  were  drawn  up 
and  signed.     Some  of  the  churches  were  given 


8 


to  the  Lutherans,  but  the  Cathedral  was  reserved 
for  the  Catholics,  and  the  Lutherans  were  for- 
bidden to  molest  the  latter,  and  disturb  their  re- 
ligious services.  The  news  of  the  conversion  of 
the  city  of  MUnster  to  the  gospel  spread,  and 
strangers  came  to  it  from  all  parts.  Among 
these  was  a  tailor  of  Leyden,  called  John  Uockel- 
son.  Uottmann  now  threw  up  his  Lutheranism 
and  proclaimed  himself  opposed  to  many  of  the 
doctrines  which  Luther  still  retained.  Amongst 
other  things  he  rejected  was  infant  baptism. 
This  created  a  split  among  the  reformed  in  ilUns- 
ter,  and  the  disorders  broke  out  afresh.  The 
niob  now  fell  on  the  cathedral  and  drove  the 
Catholics  from  it,  and  would  not  permit  them  to 
worship  in  it.  They  also  invade(l  the  Lutheran 
churches,  and  filled  them  with  uproar.  On  the 
evening  of  January  28,  1534,  the  Anabaptists 
stretched  chains  across  the  streets,  assembled  in 
armed  bands,  closed  the  gates  and  placed  senti- 
nels in  all  directions.  'VVlien  day  dawned  there 
appeared  suddeidy  two  men  dressed  like  Proph- 
ets, with  long  ragged  beards  and  flowing  man- 
tles, staff  in  hand,  who  ])aced  through  the  streets 
solemnly  in  the  midst  of  the  crowd,  who  bowed 
before  them  and  saluted  them  us  Enoch  and 
Elias.  These  men  were  John  Bockelson,  the 
tiiilor,  and  one  John  Mattheson,  head  of  the  Ana- 
baptists of  Holland.  Knipperdolling  at  once  as- 
sociated himself  with  them,  and  shortly  tho 
place  was  a  scene  of  the  wildest  ecstacies.  Jlcn 
and  women  ran  about  the  streets  screaming  and 
leaping,  and  crying  out  that  they  saw  visions  of 
angels  with  swords  drawn  urging  them  on  to  tho 
extermination  of  Lutherans  and  Catholics  alike. 
.  .  .  A  great  number  of  citizens  were  <lriven  out, 
on  a  bitter  day,  when  the  land  was  covered  with 
snow.  Those  who  lagged  were  beaten;  those 
who  were  sick  were  carried  to  the  market-place 
and  re-baptized  by  Uottmann.  .  .  .  This  was  too 
nmch  to  be  borne.  The  bishop  raised  a:;  army 
and  marched  against  the  city.  Tlius  began  a 
siege  which  was  to  last  sixteen  montlis,  during 
which  a  multitude  of  untrained  fanatics,  com- 
manded by  n  Dutch  tailor,  held  out  against  a 
numerous  and  well-armed  force.  Thenceforth 
tho  city  was  ruled  by  divine  revelations,  or 
rather,  by  the  crazes  of  the  diseased  brains  of 
the  prophets.  One  day  they  declared  that  all 
the  otllcers  and  nuigislrates  were  to  be  turned 
out  of  their  oflices,  and  men  nominated  by  them- 
selves were  to  take  their  i)laces;  another  day 
Mattheson  said  it  was  revealed  to  him  that 
every  book  in  the  town  except  the  Bible  was  to 
be  destroyed ;  accordingly  all  the  archives  and 
libraries  were  collected  in  tho  market-place  and 
burnt.  Then  it  was  revealed  to  him  that  all  the 
spires  were  to  bo  pulled  down;  so  the  church 
towers  were  reduced  to  stumiis,  from  which  the 
enemy  could  be  watched  and  '■•hence  cumiou 
could  play  on  them.  On(!  day  he  declared  ho 
had  been  onlered  by  Heaven  to  go  forth,  with 
promise  of  victory,  against  the  besieg  rs.  He 
dashed  forth  at  the  head  of  a  large  '■  .  but  was 
surrounded  and  he  and  his  banu  ..  dn.  The 
death  of  Mattheson  struck  dismay  into  tho 
hearts  of  tho  Anabajitists,  but  John  Bockelson 
took  advantage  of  tho  moment  to  establish  him- 
self as  head.  Ho  declared  that  it  was  revealed 
to  him  that  Mattheson  had  been  killed  because  he 
had  disobeyed  the  heavenly  cmnnutud,  which 
was  to  go  forth  with  few.  Instead  of  that  ho 
had  gone  with  many.     Bockelson  said  ho  had 


111 


ANABAPTISTS. 


ANX'IIORITES. 


bcc-n  orderrd  in  vision  to  marry  MnUlieson's 
widow  and  a.ssunio  Ills  place.  It  was  further  re- 
vealed to  liini  that  .MUnster  was  to  he  the 
lieavenly  Zion,  llie  capital  of  the  eartli,  and  he 
wa.s  lo  be  kinf?  over  it.  .  .  .  Then  he  had  an- 
other revelation  that  every  man  was  to  have  ns 
many  wives  u.s  lie  lilied,  and  lie  gave  himself 
si.xteen  wives.  This  was  too  outrageous  for 
some  to  enilure,  anil  a  plot  was  formed  against 
liiiii  oy  II  lilacksiiiith  and  about  200  of  the  more 
respe 'table  citizens,  but  it  was  frustrated  and 
led  'T  the  .siezure  of  the  conspiratoi-s  and  the 
e.\ecution  of  ii  number  of  them.  ...  At  last, 
on  midsummer  eve,  I.WO,  after  a  siege  of  sixteen 
niontlis,  the  city  was  taken.  Several  of  tlie 
citizens,  unable  longer  to  endure  the  tyranny, 
erueltv  and  abominations  committed  by  the  king, 
lielpeA  the  soldiers  of  the  prinobishop  to  climb 
the  walls,  open  the  pates,  and  surprise  tlie  city. 
A  desperate  hand  to-linnd  tight  ensued;  the 
streets  run  with  blood.  John  Hockel.son.  instead 
of  lending  his  people,  hid  himself,  but  was 
cauglit.  So  was  Knipperdolling.  When  the 
I)laee  was  in  his  lianu:  ■  ':e  iirince-bishop  entered. 
John  of  licyden  and  lvri!pi)erdolliiig  were  cruelly 
tortiiri-;,  their  tlesli  plucked  oil  with  red-hot 
pincers,  and  then  a  dagger  was  thrust  into  tlieir 
hearts.  Finally,  their  bodies  were  hung  in  iron 
cages  to  the  towerof  a  church  in  .Mlliister.  Thus 
ended  this  hideous  drama,  which  produced  an 
indescribable  ctfec't  throughout  Germany.  JlUns- 
ttr,  after  this,  in  s|)ite  of  the  desire  of  the  prinee- 
bisliop  to  estalilish  Liitherauism,  reverted  to 
C'atholi(Msm,  and  remains  Catholic  to  this  day." 
—  S.  Hariiig-Uould,  The  tStury  of  Oermaivj,  eh. 
30. 

Ai.so  t.\  the  same.  Historic  Otldilies  iiiul  Strange 
Jiiviitu,  2(1  tScrien.  —  L.  von  Itanke,  Hist.  /  t/ie 
ReforiiMtioii  ill  OeriiHtni/,  hk.  (t,  ch.  9  (c.  3). — C. 
Beard,  The  Reformation  (Ilibttert  Lefts.,  1883), 
lirl.  (\. 

ANAHUAC. — "The  word  Anahuac  signifies 
'near  tlie  water.'  It  was,  probably,  first  applied 
to  the  country  around  the  lakes  in  the  Mexican 
VaUey,  and  gradually  exteiidcil  to  the  remoter 
regions  occupied  by  the  Aztecs,  and  the  other 
semi-civilized  races.  Or,  possibly,  the  name 
may  have  been  intended,  as  Veytia  suggests 
(Hist.  Aiiti<i.,  lib.  1,  cap.  1),  to  denote  the  laud 
between  the  waters  of  tlie  Atlantic  and  Pacific." 
— W.  II.  Pre.scott,  Oinqucstnf  Mt\rico,hk.  1,  ch.  1, 
note  11.— See  Mkxico:  A.  D.  13^5-1502. 

ANAKIM,  The.     See   IIokjtes,    and  A.Mou- 

ITICS. 

ANAKTORIUM.     See  Kouiivit.^. 

ANAPA:  A.  D.  1828.— Siege  and  Capture. 
— Cession  to  Russia.  Sec  TuiiKs:  A.  D.  1820- 
182!». 

ANARCHISTS.— "The  anarchists  are  .  .  . 
a  small  but  determined  bund.  .  .  .  Although 
their  prograinme  may  be  found  almost  word  for 
word  in  I'loudhon,  they  prolV'ss  to  follow  more 
closely  Bakounine,  the  liussian  nihilist,  who  sep- 
iirale<l  himself  from  Marx  and  the  Iiiteruatioiials, 
and  formed  secret  societies  in  Spain,  Switzerland, 
France,  and  eiscwhere,  and  thus  propagated 
nihilistic  views;  for  anarchy  and  niliilism  are 
pretty  much  one  and  the  same  thing  when 
nihilism  is  uuderslowl  in  tlie  older,  stricter 
sense,  which  docs  not  include,  as  it  does 
iu  a  larger  and  more  modern  sense, 
those  who  are  simply  political  and  constitutional 
a'tormers.     Like  princu  Krupotkinu,  Bakouuiue 


came  of  an  old  and  prominent  Russian  family; 
like  him,  ho  revolted  agaiimt  the  cruelties  and 
injustices  he  saw  about  him;  like  him,  he  de- 
spaired of  peaceful  reform,  and  eonclndcd  that  no 
great  improvement  could  bo  exiiected  until  all 
our  present  political,  economic,  and  social  insti- 
tutions were  so  thoroughly  demolisheil  that  of  the 
old  structure  not  one  stone  should  be  left  on 
another.  Out  of  the  ruins  a  regenerated  world 
might  arise.  We  must  bo  purged  as  by  fire. 
liiUe  all  anarchists  and  true  nihilists,  he  "was  a 
thorough  pessimist,  as  far  as  our  present  manner 
of  life  was  concerned.  Ueaction  against  conser- 
vatism carried  him  very  far.  lie  wished  to 
abolish  private  property,  state,  and  inheritanr- , 
Equality  is  to  be  carried  so  far  that  all  must '.car 
the  same  kind  of  clothing,  no  dilferenr-.  being 
made  even  for  sex.  Religion  is  an  ..:,v,iration  of 
the  brain,  and  slioidd  be  abolished.  Fire,  dyna- 
mite, and  assassination  are  approved  of  by  at 
least  a  large  number  of  the  party.  They  arc 
brave  men,  and  fight  for  tlieir  faith  with  the 
devotion  of  martyrs.  Imprisonment  and  death 
are  counted  but  as  rewards.  .  .  .  Forty-seven 
anarchists  signed  a  declanitfon  of  principles, 
which  was  read  by  one  of  their  number  at  their 
trial  at  Lyons.  .  .  .  '  Wo  wish  liberty  [they 
declared]  and  we  believe  its  existence  incom- 
patible with  the  existence  of  any  power  what- 
soever, i'hatever  its  origin  and  form  —  whether 
it  bo  selected  or  imposoii,  monarchical  or  repub- 
lican—  whether  inspired  by  divine  riglit  or  by 
popular  right,  by  anointment  or  universal  suff- 
rage. .  .  .  The  best  governments  arc  the  worst. 
The  substitution,  in  a  word,  iu  human  relations,  of 
free  contract  perpetually  revisablc  and  dissoluble, 
is  our  ideal.' "—H.  T.  Ely,  French  untl  (/crman 
Sorialisni  in  MoUern  Times,  ch.  8. — "In  anarchism 
we  have  the  extreme  antithesis  of  socialism  and 
communism.  The  socialist  desires  so  to  extend 
the  sphere  of  the  state  that  it  shall  embrace  all 
the  more  important  concerns  of  life.  The  com- 
munist, at  least  of  the  older  school,  would  make 
the  sway  of  authority  and  tl.e  routine  wliicli  fol- 
lows therefrom  universal.  The  anarcliist,  on  the 
other  lianil,  would  banish  all  forms  of  authority 
and  have  <mly  a  system  of  the  most  perfect  lib- 
erly.  The  anarciiist  is  an  extreme  individual- 
ist. .  ,  .  Anarchism,  as  a  social  theory,  was  first 
elaborately  formulated  by  Proudhon.  In  the 
first  part  of  his  work,  'What  is  Property '^  ho 
brielly  stated  the  doctrine  and  gave  it  the  name 
'anarchy,' absence  of  amasterorsovcreign.  .  .  . 
About  Vi  years  before  Proudhon  published  his 
views,  Josiali  Warren  reached  similar  conclusions 
in  America," — II,  L,  Osgood,  Scientijic  Anarch- 
ism (I'd.  L^ci.  Quart.,  Mar.,  1889),  pp.  1-3. — See, 
also.  Nihilism. 

ANARCHISTS,  The  Chicago.  See  Cm- 
CAOo:  A.  1).  lW(i-l887. 

ANASTASIUS  I.,  Roman  Emperor  (East- 
ern.)   A.  I).  i\n-r,iS Anastasius  II.,    A.  I). 

713-710. 

ANASTASIUS  III.,  Pope,  A.  D.  911-91!) 
Anastasius  IV.,  Pope.,     A.    L),   1153-1154. 

ANATOLIA.    Sec  Asi.v  MiNOU. 

ANCALITES,  The.— A  tribe  of  ancient 
Britons  whose  home  was  near  the  Thames, 

ANCASTER,  Origin  of.     See  Caubenn^, 

ANCHORITES.— HERMITS.— "  The  fer- 
tile and  peaceable  lowlands  of  England  .  ,  . 
offered  few  spots  sutUcicntly  wild  and  lonely  for 
the   habitation  of  a   hermit;    those,    therefore, 


112 


ANCHORITES. 


ANGLES  AND  JUTES. 


who  wished  to  retire  from  the  world  into  a  more 
strirt  and  solitary  life  than  that  which  the  men- 
iistory  afforded  were  in  the  habit  of  immuring 
themselves,  as  anchorites,  or  in  old  Eu{;lish 
'Ankers,'  in  little  cells  of  stone,  built  usually 
apiinst  the  vwW  of  a  church.  There  is  notliing 
new  under  the  sun;  and  similar  anchorites  might 
have  been  seen  in  Egypt,  oOO  years  before  the 
time  of  St.  Antony,  immured  in  cells  in  the 
temples  of  Isis  or  Serapis.  It  is  only  recently 
timt  antiquaries  have  discovered  how  common 
tliis  practice  was  in  England,  and  how  frequently 
the  traces  of  these  cells  are  to  be  found  about  our 
parish  churches." — C.  Kingsloy,  T/ir,  Hermits, 
]}.  S'2'.l — The  term  anchorites  is  applied,  gener- 
ally, to  all  religious  ascetics  who  lived  in  solitary 
cells. —  .1.  Hingham,  Aniiq.  oftlie  Chnstian  Oh., 
Ilk.  7,  (•/(.  1,  Ki'ct.  4. — "  Tlie  essential  difference 
between  an  anker  or  anchorite  and  a  hermit 
appears  t'>  have  been  that,  whereas  the  former 
I)assed  his  whole  life  shut  up  in  a  cell,  the  latter, 
although  lending  indeed  a  solitary  life,  wandered 
aboutat  libert; ." — U.  K.  Sharpe,  Int.  to  "C'alen- 
(liir  of  Wills  ill  Hie  Court  of  Hunting,   Loiulon," 

ANCIENT  REGIME.— The  political  and 
social  system  in  France  that  was  destroyed  by 
the  Hevolution  of  1789  is  commonly  referred  to 
asthe  "ancien  regime."  Some  writers  translate 
this  in  the  literal  English  form — "the  ancient 
regime;"  others  render  it  more  appropriately, 
perhaps,  the  "old regime."  Its  special  applica- 
tion is  to  tlie  state  of  things  described  under 
Fii.\nce:  a.  D.  1789. 

ANCIENTS,  The  Council  of  the.  See 
Fhance:  A.I).  1795 (June — Septkmbeu). 

ANCRUM,  Battle  of.  —  A  success  obtained 
by  the  Scots  over  an  English  force  making  an 
incursion  into  the  border  districts  of  their  country 
A.  1).  1.544.— J.  H.  Burton,  Jlist.  of  Scotland,  c/i. 
3.5  (('.  3). 

ANDALUSIA :  The  name.— "The  Vandals, 
.  .  .  tliough  they  passed  altogether  out  of 
Spain,  have  left  their  name  to  this  day  in  its 
southern  part,  under  the  form  of  Andalusia,  a 
name  which,  under  the  Saracen  conquerors, 
spread  itself  over  the  whole  peninsula." — E.  A. 
Ireeman,  Historical  Gcog.  of  liurope,  ch.  4,  sect.  3. 
—See,  also:  Vand.\i,s:  A.  I).  428. — Roughly 
speaking,  Andalusia  represents  the  country 
known  to  the  ancients,  first,  as  Tartessus,  and, 
later,  as  Turdetania. 

ANDAMAN  ISLANDERS,  The.  See 
Iniiia:  The  Ahouioinal  Inhahitants. 

ANDASTES,  The.    See  Amehican  Anoni- 

OINKS:   St'SCJlTKIIAKNAS. 

ANDECAVI.— The  ancient  name  of  the  city 
of  Angers,  France,  and  of  the  tribe  which  occu- 
pied that  region.  See  Veneti  ok  Westeun 
Qai:i,. 

ANDERIDA.  —  ANDERIDA  SYLVA.— 
ANDREDSWALD.— A  great  forest  which  an- 
ciently stretched  across  Surrey,  Susse.\  and  into 
Kent  (southeastern  England)  was  called  Anderida 
Sylva  by  the  Romans  and  Andredswald  by  the 
Saxons.  It  coincided  nearly  with  the  tract  of 
Cfumtry  called  in  mwli  ni  times  the  Weald  of 
Kent,  to  which  it  gave  ii  •  name  of  the  Wald  or 
Weald.  On  the  southern  coast-border  of  the 
Anderida  Sylva  the  Romans  established  tlu;  im- 
portant fortress  and  port  of  Anderida,  which  has 
been  identifled  with  motlern  Pevensey  Here 
tlie  Komauo-Britous  made  an  obstinate    stand 


against  the  Saxons,  in  the  fifth  century,  and  An- 
derida was  only  taken  by  .Elle  after  a  long  siege. 
In  the  worils  of  the  Chronicle,  the  Saxons  "slew 
all  that  were  therein,  nor  was  there  henceforth 
one  Briton  left."— J.  R.  Green,  The  Makimj  of 
Unij.,  ch.  1. 

Ai,8o  IN  T.  Wright,  Celt,  Roman,  and  Saxon, 
ch.  .">. 

ANDERSON,  Major  Robert.— Defense  of 
Fort  Sumter.  See  Umtkd  St.vtknof  Am.,  .\.  D. 
1860(l)ECEMEii.:u):  18(U  (Maucii— Aphii,). 

ANDERSONVILLE  PRISON-PENS.  See 
Prisons  ani}  Puison-I'k.ns,  Confedkuatk. 

ANDES,  OR  ANDI,  OR  ANDECAVI, 
The.     See  Vkneti  of  Western  Gaul. 

ANDESIANS,  The.  See  Ajierican  Aboki- 
GiNES ;     Andesians. 

ANDR^,  Major  John,  The  Capture  and 
execution  of.  See  United  St.\te8  of  Am., 
A.  I).  1780  (August- September). 

ANDREW  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  A.  D. 
1046-1000....  Andrew  II.,  King  of  Hungary, 
A.  I).  1204-1235.... Andrew  IIL,  King  of 
Hungary,  A.  D.  1290-1301. 

ANDRONICUS   I.,  Emperor  in  the   East 

(Byzantine  or   Greek),   A.   U.    1183-1185 

Andronicus  II.  (Palsologus),  Greek  Emperor 
of  Constantinople,  A.  1).  1282-1328 An- 
dronicus III.  (Palaeologus),  A.  D.  1328-1341. 

ANDROS,  Governor,  New  England  and 
New  York  under.  See  New  England:  A.  D. 
1086;  .Massachusetts:  A.  D.  1671-1680;  and 
1086-1689;  New  York:  A.  D.  1688;  and  Con- 
necticut: A.  D.  1685-1687. 

ANDROS,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  407).  See 
Greece:  B.  C.  411-407. 

ANGELIQUE,  La  Mire.  See  Port  Rotal 
AND  THE  Janhenisth;  A.  1).  1002-1660. 

ANGERS,  Origin  of.  See  Veneti  of  West- 
eun Gaul. 

ANGEVIN  KINGS  AND  ANGEVIN  EM- 
PIRE.    See  England:  A.  D.    1151-1189. 

ANGHIARI,  Battle  01(1425).  See  Italy: 
A.  I).  1412-1447. 

ANGLES  AND  JUTES,  The.— The  men- 
tion of  the  Angles  by  Tacitus  is  in  the  following 
passage:  "  Next  [to  the  Larigobardi]  come  the 
Reudigni,  the  Aviones,  ilie  Anglii,  the  Varini, 
the  Eudoses,  the  Suardones,  and  Nuithones,  who 
are  fenced  in  by  rivers  or  forests.  None  of  these 
tribes  have  anj^  notinvortliy  feature,  except  their 
common  worship  of  Ertha,  or  mother-Earth,  and 
their  belief  thai  she  interposes  in  human  affairs, 
and  visits  the  nations  in  her  car.  In  an  island  of 
the  ocean  there  is  a  sacred  grove,  and  within  it 
a  eonsecrateil  chariot,  covered  over  with  a  gar- 
ment. Only  one  priest  is  permitted  to  touch  it. 
He  can  perceive  the  presence  of  the  goddess  in 
this  sacred  recess,  and  walks  by  her  side  with 
the  utmost  rev(?renco  as  she  is  drawn  along  by 
heifers.  It  is  a  season  of  rejoicing,  and  festivity 
reigns  wherever  she  deigns  to  go  and  be  receivecl. 
They  do  not  go  to  battle  or  wear  arms ;  every 
weapon  is  under  lock ;  peace  and  quiet  are  wel- 
comed only  at  these  limes,  till  the  goddess,  weary 
of  human  intercourse,  is  at  length  restored  by 
the  same  priest  to  her  temple.  Afterwards  the 
ear,  the  vestments,  and,  it  you  like  to  believe  it, 
the  divinity  lier,self,  are  purilied  in  a  seerei-  lake. 
Slaves  perform  the  rite,  who  are  instantly  swal- 
lowed up  by  its  waters.  Hence  arises  a  myster- 
ious terror  and  a  jiious  ignorance  concerning  the 
nature  of  that  which  is  seen  only  by  men  doomed 

118 


ANGLES  AND  JUTES. 


ANJOU. 


to  die.  This  limncli  indccfl  of  the  Supvl  stretches 
into  ihcrcmotiT  rc),'lon.sof  GtTmaiiy."— Tacitiis, 
(ieriiuuiii;  Iraim.  hi/  Vhurch  mid  Jinxlrihb,  ch.  40. 

—  "In  (Idsc  noiiilibDuHuMxl  witli  the  Hiixons  in 
tlip  riiiddliMif  th('  fourth  icntury  were  tlic  Angli, 
It  trihe  whose  origin  is  niore  uncertain  and  tlie 
iipplicutidn  of  wliose  name  is  still  more  n  matter 
of  (lucstion.  If  the  name  belongs,  in  the  pages 
of  tlie  several  geonniphers,  to  the  same  nation, 
it  was  situated  in  the  time  of  Tarituseast  of  the 
Elbe:  in  the  time  of  I'lolemv  it  was  found  on 
the  middle  Elbe,  betweon  the  'I'hurinKians  to  the 
south  and  the  Varini  to  the  north;  and  at  a,  later 
period  it  was  forced,  perhaps  by  the  growth  of 
the  Thuringian  power,  into  tlie  neck  of  the  ('im- 
bric  ))eniiisula.  It  may,  however,  be  reasonably 
doubted  whether  this  "hypothesis  is  sound,  and 
It  is  by  no  means  clear  whether,  if  it  be  so,  the 
Angli  were  not  eoimected  more  closely  with  the 
Thuringians  than  with  the  Haxons.  To  the  north 
of  the  Angli,  after  they  had  readied  their  Schles- 
wig  home,  were  the  Jules,  of  whose  early  his- 
tory- we  know  nothing,  e.tcept  their  claims  to  be 
regarded  as  kinsmen  of  the  Goths  and  theclo.se 
similarity  between  tlieir  descendants  and  the 
neighbour  Frisians." — \V.  Stubb.s,  Coniit.  Hist, 
of  Enf/.,  V.  1,  rli.  3. —  "  Important  as  are  the  An- 
gles, it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  they  are  only 
known  through  tlieir  relations  to  us  of  England, 
their  descendants;  indeed,  without  this  paramount 
fact,  they  would  be  liable  to  be  confused  with 
the  Frisians,  with  the  Old  Saxons,  and  with  even 
Slavonians.  Tliis  is  chiefly  because  there  is  no 
satisfactory  trace  or  fragment  of  the  Angles  of 
Germany  witliin  Germany;  whilst  the  notices  of 
the  otiier  writers  of  antinuity  tell  us  as  little  as 
the  one  we  tind  in  Tacitus.  And  this  notice  is 
not  only  liricf  but  complicated.  ...  I  still  think 
that  the  Angli  of  Tacitus  were — 1:  Tlie  Angles 
of  England;  'i:  Occiiiiaiits  of  the  nortliern  parts 
of  Hanover;  :$:  At  least  in  the  time  of  Tacitus; 
4:  And  that  to  the  exclusion  of  any  territory  in 
Holsteiii,  which  was  Frisian  to  tlie  west,  and 
Slavonic  to  the  east.  Still  the  question  is  one  of 
great  magnitude  and  numerous  complications." 

—  U.  G.  Latham,  7'Af  Germany  of  Taeitua;  Epil- 
egomena.  sect.  49. 

Also  in  J.  .>I,  Lappeuberg,  IUst  f  Enr/.  under 
the  AngUi-Siixon  Iiiiif/n,  r.  1,  pp.  ,s!)-95.  —  See, 
also,  Avio.NES,  and  Saxons. —  The  conquests  and 
settlements  of  tlie  Jutes  and  the  Angles  in  Brit- 
Bin  are  deseribed  under  Enolajjd:  A.  D.  nil- 
473.  and  r)47-0:!:». 

ANGLESEA,  Ancient.  See  Mona,  Monapia, 
and  NoKMANs;  Htii-!)tii  Centuuiks. 

ANGLO-SAXON.— A  term  which  may  be 
considered  as  a  compound  of  Angle  and  Saxon, 
the  names  of  the  two  principal  Teutonic  tribes 
which  took  )ios.session  of  Britain  and  formed  the 
Engli.sh  nation  by  their  ultimate  union.  As  thus 
regarded  and  used  to  designate  the  race,  th? 
language  and  tlie  institutions  which  resulted  from 
that  union,  it  is  only  objectionable,  perhaps,  as 
being  siiiktOuous,  because  English  is  the  ac- 
cepted name  of  the  people  of  England  and  all 
pertaining  to  them.  But  the  term  Anglo-Saxon 
has  also  been  more  iiarticularly  employed  to 
designate  the  Early  English  people  and  their 
language,  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  as 
though  they  we.-c  Anglo-Saxon  at  that  period 
and  became  English  afterwards.  Modern  his- 
torians are  protesting  strongly  against  this  use  of 
the  term.     Mr.    Freeman  (Norman  Conquest,  v. 


1,  note  A),  says:  "The  name  by  which  our 
forefatliers  really  knew  themselves  and  by  which 
thev  were  known  to  other  nations  was  Engli.sh 
and  no  other.  'Angli,'  'Engle,'  'Angel  cya,' 
'  Engli.sc'  are  the  true  names  by  which  the  Teu- 
tons of  Britain  knew  themselves  a,fid  their  lan- 
guage. ...  As  a  chronological  term,  iVnglo- 
Saxon  is  equally  objectionable  with  Saxon.  The 
'Anglo-Saxon  period,'  as  far  as  there  ever  was 
one,  is  going  on  still.  I  speak  therefore  of  our 
forefathers,  not  as  'Saxon.s,'or  even  ns  'Anglo 
Saxons,'  but  as  they  spoke  of  themselves, 
as  Englislimen — 'Angli,'  'Engle,' — 'Angel 
cyn.'" — Sec,  also,  Saxons,  and  Angles  and 
Jutes. 

ANGLON,  Battle  of.— Fought  in  Armenia, 
A.  I).  WH,  betw.  '1  tlie  Uop-  .wsund  the  Persians, 
with  disaster  to  tiie  lurmer. — G.  Ilawliusou, 
Seventh  Great  Oriental  Moudreh)/,  eh.  20. 

ANGORA,  Battle  of  (1402).  See  Ti.mohb- 
also,  Tl'Iiks:  A.  D.  13H!(-I403. 

ANGOSTURA,  OR  BUENA  VISTA, 
Battle  of.     See  Mexico:  A.  I).  1840-1847. 

ANGRIVARII,  The.— The  Angrivarii  were 
one  of  the  tribes  of  ancient  Germany.  Their 
settlements  "were  to  the  west  of  the  Weser 
(Visurgis)  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Minden  and 
Herford,  and  tlius  coincide  to  some  extent  with 
Westphalia.  Tlieir  territory  was  the  scene  of 
Varus'  defeat.  It  has  been  thought  that  the 
name  of  this  tribe  is  preserved  in  that  of  the  town 
Engern." — A.  J.  Church  and  W.  J.  Brodribb, 
Tdfitiin'a  Germany,  notes. — See,  also,  Bkucteki. 

ANL— Storming  of  the  Turks  (1064).  See 
TuuKs:  A.  D.  1003-1073. 

ANILLEROS,  The.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1814-1837. 

ANJOU  :  Creation  of  the  County.— Origin 
of  the  Plantagenets.  —  "It  was  the  policy  of 
this  unfairly  depreciated  sovereign  [Charles  the 
Bald,  grandson  of  Charlemagne,  who  received 
in  the  dismemberment  of  the  Carlovingian  Empire 
the  Neustrian  part,  out  of  which  was  developed  the 
modern  kingdom  of  France,  and  who  reigned  from 
840  to  877],  to  recruit  the  failing  ranks  ot  the  false 
and  degenerate  Frankish  aristocracy,  by  calling 
up  to  his  jieerage  the  wise,  the  able,  the  honest 
and  the  bold  of  ignoble  birth.  .  .  .  lie  sought 
to  surround  himself  with  new  men,  the  men 
without  ancestry;  and  the  earliest  historian  of 
the  Houiie  of  Anjou  both  describes  this  system 
i.'id  affords  the  most  splendid  example  of  the 
'lueory  adopted  by  the  king.  Pre-eminent 
amongst  these  parvenus  was  Torquatus  or  Tor- 
tulfus,  an  Armorican  peasant,  a  very  rustic,  a 
backwoodsman,  who  lived  by  hunting  and  such 
like  occupations,  almost  in  solitude,  cultivating 
his  'quillets,'  his  'cueillettes,'  of  land,  and  driv- 
ing his  own  oxen,  harnessed  to  his  plough.  Tor- 
quatus entered  or  was  invited  into  the  service  of 
Charles-le-Chauve,  and  rose  high  in  his  sover- 
eign's contidimce :  a  jirudent,  a  bold,  and  a  good 
man.  Charles  appointed  him  Forester  of  the 
forest  called  'the  Blackbird's  Nest,'  the  'nid  du 
merle,'  a  pleasant  name,  not  the  less  pleasant  for 
its  familiarity.  This  happened  during  the  con- 
flicts with  the  Northmen.  Torquatus  served 
Charles  strenuously  in  the  wars,  and  obtained 
great  authority.  'Tertullus,  son  of  Torquatus, 
inherited  his  father's  energies,  quick  and  acute, 
patieift.  of  fatigue,  ambitious  and  aspiring;  he 
became  the  liegeman  of  Charles;  and  his  mar- 
riage with  Petronilla  the  King's  cousin.  Count 


114 


ANJOU. 


ANJOU. 


Hugh  the  Abbot's  daughter,  introduced  him 
into  the  very  circle  of  tlie  royal  fainily.  Chil- 
tciiii  Limdon  and  other  benefices  in  the  Gastinois 
were  acquired  by  him,  possibly  as  the  laly's 
dowry.  Seneschal  also  was  Tertullus  of  the 
same  ample  Gustinois  territory.  Ingelgcr,  son 
of  Tertullus  and  Petronilla,  appears  as  the  first 
hereditary  Count  of  Anjou  Outre-Maine, — Mar- 
quis, Consul  or  Count  of  Anjou, —  for  all  these 
titles  are  assigned  to  him.  ^et  the  ploughman 
Tonpiatus  must  be  reckoned  as  the  primary 
Plaiitiigenet:  the  rustic  Tonpiatus  founded  that 
brilliant  family." — Sir  P.  Palgrave,  Ilist.  uf  Nor- 
mdinlyaml  Enyldnd,  bk.  1.  ch.  3. 

Ai.so  IN  K.  Norgate,  England  undtr  the  An- 
geriii  Kin<jK,  c.  1,  ch.  2. 

A.  D.  987-1129.— The  greatest  of  the  old 
Counts.— "  Pule  Nerra,  Pidc  the  Black  [A.  D. 
987-1040]  is  the  greatest  of  the  Angevins,  tlio 
first  in  wliom  we  can  trace  that  marked  type  of 
character  which  their  house  was  to  preserve 
with  a  fatal  constancy   through  two  hundred 

{rears.  lie  was  without  natural  affection.  In 
lis  youth  he  burned  a  wife  at  the  stake,  and 
legend  told  how  he  led  her  to  her  doom  decked 
out  iu  his  gayest  attire.  In  his  old  age  Iks 
waged  his  l)itterest  war  ^igainst  his  son,  and 
exacted  from  him  when  vanquished  a  humilia- 
tion which  men  reserved  for  the  deadliest  of 
their  foes.  '  You  are  conquered,  you  are  con- 
quered!' shouted  the  old  man  in  lierce  exulta- 
tion, as  Qeoffry,  bridled  and  saddled  like  a  beast 
of  l)urden,  crawled  for  pardon  to  his  father's 
feet.  .  .  .  But  neither  the  wrath  of  Heaven  nor 
the  curses  of  men  broke  witli  a  single  mishap 
the  fifty  years  of  his  success.  At  his  accession 
Anjou  was  the  least  important  of  the  greater 
provinces  of  Prance.  At  his  death  it  stood,  if 
not  iu  extent,  at  least  in  real  power,  first  among 
them  all.  .  .  .  His  overthrow  of  Brittimy  on  the 
field  of  Concjuereux  was  followed  by  the  gradual 
absorption  of  Southern  Touraine.  .  .  .  His  great 
victory  at  Pontlevoi  crushed  the  rival  house  of 
BIoLs;  the  seizure  of  Saumur  completed  his  con- 
quests in  the  South,  while  Northern  Touraine 
was  won  bit  by  bit  till  only  Tours  resisted  the 
Angevin.  The  treacherous  seizure  of  its  Count, 
Herbert  Wake-dog,  left  Maine  at  his  mercy  ere 
the  old  man  beqiunithed  his  unfinished  work  to 
his  sou.  As  a  warrior,  Geoffry  Martel  was 
hardly  inferior  to  his  father.  A  decisive  over- 
throw wrested  Tours  from  the  Count  of  Blois;  a 
second  left  Poitou  at  his  mercy ;  and  the  seizure 
of  I,e  JIans  brought  him  to  the  Norni;m  border. 
Here  .  .  .  his  advance  was  cheeknl  by  the 
genius  of  William  the  Concpieror,  and  with  liis 
death  the  greatness  of  Anjou  seemed  for  the 
tiin(!  to  have  come  to  an  end.  Stripped  of  JIaine 
by  the  Normans,  and  weakened  by  internal  dis- 
sensions, the  weak  and  profligate  administration 
of  Pule  Rechin  left  Anjou  powerless  against  its 
riv.ils  along  the  Seine.  It  woke  to  fresh  energy 
with  the  accession  of  his  son.  Pule  of  Jerusalem. 
.  .  .  Pule  was  the  one  enemy  whom  Henry  the 
First  really  feared.  It  was  to  disarm  his  restless 
hostility  timt  the  King  yielded  to  his  son,  Geof- 
fry llie  Handsome,  the  hand  of  his  daughter 
Miitilda."— .1.  U.  Green,  A  Short  History  of  tlie 
Eiinlisk  Pmph\  ch.  2,  gcct.  7. 

At.so  IN  K.  Norgate,  England  under  the  Ange- 
rin  Kings,  r.  1,  e/i.  2-4. 

A.  D.  1154. —  The  Counts  become  Kings  of 
England.    See  Enol.a.nd  :  A.  1).  1104-1189. 


A.   D.   1204.  — Wrested  from    the  English 
King  John.     See  Pk.v.nck:  A.  D.  llHO-1224! 

A.  D.  1206-1442.  —  English  attempts  to  re-- 
cover  the  county.  —  The  Third  and  Fourth 
Housesof  Anjou.— Creation  of  the  Dukedom. 
—  King  .lohn,  of  England,  did  not  voluntarily 
submit  to  the  sentence  of  the  peers  of  Prance 
which  pronounced  his  forfeiture  of  the  fiefs  of 
Anjou  and  Maine,  "since  he  invaded  and  had 
po.ssession  of  Angers  again  in  1200,  when,  Goth- 
like,  he  demolished  its  ancient  walls.  He  lost  it  in 
the  following  year,  an'  .  .  .  made  no  further 
attempt  upon  it  until  l£i3.  In  that  year,  having 
collected  a  powerful  army,  he  landed  at  Hochelle, 
and  actually  occupied  Angers,  without  striking 
a  blow.  But  .  .  .  the  year  1214  beheUl  him 
once  more  in  retreat  from  Anjou,  never  to  reap- 
pear there,  since  lie  died  on  the  19th  of  October, 
1'316.  In  the  person  of  King  John  ended  what  is 
called  the  '  Second  H(nise  of  Anjou. '  In  1204, 
after  the  confiscations  of  John's  Prench  pos.se8- 
sions,  Philip  Augustus  estublislie<l  hereditary 
senesclials  in  that  part  of  Prance,  the  first  of 
whom  was  the  tutor  of  the  nnfortunate  Young 
Arthur  [of  Brittany],  named  William  des  Iloches, 
who  was  in  fact  Count  in  all  except  the  name, 
over  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Tourraine,  owing  alle- 
giance only  to  the  crown  of  Prance.  The  Sene- 
schal, William  des  Uoches,  died  in  1222.  His 
son-in-law,  Amaury  de  Craon,  succeeded  him," 
but  was  soon  afterwards  taken  prisoner  during  a 
war  in  Brittanv  and  incarcerated.  Ilcnry  111. 
of  Englaml  still  claimed  the  title  of  Count  of 
Anjou,  and  in  1230  he  "disembarked  a  consid- 
erable army  at  St.  Malo,  in  tlie  view  of  re-con- 
quering Anjou,  and  the  other  forfeited  possessions 
of  his  crown.  Louis  IX.,  then  only  fifteen  years 
old  .  .  .  advanced  to  the  attack  of  the  allies;  but 
in  the  following  year  a  peace  was  concluded,  the 
jirovincD  of  Guienne  having  been  coded  to  the 
Englisli  crown.  In  1241,  Louis  gave  the  counties 
of  Poitou  and  Auvergne  to  his  brother  Alphonso ; 
and,  in  the  year  1246,  he  invested  his  brother 
Charles,  Count  of  Provence,  with  the  counties  of 
Anjou  and  Maine,  thereby  annulling  the  nmk 
and  title  of  Seneschal,  and  instituting  the  Thinl 
House  of  Anjou.  Charles  I.,  the  founder  of  the 
proud  fortunes  of  this  Third  House,  was  ambi- 
tious iu  character,  and  events  long  favoured  his 
ambition.  Count  of  Provence,  through  the  in- 
heritance of  his  consort,  had  not  long  been 
invested  with  Anjou  and  JIaine,  ere  he  was  in- 
vited to  tlie  conquest  of  Sicily  [see  It.vi.y 
(SouTiiEitN):  A.  D.  1250-1268].''  The  Third 
House  of  Anjou  ended  in  the  person  of  John, 
wlio  became  King  of  Prance  in  Vd~)0.  In  1356 
lie  invested  his  son  Louis  with  Anjou  and  Maine, 
and  in  1360  the  latter  was  created  the  first  Duke 
of  Anjou.  The  Pourtli  House  of  Anjou,  which 
began  with  this  first  Duke,  came  to  an  end  two 
generations  later  with  Uene,  or  Hegnier,  —  the 
"good  King  Uene"  of  history  and  story,  wliose 
kingdom  was  for  the  most  part  a  name,  and  who 
is  best  known  to  English  rcadeii,  perhaps,  as 
the  father  of  Margaret  of  Anjou,  tiiu  stout- 
hearted queen  of  Henry  VI.  On  the  death  of 
his  father,  Louis,  the  second  duke,  Kene  becamt 
by  his  father's  will  Count  of  Guise,  his  elder 
brother,  Louis,  inheriting  the  dukedom.  In 
1434  flic  brother  died  without  issue  and  Rene 
succeeded  him  in  Anjou,  Maine  and  Provence. 
He  had  already  become  Duke  of  Bar,  as  the 
adopted   heir  of  his  great-uncle,   the  cardinal- 


115 


ANJOU. 


ANTILLES. 


dukp,  mill  Duke  of  Lomiinc  (ICid),  l)y  ilcsignn- 
tion  of  llii-  lull'  Duki-.  wUnst-  dini^rlilcr  Ik;  Imd 
nmrrird.  In  1  t:t.")  I"'  received  fmiii  tjiicpii 
Joaiinii  i>f  Naples  the  cli)iil>tfid  lei.'iiiy  of  tliat 
di.slriieted  Uiniriloni,  wliicli  she  liiiil  previously 
Ijequiallied  lirsf,  to  Alphonso  of  Arai^oii,  and 
nflerwards  — revokiriirllial  testainc'iit  —  to  Uene's 
brother,  Louis  of  Aiijou.  Kin;;  Hone  enjoyed 
the  titli'  liurinf;  liislife-linii',  and  the  aetual  king- 
dom for  a  brief  pcrliHl ;  liiil  in  1  t-t'J  lie  was  ex- 
pelled from  Naples  1>V  ids  eoniiietitor  Alphonso 
(see  Italy:  A.  P.  141^-1447). —M.  A.  Ilook- 
lium,    Ufe  mill    Tiiikh  <>/   Sfnryiiret    of  Anjoi/, 

introd.  and  eh.  1-2. 

^^ 

ANJOU,  The  Englit.i  House  of.  See  Eno- 
l,AM):   A.  I).  II.M-IIN'.I. 

ANJOU,  The  Neapolitan  House  of:  A.  D. 
1266.— Conquest  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.     See  Italy:  A.  1>.  l','."i(i-r,'(lH. 

A.  D.  1282.  Loss  of  Sicily. — Retention  of 
Naples.     See  Italy:  A.  D.  l',>H-,>-i;!()(), 

A.  D.  1310-1382. — Possession  of  the  Hun- 
garian throne.    See  llrMiAUY:  .V,  D.  i:!01-144a. 

A.  D.  1370-1384.— Acquisition  and  loss  of 
the  crown  of  Poland.  See  I'm, and:  .V.  I). 
i:t:i;i-ir)7->. 

A.  D.  1381-1384. — Claims  of  Louis  of  Anjou. 
—His  expedition  to  Italy  and  his  death.  See 
Italy:  A.  I).  i34:i-i;W'J. 

A.  D.  1386-1399.— Renewed  contest  for 
Naples.— Defeat  of  Louis  II.  by  Ladislas. 
See  Italy:  A,  D.  i;iHO-1414. 

A.  D.  1423-1442. — Renewed  contest  for  the 
crown  of  Naples.— Defeat  by  Alfonso  of  Ara- 
gon  and  Sicily.     See  Ital/:  A.  1).  1412-1447. 

ANKENDORFF,  Battle  of.     See  Geu.«any: 

A.   I).    1S07  (FEUUtAUY- .IlNK). 

ANKERS.     See  ANriioitiTKS. 

ANNA,  Czarina  of  Russia,  A.  D.  1780- 
1740. 

ANNALES  MAXIM  I,  The.     See  Fasti. 

ANNAM:  A.  D.  1882-1885.— War  with 
France. — French  protectorate  accepted.  See 
France:  A.  I).  Ists-IHSU. 

ANNAPOLIS  ROYAL,  NOVA  SCOTIA: 
Change  of  name  from  Port  Royal  (1710).  See 
NkwEnoland:  A.  D.  r't2-1710. 

ANNATES,  OR  FIRST-FRUITS.— "  A 
pmetico  had  existed  for  some  hundreds  of  years, 
in  all  the  chiir.-:hes  of  Europe,  that  bishops  and 
archbishops,  on  presentation  to  their  sees,  should 
transmit  to  the  poji'  on  receiving  their  bulls  of 
investment,  one  .\  r's  income  from  their  new- 
preferments.  It  w. IS  called  the  iiayment  of  An- 
nates, or  tirst-fruits,  and  had  originated  in  the 
time  of  the  crusades,  as  a  means  of  providing  a 
fund  for  the  holy  wars.  Once  established  it  had 
settled  into  custom,  and  was  one  of  the  cliic^f 
resources  of  the  iiapal  revenue." — .1.  A.  Froudc. 
Jlistory  of  Kii{/tiuitl,  eh.  4. — "  Tlie  claim  [by  the 
pope]  to  the  tirst-fruits  of  bishoprics  and  other 
promotions  was  apparently  first  made  in  England 
by  Alexander  IV.  in  12."i(S,  for  live  years;  it  was 
renewed  by  Clement  V.  in  1306,  to  "last  for  two 
years;  and  it  was  in  a  measure  successful.  By 
.lolin  XXII.  it  was  claimed  throughout  Christen- 
dom for  three  years,  and  met  with  universal 
resistiuice.  .  .  .  Stoutly  contested  as  it  was  in 
the  Council  of  Constance,  and  frequently  made 
the  subject  of  debate  in  parliament  and  council 
the  dumuud  must  have  buuu  rugulurly  complied 


with."— W.  Slubbs,  Ciiiint.  Hint,  of  Kiig.,eh.  19, 
met.  7IH  — See,  also,  t)l  KKN    .V.NNK's  Boi'.NTY. 

ANNE,  Queen  of  England,  A,  I).  1T02-1714. 

ANNE  OF  AUSTRIA,  Queen-regent  of 
France.  .Sei'FiiA.NtK:  A.  I).  11142-1048,  to  1651- 
lOriii. 

ANNE  BOLEYN,  Marriage,  trial  and 
execution  of.  SecMvSdLASU:  A.  I).  1527-l.5;i4, 
and  l.");itM."(4;i. 

ANSAR,  The.  See  Maho.metan  Conquest: 
A.  1).  ()(l!»-0:!2. 

ANSIBARII,The.    SeeFuASUs:  Ouioix.  &c. 

ANSPACH,  Creation  of  the  Margravate. 
See  Okkmanv:  i;tTir  ('KSTiiiv. ..  .Separation 
from  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg.  See 
IJuANDK.NniiKi:  A.  I).  1417-1040. 

ANTALCIDAS,  Peace  of  (B.  C.  387).  See 
Oiikkck:  H.  C.  :i)H)-«87, 

ANTES,  The.     See  Slavonic  Peoples. 

ANTESIGNANI,  The.—"  In  each  cohort  [of 
the  Honiiin  legion,  in  Ciesur's  time]  a,  certain 
niimlHT  of  the  best  men,  probably  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  detacbment,  was  as.signed  as 
11  guard  to  the  standard,  from  whence  thi^y 
derived  tlieir  name  of  Antesignani." — ('.  Mcn- 
vale.  Hint,  iifthe  Jioiiiiinn,  ch.  1"). 

ANTHE'MIUS,  Roman  Emperor  (Western), 

A.  I).  407-472. 

ANTHESTERIA,  The.  Sec  Dionysia  at 
Athens. 

ANTI-CORN-LAW  LEAGUE.  See  Tar- 
IKK  l,i:<iisLATioN  (England):  A.  I).  18.S6-1839, 
and  1845-1846. 

ANTI-FEDERALISTS.  See  United 
States  OF  Am.  :  A.  1).  1789-17«3. 

ANTI-MASONIC  PARTY,  American.  See 
New  Vouk:  A.  I).  182fl-18;!2. 

ANTI-MASONIC  PARTY,  Mexican.  See 
Mexico:   A.  D.  1832-1828. 

ANTI-RENTERS.— ANTI-RENT  WAR. 
See  LiviNosTON  Manor. 

ANTI-SLAVERY  MOVEMENTS.  See 
Slavery,  Neoro. 

ANTIETAM,  OR  SHARPSBURG,  Battle 
of.  See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  I).  1803 
(Septemiier:  Maryland). 

ANTIGONE  A.     See  JUntinea:   B.  C.  222. 

ANTIGONID  KINGS,  The.     See  Greece: 

B.  C.  307-197, 

ANTIGONUS,  and  the  wars  of  the  Dia- 
dochi.  See  Macedonia:  B.  C.  333-316;  315- 
310;  310-301. 

ANTIGONUS  GONATUS,  The  wars  of. 
See  Macedonia:  B.  C.  377-344. 

ANTILLES.— ANVILIA.—"  Familiar  as  i.s 
the  name  of  the  Antilles,  few  are  aware  of  the 
antiquity  of  the  word ;  while  its  precise  signifi- 
cance sets  etymology  at  defiance.  Common  con- 
sent identified  the  Antilia  of  legend  with  the 
Isle  of  the  Seven  Cities.  In  the  year  734,  says 
the  story,  the  Arabs  having  conquered  most  of 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  a  number  of  Christian 
emignints,  under  the.  direction  of  seven  holy 
bishops,  among  thein  the  archbishop  of  Oporto, 
.sailed  westward  with  all  that  they  had,  and 
reached  an  island  where  they  founded  seven 
towns.  Arab  geographers  speak  of  an  Atlantic 
island  called  in  Arabic  El-tennyn,  or  Al-tin  (Isle 
of  Serpents),  a  name  which  may  possibly  have 
become  by  corruption  Antilia.  ,  .  .  The  seven 
bishojis  were  believed  in  the  16th  century  to  be 
still  represented  by  their  successors,  and  to  pre- 
■         ""  "      Most 


side  over  a  numerous  and  wealthy  people.   Most 


116 


ANTH.LKS. 


ANTUUSTIONES. 


pooernplicrs  of  llio  15lli  rciitiiry  believed  in  tlio 
cxisleiue  of  Antiliii.  Il  was  ifpiosciitcd  as  IviTiy; 
wi'st  of  till'  Azores.  ...  As  soon  as  it  bci  nine 
linowii  in  Europe  llial  ('(iluiiil)nH  liaii  (iiscoveiiil 
II  large  island,  Kspafiola  was  at  onee  identilied 
witli  Antilia,  .  .  .  and  the  name  .  .  .  lias  ever 
sinee  been  iipi>lied  generally  lo  llie  AVest  Indian 
islands." — K.  J.  J'a.vne,  J/inl.  of  the  Aiw  \\'i/ilil 
odUil  Ainiriai,  r.    I,  j>.   08.— See,    also,    West 

ANTINOMIAN  CONTROVERSY  IN 
PURITAN  MASSACHUSETTS.  Sec  Mas- 
^.\(iiisi;ith:  A.  1).  UWd-ltlJiH. 

ANTIOCH  :  Founding  of  the  City.  See 
Hi;i.i;iiil).K;  and  iMAei;iK)M.\,  itc. :  15.  C.  310- 
301. 

A.  D.  36-400. — The  Christian  Church.  See 
CiiitisriANrrv,  Eaulv. 

A.  D.  115. — Great  Earthquake. — "Early  in 
tlie  year  115,  aceording  to  the  mostexaet  eliron- 
ology,  .  .  .  the  splendid  capital  of  Syria  was 
visileil  by  an  eartlupiake,  one  of  the  'iiost  disas- 
trous apparently  of  all  tbo  similar  inllictioiis 
from  wliieh  that  luekless  city  lia.s  periodically 
sulfered.  .  .  .  The  calamity  was  enhanced  by 
the  presence  of  unusual  crowds  from  all  the  cities 
of  tlie  east,  assend)led  to  pay  lionmge  to  the 
Emperor  [Trajan],  or  to  take  part  iu  his  expe- 
dition [of  conquest  in  the  cast].  Among 
the  victims  were  many  Iloinans  of  distinction. 
.  .  .  Trajan,  himself,  only  escaped  by  creeping 
through  a  window." — C.  Merivule,  Jlint.  of  the 
Romans,  ch.  C.5. 

A.  D.  260. — Surprise,  massacre  and '  pillage 
by  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  See  I'khsia:  A.  1). 
220-0^7. 

A.  D.  526. — Destruction  by  Earthquake. — 
During  the  reign  of  .)u.stinian  (A.  1).  518-505)  the 
cities  of  the  liomaii  Empire  "  were  overwhelmed 
by  earthquakes  more  frequent  than  at  any  other 
period  of  history.  Antiocb,  the  metro])olis  of 
Asia,  was  entirely  destroyed,  on  the  20tb  of 
May,  536,  at  the  very  tiiiie  when  the  inhabitants 
of  the  adjacent  country  were  assembled  to  cele- 
brate the  festival  of  the  Ascension;  and  it  is 
allirmed  that  250,000  persons  were  crushed  bv 
the  fall  of  Its  sumiJtuous  edifices." — J.  C.  L.  (fc 
Sismondi,  Fall  of  the,  lioinaii  Empire,  eh.  10. 

Also  in  :  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Human  Empire,  eJi.  43. 

A.  D.  540. — Stormed,  pillaged  and  burned 
by  Chosroes,  the  Persian  King.  See  Peusia  : 
A.  1).  220-027. 

A.  D.  638. — Surrender  to  the  Arabs.  See 
Mahometan  Conquest:  A.  D.  632-030. 

A.  D.  969. — Recapture  by  the  Byzantines.— 
After  linving  renuiined  328  years  in  the  jiossession 
of  the  Saracens,  Autioeli  was  retaken  in  the  winter 
of  A.  D.  969  by  the  Byzantine  Emperor,  Nieepho- 
rus  Pliokas,  and  became  again  a  Qliristian 
city.  Three  years  later  the  Moslems  made  a 
great  effort  to  recover  the  city,  but  were  defeated, 
The  Byzantine  arms  were  at  this  time  highly 
successful  in  the  never  ending  Saracen  war,  and 
John  Zimiskes,  successor  of  Nicephorus  Phokas, 
marched  triumphantly  to  the  Tigris  and  threat- 
ened even  Bagdad.  But  most  of  the  cimquests 
thus  made  in  Syria  and  Jlesopotamia  were  not 
lasting.— G.  Vm\a\,  IHkI.  of  the  liyzaiitim:  Em- 
pire, A.  1).  710-1007,  M-.  2,  eh.  2.— See  Byzan- 
tine E.mi-iue.  A.  D.  063-1025. 

A.  D.  1097-1098. — Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Crusaders.     Sec  Ckuijauiss:  A.  D.  1000-1009. 


A.  D.  1099-1 144.— Principality.  Sec  Jeru- 
salem: A.  r,>.  looo-iiii. 

A.  D.  1268.-  Extinction  of  the  Latin  Prin- 
cipality.— Total  destruction  of  the  city. — An- 
tiocb fell,  before  the  arms  of  Bibars,  the  Sultan 
of  Egpyt  and  Syria,  and  tlie  Latin  principalily 
was  bloodily  extingviislied,  in  1208.  "The  lirsl 
seat  of  the  CInislian  name  was  dispeopled  by 
the  slaughter  of  Mvenleiii,  and  the  captivity 
of  one  hundred,  thousand  of  her  inliabilaiits. " 
This  fate  befell  Antioch  only  twenty  three  years 
before  the  last  vestige  of  the  eoiKiuests  of  the 
crusaders  was  obliterated  at  Acre  —  E.  Gibbon, 
J)ifliiie  and  Fall  if  the  Human  Empire,  ch.  50. — 
"The  sultan  lialteil  for  sevi  rai  weeks  in  the 
l)lain,  and  permitted  his  soldi,'rs  t(j  hold  a  large 
market,  or  fair,  for  the  sale  of  their  iiooly.  This 
market  was  attended  by  Jews  and  jiedlars  from 
all  parts  of  the  East.  .  .  ,  'It  was,' savstlie  Gadi 
Mohieddin,  "a  fearful  and  lie:irt-ren(iing  sight. 
Even  the  hard  stones  were  soltened  witli  grief.' 
lie  tells  us  that  the  captives  were  so  numerous 
that  a  fine  heartv  boy  might  be  |)ur(hased  for 
twelve  ])ieees  of  silver,  and  a  little  girl  for  live. 
When  the  work  of  i)illage  ha  1  been  completed, 
when  all  the  ornaments  and  decorations  bad  been 
carried  away  from  the  churdies,  and  the  lend 
torn  from  the  roofs,  Antioch  was  fired  Jn  dif- 
ferent places,  amid  the  loud  thrilling  shouts  of 
'Allah  Acbar,'  'God  is  Victorious.'  The  itreat 
diurehes  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  burnt  witli 
terrific  fury  for  many  days,  and  tlu^  vast  end 
venerable  citv  was  left  witbo'it  u  habitation  and 
without  an  inhabitant." — 0.  G.  Addison,  l\'ie 
Knif/hts  Templars,  eh.  0. 

ANTIOCHUS  SOTER  AND  ANTIO- 
CHUS  THE  GREAT.  See  Seleucii).*;,  The: 
B.  C,  281-224,  and  224-187. 

ANTIPATER,  and  the  wars  of  the  Dia- 
dochi.     See  Macedonia:  B.  C.  323-316. 

ANTIUM. — "  Antium,  once  a  flourishing  city 
of  the  Volsci,  and  afterwards  of  the  liomans, 
their  conquerors,  is  at  iiresent  reduced  to  a  small 
number  of  inhabitants.  Originally  it  was  with- 
out u  iiort ;  the  harbour  of  the  Antiates  having 
been  the  ncighbouriug  indentation  in  the  coast  of 
Ceno,  now  Nettuno,  distant  more  than  a  nule  to 
the  eastward.  .  .  .  The  piracies  of  the  ancient 
Antiates  all  proceeded  from  Geno,  or  Cerio,  where 
they  bad  22  long  ships.  These  Nuraicius  took; 
.  .  .  some  were  taken  to  Bome  and  their  rostra 
suspended  in  triumph  in  tlie  Forum.  ...  It 
[Antium]  was  reckoned  2C0  stadia,  or  about  82 
miles,  from  Ostia." — Sir  W.  Qell,  Topog.  of  Rome, 
r.  1. 

ANTIUM,  Naval  Battle  of  (1378).  See 
Venice:  A.  1).  1378-1370. 

ANTIVESTiEUM.  See  li;;iTAiN,  Tuujes 
OP  Celtic. 

ANTOINE  DE  BOURBON,  King  of  Na- 
varre, A.  ]).  15.'")5-1557. 

ANTONINES,  The.  See  Uo.me:  A.  D.  138- 
180. 

ANTONINUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  Roman 
Emperor,  A.  I).  101-18(). 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  Roman  Emperor, 
A.  I).  138-101. 

ANTONY,  Mark,  and  the  Second  Triumvi- 
rate.    See  Home:  B.  C.  44  to  31. 

ANTRUSTIONES.— In  the  Salic  law,  of 
the  Franks,  there  is  no  trace  of  any  recognized 
order  of  uobility,     "Wc  meet,  however,  with 


117 


ANTUrSTIONEH. 


APOLLONIA  IN  ILLYHIA. 


froiii  ollici'H   poliliciil   anil   jiiilii'iiil,    or   from   a   J 

pimitioii  alH>ut  till' ners) f  llic  kiiiK.     Aiiiomk   j 

llii'w    tlic  AiilriiNlloni's,   who  wcri'  iti    conslaiit,   i 
attriiilaiHC  ii|miii  tlic  kiti);,  played  a  ciinsplciuiMs   i 
part.  .  .  .     AiitnisliiPiics    :in(f   ConvivH-     IJiyis 
[Udtnans   who  liclil  thr  Haiiic  |Mwitli)nl  tire   Uw. 
pri'ilrri'ssiintof  the  VuHxi  Doniliiici  of  later  times,    [ 
anil  like  these  were  lioiitiil  to  the  kiiiK  '>>'  at!  is-   | 
iHiial  iiath  of  personal  and  per|Mtual    servi  .• 
I'liev   fornied    part,   as   it   \v<'re,    of   the   kiiiv  H 
family,  and  were  expected  to  resi<le  in  the  jialaci, 
where  Ihey   superintended   the  various  depart 
meiits  of  the  rovid  household."— VV.  C.  I'crry, 
7'A,'  FniiikK.  r/i.  '|(». 

ANTWERP:  The  name  of  the  City.— Its 
commercial  greatness  in  the  i6th  centuiy. — 
"The  city  was  so  ancient  that  its  jrenealoj^isi  :, 
with  ridiculous  j;"'^'''.'*'.  ascended  to  a  perii«l 
two  centuries  before  the  Trojan  war,  and  dis- 
covered a  giant,  rejoicing  in  the  classii^  name  of 
AiitlKonus,  estalilisiiiMl  on  the  Seheld.  Tliis 
patriarch  exacted  one  half  the  merchandise  of  all 
navigat/irs  who  passed  his  castle,  and  was  ac- 
customed to  amputate  and  cast  into  the  river  tlic 
rijfht  hands  of  i'iohi  who  infringed  this  simple 
tariff.  Tliiis  '11  l-werpen,'  hand-throwing,  i)e- 
cninc  Antwerp,  and  hence,  two  hands,  in  the 
PKcufchunn  of  the  city,  were  ever  held  up  in 
heraldic  attestation  of  the  truth.  The  giant  was, 
in  his  turn,  thrown  into  the  Hcheld  by  a  hero, 
named  Hralio,  from  whose  exjiloils  Urahant  de- 
rived its  name.  .  .  .  Ilut  for  these  antiipiarian 
researches  a  simjiler  derivation  of  the  name 
would  seem  'an  t'  werf,"  'on  the  wharf.'  It  had 
now  [iu  the  lirst  half  of  the  18th  century  |  be- 
come the  principal  entrepot  and  exchange  of 
Kuropc  .  .  .  the  commercial  capital  of  the  world. 
.  .  .  Venice,  Niiremburg,  Augsburg,  Bruges, 
wore  sinking,  but  Antwerp,  with  its  deep  anil 
convenient  river,  stretched  its  arm  to  the  ocean 
and  caught  the  golden  prize,  n.s  it  fell  from  its 
sister  cities'  grasp.  .  .  .  No  city,  except  Paris, 
surpas.sed  it  in  population,  nono  approached  It 
in  conuncrcial  s|)lendor."  —  J.  L.  Motley,  T/ie 
Rim  of  the  Dutch  IltiniMic.  Hint,  /iiti-nil./nirt.  Vi. 

A.  D.  1313.— Made  the  Staple  for  English 
trade.    See  fSiwfi.K. 

A.  D.  1566. — Riot  of  the  Image-breakers  in 
the  Churches.  .See  Nktukiu.a.nds:  A.  1).  1500- 
1508. 

A.  D.  1576.— The  Spanish  Fury.  See  Nktii- 
KiiLANDs:  A.  I).   l.')7.'i-1.577. 

A.  D.  1577.— Deli\erance  of  the  city  from 
its  Spanish  garrison.— Demolition  of  the  Cita- 
del.    See  Nktiikui.ands;  A.  1).  ir)77-l.Wl. 

A.   D.   1583. — Treacherous  attempt  of  the 
Duke  of  Anjou.— The  French  Fury.     See  Ni. .  1 
Klii.ANiis:  A.  I).  l.lHl-l.'iSl. 

A.  D.  1584-1585.— Siege  and  reduction  by 
Alejiander  Farnese,  Duke  of  Parma.— The 
downfall  of  prosperity.  See  NETiiKuiiAUDs: 
A.  I).  loS-l-l.Wo. 

A.  D.  1648.— Sacrificed  to  Amsterdam  in 
the  Treaty  of  Miinster.— Closing  of  the 
Scheldt.     See  Nktiikiu.ands:  A.  I).  10(0-1018. 

A.  D.  1706.— Surrendered  to  Marlborough 
and  the  Allies.  See  Xkthkui.ands:  A.  1).  1700- 
1707. 

A.  D.  1746-1748.— Taken  by  the  French  and 
restored  to  Austria.  See  Nktiikiilands:  A.  D. 
1740-1747;  ami  Aix-i.a-Cu.u'el!.:::    The  Con- 

UltCSii, 


A.  O.  1832.— Siege  of  the  Citadel  by  the 
French.- Expulsion  of  the  Dutch  garrison. 
Jk'p  Nktukulands:  A.  D.  IWJO-lsaS. 

APACHES,  The.    See   Amkiiican  Anonio- 

im;s    .\i'\<  hk  Omu  1".  and  .Vtiiai'ahcan  Family. 
APALACHES,  The.    See  Amekican  Aim)R- 

khm.h:  .\|'ai,a(  iiks. 

APAMEA.— .\pamca.  a  city  founded  by 
Melcucus  Nicator  on  the  Kuphrates,  the  site  lif 
^^hicli  is  occupied  by  the  miMlern  town  of  Bir, 
had  become,  in  Sirabo's  time  (near  the  beginning 
)f  the  Christian  Era)  one  of  the  principal  centers 
of  Asiatic  trade,  st'cond  only  to  Kphesus.  Thap- 
sacus.  the  former  customary  crossing-place  of 
the  Kuphrates.  had  ceased  to  be  so,  and  the  pas- 
sage was  made  at  .Vpamea.  A  place  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river  was  called  Zeugma,  or 
"the  bridge."  Bir  "is  still  the  usual  place  at 
which  travellers  proceeding  from  Antioch  or 
.\leppo  towards  Bagdad  cross  the  Kuphrates." — 
K.  11.  Buuburv.  J/ixt.  of  Aucifiit  Ueog.,ch.  22, 
met.  1  (i\  'i.  /»;)."238  nnil  HH). 

APANAGE.     See  Aitanaoe. 

APATURIA,  The.— An  anniud  family  festi- 
val of  th(^  Atheinans.  celebrate<l  for  three'  days 
In  the  early  part  of  the  month  of  October 
(Pyaiu'i).sion).  "This  was  the  characteristic 
festival  of  the  Ionic  race;  handed  down  from  a 
period  anterior  to  the  constitution  of  Kleisthenes, 
and  to  the  ten  new  trit)es  each  containing  soniany 
demes,  and  bringing  together  the  citizens  in 
their  |)rimitive  unions  of  family,  gens,  phratry, 
etc.,  the  aggregate  of  which  had  originally  con- 
stituted the  four  Ionic  tribes,  now  superannuated. 
At  the  Apaturia,  the  family  ceremonies  were 
gone  th'-ough ;  marriages  were  enrolled,  acts  of 
adoption  were  promulgated  and  certified,  the 
names  of  youthful  citizens  first  entered  on  the 
gentile  aiuf  phratric  roll ;  sacrltlces  were  jointly 
celebratcil  by  these  family  a.s.semblage3  to  Zeus 
Phratrius,  AthCnO,  and  other  deities,  accompanied 
with  much  festivity  and  enjovment."— G.  Orote, 
IliM.  of  (/rcfcc,  pt.  3,  c/i.  64  (i\  7). 

APELLA,  The.  See  Spauta:  The  Con- 
stitution, iiC. 

APELOUSAS,  The.    See  Texas:  The  abo- 

IIIC.INAI.  ImIAIIITANTS. 

APHEK,  Battle  of. — A  great  victory  won  by 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel  over  Benhadad,  king  of 
Damascus.—  I.  Ewald,  Jlist.  of  Inritci,  bk.  4, 
»ect.  1. 

APODECT.(E,  The. —  "When  Aristotle 
speaks  of  the  ollicers  of  government  to  whom 
the  public  revenues  were  delivered,  who  kept 
them  and  distributed  them  to  the  several  admin- 
istrative departments,  these  arc  called,  he  adds, 
apodectic  and  treasurers.  }:i  Athens  tlie 
apodectic  were  ten  in  number,  in  accordance  with 
the  nuwber  of  the  tribes.  They  were  appointed 
by  lot.  .  .  .  They  had  in  their  possession  the 
lists  of  the  debtors  ol  tlie  itjite,  rccived  the 
money  which  was  paid  in.  r.  ,  istered  nii  account 
of  it  and  noted  the  amount  iii  ^rrear,  and  in  the 
council  house  in  the  presence  of  the  council, 
erased  the  names  of  the  debtors  who  had  paid 
the  demands  against  them  from  the  list,  and 
deposited  this  again  in  the  arclnves.  Finally, 
they,  together  with  the  council,  apportioned  the 
sums  received."— A.  Boeekh.  Public  Ikommy  of 
Atheim  (ti:  hif  Lamb),  bk.  3.  (•/(.  4. 

APOLLONIA  IN  ILLYRIA,  The  Found- 
ing of.    See  KouKYBA. 


118 


AP08TA8I()N. 


AQUITAINE. 


APOSTASION,    Scr  Poif.t.k. 
AHOSTOLin  MAJESTY:    Origin  of  the 

Title.     Sec  Hum  \itv:  A.  1),  1173-1114. 

APPANAGE. — "The  term iippiiniipr  (Icnolcs 
till'  provision  nmdc!  lor  tlii!  youiiK<'r  cliildrcii  of 
II  kliij?  of  Fniiicp.  This  alwiiyf  consisted  of 
lands  iind  feudal  superiorities  held  of  the  crown 
liy  the  tenure  of  peenigc.  It  is  evident  tlmt  this 
iisiice,  lis  it  produced  ii  now  olnss  of  iiowerful 
fcudatiirics,  wiis  hostile  to  the  iiiterests  iind  policy 
of  the  sovereii^n,  imd  retarded  the  suhjuj;ation 
(if  Uu:  ancient  aristocracy.  Hut  in  usiijie  coeval 
with  tiie  monarchy  was  not  to  he  aiiro^aled,  and 
llic  scarcity  of  money  rendered  it  ih\possil)le  to 
provide  for  the  younger  branches  oi'  the  royal 
family  by  any  other  means.  It  was  i"stnnned 
howeverns  far  as  circumstances  wouhl  i.ermit." 
—II.  Ilallam,  T/ie  MiiUllc  Aijik.  eh.  1,  ;),'  2.— 
"From  the  wordi'  '  ad  '  and  '  panis,'  meaning  that 
it  was  to  i)rovi(h'  hrciid  for  the  person  w  lio  heli."  it. 
.V  portion  of  ai)pana;te  was  now  given  to  each  if 
the  king's  younger  sons,  which  descended  to  lii.< 
direct  heirs.  b\it  in  default  of  Wwm  reverted  to  the 
crown." — T.  Wright,  UtHt.  of  France,  v,  1,  p. 
30H,  iwh. 

APPIAN  WAY,  The  -Appius  Claudius, 
culled  the  IJiind,  who  ■  .s  censor  at  Home 
from  WVi  to  30H  B.  C  [sec  Uo.mk:  B.  C.  312],  con- 
structed during  tliat  »im,^  "the  Appian  road,  the 
i|uci'ii  of  roads,  because  I'le  Lntui  road,  passing 
by  Tusculum,  and  thnugh  the  country  of  the 
Ilcrnicuns,  was  so  much  cndangeved,  and  ha<l 
not  yet  been  (putc  recovered  by  the  Homans: 
the  Appian  road,  passing  by  Ternuina,  Fund' 
and  Moia,  to  Capua,  was  intended  to  be  a  shorter 
and  safer  one.  .  .  .  The  Appian  road,  even  if 
Apjiius  did  carry  it  as  far  a;i  Capua,  was  not 
c.xecnicd  by  him  with  that  splendour  for  which 
we  still  admire  it  in  those  parts  vhich  have  not 
been  destroyed  intentionally:  the  ( lo.sely  joined 
polygons  of  basalt,  which  tlimisands  of  years 
have  not  been  able  to  displace,  are  of  a  some- 
what later  origin.  Appius  commenced  the  road 
bcciiuse  there  was  actual  need  for  it;  in  the  year 
A.  r.  \'u  [B.  C.  297]  pepcrino,  and  simie  years 
later  basalt  (silex)  was  first  used  for  paving 
roads,  and,  at  the  beginning,  only  on  the  small 
distance  from  the  Porta  Capena  to  the  temple  of 
JIars,  as  we  ai'e  distinctly  told  by  Livy.  lioads  j 
constructed  according  to  artistic  prinein'es  had 
previously  existed." — B.  O.  Niebuhr,  lA;cts.  on 
the  Hint,  of  Rome,  leet.  4.5. 

Also  in:  Sir  W.  Gell,  Tojwg.  of  Rome,  v.  1. — 
II.  I!.  Lid.lell,  Hint,  of  Home.  v.  1,  p.  2,51. 

APPOMATTOX  COURT  HOUSE,  Lee's 
Surrender  at.  8ee  Unitki)  States  ov  Am.  : 
A.  1).  180.")  (Ai'hil:  Viugini.\). 

APULEIAN  LAW.     See  JIa.tf.stas. 

APULIA:  A.  D.  1042-1 127.— Norman  con- 
quest and  Dukedom. — Union  with  Sicily. 
See  Italy  (Soi^tiikiin):  A.  I>.  1000-1090,  aud 
1081-1 1!)4. 

APULIANS,  The.  Sec  SAunn.:8;  also,  Sam- 
NiTi;s. 

AQU/E  SEXTIiE.     See  Salves. 

AQUiE  SEXTIiE,  Battle  of.  Soo  Cimbui 
and   I'lu-TONEs;  B,  C.  113-102. 

AQUiE  SOLIS.— The  Roman  name  of  the 
long  famous  watering-place  known  in  modern 
England  as  the  city  of  Batli.  It  was  splendidly 
adorued  in  liomau  times  with  temples  and  other 
edilices. — T.  Wright,  Celt,  Roman  and  Saiw, 
ch.  0. 


AQUIDAY,  OR  AQUETNET.— The  native 
name  of  Bliodi'  Island.  Sec  liiiuDB  Island: 
A.  1).  1«:IH-1((40. 

AQUILA,  Battle  of  (1434).  Sec  Italy: 
A.  I>.  1412-1447. 

AQUILEIA.— A(|uileia,  at  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  that  city  by  the  Iluns,  A.  I).  453, 
was,  "both  as  a  fortress  and  a  conimercial 
emporiuiii,  second  to  none  in  Northern  Italy.  It 
was  situ  lU'd  at  the  norlhernmost  point  of  the 
gulf  of  iladria,  about  twenty  miles  northwest  of 
Trieste,  and  the  placi-  where  it  once  sIcmmI  is  now 
in  tlu!  Austrian  donuiiions,  just  over  the  border 
which  separates  tliem  from  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.  In  the  year  181  B.  ('.  a  Honian  colony 
had  been  sent  to  Ibis  far  corner  of  Ilaly  to  serve 
as  an  outpost  against  some  intrusive  I rilies,  called 
by  the  vagne  name  of  Uauls.  .  .  .  Pos.sessing  a 
good  harbour,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  a 
navigable  river,  A(iuileia  gradually  became  the 
chief  entrepot  for  the  commerce  iietween  Italy 
and  what  are  now  the  Illyriau  j)iovinces  of 
Austria." — T.  Ilodgkin,  Italy  and  J/er  Invaders, 
bk.  3,  eh.  4. 

A.  D.  238.— Siege  by  Maximin.  See  Roue: 
A.  I).  23.S. 

A.  D.  388.— Overthrow  of  Maximus  by  The- 
odosius.     See  Ho.mi::  A.  I).  \\Vi-\\W,. 

A  D.  452.— Destruction  by  the  Huns,  See 
IIiN.i:  A.  1).  452;  also,  Vknre:  A.  I).  452. 

AQUITAINE  :  The  ancient   tribes.— The 

Homan  coiKpiest  of  Aciuilania  was  achieved,  B.  (  . 
5(1.  by  oi.e  of  Ciesar's  lieutenants,  t.'ie  Younger 
Crii.ssus,  who  first  brought  the  people  called 
the  Sotiatcs  to  submi.ssiim  and  then  defeated 
their  combiiied  neiglibors  in  a  murderous  battle, 
where  three  fourths  of  them  are  said  to  ha.'o 
been  slain,  '."'he  tribes  which  then  submitted 
"wore  the  Taibelli,  Bigerriones,  I'reciani,  Vo- 
iHtiS,  Tarusates  Elusates,  Garitcs,  Ausci,  Gnr- 
umni,  Sihuzates  and  Cocosjites.  "The  Tarbelli 
were  in  the  lowe."  basin  of  the  Adour.  Their 
chief  place  was  on  'he  site  of  the  hot  springs  of 
I)ax.  The  iiigcrriones  ap|)ear  in  the  name 
Bigorre.  The  chief  place  of  the  Elusates  was 
Elusa,  Eause;  and  the  iownof  Audi  on  the  river 
Gers  preserves  the  mune  of  the  Ausci.  The 
names  Oarites,  if  the  name  is  genuine,  and  Oar- 
unini  contain  the  same  >^lement.  Gar,  as  the 
river  Garumna  [Garonne]  and  the  Gers.  It  is 
stated  by  Walckenaer  that  the  inhabitants  of  tlie 
south'Tn  part  of  Les  Landes  arc  still  called 
Cousiots.  Cocosa,  Caus.sinue,  i.s  twenty-four 
miles  from  Dax  on  the  road  from  Dax  to  Bor- 
deaux."— G.  Long,  Decline  of  t'>e  Roman  Re- 
public, V.  4,  ch.  (5. — "Before  the  arrival  of  the 
brachyccpiinlic  Ligurian  race.  ti\0'  Iberians 
ranged  over  the  greater  ])art  of  Francs.  ...  If, 
as  seems  probable,  we  may  identify  ti\em  ;  Illi 
tliG  Aquitani,  ','nc  of  the  three  races  wl<fch  oc- 
cupied Gaul  in  liie  time  of  Cicsar,  they  must  have 
retreated  to  the  leighbourhood  of  the  Pyrenees 
before  the  beginning  of  the  historic  perio<l." — 
I.  Taylor,  Origin  of  the  Aryans,  ch.  2,  sect.  5. 
In  Csesar's  time.    See  Gaul  described  by 

C.KSAll. 

Settlement  of  the  Visigoths.  See  Goths 
(VisiiioTiis):  A.  D.  4 '0-1 19. 

A.  D.  567. — Diviaed  bstween  the  Merovin- 
gian Kings.     See  FuANKS:  A.  I).  511-752. 

A.  D.  681-768.— The  independent  Dukes 
and    their   subjugation. — "The    old    Homan 


AQUITAINE,  A.  D.  081-768. 

AquiUmia,  in  the  first  division  of  tlie  spoils  of 
the  Kinpirc,  had  fallen  to  the  Visigoths,  who 
conqtiered  it  without  inneh  trotd)le.  In  the 
struiiple  between  tlieni  and  the  Merovinjrians,  it 
of  coyrse  passed  to  tlie  vietorious  party.  Uut 
the  (piarrels.  so  fiercely  eontested  between  llie 
dilTereiil  nii  .•nl)ers  of  tlie  Fniiik  nioiiareliy,  pre- 
vented tiieiii  from  retainiiiL'  a  distant  possession 
williin  (heir  grasp;  and  at  this  period  |6>h1-718, 
whi'n  llic  Mayors  of  the  I'alacc,  Pepin  and  Carl, 
well'  giitheriilg  tlie  reins  of  government  over 
the  three  kingdoms  —  Austrasia,  Neustria  and 
isiirgimdy  —  into  their  hands],  Kudo,  the  duke 
of  Aqiiitiiine,  was  really  an  independent  prince. 
The  population  had  never  lost  its  Itomnn  char- 
ncter;  it  was,  in  fact,  by  far  the  most  Romanized 
in  the  whole  of  Gaul.  "  Hut  it  had  also  received 
H  new  element  in  the  Vascones  or  Gascons  [see 
BAsqtiKsJ,  a  tribe  of  I'yrenean  mountaineers,  who 
descending  from  their  mouutain.s,  advanced  to- 
wards the  north  until  their  progress  was  checked 
by  tlie  broad  waters  of  the  Garonne.  At  this 
time,  however,  thev obeyed  Etido.  "This duke 
of  Aquitaine,  Kudo,  idlied  himself  with  the 
Neustrians  against  the  ambitious  Austrasian 
Mayor,  Carl  Martel,  and  shared  with  them  the 
crushing  defeat  at  Soi.ssons,  A.  I).  718,  which 
establislied  the  Hammerer's  power.  Eudo 
aeknowledged  allegiance  and  was  allowed  to 
retain  his  dukedom.  Hut,  half-a-centurj  after- 
wards, Carl's  son,  Pepin,  who  had  puslied  the 
'  faineant '  Merovingians  from  the  Frank  throne 
and  sealed  himself  upon  it,  fought  a  nine  years' 
war  with  the  then  duke  of  Aquitaine,  to  establish 
his  sovereignty.  "The  war,  which  lasted  nine 
years  [700-768],  was  signali/.ed  by  frightful 
ravages  and  destruction  of  life  upon  both  sides, 
until,  at  last,  the  Pranks  became  masters  of 
Berri,  Auvergne.  and  the  Limousin,  with  their 

()rincipal  cities.  'Die  able  and  gallant  Guaifer 
or  Waifer]  was  assassinaied  by  his  own  sub- 
jects, and  Pepin  had  the  satisfaction  of  finally 
uniting  the  granci-duchy  of  Aquitaine  to  the 
monareliv  of  the  Franks." — J.  Q.  Sheppard, 
Fallofllome,  leet.  8. 

Also  in:  P.  Godwin,  Hist,  of  France:  Ancient 
Gaul,  eh.  14-15.— W.  II.  Perry,  The  Franks,  ch. 
6-0. 

A.  D.  732. — Ravaged  by  the  Moslems. 
See  M.MioMKT.VN  Conqi'Kst:  A.  I).  715-733. 

A.  D.  781. — Erected  into  a  separate  king- 
dom by  Charlemagne. — In  tlie  year  781  Chatle- 
magiie  erected  Italy  and  A(iuitai"ne  into  separate 
kingdoms,  placing  his  two  infant  sons,  Pepin 
and  Ludwig  or  Louis  on  their  respective  thrones. 
"The kingdom  of  Aquitaine  embraced  Vasconia 
[Oascony],  Septimania,  A(|uitaine  proper  (that 
IS,  the  country  between  the  Garonne  and  the 
Loire)  and  the  "county,  suUscfiuently  the  duchy, 
of  Toulouse.  Nominally  a  kingdom,  Aqtiitaiiie 
was  i«  reality  a  province,  entirely  dependent  on 
the  central  or  ])ersoiml  government  of  Charles. 
.  .  .  The  nominal  designations  of  king  and 
kingdom  might  gratify  the  feelings  of  the 
Aquitanians,  but  it  was  a  scheme  contrived  for 
holding  them  in  a  state  i.f  absolute  dependence 
and  subordination." — J.  I.  3Iombert,  Jlist.  of 
ChiirhK  l/i,  <;n',il.  bk.  2,  ch.  11. 

A.  D.  843. --In  the  division  of  Charle- 
magne's Empire.     See  Fhanck:  A.  I).  843. 

A.  D.  884-1  TSi.— The  end  of  the  nominal 
kingdom.— The  disputed  Ducal  Title.— "Car 
Ionian  [who  died  884],  son  of  Louis  the  Staiu- 


AQUITAINE,  A.  D.  1187-1152. 

merer,  was  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians  who  bore 
the  title  of  king  of  Aciuitaine.  This  vast  slate 
ceased  from  this  time  to  constitute  a  kin,^(lom. 
It  had  for  a  lengthened  period  been  divided 
between  powerful  families,  the  most  illustrious 
of  wh'cli  are  those  of  the  Counts  of  Toulou.se, 
founded  in  the  ninth  century  by  Fredelon,  the 
Counts  of  Poitiers,  the  Counts  of  Auvergne,  the 
ManpiLses  of  Septimania  or  Gothia,  and  the  Dukes 
of  Gascouy.  King  Eudes  had  given  William  the 
Pius,  Count  of  Auvergne,  the  investiture  of  the 
duchy  of  Aquitaine.  On  the  extinction  of  that 
family  in  928,  tlie  Counts  of  Toulouse  and  tl-.^se 
of  Poitou  disputed  the  prerogatives  and  their 
quarrel  stained  the  .south  with  blood  for  a  long 
time.  At  length  the  C'ounts  of  Poitou  acquireii 
the  title  of  Duke  i  of  Aquitaine  or  Guyenne  [or 
Guieunc, — supplied  to  be  a  corruption  of  the 
name  of  Aquitaine,  which  came  into  use  during 
the  Middle  Ages],  which  remained  in  their  house 
up  to  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  with 
Henry  Plantagenet  I.  [Henry  II.],  King  of 
England  (1151)." — E.  De  Honneclio.se,  Hist.  <f 
France,  bk.  2,  rh.  3,  foot-note. — "The  duchy 
Aquitiiine,  or  Guyenne,  as  held  bv  Eleanor's 
predecessors,  consisted,  roughly  speaking,  of  the 
territory  between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne. 
More  exactly,  it  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Anjou  and  Touraiue,  on  the  east  by  Berry  and 
Auvergne,  on  the  south-east  by  the  (Juercy  or 
t!ounty  of  Culiors,  and  on  the  south-west  by 
Gascoiiy,  which  had  been  tinited  with  it  for  the 
last  hundred  years.  The  old  Karolingian  king- 
dom of  Aquitania  had  been  of  far  greater  extent; 
it  had,  in  fact,  included  the  whole  country 
between  the  Loire,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Rhone  and 
the  ocean.  Over  all  this  vast  territory  the  Counts 
of  Poitou  asserted  a  theoretical  '•laim  of  over- 
lordship  by  virtue  of  their  ducal  title ;  they  had, 
however,  a  formidable  rival  in  the  house  of  the 
Counts  of  Toulouse." — K.  Norgate,  England 
•under  the  Angevin  Kings,  v.  1,  ch.  10. — Sec,  also, 
T0ULOU8K:  IOtii  and  IItii  Ckntl'hiks. 

A.  D.  1137-1152. — Transferred  by  mar- 
riage from  the  crown  of  Francs  to  the  crown 
of  England.— In  1137,  "the  last  of  the  old  line  of 
the  dukes  of  Aquitaine — Williini  IX.,  son  of 
the  gay  crusader  and  troubadou  .■  whom  the  Red 
King  had  hoped  to  succeed  —  cNed  on  a  pilgrim- 
age at  Compostella.  Ills  only  sou  was  already 
dead,  and  before  setting  out  for  his  pilgrimage 
he  did  what  a  greater  personage  had  done  ten 
years  beforr :  witl-  the  consent  of  his  barons,  he 
left  the  wiiole  of  his  dominions  to  his  daughter. 
Morcovci,  he  bequeathed  the  girl  herself  as  wife 
to  the  young  king  Louis  [VII.]  of  France.  This 
marriage  more  than  doubled  the  strength  of  the 
French  crown.  It  gave  to  Louis  absolute  pos 
session  of  all  western  Aquitaine,  or  Guyenne  as 
it  was  now  beginning  to  be  called ;  that  is  the 
counties  of  Poitou  and  Gascony,  with  the  im- 
mediate overlordship  of  the  whole  district  lying 
between  the  Loire  and  the  Pyrenees,  the  Rhone 
and  the  ocean: — a  territory  live  or  six  times  as 
large  as  his  own  royal  domain  and  over  wliicli 
his  predecessors  had  never  been  able  to  assert 
more  than  the  merest  shadow  of  a  nominal  superi- 
ority." In  1152  Louis  obtained  a  divorce  fn-m 
Eleanor,  surrendering  all  the  great  territory 
which  she  had  added  to  his  dominions,  rather 
than  maintain  an  unhappy  union.  The  same 
year  the  gay  duchess  was  wedded  to  Henry  Plan- 
tagenet, then   Uuku  of  Normandy,  afterwards 


120 


AQUITAIXE,  A.  D.  1137-1152. 


ARABIA. 


Henry  11.  King  of  England.  By  this  marriage 
Aquitaine  beoaine  joined  to  tlio  crown  of  England 
and  rtMnained  80  for  tliree  liundrcd  years. —  K. 
iS'orgatc.  Eii'ilnnd  under  the  Amictin  Kings,  v.  1, 
c/i.  8. 

i2th  Century. — The  state  of  the  southern 
parts.     See  Phovknck:  A.  I).  1179-1-.2()7. 

A.  D.  1360-1453. —  Full  sovereignty  pos- 
sessed by  the  English  Kings. — The  final  con- 
quest and  union  with  France. —  "  li"  the  i^'.nce 
of  iketigiiy  [sec  Ku.\nck:  A.I).  13S7-i;)«()]  Ed- 
ward III.  resigned  his  cl  linis  on  the  crown  of 
France ;  but  he  was  recogniix-d  in  return  as  inde- 
pendent Prince  of  Aquitaine,  without  anv  hom- 
age or  superiority  being  reserved  to  the  t'rench 
monarch.  When  Aquitaine  therefore  was  con- 
quered by  France,  partly  in  the  14th,  fully  in 
the  15th  century  [.see  Fuanck:  A.  D.  1431-1453], 
it  was  not  the  '  reunion '  of  a  forfeited  flef,  but 
the  absorption  of  a  distinct  and  sovereign  state. 
The  feelings  of  Aquitaine  itself  seem  to  have 
been  divided.  The  nobles  to  a  great  extent, 
though  far  from  iiniversally,  preferred  the  French 
cimuexion.  It  better  fell  in  with  their  notions 
of  chivalry,  feudal  dependency,  and  the  like; 
the  privileges  too  which  French  law  conferred 
on  noble  birth  would  make  their  real  interests 
lie  that  way.  But  the  great  cities  and,  we  have 
reason  to  believe,  the  mass  of  the  people,  also, 
clave  faithfully  to  their  ancient  Dukes ;  and  they 
liad  good  reason  to  do  so.  The  English  Kings, 
both  by  habit  and  by  interest,  naturally  pro- 
tected the  mimicipal  liberties  of  Bourdeaux  and 
Bayonne,  and  exposed  no  jjart  of  their  subjects 
to  the  horrors  of  French  taxation  and  general 
oppression." — E.  A.  Freeman, 77ie  Fi-anks  and 
the  Oauls  (Ilistoricdl  Ekmi/s,  \st  iknes,  No.  7). 

AQUITANI,  The.  See  Ibeihans,  The 
Wkstkhn, 

ARABIA.— ARABS  :  The  Name.— "There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  name  of  the  Arabs  was 
.  .  .  given  from  their  living  at  tlie  westernmost 
part  of  Asia;  and  their  own  word  'Gharb,'  the 
'  West,'  is  another  form  of  the  original  Semitic 
name  Arab." — O.  Kawlinson,  Xoti-s  to  Herodotus, 
V.  a,  p.  71. 

The  ancient  succession  and  fusion  of  Races. 
— "The  population  of  Arabia,  after  long  cen- 
turies, more  esiiecially  after  the  propagation  and 
triumph  of  Islamism.  became  uniform  through- 
out the  peninsula.  .  .  .  But  it  was  not  always 
thu.s.  It  was  very  slowly  and  gradually  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  various  parts  of  Arabia  were 
fused  into  one  race.  .  .  .  Several  distinct  races 
successively  immigrated  into  the  peninsula  and 
remained  separate  for  many  ages.  Their  dis- 
tinctive characteristics,  their  mamjers  and  their 
civilisation  prove  that  these  nations  wen;  not  all 
of  one  blood.  Up  to  the  time  of  Mahomet, 
several  different  languages  were  spoken  in 
Arabia,  and  it  was  the  introduction  of  Islamism 
alone  that  gave  predominence  to  that  one 
ainon_gst  them  now  called  Arabic.  The  few 
Arabian  historians  deserving  of  the  name,  who 
have  used  any  discernment  in  collecting  the 
traditions  of  their  country,  Ibn  Khaldoun.  for 
example,  distinguish  three  successive  popida- 
tions  in  the  peninsula.  They  divide  these  primi- 
tive, secondary,  and  tertiary  Arabs  into  three 
divisions,  called  Ariba,  MolarVba,  and  Mostareba. 
.  .  .  The  Ariba  were  the  first  and  most  ancient 
inhubituuts  of    Arabia.      They  consisted  prin- 


cipally of  two  great  nations,  the  Adites,  sprung 
from  Ham,  and  the  Amalikaof  tlie  race  of  Aram, 
descendants  of  Slicm,  mixed  with  nations  of 
secondary  importance,  the  Thamudites  of  the 
race  of  Ham.  and  the  i)eople  of  the  Tasm,  and 
.ladis,  of  the  family  of  Aram.  The  Motari'ba 
were  tribes  sprung  from  Joktan,  scm  of  Eber, 
always  in  Arabian  tradition  called  Kalilan.  The 
Mostareba  of  more  modern  origin  were  Isinael- 
itish  tribes.  .  .  .  The  Cu.shites,  the  first  in- 
habitants of  Arabia,  are  known  in  the  national 
traditions  by  the  name  of  Ailites,  from  their  pro- 
genitor, who  is  called  Ad,  the  grandson  of  Ham. 
All  the  accounts  given  of  them  by  Arab  his- 
torians are  but  fanciful  legends.  ...  In  the 
midst  of  all  the  fabulous  traits  with  which  these 
legends  abound,  we  may  perceive  the  remem- 
brance of  a  powc'rful  empire  founded  by  the 
Cushites  in  very  early  ages,  apparently  including 
the  whole  of  Arabia  Felix,  and  not  only  Yemen 
l)roper.  We  also  find  traces  of  a  wealthy  nation, 
constructors  of  great  buildings,  with  an  advanced 
civilisation  analogous  to  that  of  (^'lialduea,  pro- 
fessing a  religion  similar  to  the  Babylonian;  a 
nation,  in  short,  with  whom  material  progress 
was  allied  to  great  moral  depravity  and  obscene 
rites.  ...  It  was  about  eighteen  centuries  be- 
fore our  era  that  the  .loktanites entered  Southern 
Arabia.  .  .  .  According  to  all  appearances,  the 
invasion,  like  all  events  of  a  similar  nature,  was 
accomplished  only  by  force.  .  .  .  After  this  in- 
vasion, the  Cushite  element  of  the  population, 
being  still  the  most  numerous,  and  possessing 
great  su])eriority  in  knowledge  and  civilisation 
over  the  Joktanites,  who  were  still  almost  in  the 
no";iadic  state,  soon  recovered  the  moral  and 
material  suprennicy,  and  political  dominion.  A 
new  empire  was  formed  in  which  the  power  still 
bek)nged  to  the  Sal  pans  of  the  raw  of  C^ush. 
.  .  .  liittle  by  little  the  new  nation  of  Ad  was 
formed.  The  centre  of  its  jiower  was  the  country 
of  Sheba  proper,  where,  according  to  the  tenth 
chapter  of  Genesis,  there  was  no  primitive  Jok- 
tanite  tribe,  although  in  all  the  neighbouring 
provinces  llicy  were  already  settled.  .  .  .  It  was 
during  the  tirst  centuries  of  the  second  Adite 
empire  that  Yemen  was  temi)orarily  sul)jected 
by  the  Egyptians,  who  called  it  the  land  of  Pun. 
.  .  .  Conquered  during  the  minority  of  Tliothmes 
III.,  and  the  regency  of  the  Princess  Ilatasu, 
Yemen  appears  to  have  been  lost  by  the  Egyp- 
tians in  the  troublous  times  at  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  dynasty.  Ramses  II.  recovered  it 
almost  immediately  after  be  a.scended  the  throne, 
and  it  was  not  till  tlie  time  of  the  cfTeniinate 
kings  of  the  twentieth  dyna.sty,  that  this  splendid 
ornament  of  Egyptian  power  was  finally  lost. 
.  .  .  The  conquest  of  the  land  of  Pun  under 
Hatasu  is  related  in  the  elegant  bsis-reliefs  of  the 
temple  of  Deir-el-Bahari,  at  Tliebes,  published  by 
M.  Duemichen.  .  .  .  The  bas-reliefs  of  the 
temple  of  Deir-el-Uahari  afford  undoulited  proofs 
of  the  existence  of  conimeree  between  India  and 
Yemen  at  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  expedition 
under  Hatasu.  It  was  this  commerce,  much 
more  than  the  fertility  of  its  own  soil  an<l  lis 
natural  productions,  that  made  Southern  Arabia 
one  of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world.  .  .  . 
For  a  long  time  it  was  carried  on  by  land  only, 
by  means  of  caravans  crossing  Arabii;  for  the 
navigation  of  the  Red  Sea,  much  more  difiiculi 
and  dangerous  than  that  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
was  not  attempted  till  some  centuries  later.  .   .  . 


121 


ARABIA. 


ARABIA. 


The  cnravnns  of  myrrli,  incense,  nnd  balm  cross- 
ing Arabia  towards  tlio  land  of  Canaan  arc  men- 
tioned in  llie  Bible,  in  the  history'  of  josepli, 
wliirli  l)elonj?s  to  a  period  very  near  to  the  first 
eslal)lishnient  of  the  C'anaani'.es  in  Syria.  As 
8oon  as  coniniercial  towns  arose  in  I'lurnicia,  we 
find,  as  the  prophet  Kzek  el  said,  'The  iiier- 
cliants  of  Hliel)a  and  Raamah,  tliey  were  thy 
merchants:  they  oecui)ied  in  tliy  fairs  with  chief 
of  all  spices,  and  witli  all  ])recioiis  stones  and 
gold.'.  .  .  A  great  number  of  I'litenieian  mer- 
chants, attracted  bytliis  trade,  established  them- 
selves in  Yemen,  lladramaiit,  Oman,  and 
Bahrein.  Plui'nieian  faelories  wen;  also  eslal)- 
lished  at  several  places  on  tlie  Persian  Gulf, 
Binonest  otliers  in  the  islands  of  Tylos  and 
Arvad,  formerly  occupied  by  their  ancestors. 
.  .  .  This  commerce,  extremely  Hourisliing  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  dynasty,  seiMns,  together  with 
the  Egyptian  dominion  in  Yemen,  to  have  ceased 
under  the  feeble  and  inactive  successors  of 
.  I{jimscs  III.  .  .  .  Nearly  two  centuries  passed 
Bway,  whin  Hiram  and  Solomon  despatched 
ves.scls  down  tlie  Red  Sea.  .  .  .  The  vessels  of 
the  two  monarehs  were  not  content  with  doing 
lneri;ly  what  had  once  before  lieen  done  under 
the  Egyptians  of  the  nineleenlli  dynasty,  namely, 
fetching  from  the  ports  of  Yemen  the  merelian- 
dise  collected  there  from  India.  They  were 
much  holder,  and  tlieir  enterprise  was  rewarded 
with  success.  I'roliting  by  tlie  regularitv  of  the 
m<msoons,  they  fetclieit  tlie  jiroducts  of  India  at 
first  hand,  from  the  very  place  of  tlieir  shiiirncnt 
in  the  ports  of  tlie  land  of  Opliir,  or  Abhira. 
These  distant  voyages  were  repeated  with  suc- 
cess as  long  a;i  Solomon  reigned.  The  veasels 
going  to  Ophir  necessarily  touched  at  the  ports 
of  Yemen  to  take  in  provisions  and  await 
favourable  winds.  Tlius  tlie  renown  of  the  two 
allied  kings,  jiarticularly  of  tlio  power  of 
Soloiuon,  was  spread  in  the  land  of  the  Adites. 
Tliis  was  tlie  cause  of  tlie  journey  made  by  the 
queen  of  Sheba  to  Jerusalem  to  sec  Solomon. 
.  .  .  The  sea  voyages  to  Ophir,  and  even  to 
Yemen,  ceased  at  the  death  of  Solomon.  The 
separation  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  tlie  revolutions 
that  simultaneously  took  place  at  Tyre,  rendered 
any  such  expeditions  impracticable.  .  .  .  The 
empire  of  tlie  second  Adites  lasted  ten  centuries, 
during  wliieh  the  Joktanite  tribes,  multiplying 
in  eacli  generation,  lived  amongst  the  Cushitc 
Saba'ans.  .  .  .  The  assimilation  of  the  Joktanites 
to  the  Cushites  was  so  complete  that  the  revolu- 
tion which  gave  political  supremacy  to  the 
descendants  of  .loktan  over  those  of  (iiish  pro- 
duced no  sensible  change  in  the  civilisation  of 
Y'emen.  But  although  using  the  same  language, 
the  two  elemeiils  of  the  population  of  Southern 
Arabia  were  still  iiuite  distiiu't  from  each  otlier, 
and  antagonistic  in  their  interests.  .  .  .  Both 
were  called  Sabiraiis,  but  the  Bible  always  care- 
fully distinguishes  them  by  a  ditTerent  "orthog- 
raphy. .  .  .  Tlie  majority  of  the  Saluean  Cush- 
ites, however,  especially  tin  superior  castes, 
refused  to  submit  to  tiio  Joktanite  yoke.  A 
separation,  therefore,  took  place,  giving  rise  to 
tlie  Arab  proverb,  'divided  as  the  Sabieans,'  nnd 
tlie  mass  of  the  Adites  emigrated  to  another 
country.  According  to  M.  Caussin  de  Perceval, 
the  passage  of  the  Sabieans  into  Abyssinia  is  to 
be  attributeil  to  the  coi!se(|Uences  of  the  revolu- 
tion that  established  Jolitaiiite  supremacy  in 
Yemen.  .  .  .  The  dute  of  tlsc  passage  of   the 


SabcDans  from  Arabia  into  Abyssinia  is  much  more 
dillicult  to  prove  than  the  fact  of  their  having 
done  so.  .  .  .  Y'arub,  the  conqueror  of  the 
Adites,  and  founder  of  the  new  monarchy  of  Jok- 
tanite Arabs,  v  as  sacceeded  on  the  throne  by 
his  son,  Yashdjob,  a  weak  and  feeble  prince,  of 
whom  nothing  is  recorded,  but  that  he  allowed 
the  chiefs  of  t  .le  various  provinces  of  his  states 
to  make  the'viselves  independent.  Abd  Shems, 
surnamed  S'.ieba,  son  of  "^'ashdjob,  recovered  the 
power  his  predecessors  had  lost.  .  .  .  Abd  Shems 
had  several  children,  the  most  celebrated  being 
Ilimyer  and  Kahlan,  who  left  a  numerous  pos- 
terity. From  th(!se  two  personages  were  de- 
scended the  greater  part  of  the  Y'emcnito  tribes, 
wlio  still  existed  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of  Islam- 
isin.  The  Ilimyarites  seem  to  have  settled  in 
the  towns,  whilst  the  Knhlanites  inhabited  tlie 
country  and  the  deserts  of  Y'emen.  .  .  .  This  is 
the  substance  of  all  the  information  given  by 
the  Arab  historians." — F.  Lcnormant  and  E. 
Chevalier,  Manual  of  Ancient  Hist,  of  the  East, 
hk.  1,  eh.  1-3  (r.  3). 

Sabaeans,  The. — "For  some  time  past  it  has 
been  known  that  the  Himyaritic  inscriptions  fall 
into  two  groups,  distinguished  from  one  another 
by  phonological  and  grammatical  differences. 
One  of  the  dialects  is  philologically  older  than  the 
other,  containing  fuller  and  more  primitive  gram- 
matical forms.  Th(!  hiscriptions  in  this  dialect 
belong  to  a  kingdom  the  capital  of  which  was 
at  JIa'in,  and  which  represents  the  country  of 
tli(!  ilina'ans  of  the  ancients.  The  inscriptions 
ill  the  other  dialect  were  engraved  by  the  princes 
and  people;  of  Sabii,  the  Sheba  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Sabieans  of  classical  geography.  The 
Sabican  kingdom  lasted  to  the  time  of  Moham- 
med, when  it  was  destroyed  by  the  advancing 
forces  of  Islam.  Its  rulers  for  several  genera- 
tions had  been  cop  crts  to  Judaism,  and  had  been 
engaged  in  ali  constant  warfare  with  the 

Ethiopic  kingd  ,i  of  Axum,  which  was  backed 
by  tlie  iiillueucc  and  subsidies  of  Rome  and 
Byzantium.  Dr.  Glascr  seeks  to  show  that  the 
founders  of  this  Ethiopic  kingdom  were  the 
Ilabasa,  or  Abyssinians,  who  migrated  from 
Ilimyar  to  Africa  in  the  second  or  lirst  century 
B.  C. ;  when  we  first  hear  of  them  in  the  inscrip- 
ti(ms  they  are  still  the  inhabitants  of  Korthern 
Y'emen  and  Malirah.  !More  than  once  the  Axum- 
ites  made  themselves  masters  of  Southern  Arabia. 
About  A.  I).  300,  they  occupied  its  ports  and 
islands,  and  from  SoO  to  378  even  the  S.ibu'an 
kingdom  was  tributary  to  them.  Their  last  suc- 
cesses were  gained  in  ."iS.l,  when,  with  By/.amine 
help,  they  coiKpiered  the  whole  of  Y'emen.  But 
the  Saba'an  kingdom,  in  spite  of  its  temporary 
subjection  to.  Ethioiiia,  had  long  been  a  formid- 
able State.  Jewish  colonies  settled  in  it,  and  one 
of  its  princes  became  a  convert  to  the  Jewish 
faith.  His  successors  gradually  extended  their 
dominion  as  far  as  Ormuz,  and  after  the  success- 
ful revolt  from  Axum  in  378,  brought  not  only 
the  wliol(!  of  the  southern  coast  under  their 
sway,  but  the  western  coast  as  well,  as  far  north 
as  .Mekka.  Jewisli  infiuence  made  itself  felt  in 
the  future  birthplace  of  Mohamiiu>d.  and  thus 
introiluced  those  ideas  and  beliefs  xvliich  subse- 
(pK'ntly  had  so  profound  an  elTect  upon  the  birth 
of  Islam.  The  Byzantines  and  Axumites  en- 
deavoured to  counteract  the  ini'iience  of  Judai.sm 
by  means  of  Christian  colonies  -.nd  pro.selytism. 
Tlie  result  was  a  conflict  between  Sabft  and  its 


122 


ARABIA. 


AUAVISCI. 


assailants,  which  toolc  tlic  form  of  a  conflict 
between  the  members  of  tlie  two  religions.  A 
violent  persecution  wns  directed  against  the 
Christians  of  Yemen,  avenged  by  the  Ethiopian 
conquest  of  the  coimtry  and  the  removal  of  its 
capital  to  San'a.  The  "intervention  of  Persia  in 
the  struggle  was  soon  followed  by  the  appear- 
ance of  jlohammedanism  upon  the  scene,  and 
,k'\v.  Christian,  and  Parsi  were  alike  overwhelmed 
by  tlie  (lowing  tide  of  the  new  creed.  The  epi- 
gVai)hic  evidence  makes  it  clear  that  the  origin 
of  the  kingdom  of  Sabit  went  back  to  a  distant 
date.  Dr.  Glaser  traces  its  history  from  the  time 
when  its  princes  were  still  but  Makarib,  or 
'Priests,'  like  Jethro,  the  Priest  of  Midian, 
through  the  ages  when  they  were  'kings  of 
Saba,'  and  later  still  '  kings  of  Saba  and  Kaidiin,' 
to  the  days  wh(  i  they  claimed  imperial  suprcMu- 
acy  over  all  the  principalitiesof  Southern  Arabia. 
It  was  in  this  later  period  that  they  dated  their 
inscriptions  by  an  era,  whicli,  as  llalevy  first  dis- 
covered, corresi)ond9  to  ll.T  B.  C.  One  of  the 
kings  of  Saba  is  mentioned  in  an  inscription  of 
the  Assyrian  king  Sargon  (B.  C.  71ij),  and  Dr. 
Glaser  believes  that  lie  has  found  liis  name 
in  a  '  Ilimyaritic '  te-xt.  AVhen  the  last  pri"st, 
Samah'ali  Darrahh,  became  king  of  Sab(i,  we  do 
not  yet  know,  but  the  age  must  be  sulliciently 
remote,  if  the  kingdom  of  Sabil  already  existed 
wlien  the  Queen  of  Sheba  came  from  Ophir  to 
visit  Solomon.  The  visit  need  no  longer  cause 
astonishment,  notwithstanding  the  long  journey 
by  land  wliich  lay  between  Palestine  and  tlie 
south  of  Arabia.  ...  As  we  have  seen,  the  in- 
scriplious  of  JIa'in  set  before  us  a  dialect  of  more 
primitive  character  than  that  of  SabS.  Hitherto 
it  had  been  supposed,  however,  that  the  two 
dialects  were  spoken  contemporaneously,  and 
tliat  the  ^Mimean  and  Sabaan  kingdoms  existed 
side  by  side.  But  geograpliy  offered  didiculties 
in  the  way  of  such  a  belief,  since  the  seats  of 
Jliniean  power  were  embeiUlcd  in  the  midst  of 
tlie  Saba>an  kingdom,  much  as  the  fragments  of 
''romarty  are  embedded  in  the  midst  of  other 
eounti("s.  Dr.  Glaser  has  now  made  it  clear  that 
the  old  supposition  was  incorrect,  and  that  the 
Jliniean  kingdom  preceded  the  rise  of  Sabit.  We 
can  MOW  understand  why  it  is  that  neither  in 
the  Old  Testament  nor  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions ilo  we  hear  of  any  princes  of  JIa'in,  and 
that  though  the  classical  wrii  ts  are  acquainted 
with  the  Mimcan  people  they  know  nothing  of  a 
Miiuean  kingdom.  The  5Iina'an  kingdom,  in 
fact,  with  its  culture  and  moniinients,  tlie  relics 
of  whirh  still  survive,  must  have  flourished  in 
the  giey  dawn  of  history,  at  an  cpoi^h  at  which, 
as  we  have  hitherto  iniiigined,  Arabia  was  the 
home  only  of  nomad  barbarism.  And  yet  in  tliis 
remote  age  alphabetic  writing  was  already  known 
and  liractiscd,  the  alphabet  being  a  moditieation  of 
the  Phoenician  written  vertically  and  not  horizon- 
tally. To  what  an  early  date  are  we  referred  for 
the  origin  of  the  Pluenieian  alphabet  itself  I  The 
Mimcan  Kingdom  must  have  had  a  long  exist- 
ence. The  names  of  tliirty-tliree  of  its  kings  are 
already  known  to  us.  ...  A  power  which 
reached  to  the  borders  of  Palestine  must  nec-es- 
surily  have  come  into  contact  with  the  great 
monarchies  of  the  ancient  world.  The  army  of 
MMua  Gallus  was  doubtless  not  the  first  which 
had  sought  to  gain  po8.se88ion  of  the  cities  and 
spic(>-garden8  of  the  sf >utli.  One  such  invasion  is 
alluded  to  in  an  lu8cri|)tion  which  was  copied  by 


JI.  llalevy.  .  .  .  But  the  epigraphy  of  ancient 
Arabia  is  still  in  its  infancy.  The  inscriptions 
already  knc  .vii  to  us  re])resent  but  a  small  pro- 
portion of  tho.se  that  are  yet  to  be  discovered. 
.  .  .  The  dark  jiast  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  has 
been  suddenly  lighte<l  up,  and  we  find  that  long 
before  the  days  of  Slohammed  it  was  a  land  of 
culture  and  literature,  a  scat  of  powerful  king- 
doms and  wealthy  commerce,  which  cannot  fail 
to  have  exercised  an  influence  upon  the  general 
history  of  the  world." — A.  II.  Sayce,  Ancient 
Arnhia  (Contcmp.  Her.,  Dec.,  1H89). 

6th  Century. — Partial  conquest  by  the  Abys- 
sinians.     See  Ahvssim.v:    Grii  to   IOtu    Cen- 

TUniKS. 

A.  D.  609-432. — Mahomet's  conquest.  See 
Mahometan  Co.N(jukst  :  A.  D.  G0!)-Cy2. 

A.  D.  1517.— Brought  under  the  Turkish 
sovereignty.     See  Timiks:  A.  D.  1481-1530. 

ARABS,  Conquests  of  the.  See  MAHOStETAN 
Conquest. 

ARACAN,  English  acquisition  of.  See 
India:  A.  1).  183;i-1838. 

ARACHOTI,  The.— A  people  who  dwelt  an- 
ciently in  the  Valley  of  the  Arghandab,  or  Ur- 
gundab,  in  eastern  Afghanistan.  Herodotus  gave 
tliein  the  tribal  name  of  "Paclycs,"  and  the 
modern  Afghans,  who  call  themselves  "Pashtuu" 
and  "Pakhtun,"  signifying  "mountaineers,"  are 
probably  derived  from  tliem. — M.  Dunckcr,  77i's<. 
of  Anliqvitjl,  bk.  7,  eli.  1. 

ARAGON :  A.  D.  1035-1258.— Rise  of  the 
kingdom.     See  Spain:  A.  D.  10;rj-1258. 

A.  D.  1 133. — Beginning  of  popular  repre- 
sentation in  the  Cortes. — The  Monarchical  con- 
stitution.    See  CoitTKS,  The  Eaui.y  Si'amsii. 

A.  D.  1218-1238.— The  first  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  king. — Conquest  of  Balearic 
Islands. — Subjugation  of  Valencia.  See  Spain  : 
A.  D.  1212-1338. 

A.  D.  1410-1475.— The  Castilian  dynasty. 
— Marriage  of  rerdinand  with  Isabella  of 
Castile.     See  Spai.n:  A.  1>.  KSOH-l  179. 

A.  D.  1516.— The  crown  united  with  that 
of  Castile  by  Joanna,  mother  of  Charles  V.  See 
Spain;  A.  I).  14<J()-1517. 


ARAICU,  The.  See  Ameuican  Aboiiioines: 
GucK  on  Coco  Guoip. 

ARAM.— ARAM  NAHARAIM.  — ARAM 
ZOBAH.— ARAM^ANS.  See  Semites; also, 
Semitic  LANorAuEs. 

ARAMBEC.     See  Nouumbepa. 

ARAPAHOES,  The.  See  .Vmeiucan  Auo- 
uioiNEs:  AicoNcjriAN  Family,  and  Pawnee 
(Caddoan)  Family. 

ARAR,  The. —  The  .;m;ieiit  name  of  the  river 
Saone,  in  France. 

ARARAT.  — URARDA.    See  Alarodians. 

ARATOS,  and  the  Achaian  League.  Sec 
Gueece:  B.  C.  28()-14((. 

ARAUCANIANS,  The.     See  ('iiii.E. 

ARAUSIO. — A  Uoir.'in  colony  was  founded 
by  Augustus  at  Ara'isio,  \v!:ich  is  rejiresented  in 
niinie  and  site  by  the  modern  town  of  Omnge,  in 
the  department  vt  Vaucluse,  France,  18  miles 
north  of  Avignon. — P.  Goodwin,  IlUt. of  France: 
Anc.  Gaul,  bk.  i.  rh.  5. 

ARAUSIO,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  105).  Sco  Cim- 
uni  and  TEiroNEs:   B.  C.  113-103. 

ARAVISCI  AND  OSI,  The.  — "Whether 
.  .  .  the  Aruviscl  migrated  into  Pannonia  from 


1  L'.'J 


ARAVISCI. 


AKEOPAGUS. 


the  Osi,  a  German  race,  or  whether  the  Osi  came 
from  the  Anivisei  into  Germany,  as  both  nations 
still  retain  the  same  language,  institutions  and 
customs,  is  a  doubtful  matter."— "The  locality 
of  the  Aravisei  was  the  extreme  north-eastern 
part  of  the  province  of  Pannonia,  and  would 
thus  stretch  from  Vii'nnn  (Vindobona),  eastwards 
to  Kaab  (Arrabo),  taking  in  a  portion  of  the 
south-west  of  Hungary.  .  .  .  The  Osi  seem  to 
have  dwelt  near  the  sources  of  the  Oder  and  the 
Vistula.  Thev  would  thus  have  occupied  a 
part  of  Galliciii."— Tacitus,  Gevwamj,  trans,  hy 
lltiirch  initl  llroiln'hh,  iritli  r/eoi/.  iwtm. 

ARAWAKS,  OR  ARAUACAS,  T'-e.  See 
Amiciiuan  .VnoKKiiNKs:  C',\Knis. 

ARAXES,  The,— This  name  seems  to  have 
been  applied  to  a  number  of  Asiatic  streams  in 
ancient  times,  but  is  connected  most  prominently 
with  an  Armenian  river,  now  called  tlie  Aras, 
whicli  Hows  into  the  Caspian. 

AREAS,  Battle  of.— One  of  the  battles  of  the 
I{(im,ins  with  the  Persians  in  which  the  for- 
mer sulTered  defeat.  Fought  A.  I).  581. —  G. 
Kawlinson,  Seventh  Great  Oriental  Monarchy, 
i-h.  '.>•>. 

ARBELA,  or  GAUGAMELA,  Battle  of 
(B.  C.  331).     See  Mackuoni.v:  15.  C.  3y4-;i30. 

ARCADIA.— The  central  district  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, tile  great  soutliern  peninsula  of  Greece 
—  a  district  surrounded  by  a  singular  mountiiin 
circle.  "  From  the  circle  of  mountains  which 
has  been  jiointed  out,  all  the  rivers  of  any  note 
take  their  rise,  and  from  it  all  the  mountainous 
nuiges  diverge,  which  form  the  many  headlands 
and  points  of  Pelopormesus.  The  interior  part 
of  the  country,  however,  has  only  one  opening 
towards  the  western  sea.  through  whicii  all  its 
waters  (low  united  in  the  Alplieus.  The  pecu- 
liar character  of  this  inland  tract  is  also  in- 
creased by  llie  circumstance  of  its  being  inter- 
sected by  some  lower  secondary  chains  of  hills, 
which  compel  the  waters  of  the  valleys  nearest 
I0  the  great  chains  either  to  form  lakes,  or  to 
seek  a  vent  by  subterraneous  passages.  Hence  it  is 
that  in  the  luountainous  district  in  the  northeast  of 
Peloponnesus  many  streams  disappear  and  again 
emerge  from  the  earth.  This  region  is  Arcadia ; 
u  coin,  ry  consisting  of  ridges  of  hills  and  ele- 
vated jilains,  and  of  deep  and  narrow  valleys, 
with  streams  flowing  througli  channels  formed 
by  prei'ipilous  rocks;  u  country  so  manifestly 
separated  by  nature  from  the  rest  of  Pelopon- 
nesus that,  although  not  ])olitically  united,  it  was 
always  considered  in  the  light  of  a  single  com- 
mimity.  Its  climate  v,  as  extremely  cold;  the  at- 
mosphere dense,  particularly  in  the  mountains  to 
the  north :  the  ell'ect  which  this  had  on  the  char- 
acter and  dispositions  of  tlie  inhabitants  has  been 
described  in  a  masterly  manner  by  Polvbius, 
himself  a  native  of  Arcadia." — C.  O.  JtlMler, 
Ilint.  iinti  Antiij.  iif  t/ic  Doric  Race,  bk.  1,  eh.  4. — 
"The  later  Uomaii  jioets  were  wont  to  speak  of 
Arcadia  as  a  smiling  land,  where  gras.sy  vales, 
watered  liy  gentle  and  pellucid  streams,  were 
inhabited  by  a  race  of  primitive  and  pictures{|ue 
shepherds  and  shepherdesses,  who  divided  their 
time  between  tending  their  lh)cks  and  making 
love  to  one  another  in  the  most  tender  an<l  roman- 
tic fashi<m.  This  idyllic  conception  of  the 
country  and  the  people  is  not  to  be  traced  in  the 
old  Hellenic  poet.s,  who  were  better  acquainted 
with  the  actmil  fac'ts  of  the  case.  The  Arcadians 
w-'^re  sulHciuntly  primitive,  but  there  was  very 


little  that  was  graceful  or  picturesque  about  their 
land  or  their  li\'es." — C.  II.  Hanson,  The  iMnd 
of  Greece,  pp.  H81-;)82. 

B.  C.  371-362. — The  union  of  Arcadian 
tovyns. — Restoration  of  Mantineia.— Building 
of  Megalopolis. — Alliance  with  Thebes.— 
Wars  with  Sparta  and  Elis. — Disunion.— 
Battle  of  Mantineia.  See  Gueece:  B.  C.  371, 
and  371-3(W. 

B.  C.  338. — Territories  restored  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.    See  Gueece:  B.  C.  3.')7-336. 

B.  C.  243-146. — In  the  Achaian  League. 
See  Gueece:  B.  V,.  280-140. 


ARCADIUS,  Roman  Emperor  (Eastern), 
A.  1).  30.5-408. 

ARCHIPELAGO,  Th.  Dukes  of  the.  See 
Naxos:  The  >Iedi/evai.  Uukedo.m. 

ARCHON.    See  Atifens:  Fro.m  the  Dorian 

MldllATION  TO  B.  C.  083, 

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,  Battle  of.  See 
France:  a.  D.  1814  (Januauy — Makch). 

ARCOLA,  Battle  of  (1796).  See  France: 
A.  1).  1700-1797  (OcTOiiEii— April). 

ARCOT:  a.  D.  1751.— Capture  and  defence 
by  Clive.     S"e  India:  A.  D.  1743-1753. 

A.  D.  1780.—  Siege  and  capture  by  Hyder 
Ali.     See  India:  A   P.  1780-1783. 

ARDEN,  Forest  of. — The  largest  forest  in 
early  Britain,  which  covered  the  greater  part  of 
modern  Warwickshire  and  "  of  which  Shakes- 
peare's Ardcn  became  the  dwindled  representa- 
tive."—  J.  U.  Green,  Tlie  Making  of  England, 
ch.  7. 

ARDENNES,  Forest  of.— "In  Cussar's 
time  there  were  in  [Gaul]  very  extensive  forests, 
the  largest  of  which  was  the  Arduenna  (Arden- 
nes), which  extended  from  the  banks  of  the  lower 
Uhine  probably  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  North 
Sea. " —  G.  Long,  Decline  of  the  lioman  Republic, 
V.  3,  ch.  22. —  "Ardennes  is  the  name  of  one  of 
the  northern  French  depaitments  which  contains 
a  part  of  the  forest  Ardemics.  Another  part  is 
in  Luxemburg  and  Belgium.  The  old  Celtic 
name  exists  in  En,-laud  in  the  Arden  of  War- 
wickshire."—  The  name.  T.  4,  ch.  14. 

ARDRI,  OR  ARDRIGH,  The.    See  Toath. 

ARDSHIR,  OR  ARTAXERXES,  Found- 
ing of  the  Sassanian  monarchy  by.  Sec  P£U- 
bia:  B.  C.  1.j()-A.  1).  320. 

ARECOMICI,  The.    See  Voi.cjb. 

ARECUNAS,  The.  Sec  American  Abo- 
rigines:  C'ARIBS  and  TIIEIII  KiNDRiJD. 

AREIOS.     See  Aria. 

ARELATE:  The  ancient  name  of  Aries. — 

The  territory  covered  by  the  old  kingdom  of 
Aries  is  sometimes  called  the  Arelate.  See  Bur- 
gundy: A.  1).  1137-1378,  and  Salves. 

ARENGO,  The.  See  San  Marino,  The 
UEi'inii.io  OK. 

AREOPAGUS,  The. —  "  Whoever  [in  an- 
cient Athens]  was  susiiec  :'d  of  having  b'.ood 
upon  his  hands  had  to  abstain  from  approaching 
the  common  altars  of  the  land.  Accordingly, 
for  the  purpose  of  judgments  ci,  oerning  the 
guilt  of  blood,  ehoic:e  had  been  .lade  of  the 
barren,  rocky  height  which  lies  opposite  the 
ascent  to  the  citadel.  It  was  dedicated  to  Arcs, 
who  was  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  was  ever 
iiidged  here  for  the  guilt  of  blood ;  and  to  thi^ 
Erinyes,  the  dark  powere  of  the  guilt-stained 
conscience.    Here,  instead  of  a  single  judge,  a 


124 


AUE0PAGU8. 


AnOENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


college  of  twelve  men  of  proved  integrity  eoii- 
iliiclcd  the  trial.  If  the  iiccuspd  hud  iin  e(|U!il 
miiiiher  of  votes  for  and  against  him,  he  was 
acciuitted.  The  eourt  on  the  hill  of  Ares  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  institiilions  of  Athens,  and 
none  aehieved  for  the  eity  an  earlier  or  more 
widely -spread  recognition."  —  B.  (Jurlius,  ///V. 
of  Urcecf,  bk.  2,  cfi.  2. — "The  A  eopagiis,  or, 
as  it  was  interpreted  hy  an  ancient  legend. 
>hirs'  Hill,  was  an  eminence  on  the  westi'rn 
sid(^  of  the  Acropolis,  which  from  tlm(!  immemo- 
rial had  heen  the  seat  of  a  highly  revered  court 
(if  criminal  iustice.  It  took  cognizance  of 
charges  of  wilful  murder,  maiming,  poisoning 
•uid  arson.  Its  forms  and  modes  of  ])roceediiig 
were  pecidiarly  rigid  and  solenui.  It  was  hel<[ 
in  the  open  air,  perhaps  that  the  judges  might 
not  he  polluted  by  .sitting  under  the  same  roof 
witli  the  criminals.  .  .  .  The  venerable  character 
of  the  court  seems  to  have  determined  Solon  to 
apply  it  to  another  purpo.se ;  and,  without  mak- 
ing any  change  in  its  original  jurisdiction,  to 
erect  it  into  a  siii)renie  council,  inve.ited  with  a 
superintending  and  controlling  authority,  whicli 
extended  over  every  part  of  the  social  .sj-stem. 
He  constituted  it  the  guardian  of  the  public 
morals  and  religion,  to  keep  watch  over  the  edu- 
cation and  conductor  the  citizens,  and  to  protect 
tlic  State  from  the  disgrace  or  pollution  of  wan- 
tomiess  and  profanene.ss.  Ho  armed  it  with  ex- 
traordinary I'/Owers  of  interfering  in  pressing 
emergencies,  to  avert  any  sudden  and  inuninent 
danger  which  threatened  the  public  safety.  The 
nature  of  its  functions  rendered  it  scarcely  pos- 
sible precisely  to  define  their  limits;  and  Solon 
probal)ly  thought  it  best  to  let  them  remain  in 
that  obscurity  which  ■  agnifies  whatever  is  in- 
distinct. ...  It  was  tilled  with  archons  who 
had  discharged  their  odice  with  ;ipproved  lidelit  v, 
and  they  hold  their  seats  for  life. "— -C!.  Tliirlwail, 
Hint,  of  Greece,  j'.  1,  eh.  11. — Tlicso  enlarged 
functions  of  the  Areopagus  were  witlidrawn 
from  it  in  the  tinu!  of  Pericles,  through  the 
agency  of  Ephialtes,  but  wore  restored,  about 
B.  (;.  40(),  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Thirty.— 
"Some  of  the  writers  of  antiijuity  ascribed  the 
first  establishment  of  the  senate  of  Areopagus 
to  Solon.  .  .  .  But  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
this  is  a  mistake,  and  that  the  senati:  of  Are- 
opagus is  a  primordial  iustituticm  of  immemorial 
niiti(piity,  thougli  its  constitution  as  well  iis  its 
functions  underwent  nuuiy  elianges.  It  stocwl  at 
first  alone  iis  a  permanent  aiul  collegiate  au- 
tliiirity,  originally  by  the  side  of  the  kings  and 
afterwards  by  the  side  of  the  archons:  it  would 
then  of  course  be  known  by  the  title  of  Tlu! 
Beule, —  the  .senate,  or  c( meil;  its  distinctive 
title  'senate  of  Areopagus,'  borrowed  from  the 
place  where  its  sittings  were  held,  would  not  be 
bestowed  until  the  formation  by  '  Solon  of  tlu- 
second  senate,  or  council,  from  which  there  wiis 
need  to  di.scriminato  it." — O.  Orote,  Jlint.  of 
Oreei-e,  pt.  3.  e/i.  10  (r.  !)).— Hoc,  also,  Athens: 
B.  (;.  477-4(13,  and  4fi«-4r)4. 

ARETHUSA,  Fountain  of.     See  Syiiacuse. 

AREVAC/E,  The.— One  of  the  tribes  of  the! 

Itiherians  in  ancient  Spain.     Their  chief  town. 

miantia,  was  the  stronghold  of  C'eltiberian  re- 

lanc(!  to  the  lioman  conipiest.     See  Numan- 

\N  Wah. 

ARGADEIS,  The.     See  Phyl.b. 

ARGAUM,  Battle   of  (1803).     See   India: 
A.  D.  1798-iaor). 


ARGENTARIA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  378).  Sec 
A  1,1; .MANN I:   A.  I).  :i7H. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC :  Aboriginal 
inhabitants.    See  Amkuican  Anouiiii.Nics:  Ti;i'i. 

— (il'AUANI. 

A.  D.  1515-1557.— Discovery,  exploration 
and  early  settlement  on  La  Plata. —  First 
founding  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Sec  Pauauiay: 
A.  1>.  l.")l.-.-I.-Mr. 

A.  D.  1580-1777.— The  final  founding  of  the 
City  of  Buenos  Ayres.— Conflicts  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  on  the  Plata.— Creation  of  the 
Viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres. —  "lu  the  year 
l.l.SO  the  foundations  of  a  lasting  eity  were  "laid 
at  Buenos  Ayres  by  I)e  Garay  on  the  same  .situa- 
tion as  had  twice  previously  been  cho.sen  — 
namely,  by  Mendoza,  and  byCabeza  de  Vaca, 
respectively.  The  same  lea(ler  had  before  this 
founded  the  settlement  of  Saute  Feonthe  Parana. 
The  site  selected  for  the  future  cajjital  of 
the  Pampas  is  iiroliably  one  of  the  worst  ever 
chosen  for  a  city  .  .  .  has  probably  the  worst 
harbour  in  the  world  for  a  large  commercial 
town.  .  .  .  Notwithstanding  the  inconvenience 
of  its  harbour,  Buenos  Ayres  soon  became  the 
chief  conunercial  entrepot  of  the  ValU^y  of  the 
Plata.  The  settlement  was  not  efTected  without 
some  .severe  fighting  between  He  Oaray's  force 
and  the  (Jiierandies.  The  latter,  liowever,  were 
elTeetmdly  {|uelled.  .  .  .  The  Spaniards  were 
now  nominally  masters  of  the;  Bio  de  La  Plata, 
but  they  had  still  to  apprehend  hostilities  on  the 
part  of  the  natives  between  their  few  and  far- 
distant  settlements  [concerning  which  see  Paii.\- 
ouav:  a.  I).  ir)l,5-l,>j7J.  Of  this  liability  De 
Oaray  himself  was  to  form  a  lamentable  example. 
On  his  passage  back  to  A.suncion,  having  inca\!- 
tiously  landed  to  sleep  near  the  ruin.s  of  the  old 
fort  of  San  Espiritu,  he  was  surprised  by  a  party 
of  natives  and  murdered,  with  all  his  compani- 
ons. The  death  of  this  brave  Biscayan  was 
mourned  as  a  great  loss  by  the  entire  colony. 
The  importance  of  the  cities  founded  by  him  was 
.soon  apparent;  ar.d  in  1030  all  the  settlements 
south  of  the  conlluence  of  the  rivers  Parana  and 
Paraguay  were  formed  into  a  separate,  indepen- 
dent government,  >mder  the  name  of  Hio  de  La 
Plata,  of  whicli  Buenos  Ayres  w.is  declared  the 
capital.  This  city  likewise  became  the  .seat  of 
a  bishopric.  .  .  .  The  merchants  of  Seville,  who 
had  obtained  n  monopoly  of  tlu;  supply  of  Jlexieo 
and  Peru,  regarded  with  much  jealousy  the 
prospect  of  a  new  opening  for  the  South  Ameri- 
can trade  by  way  of  La  Plata,"  and  procured  re- 
strictions ui)on  it  which  were  rela.xed  in  UllH  .so 
far  as  to  permit  the  sending  of  two  ves.selsof  100 
tons  each  every  year  to  Spain,  but  subject  to  a 
duly  of  TiO  per  cent.  "  Under  this  miserable 
commercial  legislation  Buenos  Ayres  continued 
to  languish  for  the  first  century  of  its  existence. 
In  1715,  after  tlie  treaty  of  Utrecht,  tlui  English 
.  .  .  obtained  the  'asiento' or  contract  for  sup- 
plying Spanish  colonies  in  America  with  African 
slaves,  in  virtue  of  which  they  had  permission  to 
form  an  establishment  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  to 
send  thither  annually  four  ships  with  1,300 
negroes,  the  value  of  which  they  mightexport  in 
produce  of  the  country.  They  were  strictly  for- 
bidden to  introduce  other  gfM-ds  than  those 
neces.sary  for  their  own  establishments;  but 
under  the  temptation  of  gain  on  the  one  side  and 
of  demand  011  the  other,  the  asiento  ships  natur- 
ally became  the  means  of  transacting  a  consider- 


125 


AHGENTINE  I{p:PUnLIC,  1580-1777. 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  1806-1820. 


able  contmliiiiul  tniile.  .  .  .  Tho  English  were 
nut  the  only  sinui;glcrs  in  the  river  Flute.  By 
till'  treaty  (if  Utrecht,  the  Portuguese  hml  obtained 
tlie  in)|)"ortaiit  settlement  of  Colonia  [the  lirst 
wttleinent  of  the  Banda  Oriental —or  '  Eastern 
Border'  — afterwards  called  Uruguay]  directly 
facing  Buenos  Ayres.  .  .  .  The  Portuguese,  .  .  . 
not  contented  with  the  posses-sion  of  CJolonia  .  .  . 
commenced  a  mon;  important  settlement  near 
Monte  Video.  From  this  place  they  were 
dislodged  by  Zavala  [Governor  of  Buenos  Ayres], 
who,  by  order  of  his  government,  proceeded  to 
est.-iblisli  .-iettleinents  at  that  place  and  at  Maldo- 
niido.  Under  the  above-detailed  circumstances 
of  contention  .  .  .  was  founded  the  healthy  and 
agreeable  city  of  :Monte  Video.  .  .  .  The  mevi- 
table  consequence  of  this  state  of  things  was  fresh 
antagonism  between  the  two  countries,  winch  it 
was  sought  to  put  an  end  to  by  a  treaty  between 
the  two  nations  concluded  in  IT.IO.  One  of  the 
articles  stipulated  that  Portugal  should  cede  to 
(Spain  all  of  her  establishments  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Plata;  in  return  for  which  she  was 
to  receive  the  seven  missuinary  towns  [known  as 
tho  'Seven  Reductions']  on  tlie  Uruguay.  But 
.  .  .  the  inhabitants  of  thi'  .Missions  naturally 
rebelled  against  the  idea  of  being  handed  over  to 
a  people  known  to  them  only  by  their  slave-deal- 
ing atrocities.  .  .  .  The  result  was  that  when 
a, 000  natives  had  been  slaughtered  [in  the  war 
known  as  the  War  of  the  Seven  Reduction.s]  and 
their  settlements  reduced  to  ruins,  the  Portuguese 
repudiated  the  conii)act,  as  they  could  no  longer 
receive  their  c(iuivalent,  and  tliey  .still  tiiereforo 
retained  (Colonia.  When  hostilities  were  re- 
newed in  1763,  the  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres 
succeeded  in  possessing  himself  of  Colonia;  but 
in  the  following  year  it  was  restored  to  the  Por- 
tuguese, who  continu;!d  in  ])Ossession  until  1777, 
when  it  was  detinitely  ceded  to  Spain.  The  con- 
tinual encroachments  of  the  I'orluguese  in  the 
Rio  de  La  Plata,  and  the  impunity  with  which 
the  contraband  trade  was  carried  on,  together 
with  the  (piestions  to  which  it  constantly  gave 
rise  with  foreign  governments,  had  long  shown 
the  necessity  for  a  change  in  tlie  government  of 
that  colony';  for  it  was  still  under  the  supciinten-  i 
deuce  of  the  Viceroy  of  Peru,  residing  at  Lima,  ! 
3,000  miles  distant.  The  Spanish  authorities 
accordingly  resolved  to  give  fresh  force  to  their 
representatives  in  the  Rio  de  La  Plata;  and  in  ! 
1770  they  took  the  important  resolution  to  sever 
the  connection  between  the  provinces  of  La  Plata  | 
and  the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru.  The  former  were 
now  erected  into  a  new  Viceroyalty,  the  capital  ! 
of  which  was  Buenos  Ayres.  .  .  .  'I'o  this  Vice-  ' 
royalty  was  apixiinled  Don  Pedro  Cevallos.  a 
former  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres.  .  .  .  The  first 
act  of  Cevallos  was  to  take  possession  of  the  island 
of  St.  Kathcrine,  the  most  important  Portuguese 
possession  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  Proceeding 
thence  to  the  Plate,  ho  razed  the  fortifications  of 
Coloiuu  to  tho  grotmd,  and  drove  the  Portuguese 
from  tlie  neighbourhood.  In  October  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  1777,  n  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
at  St.  Ildefonso,  between  Queen  Maria  of  Portu- 
gal and  Charles  III.  of  Spain,  by  virtue  of  which 
St.  Katherine's  was  restored  to  the  latter  country, 
whilst  Portugal  withdrew  from  the  Banda  Orien- 
tal or  Uruguay,  and  relinquished  all  jiretensions 
to  tho  right  of  navigating  the  Rio  do  La  Plata 
and  its  atluientsbt-yond  its  own  frontier  line.  .  .  . 
The  Viceroyalty  of  Buunos  Ayres  was  sub-divided 


into  the  provinces  of — (1.)  Buenos  Ayres,  the 
capital  of  which  was  the  city  of  that  name,  and 
winch  comprised  the  Spanish  possessions  that 
now  form  the  Republic  of  Uruguay,  as  well 
as  the  Argentine  provinces  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
Santa  Fe,  Eutre  Rios,  and  Corrientes;  (2.)  Para- 
guay, the  capital  of  which  was  Asuncion,  and 
which  comprised  what  is  now  the  Republic  of 
Paraguay;  (!i.)  Tucuman,  the  capital  of  which 
was  St.  lago  del  Estero,  and  which  included 
what  are  to-day  the  Argentine  provinces  r  f  Coi- 
dova,  TiKUiinan,  St.  lago,  Salta,  Catamarca, 
Rioja,  and  Jujuy;  (4.)  Las  Cliarcas  or  Poto.si, 
the  capital  of  which  was  La  Plata,  and  which 
now  forms  the  Republic  of  Bolivia;  and  (5.) 
Chiquito  or  Cuyo,  the  capital  of  which  was  Men- 
doza,  and  in  wliich  were  comprehended  the  pre- 
sent Argentine  provinces  of  St.  Luiz,  Mendoza, 
and  St.  Juan." — R.  G.  Watson,  Spnniah  and  Por- 
tuguese South  Amerini,  v.  2,  cli.  13-14. 

Also  in:  E.  J.  Payne,  Iliatori/  of  European 
CoUmies,  eh.  17.— S.  H.  Wilcocke,  Hint,  of  tlie 
Vieeroiialtji  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

A.  i).  1806-1820. — The  English  invasion. — 
The  Revolution. —  Independence  achieved  ■ - 
Confederation  of  the  Provinces  of  the  P'  te 
River  and  its  dissolution. — "Tlie  trade  of  Jie 
J'lato  River  had  enormously  increased  since  the 
sub.stitution  of  register  ships  for  the  annual 
tlotilla,  and  the  erection  of  Buenos  Ayres  into  a 
viceroyalty  in  1778;  but  it  was  not  until  the  war 
of  1797  that  the  English  became  aware  of  its  real 
extent.  The  British  cruisers  had  enough  to  do 
to  maintain  tlie  blockade :  and  when  tho  English 
learned  that  millions  of  hides  were  rotting  in  tlic 
warehouses  of  Jlonte  Video  and  Buenos  Ayres, 
tliey  concluded  that  the  people  would  soon  see  that 
their  interests  would  be  best  served  by  submis- 
sion to  tlie  great  naval  power.  The  peace  put 
an  end  to  these  ideas;  but  Pitt's  favourite  pro- 
ject for  destroying  Spanish  influence  in  South 
America  by  the  English  arms  was  revived  and 
put  in  execution  soon  after  tlie  opening  of  the 
second  European  war  in  1803.  In  1800  ...  ho 
sent  a  squadron  to  the  Plato  River,  which  offered 
tho  best  point  of  attack  to  the  British  fleet,  and 
the  road  to  the  most  promising  of  the  Spanish 
colonies.  The  English,  under  General  Bores- 
ford,  though  few  in  number,  soon  took  Buenos 
Ayres,  for  tho  Spaniards,  terriried  at  tlie  sight 
of  Britisli  troops,  surrendered  without  knowing 
how  insignificant  tho  invading  force  really  was. 
When  they  found  this  out,  tliey  mustcrecl  cour- 
age to  attack  Beresford  in  the  citadel ;  and  tlie 
English  commander  was  obliged  to  evacuate  the 
l)lace.  The  English  soon  afterwards  took  pos- 
session of  Monte  Video,  on  the  other  side  of  tlie 
river.  Hero  they  vero  joined  by  another  squa- 
dron, who  were  under  orders,  after  reducing 
Buenos  Ayres,  to  sail  round  the  Horn,  to  take 
Valparaiso,  and  estnblisli  posts  across  the  conti- 
nent connecting  tliat  city  with  Buenos  Ayres, 
thus  executing  the  long-cherished  plan  of  Lord 
Anson.  Buenos  Ayres  was  therefore  invested  a 
second  time.  But  the  English  land  forces  were 
too  few  for  their  tusk.  The  Spaniards  spread  all 
round  the  city  strong  breastworks  of  oxhides, 
and  collected  all  their  forces  for  its  defence. 
Buenos  Ayres  was  stormed  by  the  Englisli  at 
two  points  on  the  5tli  of  July,  1807;  but  they 
were  tinable  to  hold  their  ground  against  the 
unceasing  flro  of  tho  Bpaniards,  who  were 
greatly  superior  in  numbers,  and  the  next  day 


126 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  1806-1820. 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  1819-1874. 


tlioy  cnpitu'iitcd,  ami  iigrt'cil  to  evncimto  tlip 
province  within  two  iiioiitlis.  Tlio  EiiKlisli  liiul 
iiimirined  tlint  tlic;  colonists  would  rpudily  flock 
to  their  standard,  and  throw  oir  tho  yoke  of 
Spain.  This  was  a  great  mistake;  and  it  needed 
the  events  of  1808  to  lead  the  Spanisli  (colonists 
to  their  independence.  ...  In  1810,  when  it 
came  to  be  known  that  the  French  armies  had 
crossed  the  .Sierra  Morena,  and  that  Sjtain  was  a 
conquered  country,  the  colonists  would  no 
longer  submit  to  the  shadowy  authority  of  the 
colonial  olliccrs,  and  elected  a  "junta  of  their  own 
to  carry  on  the  Government.  Most  of  the  troops 
in  the  colony  went  over  to  the  cau.se  of  inde- 
pendence, and  easily  overcame  the  feeble  resist- 
ance that  was  made  by  those  who  remaincHl 
faithful  to  the  regencj'  in  the  engagement  of  Las 
I'iedras.  The  leaders  of  the  revolution  were  the 
advocate  Castclli  and  General  Belgrano;  and 
imder  their  guidance  scarcely  any  obstacle 
stopped  its  jirogrcss.  They  even  sent  their 
armies  at  once  into  Upper  Peru  and  the  Banda 
Oriental,  and  their  privateers  carried  the  Inde- 
jiendcnt  flag  to  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific;  but 
these  successes  were  accompanied  by  a  total 
anarchy  in  the  Argentine  capital  and  ])rovinces. 
TUv.  most  intelligent  and  capable  men  had  gone 
off  to  fight  for  liberty  elsewhere;  and  even  if 
they  had  remained  it  would  have  been  no  easy 
task  to  establish  a  new  governntont  over  the 
scattered  and  half-civilized  population  of  this 
vast  country.  .  .  ,  The  (irst  result  of  indepen- 
dence was  the  formation  of  a  not  very  intelligent 
party  of  cou  itry  proprietors,  who  knew  notliing 
of  the  mystei'es  of  politics,  and  were  not  ill- 
content  with  the  existing  order  of  things.  The 
business  of  the  old  viceroyal  government  was 
delegated  to  a  supreme  Director;  but  this  func- 
tionary was  little  more  than  titular.  How 
limited  the  aspirations  of  the  Argentines  at  first 
were  may  be  gathered  from  the  instructions  with 
which  Belgrano  and  Rivadavia  wore  sent  to 
liurope  in  1814.  They  were  to  go  to  England, 
and  ask  for  an  English  protectorate ;  if  possible 
under  an  English  prince.  They  were  next  to 
try  the  same  plan  in  France,  Austria,  and  Rus- 
sia, and  lastly  in  Spain  it.self :  and  if  Spain  still 
refused,  were  to  offer  to  renew  the  subjection  of 
the  colony,  on  condition  of  certain  specified  con- 
cessions being  made.  This  was  indeed  a  strange 
contrast  to  tlie  lofty  aspirations  of  the  Colom- 
bians. On  arrivingat  Rio,  'he  Argentine  dele- 
gates were  assured  by  the  English  minister. 
Lord  Strangford,  that,  as  things  were,  no  Euro- 
l)ean  power  would  do  anything  for  them:  nor 
did  they  succeed  bettor  in  8i)ain  itself.  Mean- 
while the  government  of  the  Buc!M)s  Ayres 
junta  was  powerless  outside  tlie  town,  and  the 
country  was  fast  lapsing  into  tlie  utmost  dis- 
order and  confusion.  At  lengtli,  when  Govern- 
ment could  hardly  be  said  to  exist  at  all,  a 
general  c<mgress  of  the  provinces  of  the  Plate 
Hiver  assembled  at  Tucuman  in  1810.  It  was 
resolved  that  all  the  states  should  unite  in  a  con- 
federati<)n  to  be  called  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Plate  River:  and  u  constitution  Wiis  elabor- 
ated, in  imitation  of  the  famous  one  of  the 
United  States,  providing  lor  two  legislative 
<'liiunbcrs  and  a  president.  .  .  .  Tlie  influence  of 
the  capital,  of  which  all  the  other  provinces 
were  keenly  jealous,  predominated  iit  the  con- 
gress; and  "Puyrredou,  an  active  Buenos  Ayres 
politiciuu,  was  made  supreme  Director  of   tho 


Confederation.  The  j)eopl<'  of  Buenos  Ayres 
thought  their  city  destined  to  exercise  over"  the 
rural  provinces  a  "similar  influence  to.that  which 
Athens,  under  similar  circumstances,  had  exer- 
cised in  Greece;  and  able  Buenos  Avreans  like 
Puyrredon,  San  Martin,  and  Rivadavia,  now  be- 
ciime  the  leaders  of  the  unitary  partv.  The 
powerful  ])rovincials,  represented  by  sudi  men  as 
Lopez  and  tjuiroga,  soon  found  out  that  the  Fed- 
eral sclieine  meant  th<'  supremacy  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  anil  a  political  change  which  would  deprive 
t  hem  of  most  of  their  influence.  The  Federal  .sys- 
tem, Iheiefore,  could  not  be  expected  to  last  very 
long:  and  it  did  in  fact  collapse  after  four  years. 
Artigas  led  the  revolt  in  the  Banda  Oriental 
(n;)W  Uruguay],  and  the  Hiverene  Provinces so(m 
followed  the  example.  For  a  long  time  the 
provinces  were  practically  under  the  authority 
of  their  local  chiefs,  the  only  semblance  of  politi- 
cal life  being  confined  to  Buenos  Ayres  itself." — 
E.  J.  Payne,  Jfist.  of  Kiimpean  Colonien,  ch.  17. 

Also  in:  M.  G.  Mulhall,  Tlie  Eimlish  in  8. 
America,  cJi.  10-13,  and  10-18. — J.  Miller,  Mem- 
oirs of  Ocneral  Miller,  ch.  3  (r.  1).— T.  J.  Page, 
La  Plata,  the  Argentine  Confederation  and  Para- 
ijnny,  ch.  31. 

A.  D.  1819-1874. — Anarchy,  civil  war,  despot- 
ism.— The  Ion?  struggle  for  order  and  Con- 
federation.— "A  new  Congress  met  in  1819  and 
made  a  Constitution  for  the  country,  which  was 
never  adopted  by  all  the  Provinces.  Pueyrredon 
resigned,  and  on  June  lOtli,  1819,  Jose  Rondeau 
was  elected,  who,  however,  was  in  no  condition 
to  pacify  the  civil  war  which  had  broken  out 
during  the  government  of  his  predecessors.  At 
the  commencement  of  1830,  the  last  'Director 
General '  was  overthrown ;  the  municipality  of 
the  city  of  Buenos- Aires  seized  the  government; 
the  Confederation  was  declared  dissolved,  and 
eacli  of  its  Provinces  received  liberty  to  organize 
itself  as  it  pleased.  This  was  anarchy  ollicially 
Iiroclaimed.  After  the  fall  in  the  siune  year  of 
some  military  chiefs  who  had  seized  the  power, 
Gen.  ilartin  Rodriguez  was  named  Governor 
of  Buenos- Aires,  and  he  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing some  little  order  in  this  chaos.  He  chose 
M.  J.  Garcia  and  Bernardo  Rivadavia  —  one  of 
tlie  most  enlightened  Argentines  of  his  times  — 
as  his  Ministers.  This  administration  did  a  j.-rcat 
deal  of  good  by  exchanging  conventions  of 
friendship  and  commerce,  and  entering  into 
(!■;  lomatic  relations  with  foreign  nations.  At  the 
end  of  his  term  General  Las  Ileras  —  9th  May, 
1824  —  took  charge  of  the  government,  and 
called  a  Constituent  Assembly  of  all  the  Pro- 
vinces, which  met  at  Buenos-Aires,  December 
lOtli,  and  elected  Bernn  rdo  Rivadavia  President  of 
the  newly  Confederated  Republic  on  the  7tli  Feb- 
ruary, 1835.  This  excellent  Argentine,  however, 
found  no  assistance  in  the  Congress.  No  under- 
standing could  be  come  toon  the  form  or  the  test 
of  the  Constitution,  nor  yet  ujion  the  place  of 
residence  for  the  national  Oovernnient.  Whilst 
Rivadavia  desired  a  centralized  Constitution  — 
called  here  '  unintarian  ' — and  that  the  citv  of 
Buenos- Aires  should  be  declared  capital  of  the 
Republic,  the  majority  of  Congress  held  a  dif- 
ferent opinion,  and  this  divergence  caused  the 
resignation  of  the  President  on  the  liih  July,  1827. 
After  this  event,  the  attempt  to  'stablisli  a  Con- 
federation whicli  would  include  all  the  Pro- 
vinces was  considered  as  defeated,  and  each 
Province  went  on  its  own  way,  whilst  Buenos- 


127 


ARGENTINE  HEPUBLIC,  1810-1874. 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  1880-1891. 


Aires  clfrtcd  Maiiufl  Dorrogo,  the  chief  of  the 
federal  partv,  for  its  Governor.  He  was 
Ininiffiirau'il  on  the  l.'ilh  August,  1837,  and  at 
once  miilerlook  to  organize  a  new  Confederation 
of  the  I'rovhices,  opening  relations  to  this  end 
with  the  (Joverniniiil  of  Ccirdoh.i,  the  most 
important  I'roviriee  of  the  interior.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  reCslahlishing  repose  in  the  interior, 
nnd  was  instrumental  in  preserving  a  general 
peace,  even  lieyond  the  limits  of  his  young 
country.  Tlie  Emperor  of  Hrazil  did  not  wish 
to  acknowledge  the  rights  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces over  the  Cisplaline  jirovince.  or  I5an<la 
Orii'ntal  |now  Uruguayl.  He  wished  to  annex 
it  lo  his  empire,  and  de(Jared  war  to  the  Argen- 
tine ISepuhlie  on  the  10th  of  December.  1820. 
An  army  was  soon  organized  by  the  latter,  under 
the  com'miuid  of  General  Alvear,  winch  on  the 
20th  of  February,  1827,  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  the  Brazilian  forces — twice  their 
number  —  at  the  i)lains  of  Ituzaingo,  iu  the 
Brazilian  province  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 
The  navy  <,)f  the  Argentines  also  triumphed  on 
several  occasions,  so  that  when  England  offered 
her  intervention,  Brazil  renounced  all  claim  to 
the  territory  of  Uruguay  by  the  convention  of 
the  27th  August,  1828,  and  the  two  parties 
ugreeil  to  recognize  and  to  maintain  the  neutrality 
and  independence  of  that  country.  Dorrego, 
however,  had  but  few  sympathies  in  the  army, 
and  a  short  time  after  liis  return  from  Brazil,  the 
soldiers  wider  Laviille  rebelled  and  forced  him 
to  lly  to  the  countrv  on  the  1st  December  of  the 
same  year.  There  he  found  aid  from  the  Com- 
mander General  of  the  country  districts,  Juan 
Manuel  Rosas,  and  formed  a  small  battalion  with 
the  intention  of  marching  on  the  city  of  Buenos- 
Aires.  But  Lavalle  triumphed,  took  liim 
prisoner,  and  shot  him  without  trial  on  the  18tli 
December.  .  .  .  Not  only  did  the  whole  interior 
of  the  province  of  Bnenos-Aires  rise  against 
Lavalle,  under  the  direction  of  Rosas,  but  also  a 
large  part  of  other  Provinces  considered  this 
event  as  a  declaration  of  war,  and  the  National 
Congress,  then  assembled  at  Santa-Fe,  declared 
Lavnlle's  government  illegal.  The  two  parties 
fought  with  real  fury,  but  in  1829,  after  nn  inter- 
view between  Rosas  and  Lavalle,  a  temporary 
reconciliation  was  effected.  .  .  .  The  legislature 
of  Buenos-Aires,  which  had  been  convoked  on 
account  of  the  reconciliation  between  Luvallc  nnd 
Rosas,  elected  the  latter  as  Governor  of  the  Pro- 
vince, on  December  0th,  1839,  and  accorded  to 
him  extraordinary  powers.  .  .  .  During  this  the 
first  period  of  his  government  he  did  not  appear 
in  his  true  nature,  and  at  its  conclusion  he 
refused  a  reelection  and  retired  to  the  country. 
General  Juan  1{.  Balearce  was  then  —  17th 
December,  1832— named  Governor,  but  could 
only  maintain  himself  some  eleven  months: 
Viamont  succeeded  him,  also  for  a  short  time 
only.  Now  the  moment  had  come  for  Rosas. 
He  accepted  the  almost  unlimited  Dictator.ship 
wliicli  was  offered  to  liim  on  the  7th  March,  183.5, 
and  reigned  in  a  liorrible  maimer,  like  a  mad- 
man, until  his  fall.  Several  times  the  attempt 
was  made  to  deliver  Buenos-Aires  from  his 
terrible  yoke,  and  above  all  tlie  devoted  nnd 
valiant  efforts  of  General  Lavalle  deserve  to  be 
mentioned;  but  all  was  in  vain;  Rosas  remained 
unshaken.  Finally,  General  Justo  Jose  De 
Urquiza,  Governor  of  the  province  of  Kntre- 
Rios,  iu  alliauce  with  the  province  of  Corrientes 


and  the  Em])ire  of  Brazil,  rose  r.gain.st  the 
Dictator.  He  first  delivered  the  Republic  of 
Uruguay,  and  the  city  of  Monte-Video  —  the 
a.sylum  of  the  ailversafies  of  Rosas  —  from  the 
army  which  besieged  it,  and  tliereafter  pa.ssing 
the  great  river  Parana,  with  a  relatively  large 
army,  he  completely  defeated  Rosas  at  Monte- 
Caseros,  near  Buenos- Aires,  on  the  3rd  February, 
1853.  I)nring  the  same  day,  Rosas  sought  ami 
received  the  f  rotection  of  nn  English  war- 
vessel  which  was  in  the  road  of  Buenos-Aires,  in 
which  he  went  to  England,  where  he  still  [IH70]  ' 
resides.  Meantime  Uniuiza  took  charge  of  the 
Goverimient  of  the  United  Provinces,  imder  the 
title  of  'Provisional  Director,'  and  called  a 
general  meeting  of  tlio  Governors  at  San  Nicolas, 
a  frontier  village  on  the  north  of  the  i)rovince  of 
Buenos-Aires.  This  assemblage  continued  him 
in  his  temporary  power,  and  called  a  National 
Congress  which  met  at  8anta-Fe  and  made  a 
National  Constitution  under  date  of  S.ltli  yiny, 
18.53.  By  virtue  of  this  Constitution  the  Con- 
gress met  again  tlie  following  year  at  Parana,  a 
cit}'  of  Entre-Rios,  which  had  been  made  the 
capital,  and  on  the  5th  May,  elected  General 
Unjuiza  the  first  President  of  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation. .  .  .  The  important  province  of 
Buenos- Aires,  liowever,  liad  taken  no  piirt  in  the 
deliberations  of  the  Congress.  Previously,  on 
the  11th  September  1852,  a  revolution  against 
Urquiza,  or  rather  against  the  Provincial 
Government  in  alliance  with  him,  had  taken 
place  and  caused  a  temporary  separation  of  the 
Province  from  the  Republic.  Several  efforts  to 
pacify  the  disputes  utterly  failed,  nnd  a  battle 
took "  place  at  Cepeda  in  Santa-Fe,  wherein 
Urquiza,  who  commanded  the  provincial  troops, 
was  victorious,  although  his  success  led  to  no 
definite  result.  A  short  time  after,  the  two 
armies  met  again  at  Pavou  —  near  the  site  of 
the  former  battle  —  nnd  Buenos-Aires  won  the 
day.  This  secured  the  unity  of  the  Republic 
of  which  the  victorious  General  Bartolome 
Mitre  was  elected  President  for  six  years 
from  October,  1802.  At  the  same  time  the 
National  Goverm.'ent  was  transferred  from 
Parana  to  Buenos-Alres,  and  the  latter  was 
declared  the  temporary  capital  of  the  Nation. 
The  Republic  owes  much  to  the  Government  of 
Mitre,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  would  have  done 
more  good,  if  war  had  not  broken  out  with 
P  .raguay,  in  1805  [see  Pau.uiuav].  The  Argen- 
tines took  part  in  it  as  one  of  the  three  allied 
States  against  the  Dictator  of  Paraguay,  Fran- 
cisco Solano  Lopez.  On  the  12th  October,  1808, 
Domingo  Faustino  Sarmiento  succeeded  Gen. 
Alitre  in  the  Presidency.  .  .  .  The  12tli  October, 
1874,  Dr.  Nicolas  Avellaueda  succeeded  him  in 
the  Government." — R.  Napp,  T/w  Arf/cntine 
licpuhlic,  ch.  3. 

Ai.soin:  D.  P.  Sarmiento,  Life  in  tt  e  Argentine 
Republicin  the  Days  of  the  J'l/nints. — J.  A.  King, 
Tirenti/'fitur  ycarx  in  the  Aiy/entine  Republic. 

A.  C!  1880-1891. — The  Constitution  and  its 
working.  —  Governmental  corruption.  —  The 
Revolution  of  1890,  and  the  financial  collapse. 
— "The  Argentine  constitutional  system  in  its 
(.utward  form  corresponds  closely  to  that  of  the 
United  States.  .  .  .  But  the  inward  grace  of 
enlightened  public  opinion  is  lacking,  and 
political  practice  falls  below  the  level  of  a  self- 
governing  democracy.  Congress  enacts  laws, 
but  the  Presidei  .  as"  commaudcr-iu-chief  of  the 


128 


ARGENTINE  UEPUBLIC,  1880-1891. 


AUGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION. 


array,  and  as  tho  head  of  a  civil  service  depend- 
ent "upon  Ills  will  and  cajirice,  possesses  abso- 
lute aiilliority  in  adniinistratinn.  Tlie  country 
is  jj;()veriied  by  executive  decrees  ratlier  tlian  by 
constitutional  laws.  Elections  are  carried  l)y 
military  pressure  and  nianipulalion  of  tlio  civil 
service.  .  .  .  President  Uoca  [who  succeeded 
Avellaneda  in  1880J  virtuallv  nonnnated,  and 
elected  his  brother-in-law,  .Juarez  Celnian,  as 
liis  successor.  President  Juarez  set  his  heart 
upon  controlling  tho  succession  in  the  interest  of 
one  of  his  relatives,  a  prominent  olHcial ;  l)Ut  was 
forced  to  retire  before  ho  could  carry  out  Ids 
purpose.  .  .  .  Nothing  iu  tho  Argentine  sur- 
prised me  more  than  the  boldness  and  freedom 
witli  which  the  press  attacked  the  government 
of  the  day  and  exposed  its  corruption.  .  .  .  The 
government  paid  no  lieed  to  these  attacks. 
Ministers  did  not  trotible  themselves  to  repel 
charges  affecting  their  integrity.  .  .  .  This 
wliolesome  criticism  from  an  independent  press 
had  one  important  effect.  It  gave  direction  to 
public  opinion  in  tlie  capital,  and  involved  tho 
organization  of  tlio  Union  Civica.  If  tlio  coun- 
try liiid  not  been  on  the  verge  of  a  financial 
revulsion,  there  miglit  not  have  been  tho  revolt 
against  tlie  .Juarez  administration  in  July,  1800 ; 
hut  with  ruin  and  disaster  confronting  them, 
men  turned  against  the  President  whose  incom- 
petence and  venality  would  have  been  condoned 
if  the  times  had  been  good.  The  Union  Civica 
was  founded  when  the  government  was  charged 
with  maladministration  in  sanctioning  an  iliegal 
issueof $40,000,000of papermoney.  .  .  .The gov- 
ernment was  suddenly  confronted  with  an  armed 
coalition  of  the  best  battalions  of  the  army,  the 
entire  navy.and  the  Union  Civica.  The  manifesto 
Issued  by  the  Ucvolutionary  Junta  was  a  terrible 
arraignment  of  the  political  crimes  of  the  Juarez 
Government.  .  .  .  The  revolution  opened  with 
every  prospect  of  success.  It  failed  from  tlie 
incapacity  of  the  leaders  to  co-operate  harmo- 
niously. On  July  19,  1890,  tlic  defection  of  the 
army  was  discovered.  On  July  20  the  revolt 
broke  out.  For  four  days  there  was  blooilshed 
without  definite  plan  or  purpose.  No  deter- 
mined attack  wa.s  made  upon  the  government 
palace.  Tho  fleet  opened  a  fantastic  bombard- 
ment upon  tho  suburbs.  There  was  inexplicable 
mismanagement  of  tlie  insurgent  forces,  and  on 
July  29  an  ignominious  surrender  to  the  govern- 
ment with  a  proclamation  of  general  amnesty. 
General  Roca  remained  behind  tho  scenes,  appar- 
ently master  of  the  situation,  wliile  President 
Juarez,  had  fled  to  a  place  of  refuge  on  the 
Uosario  railway,  and  two  factions  of  the  array 
were  playing  at  cross  purposes,  and  the  police 
and  the  volunteers  of  the  Union  Civica  were 
shooting  women  and  cliildrcn  in  the  streets. 
Another  week  of  hopeless  confusion  passed,  and 
General  Roca  announced  the  resignation  of 
President  Juarez  and  the  succession  of  vice- 
President  Pellegrini.  Tlieu  the  city  was  illumi- 
nated, and  for  three  days  there  was  a  pande- 
monium of  popular  rejoicing  over  a  victory  which 
nobody  except  General  Uoca  understood.  .  .  . 
In  Juno,  1891,  tho  deplorable  state  of  Argentine 
finance  was  revealed  in  a  luminous  statement 
made  by  President  Pellegrini.  .  .  .  All  business 
interests  were  stagnant.  Immigration  had  been 
diverted  to  Brazil.  ...  All  industries  wore 
prostrated  except  politics,  and  the  pernicious 
activity  displayed  by  factious  was  an  evil  augury 


for  the  return  of  prosperity.  .  .  .  During  thirty 
vears  the  country  has  trebled  its  population,  its 
increase  bein'^  relatively  much  more  rapid  than 
that  of  the  United  Statesdiiring  tlie  .siime  period. 
The  estimate  of  the  present  iiopulation  [1893]  is 
4,()0(),0()0  in  place  of  1,100,000  in  18r)7.  .  .  . 
Disiist rolls  as  tlie  results  of  political  government 
aiKl^liiiancial  disorder  have  been  in  the  Argen- 
tine, its  ultimate  recovery  by  slow  stages  is 
probable.  It  has  a  magniiicent  railway  system, 
an  industrious  working  population  recruitetl 
from  Europe,  and  nearly  all  the  material  appli- 
ances for  prtigress. "  —  I.  N.  Ford,  Tropical 
America,  ch.  0.  —  See  Constitution,  AiKiEXTiNE. 

A.  D.  1892.— Presidential  Election.— Dr. 
Luis  Saenz-Pena,  former  Cliief  Justice  of  tho 
Supreme  Court,  and  reputed  to  lie  a  .nan  of 
great  integrity  and  ability,  was  chosen  Presi- 
dent, and  inaugurated  October  12,  1893. 
» 

ARGINUSAE,  Battle  of.  See  Giieece: 
B.  C;.  400. 

ARGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION,  The.— 
"The  ship  Arg</  was  tho  theme  of  many  songs 
during  the  oldest  periods  of  the  Grecian  Epic, 
even  earlier  than  the  Odyssey.  The  king  ^-EOtOs, 
from  whom  she  is  departing,  the  liero  Jason,  who 
commands  her,  and  the  goddess  HOrC,  who 
watches  over  him,  enabling  tho  Argo  to  traverse 
distances  and  to  escape  dangers  which  no  ship 
had  ever  before  encountered,  are  all  circum- 
stances briefly  glanced  ut  by  Odysseus  in  his  nar- 
rative to  Alkinous.  .  .  .  Jason,  commanded  by 
Polias  to  depart  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece  be- 
longing to  the  speaking  ram  which  had  carried 
away  Phryxus  and  HellO,  was  encouraged  by  the 
oracle  to  invite  the  noblest  youth  of  Greece  to  his 
aid,  and  flfty  of  the  most  distinguished  amongst 
them  obeyed  the  call.  HflraklOs,  TliOseus, 
Telamon  and  PGIeus,  Kastor  and  PoUu.x,  Idas 
and  Lynkeus  —  Zfltes  and  Kalais,  the  winged 
sons  of  Boreas  —  Mcleager,  Ampliiaraus,  KPph- 
eus,  LaertOs,  Autolykus,  Men-etius,  Aktor,  Er- 
ginus  EuphCmus,  Aukieus,  Pa-as,  Periklvnienus, 
Augeas,  Eurytus,  AdmOtus,  Akastus,  ICieneiis. 
Euryalus,  POneleos  and  LCitus,  Askalaphus  and 
lalmonus,  were  among  them.  .  .  .  Since  so  many 
able  men  have  treated  it  as  an  undisputed 
reality,  and  even  made  it  the  pivot  of  systematic 
chronological  calculations,  I  may  liere  repeat  the 
opinion  long  ago  expressed  by  Ileyno,  and  even 
indicated  by  Burmann,  that  the  process  of  dis- 
secting tho  story,  in  search  of  a  basis  of  fact,  is 
one  altogether  fruitless." — G.  Grote,  Ilisl.  of 
Orccce,  i\  1,  pt.  1,  ch.  VS. — "In  the  rich  cluster 
of  myths  which  surround  the  captain  of  the 
Argo  "and  his  follows  are  preserved  to  us  the 
whole  life  and  doings  of  the  Greek  maritime 
tribes,  which  gradually  united  all  the  coasts  witli 
one  another,  and  attracted  Hellenes  dwelling  in 
the  most  different  seats  into  the  sphere  of  tlieir 
activity.  .  .  .  The  Argo  was  said  to  liave 
weighed  anchor  from  a  variety  of  ports —  from 
lolcus  in  Tliessaly,  from  Antlied<m  and  Sipliie  in 
Ba'otia:  the  home  of  Jason  liiinself  was  on 
Mount  Pelion  by  the  sea,  and  again  on  Lemnos 
and  in  Corinth;"  a  clear  proof  of  how  liomo- 
geneous  were  the  influences  running  on  various 
coasts.  However,  the  myths  of  the  Argo  were 
developed  in  the  greatest  completeness  on  the 
Pagasean  gulf,  in  the  seats  of  tlie  Miiiyi ;  and 
they  are  the  first  with  whom  a  perceptible  move- 
ment of  the  Pelasgian  tribes  beyond  the  sea  — in 


129 


AIJOONAUTK;  EXI'KDITION. 


AUGOS. 


other  words,  a  Greek  history  in  Europe  — bo- 

aiivi  "—  E.  ("iirtius,  JIM.  <'f  (Irnr,-.  hk.  1.  fh.  2-3. 

ARGOS.-ARGOLIS.-ARGIVES.— '  No 

iliHlricl  (if  (lr<'Oio  coiitaiiH  so  dciisc  a  succession 
of  powerful  eiludels  in  ii  narrow  spiiee  as  Argo- 
lis  [tlie  eastern  peninsular  proje<'tl()n  of  the 
Pelopoiuiesiis],  Lofty  liarlssa,  apparentl_>'  de- 
slgned  liy  nature  as  the  eentre  of  the  distrKil,  is 
Bureeeded  hy  Myeenie,  deep  in  the  recess  of 
the  land;  nt  "the  foot  of  th(^  mountain  lies  .Mideu, 
8t  the  brink  of  tlie  sea-eoiist  Tiryns;  and  lastly, 
nt  a  farther  distani'e  of  half  ivn  hour's  march, 
Nauplia,  with  its  liarbour.  This  succession  of 
ancient  fastnesses,  whose  iiich'structilile  struc- 
ture of  stone  we  admire  to  this  day  [see  Sehlic- 
muiin's  '  Mycout'  and  '  Tiri/ioi']  is  clear  evi- 
dence of  mighty  conllicts  wliidi  agitate<l  tlio 
earliest  days  of  Ar^os;  and  proves  that  in  this 
one  plain  of  Inachus  S(!Veral  principalities  must 
have  arisen  hy  the  side  of  one  another,  each 
l)Uttlng  Its  coiilldence  in  the  walls  of  its  (citadel ; 
some,  iiceording  to  their  position,  maintaining 
iin  intercourse  witli  other  lands  by  sea,  others 
rather  a  connection  with  the  inland  country. 
The  evidence  i)reserved  hy  lhes<^  monuments  is 
borne  out  by  that  of  the  mytlis,  according  to 
which  the  dominion  of  Danaus  is  divided  among 
his  successors.  Exiled  Pnetus  is  brought  home 
to  Argos  by  Lyc^ian  banils,  with  whose  help  he 
builds  the  coast-fortress  of  Tiryns,  where  he 
holds  swiiy  as  the  first  and  mightiest  in  the  hind. 
.  .  .  The  other  line  of  the  Danaidic  Is  also  in- 
timately connected  witli  Lyeia ;  for  Perseus  .  .  . 
[wlio]  on  Ins  return  from  the  East  founds  iMycenoB, 
as  the  new  n'gal  seat  of  the  united  kingdom  of 
Argos,  is  himself  essentially  a  Lycian  hero  of 
light,  belonging  to  tlie  religion  of  Apollo.  .  .  . 
Finnlly,  Heracles  liimself  is  connected  with  the 
family  of  the  Perseidte,  as  a  prince  born  on  tlio 
Tirynthian  fastness.  .  .  .  During  these  divisions 
in  tlio  house  of  Danaus,  and  tlie  misfortunes  be- 
falling that  of  Prietus,  foreign  families  ac(iuire 
influence  and  d(miinion  in  Argos:  these  are  of 
tlie  race  of  .Eolus,  and  originally  belong  to  the 
harbour-country  of  the  western  coast  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus—  the  Amythaonida;.  .  .  .  While  the 
dominion  of  the  Argive  land  was  thus  sub- 
divided, and  the  native  warrior  nobility  subse- 
quently exhausted  itself  in  savage  internal  feuds, 
a  new  royal  house  succeeded  in  grasping  the 
supremo  power  and  giving  an  entirely  now  im- 
portance to  the  country.  This  house  was  that 
of  the  Tantalidie  [or  Pei.oi'ips,  which  skc], 
united  with  tlie  forces  of  Achican  population. 
.  .  .  The  residue  of  fact  is,  that  the  ancient  dy- 
nasty, connected  by  descent  with.  Lyeia,  was 
overthrown  by  the  house  which  derived  its 
origin  from  Lydia.  .  .  .  The  poetic  myths,  ab- 
horring long  rows  of  names,  monti.in  three  prin- 
ces as  ruling  here  in  succession,  one  leaving  the 
sceptre  of  Pelops  to  the  other,  viz.,  Atreus,  Tliy- 
estes  and  Agamemnon.  Mycenie  is  the  chief 
seat  of  their  rule,  which  is  not  restricted  to  the 
district  of  Argos. " —  E.  Curtius,  JIM.  of  Oreere, 
bk.  1,  ch.  3. —  After  the  Doric  invasion  of  the 
Peloponnesus  (see  Gueeck:  TiiI':  Miouationk; 
also,  D<)i(i.\N8  AND  loNiANs),  Argos  appears  in 
Greek  history  as  a  Doric  state,  originally  the 
foremost  one  in  power  and  intliieneo,  but  humili- 
ated after  long  years  of  rivalry  by  her  Spartan 
neighbours,  "  Argos  never  forgot  that  she  had 
once  been  the  chief  power  in  the  peninsula,  and 
her  feeling  towards  Sparta  was  that  of  a  jealous 


but  impotent  competitor.  By  what  steps  the 
decliiii!  other  power  had  taken  place,  we  are  un- 
able to  make  out,  nor  can  we  trace  the  succes- 
sion of  her  kings  subseijuent  to  Pheidon  [Htli 
century  H.  t'.  ].  '.  .  .  The  title  [of  king]  existed 
(tliougli  iiroliably  witli  verv  limited  functions) 
at  the  time  of  tlie  Persian  War  [H.  V.  4()(M7!)|. 
.  .  .  There  is  some  ground  for  presuming  that 
the  king  of  Argos  was  even  at  that  time  a  Iler- 
akleid  —  since  the  Sparl -ns  olTered  to  him  a 
third  ])art  of  tlie  comniaiid  of  the  llelleni(^  force, 
conjointly  with  their  own  two  king.s.  The  con- 
(piest  of  Thyreates  by  the  Spartans  [about  547 
B.  C]  deprived  the  Argeians  of  a  valuable  por- 
tion of  their  I'eri(ekis,  or  dependent  territory. 
But  Orneie  and  the  remaining  portion  of  Kynu- 
ria  still  continued  to  belong  to  them:  tlie  plain 
round  their  city  was  very  productive;  and,  ex- 
cept Sparta,  then;  was  no  other  power  in  Pelo- 
ponnesus superior  to  them.  Mykenie  and  Tiryns, 
nevertheless,  seem  both  to  have  been  indepen- 
dent states  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  War,  since 
both  sent  contingents  to  the  battle  of  Plata'a, 
at  a  time  whe«  Argos  held  aloof  and  rather 
favoured  the  Persians." — G.  Grote,  Jlist.  of 
(lirm;  pt.  3,  eli.  8  (».  2). 

B.  C,  406-421.  — Calamitous  War  with 
Sparta. —  Non-action  in  the  Persian  War. — 
Slow  recovery  of  the  crippled  State. — "One 
of  the  heaviest  blows  which  Argos  ever  sustained 
at  the  hand  of  her  traditional  foe  befell  her  about 
496  B.  C,  six  years  before  the  first  Persian  in- 
vasion of  Greece.  A  war  with  Sparta  having 
broken  out,  Clcomenes,  the  Lacedoemonian  king, 
succeeded  in  landing  a  large  army,  in  vessels  he 
had  extorted  from  the  .lEjjinetans,  at  Nauplia, 
and  ravaged  the  Argive  territory.  The  Argeians 
mustered  all  their  forces  to  resist  lilm,  and  the 
two  armies  encamped  opposite  each  other  near 
Tiryns.  Cleomenes,  however,  contrived  to  at- 
tack the  Argeians  nt  a  moment  when  they  were 
unprepared,  making  use,  if  HerodotuL  is  to  be 
credited,  of  a  stratagem  which  proves  the  ex- 
treme incapacity  of  the  opposing  generals,  and 
completely  routed  them.  The  Argeians  took 
refuge  in  a  sacred  grove,  to  which  the  remorse- 
less Spartans  set  lire,  and  so  destroyed  almost 
the  whole  of  them.  No  fewer  than  6,000  of  the 
citizens  of  Argos  perished  on  this  disastrous  day. 
Cleomenes  might  have  captured  the  city  itself; 
but  he  was,  or  affected  to  be,  hindered  by  un- 
favourable omens,  and  drew  off  his  troops.  The 
lo.ss  sustained  by  Argos  was  so  severe  as  to  re- 
duce her  for  some  years  to  a  condition  of  great 
weakness;  but  this  was  at  the  time  a  fortunate 
circumstance  for  tlie  Hellenic  cause,  inasmuch  as 
it  enabled  the  Laccdsemonians  to  devote  their 
whole  energies  to  the  work  of  resistance  to  the 
Persian  invasion  without  fear  of  enemies  at  home. 
In  this  great  work  Argos  took  no  part,  on  the 
occasion  of  either  the  first  or  second  attempt  of 
the  Persian  kings  to  bring  Hellas  under  their 
dominion.  Indeed,  the  city  was  strongly  sus- 
pected of  '  medising '  tendencies.  In  the  period 
following  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Persians, 
while  Aniens  was  pursuing  the  splendid  career 
of  aggrandisement  and  conquest  that  made  her 
the  foremost  state  in  Qrt?ece,  and  while  the  Lace- 
diBinonians  were  paralyzed  by  the  revolt  of  the 
Messeuians,  Argos  regained  strength  and  in- 
fluence, whicli  she  at  once  employed  and  in- 
creased by  the  harsh  policy  ...  of  dc^popula- 
tiug  Mycena;  and  Tiryns,  while  she  compelled 


130 


AUGOS. 


0 


AHIANISM. 


Kcvpral  other  scmi-indepcmlent  places  in  tlic  Ar- 
(ioliii  ti>  acknowledge  her  .sii|)rema(y.  Duriiij; 
the  lirst  elevn  y<'ars  of  tlu?  Pclopoiniesian  war, 
down  to  the  peace  of  N'ieias  (4Jl  11.  C),  Ari;oM 
held  aloof  from  all  partici|)ation  in  the  stniKK'e, 
adding  to  her  wealth  and  perfecting  her  nulitary 
organization.  Ah  to  her  domestic  conditions  and 
political  system,  little  is  known;  but  it  is  certain 
that  the  governnfcnt,  unlike  that  of  other  Oorian 
Btates,  was  democratic  in  its  character,  though 
then'  was  in  the  city  a  strong  oligarchic  and 
philo-Laconian  party,  which  was  destined  to  e.\- 
ercise  a  decisive  inlluenceatuu  important  crisis." 
—  C  II.  llan.son,  Tlie  hind  of  Greece,  ch.  10. 

Ai-so  IN:  O.  Orote,  llist.  of  Oreeco,  pt.  2,  eh.  30 
(c.  4). 

B.  C.  421-418.  —  League  formed  against 
Sparta. — Outbreak  of  War. — Defeat  at  Man- 
tinea.  —  Revolution  in  the  Oligarchical  and 
Spartan  interest.     See  CiuKixi;:  IS.  (',  4.;i-tlM. 

B.  C.  395-387.— Confederacy  against  Sparta. 
— The  Corinthian  War. — Peace  of  Antalcidas. 
SeeUiiEicK:    IJ.  C.  *Jl)-;{87. 

B.  C.  371. — Mob  outbreak  and  massacre  of 
chief  citizens.     See  Oukkck:    B.  C.  ;i71-;ili>'. 

B.  C.  338.— Territories  restored  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.     See  (JiiKixi;:    15.  (;.  ;J.")7-;j3(i. 

B.  C.  271. — Repulse  and  death  of  Pyrrhus, 
king  of  Epirus.  See  ^I.vckdo.nia:  B.  C'.  277- 
2-14. 

B.  C.  229. — Liberated  from  Macedonian  con- 
trol.    SeeGltliKCK:    B.  t!.  280-140. 

A.  D.  267. — Ravaged  by  the  Goths.  See 
GoTiis:    A.  1).  258-207. 

A.  D.  395.— Plundered  by  the  Goths.  See 
Gorim:    A.  1).  31)5. 

A.  D.  1463. — Taken  by  the  Turks,  retaken 
by  the  Venetians.  See  Giiiibxic:  A.  1).  1454- 
147'J. 

A.  D.  1686.— Taken  by  the  Venetians.  See 
TuuKs:    A.  U.  1084-1090. 


ARGYRASPIDES,  The.—  "  lie  [Alexander 
the  Great]  then  marclied  into  India,  that  he 
might  have  his  empire  bounded  by  the  ocean, 
and  the  extreme  parts  of  tlie  East.  That  the 
equipments  of  his  army  might  be  suitable  to  the 
glory  of  the  Expedition,  he  mounted  the  trap- 
pings of  the  horses  and  tlie  arms  of  the  soldiers 
with  silver,  and  called  a  body  of  his  men,  from 
having  silver  shields,  Argyraspides." — Justin, 
Ilistori/  (trans,  by  J.  IS.  Wntson),  bk.  12,  ch.  7. 

Also  in:  C.  Thirl  wall,  Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  58. 
—See,  also,  Macedonia:  B.  C.  323-316. 

ARGYRE.     See  Ciikvsk. 

ARI  A.— ARE  lOS.— ARE  I  ANS.— The  nilmo 
by  which  the  Ilerirud  and  its  valley,  the  district 
of  modern  Herat,  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Its  inhabitants  were  known  as  the  Arei- 
ans.— M.  Duncker,  lUst.  of  Anliq.,  bk.  7,  ch.  1. 

ARIANA. — "  Strabo  uses  the  name  Ariana 
for  the  land  of  all  the  nation.s  of  Iran,  except 
that  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  i.  e. ,  for  the 
whole  eastern  half  of  Iran" — Afghanistan  and 
Bcloochistan. —  M.  Duncker,  llist.  of  Antiquity, 
V.  5,  bk.  7,  ch.  1. 

ARIANJSM.—  ARIANS.— Prom  the  second 
century  of  its  existence,  the  Christian  church 
was  divided  by  bitter  controversies  touching  the 
mystery  of  the  Trinity.  "The  word  Trinity  is 
found  neither  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  nor  in  the 
writings  of  the  first  Christians ;  but  it  had  been 
employed  from  the  beginning  of  the   •>coud  cen- 


t\iry,  when  a  more  metupliysical  turn  had  been 

given  to  the  nunds  of  men.  and  theologians  Inul 
begiui  to  allcnipt  to  .plain  the  divine  nature. 
.  .  .  The  Eouiidc  ol  the  new  ridlgion,  the 
Being  who  lia<l  brought  upon  earth  a  divine 
light,  was  he  God,  was  ho  man.  was  ho  of  an  in- 
termediate nature,  and,  thouf.'h  superior  to  all 
other  creati'd  beings,  yet  him.self  created  ?  This 
latter  opinion  waslielll  by  Alius,  an  Alexandrian 
priest,  who  niaintain('<l  it  in  a  series  of  learned 
controversial  works  tietwecn  the  yars  318  and 
325.  As  soon  as  the  discussion  had  (pillled  the 
walls  of  the  .schools,  and  been  taken  up  by  the 
people,  mutual  accusiitions  of  the  gravest  kind 
took  the  jilace  of  metaphysical  subtleties.  The 
orthodox  party  reproached  the  Arians  with 
blaspheming  the  deity  hiinsclf,  by  refusing  to 
acknowledge  hlin  in  tiie  person  of  Christ.  The 
Arians  accused  the  orthodo.v  of  violating  the 
liiiidamenlal  law  of  religion,  by  rendering  to  the 
creature  the  worship  due  only  to  tlu!  Creator. 
...  It  was  dillicult  to  decide  which  numbered 
the  largest  body  of  followers;  but  the  ardent  en- 
tliusiastic  spirits,  the  jiopulace  in  all  the  great 
cities  (and  especially  at  Alexandria)  tlie  women, 
and  the  newly-founded  order  of  tlie  monks  of 
the  desert  .  .  .  were  almost  without  exception 
partisans  of  the  faith  which  has  since  been  de- 
clared orthodox.  .  .  .  Constantine  thought  tliia 
(piestion  of  dogma  might  be  decided  by  an  as- 
sembly of  the  whole  church.  Iii  the  year  325, 
ho  convoked  the  couru-il  of  Nice  [see  Nlc.KA, 
Council  oi'-l,  at  which  300  bishops  pronounced 
in  favour  ot  the  equality  of  the  Son  with  the 
Father,  or  the  doctrine  generally  regarded  as 
orthodox,  and  condemned  the  Arians  to  exile 
and  their  books  to  the  llames. " — J.  C.  L.  de  Sis- 
mondi.  Fall  of  the  liomim  J'Juijiire,  ch.  4. —  '  Tho 
victorious  faction  [at  the  Council  of  Nice]  .  .  . 
anxiously  .sought  for  some  irreconcilable  mark 
of  distinction,  the  rejection  of  which  might  in- 
volve the  Arians  in  tlie  guilt  and  consequences 
of  heresy.  A  letter  was  publicly  read  and  igno- 
miniously  torn,  in  which  their  patron.  Eusebius 
of  Xicomedia,  ingeniously  confessed  that  the  ad- 
mi-ssion  of  the  hoinoousion,  or  consubstantial,  a 
wortl  already  familiar  to  the  Platonists,  was  in- 
compatible with  the  principles  of  their  theo- 
logical system.  The  fortunate  opportunity  was 
eagerly  embraced.  .  .  .  The  consulistanliality 
of  the  Father  and  the  Son  Wiis  established  by  the 
Council  of  Nice,  and  has  been  unanimously  re- 
ceived as  a  fundaineulal  article  of  the  Christian 
faith  by  the  consent  of  the  Greek,  the  Latin,  the 
Oriental  and  the  Protestant  churches."  Not- 
withstanding the  decision  of  the  Council  of 
Nice  against  it,  the  lieresj'  of  Ariiis  continued  to 
gain  ground  in  the  East.  Even  the  Emperor 
C/'onstantino  became  friendly  to  it,  and  the  sons 
of  Constantine,  witli  some  of  the  later  emperors 
who  followed  them  on  the  eastern  throne,  wero 
ardent  Arians  in  belief.  The  Homoousians,  or 
orthodox,  were  subjected  to  persecution,  which 
was  directed  with  special  bitterness  against  their 
great  leader,  Athaiiasius,  the  famous  bishop  of 
Alexandria.  But  Arianism  was  weakened  by 
hair-splitting  distinctions,  which  resulted  in 
many  diverging  creeds.  "The  sect  which  as- 
serted the  doctrine  of  a  'similar  substance'  was 
the  I.'  -it  numerous,  at  least  in  the  provinces  of 
Asia.  .  .  .  The  Greek  word  which  was  chosen 
to  express  this  mysterious  resemblance  bears  so 
close  on  affinity  to  tho  orthodox  symbol,  that  the 


131 


AlUANISM. 


ARIZONA. 


priifiini-  iif  every  iiffe  Imvc  deriilcd  tlie  furious 
(KiiilcHtH  wlili'h  the  ililTcriiKc  nf  ii  single  diph- 
tliDiiif  exiilcil  lielwcen  llie  IIomiMJiisiiitis  iind  th(^ 
lloiiuiioiisiuiiM."  The  l-aliii  (liurehes  of  the 
WeKt,  with  Home  at  their  liead,  remained  (,'<•»• 
erallv  (Inn  in  tlie  ortliodoxy  of  the  Ilonioousian 
rreed  lint  tlie  (lollis.  wlio  liad  reeeived 
tlieir  Christianity  from  tlie  Kast,  tinctured  with 
Arianisni.  earrii'd  that  heresy  westward,  anil 
spread  it  amoiiir  tlieir  Imrlmriaii  iieiL'libiirs  — 
Vandals,  Hiirfjiindiansand  Sueves  — through  the 
inlliiiiiee  of  the  (lotliie  Hible  of  Ultiliis,  which 
lie  and  his  missionary  successors  bore  to  the  Teu- 
tonic iieopies.  "  TIu!  Vandals  and  Ostrogoths 
persevered  in  the  professhm  of  Arianisni  till  the 
tinal  ruin  [A.  I).  ^<-V-i  and  SWJ  of  the  kingdoms 
wliicli  they  had  founded  in  Africii  and  Italy. 
Tin-  biirbariaiis  of  Gaul  submitted  FA.  1).  5071 
to  the  orthodox  dominion  of  the  t ranks;  and 
Spain  was  restored  toi'ie  C'atholii^  Church  by 
the  voluntary  conversion  of  the  Visigoths  [A.  I). 
r>Hi)]."  — E.  Oibbon,  JJtdiiie  and  Fall  <if  tin: 
ILtiima  Kmpiiv,  '•li.  21  mitl  87.  —  TheiMlosius 
formally  proclaimed  his  adhesion  to  Trinitarian 
orthoilo.xy  by  his  celebrated  edic't  of  A.  O.  380, 
and  coinman'ded  its  acceptance  in  the  Kastern 
Kmpire.  Sue  UoMK:  A.  D.  379-aU,).— A.  Nc- 
iindiir,  (nil.  J  fiat,  of  Uhrist.  Rd.  ami  Ch.,  trans, 
by  Torn/,  i:  2.  Htrl.  4. 

Alsoin;  J.  Alzog,  Maniinl  nf  Univ.  Ch.  Hint., 
sect.  UO-114.— W.  G.  T.  Shedd,  Jlist.  of  Cliiint. 
Doctrine,  bk.  3.  —  J.  II.  Newman,  Ariam  of  the 
Foiiiih  Century. — A.  P.  Stanley,  Lecta.  on  the 
Hint,  of  the  East.  Ch.,  lects.  3-7.— J.  A.  Dorner, 
Jlinl.  of  the  Derelopmeiit  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Person  of  Christ,  din.  1  (p.  2).— See,  also,  GoTiis: 
A.  D.  341-381;  Fiiasks:  A.  1).  481-511;  also, 
GoTiis (Visigoths):  A.  I).  507-509. 

ARICA,  Battle  of  (i88o).  See  Cuile:  A.  D. 
183;(-1HH4. 

ARICIA,  Battle  of.— A  victory  won  by  the 
Romans  over  the  Aunincians,  U.  C.  497,  which 
8iimniarily  ended  a  war  that  the  latter  had  de- 
clared against  the  former. — Livv,  Hist,  of  Rome, 
bk.  2.  ch.  20. 

ARICIAN  GROVE,  The.— The  sacred  grove 
at  .Vricia  (one  of  the  towns  of  old  Latium,  near 
Alba  Louga)  was  the  center  and  meeting-place 
of  nn  early  league  among  the  Latin  peoples, 
about  which  little  is  known. — W.  Ihnc,  llisi.  of 
lionie,  bk.  2,  ch.  8.— Sir.  W.  Gell,  Toixy.  of  Row:. 
V.  1. — "On  the  northern  shore  of  the  lake  Wjt 
Nemi]  right  under  the  precipitous  cliffs  on  which 
the  mmlern  village  of  Nemi  is  perched,  stood  Iht 
sacred  grove  and  sanctuary  of  Diana  Ncmoreus.,,, 
or  Diana  of  the  Wood.  .  .  .  The  site  was  ex- 
cavated ill  1885  by  Sir  John  Saville  Lumley, 
English  ambassivdor  at  Home.  For  a  geneml 
description  of  the  site  and  excavations,  sei  the 
Atheiiieum,  lOth  October,  1885.  For  details  of 
the  tinds  see  '  IJuUetino  dell '  Instituto  di  Corris- 
poudenza  Archcologica,'  1885.  .  .  .  The  lake 
and  the  grove  were  sometimes  known  as  the  lake 
and  grove  of  Aricia.  But  the  town  of  Aricia 
(the  modern  La  Uiccia)  was  situated  about  three 
miles  off,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alban  Mount.  .  .  . 
According  to  one  story,  the  worship  of  Diana  at 
Nemi  was  instituted  by  Orestes,  who,  after 
killing  Tlioas,  Kinjj  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese 
(the  Crimea),  lied  with  his  sister  to  It^ily,  bring- 
ing with  him  the  image  of  the  Tauric  Diana. 
.  .  .  Within  the  sanctuary  at  Nemi  grew  a  cer- 
tain tree,  of  which  uo  branch  might  be  broken. 


Only  a  runaway  slave  was  allowed  to  break  off, 
if  lie  could,  one  of  its  boiiglis.  Success  in  thu 
attempt  entitled  him  to  light  the  priest  in  single 
conilmt,  and  if  lie  slew  him  lie  rcigiu'd  in  his 
stead  with  the  title  of  King  of  tlic^  Wood  (I{ex 
Neniorciisis).  Tradition  averred  that  the  fateful 
branch  was  that  Golden  IJoigh  which,  at  the 
Sibyls  bidding.  .Kiieas  plucked  before  he 
essayed  the  perilous  journey  to  the  world  of  the 
dead.  .  .  .  This  rule  of  succession  by  the  sword 
was  observed  down  to  imperial  times;  for 
aniongst  his  other  freaks  Caligula,  thinking  that 
the  priest  of  Nemi  had  held  olllce  too  long, 
hired  a  more  stalwart  riitllan  to  slay  him." — J. 
G.  Fra/er.  The  (rolilen  Umi/h,  ch.  1,  sect.  1. 

ARICONIUM.— A  town  of  Himian  Ilritaiu 
which  appeals  to  have  been  the  principal  mart 
of  till!  iron  manufacturing  industry  in  the  Forest 
of  Dean.  — T.  Wright,  IVie  Celt,  the  Itoman  and 
the  Siuon,  ji.  101. 

ARII,  The.    Sei'  Lyoians. 

ARIKARAS,  The.  See  Amehican  Abori- 
(Ji.SK.s:  I'awx      (Caddoan)  Family. 

ARIMINUlvi. — The  Hoiiian  cohmy,  planted 
in  the  third  ccntiry  H.  C,  which  grew  into  the 
niodcrii  city  of  liimini.  See  Ko.Mi;:  H.  C.  295- 
191. — When  Ciesar  entered  Italy  as  an  invader, 
crossing  the  frontier  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  —  the 
Kiibicon  —  his  first  movement  was  to  occupy 
Ariminum.  He  halted  there  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  making  his  preparations  for  the  civil  war 
which  he  had  now  entered  upon  and  waiting  for 
till!  two  legions  that  he  had  ordered  from  Gaul. 
—  C.  Merivale,  Ili.it.  of  the  Itomiuis,  ch.  '4. 

ARIOVALDUS,  King  of  the  Lombards, 
A.  D.  020-038. 

ARISTEIDES,  Ascendancy  of.  See  Ath- 
ens: B.  C.  477-4(!2. 

ARISTOCRACY.- OLIGARCHY.— 
"  Aristocracy  signifies  the  rule  of  the  best  men. 
If,  however,  this  epithet  is  referred  to  an  absoluto 
ideal  standard  of  excellence,  it  is  manifest  that 
an  aristocratical  government  is  a  mere  abstract 
notion,  which  has  nothing  in  history,  or  in  nature, 
to  correspond  to  it.  But  if  wo  content  ourselves 
with  t.iking  the  same  terms  in  a  relative  sense, 
.  .  .  aristocracy  .  .  .  will  bo  that  form  of  gov- 
ernment in  which  the  ruling  few  are  distin- 
guished from  the  multitude  by  illustrious  birth, 
hereditary  wealth,  and  personal  merit.  .  .  . 
AVhenever  such  aclmnge  took  place  in  the  char- 
acter or  the  relative  position  of  the  ruling  body, 
that  it  no  longer  commanded  tho  respec  -if  its 
subjects,  but  found  itself  opposed  to  then,,  and 
compelled  to  direct  its  measures  chiefly  to  tho 
preservation  of  its  power,  it  ceased  to  be,  in  tlio 
Greek  sense  an  aristocracy ;  it  became  a  faction, 
an  oligarchy." — C.  Thirl  wall,  Uist.  of  Greece, 
ch.  10. 

ARISTOMNEAN  WAR.  Sec  Messeniaw 
Wahs,  Fihst  and  Second. 

ARIZONA:  The  Name. — "Arizona,  proba- 
bly Arizonac  in  its  original  form,  was  the  native 
and  probably  Pima  name  of  the  place — of  a 
hill,  valley,  stream,  or  some  other  local  feature 
— just  south  of  the  modern  boundary,  in  tlio 
mountains  still  so  called,  on  the  headwaters  of 
the  stream  flowing  past  Saric,  where  the  famous 
Planchas  do  Plat-a  mine  was  discovered  in  tlie 
middle  of  the  18tli  century,  the  name  being  first 
known  to  Spaniards  in  that  connection  and  being 
a])plied  to  the  mining  camp  or  real  de  minas. 
The   aboriginal   meaning   of   the    term  is  not 


132 


ARIZONA. 


ARKANSAS. 


known,  though  from  llio  conimnn  oocurn'nrc  in 
this  region  of  tlui  prolix  'iiri,'  tlic  riM)t  'son,'  imd 
tlio  terniiuiition  'or,'  tlic  dcriviilion  ought  not  to 
csciipu  till!  ri'wiircli  of  i\  conipotont  Htiulcnl. 
iSucli  guesscH  UH  iiro  extant,  founiivd  on  tin;  niitivi; 
tongiR'M,  olTcr  only  tlic  Imri'st  pos.sil)llUy  of  a 
iwrliai  nnd  iicciciontid  accuracy;  wliilo  similar 
derivations  from  tlio  Spunisii  arc  extremely 
alisurd.  .  .  .  Tlic  name  slioidd  properly  he  writ- 
ten and  pronounced  Arisona,  as  our  Knglisli 
•sound  of  the  z  docs  not  occur  in  Spanisli." — 
H.  II.  Uancroft,  JIi»t.  of  the  IMeific  States,  v.  13, 
p.  520. 
Aboriginal      Inhabitants.     Sco     Amekic.vn 

.VlloUKM.NKS:    PlKIll-DS,    Al'ACIIE     Qiiori',    Siio- 

HUoNK.vN  Family,  ano  Utaiis. 

A.  D.  1848.— Partial  acquisition  from  Mex- 
ico.    See  .^IKXI(■():  A.  I).  IMW. 

A.  D.  1853.— Purchase  by  the  United  States 
of  the  southern  part  from  Mexico.— The  Gads- 
den Treaty.— "On  nccemlier  80,  MTti,  James 
(ladsdeii,  L iiitod  States  minister  to  Mexico,  con- 
cluded II  treaty  by  which  the  boundary  line  was 
moveil  southward  so  as  to  give  the  United  States, 
for  a  monetary  consideration  of  S10,000,0(M),  all  of 
niiidern  Arizoim  south  of  the  Gila,  an  elTort  so 
to  lix  tlie  line  as  to  include  a  port  on  the  gulf 
being  unsuccessful.  .  .  .  On  the  face  of  the 
matter  this  Gadsden  treaty  was  a  tolerably  satis- 
fiictory  settlement  of  a  boundary  dis|)ut(',  mi<l  a 
purchase  by  the  United  States  of  a  route  for 
II  southern  railroad  to  California." — II.  II.  Ban- 
croft, Hist,  of  the  Piicifc  States,  v.  13,  ch.  30. 

ARKANSAS,  The.  Sco  Ameiiican  Ano- 
KUiiNKs:  SioiiAN  Family. 

ARKANSAS:  A.  D.  1542— Entered  by  Her- 
nando de  Soto.  See  Floiuda:  A.  I).  1538- 
1543. 

A,  D.  1803. — Embraced  in  the  Louisiana 
Purchase.     See  Louisiana:  A.  I).  17iW-lH03. 

A.  D.  1810-1836.— Detached  from  Missouri. 
—Organized  as  a  Territory. — Admitted  as  a 
State. — "  Preparatory  to  tlic  assumption  of 
.state  government,  the  limits  of  the  Missouri 
Territory  were  restricted  on  the  south  by  the 
pamllel  of  30^  30'  north.  The  restriction  was 
made  by  an  act  of  Congress,  approved  March  3, 
1819,  entitled  nn  'Act  establishing  a  separate 
territorial  government  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Mis-sourl  Territory. '  The  portion  thus  sep- 
arated was  subsequently  organized  into  the 
second  grade  of  territorial  government,  and 
Colonel  James  Miller,  a  meritorious  and  distin- 
guished officer  of  the  Northwestern  army,  was 
appointed  first  governor.  This  territory  was 
known  os  the  Arkansas  Territory,  and,  at  the 
period  of  its  first  organization,  contained  an 
aggregate  of  nearly  14,000  inhabitants.  Its 
limits  comprised  all  the  territory  on  the  west  side 
of  tlie  Mississippi  between  tlio  parallels  33''  and 
30°  30'.  or  between  the  northern  limit  of  Loui- 
siana and  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State  of 
Missouri.  On  tl»e  west  it  extended  indeflnitely 
to  the  >Iexican  territories,  at  least  550  miles. 
The  Post  of  Arkansas  was  made  the  seat  of  the 
new  government.  Tho  population  of  this  exten- 
sive territory  for  several  years  was  comprised 
chietly  in  the  settlements  upon  the  tributaries  of 
White  River  and  the  St.  Francis ;  upon  the  Mis- 
sissippi, between  New  Madrid  and  Point  Chicot; 
and  upon  both  sides  of  the  Arkansas  River, 
within  100  miles  of  its  mouth,  but  especially  in 


tho  vicinity  of  tho  Post  of  Arkansas.  ...  So 
fei'ble  was  the  attraction  in  this  remote  region 
for  the  active,  industrious,  and  wclldlsposed 
liortion  of  the  western  pioneers,  that  the  Arkan- 
sas Territory,  in  1830,  ten  years  after  its  organi- 
zation, had  ac(iuired  an  aggregate  of  only  30,388 
souls,  including  4,. 570  slaves.  .  .  .  The  western 
half  of  the  territory  had  been  erected,  in  1834, 
into  a  separate  district,  to  be  reserved  for  tho 
future  residence  of  the  Indian  trilies,  and  to  bo 
known  as  the  Indian  Territory.  From  tills  time 
the  tiilo  of  emigration  began  to  set  more  actively 
into  Arkan.sas,  as  well  as  into  otlier  portions  of 
the  southwest.  .  .  .  The  territory  increased  rap- 
idly for  several  years,  and  the  census  of  1835 
gave  the  whole  number  of  inhabitants  at  .58,134 
souls,  including  9,((;10  slaves.  Thus  the  Arkan- 
sas Territory  in  the  last  five  years  had  doubled 
its  population.  .  .  .  The  people,  through  tho 
General  Assembly,  made  application  to  Congress 
f(jr  authority  to  establish  a  regular  form  of  state 
government.  The  assent  of  (Congress  was  not 
withheld,  and  a  Convention  was  authorized  to 
meet  at  Little  Rock  on  the  first  day  of  January, 
1830,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  and  adopting  a 
State  Constitution.  Tlio  same  was  approved  by 
Congress,  and  on  the  13tli  of  Juno  following  tho 
State  of  Arkansas  was  admitted  into  the  Fedeml 
Uiii(m  as  an  independent  state,  and  was,  in  point 
of  time  and  order,  the  twenty-fifth  in  the  con- 
federacy. .  .  .  Like  the  Jlissouri  Territory, 
Arkansas  had  been  a  slaveholding  country  from 
the  earliest  French  colonies.  Of  course,  the 
institution  of  negro  slavery,  with  proper  checks 
and  limits,  was  sustained  by  the  new  Constitu- 
tion."— J.  W.  Monette,  Disrocery  and  Settlement 
if  the  VaUei/  of  the  Misaimppi,  bk.  5,  ch.  17  (». 
3). — See,  also,  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1818-1831. 

A.  D.  i86i  (March). — Secession  voted  down. 
See  United  St.\tes  op  A.m.  :  A.  U.  lUOl  (.Mahcii 

— Al'IlIL). 

A.  D.  i86i  (April).— Governor  Rector's  reply 
to  President  Lincoln's  call  for  troops.  See 
United  St.vtes  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1801  (Ai'Uii.). 

A.  D.  1862  (January — March). — Advance  of 
National  forces  into  the  State.— Battle  of  Pea 
Ridge.  See  United  States  of  Asi.  :  A.  D. 
1863(.Ianuary — March :  Missouui— Aiwansas). 

A.  D.  1862  (July— September).— Progress  of 
the  Civil  War.  See  United  States  ok  Am.  : 
A.  U.  1803  (July — Septe.miieu:  JIissouui — 
Arkansas). 

A.  D.i862(December).— The  Battle  of  Prairie 
Grove.  See  Unitei>  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1803  (Septemueu  —  Dece-Muei;:  Missouri — 
Arkansas). 

A.  D.  1863  (January). — The  capture  of 
Arkansas  Post  from  the  Confederates.  Seo 
United  .States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1803  (January: 
Arkansas). 

A.  D.  1863  (July).— The  defence  of  Helena. 
See  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1803  (July: 
On  the  Mississippi). 

A.  D.  1863  (August— October).— The  break- 
ing of  Confederate  authority. — Occupation  of 
Little  Rock  by  National  forces.  Seo  United 
States  ok  Am.  :  A.  I).  1803  (Auuust — October: 
Arkansas — Missouri). 

A.  D.  1864  (March— October).— Last  im- 
portant operations  of  the  War.-^Price's  Raid. 
Seo  United  States  ok  A.m.  :  A.  I).  1804  (iLutcu 
—October:  A«k.\N8A8— Missouri). 


133 


ARKANSAS. 


ARMENIA. 


A.  D.  i86^.— First  steps  toward  Reconstruc- 
tion. Sec  I  NiTKi)  StatI'.s  of  a.m.  :  A.  I).  1803- 
IMft-t  (DKCK.Miir.u— .Iii.y). 

A.  D.  1865-1868.— Reconstruction  com- 
pleted. Sco  L'.MTKn  St.vtesof  Am.  :  A.  D.  186.'5 
(May— Jni,Y).  to  1808-1870. 

ARKITES,  The.— A  Cnnannite  tribe  who 
oriiipicd  llic  pliiin  ncirtli  of  [/olianon. 

ARKWRIGHT'S  SPINNING  MACHINE, 
OR  WATER-FRAME,  The  invention  of. 
Sec  CoiTDN  .\I.\.m;k,\(TUUK. 

ARLES:  Origin.     Sec  Sai.yeb. 

A.  D.  411.  —  Double  siege.  Soe  Rritai.n: 
A.  i).  107. 

A.  D.   425.  —  Besieged  by  the  Goths.    Sec 

(foTHH  (Vlsl'dDTlIf):    \.    1).   41!>-t.")l. 

A.  D.  508-510.— Siege  by  the  Franks.— After 

lh(^  overthrow  of  the  V'lsif,'()thic  kiiiKilom  of 
Toulouse,  A.  I).  .507,  by  tho  victory  of  Clovls, 
kiiiK  of  till!  Franks,  at,  Voclail,  near  Poitiers. 
•'  tln^  preat  city  of  Aries,  once  the  Roman  capital 
of  (iaul,  rnaintaincil  a  gallant  (lefenee  against 
the  united  Franks  ami  l{iirj:un(liaus,  anil  saved 
for  peneralions  tlie  Visiirotliic  rule  in  Provence 
and  .southern  riauiriiedoc.  (Jf  tlio  siege,  which 
lasted  aitparently  from  .lOS  to  ."dO,  we  have  some 
gnipliic  (letails  intliclifeof  St.  (Jicsarius.  Bishop 
of  Aries,  written  by  his  disciples."  The  city 
was  relieved  in  .510  bv  an  O.strogothic  army,  sent 
by  king  ThcDdoric  of  Italy,  after  a  great  battle 
in  which  ;!0,0(H)  Franks  "were  reporle<l  to  be 
slain.  "The  result  of  llie  battle  of  Aries  w\s  to 
put  TheiMlorie,  in  secure  pos.se.-ision  of  all  Pro- 
vence and  of  so  much  of  Jyanguedoc  as  was 
needful  to  ensure  liis  access  to  Spain" — where 
the  Ostrogolhic  king,  as  guardian  of  his  infant 
grandson,  Amalaric,  was  taking  (arc  of  the  Visi- 
gotliie  kuigdoni.  — T.  ilodgkin,  Jtali/  ami  llci-  In- 
milrnt.  Iik\  4,  eh.  !). 

A.  D.  933.— Formation  of  the  kingdom.  See 
BiiKirNov:  A.  I).  8i:i-!i;i;i. 

A.  D.  1032-1378.  —  The  breaking  up  of  the 
kingdom  and  its  gradual  absorption  in  France. 
S"o  litnotNDV:  A.  I).  10;t'.2.  and  ll'.iT-l:!7.S. 

1092-1207.  —  The  gay  court  of  Provence. 
See  PuovKNCi;:  A.  1).  !)l;!-l()!)2.  and  llTO-ieO'. 

ARMADA,  The  Spanish.     Sec    Enol.\nd: 
A.  1).  l.")SS. 
ARMAGEDDON.     See  .AlF.(iim)o. 
ARMAGH,  St.  Patrick's  School  at.      S 

IllEI,.\Nl):   .-)lll  to  Hill  ('KNTfUlKS. 

ARMAGNAC,  The  counts  of.  oeo  FnANC  : 
A.  I).  i;!L'7. 

ARMAGNACS.  Soe  France:  A.  D.  1380- 
141.').  and  141.V14H). 

ARMENIA. —  ••  .Vlmos*  immediately  to  the 
west  of  the  Caspian  there  rises  a  high  tableland 
diversilled  by  mountains,  which  .stretches  oast- 
ward  for  more  than  eighteen  degrees,  between 
the  3(th  and  41st  parallels.  This  iiighland  may 
properly  be  regarded  as  n  contimiation  of  the 
great  Iranean  jilali'au,  with  which  it  is  connected 
at  its  .southeastern  corner.  Ii  comprises  a  por- 
tion of  the  modern  Persia,  the  whole  of  Armenia, 
and  most  of  Asia  Minor.  Its  principal  moiui- 
tjjjn  ranges  ari'  latitudinal,  or  from  west  to  cast, 
only  th("  minor  ones  taking  the  opposite  or  lon- 
gitudinal direction.  .  .  ,  The  heart  of  the  moim- 
tain-region,  the  tract  extending  from  the  district 
of  ICrivan  on  the  east  to  the  tipper  course  of  the 
Kizil-Irmnk  river  and  the  vicinity  .of  Sivas  upon 


the  west,  wa.s,  r.s  it  still  is,  Armenia.  Amidst 
these  natural  fastnesses,  in  a  country  of  lofty 
ridges,  deep  and  narrow  valleys,  nninerous  niid 
copious  streams,  and  occiusional  broad  plains  —  a 
country  of  rich  jiasture  grounds,  productive 
orcharJls,  and  abundant  harvests  —  this  interest- 
ing people  has  maintained  itself  almost  ini- 
changed  from  the  time  of  the  early  Persian 
kings  to  the  present  day.  Armenia  was  one  of 
the  fnost  valuable  portions  of  the  Persian  empire, 
furnishing,  as  it  did,  besides  stone  and  timlier, 
and  several  most  important  minerals,  an  annual 
supply  of  20,000  excellent  horses  to  the  stud  of  the 
Persian  king." — O.  I{iiwlinson.  Fire  (iriiit  Moii- 
nirhim:  Penia,  ch.  1.  —  Before  the  Persians  es- 
tablished their  sovereignty  over  the  country,  "it 
seems  certain  that  from  one  (piarter  or  another 
Armenia  h.id  been  Arianized:  tlie  old  Turanian 
character  bad  passed  away  from  it;  immigrants 
had  Hocked  in  and  a  new  people  had  been  formed 
—  the  real  Armenians  of  later  times,  and  indeed 
of  the  present  day."  Submitting  to  Alexander, 
on  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  momirchy,  Ar- 
menia feP  afterwards  under  the  yoke  of  the  Se- 
leucidic,  but  gained  independence  about  I'JO 
IJ.  (!.,  or  earlier.  Under  the  inlluenco  of  Parthia, 
a  branch  of  the  ParlhiiMi  royal  family,  the  Arsa- 
cids,  was  sul)se(|ucntly  placed  on  the  throne  and 
a  dynasty  established  which  reigned  for  nearly 
six  liundrcd  years.  Tin;  fourth  of  these  kinijs, 
Tigrancs.  who  occui>ic<l  the  throne  in  the  earlier 
part  of  tlie  last  cent.tiry  B.  f'.,  pl.iced  Armenia 
in  the  front  rank  of  "Asiatic  kingdoms  and  in 
powerful  rivalry  with  Paifhi.i.  Its  subsequent 
history  is  one  of  many  wars  and  invasions  and 
much  bulTcling  between  Uomaiis,  Parthians, 
Persians,  and  their  successors  in  the  conflicts  of 
the  eastern  world.  The  part  of  Armenia  west 
of  the  Euphrates  was  called  by  the  Romans  Ar- 
menia Minor.  For  a  short  period  after  the  revolt 
from  the  Seleticid  monarchy,  it  formed  a  dis- 
tinct king(lom  called  Sophene.  —  G.  llawlinson, 
8i.r)h  itnd  Si-ivnt/i  (Irrat  Oneiitnl  .VoimirliitK. 

B.  C.  69-68.— War  vyith  the  Romans.— Great 
defeat  at  Tigranocerta. — Submission  to  Rome. 
Sec  Uome:    B.  C.  78-<!H.  and  0'J-H;i. 

A.  D.  115-117. — Annexed  to  the  Roman 
Empire  by  Trajan  and  restored  to  independ- 
ence by  Hadrian.     See  Komi::    A.  I).  !)t)-i;i8. 

A.  D.  422  (?).— Persian  Con(iuest. — Becomes 
the  satrapy  of  Persarmenia.  Sen  Persia: 
A.  D.  'J'-'fi-OJT. 

A.  D.  1016-1073. — Conquest  and  devastation 
by  the  Seljuk  Turks.  Sec  Tiuks  (Sei.iuks): 
A.  I).  1()04-10(!H.  and  1003-107!!. 

I2th-I4th  Centuries. — The  Mediaeval  Chris- 
tian Kingdom.— "  The  last  decade  of  the  12th 
century  saw  the  establishment  of  two  small 
Christian  kingdoms  in  the  Levant,  which  long 
outlived  all  other  reliefs  of  the  Crusades  except 
the  military  orders;  and  which,  with  very  little 
help  from  the  West,  sustained  a  hazardous  ex- 
istence in  complete  contrast  with  almost  every- 
thing around  them.  The  kingdoms  of  Cyprus 
and  Armenia  have  a  history  very  closely  inter 
twined,  but  their  origin  and  most  of  their  cir- 
cumstances were  very  difTereiit.  By  Armenia  as 
a  kingdom  is  meant  little  more  than  the  ancient 
Cilicia,  the  land  between  Taurus  and  the  sea, 
from  the  frontier  of  the  principality  of  Antioch, 
eastwaril,  to  Kelendcris  or  Palii-opolis,  a  little 
beyond  Heleucia;  this  tcrrittiry,  which  was  com- 
puted to  contain   10  ilays'  journey  in  length, 

134 


ARMENIA. 


ARNyEANS. 


measured  from  fonr  miles  of  Antioch,  by  two  in 
brciidtli,  was  separated  from  the  Greater  Ar- 
menia, wliich  before  the  period  on  wliich  we  arc 
now  employed  had  fallen  \inder  the  away  of  thu 
Seljuks,  by  the  ridges  of  Taurus.  The  popula- 
tion was  composed  largely  of  the  sweepings  of 
Asia  Jlinor,  Christian  tribes  which  Iiad  taken 
refuge  in  the  mountains.  Their  religion  was 
partly  Greek,  partly  Armenian.  .  .  .  Their 
ridel's  were  )>rinces  descended  from  the  house  of 
llu!  Bagratidie,  who  had  governed  the  Greater 
Armenia  as  kings  from  the  year  885  to  the  reign 
of  ConstJintino  of  Monomaehus,  and  had  then 
merged  their  hazardous  independence  in  the  mass 
of  till!  Greek  Empire.  After  the  seizure  of 
Asia  -Minor  by  the  Seljuks,  the  few  of  the  Bagra- 
tidie who  had  retained  possession  of  the  moun- 
tain fastnesses  of  Cilieia  or  the  strongholds 
of  Mesopotamia,  acted  as  independent  lords, 
showing  little  respect  for  By/.antium  save  where 
there  was  something  to  be  gained.  .  .  .  Kupin  of 
the  Mountain  was  prince!  [of  Cilieia]  at  the;  time  of 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  .Saladin;  he  died  in 
1189,  and  his  successor,  Leo,  or  Li  vim,  after  hav- 
ing successfully  courted  the  favour  of  pope  and 
emperoi ,  was  recognised  as  king  of  Armenia  by 
the  emperor  Henry  V'l.,  and  was  crowned  by 
Conrad  of  Wittelsbach,  Archbishop  of  jMainz,  in 
lli)8."  The  dynasty  ended  with  Leo  IV.,  whose 
"  whole  reign  was  a  continued  struggle  against 
the  .Moslems,"  and  who  was  assassinated 
about  i;U3.  "The  live  remaining  kings  of  Ar- 
menia sprang  from  a  branch  of  the  (^vpriot  house 
of  Lusignan  [see  Cvpius:  A.  D.  1 1 92-1 48!) |  and 
were  little  more  than  Latin  exiles  in  the  midst  of 
several  strange  populations  all  alike  hostile." — 
W.  Stubbs,  tAfts.  on  the  Stiitli/  nf  Mtddeiiti  <iiid 
Moihni  Jlint..  Icr/.S. 

A.  D.  1623-1635. — Subjugatedby  Persia  and 
regained  by  the  Turks.  !See  Tuiiivs:  A.  1). 
l(i'->;!-l((10. 

♦ 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH,  The.— The  church 
of  the  Armenians  is  "the  oldest  of  all  national 
churches.  They  were  converted  by  St.  (Gregory, 
called  '  The  Illuminator,'  who  was  a  relative  of 
Dcrtad  or  Tiridates,  their  ])riuce,  and  had  been 
forced  to  leave  the  country  at  the  same  time  with 
him,  and  settled  at  Ca'.sarcia  in  ('api  docia, 
where  he  was  initiated  into  the  Christian  faith. 
When  they  returned,  both  prince  and  people  em- 
braced the  Gospel  through  the  preaching  of 
Gregory,  A.  D.  27(1,  and  t  litis  presented  the  Hrst 
instance  of  an  entire  nation  becoming  Christian. 
...  By  an  accident  they  were  unrepresented  at 
[the  C'ouncil  of]  Chalcedon  [A.  D.  451],  and, 
owing  to  the  poverty  of  their  languagr  in  words 
serviceable  for  the  purposes  of  thei  logy,  they 
had  at  that  time  but  one  wonl  for  Xature  and 
Person,  In  conseiiuence  of  which  they  misunder- 
stood the  decision  of  that  council  [that  Christ 
posses.sed  two  natures,  divine  and  human,  in  one 
I'erson]  with  sulllclent  clearness.  ...  It  was 
not  mitll  cighly-four  years  had  elapsed  that  they 
finally  adopted  Eutychlanism  [the  doctrine  that 
the  divinity  is  the  sole  nature  m  Christ],  and  an 
analhenia  was  pronounced  on  the  Chalcedonian 
decrees  (530)." — II.  F.  Tozer,  The  Church  and 
thf,  Kcutern  Rmpiiv,  fh.  5. — "The  religion  of 
Armenia  could  not  derive  much  glory  'rom  the 
learning  or  the  power  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
royalty  expired  with  the  origin  of  their  schism; 
and  their  Chrlst'un  kings,  who  arose  and  fell  in 


the  13th  century  on  the  confines  of  Cilieia,  were 
the  clients  of  the  Latins  and  the  vassals  of  the 
Turkish  sultan  of  Iconium.  The  helpless  nation 
has  seldom  been  permitted  to  enjoy  the  tran- 
quility of  servitude.  From  the  earliest  period 
to  the  present  hour,  Armenia  has  been  the  thcf>tre 
of  perpetual  war;  the  lands  between  Tauris  and 
Erivan  were  dispeopled  by  the  cruel  policy  of  the 
S'-piiis;  and  myriads  of  Christian  families  were 
transplanted,  to  perish  or  to  propagate  In  the  dis- 
*aiit  provinces  of  Persia.  Under  the  roil  of 
oppression,  the  zeal  of  the  Armenians  is  fervent 
and  intrepid;  they  have  often  preferred  the 
crown  of  martyrdom  to  the  white  turban  of  5Ia- 
hornet;  they  devoutlv  hate  the  error  and  idola- 
iry  of  the  Greeks." — fe.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fcdl 
of  the  llmnun  Empire,  ch.  47. 
■  ARMINIANISM.    SeeNETiiEULANDS:  A.  D. 

lOtm-Kiut. 

ARMINIUS,  The  Deliverance  of  Germany 

by.     See  (ii.itM.\.\v:   15.  C.  8-A.  1).  11. 

ARMORIAL  BEARINGS,  Origin  of.—"  As 
to  armorial  bearings,  there  is  no  doubt  that  em- 
blems .somewhat  similar  have  been  immemorially 
used  both  in  war  and  peace.  The  shields  of  an- 
cient warriors,  and  devices  upon  coins  or  seals, 
bear  no  distant  rcseniblanee  to  modern  blazonry. 
Hut  the  general  Introduetlon  of  such  bearings,  as 
hereditary  distinctions,  h!is  been  sometimes  at- 
tributed to  tournaments,  wherein  the  champions 
were  distinguished  by  fanciful  devices;  some- 
times to  the  crusades,  where  11  niultltudi'  of  iill 
nations  and  languages  stood  in  need  of  .some  vis- 
ible token  to  denote  the  liaiuurs  of  their  respec- 
tive chiefs.  In  fact,  the  peculiar  symbols  of  her- 
aldry point  to  both  these  sources  and  have  been 
borrowed  in  jiart  from  each.  Hereditary  arms 
were  jjcrhaps  scarcely  used  by  private  families 
before  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
From  that  time,  however,  thev  became  very  gen- 
eral.'—  It.  Ilallam,  The  Middle  Ayes,  eh.  3,  pt.  2. 

ARMORICA. —  The  peninsular  projection  of 
the  coast  of  Gaul  between  the  moulhs  of  the 
Seine  and  the  Loire,  embracing  modern  IJrltlany, 
and  a  great  part  of  Xormanily,  was  known  to 
the  Komaiis  as  Arniorira.  The  most  important 
of  the  Armoilcan  tribes  in  Ciesar's  time  was  that 
of  the  Vcnetl.  "  In  the  fourth  and  tifth  centu- 
ries, the  northern  coast  from  the  Loire  to  the 
frontier  of  the  Netherlands  was  called  '  Trnctus 
Arenioricus,' or  Aremorica,  which  in  Celtic  sig- 
iillies  'maritime  country.'  The  commotions  of 
the  third  century,  which  continued  to  incr-'aso 
during  the  fourth  and  liftli,  repeatedly  drove 
the  Uoinans  from  that  country.  French  antlqua- 
ries  imagine  that  it  was  a  regularly  constituted 
(lalllc  republic,  of  which  CUilovIs  had  the  protec- 
torate, but  this  Is  wrong." — B.  G.  Niebuhr,  /jedn. 
on  Ancient  Ethnor/raphi/  ami  Gcor/.,  v.  2,  i>.  .'tl8. 

Also  i.n:  E.  il.  Bunbury,  Hist,  of  Ancient 
Geiir/.,  r.  3,  ;;.  235. — See,  also,  Vicnkti  op  AVest- 
HUN  (l.vt'T,,  and  IiiEiirAKS,  Tmo  Westehn. 

ARMSTRONG,  General  John,  and  the  New- 
burgh  Addresses.     See  Unitei)  Sr.\Ti,s  of  .Vm.  ; 

A.  I).  1782-178;! Secretary  of  War.— Plan 

of  descent  on  Montreal.  See  Unitkd  States 
OF  Am.  :  X.  ').  1813  (OfTouEU- Xovkmheii). 

ARMY,  The  Legal  Creation  of  the  British. 
See  .MvTiNV  Acts. 

ARMY  PURCHASE,  Abolition  of.  See 
Enhi.am):  A.  D.  1871. 

ARN.(EANS,   The.     See  Gueixe:  The  M"- 

GIIATIONS. 


136 


ARNAULD. 


ARTHUR. 


ARNAULD,  Jacqueline  Marie,  and  the 
Monastery  of  Port  Royal.  Sec  I'oitT  Hoyai. 
aiM  tli..lANsi:NisTs:  A.  I).  UiOi-KHK). 

ARNAUTS,  The.    Soc  Ai.iunians,  .Medle- 

ARNAY-LE-DUC,  Battle  of  (1570).  See 
FiiANiK:  A.  I).  IJ(i:!-l.')70. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict,  and  the  American 
Revolution.  Sec;  C'a.nada:  A.  D.  177.3-1770; 
ttiirl  I'mikd  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  177.';  (May); 
1777  (.Ii'i.Y— ()(  roiiKH);  1781)  (.Vuoust— Skptem- 
BEK);  17H0-1781;  1781  (.Ianu.\uy— M.w);  1781 
(.May — OcToiiKii). 

ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA,  The  Republic 
of.      Sec  U.iMK:    A.  1).    1 U.")-!!."!,"). 

ARNOLD  VON  WINKELRIED,  at  the 
Battle  of  Sempach.  Set- Switzkulani):  A.  1). 
i;!8((-i;»88. 

ARNULF,  King  of  the  East  Franks 
(Germany),  A.  1).  888-89!);  King  of  Italy  and 
Emperor,  A.  D.  801-8!)!), 

AROGI,  Battle  of  (l868).  Sec  Auyssima: 
A.  1)    18"i4-188!(. 

ARPAD,  Dynasty  of.  Soe  Hungarians  : 
IlAVAdES  IN  KfiioPE;  and  IIuNOAKV:  A.  D.  972- 
IIU;  1114-iaOl. 

ARPAD,  Siege  of.— Conducted  hy  tlio 
Assyrian  Ci)i'.(iU('ror  'rif^liith-l'ilcser,  benniniii!; 
IJ.  0.  743  i>iid  liisliuLt  Iwii years.  The  fall  of  the 
city  brout^htwith  it  the  submission  of  all  north- 
ern Svria. — .V.  II.  Savee,   A.iKi/ri(i,  eh.  3. 

ARQUES,  Battles  at  (1589).  See  Fkance: 
A.  1).  i:)8!)-ir.!)o. 

ARRABIATI,  The.  See  Fi,oiie.\ce:  A.  D. 
14!l()-l  1!IS. 

ARRAPACHITIS.    See  Jews:  The  Eaki.y 

HkIIHKW   lllSTOUV. 

ARRAPAHOES,  The.  See  Ameuic.vn  Abo 
rioines;  Ai,ii().N(iiiAN  Family. 

ARRAS:  Origin.     See  Bei.o.e. 
'    A.   D.   1583. — Submission   to   Spain.     See 
Netiikiii.ands:  A.  D.  1.584-l")8r). 

A.  D.  1654. — Unsuccessful  Siege  by  the 
Spaniards  under  Condi.  See  France:  A.  1). 
1653-1((.')6. 

— ♦ 

ARRAS,  Treaties  of  (1415  and  1435)-  See 
FuAMi;:.V.  1).  I!i8()-14ir),  ami  14;il-14.V}. 

ARRETIUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  285).  See 
Uomk:  H.  C.  3!).-)-lill. 

ARROW  HEADED  WRITING.  See  Cu- 
neikoum  WurriNu. 

ARSACIDiE,  The.— The  dynasty  of  Par- 
thian kinns  were  so  culled,  from  the  founder  of 
the  line,  Arsaces,  who  led  the  revolt  of  Parthia 
from  the  nile  of  the  Syrian  Seleucidiu  and  raist'd 
lnms«df  to  the  throne.  Accordiii)^  to  some 
unciont  writers  Arsaces  was  11  Ilactrlan;  i-.ccord- 
ing  to  others  a  Scythian. — O.  Kawlinson,  tSixt/i 
Oreat  Oriindtl  MoiKtrfhy,  ch.  3. 

ARSEN.— In  oni;  of' the  earlier  raids  of  the 
Beljuklan  Turks  into  Armeina,  in  the  eU^venlli 
rentnry  the  city  of  Arsen  was  destroyed.  "It 
had  long  been  the  great  city  of  Ea.stern  Asia 
Minor,  the  centre  of  Asiatic  trade,  the  depot  for 
merchandise  transmittcMl  overland  from  Persia 
and  India  to  the  Ea.stern  Ki'",.irc  and  Europe 
generally.  It  was  full  of  v.irehouses  beli>ngini,' 
to  .Vrmenians  and  Syrians  md  is  said  to  have 
contained  800  churches  ami  300.000  people. 
Having  failed  to  capture  the  citv,  Togrul's 
genenil  succeeded  in  burning  it.  'f  he  tlestruc- 
Uon  of  so  much  woultk  struck  iv  fatal  blow  at 

1 


Armenian  commerce."— E.  Pears,  The  FaU  of 
CoiiKtiintiniiplc,  fh.  2. 

ARSENE,  Lake. — An  ancient  name  of  llie 
Lake  of  Van,  which  is  also  called  Thopitis  by 
Stnibo.— E.  II.  Bunbury,  Uist.  of  Ancient  Oeog., 
ch.  33,  iiret.  1. 

ART  ABA,  The.    See  Ephah. 

ARTAXATA.— The  ancient  capital  of 
Armenia,  said  to  have  been  built  under  the 
superintendence  of  Hannibal,  while  a  refugee  in 
Armenia.  At  a  later  time  it  was  called  Neronia, 
in  honor  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Nero. 

ARTAXERXES  LONGIMANUS,  King  of 

Persia,    U.   C.  40.')-43.'i Artaxerxes  Mne- 

mon,     King    of    Persia,     IJ.    C.    40.5-3.59 

Artaxerxes  Ochus,  King  of  Persia,  B.  C.  3.59- 

338 Artaxerxes,  or  Ardshir,  Founder  of  the 

Sassanian  monarchy.     Sec  Peusi.-.:  B.  C.  150- 

A.  1).  330. 

ARTEMISIUM,  Seafightsat.   SccGreece: 

B.  C.  480. 

ARTEMITA.     See  Dastaoerd. 

ARTEVELD,  Jacques  and  Philip  Van; 
Their  rise  and  fall  in  Ghent.  Sec  Fi.andeus: 
A.  1).  1335-1337,  to  1383. 

ARTHUR,  King,  and  the  Knights  of  the 
Round  Table.  —  "On  the  dillicult  question, 
whether  there  was  a  historical  Arthur  or  not, 
...  a  word  or  two  must  now  be  devoted  .  .  . ; 
and  here  one  has  to  notice  in  the  first  place  that 
Welsh  literature  never  calls  Arthur  a  gwledig  or 
lirince  but  emperor,  and  it  may  be  inferred  that  his 
liistorical  position,  in  case  he  had  such  a  position, 
was  that  of  one  lilling,  after  the  departure  of  the 
Romans,  the  olUce  which  under  them  was  that  of 
the  Comes  Britanniiu  or  Count  of  Britain.  The 
officer  so  called  had  a  roving  commission  to 
defend  the  Province  wherever  his  presence 
might  be  called  for.  The  other  military 
captains  here  were  the  Du.x  Britaimiarum,  who 
had  charge  of  the  forces  in  the  north  and 
especially  on  the  Wall,  and  the  Comes  Littoris 
Saxonici  [Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore],  who  was 
entrusted  with  the  defence  of  the  south-iNistern 
coast  of  the  island.  The  successors  of  both  these; 
captains  seem  to  have  been  odlcd  in  Welsh 
gwledigs  or  princes.  So  Arth\ir'«  suggested 
position  as  Comes  Britamiiai  would  be  in  a  sense 
superior  to  theirs,  which  harmtmizes  with  his 
bemg  called  emperor  and  not  gwledig.  The 
Welsh  have  borrowed  the  Latin  title  of  imper- 
alor,  'emperor,'  and  made  it  into  'amherawdyr,' 
later  'andierawdwr,'  so  it  is  not  imi)ossible,  that 
when  the  Roman  impenitor  ceased  to  have 
anything  more  to  say  to  this  country,  the  title 
was  given  to  the  highest  officer  in  the  island, 
namely  the  Comes  Britanniiu,  and  that  in  the 
words  'Yr  Amherawdyr  Arthur,'  'the  Emperor 
Arthur,'  we  have  a  renmaut  oi"  our  insular  history. 
If  this  view  !;<:  correct,  it  might  be  regarded  m; 
something  more  than  an  accident  that  Arthur's 
l)osition  relatively  to  that  of  the  other  Brylhonic 
princes  of  his  time  is  exactly  given  by  >renniiis, 
or  whoever  it  was  that  wrote  the  Ilistoria 
Brittonum  ascribed  to  him:  there  Arthur 
is  represented  lighting  in  c(mipany  with  the 
kings  of  the  Brythons  in  defence  of  their 
conunon  couidry,  he  being  their  leader  in  war. 
If,  as  has  sometimes  been  argued,  the  tnide  i>f 
Maglocuinis  or  .Muelgwn,  whom  the  latter  is 
accused  by  Oilda  of  having  slain  and  supcraeded. 
was  no  other  than  Arthur,  it  would  supply  one 
reason  why  that  writer  called  Macljjwu  'insu- 


ARTHUR. 


ARYANS. 


laris  dra'.'o,'  'the  dmgon  or  wiir-captiiin  of  the 
isliiiid,'  1111(1  why  i,hu  latter  iiiid  his  successors 
after  lam  were  called  hy  the  Welsh  not  gwledigs 
but  kings,  though  their  great  ancestor  Cuueda 
was  only  a  gwledig.  On  tlio  other  hand  the 
way  in  which  Oildas  alludes  to  th(!  uncle  of 
Maelgwn  without  even  giving  his  name,  would 
sceni  to  suggest  that  in  his  estimation  at  least  ho 
was  no  more  illustrious  than  his  predecessors  in 
the  position  which  ho  held,  whatever  that  may 
have  hcen.  How  then  did  Arthur  become  famous 
above  them,  and  how  came  lie  to  be  the  subject 
of  so  much  story  and  romance  1  I'lie  answer,  in 
short,  which  one  has  to  give  to  this  hard  (juestion 
must  be  to  the  ellect,  that  besides  a  historic 
Arthur  there  was  a  Brythonic  divinity  named 
Arthur,  after  whom  the  man  may  have  been 
called,  or  with  whose  name  his,  in  case  it  was  of 
a  dilferent  origin,  may  have  become  identical  in 
sound  owing  to  an  accident  of  speech ;  for  both 
explanations  are  possible,  as  we  shall  attempt  to 
show  later.  Leaving  aside  for  a  while  the  man 
Arthur,  and  assuming  the  existence  of  a  god  of 
that  name,  let  us  see  what  could  be  made  of  him. 
Mythologically  speaking  ho  would  probably 
have  to  be  regarded  as  a  Culture  Hero;  for,  a 
model  king  and  the  institutor  of  the  Knighthood 
of  the  Round  Table,  ho  is  represented  as  the 
leader  of  cxpeiUtions  to  the  isles  of  Hades,  and  as 
one  who  stood  in  somewhat  the  saiiK!  kind  of 
relation  to  Qwalchmei  as  Gwydion  did  to  ILeii. 
It  is  needless  hen;  to  dwell  on  the  character 
usually  given  to  Arthur  as  a  ruler:  he  with  his 
knights  around  him  may  be  compared  to  Con- 
chobar,  in  the  midst  of  the  Champions  of  Emain 
JIacha,  or  Woden  among  tlie  Anses  at  Valhalla, 
while  Arthur's  Knights  arc  called  those  of  the 
Round  Table,  around  which  they  are  described 
pitting;  and  it  would  be  interesting  to  under- 
stand the  signification  of  the  term  Round  Table. 
On  the  wliole  it  is  the  table,  probably,  and  not 
its  roundness  that  is  th'j  fact  to  which  to  call 
attention,  as  it  possibly  means  that  Arthur's 
court  was  the  lirst  early  court  where  those 
present  sat  at  a  table  at  all  in  Britain.  No  such 
tiling  as  a  common  table  tigiires  at  Conchobar's 
court  or  any  other  described  in  the  old  !cgc;ids 
of  Ireland,  and  the  same  applies,  we  believe,  to 
those  of  the  old  Norsemen.  Tlie  attribution  to 
Arthur  of  the  first  use  of  a  common  table  would 
lit  ill  well  with  the  character  of  a  Culture  Hero 
which  we  have  ventured  to  as-^ribc  to  him,  and 
it  derives  countonance  from  the  pretended  history 
of  the  Round  Table:  for  the  Arthurian  legend 
traces  it  back  to  Artliur's  father,  Uthr  Bendragon, 
in  whom  we  have  under  one  of  Ids  many  names 
the  king  of  Hades,  the  realm  whence  all  culture 
wiis  fabled  to  have  been  derived.  In  a  wider 
sense  the  Round  Table  jiossibly  signified  plenty 
or  abundance,  and  might  be  compared  with  the 
table  of  the  Ethiopians,  at  which  Zeus  and  the 
other  gods  of  Greek  irythology  used  to  feast 
from  time  to  time." — J.  Rhys,  Stiiilien  in  the 
Arthnn'iiii  fjer/eiid,  ch.  1. — See,  also  CuMimiA. 

ARTHUR,  Chester  A.— Election  to  Vice- 
Presidency. —  Succession  to  the  Presidency. 
See  Inithd  ST.vriis  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  IBSO  and 
1881. 

ARTI  OF    FLORENCE.     See  Fi.oiiknce: 

A.  D.  li.io-ian:). 
ARTICLES      OF     CONFEDERATION 

(American).     See    Unitku    States  of    Am.  : 
A.  D.  1777-1781,  aud  178»-1787. 


ARTICLES  OF  HENRY,  The.  See  Po- 
land: A.  I).  Vu'A. 

ARTOIS,  The  House  of.  Seo  Bourbon, 
TiiK  llorsK  OF. 

ARTOIS  :  A.  D.  1529.—  Pretensions  of  the 
King  of  France  to  Suzerainty  resigned.  .Sco 
iTAi.v:  A.  1).  l.-)2T-l.J2!). 

ARTYNI.     .See  Dkmiluoi. 

ARVADITES,  The. —  The  Canaanite  in- 
habitants of  the  i.slaud  of  Aradus,  or  Arvad, 
and  who  also  held  territory  on  the  main  land. — 
F.  Lenorniaut,  Miiiiial  of  Ancient  JIM.,  bk.  6, 
c/i.  1. 

ARVERNI,  The.  See  JEdvi;  also,  Gauls, 
and  Ai.i.oiiKooEs. 

ARX,  The.  See  Capitoline  Hill;  also 
Gens,  Roman. 

ARXAMUS,  Battle  of.— One  of  the  defeats 
sustained  bv  the  Romans  in  their  wai-s  with  the 
Persians.  Battle  fought  A.  1).  COS.— G.  Raw- 
linson,  Serenth  Gnat  Orieittal  Moimrehi),  eh.  24. 

ARYANS.— ARYAS.—"  This  family  (which 
is  sometimes  called  Japhetic,  or  descendants  of 
Japhet)  includes  the  Hindus  aud  Persians  among 
Asiatic  nations,  and  almost  all  the  peoples  of 
Europe.  It  may  seem  strange  that  we  English 
should  be  related  not  only  to  the  Germans  aud 
Dutch  and  Scandinavians,  but  to  the  Russians, 
French,  Spanish,  Romans  and  Greeks  as  well; 
stranger  still  that  we  can  claim  kinship  with 
such  distant  peoples  as  the  Persians  and  Hindus. 
.  .  .  What  seems  actually  to  have  been  the  ease 
is  this:  In  distant  ages,  somewhere  about  the 
rivers  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  and  on  the  north  of 
that  mountainous  range  called  the  Hindoo- Koosh, 
dwelt  the  ancestors  of  all  the  nations  we  have 
enumerated,  forming  at  this  time  a  single  and 
united  jieople,  simple  and  primitive  in  their  way 
of  life,  but  yet  having  enough  of  a  common  na- 
tional life  to  preserve  a  common  language.  They 
called  themselves  Aryas  or  Aryans,  a  word 
which,  in  its  very  earliest  sense,  seems  to  have 
meant  those  who  move  upwards,  or  straight; 
and  hence,  probably,  came  tostaml  for  the  noble 
race  as  compared  with  other  races  on  whom,  of 
course,  they  would  look  down.  ...  As  their 
numbers  increased,  tlie:4paco  wherein  they  dwelt 
became  too  small  for  them  who  had  out  of  one 
formed  many  dilTerent  peoples.  Then  began  a 
series  of  migrations,  in  which  the  collection  of 
tribes  who  spoke  one  language  and  formed  one 
Jieople  started  oH  to  si'ck  their  fortune  in  new 
lands.  .  .  .  First  among  them,  in  all  probability, 
started  the  Kelts  or  (!elts,  who,  travelling 
jierhaps  to  the  South  of  the  Caspian  and  the 
North  of  the  Black  Sea,  found  their  way  to 
Europe  and  spread  far  on  to  the  extreme  West. 
.  .  .  Another  of  the  great  families  who  left  the 
Aryan  home  was  the  Pelasgic  or  the  Griico- 
Italic.  These,  journeying  along  first  South- 
wards and  then  to  the  West,  passed  through 
Asia  Minor,  on  to  the  countries  of  Greece 
and  Italy,  and  in  time  separated  into  those 
two  groat  peoples,  the  Greeks  (or  Hellenes,  as 
they  came  to  call  themselves),  and  the  Romans. 
.  .  .  Next  we  come  to  two  other  great  families 
of  nations  who  seem  to  have  taken  the  same 
route  at  first,  and  perhaps  began  their  travels 
together  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans  did.  These 
are  the  Teutons  and  the  Slaves.  .  .  .  The  word 
Slave  comes  fromSlowan,  which  in  old  Slavonian 
meant  to  speak,  and  was  given  by  theSlavonhms 
to  themaulveH  as  the  people  who  could  Hpeak  iu 


187 


ARYANS 


ASIA. 


opposition  to  otlirr  nations  wliom,  rs  tliey  were 
not  alilc  to  understand  tlicm,  tiny  were  jileased 
to  consider  as  diitnl).  The  (in'ok  woni  liarliaroi 
(whence  onr  l)arl)arlans)  aros-'  in  obedience  to  a 
iilie  prejudice,  oidy  from  an  imitation  of  l)al)t)ling 
sncli  as  is  niadcliy  sayinj?  ■  liar  lwrl)ar.' " — 
('.  F,  Keary,  Ihurn  'if  Jfi!'tiin/.  eh.  4.  —  Tlie  aljove 
pass-ige  sets  fortli  tlio  older  theory  of  an  Aryan 
family  of  nations  as  well  as  of  languages  in  its 
nn(|nidilie(l  form.  lis  later  modifications  are  in- 
dicated in  the  following:  "  Tlie  discovery  of 
Sanscrit  and  the  furtlier  discovery  to  which  it 
led.  that  the  l.inguiiges  now  variously  known  as 
Aryan,  Aryanic,  Indo-Kuropcan,  Indo-Uennanic, 
IniloCellic  and  Japhetic  are  closely  akin  to  oni^ 
another,  spread  a  spell  over  the  world  of  thought 
which  cannot  1)0  said  to  have  yet  wholly  passed 
away.  It  was  hastily  argued  from  the  kinship 
of  their  languages  to  the  kinship  of  the  nations 
thals|)oke  ilicni.  .  .  .  The  (piestion  then  arises 
as  to  the  Inane  of  the  '  holetlinos.'  or  parent 
Irihe,  before  its  dispersion  and  during  the  pro- 
ethnic  period,  at  a  tin'.e  when  as  yet  there  was 
neither  Greek  nor  Hindoo,  neither  Celt  nor 
Teutiai,  but  oidy  an  undifTercnliated  Aryan. 
Of  course,  the  answer  at  lirst  was — wlierc 
coulil  it  have  been  but  in  the  East.  And  at 
length  the  glottologist  f()un<l  It  necessary  to 
shift  tlie  cradle  of  the  Aryan  race  to  the 
nciglibourhood  of  the  Oxns  and  the  .laxartes,  so 
as  to  place  it  somewhere  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  the  Himalayas.  Then  Doctor  Latliam 
boldly  raised  his  voice  against  tin;  Asiatic  theory 
altogether,  and  staicd  that  ho  regarded  the  at- 
tempt to  d"duce  the  Aryans  from  Asia  as  resem- 
■.  Mag  an  attempt  to  derive!  the  reptiles  of  this 
roimtry  from  those  of  Iscland.  Afterwards 
Uenfey  argued,  from  the  presence  in  the  vocabu- 
lary ccanmon  to  the  Aryan  languages  of  words 
for  bear  ami  wolf,  for  birch  an(l  beech,  and  tlio 
absence!  of  certain  others,  such  as  those  for  lion, 
tig(T  and  palm,  that  the  original  home  of  the 
Aryans  n\ust  have  been  within  the  tempernte 
zcMie  in  Europe.  ...  As  might  be  expected  in 
the  case  of  such  a  dilHcult  (piestion,  those  who 
are  inclined  to  l)elieve  in  Iho  European  origin  of 
the  Aryans  are  by  no  means  agreed  among  them- 
selves as  to  the  spot  to  bo  lixed  upon.  Latham 
placed  it  east,  or  .south-east  of  Litliuania,  in  Po- 
dolia,  or  Volhynia;  Henfcy  had  in  view  adistricfc 
above  the  Hlack  Sea  and  not  far  from  the  Cas- 
pian ;  Pcschel  lixed  on  the  slopes  of  the  Caucaans; 
(,"\mo  on  the  great  plain  of  Central  EurojK'; 
Fligior  on  the  wMithern  part  of  Russia;  POsche 
on  the  tract  between  the  Niemen  and  the  I)niei)er ; 
L.  (leiger  on  central  and  western  Oermanv;  an<l 
I'enka  on  Scandinavia." — J.  Rhys,  litre  fhforics 
(ill  Xew  Priiuvton  liev.,  Jan.,  1888). — "  Aryan,  in 
scientific  language,  is  iitterly  inapplicable  to  race. 
It  means  language,  and  nothing  but  lan!.'uage; 
■  and,  if  we  speak  of  Aryan  race  at  all,  we  should 
know  that  it  means  no  more  than  x  +  Aryan 
speech.  ...  1  have  declared  again  and  again 
that  if  I  say  Aryas,  I  mean  neithi'r  blood  iior 
bones,  nor  hair  nor  skull;  1  mean  simply  those 
who  speak  ati  Aryan  language.  The  same  ap- 
plies to  Hindus,  Greeks,  Komans,  Germans, 
Celts  and  Slaves.  ...  In  that  sense,  and  in  that 
sense  only,  do  I  say  that  even  the  blackest  Hin- 
dus represent  an  earlier  stage  of  Aryan  speech 
an  1  thought  than  the  fairest  Scandinavians.  .  .  . 
If  an  answer  must  be  giveti  as  to  the  place  where 
our  Aryan  unccsturg  dwelt  before  Uieirseparutiuu, 


138 


whether  in  large  swarms  of  millions,  or  in  a  f-.-w 
scattered  tents  and  huts,  I  should  still  say,  as  I 
said  forty  years  ago,  •Somewhere  in  Asia,' and 
no  more." — F.  Max  .Mliller,  ISiog.  of  Wonls  mid 
Hiniie  of  the  Ai'iidn,  ch.  0. —  The  theories  which 
dispute  the  Asiatic  origin  of  the  Aryans  arc 
strongly  jircsented  l)y  Canon  Taylor  in  The 
Orifjin.  of  the  Arijinu,  by  G.  II.  Rendall,  in  The 
.('i-ii(Ue  of  the  An/(iM,  and  by  Dr.  O.  Sclirader  in 
PiehiHtorie  Antiquities  of  the  Aryan  Peoplen. 
—  See,  also.  India:  Tiik  ABOuiyiNAL  iNiiAniT- 
AN'Ts,  and  Tub  Im.miguation  and  C->NCiUEST8 
ov  THE  AiiVAs. 

AS.— LIBRA.— DENARIUS.— SESTER- 
TIUS.— "The  term  As  [.imong  the  Uonian.sJ 
and  the  words  which  denote  its  divisions,  were 
not  confined  to  weight  alone,  but  were  applied 
to  measures  of  length  and  capacity  also,  and  in 
general  to  any  ol)jcct  which  could  bo  regarded  as 
ccaisiiting  of  twelve  equal  ])arts.  Thus  they 
were  commonly  Tised  to  denote  shares  into  which 
an  inheritance  was  divided."  As  a  unit  of 
weight  the  As,  or  Libra,  "occupied  the  same 
])osition  in  the  Roman  system  as  tlio  i)ound  does 
in  our  own.  According  to  the  most  accurate 
researches,  the  As  was  0(|ual  to  about  Hi  oz. 
avoirdupois,  or  .7375  of  an  avoirdupois  pound." 
It  "  was  divided  into  1')  eq.ial  l)arts  called  uiicia', 
and  I  he  uncia  w;is  divided  into  24  oijual  parts 
called  .scrupula:"  "The  As,  regarded  as  a  coin 
[of  copi)er|  originally  weighed,  as  the  name  im- 
plies, one  pound,  and  the  smaller  cojiper  coins 
those  fractions  of  the  pound  denoted  by  their 
names.  Hy  degrees,  however,  the  weight  of  the 
As,  regarded  as  a  coin,  was  greatly  dimini.shed. 
We  are  told  that,  about  the  commencement  of 
the  first  Punic  war,  it  had  fallen  from  13  ounces 
to  3  ounces;  in  the  early  part  of  the  second 
Punic  war  (B.  C.  217),  it  was  roduc-i  to  one 
ounci!;  and  not  long  afterwards,  by  a  Lex 
Papiria,  it  was  fixed  at  half-an-ouncc,  wliicl.  re- 
mained the  standard  ever  after."  The  silver 
coins  of  lioi'K!  were  the  Denarius,  equivalent 
(after  317  B.  C.)  to  10  Asses;  the  tiuinarius  and 
the  Sestertius,  which  became,  respectively,  one 
half  and  one  fourth  of  the  Denarius  in  value. 
The  Sestertius,  at  the  cIo.se  of  the  Republic,  is 
estimated  to  have  been  equivalent  in  value  to 
two  pence  sterling  of  English  money.  The 
coinage  was  debased  under  the  Empire.  Tlie 
princii)al  gold  coin  of  the  Empire  was  the  De- 
narius Aureus,  which  passed  for  2o  silver  De- 
narii.— W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of  Roman  Antiq., 
ch.  13, 

ASCALON,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1099).  See 
.Ieuisai.km:    a.  D.  101)9-1 144. 

ASCANIENS,   The.      See    llKANDENBDlta ; 

A,  1),  !)38-1143. 

ASCULUM,   Battle    of  (B.   C.  279).    See 
Romk:    li,  C.  383-37.), 
ASCULUM,     Massacre    at.      See     Ro.me: 

B,  C,  it()-8S. 

ASHANTEE  WAR,  The  (1874).  Sec  Eng- 
land:   A,  1).  ..•T:',-!880. 

ASHBURION  TREATY,  The.  See 
Uniti;i>  STArK!  oi'  Am,  :    A.  D.  1842. 

ASHDOD.     See  PniMSTiNEs. 

ASHRAF,  Shah  of  Persia,  A.  D.  1725- 
1730, 

ASHTI,'Battleof(l8i8).  See  India:  A.  D. 
181(1-1819. 

ASIA  :  The  Name. — "There  are  grounds  for 
believing  Europe  and  Asia  to  have  originally 


ASIA. 


ASIA  MINOR. 


signified  'the  west '  ami  'the  east '  respectively. 
IJoth  iire  Semitic  terms,  aiid  i)r()l)rtl)ly  passed  to 
the  Greeks  from  the  Pluenieiaiis.  .  .  .  The 
(treeks  lirst  apjilied  the  title  [Asia]  to  that  i)or- 
tion  of  tlie  eastern  coiitiueiit  wliich  lay  nearest 
to  tlicin,  and  witli  which  they  hecaine  lirst  ac- 
quainted—  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  opposite  th(^ 
C'ydades;  whence  they  extended  it  as  their 
knowledge  grew.  Still  it  had  always  a  special 
application  to  the  country  about  Kphesus." — G. 
Kawlinson,  .V'^.i  ti>  JlermliitxH.  v.  3,  /).  33. 

ASIA:  The  Roman  Province  (so  called). — 
"As  ori,i;;inally  coiisliluted,  it  corresponded  to  the 
doniiiiions  of  tlie  kings  of  Pergamus  .  .  .  left 
bv  tlie  will  of  Attains  III.  to  the  Roman  people 
(li.  ('.  133).  ...  It  included  the  whole  of  Mysia 
and  Lydia,  with  ^liolis,  Ionia  and  Caria,  except 
a  small  i)art  which  was  subject  to  Rliodes,  and 
the  greater  i)art,  if  not  the  whole,  of  Plirygia. 
A  portion  of  the  last  region,  however,  was  de- 
tached from  it." — E.  II.  Uunbury,  llUt.  of  Ancient 
CIcof/.,  eh.  20,  Kcct.  1. 

ASIA,    Central. — Mongol    Conquest.     See 

M0N(!«)I,S. 

Turkish  Conquest.     See  Tuuks. 

Russian    Conquests.     Sec    Russia:     A.    I). 

1859-1870,  and  1809-1881. 

ASIA  MINOR.— "The  name  of  Asia  Minor,  so 
familiar  to  the  student  of  ancient  geography,  was 
not  in  use  either  among  Greek  or  Roman  writers 
imtil  a  very  late  period.  Orosius,  who  wrote  in 
the  fifth  centmy  after  the  Christian  era,  is  the 
first  extant  writer  who  employs  the  term  in  its 
modern  sense." — E.  H.  B>inbury, //j«<.  of  An- 
cient Qcorj.,  ch.  7,  sect.  3. —  The  aame  Anatolia, 
which  is  of  Greek  origin,  synonymous  with 
"The  Levant,"  signifying  "  The  Sunrise,"  came 
into  use  among  the  Byzantines,  about  the  10th 
century,  uud  wag  adopted  by  their  successors, 
the  Turks. 

Earlier  Kingdoms  and  People.  See  Piikyui- 
ASSANi)  Mysians.— Lydians. — Cauians. — Lyci- 

AN8.  —  BiTHY'NrANS.— PONTUS    (CAPPADOCIA). — 

Pai'Iilaoonians. — Thcia. 

The  Greek  Colonies. — "The  tumult  which 
had  been  caused  by  the  irruption  of  the  Thes- 
protians  into  Thessaly  and  the  tlisplacement  of 
the  population  of  Greece  [sec  Oiikicce:  Tub 
MidiiATioN,  &c.]  di<l  not  subside  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  peninsula.  From  the  north  and  the 
south  those  inhabitants  who  were  unable  to  muin- 
tidn  their  groimd  against  the  incur.si(ms  of  the 
Thessjdians,  Arnaeans,  or  Dorians,  and  iireferred 
exile  to  submission,  sought  new  homes  in  the  is- 
laiKls  of  the  Aegean  and  on  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  migrations  continued  for  sev- 
eral gtuierations.  Wlien  at  length  tliey  came  to 
uu  end,  and  the  Anatolian  coast  from  .Vlouut  Ida 
to  the  Triopian  headland,  with  the  adjacent 
Islands,  was  in  the  possession  of  tlie  Greeks,  three 
great  dlvisioiis  or  tribes  were  di.stinguislied  in 
the  new  settlements:  Dorians,  lonians,  and 
Aeolians.  In  spite  of  the  i)resenco  of  .some  alien 
elements,  the  Dorians  and  lonians  of  Asia  Minor 
were  tlie  same  tribes  as  th(^  Dorians  and  lonians 
of  Greece.  The  Aeolians,  on  the  oilier  hand, 
were  a  composite  tribe,  as  their  name  implies. 
...  Of  thes<,'  three  divisions  the  .Veolians  lay 
farthest  to  the  north.  The  precise  limits  of  their 
territory  were  dilfereutly  fixed  by  different  au- 
thorities. .  .  .  The  Aedlic  citU's  fell  into  two 
groups:  a  norlhem,  of  which  Lesbos  was  tin; 
centre,  and  a  southern,  composed  of  the  cities  in 


the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Hennus, 
and  foundeil  from  Cyme.  .  .  .  The  northern 
group  indudeil  the  islandsofTenedos and  Lesbos. 
In  the  latter  there  were  originally  six  cities: 
Methyiniia,  Mytilene,  Pyrrlia,  Eresus,  Ari.sba, 
and  .\iiti.ssa,  but  Arisba  was  subsequently  con- 
(picred  and  enslaved  by  Mytilene.  .  .  .  The  sec- 
ond great  stream  of  migratiim  proceeded  from 
Athens  [after  the  death  of  Codrus  —  see  Athens: 

Fno.M  TlIK   DoUlAX  MlliltATION  TO  B.   C.  083  — 

according  to  Greek  tradition,  the  younger  sons 
of  Codrus  leading  these  Ionian  colonists  across 
the  Aegean,  first  to  the  Carian  city  of  Miletus  — 
see  JIii.i;ti:s, —  which  they  captured,  and  then  to 
the  coiKiuest  of  Ephesus  and  the  island  <"f  Samos]. 
.  .  .  The  colonies  sjjread  until  a  (lodccaiK)lis  was 
established,  similar  to  the  union  wliich  the 
lonians  had  founded  in  their  old  settlements  on 
the  northern  shore  of  Peloponnesus.  In  some 
cities  the  Ionian  population  formed  a  minority. 
.  .  .  The  coloni.sation  of  Ionia  was  undoubtedly, 
in  the  main,  an  achievement  of  emigrants  from 
Attica,  but  it  was  not  accomplished  by  a  .single 
family,  or  in  the  space  of  one  life-time.  .  .  .  The 
two  most  famous  of  the  Ionian  cities  were  Mi- 
letus and  Ephesus.  The  first  was  a  Carian  city 
previously  known  as  Anactoria.  .  .  .  Ephesus 
wns  originally  in  the  li.inds  of  the  Lelegcs  and 
the  Lydians,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  lonians 
under  Androclus.  The  ancient  stmctuary  of  the 
tutelary  goddess  of  the  place  was  transformed 
by  the  Greeks  into  r.  temple  of  Artemis,  who 
was  here  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  birth  and 
productivity  in  accordance  with  Oriental  rather 
than  Hellenic  ideas."  The  remaining  Ionic  cities 
and  islands  were  Myus  (named  from  the  mos- 
quitoes which  infested  it,  and  which  finally 
drove  the  colony  to  abandon  it),  Priene,  Ery- 
thrao,  Clazomi'me,  Teos,  Phocaea,  Colophon, 
Lebedus,  Samos  and  Chios.  "Chios  was  first 
inhabited  by  Cretans  .  .  .  and  subsequently  by 
Cariaus.  ...  Of  the  manner  in  which  Chios  be- 
came connected  with  the  lonians  the  Chians  could 
give  no  clear  account.  .  .  .  The  southern  part 
of  the  Anatolian  coast,  and  the  southern-most 
islands  in  the  Aegean  were  colonised  by  the 
Dorians,  who  wrested  them  from  the  Phoenician 
or  Carian  occupants.  Of  the  islands,  Crete  is  tlie 
most  important.  .  .  .  Crete  was  one  of  the  old- 
est centres  of  civilisation  in  the  Aegean  [see 
('iiETE  ].  .  .  .  The  Dorian  colony  in  Rhodes, 
like  that  in  Crete,  w;is  ascribed  to  the  band  which 
left  Argos  under  the  command  of  Althaemenes. 
.  .  .  (ither  islands  colonised  by  the  Dorians  were 
Tliera,  .  .  .  Melos,  .  .  .  Carpathus,  Calvdnae, 
Nisyrus,  and  Cos.  .  .  .  Prom  the  islands,  the 
Dorians  spread  to  the  mainland.  The  penin.stda 
of  Cnidiis  was  perhaps  the  first  settlement.  .  .  . 
llalicarnassus  was  founded  from  Troezen,  and 
the  loniim  element  must  luive  been  considerable. 
...  Of  tlu!  Dorian  cities,  six  united  in  the  com- 
mon worship  of  Apollo  on  the  headland  of  Tri- 
opium.  These  were  Lindus,  lalysiis,  and  Ca- 
inirus  in  Rhodes,  Cos,  and,  on  the  mainland, 
llalicarnassus  and  Cnidus.  .  .  .  The  territory 
which  the  Aeolians  acquired  is  (h'scribed  by 
Herodotus  as  more  fertile  than  that  occupied  by 
the  lonians.  but  of  a  less  excellent  climate.  It 
was  inhabited  by  a  number  of  tribes,  among 
which  th-j  Troes  or  Tcueri  were  the  chief.  .  .  . 
In  Homer  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  the  Troad 
are  Dardani  or  Thk'S,  and  the  name  Teiicri  does 
not  occur.     In   historical    times  the  Oerglthes, 


13!) 


ASIA  MINOR 


ASIA  MINOR. 


who  dwelt  in  the  town  of  the  same  name  .  .  . 
nca'  Ijimpsacus,  and  also  fornKul  thp  subject 
p-,,nihiti(iii  of  Miletus,  were  the  only  remnants  of 
'.his  once  famous  nation.  Hut  their  f(jrmer  great- 
ness was  attested  liy  the  Homeric  poems,  and  the 
o<rurrenee  of  tlie  name  (terpithiens  at  various 
plaees  in  the  Troad  [see  Tno.l\].  To  this  trilie 
belonu'ed  the  Troy  of  tlie  (Jreeian  epic,  tlie  .site 
of  whieii,  so  far  as  it  represents  any  liistorieal 
city,  is  fi.xed  at  Ili.ssarlik.  In  the'  Iliad  the 
Trojan  empire  extends  from  the  Aesepus  to  tlie 
Caieus;  it  was  divided  —  or,  at  least,  later  his- 
torians speak  of  it  as  divided  —  into  principali 
ties  which  recognised  Priam  as  their  chief.  Hut 
tlie  Homeric  descriptions  of  tlie  city  and  its  emi- 
nence are  not  to  lie  taken  as  historically  true. 
Whatcer  the  power  and  civilisation  of  the 
ancient  stronghold  exhumed  by  Dr.  Schliemann 
may  have  been,  it  was  neccs,siiry  for  the  epic 
poet  to  represent  Priam  and  his  nation  as  a  dan- 
gerous rival  in  wealth  and  arms  to  the  preat 
kings  of  Mycenae  and  Sparta.  .  .  .  The  .radi- 
tional  dates  fix  these  colonics  [of  the  Grjeks  in 
Asia  Minor]  in  the  generations  which  followed 
tlie  Trojan  war.  .  .  .  We  may  suppose  that  the 
colonisation  of  the  Aegean  and  of  Asia  Jlinor  by 
the  Greeks  was  coincident  with  the  expulsion  of 
tlic  Phoenicians.  Tlie  greatest  extension  of  the 
Phoenician  power  in  the  Aegean  seems  to  fall  in 
the  15tli  century  B.  C.  From  the  13th  it  wa^ 
gradually  <.n  the  decline,  and  the  Greeks  were 
enabled  "to  secure  the  trade  for  themselves.  .  .  . 
By  1100  B.  C.  Asia  Minor  may  have  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  Greeks,  though  the  Phoenicians 
still  maintained  tliemselves  in  Rhodes  and 
Cyjirus.  But  all  attempts  at  chronology  are 
illusory." — E.  Abbott,  Hint,  of  Greece,  c/i.  4(r.  1). 
Ai.boin:  E.  C'urtius.  Jfiat.  of  Greece,  bk.  2,  c/i. 
8  (c.  1).—  G.  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greecf,  pt.  2,  ch. 
18-15.  — J.  A.  Cramer,  Oeog.  aiulJIist.  Description 
of  Asia  Minor,  sect.  6  (v.  1).  —  See,  also,  Miletus, 

f*IIOt'*ANB. 

B.  C.  724-539.  —  Prosperity  of  the  Greek 
Colonies. — Their  Submission  to  Croesus,  King 
of  Lydia,  and  their  conquest  and  annexation 
to  the  Persian  Empire. — "The  Grecian  colonics 
on  the  coast  of  Asia  early  rose  to  wealth  by  means 
of  trade  and  manufactures.  Though  wc  have  not 
the  means  of  tracing  their  commerce,  we  know  that 
it  was  considerable,  with  the  mother  country, 
with  Italy,  and  at  length  Spain,  with  PhtEnicia 
ond  the  interior  of  Asia,  whence  the  prcxluctions 
of  India  passed  to  Greece.  The  Milesians,  who 
had  line  woolen  manufactures,  extended  their 
commerce  to  the  Euxine,  on  all  sides  of  which 
they  founde<l  factories,  and  exchanged  their 
manufactures  and  other  gorKl.s  with  the  Scythians 
and  the  neighbouring  peoples,  for  slaves,  wool, 
raw  hides,  bees-wax.  flax,  hemp,  pitch,  etc. 
Tliere  is  even  rea.son  to  suppose  that,  by  means 
of  caravans,  their  traders  tiartered  their  wares 
not  far  from  tlie  conflncaof  China  [see  Miletus]. 
.  .  .  But  while  they  were  aii^anoing  in  wealth 
and  prosperity,  a  powerful  monarchy  formed  its<;lf 
in  Lv<lia,  of  which  the  capital  was  Sordes.  a  city 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tm</liM."  Gyges,  the  first 
of  the  Mermnad  dvnasty  of  Lydian  kings  (see 
Lydians).  w  hose  reign  is  STjpposerl  to  have  l»;gun 
aliout  B.  C.  7^4,  "  tuniH  his  arms  against  tlie 
Ionian  cities  on  the  con.st.  I)uring  a  century  and 
a  half  the  efforts  of  tlie  Lydian  monarchs  to  re- 
duce these  states  were  unavailing.  At  length 
(01.    55)  [B.    U.    56»J     the  celebrated    Crcesus 


I  mounted  the  throne  of  Lydia,  and  he  made  all 
Asia  this  side  of  the  River  Ilalys  (Lycia  and 
I  Cilicia  excepted)  acknowledge  "his  dominion. 
Tiie  Aeolian,  Ionian  and  Dorian  cities  of  tlie 
coast  all  i)aid  him  tribute;  but,  according  to  the 
usual  rule  of  eastern  conquerors,  he  meddled 
not  witli  their  political  institutions,  and  they 
might  deem  themselves  fortunate  in  being  insured 
against  war  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  sum  of 
money.  Crcesus,  moreover,  cultivated  the  friend- 
ship of  the  European  Greeks,"  But  Cra'sus  was 
overthrown,  B.  C.  554,  by  the  conquering  Cyrus 
and  his  kingdom  of  Lydia  was  swallowed  lip  in 
the  great  Persian  empire  then  taking  form  [see 
Pehsia:  B.  C.  540-5;;  1].  Cyrus,  during  his  war 
with  Cra'sus,  had  i,  led  to  entice  the  lonians 
away  from  the  latte)'  and  win  tliem  to  an  alliance 
witli  himself.  But  they  incurred  his  resentment 
by  refusing.  "They  and  tlie  vEolians  now  sent 
arnbassadors,  praying  to  be  received  to  submis- 
sion on  the  same  terms  as  those  on  which  they 
had  obeyed  the  Lydian  monarch ;  but  the  Mile- 
.sians  alone  found  favour:  the  rest  had  to  prepare 
fur  war.  They  repaired  the  walls  of  their  towns, 
ami  sent  to  Sparta  for  aid.  Aid,  however,  was 
refused;  but  Cyrus,  being  called  away  by  the 
war  with  Babyiui,,  iieglectcd  them  for  the  pres- 
ent. Three  years  afterwards  (01.  59,  2),  Ilarpa- 
gus,  who  had  saved  Cyrus  in  his  infancy  from 
his  grandfather  Astyagcs,  came  as  governor  of 
Lydia.  He  instantly  prepared  to  reduce  the 
cities  of  the  coast.  Town  after  town  submitted. 
The  Teians  abandoned  theirs,  and  retired  to 
Abdcra  in  Thrace;  the  Phoca'ans,  getting  on 
shipboard,  and  vowing  never  to  return,  sailed  for 
Cor.sica,  and  being  tliere  harassed  by  the  Car- 
thagenians  and  Tyrrhenians,  they  went  to 
Rhegion  in  Italy,  anil  at  length  founded  Massalia 
(Marseilles)  on  the  coast  of  Gaul.  The  Grecian 
colonies  thus  became  a  part  of  the  Persian  em- 
pire."— T.  Keightley,  Jliat.  of  Greece,  pt.  1,  ch.  U. 

Also  in  :  Ilerodotus,  Hist. ,  tr.  and  ed.  by  O. 
RaiclinsoH,  bk.  1,  and  app. —  M.  Duncker,  Hist, 
of  Antiquilu,  bk.  8,  ch.  0-7  (».  6). 

B.  C.  501-493. — The  Ionian  revolt  and  its 
suppression.     See  Peksia  ;  H.  C.  521-19B. 

B.  C.  479. — Athens  assumes  the  protection 
of  Ionia.     See  Athens:  B.  C.  479-478. 

B.  C.  477. — Formation  of  Confederacy  of 
Delos.     See  Greece:  B.  C.  478-477. 

B.  C.  413. — Tribute  again  demanded  from 
the  Greeks  by  the  Persian  King. — Conspiracy 
against  Athens.    See  Greece:  B.  C.  413. 

B.  C.  413-412.— Revolt  of  the  Greek  cities 
from  Athens. — Intrigues  of  Alcibiades.  See 
Greece:  B.  C.  418-412. 

B.  C.  412. — Re-submission  to  Persia.  See 
Persia  ;  B.  C.  486-405. 

B.  C.  401-400.— Expedition  of  Cyrus  the 
Younger,  and  Retrf^.-it  of  the  Ten  Thousand. 
See  Persia:  B.  C.  I      400. 

B.  C.  399-387.— Spartan  war  with  Persia 
in  behalf  of  the  Greek  cities. — Their  aban- 
donment by  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas.  See 
GiiEKCE:  B.  C.  80(l-;!87. 

B.  C.  334. — Conquest  by  Alexander  the 
Great.     Sec  Macedonia:  B.  C.  8;!4-:530. 

B.  C.  301. — Mostly  annexed  to  the  Thracian 
Kingdom  of  Lysimachus.  See  Macedonia, 
&c. :  H.  C,  310-301. 

B.  C.  281-224.— Battle-ground  of  the  war- 
ring monarchies  of  Syria  and  Egfypt. — 
Changes  of  masters.    See  Seleucidj::. 


140 


ASIA  MINOR. 


ASSASSINS. 


B.  C.  191. — First  Entrance  of  the  Romans. 
—  Their  defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great. — 
Their  expansion  of  the  kingdom  of  Perga- 
mum  and  the  Republic  of  Rhodes.  Sw  Sklku- 
HD.i'.:  IS,  C.  224-1^7. 

B.  C.  120-65.  —  Mithrtdates  and  his  king- 
dom. —  Massacre  of  Italians.  —  Futile  revolt 
from  Rome. —  Complete  Roman  Conquest.  Sec 
JIiTimiDATic  AVaus;  also  Home:  B.  C.  78-C8, 
unci  (ii)-0;j, 

A.  D.  292. — Diocletian's  seat  of  Empire  es- 
tablished at  Nicomedia.  Soo  Homk:  A.  D. 
28l-:i()ri. 

A.  D.  602-628.— Persian  invasions. —  Deliv- 
erance by  Heraclius.  Set'  Home:  A.  D.  .lOri- 
628. 

A.  D.  1063-1092. — Conquest  and  ruin  by  the 
Seljuk  Turks.  See  Tuuks  (Seljuks):  A.  D. 
l()(i;t-1073;  and  1073-;093. 

A.  D.  1097-1 149.— Wars  of  the  Crusaders. 
See  Crusades:  A.  D.  l()!l«-1009;  and  1147-1149. 

A.  D.  1204-1261. — The  Empire  of  Nicaea 
and  the  Empire  of  Trebizond,  Sec  Guekk 
Emi'iiie  ok  Nic.ea. 

ASIENTO,  OR  ASSIENTO,  The.  See 
Si..\\i:uy:  A.  D.  1698-i.Vtt;  Dtueciit:  A.  D. 
1713-1714;  Aix-la-Chapeli.e,  The  Congress 
of;  England:  A.  D.  1739-1741;  and  Geouoia: 
A.  n.  1738-1743. 

ASKELON.    See  Philistines. 

ASKLEPIADS.— "Throughout  all  the  his- 
torical ages  [of  Greece]  the  descendants  cf 
Asklepius  [or  Esculapius]  were  numerous  and 
widely  diffused.  The  many  families  or  t!;entcs 
called  Asklfipiads,  who  devoted  themselves  to 
the  study  and  practice  of  medicine,  and  who 
princi])rtlly  dwelt  near  the  temples  of  AsklOpius, 
whither  sick  and  suffering  men  came  to  obtain 
relief  —  all  recognized  the  god,  not  merely  as  the 
object  of  their  common  worship,  but  also  as  their 
actual  ])rogenitor." — G.  Grote,  Iliat.  of  Orccee, 
pt.  1,  r//.  9. 

ASMONE  ANS,  The.  See  Jews:  B.  C.  166- 
4(1. 

ASOPIA.    See  Sicyon. 

ASOV.     See  Azof. 

ASPADAN.— The  ancient  name  of  which 
that  of  Ispahan  is  a  corrupted  form. — G. 
Kawliiison,  /'\'ct<  Great  Mi>nnrchies:  ^f<^(li(t,  ch.  1. 

ASPERN  -  ESSLINGEN  (OR  THE 
MARCHFELD),  Battle  of.  See  Germany: 
A.  i),  1809  (.Ianuauy— June). 

ASPIS,  The.    See  Phalanx. 

ASPROMONTE,  Defeat  of  Garibaldi  at 
(1862).    See  Italy:  A.  D.  18(i2-18ti0. 

ASSAM,  English  Acquisition  of.  Sec 
India:  A.  I).  1823-1833. 

ASSANDUN,  Battle  of.— Tlio  sixth  and 
last  l)attle,  A.  1).  lOlti,  between  Edmund  Iron- 
siilos,  the  English  King,  and  his  Danish  rival, 
Ciiut,  or  Canute,  for  tlic  Crown  of  England. 
Tlie  English  were  terribly  defeated  and  the 
flower  of  their  nobility  perished  on  the  field. 
Tlie  result  was  a  division  of  the  kingdom ;  but 
Edmund  soon  died,  or  was  killed.  Ashington, 
in  Essex,  was  the  battlegrouml.  See  Eniiland: 
A.  1).  979-101(1. 

ASSASSINATIONS,  Notable.— Abbas, 
Pasha  of  Egypt.    See  Eoypt:  A.  1).  1840-1809. 

Alexander    II.    of    Russia.     See    Russia: 

A.  I).  1879-1881.... Beatoun,  Cardinal.  See 
Bcotla^d:    a.   D.   1040 Becket,    Thomas. 


ScoEnoland:  A.  D.  1163-1170 Buckingham. 

See  E.NOLAND:  A.  I).  1028.  . .  .Cssar.  Sec  RiiMr;: 
li.  V.  44...  Capo  d'Istrea,  Count,  President 

of  Greece.     See  (iuKi:(i::  A.  1).  1830-1802 

Cavendish,  Lord  Frederick,  and   Burke,  Mr. 

See    luKLAXD:    A.    I>.    18,S2 Concini.      See 

ruANCK;  A.  1).  1010-1019.... Danilo,  Prince  of 

Montenegro     (i860).      See    .Mo.ntenkcuo 

Darnley.     See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1501-1.108 

Francis  of  Guise.   SeeFuANCK:  A.  I).  1500-1503. 

Garfield,  President.     See   U.nitkd   States 

OK  Am,  :  A,  1).  IH.si Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden, 

See  Scandinavian  States  (Sweden):  A.  U. 
1720-1792. ..  .Henry  of  Guise.  See  France: 
A.  D.  1584-1589. . . .  Henry  III.  of  France.  See 
France:    A.    I).    1584-1589. ..  .Henry    IV.   of 

France.      See  France:   A.  D.    1.599-1000 

Hipparchus.     See  Athens:  B.  C.  500-510 

John,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  See  France:  A.  D. 
1415-1419.... Kleber,   General.     See  France; 

A.    D.    1800   (January— June) Kotzebue. 

See  Germ.\ny:   A.    D.    1817-1820 Lincoln, 

President.    See  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D. 

1805    (April    14tii) Marat.     See    Pr-^nce: 

A.  I).  1793  (July).  . .  .Mayo,  Lord.     Sec  India: 

A.  D.  1802-1870  . .  .Murray,  The  Regent.     See 

Scotland:  A.  D.  1501-1508 Omar,  Caliph. 

See  Maho.metan  Conquest,  &c.  :  A.  I).  GOl .... 
Paul,  Czar  of  Russia.    See  Russia:  A.I).  1801. 

Perceval,  Spencer.    See  England:  A.  D. 

1803-1812.... Peter  III.  See  Russia:  A.  D. 
1761-1703  ...  Philip  of  Macedon.     See  Greece: 

B.  C.  357-330... Prim,  General  (1870).  See 
Spain:  A.  I).  1800-1873. ..  .Rizzio.  See  Scot- 
land: A.  D.  1.501-1568 Rossi,  Count.     See 

Italy:  A.  D.  1848-1840. . .  .Wallenstein  (1634). 
See  Germany:  A.  D.  1032-1034.  ..  .William 
the  Silent.     See  Netherlands:  A.  1).  1581- 

1584 Witt,  John   and    Cornelius    de.     See 

Netherlands:  A.  D.  1072-1074. 

ASSASSINS,  The.— "I  must  here  speak 
with  the  brevity  which  my  limits  prescribe  of 
that  wond(!rful  brotherhood  of  the  Assassins, 
wliicli  during  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  spread 
sucli  terror  through  nil  Asia,  Mussulman  and 
(Mirlslian.  Their  deeds  sliould  be  .studied  in 
Von  Hammer's  history  of  tlieir  order,  of  whiih 
however  there  is  an  excellent  analysis  in  Taylor's 
History  of  Jlohammedanism.  The  word  Assassin, 
it  must  be  remembered,  in  its  ordinary  signitiea- 
tiou,  is  derived  from  this  order,  ah>i  not  the  re- 
verse. The  Assassins  were  not  so  called  because- 
they  were  murderers,  but  murderers  are  called 
assiissins  because  the  Assassins  were  iiiurderei-s. 
The  origin  of  the  word  Assassiu  has  been  much 
disputed  by  oriental  scholars;  but  its  application 
is  sulliciently  written  upon  the  Asiatic  history  ol 
the  13th  century.  The  As.sassins  were  not,  strictly 
siieaking,  a  dynasty,  but  rather  nn  order,  like  the 
Templars;  only  the  otlice  of  Grand-Master,  liUo 
the  Calipliate,  became  hereditary.  They  were 
originally  a  branch  of  the  Egyptian  Isliniaelitea 
[see  Mahom1':tan  Conquest:" A.  D.  908-1171] 
and  at  first  professed  the  principles  of  that  sect 
But  there  can  be  no  doubt  thai  their  inner  doc- 
trine became  at  last  a  mere  negation  of  all  religion 
and  all  morality.  '  To  believe  nothing  and  to 
dare  everything '  was  the  summary  of  their 
twiching.  Tlieir  c;cotcric  principle,  addressed  to 
the  non-initiated  members  of  the  onler,  was 
simple  blind  obedience  to  tlio  will  of  their  su 
I)eriors.  If  tlie  Assassin  Wiis  ordered  to  take  oil 
u  Caliph  or  u  Sultuu  by  the  dagger  or  the  bowl. 


141 


ASSASSINS. 


ASSYRIA. 


the  clccil  wnMilonr;  if  lie  was  onlcrod  to  throw 
liiiiisi'lf  from  the  niiii|)iirts,  tlif  deed  was  done 
!ikrwis<'.  .  .  .  Tlicir  founder  was  I Iiissan  Sabali, 
who,  ill  lOitO,  shortly  licfore  the  death  of  Malek 
Hhah,  Nelze<l  the  caslU'  of  Alamout  —  the  Vul- 
ture's nest  —  ill  northern  I'ersla.  wlienee  tliey  ex- 
tended their  ixwse-isions  over  a  wliol(!  <'liain  of 
inountaiii  fortresses  in  that  roiintiy  and  in  Syria. 
The  (iiand-Masler  was  tlie  Slieili'liiil-Jelial,  tlie 
fainoiis  Old  Mat.  of  tlie  .Moiiiitaiii,  at  wliose  name 
Eiiri>|)e  and  A^ia  shuddered." — E.  A.  Freeman, 
Hist.  II  ml  Ciimiiieiiln  of  the  Suniei'iin,  led.  A. — "  In 
Ilie  Katitniiic  Kliallf  of  Egypt,  lliey  [tlie 
Assassins,  or  IsimiUiens  of  Syria  and  Persia]  he- 
lield  an  inearnate  deity.  To  kill  his  enemies,  in 
will. .ever  way  they  best  eoiild,  was  nn  nelion, 
the'  merit  of  whieh  eould  not  he  disputed,  and 
the  reward  for  which  was  certain."  Hasan 
Hatiali,  the  founder  of  the  ()r(h'r,  died  nt  Ala- 
mout A.  1>.  11-t.  "  From  the  day  he  entered 
Alamul  until  that  of  his  death  — ii  period  of 
thirty-live  years  —  \w  never  emerge  1,  but  upon 
two  occasions,  from  the  seclusion  oi  his  house. 
Pitiless  and  inscrutable  as  Destiny,  he  watched 
tile  troutiled  world  (>f  Oriental  politics,  himself 
invisible,  and  whenever  he  perceived  a  formida- 
ble foe,  caused  a  dagger  to  be  driven  into  his 
heart."  It  was  not  until  more  than  a  ccntuiy 
after  the  death  of  its  founder  that  the  fearful 
organization  of  the  Assassins  was  extinguished 
(A.  1).  12.")T)  by  tlie  aime  flood  of  Mongol  inva- 
sion which  swept  Uagdad  and  the  Caliphate  out 
of  existence.  —  K.  1).  Osborii,  hhtm  viukr  the 
Khalifn  of  Jliiffdml,  pt.  ;J,  c/i.  3.—  W.  (.'.  Taylor, 
Jlint.  of  }fi>hiiinme.iianisin  iind  its  Secln,  ch.  9. — 
The  Assassins  were  rooted  out  from  all  their 
strongholds  in  Kuhistan  and  the  neighboring  re 
gion,  and  were  practieidlv  exterminated,  in  1357, 
by  the  Jlongols  under  Khulagu,  or  Houlngou, 
brother  of  AI()ngu  Khan,  the  great  sovcl'eign  of 
the  Mongol  Empire,  then  reigning.  Alamut, 
the  Vulture's  Xest,  was  demolishet'.  —  II.  H. 
lloworth.  Hint,  of  the  ^f<>llf/o!s,  ]mH  1,  n.  193;  itnil 
part  ;i,  /(/).  91-1(K— See  li.\(il)Al):  A.'l).  1258. 

ASSAYE,  Battle  of  (1803).  See  India:  A.  D. 
1798-1805. 

ASSEMBLY  OF  THE  NOTABLES  IN 
TRANCE  (1787).  See  Fiianck:  A.  1).  1774- 
1788. 

ASSENISIPIA,  The  proposed  State  of. 
See  NonTiiwKST  Ticuiiitohv  of  tiik  United 
St.\tks  OK  Am.  :  A.  1).  1784. 

ASSIDEANS,  The.     See  Ciiasidi.m,  The. 

ASSIENTO,  The.    See  Asiento. 

ASSIGNATS.  See  France:  A.  1).  1789- 
1791;  1794-1795  (Jui.v  — Apiiti,);  1795  (OcTo- 
BEIl —  1)k(i:mi.i-.ui. 

ASSINARUS,  Athenian  defeat  and  sur- 
render at  the.     See  Sykacuse;    U.  C.  41.5-413. 

ASSINIBOIA.  Sec  NonTirwEBT  Teiiri- 
TOHii;s  OK  Canada. 

ASSINIBOINS,  The.  Sec  American  Auo- 
HiiiiNKs:  SiofAN  Family. 

ASSIZE,     The    Bloody.     See    England: 

A.    I).    1085  (SKfTICMUKH). 

ASSIZE  OF  BREAD  A'^'D  ALE.  — The 
Assize  of  Hread  and  .Vie  wa*^  m  English  ordi- 
iiaiiee  or  enactment,  dating  back  to  the  time  of 
Henry  III.  in  the  13tli  century,  which  fixed  the 
price  of  those  coniinodities  by  a  scale  regulated 
according  to  the  market  prices  <if  wheat,  bailey 
and  oats.  "The  .Vssi/.e  of  bread  was  re-enacted 
so  lately  as  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  and 


was  only  abolished  in  Londcm  and  its  neighbour 
1io(nI  about  thirty  years  ago" — that  is,  early  in 
the    present   century. — O.    L.    Craik,    Jlitl.    of 
Ihitinh  Comiiifnv,  1:  1,  ;).   137. 

ASSIZE  OF  CLARENDON,  The.  See 
Enoi.and:  A.  D.  Il<i2-1 17(». 

ASSIZE  OF  JERUSALEM,  The.— "  No 
sooner  liad  Oodfrey  of  Itoiiilliin  |elc<'lcd  King  of 
Jerusalem,  after  the  taking  of  the  Holy  City  bv 
tlie  t'rusiulcrs.  A.  I).  lt)99|  accepted  the  otllee  o'f 
supreme  magistrate  than  lie  solicited  the  public 
and  private  advice  of  the  Latin  pilgrims  who 
were  the  best  skilled  in  the  statutes  and  customs 
of  Europe.  From  these  materials,  with  the 
counsel  and  approbation  of  the  Piitriareh  and 
U.roiis,  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  Godfrey  coni- 
])Osed  the  Assise  of  .lerusaleni,  a  |)recious  moriu- 
iiient  of  feudal  jurisprudence.  The  new  code, 
attested  by  the  seals  of  the  King,  the  Patriarch, 
and  the  Viscount  of  .leru.saleiu,  was  deposited 
ii.  the  holy  sepulchre,  enriched  with  the  iiu- 
proveiueiitsof  succeeding  times,  and  respectfully 
consulted  asoften  as  any  doubtful  nueslion  aro.se 
in  the  tribunals  of  Palestine.  With  the  king- 
dom and  city  all  was  lost;  the  fragment.?  of  the 
written  law  were  preserved  by  jealous  tradition 
and  variable  practice  till  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  code  was  restored  by 
the  pen  of  John  d'Ibelin,  Count  of  Jaffa,  one  of 
the  principal  feudatories;  and  the  final  revision 
was  accomplislied  in  the  year  thirteen  hundred 
and  sixty-nine,  for  the  use  of  the  Latin  kingdom 
of  Cyprus."— E.  Giblion,  Decline  u ml  Full  of  the 
liomiin  Empire,  eh.  58. 

ASSIZES. — "The  formal  edicts  known  under 
the  name  of  Assizes,  the  Assizes  of  Clarendon 
and  Northampton,  the  Assize  of  Arms,  the 
Assize  of  the  Forest,  and  the  Assizes  of  Measures, 
are  the  only  relics  of  the  legislative  wcrk  of  the 
period  [reign  of  Henry  II.  in  England].  These 
edicts  are  chiefly  composed  of  new  regulations 
for  the  enforcement  of  royal  justice.  ...  In 
this  respect  they  strongly  resemble  the  capitu- 
laries of  the  Frank  Kings,  or,  to  go  farther  back, 
the  edicts  of  the  lioman  jinutors.  .  .  .  The 
term  Assize,  which  comes  into  use  in  tliis  mean- 
ing about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  centuiy, 
both  on  the  continent  and  in  EngUind,  appears 
to  be  the  proper  Norman  name  for  such  edicts. 
...  In  the  '  Assize  of  Jerusalem '  it  simply 
means  a  law;  and  the  same  in  Henry's  legisla- 
tion. Secondarily,  it  moans  a  form  of  trial 
established  by  the"  particular  law,  ns  the  Great 
A.ssize,  the  As.size  of  Mort  d'Ancester;  and 
thirdly  the  court  held  to  hold  such  trials,  in 
which  sense  it  is  commonly  used  at  the  present 
dav."— W.  Stubbs,  Comt.  Hint.  ofEn(j.,ch.  13. 

ASSUR.     See  AssviitA. 

ASSYRIA. —  For  matter  relating  to  Assyrian 
history,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  caption 
Semites,  under  which  it  will  be  given.  The  sub- 
ject is  deferred  to  that  i)nrt  of  this  work  which 
will  go  later  into  print,  for  the  reason  that  every 
month  is  adding  to  the  knowledge  of  the  students 
of  ancient  oriental  history  and  clearing  away  dis- 
puted (pitstions.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the 
time  between  the  i)ubli(?ation  of  our  first  volume 
and  our  fourth  or  lifth  may  inakc  important  ad- 
di'ions  to  the  scanty  literature  of  the  suliject  in 
Fuglish.  Modern  exaivation  on  the  sites  of  the 
ancient  cities  in  the  East,  bringing  to  light  large 
dirary  collections  of  inscribed  clay  tablets,— 
tacred  and   historical  writings,  otHcial  records, 


141 


ASSYRIA 


ASTY. 


business  contrncts  and  mnny  vnrictics  of  inscrip- 
tions,—  Imvc  iilmost  revolutionized  tlic  study  of 
ancient  liistorj'  and  tlic  views  of  antiquity  derived 
from  it.  "M.  Botta,  wlio  was  appointoil  Frencli 
consul  at  Mosul  in  1842,  was  tlic  first  to  com- 
mence excavations  on  the  sites  of  the  buried 
cities  of  Assyria,  and  to  liim  is  due  the  honour  of 
the  first  discovery  of  her  long  lost  palaces.  M. 
ijotta  commenced  liis  labours  at  Kouyunjili,  the 
large  mound  oppo.site  JIosul,  but  he  found  hcie 
very  little  to  compensate  for  his  laliours.  New 
nt  t1ie  time  to  excavations,  he  does  not  appear  to 
have  worked  in  tlie  best  manner;  JI.  Hotta  at 
Kouyunjik  contented  him.self  with  sinking  pits 
in  the  mound,  and  on  the.sc  proving  unproduc- 
tive abandoning  tliein.  While  M.  IJotta  was  ex- 
cavating at  Kouyunjik,  liis  attention  was  called 
to  the  mounds  of  Khorsabad  by  a  native  of  the 
village  on  that  site ;  and  he  sent  a  party  of  work- 
men to  the  spot  to  commimco  excavation.  In  a 
few  days  liis  perseverance  was  rewarded  by  the 
discovery  of  some  sculptures,  after  which,  aban- 
doning the  work  at  Kouyunjik,  he  transferred 
his  establishment  to  Khorsabad  and  thoroughly 
explored  that  site.  .  .  .  The  palace  which  >i. 
Botta  had  discovered  .  .  .  is  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect Assyrian  buildings  yet  explored,  and  forms 
nn  excellent  exanii)Ic  of  Assyrian  architecture, 
Beside  the  palace  on  the  mound  of  Khorsabad, 
M.  Botta  also  opened  the  remains  of  a  temple, 
and  a  grand  porch  decorated  by  six  winged  bulls. 
.  .  .  The  operations  of  M.  Botta  were  brought 
to  a  clo.sc  in  184.'),  and  a  splendid  collection  of 
sculptures  and  other  antiquities,  the  fruits  of  his 
labours,  arrived  !n  Paris  in  1^40  and  was  de- 
posited in  the  Louvre.  Afterwards  the  French 
Government  appointed  JI.  Place  consul  at  JIosul, 
and  he  continued  some  of  the  excavations  of  his 
predecessor.  .  .  .  3Ir.  Layard,  whose  attention 
was  early  turned  in  this  direction,  visited  the 
country  in  1840,  and  afterwards  took  a  great  in- 
terest in  the  excavations  of  jM.  Botta.  At  length, 
in  1845,  Layard  was  enablc'd  through  the  assis- 
tance of  Sir  Stratford  Canning  to  commence  exca- 
vations in  Assyria  himself.  On  the  8tli  of  Novem- 
ber he  started  from  Mosul,  and  descended  th(! 
Tigris  to  Kimioud.  .  .  .  Mr.  Layard  has  described 
in  ills  works  with  great  minuteness  his  successive 
excavations,  and  the  remarkable  and  interesting 
discoveries  lie  made.  .  .  .  After  making  tliese 
discoveries  in  Assyria,  Mr.  Lavard  visited  Baby- 
lonia, and  opened  trenches  in  several  of  the 
mounds  there.  On  the  return  of  5Ir.  I.,ayard  to 
England,  excavations  were  continued  in  the 
Euphrates  valley  under  the  superintendence  of 
Colonel  (now  Sir  Henry)  Bawlinson.  Under  his 
directions,  Jlr.  llormiizd  Uassam,  Mr.  Loftus, 
and  Mr.  Taylor  excavated  various  sites  and  made 
uumerous  discoveries,  the  British  JIuseum  receiv- 
ing tlic  best  of  the  monuments.  The  materials 
collected  in  the  national  museums  of  France  and 
England,  and  the  numerous  inscriptions  pub- 
lished, attracted  tiie  attention  of  the  learned,  and 
very  soon  considerable  light  was  thrown  on  the 
history,  language,  manners,  and  customs  of  an- 
cient Assyria  and  Babylonia." — O.  Smitli,  As- 
tyrian  Viseoreriea,  ch.  1. — "One  of  the  most  im- 
portant results  of  Sir  A.  IL  Layard's  explorations 
at  Xineve'i  was  the  discovery  of  the  ruined 
library  of  tlie  ancient  city,  now  buried  under  the 
mounds  of  Kouyunjik.  The  broken  clay  tablets 
belonging  to  this  library  not  only  furnished  the 
student  with  au  immense  mass  of  literary  matter, 
10 


but  also  witli  direct  aids  towards  a  knowledge  of 
the  Assyrian  syllabary  and  language.  Among 
the  literature  reprcsciHed  in  the  library  ot  Kou- 
yunjik were  lists  of  characters,  with  their  various 
phonetic  and  ideographic  ni  tnings,  tables  of 
synonymes,  and  catalogues  of  ih(^  names  of  plants 
and  animals.  This,  however,  was  not  all.  The 
inventors  of  the  cuneiform  system  of  writing  had 
been  a  people  wlio  ])roceded  the  Semites  in  the 
occupation  of  Babylonia,  and  who  sjioke  an  ag- 
glutinative language  utterly  diflerent  from  that 
of  their  Semitic  succe.s.sors.  These  Accadiaiis, 
as  they  are  usually  termed,  left  behind  them  a 
considerable  amount  of  literature,  whicli  was 
highly  prized  by  the  Semitic  Babylonians  and  As- 
syrians. A  large  i)ortion  of  the  Jsinevite  tablets, 
accordingl3',  consists  of  interlinear  or  parallel 
translations  from  Accadian  into  Assyrian,  as  avcU 
as  of  reading  books,  dictionaries,  and  grammars, 
in  which  the  Accadian  original  is  placed  by  the 
side  of  its  Assyrian  equivalent.  .  .  .  The  bilingual 
texts  have  not  only  enabled  scholars  to  recover 
the  long-forgotten  Accadian  language ;  they  have 
also  been  of  the  greatest  possible  assistance  to 
them  in  their  reconstruction  of  the  Assyrian  dic- 
tionary il.self.  The  three  expeditions  conducted 
by  Jlr.  George  Smith  [1873-1870],  as  well  as  the 
later  ones  of  Mr.  llormuzd  Hassam,  have  added 
largely  to  the  stock  of  tablets  from  ICouyunjik 
originally  acquired  for  the  British  Museum  by 
Sir  A.  II.  Layard,  and  have  also  brought  to  light 
a  few  other  tablets  from  the  libraries  of  Baby- 
lonia."— A.  II.  Sayce,  Fresh  Liyht  from  ths  An- 
cient Monuments,  ch.  1. 

Ai-soin:G  Uawliiison,  Firedrcnt  Monarchies: 
The  Second  Moniirehi/,  ch.  0. —  M.  Duncker,  Hist. 
ofAntir/iiili/,  /j/cs3-4. —  Geo.  Smith,  Ancient  Hist, 
from  the  Monuments:  Assi/ria. —  Sec,  also,  Bauy- 
i,oNi,\  and  Skmiths. 

ASSYRIA,  Eponym  Canon  of. — "Just  as 
there  were  archoiis  at  Athens  and  consuls  at 
Home  wlio  were  elected  annually,  so  among  the 
As.syrians  there  was  a  custom  of  electing  one 
man  to  be  over  the  year,  whom  they  called 
'liniu,'  or  'eponym.'  .  .  .  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  documents  were  more  generally  dated 
by  the  names  of  these  eponyms  than  by  that  of 
the  reigning  King.  ...  In  1862  Sir  Henry 
Hawlinson  discovered  the  fragment  of  the 
eponym  canon  of  Assyria.  It  was  one  of  the 
grandest  and  most  important  discoveries  ever 
made,  for  it  has  decided  definitely  a  great  many 
lioints  which  otiierwisc  could  never  have  been 
cleared  up.  Fragments  of  seven  copies  of  this 
canon  were  found,  and  from  these  the  chronology 
of  Assyria  has  been  definitely  settled  from  B.  C. 
1330  to  about  IJ.  C.  G30."— E.  A.  AV.  Budge, 
li((hi/lj)niiin  Life  ninl  Hislori/,  ch.  3, 

ASTOLF,  King  of  the  Lombards,  A.  D. 
74i)-7r)!), 

ASTRAKHAN  :  The  Khanate,  See  Mon- 
gols: A,  1),  l',>;iS-13i}l. 

A.  D.  1569.— Russian  repulse  of  the  Turks. 
See  Hissi.v:  A.  I),  l.')09-l.'i71. 

ASTURIANS,  The.     See  C.VNTAnui.VNS. 

ASTURIAS:  Resistance  to  the  Moorish 
Conquest.     SccSi-ain:    A,  1).  713-737. 

ASTY,  OR  ASTU,  The.— The  ancient  city 
of  Athens  i)roi)er,  as  distinguished  from  its  con- 
nected harbors,  was  called  the  Asty,  or  Asm. 
— .1.  A.  St.  .lohn.  The  Hellenes,  bk.  1,  ch.  4. 

Ai-so  IN :  W.  M.  Leake,  Toimjraphy-of  Athens, 
sect.  10.— See,  also,  Atukns:  Aueia,  «&c. 


143 


ATHENS. 


ATHENS. 


ASTYNOMI.— CiTtiiiii  police  offlrinls  in  nn- 
<iciil  .\  I  Inns,  tin  in  immbi'r.  "Tlicy  were 
cliargwl  with  all  tliiit  licloiiftH  tn  street  siiiier- 
visioii,   c.    i!.,    liic  cli'iiiisln^  of  tlio  slrectM.   fur 

wliicli  purpose  ll oprolojri,  or  street-sweepers, 

were  iinilertlieir  orders;  tlie  seeiiriiigof  moriililv 
1111(1  decent  lieliiivioiir  ill  tlie  streets."— (I.  I<\ 
.Seliiimiiiiii.  .Xiitiij.  iifilirerr :  Tin  Stiilr,  ]it.  I!.  r!i.  ',\. 

ASUNCION  :  A.  D.  1537.— The  founding 
of  the  city.     See  I'xuMirw:  .V.    I),   l.")!.")-!.")"!?. 

ATABEGS,  ATTABEGS,  OR  ATTA- 
BECKS.— ■•  Kroiii  the  ileeMiie  of  the  dynasty  of 
.Seljooli  to  the  eoiic|iiest  of  I'ersiii  l)y  Iliilakoo 
Ivhaii,  the  son  of  Clien^diis,  11  iK'ri(Hl  of  more 
than  a  century,  tlial  country  wii.s  distracted  hy 
the  contests  "of  petty  princes,  or  jtoveriiors, 
called  Att«t)ej;s,  wlio,  taliins  iidvaiitaffe  of  tliu 
weakness  of  tlie  last  Seljookiaii  moiiarelis,  and 
of  the  distractions  wliich  followed  their  tinal 
extinction,  estnttlislied  their  authority  over  some 
of  the  finest  jirovinces  of  the  Empire.  Many  of 
these  petty  dynasties  ac(piired  such  a  local  fame 
U8.  to  this  day,  gives  an  importjiiice  to  their 
memory  with  the  inhahitaiits  of  the  countries 
over  which  they  ruled.  .  .  .  Tlie  word  Atta- 
beg  is  Turkish;  it  is  a  compound  word  of  'atta,' 
muster,  or  tutor,  and  'beg,'  lord;  and  signilies  a 
governor,  or  tutor,  of  a  lord  or  prince." — Sir  J. 


Malcolm,  Uht.  nf  Persia,  r.  1.  rh.  0. — "It  is  true 
that  the  Atabciis  appear  but  a  short  space  as 
actors  on  the  stage  of  Kastern  history;  but  these 
•tutors  of  princes'  occupy  n  position  neillier 
insignitie.-int  nor  unimportant  in  ihe  course  of 
events  which  occurred  in  Syria  and  Persia  at  the 
time  they  nourished." — W".  11.  .Alorlcy,  Preface 
tn   Mirkiidiiil's   //int.  of  the  Alabeka. — See,  also, 

S.M.ADIN.  TlIK    K.MI'IUK  OK. 

ATAHUALPA,  The  Inca.  Sec  Peru; 
A.  I)    l.VU-1."):!:!. 

ATELIERS  NATIONAUX  OF  1848,  AT 
PARIS.  See  Fkanck;  A.  I).  18-18  (Pkiihi;.\iiy 
—.May),  ami  (.\im:ii.— I)K(l-:Miti-;u), 

ATHABASCA,  The  District  of.  See  Nouth- 
WKsr  TKiturroKtKs  of  ('a.sad.v. 

ATHABASCANS,  The.  See  American 
Aiioiii(ii..i-:s;  Atiiai'ascan  Family. 

ATHALAYAS.   See  .Saudinia,  The  Island: 

NAMK  AND  KAIil.V  IlISTOKY. 

ATHEL.-ATHELING.— ATHEL- 
BONDE.    See  .Vdki,. 

ATHENRY,  Ba'tle  of.— The  most  desperate 
battle  fought  by  the  Iiish  in  resisting  the  Eng- 
lish coiKpiest  of  Ireland.  They  were  terribly 
slaught-ered  and  the  chivalry  of  Connaught  was 
crushed.  The  battle  occurred  Aug.  10,  A.  D. 
1316.— >[.  Haverty,  Hist,  of  Ireland,  p.  283. 


ATHENS. 


The  Preeminence  of  Athens. — "  When  we 
speak  of  Greece  we  think  tirst  of  Athens.  .  .  . 
To  citizens  and  to  strangers  by  means  of  epic 
recitations  and  dramatic  siiectacles,  she  presented 
an  idealised  image  of  life  itself.  She  was  the 
home  of  new  ideas,  the  mother-city  from  which 
poetry,  ehxiuence,  and  philosophy  spread  to 
distant  lands.  While  the  chief  dialects  of  Greece 
survive,  each  not  as  a  mere  dialect  but  as  the 
language  of  literature, — a  thing  unKnown  in  the 
history  of  any  other  people, —  the  Attic  idiom, 
in  which  ttie  characteristic  elements  of  other 
dialects  met  and  were  blended,  has  become  to 
us,  as  it  did  to  the  ancients,  the  very  typo  of 
Hellenic  speech.  Athens  was  not  only  the  '  capi- 
tal of  Greece. '  the  '  school  of  Greece ; '  it  deserves 
the  name  applied  to  it  in  an  epitaph  011  Euripides: 
'liis  country  is  Athens,  Greece  of  Greece.'  The 
rays  of  the  Greek  genius  here  foimd  a  centre  and 
a  focus." — S.  H.  Butcher,  Soiiu;  Asjxets  nf  the 
Greek  Oenins,  pp.  38-30. — "Our  interest  in  an- 
cient history,  it  inaj'  be  said,  lies  not  in  detai?s 
but  in  large  masses.  It  matters  little  how  early 
the  Arcaclians  acquired  a  political  \inity  or  what 
Nabis  did  toMycenic;  that  which  interests  us  is 
the  constitution  of  Athens,  the  repulse  of  Persia, 
the  brief  bloom  of  Thebes.  Life  is  not  so  long 
that  we  can  spend  oiir  days  over  the  unimportant 
fates  of  uninteresting  tribes  and  towns." 

Area  and  Population. — "Tln^  entire  circuit 
of  the  Asty  [the  lower  city,  or  Athens  proper]. 
Long  Walls  and  maritime  city,  taken  as  one  In- 
closure,  is  equal  to  alxnil  17  Engli.sh  mile.s.  or 
148  stades,  This  is  very  dilterent  from  the  300 
stades  which  Dion  Chry.sostoin  .states  to  liave 
been  the  circumference  of  the  same  walls,  an 
estimate  exceeding  by  more  than  20  stades  even 
the  sum  of  the  peripheries  of  the  Asty  and 
Peiraic  tnwns,  according  to  the  numbers  of 
Thucydidcs.  .  .  .   Uonie  was  circular,  Syracuse 


triangular,  and  Athens  consisted  of  two  circular 
cities,  joined  by  a  street  of  four  miles  in  length, 
—  a  figure,  the  superficies  of  which  was  not  more 
than  tlie  fourth  part  of  that  of  a  city  of  an  equal 
circumference,  in  a  circular  fornL  Hence,  when 
to  Rome  within  the  walls  were  added  suburbs 
of  c(jual  extent,  its  population  was  greater  tlian 
that  of  all  Attica.  That  of  Athens,  although 
the  most  populous  city  in  Greece,  was  probably 
never  greater  than  300,' lOO." — W.  M.  Leake, 
Topoyraph)/ of  At/iens,  sect.  10. 

Ionian  Origin.    See  Dorians  and  Ionians. 

The  Beginning  of  the  city-state.  —  How 
Attica  was  absorbed  in  its  capital. —  "  In  the 
days  of  Cecrops  and  the  first  kings  [see  Attica] 
down  to  the  reign  of  Theseus,  Attica  was  divided 
into  communes,  having  their  own  town-halls  and 
magistrates.  Except  in  case  of  alarm  the  whole 
people  did  not  a.s8emble  in  council  under  the 
king,  but  administered  their  own  affairs,  and  ad- 
visetl-  together  in  their  several  townships.  Some 
of  them  at  times  even  went  to  war  with  him,  as 
the  Eleu.sinians  under  Eumolpus  with  Erectheiis. 
But  when  Theseus  came  to  the  throne,  he,  being 
a  powerful  as  well  as  a  wise  ruler,  among  other 
improvements  in  the  administration  of  the  coun- 
try, dissolved  the  councils  and  separate  govern- 
ments, and  united  all  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  in 
the  present  city,  establishing  one  council  and 
town-hall.  They  continued  to  live  on  their  own 
lands,  but  he  compelled  them  to  resort  to  Athens 
as  their  metropolis,  and  henceforward  they  were 
all  inscribed  in  the  roll  of  her  citizens.  A  great 
city  thus  arose  which  was  handed  down  by  The- 
seus to  his  descendants,  and  from  his  day  to  this 
the  Athenians  have  regularly  celebrated  the  na- 
tional festival  of  tlie  Synoecia,  or  '  union  of  the 
communes '  in  honour  of  the  goddess  Athene. 
Before  his  time,  what  is  now  the  Acropolis  and 
the  ground  lying  under  it  to  the  soutli  was  the 


144 


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PLAN   OF  ATHENS. 
From  -Mythology  and  MonumenU  of  Ancient  Athem^'  by  Jane  E.  Harrison  and  Margaret  de  G.  Verrall. 


IIAHIIOHS  OK   ATHENS. 

146 


ATHENS. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  624. 


city.  Miiny  reasons  may  bo  urjrod  in  proof  of 
this  slatciiv'tit."— Tlmcydidfs,  llintory  (Joicctt's 
traiiK.).  Ilk:  i.  Kirl  1."). 

Ai.w)  I.N:  .M.  Diiiirlicr,  IIi»t.  of  Oreeee,  hk.  3,  eh. 
7  (r.  'i). 

From  the  Dorian  Migration  to  B.  C.  683.— 
End  of  kingship  and  institution  of  the 
Archons.  — At  tlic  cihiiIi  nf  llio  Itin'otiaii  ;ind 
|)i)ri.iii  iiii:;i:itions  (m'c  (iKKKiK:  Thk  Mlc.U.v- 
Tio.Ns),  Attica  was  lloodi'il  by  fiisritivos.  lK>th 
fniiii  till'  iiiirtli  and  from  llie  Pt'loponnesus. 
"But  thi'  bidlv  of  the  refuirt'fs  passtd  on  to 
.Vsia.  and  built  up  tho  litios  of  louia.  .  .  . 
Wlicii  the  swarms  of  cinisrriiuts  dcari'd  i>ff.  lUid 
Alliens  is  aiiaiii  disccrnablo,  the  crown  luis  piLsstd 
from  the  old  royal  house  of  the  Oecropidiie  to  a 
family  of  exiles  from  Peloponnesus.  ...  A 
generation  later  the  Dorian  invasion,  which  had 
overwhelmed  Coriiitli  and  torn  away  Mesr.irtj 
from  the  .\ttic  dominion,  swept  up  to  the  very 
gates  of  Athens.  An  oracle  dechmnl  that  the 
city  would  never  fall  if  its  ruler  perishe<l  by  the 
haiid  of  the  invaders:  therefore  Kin;  t'odrus 
disj;\iis('d  himself  as  a  peasant,  set  out  ""  r  the 
Dorian  <an\p.  struck  down  the  lirst  man  he  met, 
and  was  himself  slain  by  the  second.  The  inva- 
sion failed,  and  the  .Vthenians,  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  their  monarch's  patriotism,  would 
not  allow  tilt  title  of  'king'  to  be  borne  by  the 
descendants  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne, 
but  chaniieil  the  name  to  'arclion,'  or 'ruler.' 
.  .  .  These  legends  evidently  cover  .scmie  ob.scure 
changes  in  tiie  internal  history  of  Attica." — 
0.  W.  0.  Oman,  ///V.  of  (Inw.  ch.  11.  — "After 
the  death  of  (.'odrus  the  nobles,  taking  advan- 
tage, perhajjs,  of  the  opportunity  alforded  by 
till'  dispute  between  his  sons,  are  Si.M  t.,  have 
abolished  the  title  of  king,  and  to  have  suJisti- 
tuted  for  it  that  of  Arclion.  This  change,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  been  important,  rather  as  it 
indicated  the  new,  precarious  tenure  by  which 
the  royal  power  was  held,  than  as  it  immediately 
affected  the  nature  of  the  olHce.  It  was,  indeed, 
still  held  for  life;  and  Medon,  the  son  of  Codrus, 
ti-ansmitted  it  lohispo.sterity.  .  .  .  .\fter  twelve 
reigns,  ending  with  that  of  .VIcma'on  [B.  ('. 
7.')3],  the  duration  of  the  ollice  was  limited  to 
ten  years;  and  through  the  guilt  or  calamity  of 
llippomenes,  the  fourth  decennial  arclion,  the 
house  of  Medim  was  deprived  of  its  privilege, 
and  thc!  suiireme  magistracy  was  thrown  open 
to  the  whole  body  of  nobles.  This  change  was 
speedily  followeii  by  one  much  more  important. 
.  .  .  Tlie  duration  of  the  archonship  was  again 
reduced  to  a  single  year  [B.  C!.  (18;)] ;  and,  at  the 
same  lime,  its  branclu^s  were  severed  and  dis- 
tributed among  nine  new  magistrates.  Among 
these,  the  first  in  rank  retained  the  distinguish- 
ing title  of  the  Arclion.  and  the  year  was  marked 
by  his  naiiii'.  lie  n'prescnted  the  majesty  of  the 
stitte,  and  exercised  a  peculiar  jurisilielion  —  that 
which  had  belonged  to  the  king  as  the  conumm 
parent  of  his  people,  the  jiroteclor  of  families, 
the  guardian  of  orphans  and  heiresses,  and  of 
the  general  rights  of  inheritance.  For  the 
scu'ond  arclion  tlie  title  of  king  Ibasileus],  if  it 
had  been  laid  aside,  was  n^vived,  as  the  fune- 
tic:is  a.ssigned  to  him  were  tlio.se  most  associated 
with  ancient  recollections.  He  represented  the 
kinji-  as  the  high-priest  of  his  people;  he  regu- 
hitec'  the  celebration  of  the  mysteries  and  the 
most  Holemn  festivals;  decided  all  cuu.ses  which 
affected  thc  interests  of  religion.  ,  .  .  The  third 


archon  bore  the  title  of  Polemarcli,  and  filled 
the  idace  of  the  king  as  the  leader  of  his  people 
in  war,  and  the  guardian  who  watched  over  its 
securitv  in  time  of  peace.  .  .  .  The  r(unaining 
six  I'.rclions  received  the  common  title  of  tliesmo- 
thetes,  which  literally  signifies  legislators,  and 
was  jirobably  ap|died  to  them  as  the  judges 
who  determined  tlie  great  variety  of  cau.ses 
which  did  not  fall  under  the  cognizance  of  their 
colleagues;  because,  in  the  absence  of  a  written 
ciHle.  those  wiio  declare  and  interpret  the  laws 
'may  be  properly  said  to  make  them." — C.  Thirl- 
wail.  llinl.  (if  (frccre,  eh.  11. — "We  are  in  no 
condition  to  determine  the  civil  classification  and 
political  constitution  of  Attica,  even  at  tin' 
period  of  the  Archonship  of  ivreon,  083  B,  C, 
when  aullientic  Athenian  chronology  first  com- 
mences, much  less  can  we  ijrclend  to  any  knowl- 
edge of  the  anterior  centuries.  .  .  .  All  the 
information  which  we  jiosscss  respecting  that 
old  polity  is  derived  from  authors  wdio  lived 
after  all  or  most  of  these  great  <haiiges  [by 
Solon,  and  later]  —  and  who,  finding  no  records, 
nor  anything  belter  than  current  legends,  ex- 
plained the  foretime  as  well  as  the)'  could  by 
guesses  more  or  less  ingcniinis,  generally  at- 
tached to  the  dominant  "egen-hiry  names." — 
G.  Grote,  Hint,  nf  Oreeee,  pt.  2,    '/.  10. 

Also  in;  G.  F.  SchOmann,  Antiq.  of  O recce : 
The  Stfite.  pt.  3,  eh.  3.— SI.  Duncker,  in.-<t.  of 
Greece,  bk.  :t,  eh.  7  (r.  2). 

B.  C.  624, — ^Under  the  Draconian  Legisla- 
tion.— "  Drako  was  the  first  lli;'smotlict,  who 
was  called  upon  to  set  down  his  thesmoi  [ta'di- 
naiices  and  decisions]  in  Avriling,  and  thus  to  in- 
vest them  essentially  with  a  character  of  more  or 
less  generality.  In  the  later  and  better-known 
times  of  Athenian  law,  we  find  these  archons  de- 
prived in  great  measure  of  their  powers  of  judg- 
ing and  deciding,  and  restricted  to  tlie  task  of 
lii'st  hearing  of  parties  and  collecting  the  evi- 
dence, next,  of  introducing  the  matter  for  trial 
into  the  apiuopriate  dikastery,  over  which  they 
presided.  Oi  j;inally,  there  was  no  separation  of 
powers;  the  iiiclions  both  judged  and  adminis- 
lere(l.  .  .  ,  All  of  these  functionaries  belonged 
to  the  Eupalrids,  and  all  of  them  dotilitless  acted 
more  or  less  in  the  narrow  interest  of  their  order; 
moreover,  there  was  ample  room  for  favouritism 
in  the  way  of  (connivance  as  well  as  antipathy  on 
the  part  of  i\w.  archons.  That  such  was  decid- 
edly the  ease,  and  that  discontent  began  to  be 
serious,  we  may  infer  from  the  duty  imposed  on 
the  thesmothet  Drako,  B.  C,  024,  to  put  in  writ- 
ing the  Ihesmoi  or  ordinances,  so  tliat  they  miglit 
\w  'shown  publicly'  and  known  beforehand. 
He  did  not  meddle  with  the  political  constitution, 
and  in  his  ordinances  Aristotle  llnds  little  wortliy 
of  remark  except  the  extreme  severity  of  the 
punishments  awarded:  petty  thefts,  or  even 
proved  idleness  of  life,  being  visited  with  death 
or  disfranchisement.  But  we  are  not  to  construe 
this  remark  as  demonstrating  any  special  inhu- 
manity in  the  character  of  Drako,  who  was  not 
invested  with  the  la.ge  power  which  Solon  ...- 
lerwards  enjoyed,  and  cannot  be  innigined  to 
have  imposed  upon  the  community  severe  laws 
of  his  own  invention.  .  .  .  The  general  spirit  of 
l)enal  legislation  had  become  so  much  milder, 
during  the  two  centuries  which  followed,  that 
these  old  ordinances  appeared  to  Aristotle  intol- 
erably rigorous." — G.  Qrote,  Hi«t,  of  Oreeee,  pt, 
3,  e/i.  10  (c.  3), 


146 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  013-595. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  594. 


.  B.  C.  612-595. — Conspiracy  of  Cylon. — 
Banishment  of  the  Alcinaeonids. —  The  tiist  at- 
teinpt  111  Athens  to  dvcnuni  thu  oligiirchical 
governiiR'iit  iinil  estahlish  a  inTsonal  tyranny 
was  made,  B.  C.  012,  by  Cylon  (Kyh)ii),  a 
patrician,  son-inlaw  of  the  tyrant  of  Jlegari, 
■ttiio  was  cncouragcil  and  helped  in  hi  ■.  undw- 
takini;  by  the  latter.  The  conspiraey  failed 
miserably.  The  partisans  of  Cylon,  blockaded 
in  the  aerojiolis,  were  forced  to  surrender;  but 
they  ])laced  themselves  unthM'  the  protection  of 
tlie"  jjoddes.s  Minerva  and  were  jjromi.sed  their 
lives.  Jlore  elfectually  to  retain  the  protection  of 
the  goddess  until  their  escape  was  eirected,  they' 
attached  a  cord  to  her  altar  and  helil  it  in  their 
hands  as  they  passed  out  through  the  midst  of 
their  enemies.  Unhappily  the  cord  broke,  and 
the  archon  Megades  at  once  declan^d  that  the 
safeguard  of  Minerva  was  withdrawn  from  them, 
whereupon  they  were  massacred  without  mercy, 
even  thougli  they  tied  to  the  neighboring  altars 
and  clung  to  them.  The  treachery  and  l)a(l  faith 
of  this  cruel  deed  does  not  seem  to  have  dis- 
turl)ed  the  Athenian  people,  but  the  sacrilege 
involved  in  it  caused  horror  and  fear  when  they 
bad  had  time  to  reflect  upon  it.  Megacles  and 
his  whole  family  —  the  Alcmieonids  as  they 
were  called,  from  the  name  of  one  of  their  an- 
cestors—  were  held  accountable  for  the  affront 
to  the  gods  and  wei'e  considered  i)olluted  and 
accursed.  Every  public  calamity  was  ascribc^d 
to  their  sin,  and  at  length,  after  a  solenm  trial, 
they  were  banislied  from  the  city  (about  590  or 
695  B.  C),  while  the  dead  of  the  fanuly  were 
disinterred  and  cast  out.  The  ;  ,''.ations  of  this 
affair  cvercised  an  important  influence  on  the 
course  of  c\ents,  which  opened  the  way  for 
Solon  and  his  constitutional  reforms. — C.  Thirl- 
wall,  Hist,  of  Greece,  eh.  11. 

Also  in:  G.  Grote,  Hint,  of  Civree,  pt.  2,  eli.  10. 

B.  C.  610-586. — Struggle  vyith  Megara  for 
Salamis.— Cirrhaean  or  First  Sacred  War. — 
"  The  petty  state  of  Megara,  which,  since  the 
earlier  ages,  had,  from  the  dependent  of  Athens, 
grown  up  to  the  <lignity  of  her  rival,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  internal  dissensions  in  the  latter 
city,  succeeded  in  vresting  from  the  Athenian 
government  the  isle  of  Salairis.  It  .vas  not,  how- 
ever, without  bitter  aiid  repeated  struggles  that 
Athens  at  last  s\ibmitled  to  the  surrender  of  the 
isle.  But,  after  signal  losses  and  defeats,  as 
nothing  is  ever  more  odious  to  the  multitude 
than  \nisuccessful  war,  so  the  popular  feeling 
was  such  as  to  induce  the  government  to  enact  a 
decree  by  which  it  was  forbidden,  upon  pain  of 
death,  to  propo.sc  reasserting  the  Athen'  ^n  claims. 
.  .  .  Many  of  the  younger  portion  of  the  com- 
munity, pining  at  the  dishonour  of  .:eir  ciun- 
try,  and  eager  for  enterprise,  were  secretly  in- 
clined to  countenance  any  stratagem  'hat  might 
induce  the  reversal  of  the  decree.  At  this  time 
there  went  a  rei)ort  through  the  city  that  a  man 
of  distinguished  birth  .  .  .  had  incurred  the  con- 
Bceniting  misfortune  of  insanity.  Suddenly  this 
person  appeared  in  the  market  place,  wearing  tlu^ 
peetdiar  badge  [a  cap]  that  distinguislied  the 
si(rk.  .  .  .  Asc(!nding  the  stone  from  which  the 
heralds  made  their  proclamations,  he  began  to  re- 
cite aloud  a  poem  upon  the  loss  of  Salamis,  boldly 
reproving  the  cowardice  of  the  people,  and  in- 
citing tlKMU  again  to  war.  His  supposed  insanity 
protected  him  from  tlu^  law  —  his  rank,  reputa- 
tion, and  the  circuuistauce  of  his  being  himself  a 


native  of  Salamis,  conspired  to  give  to  his  exhor- 
tation :\  i>owerful  effect,  and  the  friends  he  had 
secured  to  back  his  attempt  loudly  proclaimed 
their  applauding  sympathy  witli  the  spirit  of  the 
address.  The  name  of  the  pretended  madman 
was  Solon,  son  of  E.xecestides,  the  descendant  of 
Codrus.  .  .  .  The  stratagem  and  the  elociuence 
of  Sohm  jiroduced  its  natural  elfect  upon  his 
spirited  and  excitable  audience,  and  the  public 
enthusiasm  permitted  the  oligarclucal  g  ivern- 
inent  to  i)ropo.se  and  effect  the  repeal  of  the  law. 
An  expedition  was  dtjcreed  and  planned,  and 
Solon  was  invested  with  its  command.  It  was 
l)ut  a  l)rief  struggle  to  recover  the  little  i.sland  of 
Salamis.  .  .  .  But  the  lirave  and  resolute  Mega- 
rians  were  not  men  to  be  disheartened  liy  a  sin- 
gle rever.se;  they  pei'sisted  in  the  contest  —  losses 
were  sustained  on  either  side,  and  at  length  both 
states  agreed  to  refer  'iieir  several  claims  on  the 
sovereignty  of  the  island  to  the  decision  of  Spartan 
arliiters.  And  this  appeal  from  arms  to  arl)it  ra- 
tion is  a  proof  how  much  throughout  Greece  Iiad 
extended  that  spirit  of  civilisation  which  is  but 
an  extension  of  the  sense  of  justice.  .  .  .  The 
arbitration  of  the  innpires  in  favour  of  Athens 
only  suspended  hostilities;  and  the  Megarlansdid 
not  cease  to  watch  (and  shortly  afterwards  they 
found)  a  fltting  occasion  to  regain  a  sett  lenient  .so 
templlngto  thelrambltion.  The  credit  acquired 
by  Sol  '■■  in  this  expediticm  was  shortly  after- 
wards greatly  increased  In  the  estimation  of 
Greece.  In  tlu!  Bay  of  Corinth  was  situated  a, 
town  called  Ciirha,  Inliabited  by  a  tierce  and 
ftwless  race,  who,  after  devastating  the  sacred 
territories  of  Delphi,  sacrilegiously  besieged  the 
city  Hself,  in  the  desire  to  possess  themselves  of 
the  treasures  which  the  piety  of  Greece  had  ac- 
cunuilated  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo.  Solon  ap- 
peared at  the  Amiihictyonic  council,  represented 
the  sacrilege  of  the  CMrrlueans,  and  jiersuaded 
file  Greeks  to  arm  in  defence  of  the  altars  of  their 
tutelary  god  [B.  C  595 1.  Cllsthenes,  the  tyrant 
of  Sicyon,  was  sent  as  commander-in-chief  against 
the  Cirrhicans;  aiid  (according  to  Plutarcli)  the 
records  of  Delphi  inform  us  that  Alcnueon  was 
the  leadcu'  of  the  Atlienians.  The  war  [known 
as  the  First  Sacred  War]  was  not  very  successful 
at  the  ousel ,  the  oracle  of  Aiiollo  was  consulted, 
and  the  answer  makes  one  of  the  mcst  amusing 
anecdotes  of  i)riestcraft.  The  Iieslegers  were  in- 
formed by  the  god  that  the  place  would  not  bo 
reduced  until  the  waves  of  the  C!irrliican  Sea 
washed  tlie  territories  of  Delphi.  The  reply  jjcr- 
plexed  the  army;  but  the  superior  sagacity  of 
Solon  was  not  slow  in  discovering  that  the  holy 
intention  of  the  oracle  was  to  appropriate  the 
lands  of  the  CIrrluuans  to  the  prolil  of  the  tem- 
ple. Ho  therefore  advised  the  besiegers  to  at- 
tack and  to  conquer  Cirrha,  and  to  dedicate  its 
whole  territory  to  the  service  of  the  ,god.  The 
advice  was  adopted  —  Cirrha  was  taken  [B.  (!. 
5W)1 ;  it  became  thenceforth  the  arsenal  of  Delphi, 
and  the  insulted  deity  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  the  sacred  lands  washed  by  the  waves  of 
the  Cirrhican  Sea.  .  .  .  'i'lie  Pythian  games  com- 
menced, or  were  revived,  in  celel)ration  of  this 
victory  of  the  Pythian  god."  —  Sir  E.  Bulwer 
Lytlon,  Athens:  Its  lUso  and  ]<\ill,  bk.  3,  cA.  1. — 
See,  also,  Dloi.lMir. 

B.  C.  594.— The  Constitution  of  Solon.— 
The  Council  of  Four  H..ndred. — "  Sohm, 
ArclionOl.  4fl,l,  was  chosen  midlator.  Eqiiitv 
ami  moderation  are  described  by  the  ancients  us 


14; 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  594. 


Constitution 
of  Solon. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  594. 


f  ho  rhjirnrtrristips  nt  his  mind ;  ho  dotorminofl  to 
iiliiilisli  thr  privilcircs  of  purticular  oIhsmcs,  iind 
1lii>  luliilrary  piiwcr  of  olllcrrs,  and  to  render  all 
the  parlieipiit'^rs  iti  eivil  and  i)iiliti('ai  freedom 
equal  ill  tlie  eye  of  tlie  law.  at  the  same  time 
rn.suring  to  every  cue  the  integrity  of  those 
ri/,ditn  to  whieh  lil.i  r"al  merits  entitled  him;  on 
the  other  hand,  he  was  far  from  contemplating  ii 
total  subversion  of  e.xlsting  regulations.  .  .  . 
Whatever  was  excellent  in  prescription  was  in- 
corporated with  the  new  laws  and  thereliy 
stamped  .ifresh;  liut  prescription  as  such,  with 
the  e.vception  of  some  unwritten  religious  ordin- 
ances of  the  Euniolpids,  was  deprived  of  force. 
The  law  was  destined  to  bo  the  sole  centre, 
whence  every  member  of  the  political  community 
was  to  derive  n  fixed  rule  of  conduct." — W. 
Wachsmuth,  Hintonrdl  Antiqnitirit  of  the,  (ri'eeks, 
xrt.  4fi  (r.  1).  —  "The  factions,  to  allay  the  reviv- 
ing animosities  of  which  was  Solon's  immediate 
object,  had,  at  that  time,  formed  parties  corn  - 
spomling  to  the  geographical  division  of  the 
country,  which  we  have  already  adverted  to; 
the  Pediiei,  or  inhabitants  of  the  lowlands,  in- 
sisted on  a  strict  oligarchy;  the  Parali,  on  the 
coast,  who,  did  v  c  not  tind  the  Alcmaeonid 
Megaeles  at  their  head,  might  be  considered  the 
wealthier  portion  of  the  people,  wished  for  a 
mixed  constitution;  buttheDiacrii  orliyperncrii 
[of  the  inoinitainous  district]  formed  the  great 
majority,  who,  in  their  impoverished  state, 
looked  "for  relief  only  from  a  total  revolution. 
Solon  might,  had  he  so  chosen,  have  made  him- 
self tyrant  by  heading  this  populace:  but  he 
preferred  acting  as  mediator,  and  with  this  view 
caused  himself  to  be  elected  archon,  B.  C.  594, 
as  being  an  Eupatrid  of  the  house  ...  of 
Codru.s," — C.  F.  Hermann,  Manual  of  the  Political 
Antiquities  of  Oreere,  ch.  5,  seet.  106. — "The 
chief  power  was  vested  in  the  collective  people ; 
I)ut  in  oilier  that  it  might  be  exercised  with  ad- 
vantage it  was  necessary  that  they  should  be 
endowed  with  common  rights  of  citizeiwhip. 
Solon  elTected  this  by  raising  the  lower  class 
from  its  degradation,  and  by  subjecting  to  legal 
control  those  who  had  till  now  formed  the 
governing  order,  as  well  as  by  rendering  the 
liberty  of  both  dependent  upon  the  law.  .  .  . 
This  change  was  brought  about  by  two  ordin- 
ances, whicli  must  not  be  regarded  as  mere 
remedies  for  the  abu-ses  of  that  period,  but  as  the 
permanent  basis  of  free  and  legal  citizenship. 
Tlie  one  was  the  Seisachtheia;  this  was  enacted 
by  Solon  to  afford  relief  to  oppressed  debtors, 
by  reducing  tin  '  debts  in  amount,  and  by  rais- 
ing the  value  of  money  in  the  payment  of  interest 
nnd  principal;  at  the  same  time  he  abrogated 
the  former  rigorous  law  of  debt  by  wliirli  the 
freeman  might  be  reduced  to  servitu'de,  and  thus 
secured  to  him  the  unmolested  possession  of  his 
legal  riglits.  ...  A  second  ordinance  enjoined, 
that  their  full  and  entire  rights  sliould  be  restored 
to  all  citizens  who  had  incurred  Atimia,  except 
to  absolute  criminals.  This  was  not  only 
destined  to  heal  the  wounds  wdiicli  had  beeii 
caused  by  the  previous  dissensions,  but  as  till 
that  t;me  the  law  of  del-t  hail  been  able  to  re- 
duce cilizens  to  .\timia,  and  thc^  majority  of  the 
Aliinoi  jioinlcd  out  by  Solon  were  slaves  for 
debt,  that  declaration  stood  in  close  connection 
witli  the  Seisachtheia,  and  had  the  effect  of  a 
proclamation  from  tiie  state  of  its  intention  to 
guarantee  the  validity  of  the  new  ciiizenship. 

1 


.  .  .  The  right  of  nntttrnlization  was  granted  by 
Solon  to  deserving  aliens,  when  6,000  citizens 
decl.ired  theinselves  ill  favour  of  tlie  measure, 
but  these  new  citizens  were  likewise  deficient  in 
a  few  of  the  privileges  of  citizenship.  .  .  .  The 
statement  tliat  Solon  received  a  great  many 
foreigners  as  citizens,  and  -very  ariizan  that 
presented  himself,  appears  highly  improbable, 
as  Solon  was  the  first  legislator  who  systemati- 
cally regulated  the  ocndition  of  the  Meta^ci. 
Tlie  Meta'ci  .  .  .  probably  took  the  place  of 
the  former  Demiurgi;  their  position  was  oiie  of 
sufferance,  but  the  protection  of  tlie  laws  was 
guaranteed  them.  .  .  .  The  servile  order,  ex 
cliLsively  consisting  of  purchased  aliens  and  their 
descendants,  did  not,  as  a  body,  stand  in  direct 
relation  with  the  state ;  individual  slaves  became 
the  property  of  individual  citizens,  but  a  certain 
number  were  employed  by  the  state  as  clerks, 
etc.,  and  were  abandoned  to  the  arbitrary 
pleasure  of  their  oppressive  taskmasters.  .  .  . 
Those  who  were  manumitted  stood  upon  tha 
footing  of  MetoBci ;  the  citizens  who  enfranchised 
tliem  becoming  their  Prostata;.  .  .  ,  Upon  at- 
taining the  age  of  puberty,  tlie  sons  of  citizens 
entered  public  life  under  the  name  of  Ephebi. 
The  state  gave  them  two  years  for  the  full 
development  of  their  youthful  strength.  .  .  . 
Upon  the  expiration  of  the  second,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  most  authentic  accounts,  in  their 
eighteenth  year,  they  received  the  shield  and  spear 
in  the  popular  assembly,  complete  armour  being 
given  to  the  sons  of  those  wlio  liad  fallen  in 
battle,  and  in  the  temple  of  Agraulos  took  the 
oath  of  young  citizens,  the  chief  obligations  of 
which  concerned  the  defence  of  their  country, 
and  then  for  the  space  of  one  or  two  years  per- 
formed military  service  in  the  Attic  border 
fortresses  under  the  name  of  Peripoli.  T'le  cere- 
mony of  arming  them  was  followed  by  enrol- 
ment in  the  book  which  contained  the  names 
of  those  who  had  attained  majority;  this  era- 
powered  the  young  citizen  to  manage  his  own 
fortune,  preside  over  a  household,  enter  the 
popular  assembly,  and  speak.  When  he  asserted 
the  last  right,  viz.,  the  Iscgoria,  Parrhesia,  ho 
was  deiioi.'iinated  Rhetor,  and  this  appellation 
denoted  thvi  difTerenco  between  him  and  the 
silent  member  of  the  assembly,  the  Idiotes. 
.  .  .  Upon  attaiiMng  his  80th  year,  the  citizen 
might  assert  his  superior  rights ;  he  was  qualified 
for  a  membe"  of  the  sworn  tribunal  entitled 
Heliica.  .  .  .  The  word  Ileliast  does  not  merely 
signify  a  judge;  but  the  citizen  who  has  fully 
attained  maturity.  .  .  .  The  juitges  of  the  courts 
of  the  DiiDtctic  and  Epheta;,  which  existed  without 
the  circle  of  the  ordinary  tribunals,  were  required 
to  be  still  older  men  than  the  Hellasts,  viz. ,  50  or 
60  years  of  age.  Solon  appointed  gradations  In 
the  rights  of  citizenship,  according  to  the  con- 
ditions of  a  census  in  reference  to  olHces  of  state. 
.  .  .  Upon  f'e  principle  of  a  conditional  equality 
of  rights,  wiiich  assigns  to  every  one  os  much  as 
he  deserves,  and  which  is  highly  characteristic 
of  Solon's  policy  in  general,  he  instituted  four 
clas.ses  according  to  a  valuation;  these  were  the 
Pentacosiomedimni  [whose  land  yielded  500 
measures  of  wheat  or  oil],  the  Ilippcis  [horse- 
men], tlie  ZengitiB  [owners  of  a  yoke  of  mules], 
and  the  Tlietes  [or  laborers].  The  valuation, 
however,  only  affected  that  portion  of  capital 
from  which  contributions  to  the  stJite-burthens 
were     i'eo'.ired,     consequently,     according     to 

48 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  594. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  510-507. 


Biickli,  a  taxable  capital.  .  .  .  The  Thotos,  the 
last  of  these  classes,  were  not  rcRularly  sum- 
moned to  perform  military  service,  but  only 
exercised  the  civic  riglit  as  members  of  the  as- 
sembly and  the  law-courts:  .  .  .  the  highest  class 
exclusively  supplied  the  superior  olHees,  such  as 
the  archouship,  and  through  this  the  council  of 
the  Areopagus.  ...  In  lieu  of  the  former  coun- 
cil of  administration,  of  which  no  memorial  has 
been  preserved,  Solon  instituted  a  Council  of 
four  hundred  citizens  tjiken  from  the  first  three 
classes,  100  from  every  Phyle,  of  which  no 
person  under  30  years  of  age  could  be  a  member. 
The  appointments  were  renewed  animally;  the 
candidates  underwent  an  examination,  and  such 
as  were  deemed  eligible  drew  lots. " — W.  AVachs- 
muth.  Historical  Antiquities  of  the  Greeks,  sect. 
46-i7  (a.  1). 

Also  in;  G.  F.  Schiimann,  Antig.  of  Greece:  The 
8iate,  pt.  3,  ch.  3,  sect.  4.— E.  Abbott,  Hist,  of 
Greece,  pt.  11,  ch.  3. — G.  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece, 
eh.  11. — Plutarch,  Solon. — Aristotle,  Onthe Const, 
of  Athens  (tr.  by  E.  Poste),  ch.  5-13. — See,  also, 
AuEoi'AGUS,  PitYTANES,  Hei.i^.\,  and  Debt. 

B.  C.  560-510.— The  tyranny  of  the  Pisis- 
tratidz. —  "The  constitution  which  he  [Solon] 
framed  was  found  to  be  insufficient  even  in  his 
own  life-time.  .  .  .  The  poor  citizens  were  still 
poor,  in  spite  of  the  Seisachtheia  and  the  reform 
of  the  constitution.  At  the  same  time  the  ad- 
mission of  the  lowest  class  in  the  scale  of  prop- 
erty to  the  rights  of  Athenian  citizenship,  and 
the  authority  given  to  the  General  As.sembly, 
had  thrown  a  power  into  the  hands  of  the  masses 
which  filled  the  more  conservative  citizens  with 
resentment  and  alarm.  And  so  the  old  party  qtnir- 
rels,  which  had  divided  Attica  before  the  reforms 
of  Solon,  reappeared  after  them  with  even  greater 
violence.  The  men  of  the  plain  were  led  by 
Miltiades,  a  grandson  of  the  tyrant  of  Corinth, 
and  Lycurgus,  the  son  of  Aristolaidas;  tlie  men 
of  the  shore  by  Megacles,  the  Alcmu.'onid,  who 
had  recently  strengthened  the  position  of  his 
family  by  his  marriage  with  Agariste,  the 
<laughter  of  Clisthenes  of  Sicyon.  At  the  head 
of  tlie  mountaineers  stood  Pisistratus,  a  descend- 
ant of  the  royal  stock  of  Nestor,  who  .  .  .  had 
greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  Salaminian 
war.  As  he  possessed  property  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Marathon,  Pisistratus  may  have  been 
intimately  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
adjacent  hills.  .  .  .  Solon  watched  the  failure  of 
his  hopes  with  the  deepest  distress.  He  en- 
deavoured to  recall  the  leaders  of  the  contend- 
ing parties  to  a  sense  of  their  duty  to  the 
country,  and  to  soothe  the  bitterness  of  their 
followers.  With  a  true  instinct  lie  regarded 
Pisistratus  as  by  far  the  most  dangerous  of  the 
three.  Pisistratus  was  an  approveil  general,  and 
the  faction  which  he  led  was  composed  of  poor 
men  v/ho  had  nothing  to  lose.  .  .  .  Pisistratus 
met  tne  vehement  expressions  of  Solon  by  driv- 
ing W(mu(led  into  the  7uark.vt-place.  The 
people's  friend  had  suffered  in  the  jicople's 
cause;  his  life  was  in  danger.  The  incident 
roused  the  Athenians  to  an  unusual  exercise  of 
political  power.  Without  any  previous  dis- 
cussion in  the  Co\uicil,  a  decree  was  passed  by 
the  peo[)le  allowing  Pisistratus  tosiirround  bins- 
self  with  a  body-guard  of  fifty  men,  and  to  arm 
them  with  clubs.  TliUi-  ])rotecte(l,  he  tlu'ew  oil' 
all  disguises,  and  established  himself  in  the 
Acropolis  us  tyrant  of  Athens  [U.  C.  500].  .  .  . 


Herodotus  tells  us  that  Pisisiratus  was  a  just 
and  moderate  ruler.  He  did  not  alter  the  laws 
or  remove  the  existing  forms  of  government. 
The  Council  was  still  elected,  the  Assembly 
c  mtinued  to  meet,  though  it  is  improbable  that 
either  the  one  or  the  other  was  allowed  to  extend 
its  functions  beyond  dimiestic  aifairs.  The 
archons  still  continued  to  be  the  executive  magis- 
trates of  the  city,  and  cases  of  nuirder  were 
tried,  as  of  old,  at  the  Areopagus.  The  tyrant 
contented  himself  with  occupying  the  Acropolis 
with  his  troops  and  securing  important  posts  in 
the  administration  for  his  family  or  his  adherents.  '•■ 
Twice,  liowever,  Pisistratus  was  driven  from 
l)ower  by  the  combination  of  his  oi.ponents,  and 
into  exile,  for  four  years  in  the  tirst  instance  and 
for  ten  years  in  the  last ;  but  Athens  was  compelled 
to  p"  ept  him  for  a  ruler  in  the  end.  "Pisistratus 
ren-  ined  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  throne 
till  us  death  in  527  B.  C.  He  was  succeeded 
by  liis  eldest  son  Hippias,with  whom  Hipparchus 
and  Thessalus,  his  younger  sons,  were  associ- 
ated in  the  government."  But  those  younger 
tyrants  soon  made  themselves  intolerably  hate- 
ftil,  and  a  conspiracy  formed  against  them  by 
Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton  was  successf\d  in 
taking  the  life  of  Hipparchus.  Four  years  later, 
in  510  B.  C,  with  the  help  of  Delphi  and  Sparta, 
Hippias  was  driven  from  the  city.  Clisthenes, 
at  the  head  of  the  exiled  Alcma;onids,  was  the 
master-spirit  of  the  revolution,  and  it  was  under 
his  guidance  that  the  Athenian  democratic  con- 
stitution was  reorganized.  —  E.  Abbott,  Hist,  of 
Gj-eece,  v.  1,  ch.  15. 

Ai.so IN :  G.  Grote, Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  11  and'iO. 

B.  C.  510-507. — The  constitution  of  Cleis- 
thenes. —  Advance  of  democracy. — "The  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Pisistratids  left  the  democratieal 
party,  which  had  first  raised  them  to  power, 
without  a  leader.  The  Alcma-onids  had  always 
been  considered  as  its  adversaries,  though  they 
were  no  less  opposed  to  the  faction  of  the 
nobles,  which  seems  at  this  time  to  have  been 
headed  by  Isagoras.  .  .  .  Cleisthenes  found  him- 
self, as  his  party  had  always  been,  unable  to 
cope  with  it;  he  resolved,  therefore,  to  shift  his 
ground,  and  to  attach  himself  to  that  popular 
cause  which  Pisistratus  had  used  as  the  stepping 
stone  of  his  ambition.  His  aims,  however,  were 
not  confined  to  a  temporary  advantage  over  his 
rivals ;  he  planned  an  important  (change  in  the 
constitution,  which  should  forever  break  the 
power  of  his  whole  order,  by  dissolving  some  of 
the  main  links  by  which  their  sway  was  secured^ 
For  this  purpose,  having  gained  the  confidence 
of  the  commonalty  and  obtained  the  sanction  of 
the  Deljihic  oracle,  he  abolished  the  four  ancient 
tribes,  and  made  a  fresh  geographical  division 
of  Af,  ica  into  ten  new  tribes,  each  of  whi(}h 
bore  a  name  derived  from  some  Attic  hero.  The 
ten  tribes  were  sulxlivided  into  districts  of 
various  extent,  called  denies,  each  containing  a 
town  or  village.  .  .  .  Cleisthenes  appears  to 
have  preserved  the  ancient  phratries;  but  as 
they  were  now  left  insulated  by  the  abolition 
of  the  tribes  to  which  they  bclrnged,  they  lost 
all  political  importance.  .  .  .  Ck  sthenes  at  the 
same  time  increased  the  stnugth  of  the  com- 
monalty by  making  a  great  many  new  citizens, 
and  he  is  .said  to  have  cnfrancliised  not  only 
aliens  —  and  tliesi!  both  resiiieuts  and  ailvi'uturers 
from  abroad  —  but  slaves.  .  .  .  The  whole 
frame  of  the  state  was  reorganized  to  corresiioud 


U!) 


ATIIKNS,  B.  C.  510-507. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  501-490. 


with  tlic  new  division  of  the  country.  The 
Bcniile  (if  the  Four  Hundred  wns  increased  to 
Five  Hundred,  tiiat  tifty  niiglit  l)e  drawn  from 
fiieli  trihc.  and  llie  rotation  of  tlie  presidency 
wa.s  ad.ipled  to  tliis  change,  the  (Ifly  councillors 
of  each  irilic  filling  that  ollice  for  thirty-five  or 
thirty-six  days  in  .sncee.s.sion,  and  nine  coun- 
cillors heing  elected  one  from  each  of  the  other 
trihes  to  preside  at  the  (.'ouncil  lual  the  Assenihly 
of  (he  I'lnplc,  which  was  now  called  regidarly 
four  times  in  the  month,  certain  business  being 
a.s.signed  to  each  meeting.  The  Heliica  was  also 
(listriliutcd  into  ten  courts:  and  the  same  division 
henceforth  |)revailed  in  most  of  the  public 
oflices.  though  the  number  of  the  archons  re- 
maine<l  unchang<'d.  To  Clei.sthenes  also  is 
iLScribed  the  formal  institution  of  the  ostracism. 
.  .  .  These  changes,  and  the  intlnence  they 
ne(piired  for  their  author,  reduced  the  party  of 
Isagoras  to  utter  weakness,  and  they  saw  no 
prospect  of  maintaining  themselves  but  by 
foreign  aid."  Isagoras,  accordingly,  applied  for 
help  to  Ch'omenes,  one  of  the  kings  of  Sparta, 
who  had  already  interfered  in  Athenian  affairs 
by  assi-sting  at  the  expulsion  of  the  Pisistratidie, 
C'leomenes  responded  by  coming  to  Athens  with 
ft  small  force  |B.  C  508],  which  snfliced  to  over- 
awe the  peoi)le,  and,  as.stiming  dictatorial 
authority,  he  established  Isiigoras  in  power,  v,  ith 
un  attenlpted  rearrangement  of  the  government. 
"He  began  by  banishing  700  fiimilies designated 
by  I.sagoras,  and  then  proceeded  to  suppress  the 
Council  of  the  Five  Hundred,  and  to  lodge  the 
government  in  the  hands  of  Three  Hundred  of 
liis  friend's  partisans.  When,  however,  the 
couiu'illors  resisted  this  attempt,  the  peoi)le  took 
heart,  and,  Cleomenes  and  Isagoras  having 
occupied  the  citadel,  ro.se  in  a  body  and  besieged 
tJiein  there.  As  they  were  not  jirepared  to 
sustain  a  siege,  they  capitulated  on  the  third 
day:  C'leomenes  and  Isagoras  were  permitted 
to  depart  with  the  Lac^ediemonian  troops,  but 
they  were  compelled  to  aliandon  their  adherents 
to  the  mercy  of  their  enemies.  All  were  i)Ut  to 
death,  and  Cleisthenes  and  the  700  banished 
families  returned  triumphantly  to  Athens." 
Cleomenes  soon  afterwards  raisi'd  a  force  with 
which  to  subdue  Athens  and  restore  Isagoras. 
Thi^  Athenians  in  their  alarm  sent  an  embassy  to 
Hardis  to  solicit  the  iirotectiou  of  the  Persians. 
Forttnuitely,  nothing  came  of  it,  and  Cleomenes 
was  .so  in\ich  opposed  in  his  jiroject,  by  the 
Corinthians  and  other  allies  of  .Sparta,  that  he 
Lad  to  give  it  up. — C.  Thirlwall,  lliit.  of  Greecf, 
U.  11. 

Also  in:  Q.  Grotc,  Hist,  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  eh.  31. 
— K.  Abbott,  Hint,  of  Oreeec,  clt.  15.— Aristotle 
on  the  CoiiKl.  of  Al/ieiiit  {ti:  hy  E.  PoHte),ch.  20-22. 

B.  C.  509^506.— Hostile  undertakings  of 
Kleomenes  and  Sparta. — Help  solicited fron" 
the  Persian  king. — Subjection  refused.  —  Fail- 
ure of  Spartan  schemes  to  restore  tyranny. — 
Protest  of  the  Corinthians. — Successful  war 
with  Thebes  and  Chalcis.— "  Witli  Sparta  it 
was  obvious  that  the  Athenians  now  liad  a 
deadly  (luarrel,  and  on  the  other  side  they  knew 
that  Hippias  was  seeking  to  precipitate  on  them 
tile  po\ier  of  the  Persian  king.  It  seemc<l 
therefore  to  be  a  matter  of  stern  necessity  to 
anticipate  the  intrigues  of  their  baui.sbed  tyrant; 
and  the  Athenians  accordingly  sent  ambassadors 
to  Sardeis  to  make  an  indci)emleiit  alliance  with 
the    rersiau  despot.      The    envoys,    on    being 


brought  info  the  presence  of  Artapherncs,  the 
Satrap  of  Lydia,  were  told  that  Dareios  would 
admit  them  to  an  alliance  if  they  woidd  give 
him  earth  and  water, —  in  other  words,  if  they 
wouhl  acknowledge  themselves  his  slaves.  To 
this  demand  of  absolute  subjection  the  envoys 
gave  an  ns.scnt  which  was  indignantly  repmli- 
ated  by  the  whole  body  of  Atlieniau  citizens. 
.  .  .  Foiled  for  the  time  in  his  efforts,  Kleo- 
menes was  not  cast  down.  Kegardiiig  the  Kleis- 
thenian  constitution  as  n  personal  insult  to  him- 
self, he  was  resolved  that  Isagoras  should  be 
despot  of  Athen.s.  Summoning  the  allies  of 
Sparta  [including  the  IJu'Otian  League  headed 
by  Thebes,  and  the  people  of  Chalci,  in  Eiibiea], 
he  led  them  as  far  us  Eleusis,  Vi  miles  only 
from  Athens,  without  informing  them  of  the 
purpose  of  (he  campaign.  He  Iiad  no  sooner 
confessed  it  than  the  Corinthians,  declaring  that 
they  had  been  brought  away  from  home  on  an 
unrighteous  errand,  went  back,  followed  by  the 
other  Spartan  King,  Demaratos,  the  son  of  Aris- 
ton;  and  this  conflict  of  opinion  broke  up  the 
rest  of  the  army.  This  discomfiture  of  their 
enemy  seemed  to  inspire  fresh  strength  into  the 
Athenians,  wao  won  a  series  of  victories  over 
the  Boiotians  and  Euboians" — ccmipletely  over- 
throwing the  latter  —  tlie  Chalcidians  —  taking 
possession  of  their  city,  and  making  it  a  peculiar 
colony  and  dependency  of  Athens. — See  Klek- 
uciis.  The  anger  of  Kleomenes  "ou  being  dis- 
comfited at  Eleusis  by  the  defection  of  his  own 
allies  was  heightened  by  indignation  at  the  dis- 
covery that  in  driving  out  his  friend  Hippias  he 
bad  been  simply  the  tool  of  Kleisthenes  and  of 
the  Delphian  priestess  whom  Kleisthenes  had 
bribed.  It  was  now  clear  to  him  and  to  bis 
coimtrynu'ii  that  the  Athenians  would  not 
ac(|uiesce  in  the  predominance  of  Sparta,  and 
that  if  they  retained  their  freedom,  the  power 
of  Athens  would  soon  be  equal  to  their  own. 
Their  only  sjifety  lay,  therefore,  in  providing 
the  Athenians  with  a  tyrant.  An  invitation 
was,  therefore,  sent  to  Hii)pias  at  Sigeion,  to 
attend  a  congress  of  the  allies  at  Sparta,  who 
were  sunnnoned  to  meet  on  the  arrival  of  the 
exiled  despot."  The  ai)pointe(l  congress  was 
held,  and  the  Spartans  besought  their  allies  to 
aid  them  in  bumbling  the  Athenian  Democracy, 
with  the  object  of  restoring  Hippias  to  power. 
But  again  the  Corinthians  protested,  bluntly 
suggesting  that  if  the  Spartans  thought  tyranny 
a  good  thing  they  might  first  try  it  for  them- 
selves. Hippias,  speaking  in  his  own  behalf, 
attempted  to  convince  them  that  the  time  was 
coming  "in  which  they  would  And  the  Atiie- 
niaiis  a  thorn  in  their  side.  For  the  present  lis 
e.xhortatations  were  thrown  away.  The  allies 
jirotcsted  unanimously  against  all  attempts  to 
interfere  with  the  internal  administration  of  any 
Hellenic  city ;  and  the  banished  tyrant  went 
back  disappointed  to  Sigeion." — G.  W.  Co.\, 
The  Givekn  mid  the  PeniaiiK,  ch.  4. 

Also  in  :  G.  Qrote,  UUt.  of  Greece,  pt.  3,  ch. 
31  (r.  4). 

B.  C.  501-490.— Aid  to  lonians  ag.-'  t  Per- 
sia..—Provocation  of  King  Darius. — 1.  wrath 
and  attempted  vengeance. — The  first  Persian 
invasions. — Battle  of  Marathon. — "It  is  un- 
ileniable  thai  the  extension  of  the  Pcrsiin  do- 
minion over  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egy  uaive 
a  violent  check  to  the  onward  movement  01  t.reek 
life.    On  the  other  hand,  it  seemed  us  if  the  great 


160 


ATHENS,  IJ.  C.  501-400. 


Persian 
War. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  501-490. 


ontcrprise  of  Diirius  Hj'Stnspia  ngainst  the  Scy- 
thians ought  to  have  uuitcd  thi;  Ori'cks  and  I'cr- 
siiiiis.  It  WHS  of  a  pk'(:c'  with  tliu  geiit-ral  policy 
of  Uariiis  tliat,  after  defeating  .so  many  other ail- 
versaries,  lie  undertook  to  prevent  for  all  suc- 
ceeding time  a  repetition  of  those  inroads  with 
which,  some  centuries  before,  the  Scythians  had 
visited  Asia  and  the  civilized  world.  lie  l)0s- 
sessed  authority  enougli  to  unites  the  diiVcrent 
nations  which  obeyed  Ins  sceptre  in  a  iircat  cam- 
paign against  the  Scythians.  .  .  .  The  Greeks 
were  his  best  idlies  in  his  campaign ;  tliey  built 
him  tlic  bridge  by  which  he  crossed  the  Bosporus, 
and  also  the  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Danube 
by  whi  .h  he  made  his  invasion  into  the  enemy's 
territory.  The  result  was  not  one  which  could 
properly  be  called  unfortunate;  yet  it  was  cer- 
taiidy  of  a  very  doubtful  character.  .  .  .  A  great 
region,  in  which  they  had  already  obtained  very 
considerable  intluence,  was  closed  to  them  once 
more.  The  I'ersian  army  brought  the  popula- 
tions upon  the  Strymon,  many  in  number  and 
individually  weak,  under  the  dominion  of  Persia; 
and  even  Amyntas,  the  king  of  Makedonia,  one 
of  a  race  of  rulers  of  Greek  origin,  was  compelled 
to  do  homage  to  the  Great  King.  Thus  t!ie 
movement  which  had  thrust  hack  the  Greeks 
from  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  made  advances  even 
into  the  regions  of  Europe  which  bordered  upon 
Northern  llellas.  It  was  an  almost  inevitable 
conse([uenceof  this  that  the  Greeks  were  menaced 
and  straitened  even  in  their  proper  home.  A 
pretext  and  opportunity  for  an  attack  upon  the 
Greek  islands  was  presentid  to  the  Persians  by 
the  (juestions  at  issue  between  the  populations  of 
the  cities  and  the  tyrants.  .  .  The  instnunent 
by  whom  the  crisis  was  brought  about  was  not 
a  person  of  any  great  iiuportance.  It  is  not  al- 
ways great  natures,  or  natures  strong  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  their  own  powers,  that  bring  on 
such  conflicts;  this  is  sometimes  the  work  of 
those  flexible  characters  which,  being  at  the 
point  of  contact  between  the  opposing  forces, 
pass  from  one  side  to  the  other.  Such  a  charac- 
ter was  Aristagoras  of  Miletus.  .  .  .  ^lorally 
contemptible,  but  gifted  intellectually  with  a 
range  of  ideas  of  unlimited  extent,  Aristagoras 
made  for  himself  an  imperishable  name  by  being 
the  first  to  entertain  the  thought  of  a  collective 
opposition  to  the  Persians  on  the  part  of  all  the 
Greeks,  even  contemplating  the  po.ssibility  of 
waginga  g.eataudsuccessfuloltensivo  wuiupon 
them.  ...  He  announced  in  Miletus  his  own 
resignation  of  power  and  the  restoration  to  the 
peoi)le  of  their  old  lews.  ...  A  general  over- 
throw of  tyranny  ensued  [B.  C.  50lJ,  involving 
a  revolt  froiu  Persia,  and  Slrategi  were  every- 
where appointeil.  The  supreme  power  iu  the 
cities  was  based  upon  a  gooil  understanding 
between  the  holders  of  power  and  the  Persians; 
the  fact  that  one  of  these  rulers  found  the  uii- 
tliority  of  the  Persians  intolerable  was  the  signal 
fur  a  tunversal  revolt.  Aristagoras  himself  vol- 
untarily renounced  the  tyranny,  the  other  tyrants 
were  compelled  to  take  the  same  course;  and 
thus  the  cities,  iLssuming  at  the  same  lime  ademo- 
cnitic  organization,  came  into  hostility  with 
Persia.  .  .  .  The  cities  and  islands  wliich  had 
so  often  been  for(;cd  to  submission  could  not  hope 
t^)  resist  the  Persians  by  theirown  unaided  ellorts. 
Even  Aristagoras  could  not  have  expectiil  so 
much.  .  .  .  He  visited  I,akediunion,  the  strong- 
est of  the   Greek  powers,   iu   person,    and  en- 


deavored to  carry  her  with  him  in  hi.s  pl.ins.  .  .  . 
Uejected  by  Sparta,  Aristagoras  betcHtk  himself 
to  Athens.  .  .  .  The  Athenians  granted  Arista- 
goras twenty  ships,  to  which  the  Eretrians,  from 
friendship  to  .Miletus,  added  live  more.  The 
coiu'age  of  the  lonians  was  thus  revived,  and  an 
attack  upon  the  Persian  domiidon  commenced, 
directed,  not  indeed  against  Su.sa,  but  against 
Sardis,  in  their  immediate  neighborhood,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  satrapy  which  imposed  on  them  their 
heaviest  burdens.  .  .  .  By  the  burning  of  Sardis, 
in  which  a  sanctuary  of  Kybele  had  been  de- 
stroyed, the  Syrian  nations  had  been  outraged  in 
the  pers(m  of  their  gods.  We  know  that  it  was 
part  of  the  system  of  the  Persians  to  take  the 
gods  of  11  coiintry  under  their  i)rote(tion.  Nor 
would  the  great  king  who  thought  himself  ap- 
liointed  to  l)e  master  of  the  world  fail  to  resent 
an  invasion  of  his  dominions  as  an  instdt  calling 
for  revenge.  The  hostile  attciupts  of  the  lonians 
made  no  great  impression  upon  him,  but  he 
asked  who  were  the  Athenians,  of  whose  share 
in  tlie  campaign  he  had  been  informed.  They 
were  foreigners,  of  whose  power  'he  king  had 
scarcely  heard.  .  .  .  The  enterprise  of  Arista- 
goras had  meanwhile  caused  general  conuuotion. 
He  had  by  far  the  larger  part  of  Cyprus,  to- 
gether with  the  Carians,  on  his  .side.  All  the 
country  near  the  Piopontis  and  the  Hellespont 
was  iu  revolt.  The  Persians  were  compelled  to 
make  it  tlieir  first  ccmeern  to  suppress  this  insur- 
recticm,  a  task  whir:h,  if  attempted  by  sea,  did 
not  promise  to  be  an  easy  one.  In  their  lirst  en- 
counter with  the  Phuuiicians  the  lonians  had  the 
advantage.  AV'hen,  however,  the  forces  of  the 
great  empire  were  assembled,  the  insurrection 
was  everywhere  put  down.  ...  It  nuist  be 
reckoned  among  the  conse(iuences  of  the  battle 
of  Lade,  by  which  tlu'  combination  against  the 
Persian  empire  had  been  annihilated,  that  King 
Darius,  not  content  with  having  consolidated  his 
dominion  in  Ionia,  once  more  resumed  the  plan 
of  pushing  forward  into  Eurojic,  of  which  his 
enterprise  against  the  Scythians  formed  part. 
With  the  execution  of  this  ])rojeet  he  commis- 
sioned one  of  the  principal  persons  of  the  empire 
and  the  court,  .  .  .  Mardonius  by  name,  whom 
lie  luiitcd  to  his  faitiily  by  marrying  him  to  his 
daughter.  .  ,  .  This  general  cro.ssed  the  Helles- 
pont with  a  large  army,  his  fleet  always  accom- 
panying him  along  the  .shore  whilst  he  pushed 
on  by  the  mainland.  He  once  more  subihied 
Makedonia,  probably  the  districts  which  had  not 
yet,  like  the  ;\Iaked(mian  king,  been  brought  into 
subjection,  and  gave  out  that  his  aim  wu3 
directed  against  Eretria  and  Athens,  the  enenue.s 
of  the  king.  ...  In  the  stormy  waters  near 
Mount  Athos,  which  have  always  made  the  navi- 
gation of  the  ^Egean  dillicult,  his  licet  sullered 
ship-wreck.  But  without  naval  supports  he  could 
not  hope  to  gain  possession  of  an  island  and  a 
maritime  town  situated  on  a  promcmtory.  Even 
by  land  ho  encountered  resistance,  so  that  ho 
found  it  advisable  to  postpone  the  further  execu- 
tion of  his  undertakings  to  another  time.  ...  In 
order  to  subdue  the  recalcitrants,  especially 
Athens  an<l  Eretria,  another  attempt  was  organ- 
ized without  delay.  Liider  two  generals,  one  of 
whom,  Datis,  wasaMede,  the  other,  Artai)herues, 
the  son  of  the  satraji  of  Sardis  of  the  same  name, 
and  brother  of  the  Dirius  who  was  in  alliance 
with  Ilippias,  a  maritime  expedition  was  under- 
take!   .'or    the     imme<liate   subjugation   of  the 


151 


ATIIKNS,  B.  C.  501-400. 


Prraian 
li'ar. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  480-480. 


Islnnils  mid  the  inaritimodi.'^trirts,  Tt  wns  tintdo- 
sijfiK'ii  fiir  open  hostility  aiiaiiist  tlic  Orcclis  in 
Ktiicnil.  .  .  .  Tlicir  (li'.siffii  wii.s  to  iitiiizi- tlic  ill- 
tei-nal  ilis.scn.si()ii.t  of  (Jnccc  in  coiiiiiicrinf;  the 
principal  ciiciiiics  upon  wlioin  llic  (Jrcat  Kiiij; 
liitd  .swi.rii  v<'ni;can(c,  and  presenting  tlieiii  as 
captives  at  Ids  i'eet.  Tlie  project  Huccceded  in 
till' case  of  Krcliia.  In  spiKiof  u  brave  resisl- 
jinco  il  fdl  by  treacliery  into  tlieir  hands,  and 
they  could  aviiii;<'  the  sacrilege  coninilltcd  at 
Hurdis  liy  pluiKlering  and  <levastating  Grcciiin 
simrtuarfes.  They  expected  now  to  be  able  to 
ovctiiower  Athens  also  without  iiiucli  trouble. 
.  .  .  Il  was  a  circiuustance  of  great  value  to  the 
Athenians  that  there  was  a  man  amongst  them 
who  w  IS  familiar  with  the  Persian  tactics.  This 
was  Miiilades,  the  .son  of  Kiiiion.  .  .  .  Although 
a  Thnich  :i  jirince,  he  had  neviT  ceased  to  be  a 
C'ti/.en  of  .Vlhcns.  Here  he  was  iiiipeaclied  for 
having  helil  a  tyranny,  but  was  ac(iuitted  and 
cho.seu  strategiis"  for  the  democracy  could  not 
reject  a  man  who  was  so  admirably  (jualilie.l  to 
be  at  tlieir  head  in  the  interchange  of  hostilities 
with  Persia.  Miltiades  was  c(mducting  his  own 
personal  (luariel  in  undertakinjj  the  defence  of 
Attica.  The  force  of  the  Persians  was  indeed 
incomparably  the  larger,  but  the  plains  of  Mara- 
thon, on  which  they  were  drawn  up,  prevented 
tlieir  proper  deployment,  and  they  saw  with  as- 
tonishment the  Athenian  lioplites  displaying  a 
front  as  extended  as  their  own.  These  troops 
now  rushed  upon  them  with  an  impetus  which 
grew  swifter  at  every  moment.  The  Persians 
easily  sueeeeded  in  breaking  through  the  centre 
of  the  Athenian  army;  but  that  was  of  no 
moment,  for  the  strength  of  the  onset  lay  in  the 
two  wings,  where  now  began  a  haii<l-to-liand 
tight.  The  Persian  sword,  formidable  elsewhere, 
was  not  adapted  to  do  good  service  against  tlie 
bronze  armor  and  the  spear  of  the  Hellenes.  On 
both  Hanks  the  Athenians  obtained  the  advan- 
tage, and  now  attacked  the  Persian  centre,  which 
was  not  able  to  withstand  the  onslaught  of  men 
whose  natural  vigor  was  lieighteued  liy  gymnastic 
training.  The  Persians,  to  their  misfortune,  had 
calculated  upon  desertion  in  the  ranks  of  their 
opponents;  foiled  in  this  hope,  they  retreated  to 
the  shore  and  to  their  ships.  Herodotus  in- 
timates that  the  Persians  liad  secret  intelligence 
with  a  party  in  Athens,  and  took  their  course 
round  the  promontory  of  Sunium  toward  the  city, 
in  the  hope  of  surprising  it.  But  when  they 
came  to  anchor  the  Athenians  had  arrived  also, 
and  they  saw  themselves  once  more  confronted 
bv  the  victors  of  Marathon." — L.  von  Uanke, 
tTniKriKil  Jlistor//,  eh.  6. 

Ai.so  IX :  Herodotus,  History,  hk.  6. — V.  Duruy, 
Hist,  of  Greece,  eh.  16  (».  2). — See,  also,  Peiisia: 
B.  C.  r/)l-l<)3,  and  Gui.:ece:  B.  C.  493-401,  and 
400. 

B,  C.  489-480. — Condemnation  and  death 
of  Miltiades. — The  iEginetan  war. — Naval 
power  created  by  Themistocles. — "The  vic- 
tory of  -Marathon  was  chietly  due  to  Miltiades; 
it  was  he  who  brought  on  the  engagement,  and 
he  was  chief  in  command  on  the  day  when  the 
battle  was  fought.  Such  a  brilliant  success 
greatly  im|)roved  his  position  in  the  city,  and 
excited  in  his  enemies  a  still  deeper  hatred. 
Kvor  on  the  watch  for  an  opportunity  to  inill 
down  their  rival,  it  was  not  long  before  they 
found  one.  Soon  after  liis  victory,  Miltiades 
caiue  befoa-  the  Athenians  with  a  request  that  a 


.scptadrnn  nf  70  Ships  miffht  bo  placcil  at  his  dis- 
posiil.  The  purpo.se  for  which  lie  rc(Hiired  then 
III'  would  not  disclose,  though  iik'dging  his  word 
that  the  expedition  woiikl  add  largely  to  the 
wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  city.  The  re(|ucst 
being  granted,  he  sailed  wilii  the  .ships  to  Piirns, 
an  island  which  at  this  time  was  subject  to 
Persia.  From  the  Parians  he  demanded  100 
talents,  and  when  they  refused  to  pay  he  block- 
aded the  city.  So  vigorous  and  succ«'.ssful  was 
tlic  resistance  offered  that,  after  a  long  delay, 
-Miltiades,  himself  dangerously  wounded,  was 
compelled  to  return  liome.  His  enemies,  with 
Xaiithippus  at  their  head,  at  once  attacked  him 
for  ini.scimduct  in  the  enterprise.  .  .  .  Miltiades 
was  unable  to  rcjily  in  jicrson ;  he  was  carried 
into  court,  wliile  his  friends  pleaded  his  cause. 
The  sentence  was  given  against  him,  but  the 
penalty  was  reduced  from  death  to  a  tine  of  .W 
talents.  So  large  a  sum  was  more  than  even 
Miltiades  could  pay;  he  was  thrown  into  prison 
as  a  public  debtor,  where  he  smm  died  from  the 
mortification  of  his  wound.  .  .  .  His  condemna- 
tion was  one  in  a  long  scries  of  similar  punish- 
ments. The  Athenians  never  learnt  to  be  just 
to  those  who  served  them,  or  to  di.stinguish  be- 
tween treachery  and  errors  of  judgment.  .  .  . 
AVe  have  very  little  information  about,  the  state 
of  Athens  immediately  after  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon. So  far  as  we  can  tell,  for  the  chronology 
is  most  uncertain,  she  was  now  engaged  in  a  war 
with  -iEgina.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  a  man  was  rising 
to  power,  who  may  be  said  to  have  created  the 
history  of  Athens  for  the  rest  of  the  century, — 
Tliemistocles,  the  son  of  Neodes.  ...  On  the 
very  day  of  Marathon,  Themistocles  had  proba- 
bly made  up  his  mind  that  the  Persians  would 
visit  Greece  again.  What  was  to  keep  them 
away,  so  long  as  they  vore  masters  of  the 
^gean?  .  .  .  With  an  insight  almost  incredi- 
ble he  perceived  that  the  Athenians  could  be- 
come a  maritime  nation ;  that  Athens  possesses 
harbours  largs  enough  to  receive  an  enormous 
fleet,  and  capable  of  being  strongly  fortified; 
that  in  possession  of  a  fleet  she  could  not  only 
secure  her  own  safety,  but  st^ind  forth  as  a  rival 
power  to  Sparta.  But  how  could  Themistocles 
induce  the  Athenians  to  abandon  the  line  in 
which  they  had  been  so  successful  for  a  mode  of 
warfare  in  which  even  Miltiades  had  failed? 
After  the  fall  of  the  great  general,  the  conduct 
of  affairs  was  in  the  hands  of  Xanthippus  .  .  . 
and  Aristides.  .  .  .  They  were  by  no  means 
prepared  for  the  change  which  Themistocles  was 
meditating.  This  is  more  especially  true  of 
-/•Lrisiidcs.  He  had  been  a  friend  of  Clisthenes; 
he  was  known  as  an  admirer  of  Spa-tan  customs. 
...  Ho  had  been  second  in  command  at  Mara- 
thon, and  was  now  the  most  eminent  general  at 
Athens.  From  him  Themistocles  could  only  ex- 
pect the  most  resolute  opposition.  Xauthijipus 
and  Aristides  could  reckon  on  the  support  of  old 
traditions  and  great  connections.  Themistocles 
had  no  support  of  the  kind.  He  had  to  make 
his  party,  .  .  .  Conscious  of  their  own  posi- 
tion, Aristides  and  Xanthiiipiis  looked  with  con- 
tempt upon  the  knot  of  men  who  began  to 
gather  round  their  unmannerly  and  uncultivated 
loader.  And  they  might,  i)orliaps,  have  inain- 
lainod  their  position  if  it  had  not  boci  for  the 
yE.ginetan  war.  That  unlucky  struggle  had  be- 
gun, soon  after  the  reforms  of  Clisthenes,  with 
an  unprovoked  attack  of  the  /Eginctans  011  tliu 

152 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  489-480. 


I*ernian 
trar. 


atiip:ns,  b.  c.  480-479. 


mast  of  Attica  (500  B.  C),  [^Kgiim  being  allied 
with  Thebes  in  tlie  wiir  mentioned  above  —  B.C. 
509-5001.  It  was  renewed  when  tin;  .Kginetans 
gave  earth  and  water  to  tlie  heralds  of  Darius  in 
491,  and  thoiigli  suspended  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  invasion,  it  brolie  out  again  witli  re- 
newed ferocity  soon  afterwards.  The  jEginelans 
had  the  stronger  Ueet,  and  defeated  the  Athenian 
sliips.  "8ucli  e.\p(!rionees  naturally  caused  a 
change  in  the  minds  of  the  Athenians.  ...  It 
was  clear  that  the  old  arrangements  fo-  tlie  navy 
were  unite  iiiade((nate  to  the  task  which  was 
now  reciuired  of  them.  Vet  the  leaders  of  the 
state  made  no  proposals."  Themistoeles  now 
"came  forward  publicly  with  proposals  of  naval 
reform,  and,  as  he  expected,  he  drew  \ipoii  him- 
self the  strenuous  oi)position  of  Aristides.  .  .  . 
It  was  clear  that  uotliing  decisive  could  bo  done 
in  the  iEginctaii  war  unless  the  proposals  of 
Themistoeles  were  carried ;  it  was  equally  clear 
tliat  they  never  would  be  carried  while  Aristides 
and  Xauthippus  were  at  hand  to  oppose  them. 
Under  these  circumstances  recourse  was  had  to 
the  safety-valve  of  the  constitution.  Ostracism 
was  p'"opo8ed  and  accepted ;  and  in  this  manner, 
by  483  B,  C,  Themistoeles  had  got  rid  of  both  of 
Ins  rivals  in  the  city.  Ho  was  now  master  of 
the  situation.  The  only  obstacle  to  the  reali- 
zation of  his  plans  was  the  expense  involved  in 
building  ships.  And  this  he  was  able  to  meet 
by  a  happy  accident,  which  brought  into  the 
treasury  at  this  time  a  large  surplus  from  the 
silver  mines  from  Laurium.  ...  By  the  sum- 
mer of  480,  the  Athenians  .  .  .  were  able  to 
launoli  180  vessels,  besides  providing  20  for  the 
use  of  the  Chalcidcans  of  Euboea.  ...  At  the 
same  time  Themistoeles  set  about  the  fortiflca- 
tion  of  the  PeiriEus.  .  .  .  Could  he  have  carried 
the  Athenians  with  him,  lie  would  have  made  the 
Peinuus  the  capital  of  the  country,  in  order  that 
tlie  sliips  and  the  city  might  be  in  close  connec- 
tion. But  for  this  the  people  were  not  pro- 
pared." —  E.  Abbott,  Pericles  and  Vie  Oolden  Age 
of  Athetu,  ch.  2. 

Also  IN:  Plutarch,  Arintides. — ThemiKtocles. 

B.  C.  481-479.— Congress  at  Corinth.— Or- 
ganized Hellenic  Union,  under  the  headship 
of  Sparta.     See  Giiekce:  B.  C.  481-479. 

B.  C.  480-470. — The  second  Persian  inva- 
sion.—  Thermopylae,  Artemisium,  Salamis, 
Platxa. —  Abandonment  of  the  City. —  "The 
last  days  of  Darius  were  clouded  by  the  disaster 
of  ilarathon;  'that  battle  formed  the  turning 
point  of  his  good  fortune,'  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  news  of  it  led  to  several  insurrections, 
particularly  that  of  I5gyi)t ;  but  they  were  soon 
put  down.  Davius  died  (Olyrap.  "73,  3),  and 
Xer.xes,  who  succeeded  him,  was  p.e  vented  from 
taliing  rev<,vige  on  the  Athenians  liy  the  revolt  of 
Egypt,  which  engaged  his  attention  during  the 
first  years  of  his  reign.  But  ho  completely  con- 
•luered  the  insurgents  after  they  had  maintained 
themselves  about  four  or  tive  years;  and  he  then 
made  prepanuions  for  that  vengeance  on  Athens 
for  which  his  barbarian  pride  was  longing.  The 
account  of  the  three  years'  preparations  of 
Xerxes,  how  he  assembled  his  army  in  Asia 
Jlin  >r,  how  he  made  a  bridge  across  the  Helles- 
pont, how  he  cut  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of 
Jlount  Athos  to  jirevcnt  his  fleet  being  destroyed 
by  .storms  —  all  this  is  known  to  every  one  who 
has  read  Herodotus.  History  is  here  so  much  in- 
terwoven with  ijoetry,  that  they  can  no  longer 


be  separated.  .  .  .  The  Greeks  awaited  the  at- 
tack'Olyrnp.  75.  1),  'but  they  were  not  agreed 
among  Uiemselves.  The  Argives  from  hatriMl  of 
Sparta  joinecl  the  Persians,  and  the  miserable 
Boeotians  likewise  supported  them.  The  olliers 
kept  together  ojily  from  nercssity;  and  without 
the  noble  spirit  of  the  .Vtheiiians  Greece  would 
have  been  lost,  and  that  from  the  most  paltry 
circumstaiiees.  \  dispute  arose  as  to  who  was 
to  be  honoured' with  the  r.upreme  command :  the 
Athenians  gave  way  to  all,  for  llieii-  only  desire 
was  to  .save  Greece.  Had  the  Persians  moved  on 
rapidly,  they  would  have  met  with  no  resistance, 
but  thy  proceeded  slowly,  ..nd  matters  turned 
out  dilferently. '  A  Greek  arm v  was  encamped 
at  Tenipe,  at  the  entrance  of  'I'hessaly,  and  at 
tlrst  determined  on  defeniling  Thessaly.  But 
they  must  have  seen  that  they  could  1";  entirely 
surrounded  from  Upper  Thessaly;  and  when 
they  thus  discovered  the  impossibility  of  stop- 
ping the  Persians,  they  retreated.  The  narrative 
now  contains  one  inconceivable  circum.stauco 
after  another.  ...  It  is  inconceivable  that,  as 
the  Greeks  did  make  a  stand  at  Tliermopylae,  no 
one  else  took  his  position  tlu'-n  except  King 
Leonidas  and  his  Spartans,  '■  '  icluding  even 
the  Lacedaemonians,  forthi  r...ined  at  home! 
Only  1,000  Phociaus  occu,,.jd  the  heights, 
though  that  people  might  surely  have  furnished 
10,000  men;  400  of  the  Boeotians  were  iiosted  in 
the  rear,  as  a  sort  of  hostages,  as  Herodotus  re- 
marks, and  700  Tliespians.  Whore  were  all  the 
rest  of  the  Greeks 'if  .  .  .  Countless  hosts  are  in- 
vading Greece ;  the  Greeks  want  to  defend  them- 
selves, and  are  making  active  preparations  at 
sea ;  but  on  land  hundreds  of  thousands  are  met 
by  a  small  biuid  of  Peloponnesians,  700  Thes- 
pians, 400  Thebans  as  hostages,  and  1,000  Pho- 
ciaus, stationed  on  the  heights  I  A  pass  is  occu- 
pied, but  only  that  one,  and  the  others  are  left 
unguarded.  .  .  .  All  this  is  quite  unintelligible; 
it  would  almost  appear  as  if  there  had  been  an 
intention  to  sacrifice  Leonidas  and  his  men;  but 
we  oarnot  suppose  this.  These  circumstances 
alone  suggest  to  us,  that  the  numbers  of  the 
Porsi'in  army  cannot  have  been  as  great  as  they 
are  described;  but  even  if  we  reduce  them  to  an 
immense  extent,  it  still  remains  inconceivable 
why  they  were  not  opposed  by  greater  numbers 
of  the  "Greeks,  for  as  afterwards  they  ven- 
tured to  attack  the  Persians  in  the  open  field,  it 
was  certainly  much  more  natural  to  oppose  them 
while  inarching  across  the  iiil's.  But  however 
this  may  be,  it  is  an  undo.ibted  fact,  that  Leoni- 
das and  his  Spartans  fell  in  the  contest,  of  which 
we  may  form  a  conception  from  the  (lescriptiou 
of  Herodotus,  when  after  a  resistance  of  three 
days  they  were  surrounded  by  the  Persians.  A 
few  of  the  Spartans  escaped  on  very  excusable 
groumls,  but  they  were  so  generally  despised, 
that  their  life  became  unendurable,  and  they 
iliade  away  with  themselves.  This  is  certainly 
historical.  .  .  .  After  the  victory  of  Thermopylae 
all  Hellas  lay  open  before  the  Persians,  and  they 
now  advanced  towards  Athens,  a  distance  which 
they  could  march  in  a  few  days.  Tliebes  opened 
her  gates,  and  joyfully  admitted  them  from 
hatred  of  Athens.  '  lleantime  a  portion  of  the 
army  appeared  before  Delphi.  It  is  almost  ia- 
couceivable  that  the  Persians  did  not  succeed  in 
taking  the  temple.  .  .  .  The  miracles  by  which 
the  temple  is  said  to  have  been  saved,  are  re- 
peated in  tlio  same  manner  tluring  the  attack  of 


153 


ATIIKNS,   11.  C.  480-479. 


Prrnian 
War. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  470-478. 


tlicOmilfl.  But  tliptpmplonf  I)f]plii  wasrertninly 
mil  pliiTiclcrcil.' .  .  .  'riicciiy  of  .Vtlwti.sli!i(l  inthc 
ini;iiilimr  l"'iii  .iIpiiiiiIoikmI  l)y  all  tin-  pcopli';  tlu! 
(iilcnci'lcss  li.ul  takiri  rcfuK'i'  liitlicsmiill  isliiim  .' 
Hiiliiiiiis,  i)r  111'  'I'hii'/.cii,  •and  all  tlic  Athenians 
uipiibic  of  bciirin;,'  arms  cinliarkcd  in  the  tlct't.' 
.  .  .  The  Persians  thus  took  Alliens  witlioutany 
resistance.  .  .  .  Durini?  the  same  days  on  wliicli 
tlie  battli'of  Thermopylae  was  foUijht,  the  Greek 
fleet  was  ensraired  in  two  indecisive  hnt  ijlorious 
li.illles  near  the  proniontorv  of  Artemisium.  '  In 
a  third  IIk'  Persians  jjaineii  tlie  upper  liand.  and 
wlien  the  (ireeUsat  the  siiini'  time  heard  of  the 
defeat  at  ThiMinopylae,  they  withdrew,  and 
(loul)lini;  Cipe  Suninm  sjiiled  towards  Salamis,' 
(}i)il  sent  tlien\  a  storm  whereby  the  Persians  in 
their  pursuit  sulTeredsliipwreik.  .  .  .  While  tlio 
(ireek  tleet  was  stationed  in  the  channel  between 
the  island  of  Salainis  anil  Attica,  towards  Pi- 
nieeus.  discord  broke  out  atnom;  tli(^  Greeks.  Tlie 
Peloponnesians  thout;lit  only  of  themselves; 
they  had  fortilied  the  Isthmus";  tlierc  they  weru 
a.ssemblcil,  and  there  they  wanted  to  olTer  resist- 
ance to  the  Persians.  In  their  folly  they  forgot, 
that  if  tlie  enemy  with  his  superior  lleet,  should 
turn  ay.insl  Peloponnesus,  they  mii^lit  land 
wherever  llicy  liked.  .  .  .  HulThemistoeli^s  now 
declared,  that  all  the  hopes  of  the  Athenians 
were  directed  towards  the  recovery  of  their  own 
city;  that,  if  tlu^  Peloponnesians  should  saerifico 
them,  and,  thinkinu;  of  themselves  onlv,  should 
abandon  Attica  to  tin  barbarians,  the  Athenians 
would  nolbesocbildisb  astosiKTilice  themselves 
for  them,  but  would  take  their  women  and  chil- 
dren on  board  their  ships,  and  sail  far  away  from 
the  Persians  to  the  island  of  Sardinia,  or  some 
other  place  where  (Jreek  colonies  were  estab- 
lished; that  there  they  would  settle  as  a  free 
people,  and  abandon  Peloponnesus  to  its  fate; 
and  that  IIkm.  iht!  peninsula  would  soon  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  This  frightened  the  Pelo- 
ponnesians, and  they  resolved  to  stan  I  by  Athens. 
It  is  evident  that,  throughout  that  ii  ,  Themis- 
toeles  had  to  struggle  with  the  most  intolerable 
dilllculties,  which  the  allies  phiced  in  his  way,  as 
well  as  with  their  jealousy,  meanness,  ami  inso- 
lence. 'The  rudeness  of  the  .Spartans  and  Cor- 
inthians is  nowhere  more  strongly  contrasted  with 
the  letlnement  of  the  Athenians,  than  on  that 
occasion.'  lint  aftiT  he  had  tried  everything, 
and  oven'ome  by  every  possible  means  a  hundred 
dilfercnt  dillicullies,  lie  yet  saw,  that  he  could 
not  rely  on  the  iiersevcraiice  of  the  Peloponne- 
sians, and  that  tliey  would  turn  to  the  Isthmus 
as  soon  as  Xerxes  should  proceed  in  that  direc- 
tion. He  accordingly  induced  tlu;  Persian  king, 
by  a  false  message,  to  surround  the  Greek  tleet, 
for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  the  retreat  of  the 
Peloponnesians.  He  declared  himself  ready  to 
deliver  the  whole  of  the  Greek  lleet  into  his 
Imnds.  This  device  was  ((uitcto  the  mind  of  the 
Persians;  Xer.xes  believed  him,  and  followed  his 
advice.  When  Theinistocles  was  thus  sure  of 
the  Peloponnesians,  the  ever-memorable  battle  of 
Salamis  commeneo<l,  which  is  as  certainly  histori- 
cal as  that  of  Cannae,  orany  moderu  battle,  '  what- 
ever the  numbers  may  be.'  The  battle  ])roeeeded 
somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the  battle  of  Leipzig: 
wlien  the  issue  was  decided,  a  portion  of  tho.,e  wiio 
ought  to  have  joined  their  countrymen  before, 
made  common  cause  with  the  Greeks.  .  .  .  Their 
iieocssioii  increased  the  victory  of  the  Greeks.  .  .  . 
Curtuiu  as  the  battle  of  Salamis  is,  all  the  uccouuts 


of  what  took  place  after  it,  are  very  doubtful. 
This  much  is  certain,  that  Xerxes  returned, 
'leaving  u  portion  of  his  army  under  Mardonius 
in  Greece;'  .  .  .  Winter  was  now  approaching, 
,Mid  ."ilardonius  withdrciw  from  ravaged  Attica, 
taking  up  his  wint('r-([uarters  |)artly  in  Thessaly 
and  partly  in  Hoi'oiia.  .  .  .  The  probability  is, 
that  the  Alheniiiris  remained  the  wintei-  in 
Salamis  in  sheds,  or  under  the  open  sky.  .Mar- 
donius olfered  to  restore  to  them  Attica  unin- 
jured, so  far  as  it  liad  not  already  been  devas- 
tated, if  they  would  c()nclude  peace  with  him. 
They  iiiight  at  that  time  have  obtained  any 
terms  they  pleased,  if  they  had  abandoned 
tlu'  common  cause  of  the  Greeks ;  and  the  Per- 
sians would  have  kept  the  peace;  for  when  they 
concluded  treaties  they  ob.served  them:  they 
were  not  faithless  barbarians.  But  on  this  occa- 
sion again,  we  see  the  Athenian  people  in  all 
its  greatness  and  excellence;  it  scorned  such  a 
peace,  and  preferred  the  good  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesians. .  .  ,  Mardonius  now  again  advanced 
towards  Athens;  the  Spartans,  who  ought  to 
have  proceeded  towards  Cithaeron,  had  not  ar- 
rived, and  thus  lie  again  took  possession  of 
Attica  and  ravaged  it  completely.  At  length, 
however  (Olymp.  75,  3),  the  Athenians  prevailed 
upon  the  Peloponnesians  to  leave  the  Isthmus, 
and  they  grailually  advanced  towards  Bocotia. 
There  the  battle  of  Plataeac  was  fought.  .  .  . 
In  regard  to  the  accounts  of  this  battle,  it  is  his- 
torically certain  tliat  it  was  completely  won  by 
the  Greeks,  and  that  the  remnants  of  the  Persian 
army  retreated  without  being  vigorously  pur- 
sued. It  must  have  reached  Asia,  but  it  tiien 
ilisappears.  It  is  also  historically  certain,  that 
Pausanias  was  the  commander  of  the  allied 
army  of  the  Greeks.  .  .  .  After  their  victory, 
the  Greeks  advanced  towards  Thebes.  In  ac- 
cordance with  a  vow  which  they  had  made 
before  the  war,  Thebes  ought  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  Greeks.  But  their  opinions  were 
divided.  .  .  .  On  the  same  day  on  which  the 
battle  of  Plataeae  was  fought,  the  allied  Greeks 
gained  as  complete  a  victory  at  sea.  .  .  .  After 
this  victory  of  .Mycale,  the  Ionian  cities  revolted 
against  the  Persians. " — B.  G.  Niebuhr,  Lectures 
on  Ancient  Ilintor//,  v.  1,  leets.  37  and  38. 

Al-so  IS:  Herodotus,  History;  trans,  and  ed. 
hij  II.  Rawlinson,  bk.  7  (o.  4). — Plutarch,  The- 
niittocles. — G.  W.  Cox,  Tlie  Greeks  and  Persians 

B.  C.  479-478. — Protection  of  Ionia  assumed. 
— Siege  and  capture  of  Sestus. — Rebuilding 
and  enlargement  of  the  city  and  its  walls. — 
Interference  of  Sparta  foiled  by  Themistocles. 
—  "The  advantages  obtained  by  tlie  Hellenes  [in 
their  war  with  Persia]  came  upon  tlieni  so  unex- 
pectedly as  to  And  them  totally  unprepared, 
and  accordingly  embarrassed  by  their  own  vic- 
tories. What  was  to  be  done  with  Ionia  t 
Was  the  wliole  country  to  be  admitted  into 
the  Hellenic  confederation '!  Too  great  a  re- 
sponsibility would,  in  the  opinion  of  tlie  Pelopon- 
nesians, be  incurred  by  sucii  a  step.  .  .  .  It  would 
be  better  to  sacritice  the  country,  and  establish 
the  lonians  in  settlements  in  other  parts,  at 
the  expense  of  those  who  hail  favoured  the 
Medes,  i.  e.,  of  the  Argives,  Bicotians,  Locri- 
ans,  and  Thessaliaus.  .  .  .  The  Athenians,  on 
the  other  hand,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  cities. 
.  .  .  Ionia  ought  to  be  a  bulwark  against  the 
Barbarians,  and  to  belong  to  the  Hellenes.  .  .  . 
The  Athenians  found  a,  support  in  the  feeUng 


1M 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  479-478. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  477-462. 


prevalent  nmon^  tlie  loiiiuus,  who  wore  nuturully 
opitostd  to  any  lorcutil  scttlciiu'iit.     Ai< onliiiffly, 
ill  tliL-  llrst  iiisliinci,',  Samos,  Lesbos,  I'liios,  iiiiil 
n  mimlicr  of  other  i.slund-towiis,  were  luhuiltcd 
into   the  confederntioii  .   .   .  and   a   new  llelhi.s 
was  formed,  u  Greel<  empire  coniprehending  both 
sides  of  tlie  sea.     Considerations  of  eaution  made 
it  necessary,  above  all,   to  secure  the  pas.snge 
from  Asia  to  Europe;  for  it  was  universally  be- 
lieved that  the  bridge  over  cite  IIellesi)ont  was 
cither  still  in  existence  or  hud  been  restored. 
Wlien  it  was  found  to  have  been  destroyed,  the 
Pelopoiiuesians  urged  the  termination  of  "the  cam- 
paign. .  .  .  The  Atlienians,  on  the  other  hand, 
declared  theinselves  resolved  .   .  .  not  to  leave 
nalinislied  what  they  had  begun.     Sestus,  tlie 
strongest  fortress  on  the  Hellespont,  ought  not 
to  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy;  an  attack 
on  it  ought  to  be  ri.sked  without  delay,  before 
the  city  had  jlrepared  for  a  siege.     Tliey  allowed 
the  Peloponnesians  to  take  their  departure,  and 
under  the  command  of  Xanthippus  united  with 
the  sliips  of  tlio  loniaiis  and  nellespontians  for 
tlie  purpose  of  new  tiiidertakings. "  Tlie  I'crsians 
in  iSestus  resisted  obstinately,  enduring  a  long 
siege,    but  were  forced   to  surrender    at    last. 
"  Jlcanwliile,  the  main  point  consisted  in   the 
Atlienians  having  remained  alone  in  the  field,  in 
tlieir  having  fraternized  with  the  lonians  as  one 
naval  power,  and  having  after  such  successes 
attained  to  a  confidence  in  victory,  to  which  no 
enterprise  any  lonjjer  seemed  either  too  distant 
or  too  dilllcult.     Already  they  reijarded  their  city 
as  the  centre  of  the  coast-lands  of  Greece.     But 
what  was  the  condition  of  this  city  of  Athens 
itself  V    A  few  fragments  of  the  ancient  city  wall, 
a  few  scattered  houses,  which  had  served  the  Per- 
sian cominanders  as  their  quarters,   were   yet 
standing ;  the  rest  n-as  ashes  and  ruins.     After 
the  battle  of  Platieie  the  inhabitants  had  returned 
from  Salamis,  Trtezene,  andvEgina;  not  even  the 
fleet  and  its  crews  were  at  hand  to  afford  them 
assistance.     They  endeavoured  to  make  shift  as 
best  they  could,  to  pass  through  the  trials  of  the 
winter.     As  soon  as  the  spring  arrived,  the  res- 
toration of   tlie  city  was  commenced  with   all 
possible  activity.  .  .  .  But  even  now  it  was  not 
the  comforts  of  domesticity  wliicli  occupied  their 
thoughts,  but,  above  all,  the  city  as  a  whole  and 
its  security.     To  Theraistocles,  the  founder  of 
the   port-town,   public   confidence   was  in   this 
matter  properly  accorded."     It  was  not  possible 
"to  carry  out  a  new  and  regular  phm  for  the 
city ;  but  it  was  resolved  to  extend  its  circum- 
ference beyond  the  circle  of  the  ancient  walls, 
.  .  .  so  as  to  be  able,  in  case  of  a  future  siege, 
to  offer  a  retreat  to  the  country-population  with- 
in the  capital  itself.    .    .    .    But  the  Athenians 
were  not  even  to  be  permitted  to  build  their 
walls  undisturbed;  for,  as  soon  as  their  grand 
plan  of  operations  became  known,  the  envy  and 
insidious  jealousy  of  tlieir  neighbours  broke  out 
afresh.  .  .  .  The  Peloponnesian  states,  above  all 
-Egina  and  Corinth,  hastened  to  direct  the  atten- 
tion of  Sparta  to  tlie  situation  of  affairs.  .  .  . 
As  at  Sparta  city  walls  were  objected    to   on 
principle,  and  as  no  doubts  prevailed  with  regard 
to  the  fact  that  a  well-fortified  town  was  impreg- 
nable to  tlie  military  art  of  the  Peloponnesians,  it 
was  actually  resolved  at  any  price  to  prevent  the 
building  of  the  walls  in  Attica. "  But,  for  shame's 
sake,  the  interference  undertaken  by  Sparta  was 
put  upon  the  ground  that  in  the  event  of  a  future 


invasion  of  tlie  country,  only  the  iieninsula  could 
be  successfully  d(  fended  ;  that  central  Oreece 
wouM  necessarily  be  abandoiii'd  to  the  eiieniy ; 
and  that  every  fortiliecUcity  in  it  would  furnish 
Iiim  a  dangerous  base.  "  At  such  a  irisis  craft 
aloiii!  could  be  of  avail.  When  IIk!  Spartans 
made  their  imperious  demand  at  Athens,  Tluniis- 
todes  ordered  the  Immediate  cessation  of  build- 
ing operations,  and  witli  assumed  sul)mis.sive- 
ne.ss,  promised  to  present  liiniself  at  Sparta,  in 
order  to  pursue  further  negotiations  in  pers(m. 
On  his  arrival  there,  he  allowed  one  day  after 
the  otlier  to  go  by,  pretending  to  be  waiting  for 
bis  fellow  envoys."  In  the  meantiine,  all  Athens 
was  toiling  night  ami  day  at  the  walls,  and  time 
enough  was  gained  by  the  audacious  duplicity 
of  Tiieniistocles  to  build  them  to  a  safe  lieight 
for  defence.  "  The  enemies  of  Athens  saw  that 
their  design  bad  been  foiled,  and  were  forced  to 
l)iit  the  best  face  upon  their  discomfiture.  They 
now  gave  out  that  they  had  intended  nothing  be- 
vond  good  advice." — E.  Curtius,  lliat.  of  Greece, 
U.  a,  eh.  3  ()'.  2). 

Also  in  G.  W.  Cox,  Hint,  of  Greece,  bl:  3,  ch. 
7-8  (c.  1-3). 

B.  C.  478-477. —  Alienation  of  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  from  iJparta. — Formation  of  the  Con- 
federacy of  Delos. — The  founding  of  Athenian 
Empire.     See  GuEiicii:  B.  C.  4T8-477. 

B.  C.  477-462. — Constitutional  gains  for  the 
democracy. — Ascendency  of  Aristeides.— De- 
clining popularity  and  ostracism  of  Themis- 
tokles.— The  sustentation  of  the  commons. — 
The  stripping  of  power  from  the  Areopagus. 
— At  the  time  when  the  Confederacy  of  D(do8 
was  formed,  "the  Persians  still  held  not  only 
the  important  posts  of  Eion  on  the  Strymon  and 
Doriskus  in  Thrace,  but  also  several  other  posts 
in  that  country  which  are  not  specified  to  Ui: 
^Ve  may  thus  understand  why  the  Greek  cities  on 
and  near  the  Chalkidic  peninsula  .  .  .  were  not 
less  anxious  to  seek  protection  in  the  bosom  of 
the  new  confederacy  than  the  Dorian  islands  of 
Rhodes  ond  Cos,  the  Ionic  islands  of  Samos  and 
Chios,  the  .lEolic  Lesbos  and  Tenedos,  or  con- 
tinental towns  such  as  Miletus  and  Byzantium. 
.  .  .  Some  sort  of  union,  organised  and  obli- 
gatory upon  each  city,  was  indispensable  to  the 
safety  of  all.  Indeed,  even  with  that  aid,  at  the 
time  when  the  Confederacy  of  Delos  was  first 
formed,  it  was  by  no  means  certain  the  Asiatic 
enemy  would  be  effectually  kept  out,  especially  as 
the  Persians  were  strong  not  merely  from  their 
own  force,  but  also  from  the  aid  of  internal 
parties  in  many  of  the  Grecian  states — traitors 
within,  as  well  as  exiles  without.  Among  these 
traitors,  the  first  in  rank  as  well  as  the  most 
formidable,  was  the  Spartan  Pausauias." 
Pau.sanias,  whose  treasonable  intrigues  with  the 
Persian  king  began  at  Byzantium  (See  Gueece: 
B.  C.  478-477)  was  convicted  some  nine  or  ten 
years  later,  and  suffered  a  terrible  fate,  being 
shut  within  a  temple  to  which  he  had  fled,  and 
starved.  "  His  treasonable  projects  implicated 
and  brought  to  disgrace  a  man  far  greater  than 
himself — the  Athenian  Themistoklcs.  .  .  .  The 
charge  [against  Theinistokles]  of  collusion  with 
the  Persians  connects  itself  with  tlie  previous 
movement  of  political  parties.  .  .  .  The  rivalry 
of  Theniistokles  and  Aristeides  had  been  greatly 
appeased  by  the  invasion  of  Xerxes,  which  had 
imposed  upon  both  the  peremptory  necessity  of 


155 


ATIIKXH.  B.  C.  477-462. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  477-402. 


rooporntion  nffiiinRt  n  common  enemy.  And 
ii|)|»irentlv  it  wiim  not  reKUMicil  diiriiiu'  llic  limes 
wliicli  iiiiiiicilialely  niKceiilid  tl;c  niiirii  (if  lliit 
AtlienianH  In  their  CDiiiitiry:  lit  li  i«t  we  Iieiir  of 
liotli  111  1  llective  servici'  iiliil  in  prominent  posts, 
Tlieinistoltles  stamls  forward  as  tlie  (Minlriver  of 
tlie  city  walls  and  iireldleet  of  I'eiraeiis:  Aris- 
teidis  Is  eominaiMler  of  t  lie  licet  and  lirst  orKuiiiser 
of  the  ConfediTaey  of  Delos.  .Moreover  we  seem 
to  deteet  n  rhaiijfe  in  the  elmraeler  of  the  latter. 
lie  liail  ceased  to  lie  the  champion  of  Atlienian 
old  f.isliioiied  landed  Interest,  ajiainst  'I'lieniis- 
lokhs  as  the  oriu'inator  of  the  maritime  iniio- 
vationH.  Those  iniioviitions  had  now,  sinccMlie 
buttle  of  Salamis,  t)e<otne  an  established  fact, 
.  .  .  FroM-  henceforth  llie  lleet  is  endeared  to 
every  man  as  tlie  Km"  '  force,  olTcnsive  and 
defensive,  of  the  Ktate.  in  which  character  all 
the  political  leaders  af;ree  in  iicceptin>;  it.  .  .  . 
The  triremes,  and  the  men  who  manned  tlieiii, 
taken  collectively,  were  now  the  delermiiiintr 
element  in  the  state,  .Moreover,  the  men  who 
maimed  them  bad  just  retnrned  from  Salamis, 
fresli  from  a  Hceiie  of  trial  and  danifer,  and  from 
n  harvest  of  victory,  wliuh  had  efimdizcd  for  the 
moment  all  .\thcniaimas  siilTerers,  as  combatants, 
and  a.s  patriots,  .  .  ,  The  political  chaiiKC 
arising  from  hence  in  Athens  was  not  less 
important  than  the  military.  'The  maritime 
multitude,  authors  of  the  victory  of  Salamis." 
aii<l  instruments  of  the  new  vocation  at  Atlu'iis 
as  hiMid  of  the  Delian  Confederacy,  appear  now 
ascendunt  in  the  political  constitution  also;  not 
in  any  w;iy  as  a  sep.irate  or  privileged  cliisg,  but 
R8  leavcniiiR  the  whole  mass,  strengthening  the 
democrat i<al  sentiment,  and  protesting  against 
all  recognised  political  inequalities.  .  .  .  Early 
after  tlu'  return  to  Attica,  the  Kleistheuian 
constitution  was  enlnrgp<l  as  respects  cligiliility 
to  tlio  magistracy.  According  to  that  consti- 
tution, the  fourth  or  last  class  on  the  Solonian 
census,  including  the  considerable  majority  of 
freem(!n,  were  not  admissible  to  ofTlccs  of  state, 
though  they  possessed  votes  in  common  with 
the  rest;  no  person  was  eligible  to  be  a  magis- 
trate unless  he  belonged  to  one  of  the  tlin^e 
high(!r  classes.  This  restriction  was  now  annulled 
and  eligibility  extended  to  all  the  citizens.  We 
may  appreciate  the  strength  of  feeling  with 
which  such  reform  was  demanded  when  we  find 
that  it  was  proposed  by  Aristeides.  .  .  .  The 
popularity  thus  ensured  to  him,  probably  heigh- 
tened by  some  regret  for  his  previous  ostracism, 
was  calculated  to  acquire  permanence  from  his 
stniightforward  and  incorruptible  character,  now 
brought  into  strong  relief  by  his  function  as 
assessor  to  tlie  new  Delian  Confederacy.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  ascendency  of  Themistokles, 
;hough  so  often  exalted  by  his  unrivalled  politi- 
cal genius  and  daring,  as  well  as  by  the  signal 
value  of  liis  pulilic  recommendations,  was  as 
often  overthrown  liy  his  duplicity  of  means  and 
unprincipled  thirst'  for  money.  New  political 
opponents  sprung  up  against  him,  men  syiiqia- 
thising  with  Aristeides.  ...  Of  these  the  chief 
were  Kimon  [Cimon],  (son  of  Miltiadcs),  and 
Alkmicon."  In  471  B.  C.  Themistokles  was  sent 
into  exile  by  a  vote  of  ostracism,  and  retired  to 
Argos.  Five  years  later  he  was  accused  of 
ccmiplicity  in  the  treasonable  intrigues  of 
Pausanias,  and  (led  to  the  court  of  the  Persian 
king,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days. 
"  Aristeides  died  about  three  or  four  years  after 


the  ostracism  of  Themistokles." — d.  Orote,  Iliiif. 
nfaniri;  /il.  2.  rfi.  44  (c.  .'i),— The  constitutional 
I  tfcctsof  the  Persian  war,  anil  the  political  situa- 
tion of  Athens  immediatciv  after  the  war,  are 
represented  somcwliat  dilTereiitly  from  the 
account  above,  in  the  liitr-ly  discovered  work  on 
the  Constitution  of  .\thcns  which  is  attributed  to 
Aristolh',  The  following  is  (|U<>tcd  from  one  of 
the  tran.slationsof  the  latter;  "  After  the  jMedinn 
war  the  council  of  .\icopai,'US  [.See  AiiK<)r.\(ifs] 
recovered  Ktrength  and  ruled  the  state,  not  that 
any  law  conferred  the  liegi'iiKiny  on  them,  Imt 
iMratise  the  aristocratic  party  had  the  credit  of 
the  victory  at  Halamis.  For  when  tlu!  generals 
had  despaired  of  the  country  and  procl;iimed  a 
sauve  (pii  pent,  the  Areopagus  raised  funds, 
gave  every  man  eight  drachmas  (tis,  Cd.)  and 
induced  them  to  man  the  ships.  In  consc(|uenco 
of  this  public  service  th(^  Ecclesia  yielded  the 
nscendency  to  the  Areoiiagus,  and  public  afTuirs 
were  admirably  ailministered  during  the  follow- 
ing epoch  For  they  accjuired  the  art  of  war, 
inad(!  their  name  honoured  throughout  the 
Hellenic  vyorld,  and  pos.ses.sed  them.scdves  of  the 
sovereignty  of  the  sea  witli  the  consent  of 
l.akedaimon.  At  this  time  the  leaders  of  the 
commons  were  Aristeides.  son  of  Lusimachos, 
and  Themistokles,  son  of  Xeokles  ;  the  latter 
s'udious  of  the  arts  of  war,  tlic  former  reputed 
eminent  in  statesmanship  and  honest  beyond 
his  contemporaries;  wdiich  characters  made  their 
countrymen  cmpi  ly  the  one  as  a  general,  the 
other  "as  a  councillor.  The  rcluiilding  of  the 
walls  of  Athens  w'as  their  joint  work,  though 
they  were  otherwise  at  feuil.  The  detachment 
of  the  lonians  from  Persia  and  the  formation  of 
an  alliance  with  Sparta  were  due  to  the  counsels 
of  Ari.steides,  who  seized  the  opportunity 
afforded  by  the  discredit  cast  on  the  Lakonians 
by  the  ccmduct  of  Pau.sanias.  He  too  originally 
apportioned,  two  years  after  the  battle  of 
Salamis,  in  the  archonship  (of  Timosthenes 
(478  B.  C),  the  contribution  to  be  paid  by  the 
islanders.  .  .  .  Subsequently,  when  lofty 
thoughts  filled  every  bosom  and  wealth  was 
accumulating,  Aristeides  advised  them  to 
administer  the  liegemony  with  their  own 
bands,  to  leave  their  country  occupations  and 
fix  their  domicile  in  the  city.  Sustcntation,  he 
jiromised,  would  be  provided  for  all,  eitlier  as 
soldiers  or  sailors  in  active  service,  or  as  troops 
in  garrison  or  as  public  servants ;  and  then  they 
could  ii^rease  the  vigour  of  their  imperial  sway. 
They  followed  his  advice,  and,  taking  the  rule 
into  their  own  bands,  reduced  their  allies  to  the 
position  of  va.ssal8,  except  the  Chians,  Lesbians, 
and  Samians,  whom  they  kept  as  satellites  of 
their  power,  and  permitted  to  retain  their  own 
constitutions  and  to  rule  their  own  dependencies: 
and  they  provided  for  tlieir  own  sustcntation  by 
the  method  which  Aristeides  indicated;  for  in 
the  end  the  public  revenues,  the  taxes  and  the 
tributes  of  the  allies  gave  maintenance  to  more 
than  20,000.  There  were  0,000  dicasts  or  jurors, 
1,000  archers,  1,200  cavalry,  500  senators,  500 
.';<)ldier3  of  the  dockyard  garrison,  ."jOcity  guards, 
700  home  magistrates,  700  foreign  magistrates, 
2,.50O  heavy  armed  soldiers  (this  was  their  num- 
ber at  the  beginning  of  the  Pcloponnesian  war), 
4,000  sailors  manning  20  guardships,  2,000 
sailors  appointed  by  lot,  manning  20  tribute- 
collecting  ships,  and  in  addition  to  these  the 
Prutancion,  the   orphans,  the  gaolers  ;  and  all 


156 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  477-468. 


ATHENS,  n.  C.  4fl6-«84. 


those  persons  wcro  maintnlncd  at  the  expense  of 
the  iiiUinnitl  trciisiiry.  The  sustciitiition  of  tlii' 
commons  whh  thus  Kciurcd.  Tlic  17 yciirs  which 
followed  tlic  .Mi'iliiiii  war  were  ahout  Ihc  ])criiMl 
(liiriiii;  which  llic  country  continued  under  the 
usccndency  of  the  Areopajjus,  though  its  aristo- 
criilic  features  were  K''a''"""y  on  the  wane. 
When  tho  masses  had  grown  more  and  more 
preponderani,  Kphialtes,  son  of  Soidionides, 
nputeil  ineorniptihle  in  his  loyalty  to  deinoi'- 
nicy,  hcc-aine  leader  of  the  conmions,  and  began 
to  attack  the  Areopagus.  First,  ho  put  to 
death  many  of  its  meintiers,  l)y  impeaching  them 
of  olTences  connnitted  in  their  administration. 
Afterwards  in  tl\e  archonship  of  Konon  (ttiS 
H.  ('.)he  despoiled  tho  council  itself  of  all  its 
more  recently  HC(iuired  attributes,  which  were 
the  keystone  of  tl'O  existing  constitution,  and 
(liatributod  them  aiaong  the  Senate  of  noo,  the 
Kcclesia,  and  the  c(.urts  of  law.  In  this  work 
he  had  the  co-operation  of  Themistokles,  who 
was  himself  an  Areopagite,  l)ut  expecting  to  bo 
impeached  for  trcaso.'iahfo  correspondenee  with 
Persia.  .  .  .  EpIiialte.H  and  Themistokles  kept 
accusing  the  Areopagus  before  tho  .Senate  of 
500,  and  again  l)efore  tho  commons,  till  linally 
thoy  stripped  it  of  all  its  principal  fiuictions. 
The  assassination  of  Kphialtes  by  the  instru- 
mentality of  Aristodikos  of  Tanagra  followed 
not  long  after.  Such  were  tho  circumstances  of 
till!  overthrow  of  the  Areopagus.  After  this 
the  degradation  of  the  constitution  proceeded 
without  intermission  from  the  eagerness  of 
politicians  to  win  pop\dar  favour;  and  at  the 
same  time  there  happened  to  be  no  organizer  of 
tho  aristocratic  party,  whose  head,  Kimon,  the 
son  of  Miltiades,  was  too  young  for  some  years 
to  enter  political  life;  besides  which  their  ranks 
were  much  devastated  by  ■(var.  Expeditionary 
forces  were  recruited  by  conscription;  and  as 
the  generals  had  no  military  experience  and 
owed  their  appointment  to  the  reputation  of 
their  ancestors,  each  expedition  entailed  the 
sacrifice  of  3,000  or  8,000  lives,  cliietly  of  the 
noblest  sons  of  Athens,  whether  belonging  to  the 
wealthy  classes  or  to  the  commons. " — Aristotle, 
On  the  VoHStitution  of  Athens  {tr.  by  E.  Poste.) 
eh.  23-26. — On  the  above.  Dr.  Abbott  comments 
as  follows:  "So  much  of  this  account  as  refers 
to  Thomistodes  may  be  at  once  dismissed  as  un- 
liistorical.  ...  If  the  evidence  of  Thucydides 
is  to  count  for  anytliing,  it  is  quite  certain  that 
Tliomistocles  finally  left  Greece  for  Persia  about 
406  B.  C.  .  .  .  Plutarch  says  not  a  word  about 
Themistocles.  But  the  remainder  of  the  account 
[of  the  attack  on  the  Areopagus]  is  supported 
by  all  our  outhoritics — if  indeed  it  is  not  merely 
repeated  by  them." — E.  Abbott,  Hist,  of  Greece, 
pt.  3,  eh.  11,  seet.  5. 

Also  in  .T.  P.  MnhafTy,  Problems  in  Oreek 
History  p.  96.— Plutarch,  Themistocles. 

Sec,  also,  below:  B.  0.  406-454. 

B.  C.  470-466. —  Continued  war  against  the 
Persians. —  Cimon's  victories  at  the  Euryme- 
don. — Revolt  ard  subjugation  o.f  Naxos. — 
"Under  the  guidance  of  Alliens,  tlin  war  against 
the  Persians  was  continued.  C'im.m  [Kimon] 
sailed  with  a  fleet  to  the  coast  of  Thrace,  and 
laid  siege  to  Eion  on  the  Strymon  [H.  C.  470]. 
The  Persian  garrison  made  a  gallant  defence; 
and  finally  Boges,  the  governor,  rather  than 
surrender,"  cast  all  his  gold  and  silver  into  tho 
river;  and,  having  raised  a  huge  pile  of  wood, 


slew  his  wives,  children  and  slaves,  and  laid 
their  bodies  on  it:  then  setting  tire  to  it,  he  Mung 
himself  into  tliellames:  the  garrison  surrendered 
al  discretion.  Doriscus  was  attacked  in  vain, 
but  all  thf  other  I'ersian  garrisons  in  Europe 
were  ri'ilu((d.  (iinon  then,  as  executor  of  an 
Ainpliielyoiiic  decree,  tiinieil  his  arms  against 
lli(!  (liralic  Dulopiansof  the  l><leof  Siyros,  whom 
he  expelled,  and  tilled  the  ishinil  with  Atlieniiiii 
colonists.  On  this  occasion  he  sought  and  fiiund 
(as  was  supposed)  the  bones  of  the  hero  Theseus, 
who  had  died  in  this  island  HOO  years  before;  and 
he  broiiglil  them  in  his  "ii'!?  ♦'ireme  to  Athens. — 
an  act  which  gained  him  grea'  favour  >vith  the 
people  By  this  time,  some  o'"  the  confederates 
were  grown  weary  tif  war,  and  began  to  murmur 
at  the  toils  and  expense  to  which  it  put  them. 
The  people  of  Naxos  were  the  first  who  pnsi- 
tiv<'ly  refused  to  contribute  any  longer;  but  the 
Athenians,  who  had  tasted  of  the  sweets  of  com- 
mand, would  not  now  permit  the  exercise  of  free 
will  to  their  allies,  C'iiiion  appeared  (Ol.  78,3) 
IB.  ('.  4(i(l|  with  a  large  lleet  before  Xaxos;  the 
Naxians  defended  themselves  with  vigour,  but 
were  at  length  forced  to  submit;  and  tho 
Athenians  had  tho  hardihood  to  reduce  tlieni  to 
the  conditiim  of  subjects  to  Athens  —  an  ex- 
ample which  thoy  soon  followed  in  other  cases. 
.  .  .  After  the  reduction  of  Naxos,  Cimon  sailed 
over  to  tho  coast  of  Asia,  and  learning  that  tho 
Persian  generals  lia<l  asncmblod  a  large  fieet  and 
army  in  Pamphylia,  ho  collected  a  licet  of  200 
triremes  at  Cnidos,  with  which  he  proceeded  to 
the  coast  of  that  country,  and  laid  siege  to  the 
city  of  Phaselis,  which,  though  Greek,  obeyed 
th(!  Persian  mcmarcli.  Having  rediieed  it  to 
submission,  he  resolved  to  proceed  and  attack 
the  Persian  fleet  and  army,  which  he  learned 
were  lying  at  tho  river  Eurymedon.  On  his 
arrival,  the  Persian  fieet,  of  3.50  triremes,  fear- 
ing at  first  to  fight  till  80  Phoenician  vessels, 
which  they  were  expecting,  should  come  up, 
kept  in  the  rivr;  but  finding  that  the  Greeks 
were  preparing  to  attack,  thoy  put  out  to  sea 
and  engaged  ;!iem.  The  action  did  not  continue 
long:  the  I}arharians  fled  to  the  land;  200  ships 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors,  and  several 
were  destroyed.  Without  a  moment's  delay, 
Cimon  disembarked  his  men,  and  led  them 
against  the  land  forces:  the  resistance  of  the 
Persians  was  obstinate  for  some  time,  but  at  last 
they  turned  and  fled,  leaving  their  camp  a  prey 
to  the  conquerors ;  and  Cimon  had  thus  the  rare 
glory  of  having  gained  two  important  victoriea 
in  the  one  day.  Hearing  then  that  the  80  Phoe- 
nician vessels  were  at  Hydros,  in  tho  Isle  of 
Cyprus,  he  immediately  sailed  thither  and  took 
or  destroyed  the  whole  of  them.  The  victory 
on  the  Eurymedon  may  be  regarded  as  the 
termination  of  the  conflict  between  Greece  and 
Persia.  The  year  after  it  (01.  78,4)  [B.  C.  465], 
Xerxes  was  as.sassinated,  and  the  usual  confusion 
took  place  in  the  court  of  Susa." — T.  Keightley, 
Hist,  of  Greece,  pt.  1,  «•/(.  13. 

Also  in  W.  W.  Lloyd,  The  Age  nf  Pericles,  eh. 
27  (».  1). 

See  also  Pf.rsia  :  B.  (.'.  486-405. 

B.  C.  466-454. — Leadership  in  the  Deliaa 
confederacy  changed  to  sovereignty. — Revolt 
and  subjugation  of  Thasos. — Help  to  Sparta 
and  its  ungracious  requital. — Fall  and  exile 
of  Cimon. —  Rise  of  Pericles  and  the  demo- 
cratic anti-Spartan  policy.— Removal  of  the 


157 


■-^ 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  460-454. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  466^54. 


federal  treasury  from  Delos. — Building  the 
Long  Walls. — "  It  wiisnow  evident  to  tlie  whole 
boily  of  tlie  allied  of  Athena  Unit  l)y  joinin;;  the 
league  they  had  provided  themselves  witli  a 
mistress  rather  tlian  a  leader.  .  .  .  Two  years 
nfter  tlie  reduefion  of  Naxos  another  powerful 
island-state  broke  out  into  rebellion  nfjainst 
the  supreinaey  of  Athens.  The  people  of 
'I'hasos  had  from  very  early  times  ;■  isessod 
territory  on  the  mainland  of  Thrace  ojiposito 
to  their  island.  I!y  holdinir  tliis  coast-slip 
they  enirriiss"il  the  trade  of  the  Valley  of  the 
.Sliymoii.  a  I  held  the  rich  gold  mines  of 
Mount  Pangaeiis.  But  the  Athenians,  after  tlie 
capture  of  EVon,  set  thomsolves  to  develop  that 
port  as  the  commercial  centre  of  Thrace.  .  .  . 
A  spot  called  'The  Nine  Ways,'  •  ■  .  where 
that  great  rivir  lir.st  begins  to  broaden  out  into 
its  e.stuary,  but  can  still  be  spanned  by  a  bridge, 
was  the  "chosen  site  of  a  fortress  to  secure  the 
hold  of  Athens  on  the  land.  But  the  native 
Thraeian  trilies  banded  themselves  together,  and 
fell  upim  the  invaders  with  such  despention  that 
.  .  .  the  Athenian  armies  were  defeated.  ...  It 
was  probably  tlie  discouragement  which  this 
defeat  caused  at  .Vthens  that  enibolilened  Tliasos 
to  declare  her  secession  from  th(!  Confederacy  of 
Delos.  She  wished  to  save  her  Thraeian  trade, 
before  Athens  could  make  another  attempt  to 
divert  it  from  her.  Tlie  Thasiaiis  did  not  rely 
on  their  own  resources  alone;  they  "nlistcd  the 
Thracians  and  Macedonians  of  the  mainland, 
and  sent  to  Sparta  to  endeavour  to  induce  the 
ephc  s  to  deelare  war  on  Athens."  Tlic  Spar- 
tans were  well  disposed  to  take  up  the  cause  of 
tlie  Thasians;  but  at  tliat  moment  they  .vere 
overwhelmed  l)y  the  cdaniily  of  the  frightful 
Earthquake  of  404,  instantly  followed  by  the 
rising  of  the  lldots  and  the  third  Messenian 
war  (See  Mkssf.xian  War,  Ti  k  TiiiitD).  "The 
Islnnd-statt^  was  therefore  left  to  its  own  re- 
sources; and  these  were  so  considerable  that  she 
held  out  against  the  force  of  tlie  Athenian  con- 
federacy for  two  whole  vcurs.  .  .  .  She  was 
obliged  at  last  to  surrender  to  Cimon  [B.  C. 
403],  whose  army  had  long  been  lying  before 
her  walls.  Like  Na.\os,  she  was  punished  ".ir 
her  defection  by  the  loss  of  her  warlleet  and 
her  fortiticati-,.s,  and  the  iniiiosition  of  a  line  of 
many  talents.  Still  more  galling  must  hav  ■  been 
the  loss  of  her  trade  with  Thrace,  which  now 
passed  entirely  Into  Athenian  hands.  .  .  .  The 
Spartans  were  still  engaged  in  a  desperate  .strn;';- 
gie  with  their  revolted  subjects  when  the  siegcof 
Thasos  came  to  an  end.  C'inion,  who  was  now  at 
the  height  of  his  reputation  and  jiower,  saw 
with  distress  the  troubles  of  the  city  he  so  much 
admired.  lie  set  himself  to  persuade  the  Athe- 
nians that  they  ought  to  forego  old  grudges, 
and.'  .t  from  destruetlon  tlie  state  wliieh  had 
shared  with  them  the  glory  of  the  Persian  war. 
.  .  .  ills  pleading  was  bitter.y  opposed  by  the 
nnti-Siiartan  jiarty  at  Athens,  headed  by  two 
8tatesn> 'n,  Ephliiltfs  and  Pericles,  who  had 
already  come  into  notice  as  antagonists  of 
Cimon.  '.lut  the  more  g<'nerous  and  unwise 
policy  prevail'Hl,  and  4,000  huplitcs  were  sent 
to  the  aid  ..i  Sparta  [B.  C.  'W].  This  army 
was  pursued  by  misfortune;  it  i.  jS  so  unsi'-^eess- 
ful  in  altaeking  Ithonie  that  the  Spartans 
attributed  it;  f'ailun'  to  111  will  rather  than  ill 
luck.  They,  therefore,  begun  to  treat  their 
allies  '.rith  marked  discourtesy,  and  at  last  sent 


them  home  without  a  word  of  thanks,  merely 
stating  that  their  services  could  be  of  no  further 
use  I  Sec  Messenian  Wau,  Tiik  Tnruol.  This 
rudeness  and  ingratitude  fully  justilied  the 
anti-Spartan  party  at  Athens.  .  .  .  Cimon  was 
now  no  longer  able  to  deal  with  the  policy  of 
the  state  as  he  cho.se,  and  the  conduct  of  alfairs 
began  to  pass  into  the  hands  of  men  whose  for- 
eign and  domestic  policy  were  alike  ojijiosed  to 
all  his  views.  Ephialtes  and  Pericles  proceeded 
to  form  alliances  abroad  with  all  the  states 
whicli  were  ill  disposed  toward  Sparta,  and  at 
homo  to  commence  a  revision  of  the  constilution. 
They  were  detciinined  to  carry  out  to  its  fur- 
thest logical  development  the  democratic  ten- 
dency which  Cleistlienes  had  'ntroduced  into 
the  Athenian  polity.  Of  Ephialtes,  the  son  of 
Sophonides,  comparatively  little  is  known.  But 
Pericles  .  .  .  was  the  son  of  Xanthippus,  the 
accuser  of  !Miltiades  in  480,  B.  C,  and  the  victor 
of  Mycale  and  Sestos;  while,  on  his  mother's 
siilo,  he  came  of  the  blood  of  the  Alcmaeonidae. 
Pericles  was  staid,  self-contained,  and  haughty — 
a  strange  thief  for  the  pojiular  party.  But  his 
relationship  to  ('lei.stlicnes,  and  the  enmity  wliieh 
existed  lietween  his  house  and  that  of  Cimon, 
urged  him  to  espouse  the  cause  of  democracy. 
.  .  .  While  Cimon  had  Greece  in  his  mind,  Peii- 
cles  could  only  think  of  Athens,  and  the  temper 
of  the  times  was  favourable  to  the  narrower 
policy.  .  .  .  The  first  aim  which  Pericles  and 
Ephialtes  set  before  themselves  w.^ ;  the  cutting 
down  of  the  power  of  the  Areopagus  [See  above: 
B.  C.  477 -40x;].  That  body  had  since  the  Per- 
sian war  bi'como  the  stronghold  of  the  Conserva- 
tive and  jihilo-Laconian  jiarty.  .  .  .  Ephialtes 
took  the  lead  in  the  attack  on  the  Areopagus. 
He  ehiise  a  moment  when  Cimon  was  away  at 
sea,  bent  on  assisting  a  rebellion  against  the 
Great  King  wliieh  had  broken  out  in  Egypt. 
After  a  vic'ent  struggle,  he  succeeded  in  carry- 
ing a  law  which  dejirived  the  Areopagus  of  its 
ancient  censorial  power,  and  rcilueed  it  to  a  mere 
court  to  try  honiieide^  .  .  .  When  Cimon  came 
home  from  Egypt  he  was  wildly  enraged.  .  .  . 
Hecourse  was  had  to  the  lest  of  ostracism.  It 
decided  against  Cimon,  who  therefore  went  into 
banishment  [B.  C.  459].  But  this  wrong  against 
the  greatest  general  of  Athens  was,  not  long 
after,  avenged  by  an  over-zealous  and  unscrupu- 
lous frieml.  Ephialtes  was  slain  by  assassins  in 
his  own  house.  .  .  .  The  immediate  result  of 
this  murder  was  to  leave  Pericles  in  sole  and 
undivided  command  of  the  democratic  party. 
The  foreign  policy  of  Pericles  soon  began  »o 
involve  Athens  in  troubles  at  home.  He  con- 
cluded alliances  with  Argos  and  Thessaly,  both 
states  at  variance  with  Sjiarta,  and  thereby  made 
a  collision  with  the  liacijdn'inonian  confederacy 
inevitable  He  gave  still  more  direct  offence  to 
Corinth,  one  of  the  most  powerful  members  of 
that  confederacy,  by  con'^'I,.diiig  a  clo.se  alliance 
with  Megara.  ...  in  iioeolia,  loo,  he  stirred  up 
enmity,  by  giving  an  active  support  to  the  demo- 
cratic party  in  tliat  country.  These  provoca- 
tions made  a  war  inevitable.  In  458  B.  C.  the 
storm  burst.  ...  At  the  moment  of  the  out- 
break of  the  t''-st  important  naval  war  wdiich  .she 
had  to  wage  with  a  Greek  enemy  since  the 
formation  of  her  I'mpire,  Athens  look  two  ini- 
liorlant  steps.  The  lir.st  was  destined  to  guard 
against  the  risk  of  misfortunes  by  sea;  it  eou- 
sisied  in  the  transference  from  Delos  to  Athena 


158 


ATIIliNS,  B.  C.  466-454. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  460-449. 


[dated  by  different  authorities  between  401  and 
454  B.  C]  of  the  eeutnil  treasury  of  t''"  "onfed- 
enicy.  ...  It  was  not  long  before  !lic  Atiie- 
uiaiis  came  to  regard  the  treasury  as  their  own, 
and  to  draw  upon  it  for  jiurely  Attic  needs, 
whicli  liad  no  connection  with  tlie  welfare  of  tlie 
otlier  -onfederate.s.  .  .  .  Tlie  second  important 
event  c  the  year  458  B.  C.  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  famous  '  Lons;  Walls '  of  Athens 
[See  Long  AVali.s].  .  .  .  When  they  were  fin- 
ished Alliens,  Peirajus,  and  Phaleriini,  formed 
the  angles  of  a  vast  fortilied  triangle,  while  t)ie 
space  between  them,  a  considerable  expanse  of 
open  country,  c(mld  be  utilized  as  a  i)lace  of 
refuge  for  the  iioiiulatiou  of  Attica,  and  even  for 
their  tlocks  and  herds."— C.  W.  C.  Oman,  Hut. 
of  Greece,  cli.  ;2;i-24. 

Also  i.n  E.  Abbott,  Pmdea  and  the  Oolden  Aqe 
of  Athens,  ch.  5-0.— U.  Thirhvall,  Hut.  of  0 race, 
ch.  17  (i:  3).— Plutarch,  Cimon;  Periclen. 

B.  C.  46o-449.^Disastrous  expedition  to 
Egypt. — Attaclcs  on  the  Peloponnesian  Coast. 
—Recall  of  Cimon.  —  His  last  enterprise 
against  the  Persians. — The  disputed  Peace  of 
Cimon  or  Callias. —  Five  years  truce  with 
Sparta. — "  hianis,  king  of  some  of  the  Libyan 
tribes  on  the  western  border  of  Egyjit,  had 
e.xcited  an  insurrection  there  against  the  Persians 
[about  460  B.  C],  and  his  authority  was  acknowl- 
edged throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  coun- 
try. Artaxer.xes  sent  his  brother  Achicmenes 
with  a  great  army  to  (juell  this  reli' ilioii.  Au 
Athenian  armament  of  200  galleys  v  as  lying  at 
the  time  oil  Cyprus,  and  Inarus  sent  to  obtain 
its  assistance.  The  Athenian  commanders, 
whethiT  following  thei"-  own  discretion,  or  after 
orders  reccivi  from  '  le.  quitted  Cyprus,  and 
having  joined  with  tin  surgents,  enabled  them 
to  (U'feat  Acha'mewes,  n  o  fell  in  the  battle  by 
the  hand  of  Inari's.  Tii./  then  sriled  up  the 
Nile  to  Jre:',,yhis,  where  a  body  of  Persians,  and 
some  Egyptians,  v,  ho  still  adhered  to  their  cause 
were  in  jiossessiou  of  one  quarter  of  the  city, 
callc  1  While  (.astle.  The  rest  was  subject  "to 
Inar  is,  and  there  the  Athenians  stationed  them- 
selv(  s,  and  besieged  the  Persians.  .  .  .  Artax- 
erxci  sent  a  Persian,  named  Jlegabazus,  to 
Spar.a,  with  a  sum  of  money,  to  be  em|)loyed  in 
bribing  the  principal  Spartans  to  u.se  their  inllu- 
eiice,  so  as  to  engage  their  countrymen  in  an 
expedition  ag".inst  Attica.  Megabazus  did  not 
find  the  leading  Spartans  unwilling  to  receive 
his  money;  but  they  seem  to  have  heen  unable 
to  render  him  the  service  for  >vhich  it  was  otTerrd. 
Ithomc  still  held  out:  and  Sparta  had  probably 
not  yet  suniciently  either  recovered  her  strength 
or  restored  internal  tranquility,  to  ver'ure  on  the 
proposed  invasion.  Some  rumoui's  of  this  negotia- 
tion may  have  reached  Athens,  and  have  (piiek- 
end  the  energy  with  which  Pericles  now  urged 
the  completion  of  the  long  walls.  .  .  .  But 
amonir  his  opponents  tliere  \va.".  a  faction  i...(> 
viewed  the  progress  of  this  great  work  in  a 
dill'ereut  light  from  Cinicm.  and  saw  in  it,  not  the 
means  of  securing  the  indei>endence  of  Athens, 
hut  a  bulwark  of  the  hated  cunimonalty.  They 
too  would  have  gla<lly  seen  an  invadiBg  army  in 
Attica,  which  might'  assist  them  in  destroy iug 
the  work  and  its  authors."  'I'his  jiarty  was 
iiecnse<l  of  sympathy  with  the  Spartan  expedi- 
tion which  came  to  the  help  of  Doris  against  the 
Phoriaus  in  457  IJ.  V.,  and  which  defeated  the 
Athenians  al  Tanagra  (See  OiiKiiCE  ;  U.  C.  458- 


'  (4.')0).  In  455,  "  the  Spartans  were  reminded  that 
they  were  also  liable  to  be  attacked  at  home. 
An  Atheniar.  arinanient  of  50  galleys,  and,  if  we 
may  trust  Diodoru.s,  with  4,000  heavy  armed 
trocps  on  board,  sailed  round  Peloponnessus 
under  Tolmides,  burnt  the  Spartan  ai-senal  at 
Gythium,  took  a  town  named  Chalcis  belonging 
to  the  Corinthians,  and  defeated  the  Sicy<nians, 
who  attemiited  to  oppose  the  landing  of  the 
troops.  But  the  most  important  advantage 
gained  in  the  expedition  was  the  capture  of 
Naiipactus,  which  belonged  tolhe  (Jzolian  Locri- 
ans,  and  now  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Athenians 
at  a  very  seasonalile  juncture.  The  tliirtl  Mes- 
seiiian  war  had  just  come  to  a  clo.se.  The  brave 
defenders  of  Ithoine  had  obtained  honourable 
terms.  .  .  .  The  besieged  were  permitted  to  (piit 
Pelojionnesus  with  their  families,  on  condition 
of  being  detained  in  slavery  if  they  ever  returned. 
Tolmides  now  setth^d  the  honieles-s  wantl-r^r.''  in 
Naupaetus.  .  .  .  But  these  successes  were 
counterbalanced  by  a  revei-se  which  befid  the 
arms  of  Athens  this  stiineyear  in  another  quarter. 
After  the  defeat  of  Achiemens,  Artaxerxes, 
disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  assistance  from 
Sparta,  .  .  .  raised  a  great  army,  which  he 
placed  under  the  command  of  an  abler  general, 
Megabyzus,  son  of  Zopyriis.  Megabyzus 
defeated  the  insurgents  and  their  allie"  ^a 
forced  the  (.ireeks  to  evacuate  Meinphii  ead  to 
take  refuge  in  au  island  of  the  Nile,  named 
Prosopitis,  vvhicli  contained  .i  town  called  Byblus, 
where  Le  hesiegi-d  tlieiu  'or  18  month".  At 
length  he  resorted  to  the  contiivance  of  turning 
the  stream.  .  .  .  The  Gri">'':  galleys  were  all 
left  aground,  and  were  lire'  by  the  Athenians 
themselves,  that  they  might  not  fall  into  the 
enemy's  hands.  The  Persians  then  marched  into 
the  island  over  tlie  ilry  bed  of  the  river:  the 
Egyptians  in  disir.  ly  abandoned  their  allies,  who 
were  overpowered  by  i.-imbera  and  almost  all 
destroyed.  .  .  .  Inarus  himself  Wiis  betrayed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Pei-sians  and  put  to  death.  .  .  . 
I'^gypt  .  .  .  was  again  redu(;e(l  un''er  the  Per- 
sian yoke,  except  a  part  of  the  lielt.a,  where 
another  pietender,  named  Aniyrtaais,  w'l>o 
assumed  the  title  of  king  .  .  .  maintained  him- 
self for  several  years  against  the  power  of  the 
I'ersian  monarchy.  But  the  misfortune  of  the 
Athenians  did  not  eiul  with  the  destruction  of 
the  great  tleet  and  arinv  which  had  been  first 
emp.oyetl  in  the  war.  I'hey  had  sent  a  sipiadron 
of  50  galleys  to  the  relief  of  their  country- 
men, which,  arriving  liefore  the  i-ews  of  the 
recent  disj'.ster  hiul  reached  them,  entered  the 
IMendesian  branch  of  the  Nile.  They  vere  here 
surprised  by  a  combined  attack  of  th';  Persian 
land  force  and  a  Phoenician  tleet,  ami  but  few 
escarwl  to  bear  the  nioiinitul  tidings  to  Athens. 
Yet  jven  after  tlii>  calamity  we  'ind  the  Atlieni- 
ians,  not  suing  for  peace,  but  bent  on  extending 
their  power,  and  aunuyiiig  iheir  enemies." 
Early  in  454  they  sent  an  expedition  into  Thcs- 
saly,"  to  restore  a  ruU'r  named  Ore.stes,  who  had 
been  driven  out.  "Hut  the  superiority  of  the 
Tliessiilians  in  cavalry  cheeked  all  their  opera- 
tions in  the  liefl;  they  failed  in  an  attempt  upon 
Pharsalus,  and  were  at  length  forced  t)  retire 
without  having  accomplished  any  of  their  ends. 
It  was  perlaps  to  soothe  the  public  disappoint- 
ment that  Pericles  shortly  afterwards  embarked 
at  Pegic  with  1,000  men,  and,  coasting  the 
south    side    of    the    Corinthiau    gulf    made    u 


159 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  460-449. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-431. 


descent  on  'he  territory  o'  Sicyon,  iiiul  routed 
tlie  Hieyon  fo.  'c  ■:<;nt  to  oppose  liisliinding.  He 
tlien  .  .  .  laiil  siege  to  the  town  of  (Eniadte. 
.  .  .  Tliis  iittcinpt,  however,  proved  unsuccess- 
ful ;  and  tlie  general  result  of  the  campaign 
seems  not  to  liave  been  on  the  whole  advantage- 
ous or  encouraging.  ...  It  se(  ms  to  have  been 
not  long  after  the  events  whicli  have  been  just 
related  that  Cimon  was  recalled  from  his  exile; 
and  the  de,  ree  for  that  purpose  was  moved  by 
I'erides  himself; — a  fact  which  seems  to  inti- 
mate that  some  change  had  taken  place  in  the 
relations  or  the  temper  of  parlies  at  Athens. 
.  .  .  The  three  years  next  following  Cimon's 
return,  as  we  have  tlxcd  its  date  [B.  C.  454  or 
453|,  passed,  happily  for  his  contemporaries, 
without  affording  any  matter  for  the  hi.storian ; 
and  tins  pause  was  followed  by  a  five  years' 
truce  [with  Sparta],  in  the  course  of  which 
Cimon  embarked  in  his  last  expedition,  and 
died  near  the  scene  of  his  ancient  glory.  The 
pretender  Amyrtocus  had  solicited  succour  from 
the  Athenians.  .  .  .  Cimon  was  appointed  to  the 
connnand  of  a  fleet  of  200  galleys,  with  which  he 
sailed  to  Cyprus,  and  sent  a  s,;uadron  of  GO  to 
the  assiiitance  of  Amyrtieus,  while  he  himself 
with  the  rest  laid  siege  to  Citiura.  Hero  ho 
was  carried  off  by  illness,  or  the  consequences 
of  a  wound ;  and  the  armament  was  soon  after 
comptlled,  by  want  of  provisions,  to  raise  the 
siege.  But  Cymon's  spirit  still  animated  his 
countrymen,  who,  when  they  had  sailed  away 
with  his  remains,  fell  in  with  a  great  fleet  of 
Phoenician  ai.d  Cilician  galleys,  near  the 
Cyprian  Salamis,  and,  having  completely  de- 
feated them,  followed  up  their  naval  victory 
with  anotl'er  which  they  gained  on  shore,  either 
over  the  troops  which  had  landed  from  the 
enemy's  ships,  or  over  a  land  force  by  which 
they  were  supiiorted.  After  this  they  were 
joined  by  the  sq\nidron  which  had  been  sent  to 
Egypt,  and  which  returned,  it  would  nppear, 
without  having  achieved  any  material  object, 
and  all  sailed  liomc  (B.  C.  449).  In  aftor-timea 
Cimon's  military  renown  was  enhanced  by  the 
report  of  u  peace  [sometimes  called  tho  Peace  of 
Cirion,  and  sometimes  tlie  Peace  of  Callias], 
which  his  victories  had  compelled  the  Persian 
king  to  conclude  on  terms  most  humi'iating  to 
the  monarchy.  Within  les.-s  than  a  century  after 
his  death  it  was,  it  not  conunonly  believed,  con- 
fidently asserted,  that  by  this  treaty,  negotiated, 
as  it  was  sui>posed,  by  Callias,  son  of  llipponi- 
ci)!!,  the  lersians  had  agreed  to  iibandon  at  '.oast 
the  military  occupation  of  Asia  Minor,  to  the 
distance  of  three  days  journey  on  foot,  or  one  on 
horseback,  from  tlu!  coast,  or,  according  to 
another  account,  the  whole  peninsula  west  of  the 
Halys.  and  to  ab.stain  fr.im  passing  the  mouth  of 
the  Bospliorus  and  tlio  Chelidonian  islands,  on  the 
coast  of  Lycia,  or  the  town  of  Phaselis,  into  the 
Western  Se;i.  The  mere  silence  of  'rhMey(lid('S(m 
so  important  a  transaction  would  be  enough  to 
render  the  whole  account  extreinelv  suspicious." 
— O.  Thirlwall,  Itixt.  ,>f  Gi-ai-e,  fli.'ll  (r.  'A).  Sir. 
Qroteaccepts  the  Peace  of  Cimcm  as  an  historical 
fact;  I'rof.  (^urtius  rejects  it.--'}.  Grote,  lll.it.  of 
(Iviiir.  lit.  a,  eh.  45  (c.  5).— E.  C'urtius,  Illi>t.  oj 
(Vn-MV.  Ilk:  :i,  -■//.  2(;'.  2). 

B.  C.  458-456.— War  for  Megara  with  Cor- 
inth and  iCgma. — Victories  of  Myronidcs. — 
Siege  and  conquest  of /Egina. — Collision  with 
the  Spartans  in  Boeotia. — Defeat  at  Tanagra. 


—Overthrow  of  the  Thebans.— Recovered  As- 
cendency.    See  GuEECK :  B.  C.  4.'58-456. 

B.  C.  449-445.— Hostile  revolution  in  Boeo- 
tia.—Defeat  at  Coroneia. — Revolt  of  Eubcea 
and  Megara.— The  thirty  years' truce. — Ter- 
ritorial losses.-Spartan  recognition  of  the 
Delian  Confederacy.  See  Greece  :  B.  C.  449- 
44.1. 

B.  C.  445-431.— Supremacy  of  Pericles  and 
thp  popular  arts  by  which  he  attained  it. — 
The  splendor  of  Athens  and  grandeur  of  the 
Athenian  Empire  under  bis  rule. — "The  con- 
clusion of  peace  left  the  Athenians  to  their  con- 
federacy and  their  internal  politics.  .  .  .  After 
the  death  of  Cimon  the  oligarchical  party  at 
Athens  had  been  led  by  Thucydides.  the  son  of 
Melcsias,  a  man  of  higli  character  and  a  kinsman 
of  Cimon.  .  .  .  Hitherto  the  members  had  sat 
here  or  there  in  the  assembly  as  they  p'cased ; 
now  they  were  combined  into  a  single  body,  and 
sat  in  a  special  place.  Such  a  consolidation  was 
doubtless  needed  if  the  party  was  to  hold  its  own 
against  Pericles,  who  was  rapidly  carrying 
all  before  him.  For  years  past  he  li.td  provided 
a  subsistence  for  many  of  the  poorer  citizens  by 
meia'.s  of  his  numerous  colonies — no  fewer  than 
.'i.O.jO  Athenians  must  have  been  sent  out  to  the 
'  deruchies '  in  the  interval  between  453  B.  C.  and 
444  B.  C.  The  new  system  of  juries  [See  Dic\- 
stkiiia]  had  also  been  established  on  the  fall  of  the 
Areopagus,  and  the  jurymen  v^ere  paid — a  second 
source  of  income  to  the  poor.  Suc'h  measures 
were  beyond  anything  that  the  private  liberp.lity 
of  Cimon  —  splendid  as  it  was  —  could  achieve; 
and  on  Cimon's  death  no  otiier  aristocrat  came 
forward  to  aid  his  party  with  111"  purse.  Peri- 
cles did  not  stop  hero.  Since  the  cessation  of 
the  war  with  Persia  tliere  had  been  fewer  drafts 
on  the  public  purse,  and  the  contributions  of  the 
allies  were  accumulating  in  the  public  treasury. 
A  .scrupidous  man  would  have  regarded  the 
surplus  as  the  money  of  the  allies.  .  .  .  Pericles 
took  another  view.  He  plainly  told  the  Atheni- 
ans that  so  long  as  the  city  fulfilled  the  contract 
made  with  the  allied  cities,  and  kept  Persian 
vessels  from  their  shores,  the  surplus  was  at  the 
disposal  of  Athens.  Acting  on  this  principle,  he 
devoted  a  part  of  it  to  the  embellishment  of  the 
city.  AVith  the  aid  of  Pheidias,  tlu;  sculptor,  and 
Ictinus,  the  architec^t,  a  new  temple  began  to 
rise  on  the  Acropolis  in  honour  of  .Vthena  —  the 
celebrated  Parthenon  or  '  Virgin's  Chamber ' 
[See  P.vhtiikxon].  .  .  .  Other  public  buildings 
were  also  begun  about  this  time.  Athens  was 
in  fact  a  vast  workshoj),  in  which  employment 
was  found  for  a  great  luimbcr  of  citi/ens.  Nor 
was  this  all.  .  .  .  For  eight  m'  utlis  of  the  year 
flO  ships  were  kept  at  sea  with  ere  -s  on  b'-ard, 
in  order  that  there  might  be  an  ampu-  sui)ply  of 
practical  seamen.  .  .  .  Tluisby  director  indirect 
meAns  l^ericles  made  the  state  the  payma.ster  of 
a  vast  number  of  citizens,  and  the  slate  was 
liraetically  himself,  with  these  paid  citizens  at 
ills  back.'  At  the  same  time  tbir  public  festivals 
of  the  city  were  cidergcd  and  adoriied  with  new 
splendour.^  .  .  That  all  might  attend  the  thea- 
tre in  which  the  plavs  were  acted,  I'cricles  ])ro- 
vided  that  every  citizen  should  receive  from  the 
state  a  sumsulticient  to  pay  the  charge  deinand(  il 
from  the  spectators  by  the  lessee  [See  Ivioliol.vj. 
We  may  look  on  these  mcr.sures  as  the  arts  of  a 
demagogue.   .  .  .   Jr  we  may  say  that  Pericles 


160 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-431. 


Age  of 
I'vricles. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-429. 


was  ftble  to  gratify  his  pnaaion  for  (irt  at  the  ex- 
pense of  tlie  Atliciiians  ami  tlioir  allies.  Nuitlicr 
of  tliese  views  is  altogetlier  untenable;  and  botli 
are  far  from  including  tlio  wiiole  truth.  Pericles 
.  .  .  was,  if  we  please  to  say  it,  a  demagogue 
and  a  connois.'Jeur.  But  lie  was  somctliing  more. 
Liioliing  at  tlie  wiiole  evidence  before  us  witli 
impartial  eyes,  we  cannot  refuse  to  acliiiowledgc 
tliat  lie  clicrislied  aspirations  worthy  of  a  great 
statesman.  He  sincere' v  desired  that  every 
Atlienian  sliould  owe  to  liis  city  tlie  biossing  of 
an  education  in  all  that  was  beautiful,  and  tlie 
opportunity  ot  a  happy  and  useful  life.  .  .  . 
Tlie  oligarchs  determined  to  pull  down  Pericles, 
if  if  were  possible.  .  .  .  They  proposed,  in  tlie 
winter  of  445  B.  C,  that  there  slioulil  bo  an 
ostracism  in  the  city.  The  people  agreed,  and 
tlie  usual  arrangements  were  made.  But  when 
the  <iay  came  for  <lecision,  in  the  spring  of  444 
B.  C,  tlie  sentence  fell,  not  on  Pericles,  but  on 
Thucydides.  The  sentence  left  no  doubt  about 
the  feeling  of  tlic  Atlienian  people,  and  it  was 
hcceptod  as  final.  Thucydides  disappeared  from 
Athciis,  and  for  the  next  tifteeii  years  Pericles 
was  master  of  the  city.  .  .  .  While  Alliens  was 
active,  organizing  her  confedi  racy  and  securing 
her  communication  with  the  nortli,  tlie  Pelo- 
ponnesians  had  allowed  tlie  years  to  pass  in 
apathy  and  inattention.  At  length  they  awoke 
to  a  sense  of  the  situation.  It  was  clear  that 
Athens  had  abandoned  all  idea  of  war  with  Per- 
sia, and  that  the  confederacy  of  Delos  was  trans- 
formed into  i.n  Athenian  empire,  of  wliose  forces 
the  great  city  was  absolutely  mistress.  And 
meanwliilc  in  ^isible  greatness  Athens  had  be- 
come far  the  first  city  in  Greece. " — E.  Abbott, 
Pericles,  eh.  10-11. — "A  rapid  glance  will  f.i'tlicc 
to  show  the  eminence  which  Athens  had  atiained 
over  the  other  states  of  Greece.  She  was  the 
Jiead  of  the  Ionian  League  —  tlie  mistress  of  the 
Grecian  seas;  with  Sparta,  the  sole  rival  that 
could  cope  with  her  armies  and  arrest  he  am- 
bition, she  had  obtained  a  peace;  Corinth  was 
humbled  —  .iEgina  ruined—  Megara  had  shrunk 
into  lier  dependency  and  garrison.  I'lie  states 
of  hjcotia  had  received  their  very  constitution 
from  the  hands  of  an  Athenian  general  —  the 
d<'rnocracies  planted  by  Atiiens  served  to  make 
liberty  itself  subservient  to  lier  will,  and  involved 
in  her  siifety.  She  had  remedied  the  sterility  of 
her  own  soil  by  securing  the  rich  pastures  of  the 
neiglibouring  Eub(na.  She  had  added  tlie  ^old 
of  Tha.sos  to  the  silver  of  Laurion,  and  eslab- 
li.shed  a  footing  in  Thessaly  which  was  at  onc'>  a 
fortress  against  the  Asiatic  arms  and  a  mart  for 
Asiatic  commerce.  Tlie  fairest  lands  of  the 
opposite  coast  —  the  most  powerful  islandsof  the 
Grecian  seas  —  amtributed  to  Iier  treasury,  or 
were  almost  legally  subjected  to  her  revenge. 
...  In  all  Greece,  Myronides  was  perhaps  the 
ablest  general  —  Pericles  .  .  .  was  undoubtedly 
the  mo.st  hiffhlv  educated,  cautious  and  com- 
manding statesman.  ...  In  actual  p  >s.session  of 
the  tribute  of  her  allies,  Athens  acquired  a  new 
ri.Ltht  to  its  colk'Pti(m  and  its  management,  and 
while  she  devoted  .some  of  the  treasures  to  the 
maintenance  of  her  strength,  slie  began  early  to 
uphold  the  prerogative  ot  a]>propriaaug  a  part 
to  the  enhancement  of  her  splendour.  ...  It 
was  now  [about  H.  C.  444J  resolved  to  make 
Alliens  also  the  scat  and  centre  of  the  judicial 
nulJKirity.  The  subject-allies  were  compelled, 
it  not  ou  minor,  at  least  on  all  important  cases. 


to  resort  to  Athenian  courts  of  law  for  justice. 
And  thus  Athens  became,  as  it  were,  the  metropo- 
lis of  the  allies.  .  .  .  Before  the  Persian  war, 
and  even  scarcely  before  the  time  ot  Cimon, 
Athens  cannot  be  said  to  have  eclipsed  her 
neighbours  in  the  arts  and  sciences.  She  be- 
came the  centre  and  capital  of  the  most  polished 
communities  ot  Greece,  and  she  drew  into  .i  focus 
all  the  Grecian  intellect;  she  obtained  from  her 
dependents  iie  wealth  to  administer  the  arts, 
whicli  universal  tralllc  and  intercourse  taught 
her  to  appreciate ;  and  thus  the  Odeoii,  and  the 
Parthenon,  and  the  Propyliea  aro.se.  During  the 
same  administration,  the  iortifications  were  com- 
pleted, and  u  third  wall,  iiarallel  and  near  to  that 
uniting  Piricus  witli  Athens,  consummated  the 
w<>rks  of  Themistocles  and  Cimon,  and  preserved 
the  c<mimuuicution  between  the  twofold  city, 
even  should  the  outer  walls  fall  into  the  hands 
of  an  enemy." — E.  G.  Bulwer-Lytton,  Athens: 
Its  Rise  and  Fall,  bk.  4,  ch.  5,  bk.  5,  eh.  2. 

Ai.so  FN:  W.  W.  Lloyd,  The  Aije  of  Pericles, 
— Plutarch,  Pericles. 

B.  C.  445-429.— The  Agfe  of  Pericles :  Art. 
— "The  Greeks  .  .  .  were  industrious,  commer- 
cial, sensitive  to  physical  and  moral  beauty, 
eager  for  discussion  and  controversy ;  they  were 
proud  of  their  humanity,  and  happy  in  the  pos- 
session of  their  poets,  their  hi-storians,  their  ora- 
tors and  artists.  It  is  siugul.ir,  in  the  history  of 
nations,  to  meet  with  a  people  distinguished  at 
once  by  mercantile  ai)titude,  and  by  an  ex(iuisite 
feeling  and  sympathy  for  works  of  art ;  to  see 
the  vanity  of  wealth  compatible  with  a  nice  dis- 
cernment for  the  true  jirinciples  of  taste;  to  be- 
iiold  a  nation,  inconstant  in  ideas,  Inconceivably 
t/c''.le  in  prejudices,  worshipping  a  man  one  day 
and  proscribing  him  the  next,  yet  at  the  sumo 
time  progressing  with  unheard-of  rapidity ;  within 
tl.e  space  of  a  few  years  traversing  all  systems  ot 
phihisophy,  all  forms  of  government,  laying  the 
foundationa  )f  a'.l  sciences,  making  war  (m  all  its 
neighbors,  yet,  \i\  the  midst  ot  this  chaos  ot 
ideas,  systems,  ind  pass'ons,  developing  art 
steadily  and  with  -aim  intelligence,  giving  to  it 
novelty,  origiiialit}',  and  beauty,  while  preserv- 
ing it  pure  fnmi  the  aberrations  and  caprices  ot 
wliat  w(!  now  call  f^ishion.  At  llie  time  of  tlie 
battle  of  Salainis,  480  B.  C,  Athens  had  been 
destroyed,  its  territory  ravaged,  an<l  the  Athen- 
ians had  nothing  left  but  their  ships;  yet  so 
great  was  the  activity  of  this  commercial  but 
artistic  people,  that,  only  twenty  years  after- 
wards, they  had  built  the  Parthenon."  —  E.  E. 
Violletle-Duc,  Discourses  on  Architecture,  p.  G5. 

B.  C.  445-429.— The  A^e  of  Pericles:  Do- 
mes',:ic  life. — The  Athenian  house. — "For  any 
oni:  coming  from  Asii  it  seemed  as  if  in  centering 
Athens  lie  was  ccmiing  into  an  ant's  nest.  Pos- 
sessing, at  the  epoch  of  its  greatest  power,  tlio 
three  ports  of  Munychia,  Phalerum  and  the  Pi- 
ra'us,  it  covered  a  district  whose  circumfen'nco 
measured  two  hundred  stadia  (twenty-four  ndles). 
But  it  was  around  the  Acropolis  that  the  houses 
were  crowded  together  and  the  population 
always  in  activity.  The'e  wagons  were  passing 
to  and  fro,  tilled  with  merchandise  from  the 
ports  or  conveying  it  thitiier.  The  streets  and 
public  places  in  which  people  passed  their  lives 
presented  a  busy  and  noisy  scene.  Strangers, 
who  came  to  buy  or  to  sell,  were  continually  en- 
tering or  leaving  the  shops  and  places  of  manu- 
facture, and  slaves  were  carrying  messages  or 


101 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-429. 


A  an  of 

PcricltfH. 


ATHENS,  n.  C.  445-431*. 


biinicns.     Women  ns  well  ns  n.pii  wfi-c   to  be 
wen  in  tlicstncts,  irdinjjlo  the  markets, the  public 

fumes  1111(1  the  meetillJr^  of  cDrporiite  bodies, 
'roiii  the  earliest  hours  of  the  day  larjre  numbers 
of  peasants  ini.!j;lit  be  seen  brin^rini;  in  veijetables, 
fruit  1111(1  ixmltry.  and  crying  their  wares  in  the 
streets.  Houses  of  .he  liij;lier  class  occupied  the 
second  zone;  they  generally  posses.sed  ti  garden 
and  .soinetimes  outbuildings  of  considerable  ex- 
tent. Around  them  were  to  be  seen  clients  and 
parasites,  wailing  for  the  hour  when  the  master 
should  make  his  appearance;  and  whiling  away 
the  time  discussing  the  news  of  tlie  day,  repeat- 
ing tile  rumours,  true  or  false,  that  were  current 
in  the  city;  getting  the  slaves  to  talk,  and  laugh- 
ing among  themselves  at.  the  strangers  that  hap- 
pened to  be  passing,  or  addressing  them  with  a 
view  to  make  fun  of  their  accent,  garb  or 
dress.  The  house  of  (Jhremyliis,  recently  built 
in  that  second  zone,  was  a  subject  of  rennirk  fir 
all  the  idlers.  Chremylus,  who  had  lately  be- 
come we.ilthy  by  means  ot  coininerce,  and  of 
certain  transactions  of  more  or  h'ss  creditable 
character  in  the  colonies,  was  an  object  of  envy 
and  crilicism  to  most  people,  and  of  admiration 
for  some  who  did  justice  to  Iiis  intelligence  and 
energy.  He  enjoyed  a  certain  degree  of  in- 
liueiice  in  the  jiublic  a.sseinblics  —  thanks  to  his 
liberality;  while  he  took  care  to  secure  the  good 
graces  of  the  arelions  and  to  enrich  the  temples. 


PLAN  OP  ATHENIAN  HOUSE. 

We  have  [in  the  accompanying  fi,J;iirc]  tlie 
ground-plan  of  the  residence  'of  this  Athenian 
citizen.  The  entrance  x  opciis  on  the  public 
road.  The  site  is  bonnded  on  cither  side  by 
narn)w  streets.  This  entranci  x  opens  on  the 
court  (),  w'licli  is  surroiiiided  hy  porticos.  At 
A  is  the  porter',)  lodge,  and  at  U  the  rooms  for 
tlie  slaves,  with  kitchen  iit  C  and  latrincH  at  a. 


From  this  first  court,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
small  fountain  with  a  basin  which  receives  the 
ra'n  water,  the  pas.sage  I)  leads  into  the  inner 
c(  urt  K,  which  is  larger  and  is  likewise  sur- 
rouiide(l  by  iiorticos.  At  G  is  the  reception  room, 
at  H  the  strong  room  f(n'  valuables,  and  at  S  the 
private  altar.  At  F  is  a  large  storeroom  contain- 
ing provisions  and  wine;  and  at  I  the  small  din- 
ing room  (tricliiiium);  the  cookiiig-romn  for  the 
family  being  at  .1  with  latrines  at  b.  The  large 
tricliiiiu.n  is  at  K.  The  passage  in  admits  to  the 
gyiiieceum,  containing  the  bedrooms  P  along  the 
portico  >I,  a  common  room  for  the  women,  with 
its  small  enclosed  garden,  and  clo.sets  at  c.  The 
(liiarters  for  visitors  are  entered  by  the  passage 
t,  and  consist  of  bedrooms  V,  a  portico  T,  a 
small  garden  and  closets  f.  At  d  is  an  opening 
into  tlie  lane  for  the  servants,  when  reiiiiired. 
The  gardens  extend  in  llie  direction  Z.  This 
house  is  situated  on  the  slopes  of  the  bill  wlii<;h 
to  the  soutli-wesi  looks  towards  the  Acropolis; 
thus  it  is  sheltered  from  the  violent  winds  wliich 
sometimes  blow  from  this  (piarter.  From  the 
large  diiiing-liall  and  from  the  terrace  L,  which 
adjoins  it,  there  i  a  charming  ]irospeet;  for, 
aliove  the  trees  of  the  garden  is  seen  the  city 
overlooked  by  the  Acropolis,  and  towards  the 
left  the  bill  of  the  Areopagus.  From  this  terrace 
L  there  is  a  descent  to  the  garden  by  about 
twelve  steps.  The  positi(m  was  chosen  with  a 
view  to  protection  against  the  sun's  heat  and  the 
troublesome  winds.  From  the  porticro  of  the 
gynieceum  arc  .seen  the  hills  extending  towards 
the  north,  covered  with  lunises  surrounded  1)}' 
olive-trees;  and  in  the  background  Jlouiit  I'eii- 
telicus.  ...  In  tlie  dwelling  of  Cbrcinyliis  the 
vari(nis  deparlmeiils  were  arranged  at  tiie  pio- 
l)rictor's  discretion,  and  the  architect  only  con- 
formed to  his  instructions.  Thus  the  front  jiart 
of  the  house  is  assigned  to  the  external  relations 
of  the  owner.  In  this  court  O  assemble  the 
agents  or  factors  who  come  to  give  an  account  of 
tile  commissions  they  have  executed,  or  to  le- 
cciv<^  orders.  If  the  master  wishes  to  speak  to 
any  of  them,  ho  takes  him  into  bis  reception 
room;  his  bedchamber  being  at  I{,  he  can  easily 
repair  to  that  reception-room  or  to  the  gynieceum 
reserved  for  the  women  and  younger  (children. 
U  he  entertains  friends,  they  have  their  separate 
apartments,  which  are  shut  oil,  not  being  in 
coinmimiciition  with  the  first  court  except 
through  the  jiassage  t.  All  that  part  of  the  habi- 
tation which  is  beyond  the  wide  entrance-hall  1) 
is  consecrated  to  douK'.stic  life;  and  only  the  inti- 
mat.;  friends  of  the  family  are  admitted  into  tlie 
second  court;  'or  example,  if  they  are  invited  to 
a  baiKpict, —  which  is  held  in  the  great  hall  K. 
The  master  usually  takes  his  meals  with  his  wife 
and  (>ne  or  two  members  of  his  family  who  live 
in  the  house,  in  the  smaller  room  1,  tlie  coiuiies 
of  which  will  hold  six  iier.sons;  w  hen'iis  lifteeii 
guests  can  be  accommodated  on  the  couches  of 
the  great  ball  Iv.  Chrcmylus  liaa  spared  nothing 
to  render  his  bouse  one  of  the  most  sumptuous 
in  the  city.  Tlie  columns  of  I'cntclicap  marble 
support  architraves  ol  wood,  surmouiit('d  by 
friezes  and  cornices  overlaid  with  stucco  and 
ornamented  with  delicate  painting.  Every- 
where the  walls  are  coaled  with  line  smootli 
plas'.  c,  adorned  with  paintings;  and  the  ceilings 
are  of  limber  artistically  wrought  and  coloured." 
— 10.  Viollet-le-Diic,  T/ie  Jlabitationn  of  Man  m 
all  Ayen,  ch.  17. 


162 


ATHENS,  B.  C,  445-429. 


Age  of 
Pericles. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-439. 


B.  C,  445-429. — The  Age  of  Pericles  :  Law 
and  its  Administration. — Contrast  with  the 
Romans. — "It  is  icmiukiililc  .  .  .  tliat  the 
'ciiuality  '  of  liiws  1)11 -.vliidi  thu  G  .-I'k  (k'luocv 
nicies  prided  themselves  —  tliiit,  ei.  ality  which, 
ill  the  beiiutifiil  drinkiii!;  song  oi  Oallistriitus, 
Harmodius  and  Aristogilon  arc  said  to  have 
given  to  Athens  —  had  little  in  common  with 
the  '  equity '  of  the  Romans.  The  lirst  was  an 
e(i\ial  administration  of  civil  laws  among  the 
citizens,  however  limited  the  class  of  citizens 
might  be;  the  List  implied  the  ai)plical)ility  jf  a 
law,  which  was  not  civil  law,  to  a  class  which 
(lid  not  necessirily  consist  of  citizens.  The  tiret 
exclnded  a  despot;  the  last  included  foreigners, 
and  for  some  purposes  slaves.  .  .  .  There  arc 
two  special  dangers  to  which  law,  and  society 
which  is  hold  togethi  '"•  law,  appear  to  bo 
lial)le  in  their  infancv  ,,.e  of  them  is  tiiat  law 
may  he  too  rapidly  veloped.  This  occairred 
with  the  codes  of  the  more  progressive  Greek 
communities,  which  disembarrassed  them.selves 
with  astonishing  facility  from  cumbrous  forms 
of  procedure  and  needless  terms  of  art,  and  .soon 
ceased  to  attach  any  superstitious  value  to  rigid 
rules  and  prescriptions.  It  was  not  for  the 
ultimate  advantage  of  mankind  that  they  did  so, 
though  tlie  immediate  benelit  conferred  on  their 
citizens  may  have  been  considerabh;.  One  of 
tliL  rarest  qualities  of  national  character  is  the 
capa(aly  for  applying  and  working  out  the  law, 
iis  such,  at  tno  cost  of  constant  miscarri.iges  of 
abstract  justice,  without  at  the  same  time  losing 
the  hope  or  the  wish  that  law  may  bo  conformed 
to  a  higher  idea'.  The  Greek  intellect,  with  all 
its  nobility  and  elasticity,  was  quite  unable  to 
conline  itself  within  the  strait  waistcoat  of  a 
legal  formula;  and,  if  we  may  judge  them  by 
the  popular  courts  of  Athens,  of  whose  working 
wo  ))ossess  accurate  knowledge,  the  Greek 
1ril)unalo  exhibited  the  strongest  tendency  to 
confound  law  and  fact.  Tlie  remains  of  the 
Orators  and  •  foren.sic  commonplaces  pre- 
served by  Aristoile  in  his  Treatise  on  lUietoric, 
show  that  questions  of  pure  law  were  constantly 
argued  on  every  consideration  which  could 
jiossibly  influence  the  mind  of  the  judges.  No 
durable  system  of  juri.sprudonco  could  be  pro- 
duced in  this  way.  A  community  which  never 
hesitated  to  relax  rules  of  written  law  whenever 
they  stood  in  the  way  of  an  ideally  perfect 
decision  on  the  facts  of  particular  cases,  would 
only,  if  it,  bequoathod  any  body  of  judicial 
principles  to  posterity,  bequeath  one  consisting 
of  the  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  wliicli  happened 
to  be  prevalent  at  the  time.  Suih  jurispru- 
dence would  contain  no  framework  to  which  the 
more  advanced  conceptions  of  subseciuent  ages 
could  be  fltt(>d.  It  would  amount  at  best  to  a 
philosophy,  marked  with  the  imperfections  of 
the  civili.sation  under  which  it  grew  up.  .  .  . 
The  other  liability  to  which  the  infancy  of 
society  is  e\i)()sed  has  pievenfed  or  am^sted  the 
prog-.vss  of  far  the  greater  part  of  mankind. 
The  rigidit;-  of  primitive  law,  arising  chielly 
from  ils  earlier  association  and  MentiUcalion 
with  religion,  lias  chained  (hiwn  the  ma.ss  of  the 
human  race  to  those  views  of  life  and  conduct 
which  they  entertained  at  the  tiino  when  their 
usage;;  were  first  consolidated  into  a  systematic 
form.  There  were  one  or  two  races  e.vempted 
by  a  marvellous  fate  from  this  calamity,  a-id 
grafts  from  these  stocks  have  fertili.se<l"a  few 


m  idem  societies ;  but  it  is  .still  tnic  that,  orcr  the 
larger  part  of  the  world,  the  perfection  of  law 
lias  always  been  considered  as  consisting  in 
iulhereiice  to  the  ground  plan  supposed  to  liavc 
lieen  marked  out  by  llie  original  legislator.  If 
intelle(;t  has  in  such  cases  been  exercised  on 
jnrisiiriidence.  it  has  uniformly  jirided  it.self  on 
tlie  subtle  pervi'i'sity  of  tlie  conclusions  it  could 
build  on  imcient  texts  without  discoverable 
departuH!  from  their  literal  tenour.  I  know  no 
reason  why  the  law  of  the  Uomans  should  be 
superior  to  the.  laws  of  the  Hindoos,  unless  the 
theory  of  Natural  Law  had  given  it  a  type  of 
excellence  diircrent  from  the  usual  one." — II.  S. 
Maine,  Anrient  Litic,  rh.  IS—}. — "Uut  both  the 
Greek  and  \\\i'.  English  trial  by  jury  were  at  one 
time  the  great  political  .safeguard  against  state 
oiipression  anil  injustice;  and,  owing  to  this 
origin,  free  nations  become  so  attiiched  to  it  that 
they  are  blind  to  its  defects.  And  just  as 
Ireland  would  now  benefit  beyond  conception 
by  the  abolition  of  tlie  jury  .system,  so  the 
secured  Athenian  (or  any  other)  democracy 
would  have  thriven  Vietter  had  its  laws  been 
administered  by  courts  of  skilled  judges.  For 
these  l.irge  bodies  of  average  citizens,  who.  by 
the  way,  were  not  like  our  jurymen,  unwilling 
occupants  of  the  juiybo.x,  but  who  made  it  a 
paid  business  and  an  amusement,  did  not  regard 
the  letter  of  the  law.  They  allowed  actions 
barred  by  the  reasonable  limits  of  time;  they 
allowed  arguments  totally  besidc!  the  question, 
though  this  too  was  illegal,  for  there  was  no 
competent  judge  to  draw  the  line;  they  allowed 
hearsay  evidence,  though  that  too  was  against 
the  law;  indeed  the  evidence  produced  in  most 
of  the  speeches  is  of  the  loosest  aiul  ])oorest  kind. 
Worse  than  all,  there  were  no  proper  records 
kept  of  their  d.jcisions,  and  witnesses  were  called 
in  to  swear  wli'it  had  been  the  past  decisions  of 
a  jury  sitting  in  the  t-ime  city,  and  under  the 
same  procedure.  This  is  the  more  remarkable, 
as  there  were  state  archives,  in  which  the 
decrees  of  the  popular  assembly  were  kept.  .  .  . 
There  is  a  most  extraordinary  speccli  of  Lysias 
against  a  man  called  Nichomachus,  who  was 
appointed  to  transcribe  the  laws  of  .Solon  in  four 
months,  but  who  kept  them  in  his  i)o.sses.sion  for 
six  years,  and  is  accusetl  of  having  so  falsified 
thorn  as  to  have  substituted  himself  for  Solon. 
Henco  there  can  have  been  no  recognized  dupli- 
cate extant,  or  'jucli  a  thing  could  not  be 
attempted.  So  again,  in  the  Trapeziticus  of 
Isocrates,  it  is  mentioned  as  a  well  known  fact, 
that  a  certain  I'ythodorus  was  convicted  of 
tampering  with  state-documents,  signed  and 
sealed  by  the  magistrates,  and  deposited  in  the 
Acropolis.  All  tliese  things  meet  us  in  every 
turn  in  the  court  speeches  of  the  Attic  oratora. 
We  are  amazed  at  seeing  relationships  proved  in 
will  cases  by  a  man  coming  in  and  swearing  that 
such  a  man's  father  had  told  him  tiiat  his 
brother  was  niarrie<l  to  such  a  woman,  of  such  a 
house.  We  find  the  most  libellous  charges 
brought  against  opponents  on  matters  totally 
beside  the  qiiestion  at  issue,  and  cvi'U  formal 
evidence  of  general  bad  character  admitted. 
We  find  some  speakers  in  consequence  treating 
the  jury  with  a  .sort  of  mingled  deference  and 
contempt  wliicli  is  amusing.  'On  the  former 
trial  of  this  case,'  they  say,  '  my  opponent  man- 
aged to  tell  you  many  well  devised  lies;  of 
courao  you  were  deceived,  how  could  it  he  other- 


163 


ATHENS,  13.  C.  445-429. 


Aue  nf 
iVn'f/ejf. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-429. 


wise,  find  ynii  m.idp  n  false  decision ;' or  else, 
•  You  were  so  puzzled  tliiit  you  fjol  at  variiiuce 
witli  one  aiiollicr,  you  voted  at  six<'s  and  seven.s, 
ami  liy  a  small  iiiajoiily  you  cai'ie  to  an  absurd 
de<lsj()n.'  'Hut  1  lliinli  yiiu  know  well,' .says 
Isoerat<'S,  'tliat  the  <lly  lias  often  repented  so 
liitlerlv  <'i'e  this  for  decisiims  made  in  passion 
and  williout  eviilenee.  as  to  desire  after  no  loni; 
interval  to  punish  those  who  misled  it.  and  to 
wisli  those  who  ha<l  been  ealumniated  were  mor(! 
than  restored  to  their  former  prosperity. 
Keepini;  these  fai  s  l)efor<' y(«i,  you  ought  not 
to  be  hasty  in  believing  the  prosecutors,  nor  to 
hear  the  defendants  witli  interruption  and  ill 
temper.  For  it  is  a  .shame  to  have  the  character 
of  lieini,'  the  j;entlesl  and  most  humane  of  the 
Greeks  in  other  respects,  and  yet  to  act  ('ontrary 
to  this  reputation  in  the  trials  which  take  place 
here.  It  is  a  .shame  that  iu  other  cities,  when  a 
human  life  is  at  stake,  a  consideral)Ic  majority 
of  votes  is  re(iuired  for  conviction,  but  that 
nmoMg  yo\i  those  iu  danger  do  not  even  got  an 
equal  chance  with  their  false  accu.sers.  You 
swear  indeed  once  a  y<'ar  that  you  will  attend  to 
bolli  plaiiitilT  and  defendant,  but  in  the  interval 
oiily  kee|)  your  oath  so  far  as  to  accept  what- 
ever the  accusers  .say,  Iiut  you  sometimes  will 
not  let  those  who  are  trying  to  refute  them  utter 
<'ven  a  single  word.  Y'ou  think  those  cities 
iininhabitable,  in  which  citizens  are  executed 
without  trial,  and  forget  that  those  who  do  not 
give  both  sides  a  fair  hearing  are  doing  the  very 
same  thing.'" — .T.  K  MahalTv,  >i-)nal  Life  in 
Grar,'.  ,-h.  VA. 

B.  C.  445-429. — The  Age  of  Pericles :  Poli- 
tical life. — The  democracy. — "The  real  life  of 
Athens  lasted  at  tlie  most  for  200  years:  and  yet 
there  are  moments  in  which  all  that  we  have 
won  by  the  toils  of  so  many  generations  seems  as 
it  it  would  be  felt  to  be  but  a  small  thing  beside 
a  single  liour  of  Perikles,  The  Democracy  of 
Athens  was  in  truth  the  noblest  fruit  of  tliat  self- 
developing  ])ower  of  the  Greek  mind  which 
worked  every  possession  of  the  conunon  heritago 
into  some  new  and  more  brilliant  sliap",  but 
which  learned  nothing,  notliing  of  all  that  formed 
its  real  life  and  its  real  glory,  from  the  Barba- 
rians of  the  outer  world.  Men  tell  us  that  Greece 
learned  this  or  that  mechanical  invention  from 
PluiMiieia  or  Egyi)l  or  Assyria  Be  it  so;  but 
stand  in  the  Pny.x;  listen  to  the  contending  ora- 
tors; li  I eii  to  the  ambassadors  of  distant  cities; 
listen  to  each  side  as  it  is  fairly  hearkened  to,  ancl 
see  the  matter  in  hand  decided  by  the  peaceful 
vote  of  thousiuids  —  here  r'  least  of  a  truth  is 
something  which  Athens  dnl  not  learn  from  any 
Assyrian  despot  or  from  any  Egyptiiin  priest. 
And  we,  chil'lren  of  the  conunon  stock,  sharers  in 
the  common  heritage,  as  we  see  man,  Aryan  man, 
in  the  full  growth  of  his  noblest  type,  we  may 
feel  a  thrill  as  we  think  that  KleLsthenCs  and 
PeriklOs  were,  after  all,  men  of  our  own  blood  — 
as  we  think  that  the  institutions  which  grew  up 
under  their  hands  and  the  institutions  under 
which  we  ourselves  are  living  are  alike  branches 
sprung  from  one  stock,  portions  of  one  inluii- 
tance  in  which  Athens  and  England  have  an 
equal  right.  In  the  Athenian  Denn'iraey  we  see 
a  i)opular  constitution  taking  the  form  which  was 
natural  for  such  a  constitution  to  take  when  it 
was  able  to  run  its  natural  course  in' a  common- 
wealth which  consisted  only  of  a  single  city. 
Wherever  the  Assembly  really  remains,  in  truth 


ns  well  as  in  name,  an  Assembly  of  the  whole 
people  in  tlieiri)wn  jH-rsons,  it  nnisl  in  its  own 
nature  be  sovereign.  It  must,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  delegate  more  or  less  of  power  to  magis- 
trates and  generals;  but  such  power  will  be  sim- 
ply delegated.  Their  antliority  will  be  a  mere 
trust  from  the  sovereign  l)ody,  and  to  that  sov- 
ereign body  they  will  be  responsible  for  its  exer- 
cise. That  is  to  say,  one  of  the  original  elements 
of  the  State,  the  King  or  chief,  now  represented 
by  the  elective  magistracy,  will  h)se  its  indepen- 
dent jwwers,  and  will  sink  i  to  a  body  vho  have 
only  to  carry  out  the  will  of  the  sovereign  Assem- 
bly. So  witli  anoth'  of  the  original  elements, 
the  Council.  Tills  b.ly  too  loses  its  inde|)endent 
b(Mng;  it  has  no  ruling  or  checking  power;  it  be- 
comes a  mere  (-'onunitlee  of  the  Assembly,  chosen 
or  appointed  by  lot  to  jiut  measures  into  sliape 
for  more  easy  discussion  in  the  sovereign  body. 
As  society  becomes  more  advanced  and  comi)li- 
cated,  the  judicial  power  cjin  no  longer  be  exer- 
cised by  the  Assembly  itself,  while  it  would  bo 
against  every  democratic  instinct  to  leave  it  in 
tlie  arbitrary  power  of  individual  magistrates. 
Other  Committees  of  the  Assembly,  .Juries  on  a 
gigantic  scale,  with  a  presiding  magistrate  as 
chairman  rather  than  as  Judge,  are  therefore  set 
apart  to  decide  causes  and  to  sit  in  judgment  on 
oifenders.  Such  is  pure  Democracy,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  whole  people  and  not  of  a  part  of  it 
only,  as  carried  out  in  its  full  perfection  in  a 
single  city.  It  is  a  form  ol  government  which 
works  up"  the  faculties  of  man  to  a  higher  pitch 
than  any  other;  it  is  the  form  of  government 
which  gives  the  freest  scope  to  the  inborn  genius 
of  the  whole  community  and  of  every  member  of 
it.  Its  weak  point  is  that  it  works  up  the  facul- 
ties of  man  to  a  ])itcli  so  high  that  it  can  hardly 
be  lasting,  that  its  ordinary  life  needs  an  enthusi- 
asm, a  devotion  too  highly  strung  to  be  likely  to 
live  through  many  generations.  Athens  in  the 
days  of  her  glory,  tiie  Athens  of  PeriklOs,  was 
truly  '  the  roof  und  crown  of  things; '  her  democ- 
racy raised  a  greater  number  of  human  beings  to 
a  higher  level  than  any  government  before  or 
since;  it  gave  freer  play  than  any  government 
before  or  since  to  the  ])ersonaI  gifts  of  the  fore- 
most of  mankind.  But  against  the  few  years  of 
Athenian  glory  we  must  set  the  long  ages  of 
Athenian  decline.  Against  the  city  wlu^e  Peri- 
klOs was  General  we  must  set  the  city  where 
Hadrian  was  Archon.  On  the  Assemblies  of 
other  Grecian  cities  it  is  hardly  needful  to  dwell. 
Our  knowledge  of  their  practical  working  is 
slight.  We  have  one  picture  of  a  debate  in  the 
popular  Assembly  of  Sparta,  an  Assembly  none 
the  less  popular  in  its  internal  constitution  be- 
1  :iuse  it  was  the  assembly  of  what,  as  regarded 
I  lie  excluded  classes  of  the  State,  was  a  narrow 
oligarchy.  We  see  that  there,  as  might  be  looked 
for,  the  chiefs  of  the  State,  the  Kings,  and  yei. 
more  the  Epliors,  spoke  with  a  degree  of  otllcial, 
as  distinguished  from  personal,  authority  which 
fell  to  tlie  lot  of  no  man  m  the  Assembly  ot 
Athens.  PeriklCs  reigned  supreme,  not  because 
he  was  one  of  Ten  Generals,  but  because  he  was 
PeriklOs.  ...  In  the  Ekklfisia  which  listened  to 
PiniklOs  and  DflmosthenOs  we  feel  almost  as  much 
at  hmnc  as  in  an  institution  of  our  own  land  and 
our  own  times.  At  least  we  ought  to  feel  iit 
home  there;  for  we  have  the  full  materials  for 
calling  up  the  political  life  of  Athens  in  all  its 
fullness,  and  within  our  own  times  one  of  the 


164 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  445-429. 


Age  of 
PeriHfi. 


ATIIEXS,  R.  C.  445-439. 


j^rpiitpst  minds  of  our  own  or  of  any  iiije  1ms  given 
its  full  strength  to  clear  away  llie  mists  of  error 
awl  ealuiniiy  which  so  long  shrouilcd  the  parent 
state  of  justice  anil  freedom.  Among  tlie  eon- 
temporarii'S  and  countrymen  of  Mr.  (Jrote  it  is 
shame  indeed  if  men  fail  to  see  in  tlie  great  De- 
mocracy the  first  .stati'  which  taught  manliind 
tliat  tliu  voice  of  persuasion  could  l)e  stronger 
than  a  despot's  will,  the  lirsl  which  taught  that 
disputes  could  be  settled  by  a  free  debate  and  a 
free  vote  which  in  other  lands  could  have  been 
decided  only  by  the  banishment  or  nnissacre  of 
the  weaker  side.  ...  It  must  be  constantly 
borne  in  mind  fhat  the  true  dill'erence  between 
an  aristocmtic  and  a  democratic  government,  as 
those  words  were  tmderstood  in  the  politics  of  old 
Greece,  lies  in  this.  In  the  Democracy  all  citi- 
zens, all  who  enjoy  civil  rights,  enjoy  also  pSliti- 
eal  rights.  In  the  aristocracy  political  rights 
belong  to  only  a  part  of  those  who  enjoy  civil 
rights.  Hut,  in  eitlier  case,  the  highest  authority 
of  the  State  is  the  general  Assembly  of  the  whole 
nding  body,  wheilier  tliat  riding  body  be  the 
whole  jteopleor  only  a  part  of  it.  .  .  .  The  slaves 
and  strangers  who  were  shut  out  at  Athens  were, 
according  to  Greek  ideas,  no  Athenians;  but 
every  Athenian  liad  his  place  in  the  sovereign 
assembly  of  Athens,  while  every  Corinthian  had 
not  his'  place  in  the  sovereign  assembly  of 
Corinth.  But  the  aristocratic  and  the  democratic 
commonwealth  both  agreed  in  placing  the  final 
authority  of  the  State  in  the  general  Assemtily  of 
all  who  enjoy  the  highest  franchise.  .  .  .  The 
people,  of  its  own  will,  placed  at  its  head  men  of 
the  same  class  ns  those  who  in  the  earlier  state  of 
tilings  had  ruled  it  against  its  will.  Perikles, 
Nikias,  Alkibiades,  were  men  widely  difTering 
in  character,  widely  dirturing  in  their  relations  to 
the  popular  governmen'  IJut  all  alike  were 
men  of  ancient  birth,  w'lo,  as  men  of  ancient 
birth,  found  their  way,  i  Imost  as  a  matter  of 
course,  to  those  liigli  places  of  the  State  to  which 
Ivleon  found  his  way  only  by  a  strange  freak  of 
fortune.  At  Rome  we  find  quite  another  story. 
There,  no  less  than  at  Athens,  the  moral  influence 
of  nobility  survived  its  legal  privileges;  but, 
more  than  this,  the  legal  privileges  of  the  elder 
nobility  were  never  whoUy.swept  away,  and  the 
inherent  feeling  of  respect  for  illustrious  birth 
called  into  being  a  younger  nobility  by  its  side. 
At  Athens  one  stage  of  reform  placed  a  distinc- 
tion of  wealth  instead  of  a  distinction  of  birth: 
another  stage  swept  away  the  distinction  of 
wealth  also.  But  the  reform,  at  each  of  its 
stages,  was  general:  it  affected  uU  otliees  alike, 
save  those  sacred  oflices  which  still  remained  the 
special  heritage  of  certain  sacred  families.  .  .  . 
In  an  aristocratic  commonwealth  there  is  no  room 
for  I'eriklOj ;  there  is  i.  >  -ooin  for  the  people  that 
hearkened  to  PeriklOs ;  but  in  men  of  the  second 
order,  skilful  co.iservative  administrators,  men 
able  to  work  the  system  which  they  find  estab- 
lished, no  form  of  government  is  so  fertile.  .  .  . 
But  overywhea'  we  learn  the  same  les.son,  the 
inconsistency  of  commonw(!altlis  which  boast 
themselves  of  their  own  freedom  and  cKalt  them- 
selves at  the  cost  of  the  freedom  of  others." — 
E.  A.  Freeman,  C'omjkirative  Politkn,  Urt.  5-0. — 
"DGincs  was  himself  King,  Minister,  and  I'aiiia- 
iiictit.  He  had  liib  smaller  otiicials  to  carry  out 
the  necessary  details  of  public  business,  but  he 
wus  most  undoubtedly  his  own  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury,   his  rjwn  Foreign  Secretary,  his  own 


Secretary  f'lr  the  Colonics.  Hi.>  himself  kept  up 
a  personal  correspoiulenci^  both  with  foreign 
])oteiitates  and  witli  Ills  own  ollicers  on  foreign 
service;  the  'despatches'  of  Nikius  and  tli(! 
'  notes  '  of  I'hilip  were  alike  addressed  to  no  ofU- 
cer  slun't  of  the  .sovereign  himself ;  ho  gave  per- 
sonal audience  to  I  lie  aiiil)assadors  of  otiier. states, 
and  el  )tlicd  his  own  witli  just  .so  great  or  so 
small  a  share  as  lie  deemcMl  good  of  his  own 
Ixnindless  authority.  He  had  no  need  to  entrust 
the  care  of  his  tlioiisan<l  dependencies  to  ihe  niys- 
terious  working  of  a  Foreign  Ollice;  he  himself 
sat  in  judgnvnt  upon  Mitylenaiaii  rcbi'ls;  he  him 
self  settled  the  allotmeiuOf  lands  at  Chalkis  or 
Ampliipoli.s;  he  decreed  hy  his  own  wisdom  what 
<luties  should  be  levied  at  the  Sound  of  Byzau- 
lion;  he  even  ventured  on  a  task  of  which  two- 
aiid-twenty  ages  have  not  lessened  the  dilliculty, 
and  undertook,  without  the  help  of  a  Lord 
High  Commissioner,  to  ailjust  the  relations  and 
compose  the  seditions  even  of  Korkyra  and  Za- 
kyntlios.  He  was  his  own  Lord  HIltIi  Cliai  eellor, 
his  own  Lonl  Primate,  his  own  Commaiiiier-in- 
Chief.  He  listened  to  the  arguments  of  Kleon 
on  behalf  of  a  measure,  and  to  the  arguments  of 
Xikias  against  it,  and  he  ended  by  bidding 
Nikias  to  go  and  carry  out  the  proposal  which 
he  had  denounced  as  extravagant  or  unjust.  He 
listened  with  approval  to  his  own  '  e.\i)lanations; ' 
he  passed  votes  of  confidence  in  bis  own  policy; 
he  advised  himself  to  give  his  own  royal  assent 
to  the  bills  which  he  had  himself  passed,  with- 
out tlie  form  of  a  second  or  third  reading,  or  tlie 
vain  ceremony  of  moving  that  the  Prytancis  do 
leave  their  chairs.  .  .  .  We  susjieet  that  the 
average  Athenian  citizen  wa.s,  in  ])olitical  intelli- 
gence, above  the  average  English  Member  of 
Parliament.  It  was  this  concentration  of  all 
power  in  an  aggregate  of  which  <^very  citizen 
formed  a  part,  which  is  the  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic of  true  Greek  democracy.  Florence 
had  nothing  like  it;  there;  h.is  been  nothing  like 
it  in  the  modern  world:  the  few  |)ure  democra- 
cies which  have  lingered  on  to  our  own  day 
have  never  had  such  mightv  (luestions  laid  la^fore 
them,  and  have  never  luul  siich  statesmen  and 
orators  to  lead  them.  The  great  Den.ocracy  has 
..ad  no  fellow:  but  the  political  les.sons  which  it 
teaches  are  none  the  less  lessons  for  all  time  and 
for  every  land  and  people." — E.  ^.  Freeman, 
Historical  Enmyii(v.  2)  .•  The  Aiheniiiii  Denwenicy. 
"The  individual  freedom  wliich  was  enjoyed  at 
Athens  and  which  is  extolled  lij'  Pericles  was 
plainly  an  exception  to  the  common  usage  of 
Greece,  and  is  so  regarded  in  tl  e  Funeral  Speech. 
The  word  'freedom, 'it  .shoulu  be  remembered, 
boro  an  ambiguous  meaning  It  denoted  on  the 
one  hand  political  iiidepeiidence, —  theexerci.se 
of  .sovereign  power  by  the  State  and  of  political 
rights  by  the  citi.;ens.  In  this  .sense  every  Greek 
citizen  could  claim  it  as  his  birthright.  Even 
the  Spartans  could  tell  the  Persian  Hydarnes  tliat 
he  had  not,  like  them,  tasted  of  freedom,  and  did 
not  know  whether  it  was  sweet  or  not.  But  the 
word  also  denoted  personal  and  social  liberty, — 
freedom  from  the  excessive  restraints  of  law,  the 
absence  of  a  tyrannous  public  opinion  and  of  in- 
tolerance between  man  and  in.ui.  Pericles  claims 
for  Athens  '  freedom'  in  this  double  sense.  But 
fr;edoin  so  far  as  it  implies  the  absence  of  legal 
i' .terference  in  ihe  private  concerns  of  life  was 
l-.ut  little  known  except  at  Athens." — S.  II. 
Butcher,    Some    Aspects   of   Oreek    Oeiuns,  pp. 


165 


ATUENS,  15.  C.  U5-4'i9. 


Ayr  «/ 


ATHENS,  IJ.  C.  440-t37. 


70-71,_> 'To  Athens  .  .  ,  we  look  ...  for  (in 
unswcr  to  the  iiiicslioii,  Wlmt  iIdi'H  liis'ory  ti'acli 
in  I(m;iiI(1  Io  IIh-  vIiIiK!  of  a  piiri'ly  ilciinxTatic 
(joviTiii'iciit  ?  And  here  wo  iimy  vaffly  say  tlial, 
under  fiiv(mrd)li'  ciriMini  ■tanccs,  tlicrc  is  no  form 
of  i;ovcrnnii'iit  which,  whili;  it  lusts,  has  such  a 
virtue  to  irive  scope  to  a  vigorous  crowlh  and 
lu.xuri.int  fniilni,'e  of  various  inanliooil  as  a  pure 
donocracy.  .  .  .  Hut  it  does  not  follow  tliat, 
thouijli  in  tliis  re;;aril  it  has  not  been  surpassed 
by  any  oIlK'r  form  of  ;iovernmenl,  it  is  therefore 
absolutely  the  besi  of  all  forms  of  government. 
.  .  .  Neither,  on  the  other  hand,  doe.s  it  follow 
from  the  shortnc'^sof  the  l)ri!;ht  reiifii  of  Athenian 
(leinocracy  —  not  ore  than  :)!)()  years  from  C'lis- 
theiies  to  the  Macedonians  —  that  all  ('eniocraeies 
all!  short-lived,  and  must  piiy,  like  dissipated 
young  gentlemen,  with  premaiurt!  decay  for  the 
feverish  abuse  of  their  vital  loiee.  Po.ssil)le  no 
<Ioid)t  it  is,  lliat  if  the  i)o\ver  of  what  we  may 
(•nil  a  sort  of  Athenian  Secotid  Chamber,  the 
Areiopagus,  ii.stead  of  being  weakened  as  it  was 
by  Arislides  and  I'erieles,  had  been  built  up  ac- 
cording to  the  idea  of  -Kschylus  and  the  intelli- 
gent iiristo(!rats  of  his  day,  such  a  body,  armed, 
like  our  House  of  I^ords,  with  an  cfTectivo  nega- 
tive on  all  outbiu'sts  of  p(.pular  rashness,  might 
have  i  revented  the  anil)ition  of  tlie  Athenians 
from!iunchiiigon  that  famous  .Syraciisan  expedi- 
tion which  e.xhaustcd  their  force  and  maimed 
their  action  for  the  future.  IJutthe  lesson  taught 
by  the  short-lived  glory  of  Athens,  and  its  sub- 
jugation under  the  rough  foot  of  the  astute  JIace- 
donian,  is  not  that  democracies,  under  tlie  influ- 
ence of  fa('tion.  and,  it  may  be,  not  free  from 
venality,  will  sell  their  liberties  to  ii  strong  neigh- 
bour—  for  a'i;tocraticPoland  did  this  in  a  much 
more  blushless  way  than  democratic  Greece  — 
but  that  any  loose  aggregate  of  independent 
.States,  given  more  to  quarrel  amongst  themselves 
than  to  unite  agaiitst  a  common  enemy,  whether 
democratic,  or  aristocratic,  or  monarchical  in 
their  form  of  government,  canu,)t  in  the  long  run 
maintain  their  groimd  agaiiLst  the  tirm  i)olicy  and 
the  well-inasscd  force  of  a  strong  monarchy. 
Athens  was  blotted  out  from  the  map  of  free 
peoples  at  Chieronea,  not  because  the  Athenian 
people  had  too  nuich  freedom,  but  becau.se  the 
Greek  States  had  too  little  unity.  They  were 
used  by  I'hilip  e.xiictly  in  the  same  way  that 
Napoleon  uised  the  German  States  at  the  com- 
mcnceiuent  of  the  i)resent  century." — J.  S. 
Ulackie.  W/ml  docx  Ilintorn  Tench  f  pp.  28-31.— 
"In  Herodotus  you  have  the  beginning  of  the 
age  of  discussion.  .  .  .  The  discourses  on  democ- 
racy, aristocracy,  and  monarchy,  which  he  puts 
into  the  mouth  of  the  Persi m  conspirators  when 
the  monarchy  was  vacant,  have  Justly  been  called 
absiml,  as  speeches  supposed  to  have  been  spoken 
by  tho.se  persons.  No  Asiatic  ever  thought  of 
such  things.  Vou  might  as  well  imagine  Saul 
or  David  speaking  them  as  those  to  whom  Hero- 
dotus attributes  them.  Tliey  are  Grcjk  speeches, 
fidl  of  free  Greek  discussions,  and  suggested  by 
the  exiierience,  already  cimsideiable,  of  the 
Greeks  in  the  results  of  discussion.  Tlic  age  of 
debate  is  liegimiing,  and  even  Herodotus,  the  least 
of  a  wrangler  of  any  man,  and  the  most  of  a 
sweet  and  simple  narrator,  fell  the  etTect.  When 
we  come  to  Thucydides,  the  results  of  discussion 
are  iis  fidl  as  they  have  ever  been;  his  light  is 
pure,  'dry  light.'  ffee  from  tlu;  'humours'  of 
liabit,  aiul  purged  from  consecrated  u.iage.     As 


Orotc's  history  often  roads  like  a  report  to  Parlia- 
ment, so  half  Thucydides  reads  like  a  speech,  or 
materials  for  a  speech,  in  the  Athenian  Assembly." 
— \V.  Hagehol,  I'/i;/.v'ft<  and  I'nUticH.  iip.  170-171. 
B.  C.  440-437,— New  settlements  of  Kler- 
ouchoi. — The  foundings  of  Amphipolis. — 
Revolt  and  subjugation  of  Samos. —  '  'l"he 
great  aim  of  Perikles  was  to  strengthen  tlie 
power  of  Athens  over  the  whole  area  occupied 
by  her  confederacy.  The  establishment  of 
settlers  or  Klerouehoi  [see  Kl.niliciis],  who  re- 
taiiie('  their  rights  ■,.•*  Athenian  citizens,  had 
answered  so  well  in  the  I.,elantian  plain  of 
Kiiboia  that  it  was  obviously  gdod  policy  to  ex- 
tend the  system.  The  territory  of  Hestiaia  in 
the  north  of  Kiiboia  and  the  islands  of  rjcnmos, 
Imbros,  and  Skyros,  were  thus  occupied;  and 
Perikles  himself  led  a  body  of  settlers  to  the 
Thrakian  Chersonesos  where  he  repaired  the  old 
wall  at  the  neck  of  the  peninsula,  and  even  to 
Sinope  whii'h  now  became  a  member  of  the 
.Vtheniaii  alliance.  A  generation  had  passed 
from  the  time  when  Athens  lost  ID.OOO  citizens 
in  the  attempt  to  i'ouii''  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Strymon.  The  task  was  now  undertaken 
successfully  by  llagnon,  and  the  city  came  into 
existence  winch  was  to  be  the  cause  of  disa.slcr 
to  the  historian  Thucydides  and  to  witness  the 
death  of  Urasidas  and  of  Kleim  [see  Ampiii- 
I'oi.is].  .  .  .  Two  years  before  the  founding  of 
Amphipolis,  Samos  revolted  from  Athens.  .  .  . 
In  this  revolt  of  Samos  the  overt  action  comes 
from  the  oligarchs  who  had  seized  upon  tlie 
Ionian  town  of  Priene,  and  defeated  the  Mile- 
sians who  opposed  them.  The  latter  appealed  to 
the  Athenians,  and  received  not  only  their  aid 
but  that  of  the  Samian  demo.s.  The  latter  now 
became  the  rtiling  body  in  the  island,  lifty  men 
luid  fifty  boys  being  taken  from  the  oligarchic 
families  and  placed  as  hostages  in  Leinnos,  which, 
as  wc  have  seen,  was  now  wholly  occupied  by 
Athenian  Klerouehoi.  But  the  Samian  exiles 
(for  many  had  fled  rather  than  live  under  a 
democracy)  entered  into  covenant  with  Pis- 
.soutimes,  tin  Sardian  satrap,  crossed  over  to 
Samos  and  seized  the  chief  men  of  the  demos, 
then  falling  on  Lemnos  succeeded  in  stealing 
away  the  ho.stages;  and,  having  handed  over  to 
Pissouthnes  the  Athenian  garrison  at  Samos, 
made  ready  for  lai  expedition  against  Miletos. 
The  tidings  th".!,  Byzantion  had  joined  in  this 
last  revolt  left  to  the  Athenians  no  room  to  doubt 
tlie  gravity  of  the  crisis.  A  fleet  of  sixty  ships 
was  (lispatclied  to  Samos  under  Perikles  ana 
nine  other  generals,  of  whom  the  poet  Sophoklos 
is  said  to  have  been  one.  Of  these  sliips  sixteen 
wore  sent,  some  to  gatlicr  the  allies,  others  to 
watch  for  the  Pheniciiin  fleet  which  they  be- 
lieved to  be  olT  the  Karian  coast  advancing  to 
tlie  aid  of  the  Samian  oligarchs.  With  the  re- 
mainder ■  ikies  did  not  hesitate  to  engage  the 
Samian  fleet  of  seventy  .ships  which  he  encoun- 
tered (m  its  return  from  Miletos  off  the  island  of 
Tragia.  The  Athenians  gained  the  day :  and 
Samos  was  blockaded  by  land  ai;,l  .sea.  But  no 
sooner  li:id  Perikles  sailed  with  sixty  sliips  to 
meet  the  Plienician  fleet,  than  the  Samians,  mak- 
ing a  vigorous  sally,  broke  the  lines  of  the  be- 
siegers and  for  fourteen  days  remained  masters 
of  the  .sea.  The  return  of  Perikles  changed  th.; 
face  of  things.  Soon  after  the  resumption  of 
the  siege  the  arrival  of  sixty  fresh  sliip->  from 
Athens  under  live  Slrutcgoi  in  two  detavhmeiits, 


166 


TO  THE  END  OF  THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAE. 

CONTEMPOHAXI'.OUS   EVENTS. 


B.C. 


770.  Beginning  of  the  Olympiads. 

7liH.  The  foiMulinK  of  Homo.* 

745.  First  war  bi-twccn  Sparta  and  Jft'ssenia. 

734.  Koundins  of  Symcuso  l)y  Orcclvs  from  (lorintli. 

722.  Ovcrtliniw  of  tlic  liingdom  of  Israt-l  l)y  tlic  Assyrians.— Captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes. 

085.  The  second  war  between  Messenia  and  Sparta. 

024.  Supposed  dale  of  tlie  legislation  of  Draco,  at  Athens.* 

012.  (Jonspiracy  of  Cylon  at  Athens. 

<J08.  Accession  of  Nebuchadnezzar  in  Babylonia. 

(too.  Destruction  of  Nineveh  and  overthrow  of  tlie  Assyrian  empire  by  the  Medes.* 

508.  Invasion  of  Palestine  by  Nebucliadnezzar. 

504.  The  Constitution  of  Solon  adcpted  at  Athens. 

58G.  Capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar. —  End  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  exile  of 
the  remnant  of  the  people  to  Babylon. 

5(iO.  Tyranny  of  Pislstralus  established  nt  Athens. 

641).  Overtlirow  of  tho  Median  nionarcliy  by  Cyrus,  and  founding  of  the  Persian. 

54((.  Overthrow  of  Crccsus  and  the  liingdom  of  Lydia  by  Cyrus,  Iting  of  Persia. 

538.  Conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus. 

520.  Dcatii  of  Cyrus  and  accession  of  Cambyses,  to  the  tlirone  of  Persia. 

525.  Conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses  king  of  Persia. —  Birth  of  /Eschylus  (d.  456). 

52 1 .  Accession  of  Darius  1.,  king  of  Persia. 

510.  Invasion  of  Scytliia  by  Darius,  king  of  Persia.* 

510.  E.\pulsion  of  tlie  Pisistratids  from  Athens. 

500.  Expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  from  Rome.* — Founding  of  the  Republic  (Roman  chronology). 

508.  Political  reorganization  of  Atliens  by  Cleisthenes. 

500.  Rising  of  tlie  Greek  colonies  in  Ionia,  against  the  Persians. 

403.  League  of  the  Romans  and  La'  ins. 

492.  First  secession  of  tlie  Roman  '.'lebs.  —  (Creation  of  tiie  Trilmnesof  the  People. 

400.  First  Persian  expedition  against  Greece. — Tlieir  defeat  at  Marathon. 

480.  Condemnation  and  death  of  Jliltiades  at  Athens.* 

480.  Accession  of  Xer.xes  to  the  throne  of  Persia. 

480.  Second  Persian  invasion  of  Greece. — Tliermopylic— .Vrteniisium.  —  Salamis.  —  Retreat  of 
Xerxes.  —  Carthaginian  invasion  of  Sicily.  —  Battle  of  Ilimerii. —  Birth  of  Euripides.* 

470.  Battles  of  Platwa  and  >Iycalo  and  end  of  tlie  Persian  invasion  of  Greece. 

478.  Beginning  of  tlie  tyranny  of  Hieron  at  Syracuse. 

477.  Formation  of  the  Confederacy  of  Dclos,  under  Athens. 

4GG.  Naval  victory  of  the  Greeks  over  the  Persians  at  Eurymedon. —  Outbreak  of  the  Plague 
at  Rome. — Revolt  of  Naxos  from  the  Delian  Confederacy. — Fall  of  tlio  tyrants  at  Syracuse. 

464.  (livat  earthquake  at  Sparta. —  Rising  of  the  Helots;  beginning  of  third  Messenian  War. 

458.  Commencement  of  the  Long  Walls  of  Athens. 

457.  Beginning  of  war  of  Corinth,  Sparta,  and  /Egina  with  Athens. — Battle  of  Tanagra. 

450.  End  of  war  against  Athens. —  Framing  of  the  Twelve  Tables  of  the  Roman  Law. — The 
Decemvirs  nt  Rome.  —  Birth  of  Alcibiades*  (d.  404). 

447.  Defeat  of  ihe  Athenians  by  the  Bu'otians  at  Coronen. 

445.  Conclusion  of  the  Thirty  Years  Peace  between  Ath.  ns  :md  Sparta  and  their  allies. — 
Ascendancy  of  Pericles  at  Atliens. — Peac?  of  Callias  between  Greece  anil  Persia. — Birth  of  Xenophon.* 

444.  Creation  of  Consular  Tribunes  at  Rome. — Exile  of  Thucydides  from  Athens. 

432.  Complaints  iigainst  Athens. — Peloponnesiau  Congress  at  Sparta. — Revolt  of  Potidoea. 

431.  Beginning  of  the  Peloponnesiau  War. — Invasion  of  Attica. 

43().  Second  invasion  of  Attica. — Tlie  Plague  at  Athens. 

421>.  Death  of  Pericles  at  Athens.   -Capture  of  Polidtua.— Birth  of  Plato  (d.  347). 

42  T.  Destruction  of  Platiea  by  the  Peloponnesians. — Massacre  at  Corcyra. 

425.  Surrender  of  Spartans  to  the  Athenians  at  Sphacteriu. — Accession  of  Xerxes  II.,  king  of 
Persia. 

421.  Peace  of  Nicias  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  ending  first  periou  of  Peloponnesian  War. 

415.  Expedition  of  tlie  Athenians  against  Syracuse. — Mutilation  of  the  Hernia;  at  Athens.— 
Accusation  and  flight  of  Alcibiades. 

41.3.  Disaster  to  the  Athenians  before  Syacuse. — Renewal  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

411.  Oligarchical  revolution  at  Athens.— The  Pour  Hundred  and  their  fall. — Recall  of 
Alcil)i!i('5s. 

409.  Carthaginian  invasion  of  Sicily. 

400.  Victory  of  the  Athenians  over  the  Peloponnesians  in  the  battle  of  Arginuste. — Execution 
of  the  geuerals  at  Athens. 

405.  Defeat  of  the  Athenians  at  Aigospotamoi. — Successful  revolt  of  the  Egyptians  agaiust 
tlie  Persians,  and  independence  established. 

404.  Pall  of  Athens.— End  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

400.  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  under  Xenophon.— Birth  of  Timoleon*  (C.  337). 

*  Uncertain  date. 


FOUBTH  AND  THIRD  CENTURIES,  B.  C. 

CONTKMPOHANEOU8  EVENTS. 


n.  c.  

.'«»».  CJondomnntion  iind  (Inath  of  Socrfttcs  at  Athens.— War  of  Sparta  with  Persia. 

:iUti.  l.ciiBiii-  of  Orcck  citifs  iiBiilnst  Spartu. — Tlie  CoriiilliiuD  War.  . 

.'«)<>.  Kofiif  (lestroycil  l>y  tlio  (iiiuls. 

J187.  I'caci!  of  Atitiilciilas  betwoca  tlieOrecits  and  Persians. 

:tH4.  Kirth  of  Aristotle  (d.  323). 

:iHii.  Hctrayal  of  'i'licbes  to  Sparta.— War  of  SyraciLso  witli  CorthaRe. 

;J7J».  Overthrow  of  the  Olvnthiaii  League  by  Hparl  a— Deliverance  of  Tliebes. 

JIT  I.  I)(!feat  of  Sparta  at  Leuctra.— Aseeiidancy  of  Thebes.— Arcadian  Union. 

SW7.  Adoption  of  the  liicinian  l^awH  at  Uonie. 

!U(2.  Victory  and  deatli  of  10paiiiiiioii<la9  at  .Mantinea. 

iifiU.  Accession  of  I'hilip  to  the  throne  of  jMacedonin. 

JW>7.  Oiitlireak  of  the  Ten  Years  SacrccI  War  in  Oreecc. 

itnU.  Hiirninf;  of  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  lOphesus.— llirth  of  Alexander  the  Great  (d.  828). 

iir»it.  l'"inal  conqnest  of  Egypt  l>y  the  I'ersians. 

;i5iJ.  Interfereni'e  of  I'liilip  of  "iMaeedonia  in  tlie  Oreelt  Sacred  War.— First  PInlippic  of 
Demosthenes. 

J{4t').  Deliverance  of  Syracuse  l.y  Tiinoleoii.— First  Samnite  War  in  Italy. 

<<<'{8.  IjcaRue  of  Greek  cities  aijiiiiiHl  I'liiMp  of  iMaccdonia. — tlis  victory  at  ClioiroDea. — His 
Uoinination  established. — Subjugation  of  the  I..aliiis  by  lionic. 

3t'{((,  Assjissination  of  Philip  of  iMaceiloniu,  and  accession  of  Alexander  the  Oreat. 

mm.  Itevolt  of  Thebes. — Alexander's  desi ruction  of  the  city. 

3;i4.  Alexander's  expedition  against  I'ersia. — His  victory  at  the  Qranicus. 

!{:if{.  Alexander's  victory  over  the  IVrsians  at  Issu.s. 

3!{i2.  Alcxander'.s  .sieges  of  Tyre  and  (Ja/.a,  conipiest  of  Egypt  and  founding  of  Alexandria. 

3IJ1.  Alexander's  vic'tory  at  Arbela. — Overthrow  of  the  I'i'rsian  empire. 

32U.  Alexander  in  India. — Defeat  of  Porus. — Beginning  of  second  Sainnitc  War  in  Itidy. 

sua.  Death  of  Alexander  the  Oreat  at  Babylon. — Partition  of  his  dominion  among  the 
generals. — Revolt  in  Greece. — The  Lainiaii  War. 

i)2t2.  Subjugation  of  Athens  by  the  Maccdo'dans. — Death  of  Demosthenes. 

!)til.  Beginning  of  the  War.)  of  the  Succtessors  of  Alexander. — Founding  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Ptolemies  in  Egypt.  —  Defeat  of  tin;  Itomans  by  the  Samnites  at  the  Caudinc  Forks. 

317>  Execution  of  Phocion  at  AtlK^iis. 

307.  Athens  under  the  rule  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 

300.  I{oyal  titles  assumed  by  Aniigonus  (as  king  of  Asia),  Ptolemy,  iu  Egypt,  Seleucus 
Nicator,  in  Syria,  Lysimachus,  in  Thrace,  and  t'as.sander.  in  Macedonia. 

305.  Siege  of  lihodes  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 

301.  Battle  of  Ipsus. ^Overthrow  and  death  of  Antigonus. 
2f***.  Beginning  of  third  Sannnte  War. 

2f>o.  Romap  defeat  of  Uw  Gauls  at  Seiitinuni. 

287.  Birth  of  Archin<edes*  (d.  212). 

280.  Adoption  of  the  Hortensian  Laws  at  Home. 

280.  Invasion  of  Italy  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus. — Invasion  of  Greece  by  the  Gauls. — Rise 
of  the  Achaian  licague. 

278.  Pyrrlnis  iu  Sicily,  in  war  against  Cartilage. 

275.  Defeat  of  Pyrrhus  at  Beneventum. 

204,  Beginning  of  tlie  first  Punic  War  between  Rome  and  Carthage. 
203.  Athens  captured  by  Antigonus  Gonatus. 

255.  Defeat  and  capture  of  Uegulus  in  Africa. 

250.  Founding  of  the  kingdom  of  Parthia  by  Arsaccs.* 

241.  End  of  the  first  Punic  W.'r.—Ri)iiian  compiest  of  Sicily. — Revolt  of  the  Carthaginian 
meri-enaries. 

227.  War  of  Sparta  with  the  Acliaia:-.  League. 

222.  Roman  conquest  jf  Cisalpine  Gaul  coinpleted. 

221.  Battle  of  Sellasia. — Sparta  crushed  by  the  king  of  Macedonia. 

213.  Beginning  of  tlie  second  Punic  War  between  Rome  and  Carthage. —  Hannibal  iu 
I  tap. 

217.  Hannibal's  defeat  of  the  Romans  at  the  Trasimene  Lake.— Cuele-Syria  and  Palestine  ceded 
to  Egypt  by  Antiochus  the  Great. 

210.  Great  defeat  of  tlie  Romans  by  Hannibal  at  Cannu!. 

214.  Beginning  of  war  between  Rome  and  Macedonia. 
212.  Siege  and  reduction  of  Syracuse  by  the  Romans. 
21  1.  Hannibal  at  the  Roman  gates. 

207.  Defeat  of  Ilasdrubal  on  the  Metaurus. 

205.  End  of  first  i\Iaccdonian  War. 

202.  Scipio's  decisive  victory  at  Zaina,  in  Africa,  ending  the  second  Punic  War. 

201.  Subjection  of  the  Jews  to  the  Seleucid  inonarchy. 

200.  Roman  declaration  of  war  against  the  king  of  Stacedouia. 

*  Uncertain  date. 


ATHENS,  H.  C.  440-487. 


Pt'toinmiietian 
War. 


ATIIKNH,   H.  C.  4;J1. 


with  thirty  from  Clilos  and  Lcsboa,  (hiinp(Ml  tlio 
tncrgy  of  tlic  Hiiiiiiiin  ()li;{iirclis;  mid  nn  iiiisur:- 
rcssful  I'fTort  at  sea  \,'as  followcil  liy  llieir  sub- 
mission in  tin;  niiitli  launtli  after  the.  iicginniti!; 
of  tlio  revolt,  tlie  lerms  t)ein>,'  tliiil  tliey  slioulil 
r,i/.(^  tlieir  walls,  i^ivo  hostages,  surreniler  their 
sliips,  and  pay  llie  ('.xpensesof  the  war.  Follow- 
injr  their  example,  the  Byzantines  also  made 
Mieir  pence  witli  Allien*.  The  Pheiii<'iaii  llee( 
never  came.  .  .  .  The  Athenians  escaped  at  the 
Bamo  time  a  far  j];reater  <lani;er  nearer  home. 
Till!  Samians,  lik(!  the  men  of  Tliasos.  had  ap- 
plied for  aid  to  the  Spartans,  who,  no  longer 
pressed  by  llie  Helot  war,  summoned  a  congress 
of  their  allies  to  discuss  tac^  (pieslion.  For  tlie 
tnice  which  had  still  tlveaiul-twenty  years  to 
run  Sparta  chared  nolliing.  but  she  encountered 
an  opposition  from  the  (\)riiiiliiaii.s  which  per- 
haps sIkmiow  .scarcely  expeclwl.  .  .  .  Tlic  Spar- 
tans wvvii  eompeiled  to  give  way;  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  when  some  years  later  the 
Corinthians  claimed  the  gratitude  of  the  Athen- 
ians for  tills  de(!ision,  they  took  credit  for  an  act 
of  good  .service  singularly  opportune.  Had 
they  voted  as  Sparta  wished,  Athens  might  by 
the  extension  of  revolt  amongst  her  allied  cities 
liave  lieen  reduced  now  to  tlie  condition  to  whicli, 
in  cor..se(juencc  perhajis  of  this  respite,  she  was 
not  brouglit  until  the  lifetime  of  a  generation 
had  lieen  s|)ent  in  desperate  warfare." — G.  W. 
Cox,  /[int.  (if  (Irei'd-,  III,:  :!,  rli.  1  (r.  2). 

B.  C.  431. — ^Beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War.— Its  Causes.— "In  15.  C.  431  tlie  war 
))roke  out  between  Alliens  and  the  Peloponnesian 
League,  which,  after  twenty-seven  years,  ended 
in  tlio  ruin  of  the  Athenian  empire.  It  began 
through  a  iiuarrel  betweiMi  Corinth  and  Keriiyra, 
in  wliicli  Athens  assisted  Kerkyra.  A  congress 
was  lield  at  Sparta ;  Corinth  and  other  States 
complained  of  the  conduct  of  Alliens,  and  war 
was  decided  on.  The  real  cause  of  the  war  was 
tliat  Sparta  and  its  allies  were  jealous  of  the 
great  power  that  Athens  had  gained  [see 
Oueece:  B.  C.  43,>4iJ3  and  433-431].  A  fnr 
greater  number  of  Greek  States  were  engaged  in 
this  war  tlian  had  ever  been  engaged  in  a  single 
undertaking  Iwfore.  States  that  had  taken  no 
part  in  the  Persian  war  were  now  fighting  on 
one  side  or  the  other.  Sparta  was  an  oligarchy, 
and  the  friend  of  tlic  nobles  everywhere; 
Athens  was  a  democracy,  and  tlu  friend  of  the 
coininon  people ;  so  tliat  the  war  was  to  some 
extent  a  struggle  bctweeen  tiiese  classes  all  over 
Greece,  and  often  '.vithin  the  same  city  walls 
the  nobles  and  the  people  attacked  one  another, 
tlie  nobles  being  for  Sparta  and  the  jieople  for 
.Vtliens.  On  tlie  side  of  Sparta,  when  the  war 
began,  there  was  all  Peloponnesus  except  Argos 
and  Aehx'a,  and  I'lso  the  oligarcliical  Boeotian 
League  under  Thebes  besides  Pliokis,  Lokris, 
and  otiier  States  west  of  them.  They  were  very 
strong  by  land,  but  the  Corintliiaus  alone  had  a 
good  tieet.  Later  on  we  shall  see  the  powerful 
State  of  Syracuse  witli  its  navy,  acting  witli 
Sparta.  On  the  side  of  Atliens  there  were  almost 
all  the  .,^Ogieau  islands,  and  a  great  number 
of  the  ..'EgiBan  coast  towns  as  well  as  Ker- 
kyra and  certain  States  in  tlie  west  of  Greece. 
I'iic  Athenians  had  also  made  alliance  with 
Sitalkes,  tlie  barbarian  king  of  the  interior  of 
Thrace.  Athens  was  far  stronger  by  sea  than 
Sparta,  but  had  not  such  a  strong  land  army. 
On  the  other  hand  it  luul  a  large  treasure,  and  a 


system  of  taxes,  while  the  Spartan  Fieague  hud 
little  or  no  money."— C.  A.  PyfTe,  lli»l.  <if 
Orcii'e,  illiHlorfi  I'riinirK),  p.  84. — TIk?  Ionian 
cities,  called  "allies"  of  .Vtliens,  were  subjects  in 
reality,  and  held  in  subjection  by  tyrannieni 
measures  which  made  the  yoke  odious,  as  i» 
plainly  explained  by  Xenoplion,  wlu)  says : 
"Some  person  might  say,  Ihat  it  is  a  great 
support  to  the  Athenians  "that  their  allies  should 
be  in  a  condition  to  contribute  money  to  them. 
To  the  plebeians,  how(!ver,  it  seems  to  lie  of 
mueli  greater  advantages  that  every  individual  of 
the  Athenians  should  get  some  of  the  property 
of  the  allies,  and  that  tli<>  allies  themselves  should 
have  only  so  much  as  to  I'nabh;  tlicm  to  live  and 
to  till  the  ground,  so  that  they  may  not  be  in  a 
condition  to  form  conspiracies.  The  people  of 
Atliens  seem  also  to  have  acted  injudiciously  in 
this  respect,  that  they  oblige  their  allies  to  malie 
voyages  to  Atliens  for  the  decision  of  their  law- 
suits. But  the  Athenians  consider  onlv,  on  the 
other  hand,  what  benelils  to  the  state  of  Athens 
are  attendant  on  this  practice;  in  the  first  place 
they  receive  their  dues  throughout  the  year  from 
the  prytaneia;  in  the  next  place,  they  manage 
the  governnu'nt  of  the  alliecl  states  while  sitting 
at  home,  and  without  sending  out  ships;  they 
also  support  suitors  of  the  lower  orders,  and 
ruin  tliose  of  an  opposite  character  in  their 
courts  of  law;  but  if  eacli  state  had  its  own 
courts,  they  would,  as  being  liostile  to  the  Athe- 
nians, bo  the  ruin  of  those  who  were  most 
favourable  to  the  peo|)le  of  Atliens.  In  addition 
to  these  advantages,  the  Athenian  people  have 
the  following  jirotits  from  the  courts  of  justice 
for  the  allies  being  at  Athens;  first  of  all  the 
duty  of  the  liundrcdtli  on  what  is  landed  at  the 
Peirteeus  affords  a  greater  revenue  to  the  city; 
next,  whoever  has  a  lodging-house  makes  more 
money  by  it,  as  well  as  whoever  has  catths  or 
.slaves  for  hire;  and  tlie  heralds,  too,  are  benetited 
by  the  visits  of  tliu  allies  to  the  city.  Besides,  if 
the  allies  did  not  come  to  Atliens  for  law,  they 
would  honour  only  such  of  the  Atlienians  as 
were  sent  over  the  sea  to  them,  as  generals,  and 
captains  of  vessels,  and  ambas.sadors ;  but  now 
every  individual  of  the  allies  is  obliged  to 
flatter  the  people  of  Athens,  knowing  tliat  on 
going  to  Athens  In;  must  gain  or  lose  ids  cause 
according  to  the  decision,  not  of  other  judges, 
but  of  the  people,  as  is  the  law  of  Atliens;  and 
he  is  compelled,  too,  to  u.se  supplication  before 
the  court,  and,  as  any  one  of  the  people  enters, 
to  take  him  by  tlio  hand.  By  these  means  the 
allies  are  in  conseciuence  rendered  much  more 
the  slaves  of  the  Athenian  people." — Xenoplion, 
Oil  the  Atlumitiii  (roivr /intent  {.)fiiir/r  IVoi'kn, 
trail.',  bji  Hen.  J.  S.  Watmn),  p.  33.). — The  revolt 
of  these  coerced  and  hostile  "allies,"  upon  the 
outbreak  of  iiie  P(dcponnesian  War,  was  inevi- 
table.—  The  prominent  events  of  tlio  Peloponne- 
sian war,  ill  whicli  most  of  the  Greek  States 
were  'uvolved.  arc  proiierly  narrated  in  their 
connection  witli  Greek  history  at  large  (see 
Qukkce:  B.  C.  431-439,  and  after).  In  this 
place  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  take  account 
of  the  consequences  of  tlie  war  as  they  alfected 
the  remarkable  city  and  people  wliose  superiority 
had  occiisioned  it  by  cliallenging  and  sonicwliat 
offensively  provoking  the  jealousy  of  tlKsir 
neighbors. 

B.  C.    431.  —  Peloponnesian    invasions    of 
Attica.  —  Siege  of  Athens. —  ' While  the  Pelo- 


ie7 


ATlIENa,  13.  C.  431. 


Funeral  Oration 
of  Per  idea. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  430. 


ponncsinns  woro  Rntlierinsr  nt  thn  Isthmus, 
and  Vivn'  still  on  their  wiiy,  but  befon;  tliey 
MiUTcd  Attica,  I'cridcs,  the  son  of  Xantliippus, 
who  was  one  of  tlic  ten  Athcniiin  goiU'nils,  .  .  . 
r<'|)Ciit<Ml  (to  tlir  Athenians]  his  previous  advice; 
they  must  pri'pan^  for  war  and  bring  their  prop- 
erty from  the  counlry  into  the  city;  they  nuist 
defend  thc'lr  walls  but  not  go  out  to  battle;  they 
should  also  eipiip  for  service  the  lieet  in  which 
lay  their  strength.  .  .  .  The  citizens  were  per- 
suaded. an('  brought  into  the  city  their  children 
an<l  wivi'S,  their  hou.sehold  gO(Kls,  and  even  lIk; 
wood-Work  of  tlieir  houses,  which  they  took 
down.  Their  tlocks  and  bea.sts  of  bunU'n  they 
conveyed  to  Kidioca  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
The  removal  of  tlu^  inhabitants  was  painful;  for 
the  Athenians  had  always  been  accustomed  to 
resid(!  in  the  country.  Such  a  life  had  been 
characteristic  of  thcin  more  than  of  any  other 
Hellenic  people,  from  very  early  times.  .  .  . 
When  they  came  to  Athens,  only  a  few  of  them 
had  liouses  or  could  lind  homes  among  friends 
or  kindred.  The  majority  took  up  their  abode; 
in  the  vacant  spaces  of  the  city,  and  in  tlie  tem- 
ples and  shrines  of  heroes.  .  .  .  Many  also  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  turrets  of  the  walls,  or 
in  any  other  place  which  they  could  lind;  for 
the  city  could  not  contain  them  when  they  first 
came  in.  I5ut  afterwards  they  divided  among 
them  the  Long  Walls  and  the  greater  |)art  of  the 
Piraeus.  At  the  same  time  the  Atlieniar  ]  ap- 
plied themselves  vigorously  to  the  war,  sununon- 
ing  their  allies,  and  [n-eparing  an  expedition  of 
IIH)  ships  against  the  Peloponuese.  While  they 
were  thus  engaged,  the  Peloponnesian  army  was 
advancing:  it  arrived  first  of  all  at  Oenoe,"  wliero 
Arcliidamus,  the  Spartan  king,  wasted  much 
time  in  a  fruitless  siege  and  assault.  "At  last 
they  marcheci  on.  aiKl  about  the  eightieth  day 
after  the  entry  of  tlie  Thebans  into  Plataea,  in 
the  middle  of  the  siunmer,  when  the  corn  was 
in  fidl  car,  invaded  Attica.  .  .  .  Tliey  encamped 
anil  ravaged,  first  of  all,  Elcusis  and  the  plain 
of  Thria.  ...  At  Acharnae  they  encamped,  and 
remained  there  a  considerable  time,  ravaging  the 
country."  It  was  the  expectation  of  Arcliidamus 
that  the  Athenians  would  be  [irovoked  to  come 
out  and  meet  him  in  the  open  field ;  and  that, 
iiidcecl,  tliey  were  eager  to  do;  but  the  prudence 
of  their  great  leader  held  them  back.  "The  peo- 
ple were  furious  with  Pericles,  and,  forgetting 
all  his  previous  warnings,  they  abused  him  for 
not  leading  them  to  battle."  But  he  was  vindi- 
cated by  tile  result.  "The  Peloponncsians  re- 
mained in  Attica  as  long  as  their  provisiims  lasted, 
and  then,  taking  a  new  route,  retired  through 
Boeotia.  ...  On  their  return  to  Peloponnesus 
the  troops  dispersed  to  their  several  cities." 
Meantime  the  Athenian  and  allied  fleets  were 
ra  iging  the  Peloponnesian  coast.  "In  the  same 
summer  [B.  C.  4!U]  the  Athenians  expelled  the 
Aeginetausand  their  families  from  Aegina,  alleg- 
ing that  they  had  been  the  niain  cause  of  the 
war.  .  .  .  The  Lacedaemonians  gave  the  Aegine- 
tan  exiles  the  town  of  Thyrea  to  occupy  and  the 
adjoining  country  to  cultivate.  .  .  .  About  the 
end  of  the  summer  the  entire  Athenian  force, 
including  the  metics,  invaded  the  territory  of 
Megara.  .  .  .  After  ravaging  the  greater  part 
of  the  country  tliey  retired.  They  repeated  the 
invasi(m.  .sometimes  with  cavalry,  sometimes  with 
the  whole  Athenian  army,  every  year  during  the 
war  until  Nisaoa  was  taken  [B.  C.  424]." — Thucy- 


dides,  nhtoti/;  trnn».  by  77.  Jowett,  bk.  3,  tect. 
VA-'.n  {i:  1). 

B.  C.  430. — The  funeral  oration  of  Pericles. — 
During  the  winter  of  the  year  B.  C.  431-430,  "in 
accordanee  with  an  ol<l  national  custom,  tlie 
funeral  of  those  who  first  fell  in  this  war  was  cele- 
brated by  the  Athenians  at  the  public  charge. 
The  ceremony  is  as  follows :  Three  days  before 
the  celebration  they  erect  a  tent  in  which  the 
bones  of  the  dead  are  laid  out,  and  every  one 
brings  to  his  own  cleu''  any  offering  which  he 
l)leases.  At  the  time  of  the  funeral  the  bones 
are  place<l  in  chests  of  cypress  wood,  which  are 
conveyed  on  llcar.ses;  there  is  one  chest  for  each 
tribe.  They  also  carry  a  single  empty  litter 
dei'ked  with  ,•!  pall  for  all  whose  bodies  are  miss- 
ing, and  cannot  be  recovered  after  the  battle. 
The  procession  is  accompanied  by  any  one  who 
chooses,  whether  citizen  or  stranger,  and  the 
female  relatives  of  the  deceased  are  present  at 
the  place  of  interment  and  make  lamentation. 
The  public  sepulchre  is  situated  in  the  most  beau- 
tiful  spot  outside  the  walls;  there  they  always 
bury  those  who  fall  in  war;  only  after  the  battle 
of  Marathon  the  dead,  in  recognition  of  their 
lire-eminent  valour,  were  interred  on  the  field. 
When  the  remains  liave  been  laid  in  the  earth, 
some  man  of  known  ability  and  higli  reputation, 
clio.sen  by  the  city,  delivers  a  suitable  oration 
overtheni;  after  which  the  people  depart.  Such 
is  the  manner  of  interment ;  and  the  ceremony 
was  repeated  from  time  to  time  throughout  the 
war.  Over  those  who  were  the  tirat  buried 
Pericles  was  chosen  to  speak.  At  the  fitting 
monuMit  he  advanced  from  the  .sepulchre  to  a 
lofty  stage,  which  had  been  erected  in  order  th.it 
he  might  bo  heard  as  far  as  possible  by  the  mul- 
titude, and  .-ipoke  as  follows: — 'Most  of  those 
who  have  spoken  here  before  me  have  coiu- 
lueuded  the  lawgiver  who  added  this  oration  to 
our  other  funeral  customs ;  it  seemed  to  them  a 
worthy  thing  that  such  an  honour  should  be  given 
at  their  burial  to  the  dead  who  have  fallen  on 
the  field  of  battle.  But  I  should  have  preferred 
that,  when  men's  deeds  have  been  brave,  they 
shouUl  be  honoured  in  deed  only,  and  with  such 
an  honour  as  this  jiublic  funeral,  which  you  are 
now  witnessing.  Then  the  reputation  of  many 
would  not  have  been  imperilled  on  the  eloquence 
or  want  of  eloquence  of  one,  and  their  virtues 
believed  or  not  as  he  spoke  well  or  ill.  For  it  is 
dilHcult  to  say  neither  too  little  nor  too  much; 
and  even  moderation  is  apt  not  to  give  the  im- 
pression of  truthfulness.  The  friend  of  the  dead 
who  knows  the  facts  is  likely  to  think  that  the 
words  of  the  speaker  fall  short  of  his  knowledge 
and  of  his  wishes ;  another  who  is  not  so  well,  in- 
formed, when  he  hears  of  anything  which  sur- 
passes his  own  powers,  will  be  envious  and  will 
suspect  exaggciation.  Mankind  are  tolerant  of 
the  praisesof  others  so  long  as  each  hearer  thinks 
that  he  can  do  as  well  or  nearly  as  well  himself, 
but,  when  the  speaker  rises  above  him,  jealousy 
is  aroused  and  he  begins  to  be  incredulous.  How- 
ever, since  our  ancestors  have  set  the  seal  of  their 
approval  upon  the  practice,  I  must  obey,  and  to 
the  utmost  of  my  power  shall  endeavour  to 
satisfy  the  wishes  and  beliefs  of  all  who  hear  me. 
I  will  speak  first  of  our  ancestors,  for  it  is  right 
and  becoming  that  now,  when  we  are  lamenting 
the  dead,  a  tribute  should  be  paid  to  their  inem- 
ory.  There  has  never  been  a  time  when  they 
did  not  inhabit  this  land,  which  by  their  valour 


168 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  430. 


Funeral  Oration 
of  PericUm. 


ATHENS,  I).  C.  430. 


tlie.v  liavp  Imndoil  down  from  generation  to  gon- 
iTatiou,  iiiiil  wo  liav(!  received  from  tliem  a  free 
state.  But  if  tliey  were  wortliy  of  ]>rai.se,  still 
more  were  our  fatliers  wlio  added  to  tlieir  inheri- 
tance, and  after  many  a  struggle  transmitte  '.  to 
us  their  sons  this  great  empire.  And  we  our- 
selves assembled  here  to-day,  who  are  still  most 
of  us  in  the  vigour  of  life,  have  chiefly  done  the 
work  of  improvement,  and  have  richly  endowed 
our  city  Willi  all  things,  so  that  she  is  sulHcient 
for  herself  Ijoth  in  jieaoe  and  war.  Of  the  mili- 
tary e.vploits  Ijy  whieli  our  various  possessions 
were  ac(iuired,  or  of  the  energy  with  which  W(! 
or  our  fatlars  drive  l)aelc  tlie  tide  of  war,  Hel- 
lenic or  Barliarian,  I  will  not  spealc;  for  the  tale 
would  be  l(mg  and  is  familiar  to  you.  But  l)e- 
fore  I  i)raise  the  dead,  I  should  lilio  to  point  out 
l)y  what  principles  of  action  we  rose  to  power, 
and  under  what  institutions  and  through  what 
manner  of  life  our  empire  became  great.  For  I 
conceive,  that  such  thoughts  are  not  unsuited  to 
the  occasion,  and  that  this  numerous  a.snembly 
of  citizens  and  strangers  may  protitably  listen  to 
them.  Our  form  of  government  does  not  enter 
into  rivalry  with  the  instit'  tions  of  others.  We 
do  not  copy  our  neighbours,  but  are  an  example 
to  them.  It  is  true  that  we  are  called  a  democ- 
racy, for  the  administration  is  in  the  hand '  of 
the  many  and  not  of  the  few.  But  while  the  law 
secures  equal  justice  to  all  alike  in  their  private 
disputes,  the  claim  of  e.vcelleneo  is  also  recog- 
nised; and  when  a  citizen  is  in  any  way  distin- 
guished, he  is  preferred  to  the  public  service, 
not  as  a  matter  of  privilege,  but  as  the  reward 
of  merit.  Neither  is  poverty  a  bar,  but  a  man 
may  benefit  his  country  whatever  bo  the  obscur- 
ity of  his  condition.  There  is  no  exclusivencss 
in  our  public  life,  and  in  our  private  intercourse 
we  aie  not  suspicious  of  one  anotlier,  nor  angry 
with  our  neighbour  if  he  docs  what  he  likes ;  we 
do  not  put  on  sour  looks  at  him  which,  tliough 
harmless,  are  not  pleasant.  While  we  are  '.hus 
unconstrained  in  our  private  intercourse,  a  spirit 
of  reverence  jiervades  our  public  acts ;  we  are  pre- 
vented from  doing  wrong  by  respect  for  author- 
ity and  for  the  laws,  having  an  especial  regard 
to  those  which  are  ordained  for  the  protection  of 
the  injured  as  well  as  to  those  unwritten  laws 
wliich  bring  upon  the  transgressor  of  them  tlie 
reprobation  of  the  general  sentiment.  And  we 
have  not  forgotten  to  provide  for  our  weary 
spirits  many  relaxations  from  toil ;  we  have  regu- 
lar games  and  sacrifices  throughout  the  year; 
at  home  tlio  style  of  our  life  is  refined ;  and  the 
delight  which  we  daily  feel  in  all  these  things 
helps  to  banish  melancholy.  Because  of  tlie 
greatness  of  our  city  the  fruits  of  tlie  whole 
earth  flow  in  upon  us;  so  that  we  enjoy  the 
goods  of  other  countries  as  freely  as  of  our  own. 
Then,  again,  our  military  training  is  in  many 
respects  superior  to  that  of  our  adversaries.  Our 
city  is  tlirown  open  to  the  world,  and  we  never 
expel  a  forjjigner  or  prevent  him  from  seeing  or 
learning  anything  of  whicii  the  secret  if  revealed 
to  an  enemy  might  profit  him.  We  rely  not  upon 
management  or  trickery,  but  upon  our  own  liearts 
and  hands.  And  in  the  matter  of  education, 
whereas  they  from  early  youth  are  always  under- 
going laborious  exercises  which  are  to  make  them 
brave,  we  live  at  e.ase,  and  yet  are  equally  ready 
to  face  the  Lacedaemonians  come  into  Attica  not 
by  tliemsclves,  but  witli  their  whole  confederacy 
following ;  we  go  alone  into  a  neighbour's  country ; 


and  although  our  opponents  are  fighting  for  their 
homes  and  we  on  a  foreign  soil  we  liav(!  seldom 
any  dilHculty  in  overcoming  them.  Our  enemies 
have  never  yet  felt  our  uiiiteil  strength;  the  care 
of  a  navy  divides  our  attention,  and  on  land  we 
are  ol)liged  to  send  ourt  wn  citi/.eiis  everywhere. 
But  tliey,  if  they  tr  'ot  and  defeat  a  part  of  our 
army,  are  as  proud  as  it  they  had  routed  us  all, 
and  when  defeated  they  pretend  to  have  been 
v.uiquished  by  us  all.  If  then  wo  prefer  to  meet 
danger  with  a  light  heart  but  without  laborious 
training,  and  with  a  courage  which  is  gained  by 
habit  and  not  enforced  by  law,  are  we  not  greatly 
the  gainers  V  Since  we  ilo  not  anticipate  the  pain, 
although,  when  the  hour  come",  we  can  be  us 
brave  as  those  who  never  m'Io-  .hemselves  to 
rest;  and  thus  too  our  city  is  eq  ,.;iy  admirable 
in  peace  and  in  war.  For  we  are  lovers  of  the 
bi'autiful,  yet  simple  in  our  tastes,  and  we  cul- 
t;  >  ite  the  mind  without  loss  of  manliness.  Wealth 
we  employ,  not  for  talk  and  ostimtation,  but 
when  there  is  a  real  use  for  it.  To  avow  iiov- 
erty  with  us  is  no  disgrace;  the  true  disgrace  is 
in  iloing  nothing  to  avoid  it.  An  Atlienian  citi- 
zen does  not  neglect  the  state  because  he  takes 
care  of  his  own  household;  and  tivnx  those  of  us 
who  are  (Migaged  in  business  have  a  very  fair 
idea  of  politics.  Wo  alone  regard  a  man  who 
takes  no  interest  in  public  alTairs,  not  as  a  harm- 
less, but  as  J.  useless  character;  and  if  few  of  us 
are  originators,  we  are  all  sound  jrdges  of  a 
policy.  The  great  impediment  to  action  is,  in 
our  opinion,  not  discu.ssion,  but  the  want  of  that 
knowledge  whicli  is  gained  by  discussion  pre- 
paratory to  action.  For  we  have  a  peculiar  power 
of  thinking  before  we  act  and  of  acting  too, 
whereas  otiier  man  are  courageous  from  ignorance 
but  hesitate  upon  retlection.  And  they  are  surely 
to  be  esteemed  the  bravest  spirits  who,  having 
tlie  clearest  sense  both  of  the  pains  and  pleasures 
of  life,  do  not  on  that  account  shrink  from  dan- 
ger. In  doing  good,  again,  we  are  unlike  others ; 
we  make  our  friends  by  conferring,  not  by  re- 
ceiving favours.  Now  he  who  ■  outers  a  favour 
is  the  firmer  friend,  because  he  would  fain  by 
kindness  keep  alive  the  memory  of  an  obligation; 
but  the  recipientis  colder  in  his  feelings,  because 
he  knows  that  in  requiting  another's  generosity 
he  will  not  bo  winning  gratitude  but  only  paying 
a  debt.  Wo  alone  do  good  to  our  neighbours  not 
upon  a  calculation  of  interest,  but  in  the  confi- 
dence of  freedom  end  in  a  frank  and  fearless 
spirit.  To  sum  up;  I  say  that  Atliens  is  the 
school  of  Hellas,  and  that  the  individual  Athe- 
nian in  Ills  own  person  seems  to  have  the  power 
of  adapting  himself  to  the  most  varied  forms  of 
action  witti  the  utmost  versatility  and  grace. 
This  is  no  passing  and  idle  word,  but  truth  and 
fact ;  and  tlie  assertion  is  verified  by  tlio  position 
tc  whicli  these  qualities  have  rai.sed  the  state. 
For  in  the  hour  of  trial  Athens  alone  among  her 
contemporaries  is  superior  to  the  report  of  her. 
No  enemy  who  comes  against  her  is  indignant  at 
the  reverses  which  he  sustains  at  the  hands  of 
such  a  city ;  no  subject  complains  that  his  mas- 
ters are  unworthy  of  him.  And  we  shall  as- 
suredly not  be  without  witnesses;  there  are 
mighty  monuments  of  our  power  which  will 
make  us  the  wonder  of  this  and  of  succeeding 
ages;  we  shall  not  need  the  praises  of  Homer  or 
of  any  other  panegyrist  whose  poetry  may  please 
for  the  moment,  althougli  his  representation  of 
the  facts  will  not  bear  the  light  of  day.    For  wo 


169 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  430. 


i>*unfirnl  Orntion 
of  Pericles. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  480. 


have  rompcllrd  pvcry  Ifintl  anrt  pvery  SPd  to  open 
a  piltJi  for  our  valour,  iind  liiivc  everywhere 
planted  eleriiiil  inenioriiils  of  our  friemlsliip  and 
of  our  <'r'niitv.  Su('li  is  the  eily  for  \vlios(^  sake 
tliesi'  men  nolily  fou(.;lil  and  died;  lliey  could  not 
iH'ar  the  thouuhl  tliat  slie  niii;lit  Ite  talten  from 
them  ;  and  ev<'ry  one  of  um  who  .survive  should 
gladly  toil  on  her  behalf.  I  have  dwelt  upon  the 
greatness  of  Athens  because  I  want  to  show  you 
that  we  are  contending  for  a  higher  ])ri/.e  than 
tho.se  who  enjoy  none  of  these  privileges,  and  to 
cstalilisli  by  manifest  proof  the  merit  of  these 
men  whom  I  am  now  commemorating.  Their 
loftiest  i>raise  has  been  already  spoken.  For  in 
magnifying  the  city  I  have  magnitied  them,  and 
men  like  them  whose  virtues  made  her  glorious. 
Arid  of  how  few  Hellenes  can  it  be  said  as  of 
them,  that  their  deeds  when  weighed  in  the 
balance  have  been  found  equal  to  their  fame! 
Melhinks  that  ii  death  such  as  theirs  has  been 
gives  tli(!  true  measure  of  a  man's  worth;  it  may 
be  the  lirst  r<!velation  of  his  virtues,  but  is  at  any 
rate  their  tiiial  seal.  For  even  those  who  come 
short  in  other  ways  may  justly  plead  the  valour 
with  which  they  have  fo;ight  for  their  coimtry ; 
they  have  blotted  out  the  evil  with  the  good,  and 
have  benelited  the  state  more  by  their  public 
services  than  they  have  injured  her  by  their  pri- 
vate actions.  None  of  these  men  were  enervated 
by  wi.'alth  or  hesitated  to  resign  the  pleasures  of 
life;  none  of  them  put  off  the  evil  day  in  the 
hope,  natural  to  poverty,  that  a  man,  though 
poor,  may  one  day  become  rich.  But,  deeming 
that  the  punishment  of  their  enemies  was  sweeter 
than  any  of  these  things,  and  that  they  could  fall 
in  no  nobler  cause,  they  determined  at  the  haxiird 
of  tlieir  lives  to  be  honourably  avenged,  and  to 
leave  the  rest.  They  resigned  to  hope  their  un- 
known chance  of  happiness ;  but  in  the  face  of 
death  they  resolved  to  rely  upon  themselves 
alone.  And  when  the  moment  came  they  were 
minded  to  resist  and  suffer,  rather  than  to  liy 
and  sjive  their  lives;  they  ran  away  from  the 
word  of  dishonour,  but  on  the  battle-field  their 
feet  stood  fast,  and  in  an  instant,  at  the  height  of 
their  fortime,  they  passed  away  from  the  scene, 
not  of  their  fear,  but  of  their  glory.  Such  was 
tli .  end  of  these  men ;  they  were  worthy  of  Athens, 
and  the  living  need  not  desirj  to  liave  a  more 
heroic  spirit  althoug''.  they  may  pray  for  a  less 
fatal  issue.  The  value  of  such  a  spirit  is  not  to 
be  expressed  in  words.  Any  one  candiscour.se  to 
you  for  ever  about  the  advantages  of  a  brave  de- 
fence which  you  know  already.  But  instead  of 
listiming  to  him  I  woidd  have  you  day  by  day 
fl.K  your  eyes  upon  the  greatness  of  Athens,  until 
you  become  tilled  with  the  love  of  her;  and  when 
you  are  injpressed  by  the  spectncle  of  her  glory 
rctl(!ct  that  this  empire  has  been  acquireil  by 
men  who  knew  their  duty  and  had  the  courage 
to  do  it ;  who  in  the  hour  of  conliict  liad  the  fear 
of  dishonour  always  present  to  them,  and  who, 
if  ever  they  failed  in  an  enterprizc,  would  not 
allow  tlieir  virtues  to  be  lost  to  their  country, 
but  freely  gave  their  lives  to  her  as  the  fairest 
olfering  which  tliev  could  present  at  her  feast. 
The  saeriliee  which  they  collectively  made  was 
individually  repaid  to  them;  for  they  received 
again  each  one  for  himself  a  praise  which  grows 
not  old,  and  the  noblest  of  all  sepulchres  —  I  speak 
not  of  that  in  which  their  remains  are  laid,  but 
of  tlnit  in  which  their  glory  survives,  and  is  pro- 
claimed always  and  on  every  tittiug  occasion 


both  in  word  and  deed.  For  the  whole  earth  is 
the  sepulch.e  of  famous  men;  not  only  are  they 
<!ommemorat(!d  by  columns  and  inscriptions  in 
their  own  country,  but  in  foreign  lands  there 
ilwellsalsoan  unwritten  memorial  of  them,  graven 
not  on  stone  but  in  the  hearts  of  men.  iMake 
them  your  e.xamphis,  and  esteeming  courage  to 
be  freedom  and  freedom  to  be  happiness,  do  not 
weigii  too  nicely  the  perils  of  wn-.  The  un- 
fortunate who  has  no  hope  of  a  cliange  for  the 
better  has  less  reason  to  throw  away  his  life  than 
the  prosperous  who,  if  he  survive,  is  always 
liable  to  a  change  for  the  worse,  and  to  whom 
any  accidental  fall  makes  the  most  serious  dif- 
ference. To  a  man  of  spirit,  cowardice  and  dis- 
aster coming  together  are  far  more  bitter  tliau 
death  striking  him  unperceivod  at  a  time  when 
he  is  full  of  courage  and  animated  by  tlie  gen- 
eral liope.  Wherefore  I  do  not  now  commiserate 
the  parents  of  the  dead  who  stand  here;  I  would 
rather  comfort  them.  You  know  that  your  life 
has  been  passed  iimid  manifold  vici.ssitudes;  and 
that  tliey  riiay  be  deemed  fortunate  who  have 
gained  most  honour,  whether  an  honourable  death 
like  theirs,  or  an  honourable  sorrow  like  yours, 
and  whose  days  have  been  so  ordered  that  the 
term  of  tlieir  liapiiincss  is  likcwi.se  the  term  of 
their  life.  I  know  how  hard  it  is  to  make  you 
feel  this,  when  the  good  fortune  of  'Others  will 
too  often  remind  you  of  the  gladness  which  once 
lightened  your  Iiearts.  And  sorrow  is  felt  at  the 
want  of  those  blessings,  not  which  a  man  never 
knew,  but  which  were  a  part  of  his  life  before 
they  were  taken  from  him.  Some  of  you  are  of 
an  age  at  wliicli  they  may  hope  to  have  other 
children,  and  they  ought  to  bear  their  sorrow 
better;  not  only  will  the  children  who  may  here- 
after be  born  make  them  forget  their  own  lost 
ones,  but  the  city  will  be  doubly  a  gainer.  She 
will  not  be  left  desolate,  and  she  will  be  safer. 
For  a  man's  counsel  cannot  have  equal  weight 
or  worth,  when  he  alone  has  no  chiUlren  to  risk 
in  the  general  danger.  To  those  of  you  who 
have  pas.sed  their  prime  I  say;  "Congratulate 
yourselves  that  you  have  been  happy  during  the 
greater  part  of  ytmr  days ;  remember  that  your 
life  of  sorrow  will  'lot  last  long,  and  be  comforted 
by  the  glory  of  tho.se  who  are  gone.  For  the 
love  of  honour  alone  is  ever  young,  and  not 
riches,  as  some  say,  but  honour  is  the  delight  of 
men  when  they  are  old  and  useless. "  To  you  who 
a.x!  the  sons  and  brothers  of  the  departed,  I  see 
that  the  struggle  to  emulate  them  will  be  an 
arduous  one.  For  all  men  praise  the  dead,  and, 
however  pre-eminent  your  virtue  may  be,  hardly 
will  you  be  thought,  I  do  not  say  to  equal,  but 
even  to  approach  t'-em.  The  living  have  their 
rivals  and  detractors  but  when  a  man  is  out  of 
the  way,  the  honour  rud  good-will  which  he  re- 
ceives is  unalloyed.  And,  if  I  am  to  speak  of 
womanly  virtues  to  those  of  you  wlio  will  hence- 
forth be  widows,  let  me  sum  them  up  in  one 
short  admonition:  To  a  woman  not  to  show 
more  weakness  than  is  natural  to  her  sex  is  a  great 
glory,  and  not  to  be  talked  about  for  good  or  for 
evil  among  men.  I  have  paid  the  required  tribute, 
iu  obedience  to  the  law,  making  use  of  such  lil- 
ting words  as  I  bad.  The  tribute  of  deeds  has 
been  paid  in  part ;  for  the  dead  have  been  honour 
ably  interred,  and  it  remains  only  that  their 
children  should  be  maintained  at  the  public  charge 
until  they  are  grownup:  this  is  the  solid  prize 
with  which,  as  with  a  garland,  Athens  crowns 


170 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  430. 


The  Plague. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  429-421. 


licr  sons  living  and  duad,  after  a  struggle  like 
iheirs.  For  where  tlio  rewards  of  virtue  are 
greatest,  tliere  tlie  noblest  eitizens  are  enlisted  in 
tlie  serviee  of  tlie  stale.  And  now,  wlien  you 
luueduly  lamented,  every  on(^  Ids  own  dead,  you 
may  depart.'  .Sueli  was  I  lie  order  of  tlie  funeral 
eeleljrated  in  tliis  winter,  with  the  end  of  wiiieli 
ended  the  first  yciir  of  the  I'elopoiiiiesian  War." 
— Tliueydides,  Jlixton/,  tnin/i.  In/  li.  Jiiirctt,  v.  1, 
l,k.  2,  md.  :«-47. 

B.  C.  430-429. — The  Plague  in  the  city.— 
Death  of  Pericles. —  Capture  of  Potidaea. — 
"As  soon  as  the  summer  returiieil  [H.  ('.  4;il)J 
tlie  Ptloponne.sians  .  .  .  invaded  Attiea,  whc: 
tliey  estal)lislie(l  themselves  and  ravaged  tlie 
conn'  y.  Tiiey  had  not  been  tliere  many  days 
when  tlie  plagui  broke  out  at  Athens  for  tiie 
lirst  time.  .  .  .  The  disease  is  said  to  liave  be- 
gun south  of  Eirypt  in  ^'Ethiopia;  thenco  it  de- 
scended into  Egypt  and  Libya,  and  after  spread- 
ing over  tile  greater  part  of  the  Persian  Empire, 
iiiddenly  f"ll  upon  Athens.  It  lirst  attacked  the 
iiihabilauts  of  the  I'iranis,  and  it  was  sujiposcd 
lliat  the  Peloponnesians  liad  poisoned  the  cis- 
terns, no  conduits  having  as  yet  been  made 
there  It  afte. wards  reached  the  ujiper  city, 
and  then  the  mortality  became  far  gn^ater.  As 
to  its  i)robab'"  origin  or  the  causes  which  miglit 
or  could  lia\e  produced  such  a  disturbance  of 
nature,  every  man,  whetlier  a  ])liysician  or  not, 
will  give  liis  own  opinion.  But  I  shall  deserit)e 
its  actual  course,  and  the  symptoms  by  whicli 
any  one  who  knows  them  beforehand  may  recog- 
nize the  disorder  should  it  ever  reappear.  For  I 
was  myself  attacked,  and  witnessed  the  sulTer- 
ings  of  others.  The  season  was  admitted  to 
have  been  remarkably  free  from  ordinary  sick- 
ness; and  if  anybody  was  already  ill  of  any  other 
disease,  it  was  absorbe<I  in  this.  JIany  who 
were  in  perfect  health,  all  in  a  moment,  and 
without  any  apparent  .eason,  wre  seized  with 
violent  heats  in  tlie  head  and  with  redness  and 
inllammation  of  the  eyea.  Internally  the  throat 
and  tongue  were  quickly  sulfused  with  blood 
and  the  breath  became  unnatural  and  fetid. 
Tliere  followed  sneezing  and  hoarseness;  in  a 
short  time  the  disorder,  accompanied  by  a  vio- 
lent cough,  reached  tlie  chest;  then  fastening 
lower  down,  it  would  movt  the  stomacli  and 
bring  on  all  the  vomits  of  bile  to  which  physi- 
cians have  ever  given  names;  and  they  were 
very  distressing.  .  .  .  Tlic  Ijody  L.>.ternally  was 
not  so  very  hot  to  the  touch,  nor  yet  pale;  it  was 
a  livid  colour  inclining  to  red,  and  breaking  out 
in  pustules  and  ulcers.  Bui  the  internal  fever 
Aasiiiteii.se.  .  .  .  The  disorder  wliieh  had  origi- 
nally .se'tled  in  the  head  passed  gradually 
through  the  whole  body,  and,  f  a  person  got 
over  th?  worst,  would  often  seize  the  extremi- 
ties and  leave  its  mark,  attacking  the  privy 
parts  and  the  lingers  and  toes:  and  some  ese:ipeil 
witli  the  loss  of  these,  some  with  the  loss  of  tlieir 
eyes.  .  .  .  The  crowding  of  the  i)eoi)le  out  of 
the  country  into  the  city  aggravated  the  mi.sery; 
and  tlie  newly-arrived  suffered  most.  .  .  .  The 
mortality  among  them  was  dreadful  and  the}' 
perished  in  wild  disorder.  Tlie  (U^ad  lay  as  they 
liad  died,  one  upon  another,  while  others  harilly 
alive  wallowed  in  the  streets  and  crawled  about 
every  fountain  craving  for  water.  The  temples 
In  which  they  lodged  wore  full  of  tlie  corpses  of 
those  who  died  in  them;  for  the  violence  of  the 
calamity  was  such  that  men,  not  knowing  where 


to  turn,  grew  reckless  of  all  law,  human  and 
divine.  .  .  .  Tlie  pleasure  of  the  moment  and 
any  sort  of  thing  which  conduced  to  it  took  the 
])laee  both  of  lainour  and  of  expediency.  No 
fear  of  God  or  law  of  ni;in  dclerrcd  a  <riiiiinal." 
Territieil  by  the  idau'ue,  when  they  learned  of  it, 
tlie  Pel  ipoiiiu'sians  retreated  from  Attica,  after 
ravaging  it  for  forty  days;  but,  in  the  mean- 
time, their  own  coasts  liad  been  ravaged,  as  be- 
fore, l)y  tlie  Athenian  lleet.  And  now,  being  caco 
more  relieved  from  the  presence  of  the  enemy, 
tliough  still  gri(!Voii.sly  alUicted  liy  the  plague, 
tl'.e  Atheiii.ins  turned  upon  I'ericles  with  co'n- 
l)laints  ami  reproaches,  and  imposed  a  tine  upon 
liim.  They  also  sent  envoys  to  .Sparta,  with 
I)eai  proposals  wiiieh  received  no  encourage- 
ineiK.  But  Pericles  spoke  calmly  and  wisely  to 
the  people,  and  they  acknowledged  llieir  sense 
of  depend  nee  upon  him  l>y  re-electing  him  gen- 
eral and  committing  again  "all  their  alfairs  to 
his  charge."  But  lie  was  stricken  next  year 
with  the  ])lague,  and,  lingering  for  some  weeks 
in  bi  )ken  Inuillh,  he  died  in  the  summer  of  429 
B.  C.  By  his  d'Htli  tlie  republic  was  given  over 
to  striving  dem.igogues  and  factions,  at  just  the 
time  when  a  capable  brain  and  hand  were  needed 
in  its  government  ino^t.  The  war  went  on, 
acquiring  more  ferocity  of  temper  with  every 
campaign.  It  was  especially  emliittered  in  the 
course  of  the  second  summer  by  the  execution, 
at  Athens,  of  several  Lacedaemonian  envoys 
who  were  caiitiired  while  on  their  way  to  solicit 
help  from  the  Persian  king.  One  of  these  un- 
fortunate envoys  was  Aristeus,  who  liad  organ- 
ized the  defence  of  Potidaea.  That  city  was  still 
holding  out  against  the  Atheniaiis,  who  block- 
aded it  obstinately,  although  their  troops  suf- 
fered frighifully  from  the  plague.  But  in  the 
winter  of  430-429  B.  C.  they  sueeumbeil  to  star- 
vation and  surrendered  tliei''  town,  being  per- 
mitted to  depart  in  search  of  a  new  home. 
Potidaea  was  then  peopled  anew,  with  colonists. 
^Tliueydides,  Histori/,  ti:  by  Jowdt,  bk.  2,  sect. 
8-1 J. 

Also  xn:  E.  Abbott,  Perklca  and  tlie  Golden 
Age  of  AtJions,  eh.  IS-I,--..— W.  W.  Lloyd,  The 
A;/e  of  Pericles,  eh.  G4  (c.  2).— L.  Wliibley,  Politi- 
eitl  Parties  in  Athens  during  the  Pehponncsian 
War. — W.  Wachsmuth,  Ili.it.  Antiquities  of  the 
(iri;/c.i.  .lais.  02-04  (r.  3). 

B.  C.  429-421.— After  Pericles. — The  rise  of 
the  Demagogues. — "When  Periels  rose  to 
])ower  it  would  have  been  possible  to  frame  a 
Pan-llellenic  union,  in  wliich  Sparta  and  Athens 
would  have  beiai  die  leading  states;  and  such  a 
dualism  wiuld  have  been  the  best  guarantee  for 
the  riglits  of  the  smaller  cities.  AVliee  he  died 
there  was  110  policy  left  but  v.ar  with  Sparta, 
.ind  conquest  in  tli(!  West.  And  not  only  so,  but 
there  was  no  politician  who  could  adjust  the 
relations  of  domestic  war  and  foreign  conquest. 
Tlie  Athenians  ])assed  frorri  one  to  the  other,  as 
they  were  addressed  by  Cleon  or  Alcibiatles. 
yVa  cannot  wonder  tliat  the  men  who  lived  in 
those  days  of  trouble  spoke  bitterly  of  Pericle-s, 
holding  him  accountable  for  the  miseries  which 
fell  upon  Athens.  Other  statesmen  had  be- 
queathed good  laws,  as  Solon  and  Clisthenes,  or 
the  memory  of  great  achievements,  as  Themisto- 
cles  or  Citnon,  but  the  only  changes  which 
Pericles  liad  introduced  W(!rc  thought,  not  with- 
out rciuson,  to  be  elianges  for  the  worse ;  and  be 
left  his  countrv  involved  iu  a  ruinous  war." — E. 


in 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  429-421. 


nine  of  the 
Demagogues. 


ATHENS,  U.  C.  424-406. 


Abbott,  Pericleji  and  tlic  OoUlen  Age  of  Atlienii, 
j)/).  'M'i-',Wi. — "Tli('  nionil  clmnfif  wliieli  had 
.  .  .  bcfiillcn  thr  Attic  comimiiiity  hud,  it  is 
true,  even  iluriiii;  th(^  lifetime  of  Pericles,  iimiil- 
festcd  itself  by  means  of  .siillleieiitly  clear  pre- 
monitory sipiis;  but  Pericles  Imd,  not  withstand- 
ing,  up  to  the  days  of  his  last  illness,  leniained 
the  centre  of  the  state;  the  people  had  ajfainand 
again  returned  to  him,  and  by  subordinating 
themselves  to  the  personal  authority  of  Pericles 
had  succeeded  in  recovering  the  demeanor  which 
betitted  them.  Hut  now  tlie  voice  was  hushed, 
which  liad  been  able  Ic  sway  the  unndy  citizens, 
even  again.st  their  will.  No  other  authority  was 
in  existence  —  no  aristocracy,  no  ollicial  class,  no 
board  of  experienced  statesmen  —  nothing,  in 
fact,  to  which  the  citizens  miglit  have  looked  for 
guidance  and  control.  The  multitude  had  re- 
covered absolute  independence,  and  in  propor- 
tion a.s,  in  the  interval,  readiness  of  speech  and 
sophistic  v(!rsatility  had  spread  in  Athens,  the 
number  ha<l  increased  of  those  who  now  put 
themselves  forward  as  popular  speakers  and 
lea<lers.  But  as,  among  all  these,  none  was 
capable  of  leading  the  multitude  after  the  fashion 
of  Pericles,  ••  notlier  method  of  lca<ling  the  people, 
another  kind  of  demagogy,  sprung  into  existence. 
Pericles  stood  above  the  multitude.  .  .  .  Ills 
successors  were  obligc<l  to  adopt  other  means ; 
in  order  to"  ac(iuire  inlluence,  they  took  ndvnn- 
tnge  not  so  much  of  the  strong  as  of  the  weak 
points  in  the  character  of  the  citizens,  and 
achieved  popularity  by  flattering  their  inclina- 
tions, auil  endeavoring  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of 
their  baser  nature.  .  .  .  Now  for  the  first  time, 
men  hidonging  to  the  lower  class  of  citizens 
thrust  themselves  forward  to  play  a  part  in 
politics, —  men  of  the  trading  and  artisan  class, 
the  culture  and  wealth  of  which  had  so  vigor- 
ously increased  at  Athens.  .  .  .  The  ofBce  of 
general  frequently  became  a  post  of  martyrdom ; 
and  the  bravest  men  felt  that  the  prospect  of 
being  called  to  accovmt  as  to  their  campaigns  by 
cowardly  demagogues,  before  a  capricious  mul- 
titude, disturbed  the  straightforward  joyousness 
of  their  activity,  and  threw  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  their  successes.  .  .  .  On  the  orators'  tribune 
the  contrast  was  more  striking.  Here  the  first 
prominent  successor  of  Pericles  was  n  certain 
Eucrates,  a  rude  and  uneducated  man,  wlio  was 
ridiculed  on  the  —imic  stage  as  the  'boar'  or 
'bear  of  Melite'  (the  name  of  the  district  to 
which  he  belonged),  a  dealer  in  tow  and  mill- 
owner,  who  only  for  a  short  space  of  time  took 
tlio  lead  in  the  popular  as.sembly.  His  place  was 
taken  by  Ly sides,  who  had  actiuired  wealtli  by 
tho  cattle-trade.  ...  It  was  not  until  after 
Lysicles,  that  tho  demagogues  attained  to  power 
who  had  first  made  themselves  a  name  by  their  op- 
positi<m  against  Pericles,and,  among  tliem,Cleon 
was  tho  first  who  was  able  to  maintain  hisauthority 
for  a  longer  period  of  fime;  .so  that  it  is  in  his  pro- 
ceedings during  tlie  ensuing  years  of  the  war 
that  the  whole  character  of  the  new  demagogy 
first  thoroughly  manifests  itself." — E.  C'  rtius. 
History  of  Greece,  v.  ii,  ch.  3. — "Tlic  cha'  .tors 
of  tho  militiiry  commander  and  the  political 
leader  were  gradually  separated.  Tho  first 
gcrni''  of  this  division  wo  find  in  the  days  of 
Kimon  and  PerikiiS.s.  Kimon  was  no  mean  poli- 
tician; but  his  real  genius  clearly  called  him  to 
warfare  witli  the  Barbarian.  PoriklOs  was  an 
uble  and  successful   general;    but   in   him  the 


military  character  wa.'  quite  sulionlinnte  to  tliat 
of  the  political  I'lwfer  It  was  a  wise  com- 
promise wliich  ^  ciiiiisted  Kimon  with  the  de- 
fence of  the  .state  abroad  and  PeriklOs  with  its 
muaagetnent  at  liome.  After  PeriklCs  the  separa- 
tion widened.  We  nowhere  hear  of  DOmos- 
tlienPs  and  Phormion  as  political  leaders;  and 
even  in  Nikias  the  political  is  subordinate  to  the 
military  character.  Kleon,  on  tho  other  hand, 
was  a  politician  but  not  a  soldier.  But  the  old 
notion  of  combining  military  and  pol'tical  i)osi 
tion  was  not  quite  lost.  It  was  still  deemed  that 
h(^  who  propo.sed  a  warlike  expedition  should 
himself,  if  it  were  needful,  be  able  to  conduct  it. 
Kleon  in  an  evil  hour  was  tempted  to  take  on 
himself  military  functions;  ho  was  force<l  into 
connnand  against  SphaktOria ;  by  tho  able  and 
h)yal  help  of  DflmosthonCs  he  accjuitted  himself 
with  honour.  But  his  head  was  turned  by  suc- 
cess; he  iispircd  to  independent  command;  he 
measured  himself  against  tho  mighty  Brasidas; 
ind  the  fatal  battle  of  Amphipolis  was  tho  result. 
It  now  became  clear  that  the  I)omagogue  and  the 
General  must  commonly  bo  two  distinct  persons. 
Tlie  versatile  genius  of  AlkibiadOs  again  united 
the  two  cliaracters ;  but  ho  left  no  successor. 
.  .  .  A  Demagogue  then  was  simply  an  influ- 
ential speaker  of  popular  politics.  DOmosthenfis  is 
commonly  distinguished  as  an  orator,  while 
Kleon  is  branded  as  a  Demagogue;  but  tho 
position  of  tho  ono  was  the  same  as  the  position 
of  tho  other.  The  only  (juostion  is  as  to  tho 
wisdom  and  honesty  of  the  advice  given  either 
by  Kleon  or  by  D6mostlienf5s. " — E.  A.  Freeman, 
JliHtorknl  Essays,  2dser.,pp.  138-140. 

B.  C.  429-427. — Fate  of  Plataea.— Phormio's 
Victories. — Revolt  of  Lesbos. — Siege  of  Mity- 
lene. — Cleon's  bloody  decree  and  its  reversal. 
See  Greece  :    B.  C.  4'29-127. 

B.  C.  425. — Seizure  of  Pylus  by  Demos- 
thenes, the  general. — Spartans  entrapped  and 
captured  at  Sphacteria. — Peace  pleaded  for 
and  refused.    See  Queece:  U.  C.  43.'). 

B.  C.  424-406. — Socrates  as  soldier  and 
citizen. — The  trial  of  ths  Generals. — "  Socrates 
was  born  very  shortly  before  the  year  469  B.  C. 
His  father,  Sophroniscus,  was  a  sculptor,  his 
mother,  Pha;narete,  a  midwife.  Nothing  lefi- 
nito  is  known  of  his  moral  and  intellectual 
development.  There  is  no  speciflc  record  of 
him  at  all  until  he  served  at  the  siege  of  Potidica 
(433  B.  C.-429  B.  C.)  when  lie  was  nearly  forty 
years  old.  All  that  we  can  say  is  that  his  youtii 
and  manhood  were  passed  in  the  most  S])len(liil 
period  of  Athenian  or  Greek  history.  ...  As  a 
boy  ho  received  the  usual  Athenian  liberal  edu- 
cation, in  music  and  gymnastic,  an  education, 
tliat  is  to  say,  mental  and  physical.  He  was 
fond  of  quoting  from  the  existing  Greek  lit'Mii- 
ture,  and  he  seems  to  have  boon  familiar  with  it, 
especially  with  Homer.  Ho  is  represented  by 
Xenophon  as  repeating  Prodicus'  fable  of  the 
choice  of  Heracles  at  length.  He  says  that  he 
was  in  tlie  habit  of  studying  witli  his  friends 
'  the  treasures  which  tlio  wise  men  of  old  have 
left  us  in  their  books:'  coUection.s,  that  is,  of 
the  short  and  pithy  sayings  of  the  seven  sages, 
such  as  'know  thyself;  a  saying,  it  may  be 
noticed,  which  lay  at  the  root  of  his  wliole 
teaching.  And  ho  had  some  knowledge  of 
mathematics,  and  of  science,  as  it  existed  in 
those  days.  He  understood  something  of 
astronomy  and  of  advanced   geometry;  and  he 


172 


ATHENS,  H.  C.  424-400. 


Sorrntffi  n»  Soldier 
and  Citizen. 


ATIIKN8,  B.  C.  421. 


was  PcqiminJcd  with  cortnin,  at  any  rate,  of  the 
tlico'.ics  of  Ills  i)U'ilect'ssorw  iii  iiliilosopliy,  the 
]"iysiail  or  C.'osmicii'  pliilosoplitTs,  such  as 
llcraclitusund  Piirnu'iiiilos,  and,  espi'cially,  with 
tliose  of  Anaxairoras.  But  tliero  is  no  trust  wort  liy 
pvideuce  whicli  I'nahles  us  to  jro  licyond  the 
bare  fact  tliat  In:  had  sudi  kuowli'd^tc  .  .  .  All 
tlien  tliat  we  can  say  of  the  lirst  forty  years  of 
Socrates'  life  consists  of  general  statements  like 
these.  During  these  years  there  is  no  specific 
record  of  hii7i.  Between  4;J3  H.  C:.  and  429  B.  C;. 
he  served  as  a  common  soldier  at  the  siege  of 
Potidiua,  nn  Athenian  ilependency  which  had 
revolted,  and  surpassed  every  one  in  his  powers 
of  enduring  hunger,  thirst,  and  cold,  and  all  the 
hardships  of  a  severe  Thracian  winter.  At  this 
siege  we  liear  of  him  for  the  lirst  time  in  con- 
nection witli  Alcibiades,  whose  life  he  saved  in  a 
skirmish,  and  to  whom  lie  eagerly  relinciuished 
the  prize  of  -'alour.  In  431  B.  C.  the  Pelopon- 
licsian  W"'  nroke  out,  and  in  424  B.  C.  the 
Athenian.  were  disastrously  defeated  and 
routed  by  the  Tliebans  at  the  battle  of  Deliuni. 
Socrates  and  Laches  were  among  the  fuw  who 
(lid  not  yield  to  panic.  They  retreated  together 
steadily,  and  the  resolute  bearing  of  Socrates 
was  conspicuous  to  friend  and  foe  alike.  Had 
all  the  Athenians  behaved  as  he  did,  says 
Laches,  in  the  dialogue  of  that  name,  the  defeat 
would  have  been  a  victory.  Socrates  fought 
bravely  a  third  time  at  the  battle  of  Amphipolis 
[422  B.  C]  against  the  Peloponnesian  Torces,  in 
which  the  commander.:;  on  both  sides,  Cleon  and 
Brasidas,  were  killed :  but  there  is  no  record  of 
liis  specific  services  on  that  occasion.  About  the 
.same  time  that  Socrates  was  displaying  con- 
spicuous courage  in  the  cause  of  Atliens  at 
Delium  and  Amphipolis,  Aristophanes  was  hold- 
i!ig  him  up  to  hatred,  contempt,  and  ridicule  in 
the  comedy  of  the  Clouds  [B.  C.  423].  .  .  .  The 
Clouds  is  his  protest  against  tlic  Immorality  of 
free  thought  and  the  Sophists.  He  cliosc 
Socrates  for  his  central  figure,  chieliy,  no  doubt, 
on  acco  uit  of  Socrates'  well-known  and  stninge 
l)ersonal  appearance.  The  grotesciue  \igliness, 
and  Hat  nose,  and  prominent  eyes,  ami  Silenns- 
like  face,  and  shabby  dress,  might  be  seen  every 
(lay  in  the  streets,  and  were  familiar  to  every 
Athenian.  Aristophanes  cared  little  —  probably 
he  did  not  take  the  trouble  to  find  out  —  that 
Socrates'  whole  life  was  spent  in  flgliting  against 
the  Sophists.  It  was  enough  for  him  tliat 
.Socrates  did  not  accept  the  traditional  beliefs, 
and  was  a  good  centre-piece  for  a  comedy.  .  .  . 
Tile  Clouds,  it  is  needless  to  say,  is  a  gross  and 
absurd  libel  from  beginning  to  end:  but 
Aristophanes  hit  tlic  popular  conception.  The 
charges  whicli  he  made  in  423  B.  C.  stuck  to 
Socrates  to  the  end  of  his  life.  They  are  exactly 
the  charges  made  Ijy  popular  prejudice,  against 
wliieh  Socrates  defends  himself  in  the  first  ten 
chapters  of  the  Apology,  and  whicli  he  says  have 
been  so  long  '  in  the  air. '  He  formulates  them 
as  follows:  '  Socrates  is  an  evil  doer  who  busies 
himself  with  investigating  things  beneath  the 
eartli  and  in  the  sky,  and  \vlio  makes  the  worse 
appear  the  better  reason,  and  who  teaches  others 
these  same  things.'.  .  .  For  sixteen  years  after 
the  battle  of  Amphipolis  we  hear  nothing  of 
Socrates.  The  next  events  in  his  life,  of  which 
there  is  a  specific  record,  are  those  narrated  by 
himself  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  the  Apology. 
They  illustrate,  as  he  meant  them  to  illustrate, 

r 


his  invincible  moral  courage.  ...  In  40fl  B.  C. 
the  Athenian  lleet  defeated  the  Lacedn'inonians 
at  the  battle  of  Argimisa',  so  called  from  some 
small  islands  olT  the  south-east  point  of  Lesbos. 
After  the  battle  the  Athenian  commanders 
omitted  to  recover  the  bodies  of  their  dciid,  and 
to  save  the  living  from  olT  their  disableil 
enemies.  The  Athenians  at  home,  on  hearing  of 
this,  were  furious.  The  due  performance  of 
funeral  rites  was  a  very  sacred  duty  with  the 
Greeks;  and  many  citizens  mourned  "for  friends 
and  relatives  who  had  been  left  to  drown.  The 
commanders  were  immediately  recalled,  and  an 
assemlily  was  held  in  which  they  were  accused 
of  neglect  of  duty.  Tliey  defended  themselves 
by  saying  that  they  had  ordered  certain  inferior 
olUcers  (amongst  others,  their  accuser  Tliera- 
menes)  to  perform  the  duty,  but  that  a  storm 
had  come  on  which  had  rendered  the  perform- 
ance impossible.  The  debate  was  adjourned, 
and  it  was  resolved  that  the  Senate  shouUl 
decide  in  what  way  the  command'  rs  should  be 
tried.  The  Senate  resolved  tl\iit  the  Athenian 
j)eople,  having  heard  tlie  accusation  and  the 
defence,  should  proceed  to  vote  forthwith  for 
the  acquittal  or  condemnation  of  the  eight  com- 
manders collectively.  The  resolution  was 
grossly  unjust,  and  it  was  illegal.  It  substi- 
tuted a  popular  vote  for  a  fair  and  formal  trial. 
.  .  .  Socniles  was  at  that  time  a  member  of  the 
Senate,  the  only  ollice  that  he  ever  filled.  The 
Senate  was  coinpcjsed  of  five  hundred  citizens, 
elected  by  lot,  fifty  from  each  of  the  ten  tribes, 
and  holding  ofllce  for  one  year.  The  members 
of  each  tribe  held  the  Prytany,  that  is,  were 
responsible  for  the  conduct  of  business,  for 
thi.ty-fivo  days  at  a  time,  and  ten  out  of  the 
fifty  were  proedri  or  presidents  every  seven  days 
in  succession.  Every  bill  or  motion  was  exam- 
ined by  the  proedri  before  it  was  sulmiitted  to 
the  Assembly,  to  see  if  it  were  in  accordance 
with  law ;  if  it  was  not,  it  was  (luashed :  one  of 
the  proedri  presided  over  the  Senate  and  the  As- 
semlily  each  day,  and  for  one  day  only :  he  was 
called  the  Epistates:  it  was  his  duty  to  put  the 
(piestion  to  the  vote.  In  short  he  was  the 
speaker.  ...  On  the  day  on  which  it  was  pro- 
posed to  take  a  collective  vote  on  the  ac((uittal 
or  condemnation  of  the  eight  commanders, 
Socrates  was  Epistates.  Tlie  propo.siil  was,  as 
we  have  seen,  illegal:  but  the  people  were 
furious  against  the  accused,  and  it  was  a  very 
jiopular  one.  Some  of  the  proedri  opposed  it 
before  it  was  submitted  to  the  Assembly,  on  tlic 
ground  of  its  illegality;  but  they  were"  silenced 
by  threats  and  subsided.  Socrates  alone  refused 
to  give  way.  lie  would  not  put  a  question 
which  he  knew  to  be  illegal,  to  the  vote. 
Threats  of  suspension  a-id  arrest,  the  clamour  of 
an  angry  people,  the  fear  of  imprisonment  or 
dcatli,  could  not  move  liim.  .  .  .  But  his 
authority  lasted  only  for  a  day ;  the  proceedings 
were  adjourned,  a  more  i)liant  Epistates  suc- 
ceeded him,  and  the  generals  wore  condemned 
and  executed. " — F.  . I.  Church,  Intrmi  to  Trial 
and  Detlth  of  Somites,  pp.  9-23. — See,  also, 
GilEKCE:  B.  C.  406. 

B.  C.  421. — End  of  the  first  period  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War. — The  Peace  of  Nicias. — 
"  The  first  stage  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  came 
to  an  end  just  ten  years  after  the  invasion  of 
Attica  by  Archidamus  in  431  B.  C.  Its  results 
hiid  been  almost  purely  negative;  a  vast  quan- 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  421. 


Siritian 
Kxpfdition, 


ATIIRNS,  n.  C.  415. 


tUy  of  blofKl  mid  troftsuro  hud  been  wo.stod 
on  each  sidi),  but  In  no  great  purpose.  Thi,' 
AUicniaii  naval  power  was  unimpaired,  ii'id  the 
confederacy  nf  Delos,  lliDUirl.  sliiikcii  b,  tlie 
suece.ssful  revolt  of  Anipliipolis  anil  the  T  jiice- 
ward  towns,  was  still  left  siibsistiii!;.  On  the 
other  liaiid.  the  attempts  of  Athens  to  aeeom- 
plish  aiiytliiiii;  on  land  had  entirely  failed,  anil 
the  defensive  pulley  of  I'erieli'S  had  been  so  far 
jiistilied.  Well  would  it  have  been  for  Athens 
if  her  eiti/.i  as  had  taken  the  h^ssoii  to  heart,  and 
conti'iili'd  tl.emselves  with  having  escaped  .so 
easily  from  the  greatest  war  they  had  ever 
known." — C.  SV.  (,'.  (Jiuan,  Jfi.il.  of  Uneee,  p. 
341. — "Thr!  tr^Mity  called  .since  ancient  times  the 
Pi  ,.ec  of  AiciiLS  .  .  .  put  an  end  to  the  war  be- 
tween the  1  wo  Greek  confederations  of  states, 
after  it  had  lasted  for  rather  more  than  ten 
years,  vi/,.,  fro, a  the  attack  of  the  Huiotians 
upon  Plala'ie.  ()1.  l.\.\xvii,  '  (beginning  of 
April  1!.  (.'.  4:!1)  to  Ol.  l.\x\..\.  H  (towards  the 
uuddle  of  April  H.  ('.  4','1).  ''"lie  war  was  for 
this  reason  known  under  the  name  of  the 
Ten  Years'  War,  while  the  Poloponnesians 
called  it  the  Attii'  War.  Its  end  constilutod 
a  triumph  for  Athens;  for  all  the  plans  of 
the  enemies  who  had  attacked  her  had  come  to 
naught ;. 'Sparta  had  been  unable  to  fullil  a  sin- 
gle one  of  the  i)romises  with  which  she  had 
entered  upon  the  war,  and  was  ultimately  forced 
to  acknowledgi!  the  domiiuon  of  Atheiis  in  its 
whole  extent, —  notwithstanding  all  the  mistakes 
and  ndsgivings,  notwithstanding  all  the  calami- 
ties attributable,  or  not,  to  the  Athenians  them- 
.•ielves;  the'  resources  of  otTence  and  defence 
which  the  city  owed  to  Pericles  had  therefore 
])roved  their  excellence,  and  all  the  fury  of  her 
opponeiUs  had  wasted  itself  against  her  in  vain. 
S..arta  herself  was  s.itistied  with  the  advantages 
which  the  jieace  offered  to  her  own  city  and  citi- 
zens; but  great  was  the  discontent  among  her 
confederates,  i)articularly  among  the  secondary 
.states,  who  had  originally  occasioned  the  war 
and  obliged  Sparta  to  take  l)art  in  it.  Even 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  ])eace,  it  was  imi)os- 
sible  to  iniluce  Thebi's  and  Corinth  to  accede  to 
it.  The  result  of  the  war  to  Sparta  was  there- 
fore the  dissolution  of  t'.'e  confeder.tion  at  whose 
head  she  had  begun  the  war;  she  felt  herself 
thereby  placed  in  so  dangerously  isolated  a  posi- 
tion, that  she  was  obliged  to  fall  back  upon 
Athens  in  self-defence  against  her  own  confeder- 
ates. Aci:ordingly  the  Peace  of  Xicias  was  in 
the  course  of  the  same  year  converted  iiUo  a  lifty 
years'  alliance,  under  the  terms  of  which  Sparta 
and  Athens  contracted  the  obligation  of  mutual 
assistance  against  any  hostile  attack." —  E.  Cur- 
tius,  I/i>sl.  of  Grcfce,  Ik.  4,  c/t  3  {o.  3).- —  See,  also, 
Gheece:  B.  C.  4'J-l-l'il. 

B.  C.  A21-418. — New  combinations. — Con- 
flicting; alliances  with  Sparta  and  the  Argive 
Confederacy. — Rising  influence  of  Alcibiades. 
— War  m  Argos  and  Arcadia.- -Battle  of  Man- 
tinea.     See  GlUiKCE:    15.  ('.  4ei-llS. 

B.  C.  416. — Siege  and  conquest  of  Melos. — 
Massacre  of  the  inhabitants.  See  Giieece: 
IJ.  I'.  110. 

B.  C.  415. — The  expedition  against  Syra- 
cuse.—Mutilation  of  the  Hermae  (Hermai).  — 
A  ((uarrel  having  broken  out  in  Sicily,  between 
the  ci  ies  of  Segesta  and  .Selinous.  "the  latter 
obtained  aid  from  Syracuse.  Upon  this,  Segesta, 
httviug  vainly  sought  help  from  Carthago,  ap- 


I  pealed  to  Athens,  where  the  exiled  Sicili. ins  were 
ruinerous.  Alkibiades  liad  been  one  of  the  nio.st 
;  urgent  for  the  attack  upon  .Melos,  and  he  did  not 
I  lose  the  present  opportunity  to  incite  the  Athen- 
i   ians  to  an  enterprise  of  much  greater  importaiici'. 

j   and  where  he  hoped  to  be  in  command \ll 

men's  minds  were  tilled  with  iimbitious  hopes. 
Everywhere,  says  I'liilarcli,  were  to  be  seen 
young  men  in  the  gymnasia,  old  men  in  work- 
shops and  public  places  of  meeting,  drawing  tho 
map  of  Sicily,  talking  about  the  sea  that  sur- 
rounds it,  tlie  goodness  of  its  harbors,  its  jiosi- 
tion  opposite  Africa.  Established  there,  it  would 
1)e  ea.sy  to  cross  over  and  subjugate  t'arthage, 
and  extend  their  sway  as  far  as  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules.  The  rich  diet  not  approve  of  this  rash- 
ness, but  feared  if  they  opposed  it  tliat  the  op- 
posite faction  would  aecu'.e  them  of  wishing  to 
avoid  the  service  and  costs  of  arming  galleys, 
Nikias  had  more  courage;  even  after  the  Athen- 
ians had  apMointed  him  general,  with  Alkibiades 
and  Lamachos,  lie  spoke  i)ublicly  against  the 
enterprise,  showed  the  imprudence  of  going  in 
search  of  new  subjects  when  those  they  already 
had  were  at  the  moment  in  a  state  of  revolt,  as  in 
(.'halkidike,  or  only  waited  for  a  di-saster  to  break 
the  chain  which  bound  them  to  Athens.  He 
ended  by  reproaching  Alkibiades  for  jdunging 
the  republic,  to  gratify  his  iiersonal  ambition, 
into  a  foreign  war  of  tiic  greatest  danger.  .  .  . 
One  of  the  demagogues,  however,  replied  that 
he  would  put  an  end  to  all  this  hesitation,  and  he 
])roposed  and  si  cured  the  pas-sage  of  a  decree 
giving  the  generals  full  jiower  to  use  all  the 
resources  of  the  city  in  preparing  for  the  expedi- 
tion (March  24,  415  li.  ('.)  Nikias  was  com- 
pletely in  the  right.  'I'lie  eviiedition  to  Sicily 
was  impolitic  and  foolish.  In  the  ^Ega'an  Se.", 
lay  the  empire  of  Athens,  and  there  only  it  could 
lie,  within  reach,  do.  e  at  liand.  Every  aciiuisition 
westward  of  the  Peloponnesos  was  a  source  of 
weakness.  Syracuse,  even  if  coniiuered,  would 
not  long  remain  subject.  Whatever  might  be 
the  result  of  the  expedition,  it  was  sure  to  be 
di.sastrous  in  the  end.  .  .  .  An  event  which  took 
place  shortly  before  the  departure  of  the  lieet 
(8-9  June)  threw  terror  into  the  city:  one  morn- 
ing the  hermai  throughout  the  city  were  seen  to 
have  been  mutilated.  .  .  .  'These  Henna;,  or 
half-statues  of  the  god  llermfts,  were  bl'"ksof 
marble  about  the  height  of  the  human  ,,Mire. 
The  upper  part  was  cut  into  a  head,  face,  neck 
and  bust;  tho  lower  i)art  was  left  as  a  quad- 
rangnlar  pillar,  broad  at  the  base,  without  ar'us, 
body,  or  legs,  but  with  the  significant  mark  of 
the  male  sex  in  front.  They  were  distributed  in 
great  numbers  throughout  Athens,  and  always 
in  the  most  cousiiicuous  situations;  standing  he- 
side  tho  outer  doors  of  i)rivate  houses  as  veil  as 
of  temples,  uear  the  most  frequented  porticos,  at 
the  intersection  of  cross  ways,  in  the  public 
agora.  .  .  .  The  religious  feelings  of  the  Greeks 
considered  the  god  to  be  planted  or  domiciled 
where  his  statue  stood,  so  that  the  companion- 
ship, sympathy,  and  guardianship  of  Hennas 
became  a.ssociated  wliii  most  of  the  manifesta- 
tions of  conjunct  life  at  Athens, —  politinil. 
social,  commercial,  or  gymuiistie. '  .  .  .  To  all 
])ious  minds  the  city  seeiued  menaced  with  great 
misfortunes  uide.ss  the  anger  of  Heaven  should 
be  appeased  by  a  suHicient  expiation.  While 
Alkibiades  hail  many  partisans,  he  had  also  vio- 
lent enemies.     Not  long  before  this  time  Hyper- 


174 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  415. 


Sicilinn 
Kxpedition. 


ATHEr^S,  B.  C.  415-418. 


bolos,  a  contemptible  man,  had  almost  liucceedcd 
In  obtaining;  his  banishment ;  and  he  had  cacapod 
this  danger  only  by  uniting  his  party  with  that 
of  Nikias,  and  causing  the  demagogue  himself  to 
sulTcr  ostracism^  The  affair  of  the  hernial  ap- 
peared to  his  adversaries  a  favourable  occasion 
to  repeat  the  attempt  made  by  Ilyperbolos,  and 
we  have  good  reason  to  believe  m  a  political 
machination,  seeing  this  same  populace  applaud, 
a  few  months  later,  ihc  impious  audacity  of 
Aristophanes  in  his  comedy  of  The  Birds.  An 
inquiry  was  set  on  foot  and  certain  mctoikoi  and 
slaves,  without  making  any  de|)03ition  as  to  the 
hermai,  recalled  to  mind  that  before  this  time 
8<)me  of  these  statues  had  been  broken  by  young 
men  after  a  niglit  of  carousal  and  intoxication, 
thus  indirectly  attacking  Alkibiadcs.  Others  in 
set  terras  accused  him  of  having  at  a  banquet 
parodied  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries;  and  men  took, 
advantage  of  the  superstitious  terrors  of  the  peo- 
ple to  awake  their  political  an.\ieties.  It  was  re- 
peated that  the  breakers  of  sacred  statues,  the 
profaners  of  mysteries,  would  respect  the  gov- 
ernment even  less  than  they  had  respected  the 
gods,  and  it  was  whispered  tliat  not  one  of  these 
crimes  had  been  committed  without  the  partici- 
pation of  Alkibiades;  and  in  proof  of  tills  men 
spoke  of  the  truly  aristocratic  license  of  his 
life.  Was  he  indeed  the  author  of  this  sacri- 
legious freak?  To  believe  him  capable  of  it 
would  not  bo  to  calumniate  him.  Or,  on  the 
other  hand,  wiis  it  a  sclicme  planned  to  do  him 
injury?  Although  proofs  are  lacking,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  among  the  rich,  upon  whom  rested  the 
heavy  burden  of  thr  naval  expenses,  a  plot  had 
been  formed  to  destroy  the  power  of  Alkibiades, 
and  perhaps  to  prevent  the  sailing  of  the  fleet. 
The  demagogue-  who  had  intoxicated  tlie  peo 
pie  with  hope,  vVmc  for  the  expedition;  but  the 
popularity  of  Alkibiades  was  obnoxious  to  them : 
a  compromise  was  made  between  the  two  fac- 
tions, as  is  often  done  in  times  when  public 
morality  is  enfeebled,  and  Alitibiades  found  him- 
self thteatcncd  on  all  sides.  .  .  .  Urging  as  a 
pretext  the  dangers  of  delay  In  sending  off  the 
expedition,  they  obtained  a  decree  that  Alkibiades 
should  embark  at  once,  and  that  the  question  of 
his  guilt  or  innocence  should  be  postponed  until 
after  his  return.  It  was  now  the  mitldle  of 
summer.  The  day  appointed  for  departure,  the 
whole  city,  citizens ;,  nd  foreigners,  went  out  to 
Pciraieus  at  daybreak.  ...  At  tliat  moment  the 
view  was  clearer  as  to  the  doubts  and  dangers, 
and  also  the  distance  of  the  expedition ;  but  all 
eyes  were  drawn  to  the  immense  preparations 
that  had  been  made,  and  contidenco  and  pride 
consoled  those  who  were  about  to  jjort. " — V.  Du- 
ruy,  Iliat.  of  the  Orcek  People,  ch.  25,  si:ct.  3  (c.  3). 

Also  in:  Thucydides,  History,  bk.  0,  sect.  37-38. 
— Q.  \V.  Cox,  The  Athenian,  Empire,  ch.  5. —  G. 
Qrote,  Hist,  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch.  rtS  (o.  7). 

B.  C.  415-413. — Fatal  end  of  the  expedition 
against  Syracuse. — ' '  AlkibiadSs  was  called  back 
to  Athens,  to  take  his  trial  on  a  charge  of  im- 
piety. .  .  .  He  did  not  go  back  to  Athens  for 
his  trial,  but  escaped  to  Peloponn6sos,  where  we 
shall  hear  from  him  again.  Meanwhile  the  com- 
tLanil  of  the  Athenian  force  in  Sicily  was  left 
pruuiically  in  the  hands  of  Nikias.  I  w  Nikias 
could  always  act  well  when  he  did  ^ct;  but  it 
was  very  hard  to  make  hira  act;  above  all  on  an 
errand  which  he  hated.  One  might  say  that 
Syracuse  was  saved  through  the  delays  of  Nikias. 


He  now  went  off  to  petty  expediticms  in  the 
west  of  Sicily,  under  cover  of  settling  matters  at 
Segesta.  .  .  .  Thi^  Syracusan'j  by  this  time  (luito 
despised  the  invaders.'  Their  horsemen  rode  up 
to  the  camp  of  the  Athenians  at  KatanC,  and 
asked  them  if  they  had  come  into  Sicily  merely 
to  sit  down  there  as  colonists.  .  .  .  The  wuiter 
(B.  C.  415-414)  waschielly  spent  on  both  sides  in 
sending  embassies  to  and  fro  to  gain  allies. 
Nikias  also  sent  home  to  Athens,  .skiiig  for 
horsemen  and  iiumey,  and  the  people,  without  a 
word  of  rebuke,  voted  him  all  that  ho  asked.  .  .  . 
But  the  most  important  embassy  of  all  was  that 
whicli  the  Syraciisans  sent  to  Corinth  and  Sparta. 
Corinth  zealously  took  up  the  cause  of  her 
colony  and  pleaded  for  Syracu.se  at  Sparta.  And 
at  Sparta  Corinth  and  Syracuse  found  a  helper  in 
the  banished  Athenian  AlkibiadCs,  who  was  now 
doing  all  that  he  coulil  against  Athens.  ...  lie 
tolil  the  Spartans  to  occupy  a  fortress  in  Attica, 
which  they  soon  afterwards  did,  and  a  great  deal 
came  of  it.  But  he  also  told  them  to  give  vigor- 
ous help  to  Syracuse,  and  above  all  things  to 
send  a  Spartan  commander.  The  mere  name  of 
Sparta  went  for  a  great  deal  in  those  days;  but 
no  man  could  have  been  better  chosen  than  the 
Spartan  who  was  sent.  Ht  was  Gylippos,  the 
deliverer  of  Syracuse.  He  was  more  like  an 
Athenian  than  a  Spartan,  quick  and  ready  of 
resource,  which  few  Spartans  were.  .  .  .  And 
now  at  last,  when  the  spring  came  (414)  Nikia , 
was  driven  to  do  something.  .  .  .  The  Athenians 
.  .  .  occupied  all  that  part  of  the  hill  which  lay 
outside  the  walls  of  Syracuse.  Tliey  were 
joined  by  their  horsemen,  Greek  and  Sikel,  and 
after  nearly  a  year,  the  siege  of  Syracuse  really 
began.  The  object  of  the  Athenians  now  was 
to  build  a  wall  across  the  hill  and  to  carry  it 
down  to  the  sea  ou  both  sides.  Syracuse  would 
thus  be  hemmed  in.  The  object  of  the  Syra- 
cusans  was  to  build  a  cross-wall  of  their  own, 
which  should  hinder  the  Athenian  wall  from 
reaching  the  two  points  it  aimed  at.  This  they 
tried  more  than  once ;  but  in  vain.  There  were 
several  lights  on  the  hill,  and  at  last  there  was  a 
fight  of  more  importance  on  the  lower  ground 
by  the  Great  Harbour.  .  .  .  The  Syracusans 
were  defeated,  as  far  as  lighting  went;  but  they 
gained  far  more  than  tliey  lost.  For  Lamachos 
was  killed,  and  with  him  all  vigour  passed  away 
from  the  Athenian  camp.  At  the  same  moment 
the  Athenian  fleet  sailed  into  the  Great  Harbour, 
and  a  Syracusan  attack  on  the  Athenian  works 
on  the  hill  was  defeated.  Nikias  remaiued  in 
command  of  the  invaders;  but  he  was  grievously 
sick,  and  for  once  in  his  life  his  head  seems  to 
have  been  turned  by  success.  He  finished  the 
wall  on  the  south  side;  but  he  HLglected  to 
finish  it  on  the  north  side  also,  so  that  Syracuse 
was  not  really  hemmed  in.  But  the  hearts  of 
the  Syracusans  sank.  ...  It  wab  at  this  darkest 
moment  of  all  thot  deliveranc  "ime.  ...  A 
Corinthian  ship,  under  its  cap.  i  Gongylos, 
sailed  into  the  Little  Harbour.  He  brought  the 
news  that  other  ships  were  on  their  way  from 
PeloponnOsos  to  the  help  of  Syracuse,  and,  yet 
more,  that  a  Spartan  general  was  actually  in 
Sicily,  getting  together  a  land  force  for  the  same 
end.  As  soon  as  the  good  news  was  heard,  there 
was  no  more  talk  of  surrender.  .  .  .  And  one 
day  the  Athenian  camp  was  startled  bjr  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  Lacedajinouian  herald,  offering  them 
a  truce  of  five  days,  that  they  might  get  them 


175 


ATHENS,  H   C.  415-413. 


Siiilliin 
Eximlition. 


ATIIKNS.  B.  C.  413-418. 


out  of  Slrlly  with  huff  iiml  bitfCfrnKC  Oylippns 
wiis  now  on  the  liill.  He  of  roiirsc  did  not  ex- 
prct  Hint  tlic  -Vllii'Ti'  iirniy  W(ml(i  rciilly  «o 
iiwiiy  in  tlvi'  days.  Hut  it  wiis  ii  (^rciit  tliinir  to 
sliow  lH)tli  I"  tin-  iM'sicKcrs  unci  tollii^  .Hyrucusiins 
timt  till'  deliverer  liiiil  eonie.  iind  timt  deiiverunee 
wiH  iieiti'i'iinK.  Nil<iii,s  hiul  Iteptsiieli  Imd  wiitcli 
thiit  (tyiippos  and  liis  triMips  li;id  come  up  the 
lii)l  iinii  tile  Syriu'usims  iuwl  come  out  luid  met 
liicm,  without  his  ItnowledKo.  Tlie  Spiirtiin,  as 
ii  mutter  of  course,  tiKilc  tlii^  command  of  tlie 
wlwile  force;  he  olfcreil  Imtlle  to  tlu^  Atlieniiins, 
wliicli  tliey  refused;  lie  tiien  entered  the  city. 
Tlie  vc^ry  next  day  li(^  liegan  to  carry  out  liis 
Hclieme.  Tills  was  to  build  ii  group  of  forts 
near  the  western  end  of  th(!  hill,  and  to  join  them 
to  the  city  by  a  wall  runniiif?  east  and  west, 
which  would  hinder  the  Athenians  from  ever 
linishing  their  wall  to  the  north.  Each  side 
went  on  building,  and  some  small  actions  took 
place.  .  .  .  Another  winter  (IJ.  I,.  414-413)  now 
cumo  on,  and  with  it  much  sendin;;  of  envoys. 
Oylippos  went  about  Sicily  collecting  fresh 
troops.  .  .  .  Moanwhilo  Xikias  wrote  a  letter  to 
the  Athenian  people.  .  .  .  This  letter  came  at  a 
time  when  the  Laccdiemonian  alliance  had  de- 
termined to  renew  the  war  with  Athens,  and 
when  they  were  making  t^verytliing  ready  for  an 
invasion  of  Attica.  To  miu\  out  a  new  force  to 
Sicily  was  simple  madness.  We  hear  nothing 
oi  the  delmt<«  in  the  Athenian  assembly,  whether 
any  one  argued  against  going  on  with  the  Sicilian 
war,  and  whether  any  demagogue  laid  any 
blame  on  Nikias.  But  the  assembly  voted  that 
a  new  force  equal  to  the  tirst  should  be  sent  out 
under  DflmosthenCs,  the  best  soldier  in  Athens, 
and  Eurymi  ion.  .  .  .  Meanwhile  the  Syracus- 
ans  were  strengthened  by  help  both  in  Sicily  and 
fi  )m  PeloponnCsos.  Their  main  object  now  was 
to  strike  a  blow  at  the  fleet  of  Nikias  before  the 
new  force  came.  ...  It  had  been  just  when  the 
Syracusaus  were  most  downcast  that  they  were 
cheered  by  the  coming  of  the  Corinthians  and  of 
Gylippos.  And  just  now  that  their  spirits 
were  highest,  they  were  dashed  again  by  the 
the  coming  of  DflmosthenCs  and  Eurymcdou.  A 
fleet  as  great  as  the  first,  seventy-five  ships,  car- 
rying 5,000  heavy-armed  and  [a  crowd  of  light 
troops  of  every  kind,  sailed  into  the  Groat  Har- 
bour witli  all  warlike  pomp.  The  Pclopoui'e- 
sians  were  already  in  Attica ;  they  had  planted  a 
Peloponnesian  garrison  there,  which  brouglit 
Athens  to  great  straits;  but  the  fleet  was  sent 
out  to  Syracuse  all  the  same.  DSmosthenCs  knew 
what  to  do  as  well  as  Lamachos  liad  known.  He 
saw  that  there  was  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  try 
one  great  blow,  and,  if  that  failed,  to  take  the 
fleet  home  again.  .  .  .  The  attack  was  at  first 
successful,  and  the  Athenians  took  two  of  the 
Syracusan  forts.  But  tlie  Thespian  allies  of 
Syracuse  stood  tlieir  ground,  and  drove  tlie  as- 
sailants back.  Utter  confusion  followed.  .  .  . 
The  last  chance  was  now  lost,  and  DCmostheu6s 
was  eager  to  go  liome.  But  Nikias  would  stay 
on.  .  .  .  When  sickne.ss  grew  in  the  camp, 
when  fresh  help  from  Sicily  and  v'lie  great  body 
of  the  allies  from  Peloponnflsos  came  into  Syra- 
cuse, ho  at  last  agreed  to  go.  Just  at  tliat 
moment  the  moon  was  eclipsed.  .  .  .  Nikias 
consulted  his  .soothsayers,  and  he  gave  out  that 
they  must  stay  twciity-niue  days,  another  full 
n'volution  of  tlie  moon.  This  resolve  wai  the 
destruction  of  the  Ixaieging  army.  ...  It  was 


felt  onlMith  sides  that  all  would  turn  on  one  more 
flght  by  sea,  the  Athenians  striving  to  get  out 
of  the  liarlxmr,  and  the  Syracusans  stnving  to 
keep  them  in  it.  The  .Synicusiins  now  blocked 
up  the  mouth  of  th<^  harlHiur  by  miniring 
vessels  across  it.  Tlie  Athenians  left  llieir 
position  on  thi!  hill,  a  sign  that  the  siege  was- 
ovr'r.  and  brought  their  whole  force  down  to  the 
shore.  It  was  no  tinu^  now  for-  any  skillful 
manoeuvres;  the  chief  thing  was  to  make  the  sea- 
fight  as  much  as  might  be  like  a  lanil-tight.  a 
strange  need  for  Athenians.  .  .  .  The  last,  fight 
now  began,  110  Athenian  ships  against  80  of  the 
Syra(!usans  and  their  allies.  Never  before  did 
so  many  ships  meet  in  so  small  a  siiacc.  .  .  . 
The  light  was  long  and  confu.sed;  at  last  the 
Athenians  gave  way  and  fled  to  the  shore.  The 
battle  and  the  invasion  were  over.  Syracuse  was 
not  only  saved ;  she  had  begun  to  take  vengeance 
on  her  enemies.  .  .  .  The  Athenians  waited  one 
day,  and  then  set  out.  hoping  to  make  their  way 
to  .some  safe  place  among  the  friendly  Sikels  in 
the  inland  country.  The  sick  hud  to  lie  left  be- 
hind. .  .  .  On  the  sixth  (hiy,  after  frightful  toil, 
they  determined  to  cliange  their  course.  .  .  . 
They  set  out  in  two  divisions,  that  of  Nikias 
going  first.  Mucli  better  order  was  kept  in  the 
front  division  and  by  the  time  Nikias  reached  the 
river,  DOmosthenfls  was  six  miles  beliird.  .  .  . 
In  the  morning  a  Syracusan  force  came  up  with 
the  frightful  news  that  the  whole  division  of 
DOmosthenCs  were  prisoners.  .  .  .  The  Athenians 
tried  in  vain  to  escape  in  the  night.  The  next 
morning  they  set  out,  harassed  as  before,  and 
driven  wild  by  intolerable  thirst.  They  at  last 
reached  the  river  Assinaros,  which  runs  by  the 
present  town  of  Nolo.  Tliere  was  the  end.  .  .  . 
The  Athenians  were  so  maddened  by  thirst  that, 
though  men  were  falling  under  darts  and  the 
water  was  getting  mudJy  and  bloody,  they 
thought  of  nothing  but  drinking.  .  .  .  No 
furtlier  terms  were  made;  most  of  the  horse- 
men contrived  to  cut  their  way  out;  the  rest 
were  made  prisoners.  Most  of  them  were 
embezzled  by  Syracusans  as  their  private 
slaves;  but  about  7,000  men  out  of  the  two  divi- 
sions were  led  prisoners  into  Syracuse.  Tliey 
were  shut  up  in  the  stone-quarries,  with  nO' 
furtlier  heed  than  to  give  each  man  daily  half  a 
slave's  allowance  of  food  and  drink.  Many  died ; 
many  were  sold ;  some  escaped,  or  were  set  free ; 
the  rest  were  after  a  while  taken  out  of  the  quar- 
ries and  set  to  work.  Tlie  generals  had  made  no 
terms  for  themselves.  HennokratCs  wished  tO' 
keep  tliem  as  hostages  against  future  Athenian 
attempts  against  Sicily.  Gylippos  wished  tO' 
take  tliem  in  triumpli  to  Sparta.  The  Corinth- 
ians were  for  putting  them  to  death ;  and  so  it 
was  done.  ...  So  ended  the  Athenian  invasion 
of  Sicily,  the  greatest  attempt  ever  made  by 
Greeks  against  Qreelcs,  and  that  which  came  to- 
the  most  utter  failure." — E.  A.  Freeman,  The 
Story  of  Sicily,  pp.  117-137. 

Also  in:  Thucydides,  History;  trans,  by  B. 
Jowett,  bk.  6-7  (v.  1). — See,  also,  Sykacuse: 
B.  C.  415-413. 

B,  C.  4[I3-4I2.— Consequences  of  the  Sicilian 
Expedition. — Spartan  alliance  with  the  Per- 
sians.— Plotting  of  Alcibiades. — The  Decelian 
War. — "At  Athens,  where,  even  before  this, 
every  one  hiul  been  in  the  most  anxious  suspense, 
the  news  of  the  loss  of  the  expedition  produced 
a  consternation,  which  was  certainly  greater  than 


176 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  418-412. 


ATHENS,  H.  C.  413-411. 


that  at  limiHi  nftor  llic  buttle  of  Cimniic,  or  thiit 
iu  our  own  (lays,  iift(!r  tin;  Imttlc  of  .Icna.  .  .  . 
'A'  li  isl  4(),(Am>  (■ili/.cMS,  allies  and  ulaves,  had 
perished;  and  anions  them  there  may  easily  hav(^ 
been  lO.OOO  Athenian  rilizens,  most  of  whom  be- 
lonj^ed  to  the  wealthier  and  hij;her  classes.  The 
flower  of  the  Athenian  people  was  destroyed,  as 
at  the  time  of  the  |)laij;ue.  It  is  iinpossibhf  to  say 
what  amount  of  public  property  may  have  beeii 
lost;  the  whole  licet  was  jforif.  The  eoiise- 
qtlcnces  of  the  disaster  soon  slii'Wed  tliemselvc-'. 
It  was  to  be  foreseen  that  Chios,  whieli  had  loni; 
been  wavering,  and  whose  disposition  could  not 
be  trust<'d,  would  avail  itself  of  this  moment  to 
revolt;  ami  the  cities  in  Asia,  from  whidi  Athens 
derived  her  lar;^e  revenues,  were  expected  to  do 
the  siuue.  It  was,  iu  fact,  to  be  foreseen,  that 
the  four  islands  of  L(«bos,  Chios,  Sainos,  e.nd 
Rhodes,  wcyuld  instantly  revolt.  The  Spartan". 
were  established  at  Decelea,  iu  Attica  itself,  and 
thence  ravaKc<l  the  country  far  and  wide:  so  that 
it  was  impossible  to  venture  to  go  to  the  coast 
without  a  stroni;  escort.  .\lthou,i;h  there  were 
many  districts  in  which  no  Spartan  was  seen  from 
one  year's  end  to  the  other,  yet  there  was  no 
safety  anywhere,  except  in  fortified  places,  'and 
the  Athenians  were  constantly  obliiied  to  guard 
the  walls  of  their  city;  and  this  state  of  things 
ba^  already  been  going  on  for  the  last  twelve 
mouths.'  In  this  fearful  situation,  the  Athenian 
people  showed  the  same  flrmuess  lus  the  Komans 
after  the  battle  of  Cannae.  Had  they  but  had 
one  great  man  among  them,  to  whom  ihe  state 
could  have  been  entrusted,  even  more  might.per- 
haps  have  been  done ;  but  it  is  astonishing  that, 
although  there  was  no  such  man,  and  although 
the  leading  men  were  only  second  or  third-rate 
persons,  yet  so  many  useful  arrangements  were 
made  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  case.  .  .  .  The 
most  unfortunate  circumstance  for  the  Atbcaiaus 
was,  that  Alclbiudes,  now  an  enemy  of  his 
country,  was  living  among  the  Spartans;  for  he 
Introduced  into  the  undertakings  of  the  Spartans 
the  very  element  which  before  they  hud  been 
altogether  deficient  in,  namely  energy  and  elasti- 
city :  he  urged  them  on  to  undertakings,  and  in- 
duced them  now  to  send  a  fleet  to  Ionia.  .  .  . 
Erythrae,  Tecs,  and  Jlilctus,  one  after  another, 
revolted  to  the  Peloponnesians,  who  now  con- 
cluded treaties  with  'Tissaphernes  iu  the  name  of 
the  king  of  Persia  —  Darius  was  then  king  —  and 
in  bis  own  name  as  satrap ;  and  iu  this  manner 
they  sacrificed  to  bim  the  Asiatic  Greeks.  .  .  . 
The  Athenians  were  an  object  of  antipathy  and 
implacable  hatred  to  the  Persians ;  they  had  never 
doubted  that  the  Athenians  were  their  real  oppo- 
nents iu  Greece,  and  were  afraid  of  tbem;  but 
they  did  not  fear  the  Spartans.  They  knew  that 
the  Athenians  would  take  from  them  not  only 
the  islands,  but  the  towns  on  the  main  land,  anil 
were  in  great  fear  of  their  maritime  power. 
Hence  they  joined  the  Spartans;  and  the  latter 
Avere  not  ashamed  of  negotiating  a  treaty  of  sub- 
sidies with  the  Persians,  in  which  Tissaphernes, 
in  the  king's  name,  promised  the  assistance  of  the 
Phoenician  fleet ;  and  large  subsidies,  as  pay  for 
the  army.  ...  In  return  for  this,  they  re- 
nounced, in  the  name  of  the  Qret '«,  all  claims  to 
independence  for  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia." — 
B.  C.  Niebubr,  Ijfctiircs  on  Ancient  Iliston/,  b.  2, 
lects.  53  and  54.— See,  also,  Gueece:  D.  C.  413- 
412. 
Also  in;  G.  Grote,  Ilist.  of  Qreece,  eh.  CI  (».  7). 


B.  C.  413-412. — Revolt  of  Chios,  Miletus, 
Lesbos  and  Rhodes  from  Athens. — Revolu- 
tion of  Samos.     .See  (lliKt;(i;;   11.  C.  lilt. 

B.  C.  413-411.— The  Probuti. — Intrigues  of 
Alcibtades.— Conspiracy  against  the  Consti- 
tution.— The  Four  Hundred  and  the  Five 
Thousand. — InuncMliately  after  tlx;  dreadful 
calamity  at  Syracuse  became  known,  "extraor- 
dinary measures  were  adopted  by  the  peo|)le;  a 
number  of  cili/.ens  of  advanced  age  were  formed 
into  a  deliberative  and  executive  lioily  under  the 
name  of  I'robuli,  and  empowered  to  fit  out  a 
fleet.  Whether  this  laid  the  foundation  for  oli- 
garchical machinations  or  not,  those  aged  men 
were  unable  to  bring  back  men's  minds  to  their 
former  course;  tlie  prosecution  of  tin-  H<'rmo- 
copidie  had  been  most  mischievous  in  its  results; 
various  secret  associations  had  sprung  up  and 
conspired  to  reap  advantage  to  themselves  from 
the  distress  and  embarra.Hsmeiit  of  the  stat(s  Ibo 
indignation  caused  by  the  infuriated  excesses  of 
tlie  people  <luring  that  trial,  po.ssibly  here,  as 
'  fre((uently  happened  in  other  Grecian  states, 
determined  the  more  icspectable  members  of  the 
community  to  guard  against  the  recurn'uce  of 
.similar  scenes  iu  future,  by  the  establishment  of 
an  aristocracy.  I^astly,  the  watchful  malice  of 
Alcibiades,  who  was  tlie  implacable  enemy  of 
that  ])opulace,  tn  whose  blind  fury  he  had  been 
sacrificed,  battled  all  attempts  to  restore  confi- 
dence ami  tran((uillity,  and  there  is  nodoubt  that, 
whilst  he  kept  up  a  corresijondence  with  his  par- 
tisans at  home,  ho  did  everything  iu  his  power 
to  increase  the  i)erplexity  and  distr'^ss  of  bis 
native  city  from  without,  in  order  that  ho  might 
be  recjilled  to  provide  for  its  safety  and  defence. 
A  favourable  opportunity  for  the  execution  of 
bis  plans  presented  itself  m  the  fifth  year  of  his 
exile,  01.  (t2.  1;  411.  B.  C. ;  as  ho  had  incurred 
the  suspicion  of  the  Spartjius,  and  stood  high  iu 
the  favour  of  Tissaphernes,  the  Athenians 
thought  that  his  intercession  might  enable  them 
to  obtain  assistance  fn.in  the  Persian  king.  The 
people  in  Athens  were  headed  by  one  of  liis  most 
inveterate  enemies,  Androcles;  and  be  well  knew 
that  all  attempts  to  cfTect  his  return  would  bo 
fruitless,  until  this  man  and  the  other  demago- 
fjues  were  removed.  Hence  Alcibiades  entered 
into  negotiations  with  the  commanders  of  tho 
Athenian  fleet  at  Samos,  respecting  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  oligarchical  constitution,  not  from 
any  attachment  to  that  form  of  government  in 
itself,  but  solelv  witli  the  view  of  promoting  his 
own  ends.  /'hrynicbus  and  Pisander  were 
equally  insincere  in  their  co-operation  with  Alci- 
biades. .  .  .  Their  plan  was  that  the  latter 
should  reconcile  tho  people  to  the  change  in  tho 
constitution  which  he  wished  to  effect,  by  pro- 
mising to  obtain  them  the  assistance  of  the  great 
king;  but  they  alono  resolved  to  reap  the 
benefit  of  his  exertions.  Pisander  took  upon 
himself  to  manage  the  Athenian  ])opulace.  It 
was  in  truth  no  slight  undertaking  to  attempt  to 
overthrow  a  democracy  of  a  hundred  and  twenty 
years'  standing,  and  of  intense  develoDment;  biit 
most  of  the  able  bodied  citizens  were  absent  with 
the  fleet,  whilst  such  as  were  still  in  tho  city 
were  confoimded  by  the  imminence  of  the  danger 
from  without;  on  tho  other  hand,  the  prospect  of 
succour  from  the  Persian  king  doubtless  had 
some  weight  with  them,  and  they  possibly  felt 
some  symptoms  of  returning  affection  for  their 
former  favourite  Alcibiades.  Nevc-tbeless,  Pisan- 


177 


ATHENS.  D.  C.  41  1-111. 


Kilil  of  Ihr 


ATHENS.  B.  C.  404^03. 


(lor  and  IiIh  urcnnipllcog  mnp'.iyocl  cmft  mid  per- 
'illy  til  lU't'oi'iplisli  tlii'iril  ii^im;  tlir  pi'opir  wiTi; 
nut  jH'rHiiiiilril  or  riiiiviiicnl,  liiit  ('iitriiplii'il  into 
coinplianri'  willi  tlii'ir  iiiriiHiirvs.  I'ixaiiili.'r 
giiiiii'il  iiviT  til  his  piirpi Hit  till-  uIhivi'  natucil  rliilis, 
mill  iiiilncil  till'  pi'iiplii  ti>  HiMiil  liiiii  witli  trii 
pk'iiipDti'iitiiirii's  Id  till!  navy  at  Sanio.H.  In  tlin 
miMin  tinii'  ilir  n'st.  of  \\w  nmspirators  prosi-rnti'il 
till-  worl<  i>f  ri'iniMli'llinn  llii'  conHtitution." — VV. 
WiK'lisnmtli,  ///W.  AntiiiiiitiiK  "f  the  <lreek»,  v.  3, 
pp.  "J.VJ -','"1."). —  I'lii'  priipli',  or  an  iissi'mlily  cleviTly 
nmili'  up  anil  niiinipiilati'il  tn  rrpri'Hr'a  th.: 
pi'iipio,  wiTr  iniliireil  to  viiti;  all  tliu  powcrn  of 
KDViTinni'iit  Into  till)  ImiiilH  of  a  cuiincil  of  Foil. 
Hnnilrril,  of  wliirli  counril  tluM'itixrns  appointuil 
only  (Ivo  mi'inlttTH.  Tlioso  tlvo  oliosi;  nlnoty- 
flvu  moro,  to  niaku  ono  liunilrcil,  anil  uacli  of  that 
linnilrril  then  chose  thri'ii  colleatjues.  The  con- 
gpiralors  thus  iMsily  niailo  up  the  Four  llun- 
druil  to  tlii'ir  likinu;,  from  tlirirown  rankH.  This 
counril  was  to  oiiivi'iu;  an  assembly  of  Five 
Thousand  citizens,  whenever  it  saw  tit  to  do  so. 
But  when  news  of  this  constitutional  cliangn 
renehed  the  army  at  Samos,  where  the  Athenian 
henili)uarters  for  the  iDiiian  war  were  llxed,  the 
citizen  soldiers  refused  to  submit  to  it  —  repudi- 
ated it  altiijfi'tlier  —  and  orfjanized  themselves  as 
ail  independent  state.  The  rulinjj  spirit  umonjj 
them  was  Thrasvhulus,  iiiid  his  inlliience  bi'ou,t,'ht 
about  a  reconciiiation  with  Alcibiades,  then  an 
exile  slieltered  at  the  Persian  court.  Ali-ibiades 
was  recalled  by  the  army  and  placed  nt  its  head. 
Presently  a  reaction  at  Athens  ensued,  after  the 
oligarchical  i)urty  liiid  given  signs  of  treasonable 
communication  witli  Hparta,  and  in  .lunc  the 
people  assembled  in  the  Pny.x  and  reas.sertcd 
their  sovereignty.  "  Tlie  (Jouncii  wa.'i  deposed, 
and  the  supremo  sovereignty  of  the  .state 
restored  to  the  people  —  not,  however,  to  the 
entire  mu'titiide;  for  the  principle  was  retained 
of  reserving  full  civic  rights  to  a  committee  of 
men  of  .i  certain  amount  of  property;  and.  as 
the  li:.i8  of  the  Five  Tliousand  had  never  been 
drawn  up,  it  was  decreed,  in  order  that  the 
desired  end  might  be  speedily  reached,  to  follow 
the  precedent  cf  similar  institutions  in  otlier 
states  and  to  constitute  all  Athenians  able  to 
furnish  them.selves  with  a  complete  military 
equipment  from  tlieir  own  resources,  fuUcitizens, 
•with  the  rights  of  voting  and  participating  in  the 
government.  Tims  the  name  of  the  Five  Thou- 
sand had  now  become  a  very  inaccurate  designa- 
tion; but  it  was  retained,  because  men  had  in 
the  last  few  months  become  habituated  to  it.  At 
the  same  time,  the  abolition  of  ])ay  for  civic 
otHces  and  functions  was  decreed,  not  merely  as 
a  temporary  measure,  but  as  a  fundamental 
principle  of  the  new  cominonwcalth.  which  the 
citizens  were  bound  by  a  solemn  oath  to  main- 
tain. This  reform  was.  upon  the  whole,  a  wise 
combi;'ation  of  aristocracy  and  democracy ;  and, 
accordiiik;  to  the  opinion  of  Thucydides,  the  best 
constitution  wliicli  the  Athenians  had  hitherto 
possessed.  Oh  the  motion  of  Critias,  the  recall 
of  Alcibiades  was  decreed  about  the  same  time ; 
and  a  deputation  was  despatched  to  Samos,  to 
accomplish  the  union  between  army  and  city." — 
E,  Curtius,  Iliiit.  of  OroM,  bk.  4,  ch.  5.— Most  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Pour  linndred  tied  to  the  Spar- 
tan camp  at  Dccelia.  1  wo  were  taken,  tried 
and  executed. — Thucydides.  llinton/,  bk.  8,  sect. 
48-97.— See,  also,  GnKKCE:  \S.  C.  413-413. 
Also  in  :  V.  Duruy,  HiH.  of  Greece,  ch.  36  {v.  3). 


B.  C.  41 1-407.— Victories  at  Cvnossema  and 
Abydos.— Exploits  of  Alcibiades.  —His  tri- 
umphal return. —  His  appointment  to  com- 
mand. —His  second  deposition  and  exile. 
Si'eOnr.Krt-::  li.  t'.  111-4(17. 

B.  C.  406.— The  Peloponnesian  War: 
Battle  and  victorr  of  Arginusae.— Condem- 
nation and  exc  :ution  of  the  Generals.  .See 
OltKKii;:  U.  (.'.  KMt;   and  above:    H.  (,'.  431-100. 

B.  C.  405. —  The  Peloponnesian  War: 
Decisive  defeat  at  Aigospotamoi.  .See  (iukkck: 
B.  ('.  4(»."). 

B.  C.  404.  -The  Surrender  to  Lysander. — 
After  the  battle  i.f  .Kgosiiotami  (August,  B.  C. 
40.')).  which  destroyed  their  navy,  and  cut  off 
nearly  all  HUiiplies  to  the  city  by  sea,  as  the 
tlimrtiins  at  I)ccelea  had  long  cut  off  suppllcf 
u|)on  the  land  side,  the  Athenians  had  no  hope. 
They  waited  in  terror  and  despair  for  their 
enemies  to  close  in  upon  them.  The  latter  were 
in  no  haste,  for  they  were  sure  of  their  prey. 
Lysander,  the  victor  at  yEgospotaini,  cunio 
leisurely  from  the  Hellespont,  receiving  on  his 
way  the  Hiirieniler  of  the  cities  subject  or  allied 
to  Athens,  and  placing  Spartan  harinosts  and 
garrisons  in  them,  with  the  local  oligarchs 
established  uniformly  in  power.  About  Novem- 
ber he  reachi'd  the  Saronic  gulf  and  blockaded 
the  Athenian  liarbor  of  Pineus,  while  an  o^-er- 
whclming  Pi'lupoimesian  land  force,  undir  the 
Lacedicmonian  king  Pausaiiias,  arrived  .simul- 
tjineoudly  in  Attica  and  encami)eil  at  the  gates  of 
the  city.  The  Athenians  had  no  longer  any  power 
except  the  power  to  endure,  and  that  they  exer- 
cised foi  more  tlian  three  months,  mainly  resisting 
the  demand  that  their  Long  Walls  —  the  walls 
which  protected  the  connictiiiii  of  the  city  with 
its  harbors  —  sliould  be  thrown  down.  Hut  when 
famine  had  thinned  the  ranks  of  the  citizens  and 
broken  the  spirit  of  the  survivors,  th-y  gave  up. 
"There  was  still  1,  high-spirited  minority  who 
entered  their  protest  and  preferred  death  by 
famine  to  such  i  ..'  !i|)])ortable  disgrace.  The 
large  majority.  In.  vever,  acceptcil  them  [the 
terms]  and  the  aecc/tance  was  iiiaile  known  to 
Lysander.  It  was  on  tl'.e  Kith  day  of  the  Attic 
month  Miinychion, —  iiuout  the  middle  or  end  of 
March, —  that  this  vict'>rious  en  uimnder  sailed 
into  tlie  Peinuus,  twenty-seven  years,  almost 
exactly,  after  the  surprise  of  Platiea  by  the 
Thebans,  which  op'  ned  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
Along  with  him  came  the  Athenian  exiles, 
several  of  whom  appear  to  have  lieeu  serving 
with  his  army  ami  assisting  him  with  their  coun- 
sel. "— O.  Grote,  Hint,  of  Greeee,  pt.  3.  cli.  fl.'j  (p.  8). 
—  The  Long  Walls  and  the  fortiflcations  of 
Pineus  were  demolished,  and  then  followed  the 
organization  of  an  oligarchical  government  ut 
Atlieiis.  resulting  in  the  reign  of  terror  under 
"  The  Thirty."— E.  Curtius,  lliat.  of  Greece,  bk.  4, 
ch.  5. 

Also  in:  Xenophon,  Hellenics,  bk.  2.  ch.  2.— 
Plutarch,  Lymmler. 

B.  C.  404-403.— The  tyranny  of  the  Thirty. 
— The  Year  of  Anarchy. — la  the  summer  of 
B.  C.  404.  following  the  siege  and  surrender  of 
Athens,  and  the  humiliating  close  of  the  long 
Peloponnesian  War,  the  returned  leaders  of  the 
oligarchical  party,  who  had  been  in  exile,  suc- 
ceeded with  theiielp  of  their  Spartan  friends,  in 
overthrowing  the  democratic  constitution  of  the 
city  and  establishing  themselves  in  power.  The 
revolution  was  accomplished  at  a  public  assem- 


.1^8 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  4)4-403. 


ATHENS,  n,  C;    3r,0-338. 


My  of  citizens,  in  the  prcsoncii  of  LyHnmlor,  flic 
victorious  Lnrnlirmoniiiii  ik  ininil,  wliosc  llirt 
In  tlin  IMrnMis  liiy  rriuiy  to  su'^iort  Ills  di  iiiiinds. 
"  In  tliUiissctnlily,  Driicontid  is,  iiHcoimilrcl  upon 
wlioni  rcpcriti'd  sentences  li.id  been  passed, 
broujilit  forward II  motion,  proposinft  the  transfer 
of  till'  K"verninent  Into  tlie  liands  of  Thirty  per- 
sons; and  Tlierainenes  supported  lliis  i)roposal 
wliieli  ill'  declared  to  e>  press  the  wishes  of 
Hparta.  Kvon  now,  tliesi  speeches  produced  a 
storm  of  indignation;  after  all  the  acts  of  vio- 
lence wliich  Athens  had  nnderifonc,  she  yet  con- 
tained men  outspoken  ciiou;.;h  to  venture  to 
(lefen<i  the  constitution,  and  to  appeal  to  tho 
fact  iiiat  the  eapitidtuion  siuictloned  by  both 
parties  contained  no  [irovNioTi  as  to  the  Internal 
nlTairs  of  Alliens,  Hut,  Jwr^uipon,  Fiysander 
himself  came  forward  and  spoke  to  the  citizens 
without  reserve,  like  oiw  who  was  their  absolute 
master.  ,  .  .  ll^-  such  means  the  motion  of  I)ra- 
contiius  was  passed;  bntonly  a  small  inimlier  of 
unpatriotic  and  cowardly  citizens  rai.scd  their 
liands  in  token  of  assent.  All  (letter  patriots 
contrived  to  avoid  participation  in  this  vote. 
Next,  ten  members  of  the  government  wen; 
chosen  liy  ('ritias  and  his  collea);ues  [tlu^  ('ritias 
of  Plato's  Dialogues,  pupil  of  Socrates,  and  now 
the  violent  and  lilooil-thirsty  leader  of  the  ami- 
democratic  revolutionj,  ten  l.y  Theramenes,  the 
contldential  friend  qf  Lysander,  and  tinally  ten 
out  of  the,  assembled  multitude,  probably  by  a 
free  vote;  and  this  boanlof  Thirty  was  hereupon 
established  as  the  supreme  government  authority 
by  a  resolution  of  the  assembly  jiresent.  Most 
of  the  members  of  the  new  government  had 
formerly  been  among  the  Four  Hundred,  and 
had  therefore  long  pursued  a  common  cour.se  of 
action."  The  Thirty  Tyrants  .so  placed  in  power 
were  masters  of  Athens  for  i'iglit  months,  and 
executed  their  will  without  conscience  or  mercy, 
having  a  garrison  of  Spartan  soldiers  in  tlie 
Acropolis  to  support  them.  They  were  also  sus- 
tjiined  by  a  picked  body  of  citizens,  "tiie  Three 
Thousand,"  who  bore  arms  while  other  citizens 
were  stripped  of  every  weapon.  liaigc  numbers 
of  the  more  jiatriotic  and  high-spii  '.id  Vtlienians 
had  escaped  from  their  unfortunate  city  ami  had 
taken  refuge,  chlclly  at  Thebes,  the  old  enemy 
of  Athens,  but  now  sympathetic  in  her  distress. 
At  Thebes  these  exiles  organized  themselves 
under  Thrasybulus  and  Anytus,  and  determined 
to  expel  the  tyrants  and  to  recover  their  homes. 
They  first  SLized  a  strong  post  at  Phyle,  hi 
Attica,  where  they  gained  in  numbers  rapidly, 
and  from  which  point  they  were  able  in  a  few 
weeks  to  advance  and  occupy  the  Piricus. 
When  the  troops  of  The  Thirty  came  out  to 
attack  them,  they  drew  back  to  the  adjacent 
height  of  Jluiiychia  and  there  fought  a  battle 
which  deliverecl  their  city  from  the  Tyrants. 
Critias,  the  master-spirit  of  the  usurpation,  was 
slain;  the  more  violent  of  his  colleagues  took 
refuge  at  Eleusis,  and  Athens,  for  a  time, 
remained  under  the  government  of  a  new  oligar- 
chical Board  of  Ten ;  while  Thrasybulus  and  the 
democratic  liberators  maintained  tlicir  headquar- 
ters at  Munychia.  All  parties  waited  the  action 
of  Sparta.  Lysander,  tlie  Spartan  general, 
marched  an  army  into  Attica  to  restore  the 
tyranny  which  was  of  his  own  creating ;  but  one 
of  the  two  Spartan  kings,  Pausanias,  intervened, 
assumed  the  command  in  his  own  person,  and 
appliwl  his  efforts  to  the  arranging  of  peace 


between  the  .Vtlicnian  parlies.  The  ri'sult  was  a 
restoration  of  the  deinoeralie  constitulion  of  the 
Attic  stale,  with  sonic' imporlaiit  reforms.  Sev- 
eral of  The  Thirty  were  put  lodeath,  —  treacher- 
ously, it  was  said, — but  an  amnesty  was  extended 
to  all  their  partisans.  TIk?  year  in  wliiili they 
and  The  Ti'n  controlled  affairs  was  termed  ill  the 
ollleial  annals  of  the  city  yie  Year  of  Anarchy, 
and  its  magistrates  were  tt«l  recognized. —  k. 
Curtius,  Jlint.  (if  OiYar,  bk.  4,,r/i.  ."t,  ainlbk.  5, 

<•/<.  1.  ; 

Ai.so  i\:  Xenophon,  JfellenirMk,  2,  r/i.  !l-l. — 
C.  Sankey,  T/n:  .S/xi/Vn/t  and  T/ief!ii^  Siijiriimi- 
cii'».  ch.  3-H 

B.  C.  395-387.— Coni'ederacT  against  Sparta. 

—  Alliance  with  Persia. —  The  Corinthian 
War. — Conon's  rebuilding  of  the  Long  Walls. 

—  Athenian  independence  restorea,  —  The 
Peace  of  Antalcidas.  See  Oiikkci;:  U,  (J.  liDO- 
;W7. 

B.  C.  378-371.— Brief  alliance  with  Thebes 
against  Sparta.    See  (iiiKWi;:  It.  (',  \iT.)-'Xi\. 

B.  C.  378-337.-  The  New  Confederacy  and 
the  Social  \Var. — Upon  the  liibcratiim  of  Thebes 
and  the  sign,  that  began  to  ap[)ear  of  tlie  decline 
of  Spartan  p  >  wer- -during  the  year  of  the  arclion- 
ship  oi  Nausiiii('us,  15.  C  378-7,  which  was  made 
meuK.rable  at  AtluiH  by  various  movements  of 
•loliticai  regeneration, —  the  organization  of  a  new 
Confederacy  was  undi'rtaken,  analagous  to  tliu 
Confederacy  of  Delos,  formed  a  century  before. 
Athens  was  to  be,  "  not  the  ruling  capitiil,  but 
only  the  directing  city  :n  possession  of  the  pri- 
macy, the  seat  of  the  iVderal  council.  .  .  .  Calli- 
stratus  was  in  a  scr  '  the  Aristides  of  the  new 
confederation  and  doubtless  did  much  to  bring 
about  an  agreement;  it  was  likewi.so  his  work 
that,  in  place  of  the  '  tributes '  of  odious  memory, 
the  payments  iieces.sary  to  the  existence  of  the 
confe(h'ration  were  introduced  under  the  gentler 
name  of 'contributions. '  .  .  .  Amicable  relations 
were  resumed  with  the  Cyclades,  Hliodes  and 
Perinthiis;  in  otlier  words,  the  ancient  union  of 
navies  was  at  once  reiuiwcd  upon  a  large  scale 
and  in  a  wide  extent.  Even  sucli  states  ioined 
it  as  liad  hitherto  never  stoinl  in  confederate  re- 
lations with  Atlicns,  above  all  Thebes." — E.  Cur- 
tius,  llisl.  0/  Greece,  bk.  0,  ch.  1.  —  This  second 
confederacy  renewed  much  of  the  prosperity  and 
induence  of  Athens  for  ;v  brief  period  of  about 
twenty  years.  But  in  3.'»7  B.  C,  four  imiiortant 
members  of  the  Confederacy,  namely,  Chios,  Cos, 
Rhodes,  and  Byzantium  leagued  themselves  in 
revolt,  with  the  aid  of  jMausoliis,  prince  at  Carta, 
and  an  inglorious  war  ensued,  known  as  the 
Social  War,  which  lasted  tliree  years.  Athens 
was  forced  at  last  to  assentto  the  secession  of  the 
four  revolted  cities  and  to  recognize  their  inde- 
pendence, which  greatly  impaired  her  prestige 
and  power,  just  at  tlic  time  wlien  she  w  .^  called 
upon  to  resist  the  cncroaclimenis  of  Philip  of 
Macedonia. —  C.  Thirl  wall,  JUkI  of  Oreece.  eh.  43. 

B.  C.  370-362.— Alliance  with  Sparta  against 
Thebes.— Battle  of  Mantinea.  See  Gkkece: 
B.  C.  371-303. 

B.  C.  359-338.- The  collision  with  Philip  of 
Macedon. — The  Policy  of  Demosthenes  and 
Policy  of  Phocion. — "  A  new  period  opens  with 
the  growth  of  the  Macedonian  power  under 
Philip  (3.59-330  B.  C.)  We  are  here  chiefly  con- 
cerned ti)  notice  the  effect  on  the  City-Statc  [of 
Athens],  not  only  of  the  strength  and  policy  of 
this  new  power,  but  also  of  the  efforts  of  the 


179 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  350-338. 


Demnnthenen 
and  !dacedon. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  336-323. 


Greeks  tliem.selves  to  counteract  it.  At  tlie  time 
of  I'liilip's  accession  the  so-ciilletl  Tliebiin 
suprcmiicv  Im<l  just  i)racticiilly  fn(Ie<l  with  the 
deal li  of  kiiainiiioiKlas.  Tlicrc  was  now  ii  l<iri(l 
of  balance  of  i)ower  lietweeri  llie  tliree  leadiiii; 
States,  .Sjjarla,  Alliens,  and  Tiielies,  no  one  of 
whicli  was  ;,'really  stronger  than  Ww  others;  and 
such  a  l)alance  could  easily  l)e  worked  upon  h}' 
any  grei.t  power  from  without.  Thus  when 
Macedoii  came  into  the  rniiLre  of  Greek  polities, 
under  a  man  of  ^r^t  diplotnatie  ns  well  as  niili 
tary  capacity,  who,  like  a  (,'/arof  to-day,  wislied 
to  secure  a  tlrin  footinij  on  the  seaboard  of  the 
.^i^ean  [see  GliKlxK;  W.  ('.  ariO-iriH],  she  found 
her  work  comparatively  easy.  The  stronj?  im- 
perial policy  of  Philip  foun(f  no  rei)l  antagonist 
except  at  Athens.  W(Mik  as  she  was,  and 
straitened  by  the  break-ui)  of  her  new  con- 
federacy, Athens  coidd  stil.  produce  mi^n  of 
great  talent  and  energy;  but  she  was  hampered 
by  divided  couu.sels.  Two  Athenians  of  tliis 
])eriod  seem  to  represent  the  eurn^nts  of  Greek 
political  thought,  now  running  in  two  different 
directions.  bemosthenes  represents  the  cause 
of  the  City-State  in  this  age,  of  a  uni(m,  that  is, 
of  perfectly  free  Hellenic  cities  against  the  com- 
mon enemy.  Phocion  represents  the  feeling, 
which  seems  to  liave  liecn  long  growing  up 
am.ing  thinking  men  at  Athens,  that  the  City- 
Stato  was  no  longer  what  it  had  l)een,  and  could 
no  longer  stand  li.\  itself;  that  what  was  needed 
was  a  general  Hellenic  peace,  and  possibly  even 
an  arbiter  from  without,  an  arbiter  not  wholly 
un-Hcllenic  like  the  Persian,  yet  one  who  might 
succeed  in  stilling  the  fatal  jealousies  of  the 
leading  States.  .  .  .  The  efforts  of  Demosthenes 
to  c;heck  Philip  fall  into  two  periods  divided  by 
the  peace  of  Philoerates  in  346  B.  C.  In  the 
first  of  these  he  is  acting  chiefly  with  Athens 
alone ;  Philip  is  to  him  not  so  much  the  common 
enemy  of  Greece  ns  the  dangerous  rival  of 
Athens  in  the  north.  His  whole  mind  was  given 
to  the  internal  reform  of  Athens  so  as  to 
strengthen  her  afe'ainst  Philip.  In  her  relation 
to  other  Greek  States  he  perhaps  hardly  saw 
beyond  a  balance  of  power.  .  .  .  After  346  his 
Athenian  feeling  scema  to  become  more  dis- 
tinctly Hellenic.  But  what  could  even  such  a 
man  as  Demosthenes  do  with  the  Hellas  of  that 
day  ?  He  coidd  not  force  on  the  Greeks  a  real 
anil  pernianent  union;  ho  could  but  urge  new 
allianc'js.  His  strength  was  spent  in  embassies 
witi,  this  object,  embassies  too  often  futile.  No 
alliance  could  save  Greece  from  the  Macedonian 
power,  as  subsequent  events  plainly  showed. 
What  was  needed  was  a  real  federal  tmion  be- 
tween the  leading  States,  with  a  strong  central 
controlling  force;  and  Demosthenes'  policy  was 
hopeless  just  because  Athens  could  never  be  the 
centre  of  such  a  union,  nor  could  any  other  city. 
Demosthenes  is  thus  the  last,  and  in  some  re- 
spects the  most  heroic  cliampion  of  the  old  Greek 
instinct  for  autonomy.  He  is  tlie  true  child  of 
the  City-State,  but  the  child  of  its  old  ago  and 
dcca'pitude.  He  still  believes  in  Athens,  and  it 
is  on  Athens  that  all  his  hopes  are  based.  He 
looks  on  Philip  as  one  who  must  inevitably  be 
the  foe  alike  of  Athens  ;iiid  of  Greece.  He 
seems  to  think  that  he  can  be  beaten  off  as  Xer.xes 
was,  and  to  f(,rget  that  even  Xer.\es  almost 
triumphed  over  the  divisions  of  the  Greek  States, 
and  that  Pliilip  is  a  nearer,  a  more  prominent, 
and  a  far  less  barbarian  foo.  .  .  .  Phocion  was 


tlic  somewhat  odd  exponent  of  the  practical  side 
of  a  school  of  thought  which  had  been  gaining 
strength  in  Creece  for  some  lime  past.  Tliis 
school  was  now  brought  into  prominence  by  the 
risi'  of  Macedon,  and  came  to  liave  a  marked  in- 
fliu'uce  on  the  history  of  the  City-State.  It 
began  with  the  philo.sophers,  and  with  the  idea 
that  the  iihilosoplier  may  belong  to  the  worhl  as 
well  as  to  a  |)articidar  city.  .  .  .  Athens  was  far 
more  open  to  criticism  now  than  in  the  days  of 
Pericles;  and  a  cynical  dislike  betrays  itself  in 
the  l{epublic  for  the  jxiliticiiuis  of  the  day  and 
their  tricks,  and  a  longing  for  a  strong  govern- 
ment of  reason.  .  .  .  Aristotle  took  the  facts  of 
city  life  as  they  were  and  showed  how  they 
might  be  made  the  most  of.  .  .  .  To  him  Mace- 
don was  assuredly  not  wholly  barbarian;  and 
war  to  the  death  with  her  kings  could  not  have 
been  to  him  as  natura!  or  desirable  ns  it  seemed 
to  Demosthenes.  And  tbough  he  has  nothing  to 
tell  us  of  .Macedon,  we  can  hardly  avoid  the  con- 
clusion that  his  desire  was  for  peace  and  interral 
reform,  even  if  it  mcto  under  the  guarantCij  of 
the  ni/rthern  i)ower.  ...  Of  this  philosophical 
view  of  Greek  politics  Phocion  was  in  a  manner 
the  political  exponent.  But  his  policy  was  too 
much  n  negative  one;  it  might  almost  be  called 
one  of  iadifferentism,  like  the  feeling  of  Lessing 
and  Goethe  in  Germany's  most  momc^ntous 
period  So  far  ns  we  know,  Phocion  never  pro- 
posed nn  nlliance  of  a  durable  kind,  either 
Athenian  or  Hellenic,  with  JIacedon;  he  was 
content  to  be  a  purely  restraining  intluence. 
Athens  had  been  constantly  at  war  since  433; 
lier  own  resources  were  of  ilio  weakest;  tliere 
was  little  military  skill  to  be  found  in  lier,  no 
reserve  force,  much  talk,  but  little  solid  courage. 
Athens  was  vulnerable  at  various  points,  and 
could  not  possibly  defend  more  than  one  at  a 
time,  therefore  Phocion  despaired  of  war,  and 
the  event  proved  him  right.  Tlie  faithfulness 
of  the  Athenians  towards  him  is  a  proof  that 
they  also  instinctively  felt  that  he  was  right. 
But  he  was  wanting  on  the  practical  and  creative 
side,  and  never  really  dominated  either  Athens, 
Greece,  or  Pliilip.  ...  A  policy  of  resistance 
found  the  City-State  too  weak  to  defend  itself;  a 
policy  of  inaction  would  land  it  in  a  Macedonian 
empire  which  would  still  further  weaken  its  re- 
maining vitality. «  The  first  policy,  that  of 
Demosthenes,  did  actually  result  in  disaster  and 
the  presence  of  Macedonian  garrisons  in  Greek 
cities.  The  second  policy  then  took  its  place, 
and  initiated  a  new  era  for  Greece.  After  the 
fatal  battle  of  Chajronea  (338  B.  C.)  Philip 
assumed  the  position  of  leader  of  the  Qreelc 
cities."— W.  W.  Fowler,  The  City-State  of  thi 
Orceks  and  Romans,  ch.  10. — See,  also,  Greece: 
357-336. 

B.  C.  340. — Alliance  with  Byzenttum  against 
Philip  of  Macedon.     See  Gueecb:  B.  C.  340. 

B.  C.  336-322.— End  of  the  Struggle  with 
the  Macedonians. —  Fall  of  Democracy. — 
Death  of  Demosthenes. — Athenian  decline. — 
"An  unexpected  incident  changes  the  whole 
aspect  of  things.  Philip  falls  the  victim  of 
assassination ;  and  a  youth,  who  as  yet  is  but  lit- 
tle known,  is  his  successor.  Immediately 
Demosthenes  institutes  a  second  alliance  of 
the  Greeks;  but  Alexander  suddenly  appears  be- 
fore Thebes;  the  terrible  vengeance  which  he 
here  takes,  instantly  destroys  the  league ;  Demos- 
thenes, Lycurgus,  and  several  of  their  support 


180 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  330-323. 


Afacedonian 
Hupiemacy. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  336-323. 


crs,  arc  required  to  1m;  lielivercd  up ;  but  Dcmndes 
is  nt  tlmt  time  able  to  seUle  the  (lilUculty  luul  to 
appease  the  kiii.i;.  His  strength  was  therefore 
enfeebled  as  Alexander  departed  for  Asia;  he 
begins  to  raise  his  head  once  more  when  Sparta 
attempts  to  throw  olT  the  yoke;  but  under  Anti- 
pater  he  is  overpowered.  Yet  it  was  about  this 
very  time  that  by  the  mr  it  celebrated  of  his  dis- 
courses be  gained  the  victory  over  the  most  elo- 
([uent  of  bis  adverec  ries ;  and  /Ksehines  was 
forced  to  dc^part  from  Athens.  But  this  seems 
only  to  have  the  uior ;  embittered  bis  enemies, 
the  leaders  of  the  51:  cedoniau  jiarty;  and  they 
soon  found  an  opporttuiity  of  preparing  his 
do\v;ifall.  When  Hirpaliis,  a  fugitive  from  the 
army  of  Alexander,  came  with  bis  treasures  to 
Athens,  and  the  (lU'jb'ion  arose,  whether  he  eotdd 
be  permitted  to  reniaia  there,  Demosthenes  was 
accused  of  having  been  corrupted  by  his 
money,  at  least  to  be  silent.  This  was  sulllcient 
to  procure  the  imposition  of  a  line;  and  as  this 
was  not  paid,  he  was  thrown  into  |)rison.  From 
thence  he  succeeded  in  escaping;  but  to  the  man 
who  lived  only  for  his  country,  e.xilo  was  no  less 
an  evil  than  imi)risonment.  lie  resided  for  the 
most  i)art  in  iEgina  and  at  Tnezen,  from  whence 
he  looked  with  moist  eyes  toward  the  neigh- 
bouring Attica.  Suddenly  and  unexpectedly  a 
new  ray  of  liglit  broke  through  the  clouds. 
Tidings  were  brought,  that  Alexander  was  dead. 
The  moment  of  deliverance  seemed  at  band;  the 
excitement  pervaded  every  Grecian  state;  the 
ambassadors  of  the  Athenians  i)assed  through 
the  cities;  Demosthenes  joined  himself  to  tlij 
number  and  exerted  all  liis  ehxiueuce  and  jjower 
to  luiitc  them  against  Macedonia.  In  requital 
for  such  services,  the  people  decreed  bis  return ; 
and  years  of  sufferings  were  at  last  followed  by 
a  day  of  exalted  compensation.  A  galley  was 
sent  to  .lEgiua  to  bring  back  the  advocate  of 
liberty,  ...  It  was  a  momentary  glimpse  of 
the  sun,  which  still  d-irker  clouds  were  soon  to 
conceal.  Autipater  and  Craterus  were  victori- 
ous; and  with  them  the  Macedonian  parly  in 
Athens;  Demosthenes  and  bis  friends  were  num- 
bered among  the  accused,  and  at  the  instigation 
of  Demades  w^re  condemned  to  die.  .  .  .  De- 
mosthenes had  'escaped  to  the  island  Calauria 
in  the  vicinity  ol  Troczen;  and  took  refuge  in 
the  temple  of  N(  ptuue.  It  was  to  no  purpose 
that  Archias,  tlu  satellite  of  Autipater,  urged 
him  to  surrender  himself  un<ler  promise  of  par- 
don. He  pretended  be  wished  to  write  some- 
thing; bit  the  (juill,  and  swallowed  the  poison 
contained  in  it." — A.  H.  L.  Heeren,  Reflections 
on  the  Politics  of  Ancient  Greece,  trniu.  by  O, 
Rincrofl,  pp.  278-280. — Sec,  also,  on  the  "Lamian 
War,"  the  suppression  of  Democracy  at  Athens, 
and  the  expulsion  of  poor  citizens,  Gukece:  B.  C. 
323-323.— "With  the  decline  of  political  indc- 
r  Mideuce,  .  .  .  the  mental  powers  of  the  nation 
received  a  fatal  blow.  No  longer  knit  together 
by  a  powerful  esprit  de  corps,  the  Greeks  lost  the 
habit  of  working  for  the  conunon  weal ;  and,  for 
the  most  i)art,  gave  themselves  up  to  the  petty 
interests  of  home  life  and  their  own  personal 
troubles.  Even  the  better  disposed  were  too 
nuich  oceu])ied  in  opposing  the  low  tone  and 
corruption  of  the  times,  to  be  able  to  devote 
themselves,  in  tlieir  moments  of  relaxation,  to  a 
free  and  speculative  consideration  of  things. 
Wliat  could  be  expected  in  such  an  age,  but  that 
philosophy   would   take  a  decidedly   practical 


turn,  if  indeed  it  were  .studied  at  all  ?  And  yet 
such  were  the  politir.u  antecedents  of  the  Stoic 
and  Epicurean  sj  stems  of  philosophy.  .  .  . 
Stoic  apathy.  Epicurean  self-satisfaction,  and 
SceiJtic  imperturbability,  were  the  (loctrines 
which  responded  to  the  political  helplessness  of 
the  age.  They  were  the  <loctrines,  too,  which 
met  with  the  most  general  acceptance.  The 
same  politica!  "'clplessuess  imxluced  the  sinking 
of  national  di:-  ctions  in  the  feeling  of  a  com- 
mon humanity,  ind  the  separation  of  morals 
from  politics  wh.ch  characterise  the  philosophy 
of  the  Alexand'ian  and  Roman  pcricxl.  The 
barriers  between  nations,  together  with  national 
independence,  bad  been  swept  away.  East  and 
West,  Greeks  and  barbarians,  were  united  in 
large  empires,  being  thus  thrown  together,  and 
brought  into  close  contact  on  every  possible 
point.  Philosophy  might  teach  that  all  men 
wer?  of  one  blood,  that  all  were  e(iually  citizens 
of  one  empire,  that  morality  rested  on  the  rela- 
tion of  man  to  bis  fellow  men,  independently  of 
nationalities  and  of  .social  ranks;  but  in  so  doing 
she  was  orly  explicitly  stating  truths  which  had 
been  already  realised  in  part,  and  which  were  in 
l)art  corollaries  from  the  existing  state  of  so- 
ciety."— E.  Zcller,  The  Utoics,  Kpicurcana,  and 
Sceptics,  pp.  10-18. — "What  we  have  said  con- 
cernmg  the  evidence  of  comedy  about  the  age  of 
the  fli'st  Diadochi  amounts  to  this:  Menander 
and  bis  successors  —  they  lasted  barely  two  gen- 
erations—  printed  in  a  few  stereotypes  a  small 
and  very  worthless  society  at  Athens.  There 
wos  no  doubt  a  .similar  set  of  people  at  Corinth, 
at  Thebes,  possibly  even  in  the  city  of  Lycur- 
gus.  These  people,  idle,  for  the  most  part  rich, 
and  in  good  society,  si)ent  their  earlier  years  in 
debauchery,  and  their  later  in  sentimental  reflec- 
tions and  regrets.  They  had  no  serious  object 
in  life,  and  regarded  the  complications  of  a  love 
affair  as  more  interesting  than  the  rise  and  fall 
of  kingdoms  or  the  gain  and  loss  of  a  nation's 
liberty.  They  were  like  the  people  of  our  day 
who  spend  all  their  time  reading  novels  from  the 
libraries,  and  who  can  tolerate  these  eternal 
variations  in  twaddle  not  only  without  disgust 
but  with  interest.  They  were  surroimded  with 
slaves,  on  the  whole  more  intelligent  and  inter- 
esting, for  in  the  first  place  slaves  were  bound 
to  exercise  their  brains,  and  in  the  second  they 
had  a  great  object  —  liberty  —  to  give  them  a 
keen  pursuit  in  life.  The  relations  of  the  sexes 
in  this  set  or  poition  of  society  were  bad,  owing 
to  tl  want  of  education  in  the  women,  and  the 
want  of  earnestness  in  the  men.  As  a  natural 
consequence  a  class  was  foui;il,  apart  from 
household  slaves,  who  took  ad'  iint;ige  of  these 
defects,  and,  bringing  culture  i  fascinate  un- 
principled men,  establisheil  those  relations 
which  brought  estrangements,  if  not  ruin,  into 
the  home  life  of  the  day." — ,1.  P.  Mahaffy,  O  eek 
Life  and  Thoxujht,  pp.  123-124. — "The  amount 
of  Persian  wealth  poured  into  Greece  by  the 
accidents  of  the  conqvicst,  not  by  its  own  indus- 
tries, must  have  produced  a  revolution  in  prices 
not  since  equalled  except  by  the  inllux  of  the 
gold  of  the  Aztecs  and  Incasinto  Spain.  I  have 
already  pointed  out  how  this  change  nuist  have 
l)ressed  upon  poor  people  in  Greece  who  did  not 
share  in  the  jilunder.  The  price  of  even  neces- 
sary and  simple  things  must  have  often  risen 
beyond  their  means.  For  the  udventurcre 
brought  home  large  fortunes,  and  the  traders 


181 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  330-322. 


Expnnninn  nf 
IletlenUm. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  330-323. 


nml  purveyors  of  1  111  armies  made  Ihem;  and  with 
thcoe  Kasleiii  forliinrs  nuist  liave  come  in  tlie 
tnste  for  all  tlie  superior  eomforls  and  luxuries 
wliieli  lliey  found  among  llii;  I'ersian  jtraTidees. 
Not  only  "llie  appointments  of  the  tahle,  in  tlie 
way  of  plate  and  pottery,  hut  llie  very  tastes  and 
flavours  of  (Ireek  cookery  must  have  protiled 
by  comparison  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Kast. 
So  also  the  furniture,  especially  in  carpets  and 
hangings,  must  have  copied  Persian  fashion, 
just  as  we  still  alTect  oriental  stulTs  and  designs. 
It  was  not  to  he  e.\pected  that  the  example  of  so 
many  regal  courts  and  so  much  royal  ceremony 
shoidd  not  alTect  those  in  contact  with  them. 
These  infhienecs  were  not  only  shown  in  the 
vulgar  '  braggart  captain,'  who  came  to  show  oil 
Ills  sudden  wealth  in  impudent  extnivagance 
among  his  old  townspeople,  but  in  the  ordinary 
life  of  ridi  young  men.  So  I  imagine  the  personal 
appointments  of  Alcibir.des,  which  WL'ro  the  talk 
of  Greece  in  his  day,  would  have  appeared  poor 
mid  mean  beside  those  of  Aratus,  or  of  the  gen- 
eration which  preceded  liim.  Pictures  and 
Btatues  began  to  ndorn  private  houses,  and  not 
temples  and  public  buildings  only  —  a  change 
beginning  to  show  itself  in  Dcmosthcnes's  day, 
but  coming  in  like  a  torrent  with  the  opening  of 
Greece  to  the  Eastern  world.  It  was  noticed 
that  Pliocion's  house  at  Athens  was  modest  in 
size  and  furnituie.  but  even  this  was  relieved 
from  sliabbiness  by  the  ((uaint  wall  decoration 
of  shining  i)lates  of  bronze  —  n  fashion  dating 
from  prehistoric  times,  but  still  admired  for  its 
very  anti<iuity." — .1.  P.  Malialfy,  Oriek  lAfe,  mul 
Thoui/ht,  [iji.  KW-IOO.  —  "The  modern  historians 
of  Greece  are  much  divided  on  the  ipiestiou 
where  a  history  of  Hellas  ought  to  end.  C'ur- 
tius  stops  with  the  battle  of  Cliaeroneia  and  the 
prostnitiou  of  Athens  before  the  advancing 
power  of  Alacedon.  Grote  narrates  the  cain- 
paigns  of  A,exander,  but  stops  short  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Lamiau  War,  when  Greece  had  in 
vain  tried  to  shake  olT  the  supremacy  of  his  gen- 
erals. Thirhvall  brings  his  narrative  down  to 
the  time  of  Mummiiis,  the  melancholy  sack  of 
Corinth  and  the  constitution  of  Achaia  as  a, 
Roman  province.  Of  these  divergent  views  we 
regard  tliat  of  the  German  historian  as  the  most 
correct.  .  .  .  The  historic  sense  of  Grote  did  not 
exclude  prejudices,  and  in  this  case  he  was 
probably  led  astray  by  political  bias.  At  the 
close  of  his  ninety-sixth  chap'  -r,  after  mentiim- 
ing  the  embassies  sent  by  the  degenerate  Athe- 
nians to  King  Ptoleiny,  King  Lysimachus,  and 
Antipater,  he  throws  ilown  his  pen  in  disgust, 
'and  with  sadness  and  humiliation  brings  his  nar- 
rative to  a  close.'  Athens  was  no  longer  free  and 
no  longer  dignified,  and  so  Jlr.  Grote  will  have 
done  with  Greece  at  the  very  moinent  when  the 
new  Comedy  was  at  its  height,  when  the 
Museum  was  founded  at  Alexandria,  when  ..le 
plays  of  Euripides  were  acted  at  Hahylon  and 
Cabul,  and  every  Greek  soldier  of  fortune  car- 
ried a,  diadem  in  his  baggage.  Surely  the  his- 
torian of  Greece  ought  either  to  have  stopped 
wlien  the  iron  hand  of  Philip  of  .Macedon  put  an 
end  to  the  liberties  and  the  ixilitical  wranglings 
of  Hellas,  or  else  persevered  to  the  time  when 
Home  and  Parthia  crushed  Greek  power  between 
them,  like  a  ship  between  two  icebergs.  No 
doiilit  his  reply  would  be,  that  he  declinetl  to 
regard  the  triumph  abroad  of  Macedonian  arms 
as  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  Hellus.  .  .  . 


The  truth  is,  that  the  history  of  Greece  consistx 
of  two  parts,  in  every  respect  contrasted  one 
with  the  other.  The  tll-st  recounts  the  stories  of 
the  Persian  and  I'eloponncsian  wars,  and  ends 
with  the  destruction  of  Thebes  and  the  subjuga- 
lion  of  Athens  and  Sparta.  The  Hellas  of  which 
it  speaks  is  a  cluster  of  autonomous  cities  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  the  Islands,  and  Northern  Greece, 
logetlier  with  their  colonies  scaltered  over  the 
coasts  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Thrace,  the  Black  Sea, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Africa.  These  cities  care  only 
to  be  independent,  or  at  most  to  lord  it  over  one 
another.  Their  political  in.stitiitions,  their  re- 
ligious ceremonies,  their  customs,  arc  civic  and 
local.  Language,  commerce,  a  common  Pan- 
theon, and  a  common  art  and  poetry  are  the  tics 
that  bind  them  together.  In  its  second  jiliase, 
Greek  history  begins  with  the  expedition  of 
Alexander.  It  reveals  to  us  the  Greek  as  every- 
where lord  of  the  barbarian,  as  founding  king- 
doms and  federal  systems,  as  the  instructor  of 
all  mankind  in  art  and  science,  and  the  spreader 
of  civil  and  civilized  life  over  the  known  world. 
In  tlie  first  period  of  her  history  Greece  is  form- 
ing herself,  in  her  second  she  is  educating  the 
world.  We  will  venture  to  borrow  from  the 
Germans  a  convenient  expression,  and  call  the 
history  of  independent  Greece  the  history  of 
Hellas,  that  of  imperial  Greece  the  history  of 
Hellenism.  .  .  .  The  Athens  of  Pericles  was 
dictator  among  the  cities  which  had  joined  her 
alliance.  Corinth,  Sparta,  Thebes,  were  each 
the  political  head  of  a  group  of  towns,  but  none 
of  tile  throe  admitted  these  latter  to  an  equal 
share  in  their  councils,  or  a<lopted  their  political 
views.  Even  in  the  Olynthian  League,  the 
city  of  Olynthus  occupied  a  position  quite 
superior  to  that  of  the  other  cities.  But  the 
Greek  cities  had  not  tried  the  experiment  of  an 
alliance  on  ccpial  terms.  This  was  now  at- 
tempted by  some  of  the  leading  cities  of  the 
Peloponnese,  and  the  result  was  the  Achaean 
League,  whose  history  sheds  a  lustre  on  the  last 
(lays  of  independent  Greece,  and  whose  generals 
will  bear  comparison  with  the  statesmen  of  any 
Greek  Hepnblic  [see  Gukkcf::  B.  C.  280-146 J. 
.  .  .  On  tiie  field  of  Sellasia  the  glorious  hopes 
of  Cleomenes  were  wrecked,  and  the  recently 
reformed  Sparta  was  handed  over  to  a  succession 
of  bloodthirsty  tyrants,  never  again  to  emerge 
from  obscurity.  But  to  the  Achneans  themselves 
the  interference  of  Macedon  was  little  le.ss  fatal. 
Henceforth  a  Macedonian  garrison  occupied 
Corinth,  which  had  been  one  of  the  chief  cities 
of  the  League;  and  King  Anligonus  Doson  was 
the  recognized  arbiter  in  all  disputes  of  the 
Peloponncsian  Greeks.  ...  In  Northern  Greece 
a  strange  contrast  iiresented  itself.  The  historic 
races  of  the  Athenians  anil  Boeotians  liuiguished 
in  peace,  obscurity,  and  luxury.  With  them 
every  day  saw  something  added  to  the"  enjoy- 
ments and  elegancies  of  life,  and  every  day 
politics  drifted  more  and  more  into  the  back- 
ground. On  the  other  hand,  the  rude  semi-Greeks 
of  the  West,  Aetoliaus,  Acarnaiiians,  and  Epi- 
rotes,  to  whose  manhood  the  repulse  of  the  Gauls 
was  mainly  due,  came  to  the  front  and  .showed 
the  bold  spirit  of  Greeks  divorced  from  the  finer 
factilties  of  tlie  race.  The  Acarnaniaus  formed 
a  league  somewhat  on  the  plan  of  the  Achaean. 
But  they  were  overshadowed  by  their  neighbors 
the  Aetoliaus,  whose  union  was  of  a  ditferent 
character.    It  was  tho  first  time  that  there  had 


182 


ATHENS,  B.  (J.  336-323. 


ATHENS,  B.  C.  200. 


been  formed  in  Hellas  ii  stiito  framed  in  order  to 
prey  upim  its  neighbours,  ...  In  the  course  of 
the'  Pcloponnesian  \V  ~.r  Greek  relijjion  beijan  to 
lose  its  hold  on  the  Greelis.  This  was  ])artly  the 
work  of  c  sophists  and  pliilosopliers,  who 
sousiht  more  lofly  and  moral  views  of  Deity 
tlian  were  furnished  by  llie  tales  of  popular 
mythology.  iStill  morn  it  resulted  from  growing 
materialism  among  the  people,  who  saw  more 
and  more  of  their  immediate  and  physieal  needs, 
and  less  and  less  of  the  underlving  spiritual 
elements  in  life.  But  thougli  plulosophy  and 
luaterialisni  had  made  tlio  n.'ligion  of  Hellas  paler 
and  feeliler,  they  had  not  altered  its  nature  or 
expanded  it.  It  still  remained  esseiUially 
national,  almost  triltal.  When,  therefore,  Greeks 
and  Macedonians  suddeidy  found  themselves 
masters  of  the  nations  of  tlie  East,  and  in  close 
contact  witli  a  hundred  forms  of  religion,  an 
extraordinary  and  rapid  change  took  jilaee  in 
their  religious  ideas.  In  religion,  as  in  other 
matters,  Egypt  set  to  the  worhl  the  example  of 
prompt  fusion  of  the  ideas  of  Greeks  and 
natives.  .  .  .  Into  Greece  i)roi)cr,  in  ntturn  for 
her  population  wliidi  flowed  out,  there  llowed 
in  a  crowd  of  foreign  deities.  Isis  was  especially 
welcomed  at  Athens,  where  she  fot.  id  many 
votaries.  In  every  cult  the  more  mysterious 
elements  were  made  more  of,  and  the  brighter 
and  more  materialistic  side  passed  by.  Old 
statues  which  liad  fallen  somewhat  into  con- 
tempt in  the  days  of  Pheidias  and  PraxiteU^s 
were  restored  to  their  places  and  received  ex- 
treme venemtion,  not  as  beautiful,  but  as  old 
and  strange.  On  the  coins  of  the  previous 
period  the  representations  of  deities  had  been 
always  the  best  that  the  die-cutter  could  frame, 
taking  as  his  models  tlu;  finest  contemporary 
sculpture;  but  henceforth  wo  often  find  them 
strange,  uncouth  figures,  remnants  of  a  jioriod 
of  struggling  early  art,  like  the  Aj)ollo  at 
Aniyclae,  or  the  Hera  of  Saiiios.  ...  In  the  iii- 
tellectiml  life  of  Athens  there  was  still  left 
vitality  enough  to  formulate  the  two  most  com- 
plete expressions  of  the  ethical  ideas  of  the 
times,  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics  and  the  Epi- 
cureans, towards  one  or  tlic  other  of  which  all 
educated  minds  from  tliat  day  to  this  have  been 
drawn.  No  doubt  our  knowledge  of  these  doc- 
trines, being  largely  drawn  from  the  Latin 
writers  and  their  Greek  contemporaries,  is  some- 
what coloured  and  unjust.  With  the  Uomans  a 
system  of  philosophy  was  considered  mainly  in 
its  bearing  upon  conduct,  whence  tlio  etl.ical 
elements  in  Stoicism  and  Epicurcaiiism  have 
been  by  their  Uoman  adherents  so  thrust  iiitr 
the  foreground,  that  we  have  almost  lost  siglit 
of  the  intellectual  elements,  which  can  have  had 
little  less  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  Greeks. 
Notwithstanding,  the  rise  of  the  two  philosophies 
must  bo  held  to  mark  a  new  era  in  the  history 
of  thought,  an  era  when  the  importance  of  con- 
duct was  for  the  first  time  recognized  by  the 
Greeks.  It  is  often  observed  that  the  ancient 
Greeks  were  more  modern  than  our  own  an- 
cestors of  the  Middle  Ages.  But  it  is  less 
generally  recognized  how  far  more  modern  than 
the  Greeks  of  Pericles  were  the  Greeks  of  Aratus. 
In  very  many  respects  the  age  of  Hellenism  and 
our  own  age  present  remarkable  similarity.  In 
botli  there  appears  a  sudden  increase  in  the 
power  over  material  nature,  arising  alike  from 
the  greater  accessibility  of  all  parts  of  the  world 


and  from  the  rapid  development  of  the  sciences 
which  act  upon  tlie  physical  forces  of  the  world. 
In  both  this  spread  of  science  and  power  acts 
upon  religion  with  a  dissolving  and,  if  we  may 
so  speak,  centrifugal  force,  driving  ,s(niie  men  to 
take  refuge  in  tiu'  most  conservative  forms  of 
faith,  sop.e  to  fly  to  new  creedsand  superstitions, 
some  to  drift  into  unmeasured  scepticism.  In 
botli  the  facility  of  moving  from  place  to  place, 
and  finding  a  distant  liome.  tenils  to  dissolve  the 
closeness  of  civic  and  family  life,  and  to  make 
the  individual  rallier  than  the  family  or  th(^  city 
tlie  unit  of  social  life.  And  in  the  family  re- 
lations, in  the  character  of  individuals,  iii  the 
state  of  iiiorali'y.  in  tlie  condition  of  art,  wo 
find  at  both  periods  similar  results  from  the 
similar  causes  we  have  mentioned. " — P.  Gardner, 
JVrin  Ch(i}it(rK  in  Ora-k  JiMori/,  rh.  1,5. 

B.  C.  317-316.— -Siege  by  Polysperchon.— 
Democracy  restored.— Execution  of  Phocion. 
—Demetrius  of  Phaleron  at  the  head  of  the 
government.     See  (tm;i'.('i;:  Ii,  ('.  iWl-:!!'.;, 

B.C.  307-i97.--Under  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
and  the  Antigonids.  See  Gkkkck  :  B.  V.  307- 
V.)7. 

B.  C.  288-263. — Twenty  years  of  Indepen- 
dence.— Siege  and  subjugation  by  Antigonus 
Gonatas. — \vheii  Denietrius  Poliorcetes  lost  the 
.Macedonian  tlirone,  15.  ('.  288,  his  fickle  Atlienian 
subjects  and  late  worshippers  rose  against  his 
autiiority,  drove  his  garrisons  from  tlie  .Museum 
and  the  Pirieus  and  abolished  the  priesthood 
they  had  consecrated  to  him.  Demetrius 
gathered  an  army  from  some  quarter  and  laid 
siege  to  the  city,  but  without  success.  The 
Atlienians  went  so  far  as  to  invite  Pyrrhus,  the 
warrior  king  of  Epinis,  to  assist  them  against 
him.  Pyrriius  came  and  Denietrius  retired. 
Tlio  dangerous  ally  contented  himself  with  a 
visit  to  the  Acropolis  as  a  worsliijiiier,  and  left 
Athens  in  pos.sessioii,  undisturbed,  of  her  fieslily 
gained  freedom.  It  was  enjoyed  after  a  fashion 
for  twer.iy  years,  at  tlie  end  of  wliicli  jicriod, 
B.  C.  288,  Antigonus  Gonatas.  the  son  of  Deme- 
trius, having  regained  the  .Macedonian  crown, 
reasserted  his  claim  on  Atliens,  and  the  city  was 
once  more  besieged.  Tlie  Lacediomoniaiis  mid 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt  both  gave  some  inclfectiial 
aid  to  tlic  Athenians,  and  the  siege,  interrupteil 
on  several  occasions,  was  iirolonged  until  B.  C. 
203,  when  Antigonus  took  i)os.se8sion  of  tlie 
Acropolis,  tlie  fortified  ^Iiiscum  and  the  Piiwiis 
as  a  master  (see  Macedoni.v,  ifce. :  B.  C.  277-244). 
Tills  was  sometimes  called  the  Chremonidean 
AVar,  from  the  name  of  a  jiatriotic  Atlienian  who 
took  the  ino.st  prominent  part  in  tlie  long  defence 
of  his  city. — C.  Tliirlwnll,  ITiit  of  Oirccc,  eh.  01. 

B.  €.'229. — Liberation  by  the  Achaian 
League.     See  Oukeck:  B.  C.  280-140. 

B.  C.  200. — Vandalism  of  the  second  Mace- 
donian Philip.— In  the  year  B,  C.  200  the  Mace- 
donian king,  Philip,  made  an  attempt  to  surprise 
Athens  an  .  iailed.  "He  then  encamped  in  tlie 
outskirts,  mvX  proceeded  to  wreak  his  vengeance 
on  the  Athenians,  as  he  bad  indulged  it  at 
Tlierinus  and  Pcrgamus.  He  destroyed  or  de- 
faced all  the  inonuments  of  religion  and  of  art, 
all  the  sacred  and  pleasant  places  which  adorned 
the  suburbs.  The  Academy,  the  Lyceum,  and 
Cynosarges,  with  their  temples,  schools,  groves 
anil  gai'dena,  were  all  wasted  with  fire.  Not 
oven  the  *  pulchres  were  spared." — C.  Thirlwall, 
Hist,  of  Greece,  ch.  04. 


183 


ATHENS,  y.  C.  197-A.  D.  138. 


Planting  of 
Christ  iauity. 


ATHENS,  A.  D.  54  (?). 


B,  C.  197-A.  D.  138.— Under   Roman  rule. 

— "  \tlicns  .  .  .  '.ii'onls  the  (lisliciirlcuiiii;  pic- 
ture (if  u  coiiimoMwciiltli  |miii|)<'recl  by  llio  su- 
pri'iiic  power,  uiiil  tlimncially  u.s  well  as  iiionilly 
ruined.  Hy  rights  it  ought  to  have  found  itself 
in  11  llourisliin);  condition.  .  .  .  No  cily  of  iin- 
tiquity  elsewhere  ])os.sessed  u  domain  of  its  own, 
such  .IS  was  Attica,  of  about  700  s(|Uare  miles. 
.  .  .  Hut  even  beyond  Attica  they  retained  what 
they  i)<)s.ses.se<l,  as  well  after  the  Milhridatic 
War.  bv  favour  of  Sulla,  as  after  the  Pharsalian 
battle.  In' which  tliey  had  taken  the  side  of  Pom 
peius.  by  the  favoiir  of  Ca'sar; — he  asked  them 
only  how  often  tliey  would  still  ruin  themselves 
and  trust  to  be  saved  by  the  renown  of  their  an- 
cestors. To  the  city  there  still  belonged  not 
merely  the  territory,  formerly  jiossessed  by 
Haliartus,  in  lJo(rolia.  but  also  on  theii  own 
coast  Salaniis.  tlie  old  startinjr-point  oi  their 
dominion  of  the  sen,  and  in  the  Thraciim  Sea  the 
lucrative  islands  Scyros,  Leinnos,  and  Imbros,  as  , 
well  as  Delos  in  the  AejT('an.  .  .  .  Of  the  fur- 
ther jiraiils,  which  they  had  the  skill  to  draw  by 
flattery  from  Antoninus,  Autfiistus.  a;j;ainst 
whom  they  had  taken  iiart,  took  from  them  cer- 
taiidy  Aegina  irul  Erctria  in  Kuboea,  but  they 
were  allowed  to  retain  the  smaller  islands  of  the 
Thracian  Sea.  .  .  .  Hadrian,  moreover,  gave  to 
them  the  best  i)art  of  the  great  island  of  (,'ephal- 
lenia  in  the  loiuan  Sea.  It  was  only  by  the 
Emperor  Severns,  who  bore  them  no  goinl  will, 
that  a  portion  of  these  extraneous  posses.si(Mis 
was  withdraw,  from  them.  Hadrian  further 
granted  to  the  Atln-.-'ians  the  delivery  of  a  cer- 
tain (juantity  of  grain  i;t  the  expense  of  the  em- 
pire, and  by  the  e.xtcu.sion  of  this  pri"ilege, 
hitherto  reserved  for  the  capital,  acknowledged 
Athens,  as  it  were,  as  another  metropolis.  Not 
less  was  the  bli.ssful  institute  of  alimentary  en- 
dowments, which  Italy  had  enjoyed  since  Trajan's 
time,  extended  by  Hadrian  to  Alliens,  and  the 
capital  requisite  for  this  purpose  certainly  pre- 
sented to  the  Athenians  from  his  purse.  .  .  . 
Yet  the  community  was  in  constant  distress. " — 
T.  Mommsen,  Tlist.  of  Jioine,  hk.  8,  <•//.  7. 

Also  IN:  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  The  Greek  World  under 
liomiiH  Sway. — See,  also,  Greece:  B.  C.  146- 
A.  D.  180. 

B.  C.  87-86.— Siege  and  capture  by  Sulla.— 
Massacre  of  citizens. — Pillage  and  depopula- 
tion.— Lasting  injuries. — The  early  successes  of 
Jlithridates  ot  Pontu.s,  in  his  .savage  war  with 
the  liomans,  included  a  general  rising  in  his 
favor  among  the  Greeks  [see  Mitiiuidatic 
AVaus],  suijported  by  the  fleets  of  the  Pontic 
king  and  by  a  strong  invading  army.  Athens 
and  the  I'irreus  were  the  strongholds  of  the 
Greek  revolt,  and  at  Athens  nn  adventurer  named 
Aristion,  bringing  from  Mithridates  a  body-guard 
of  2,000  soldiers,  made  himself  tyrant  of  the  city. 
A  year  pa.ssed  before  Rome,  distracted  by  the 
beginnings  of  civil  war,  could  effectively  niter- 
fere.  Then  Sulla  cnnie  (B.  C.  87)  and  laid  siege 
to  the  Piricus,  where  the  principal  Pontic  force 
was  hxlged,  while  he  shut  up  Athens  by  blockade. 
In  the  following  March,  Athens  was  starved  to 
such  weakness  that  the  Hoinans  entered  almost 
unopposed  and  killed  and  plundered  with  no 
mercy ;  but  the  buildings  of  the  city  suffered 
little  h.irm  at  their  hands.  The  siege  of  the 
Pincus  was  carried  on  for  scnne  weeks  longer, 
until  Sulhi  had  driven  the  Pontic  forces  from 
every  part  except  Munychia,  and  that  they  evacu- 


ated in  no  long  time. — W.  lime,  I/iKt.  of  liuiiu; 
hk.  7,  eh.  17. — "Athens  was  .  .  .  taken  by 
assault.  .  .  .  The  majority  of  the  citizens  was 
slain;  the  carnage  was  so  fearfully  great  as  to 
become  memorable  even  in  that  age  of  bloodshed  ; 
the  private  movable  property  was  seized  by  th(! 
soldiery,  and  Sylla  assumed  some  merit  to  him- 
.self  for  not  committing  the  ritlcd  houses  to  the 
llames.  .  .  .  The  fate  of  the  Pincus,  >vhich  he 
utterly  destroyed,  was  more  severe  than  that  of 
Athens.  From  Svila's  campaign  in  Greece  the 
commencement  ot  the  ruin  and  depopulation  of 
the  country  is  to  be  dated.  The  destruction  of 
property  caused  by  his  ravages  in  Attica  was  so 
great  that  Athens  from  that  time  lost  its  commer- 
cial as  well  as  its  political  importance.  The 
race  of  Athenian  citizens  was  almo.st  extirpated, 
and  a  new  population,  composed  of  a  heterogene- 
ous mass  01  settlers,  received  the  riglitof  citizen- 
ship."— G.  Finlay,  Greere  under  the  liomunn.  eh.  1. 
A.  D.  54  (?).-^The  Visit  of  St.  Paul.— Plant- 
ing of  Christianity. — "  When  the  .lews  of  Thes- 
salonica  had  knowledge  that  the  word  of  God 
was  ])roclaimed  of  Paul  at  Berca  also,  they  came 
thither  likewise,  stirring  up  and  troubling  the  mul- 
titude. And  then  immediately  the  brethren  sent 
forth  Paul  to  go  as  far  as  to  the  sea:  and  Silas 
and  Timoth'Mis  abode  there  still.  But  they  that 
conducted  Paul  brought  him  as  far  as  Athens; 
and  receiving  a  commandment  unto  Silas  and 
Tiniotheus  that  they  .should  come  to  him  with  all 
speed,  they  departed.  Now  while  Paul  waited 
for  them  at  Athens,  his  spirit  was  provoked 
within  him,  as  he  beheld  the  city  full  of  idols. 
So  he  reasoned  in  the  synagogue  with  the  Jews, 
and  the  devout  persons,  and  in  the  market  place 
every  day  with  them  that  met  with  him.  And 
certain  also  of  the  Epicurean  anil  Stoic  philoso- 
phers encotmtered  him.  And  some  said,  what 
would  this  babbler  say  ?  other  some.  He  scemeth 
to  be  a  setter  forth  of  strange  gods:  because  lie 
preached  Jesus  and  the  resurrection.  And  they 
took  hold  of  liiin,  and  brought  him  unto  the 
Areojiagus,  saying.  May  we  know  what  this  new 
teaching  is,  which  is  spoken  by  thee  ?  For  tliou 
bringest  certain  strange  things  to  our  eare:  we 
would  know  therefore  what  these  things  mean. 
(Now  all  the  Athenians  and  the  strangers  sojourn- 
ing there  spent  their  time  in  nothing  else,  but 
either  to  tell  or  to  hear  some  new  tliinj'.)  And 
Paul  stood  in  the  midstof  the  Areopagus,  and  said. 
Ye  men  ot  Athens,  in  all  things  I  perceive  that 
ye  are  somewhat  superstitious.  For  as  I  passed 
along  and  observed  the  objects  of  your  worship, 
I  found  also  p.n  altar  with  this  inscrijition,  '  To 
an  Unkno  .T.  God.'  What  therefore  ye  woi'sliip 
in  ignorance',  this  set  I  forth  unto  you.  .  .  .  Now 
when  they  heard  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
some  mocked ;  but  otlujrs  said.  We  will  hear  tlieo 
concerning  this  yet  again.  Thus  Paul  went  out 
from  among  them  Howbeit  certain  men  clave 
unto  him,  and  bel^  ved:  among  whom  also  was 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and  a  woman  named 
Damaris,  and  others  with  tliein." — Acta  of  the 
AjKstles,  lievised  Version,  ch.  17. — "Consider  the 
ditticultics  which  must  have  beset  the  planting 
of  tlie  Church  in  Athens.  If  the  burning  zeal  of 
the  great  Apostle  ever  permitted  him  to  feel 
diffldenco  in  addressing  an  assembly,  he  may  well 
have  felt  it  when  Ik  addressed  on  Mars'  Hill  for 
the  Ih'st  time  an  Athenian  crowd.  No  doubt  the 
Athens  of  his  time  was  in  her  tlecay,  inferior  iu 
opulence  and  grandeur  to  many  younger  cities. 


184 


ATHENS,  A.  D.  54  (?), 


ATHENS,  A.  D.  530. 


Yet  even  to  a  Jew,  provided  lie  hud  r^cei''e(l  some 
educiitioiml  impressions  l>ey(md  the  fiinatieitl 
sliibboletlis  of  Plmrisaism,  tliere  was  mueli  in 
tliat  wouderfiil  centre  of  intellijience  to  slialte  liis 
most  inveterati^  prejudices  and  inspire  liini  witli 
unwilling  respect.  Shorn  indeed  of  her  political 
greatness,  deprived  even  of  her  philosophical 
supremacy,  she  still  shone  with  a  hrilliant  after- 
glow of  tusthetic  and  intellectual  i)restige.  Her 
monuments  Hashed  on  the  visitor  numiories 
recent  enough  to  dazzle  his  imagination.  Her 
schools  claimed  and  obtained  even  from  Emperors 
the  homage  due  to  her  uni()ue  past.  Uecognis 
iug  her  as  the  true  nurse  of  Hellenism  and  the 
chief  missionary  of  human  refinement,  the  best 
spirits  of  the  age  held  her  worthy  of  admiring 
love  not  iinmi.xed  with  awe.  As  the  seat  of  the 
most  brilliant  and  popular  university,  young 
men  of  talent  and  position  (locked  to  her  from 
every  quarter,  studied  for  a  time  within  her  colon- 
nades, and  carried  thence  the  recollection  of  a 
culture  which  was  not  always  deep,  not  always 
erudite,  but  was  always  and  genuinely  Attic. 
To  subject  to  tlie  criticism  of  this  people  a 
doctrine  professing  to  come  direct  from  God,  a 
religion  and  not  a  philosophy,  depending  not  on 
argument  but  on  revelation,  was  a  task  of  which 
the  difflculties  might  seem  insuperable.  When 
we  consider  what  the  Athenian  character  was, 
this  language  will  not  seem  exaggerated.  Keen, 
subtle,  capricious,  satirical,  sated  with  ideas, 
eager  for  uo\'elty,  yet  with  the  eagerness  of 
amused  frivolity,  not  of  the  truth-seeker:  critical 
by  instinct,  exquisitely  sensitive  to  the  ridiculous 
or  tlie  absurd,  disputatious,  ready  to  listen,  yet 
impatient  of  all  that  was  not  wit,  satistied  with 
everything  in  life  except  its  shortness,  and  there- 
fore hiding  all  references  to  this  unwelcome  fact 
under  a  veil  of  complacent  eupliemism  —  where 
could  a  more  uncongenial  soil  be  found  for  the 
seed  of  the  Gospel  ?  ...  To  an  Athenian  the 
Jew  was  not  so  much  an  object  of  hatred  (as  to 
the  Roman),  nor  even  of  contempt  (as  to  the  rest 
of  mankind),  as  of  absolute  indifference.  He  was 
simply  ignored.  To  the  eclectic  philosophy 
which  now  dominated  the  schools  of  Athens, 
Judaism  alone  among  all  human  opinions  was  as 
if  non-existent.  That  Athenians  should  be  con- 
vinced by  the  philosophy  of  a  Jew  would  be  a 
proposition  expressible  in  words  but  wholly  des- 
titute of  meanirg.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Jew 
was  not  altogether  uninfluenced  by  Greek 
thought.  Wide  apart  as  the  two  minds  were,  the 
Hebraic  proved  not  insensible  to  the  charm  of  the 
Hellenic;  witness  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
witness  Philo,  witness  the  intrusion  of  Greek 
methods  of  interpretation  even  into  the  text-books 
of  Uabbinism.  And  it  was  Athens,  as  the  quin- 
tessence of  Hellas,  Athens  as  represented  by 
Socrates,  and  still  more  by  Plato,  which  had 
gained  this  subtle  power.  And  just  as  Judiea 
alone  among  all  the  Jewish  communities  retained 
its  exclusiveness  wholly  unimpaired  by  Hellen- 
ism, so  Athens,  more  than  any  Pagan  capital, 
was  likely  to  ignore  or  repel  a  faith  coming  in 
the  garb  of  Judaism.  And  yet  within  less  than 
a  century  we  find  this  faith  so  well  establislied 
there  as  to  yield  to  the  Church  the  good  fruits  of 
inarlyrdom  in  the  person  of  its  bishop,  and  of 
able  defences  in  tht;  person  of  three  of  its  teachers. 
The  early  and  th'.'  later  fortunes  of  the  Athenian 
C'liurch  are  buried  in  oblivicm;  it  comes  but  for 
a  brief  period  bcforo  the  scene  of  liistory.     But 


the  UP''.ying  interest  of  that  one  dramatic  moment 
when  Paul  proclaimed  a  bodily  resurrection  to 
the  authors  of  the  conception  ot  a  spiritual  im- 
mortality, will  always  cause  us  to  linger  \,ith  a 
strange  sympathy  over  every  relic  of  the  Chris- 
tianity ot  Athens."— (;.  T.  ('ruttwell,  A  Literary 
llixtiiry  of  Eurty  Chn'iilianili/,  r.  1,  h/c.  3,  rh.  4. 

Also  IN:  W.  ,J.  Conylx-are  and  J.  8.  Howson, 
Life  anil  Mtem  of  St.  Paul.  v.  1,  rh.  10.— P.  C. 
Baur,  Paul,  pt.  1,  ch.  7  (r  l). — On  the  in.scrip- 
tion,  see  E.  de  Pressense,  T/ie  Earlji  Yearn  of 
CfiriKtiaiiifi/ :   The  Apontolie  Era,  hk.  3,  eh.  1. 

A.  D.  125-134.— The  V70rks  of  Hadrian.— 
The  Emperor  Iliiilrian  interested  himself  greatly 
in  th(.'  venerable  decaying  capital  of  the  Greeks, 
which  he  visited,  or  resided  in,  for  considerable 
pericMis,  several  times,  between  A.  1).  135  and 
134.  These  visits  were  made  important  to  the 
city  by  tlie  great  works  of  rebuilding  which  ho 
undertook  and  supervised.  Large  parts  of  the 
city  are  thought  to  have  been  reconstructed  by 
him,  "in  tlie open  and  luxuriousstyleof  Antioch 
and  Epliesus. "  One  ((uarter  came  to  bo  called 
"  Hadrianapolis,"  as  though  he  had  created  it. 
Several  new  temples  were  erecte<l  at  his  com- 
mand; but  the  greatest  of  the  works  of  Hadrian 
at  Athens  was  the  completing  of  the  vast  national 
temple,  the  Olympieum,  the  beginning  of  which 
dated  back  to  the  age  of  Pisistnitus,  and  which 
Augustus  had  put  his  hand  to  without  finishing. 
— C.  llerivale.  Hint,  of  the  llomanK,  e/t,  00. 

A.  D.  267.— Capture  of,  by  the  Goths.  See 
GoTiis:  A.  D.  2.'58-307. 

A.  D.  305. —  Surrender  to  Alaric  and  the 
Goths. — Wlien  the  Goths  under  Alaric  invaded 
and  ravaged  Greece,  A.  D.  395,  Athens  was  sur- 
rendered to  them,  on  terms  which  saved  the  city 
from  being  plundered.  "The  fact  that  the 
depredations  of  Alaric  hardly  exceeded  the  ordi- 
nary license  of  a  rebellious  general,  is  .  .  .  per- 
fectly established.  The  public  buildings  and 
monuments  of  ancient  splendour  sulfered  no 
wanton  destruction  from  his  visit ;  but  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  Alaric  and  his  troops  levied 
heavy  contributions  on  the  city  and  its  inhabit- 
ants.— G.  Finlay,  Greece  under  the  liomans,  ch.2, 
sect.  8. 

Also  in;  E.  Gibbon,  Decline  ami  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  ch.  30. — See,  also,  Goths:  A.  D. 
395,  .i.L.^nic'8  Invasion  of  Greece. 

/ .,  D.  529. — Suppression  of  the  Schools  by 
Justinian. — "  The  Attic  schools  of  rhetoric  and 
philosophy  maintained  their  superior  reputation 
from  tlie  Peloponnesian  War  to  the  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian. Athens,  though  situate  in  a  barren  soil, 
possessed  a  pure  air,  a  free  navigation,  and  the 
monuments  of  ancient  art.  That  sacred  retire- 
ment was  seldom  disturbed  by  the  business  of 
trade  or  government ;  and  the  last  of  the  Athen- 
ians were  distinguished  by  their  lively  wit,  the 
purity  of  their  taste  and  language,  their  social 
manners,  and  some  traces,  at  least  in  discourse, 
of  the  magnanimity  of  their  fathers.  In  the 
suburbs  of  the  city,  the  Academy  of  the  Pla- 
tonists,  the  Lycajuin  of  the  Peripatetics,  the 
Portico  of  the  Stoics  and  the  Garden  of  the  Epi- 
cureans were  planted  with  trees  nnd  decorated 
with  statues;  and  the  philosophers,  instead  of 
being  immured  in  a  cloister,  delivered  their  in- 
structions in  spacious  and  pleasant  walks,  which, 
at  different  hours,  were  consecrated  to  the  exer- 
cises of  tlie  mind  and  body.  The  genius  of  the 
founders  stilllived  in  those  venerable  seats.  .  ,  . 


185 


ATHENS,   A.  D.  539. 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 


The  schools  of  Atheng  were  protected  by  the 
wisest  and  most  virtuous  of  tlie  iionmii  ])rinces. 
.  Some  vestige  of  royul  l)()unty  miiy  Ik;  found 
under  tliv;  suecessors  of  Constantine.  .  .  .  The 
golden  chain,  as  it  was  fondly  styled,  of  the  Pla- 
tonic succession,  continued  ...  to  tin-  edict  of 
Jiislinian  fA.  I).  n'JO]  whicli  imposed  a  per- 
petual silence  on  the  schools  of  Athens,  and 
excited  the  gri'.'f  and  indignation  of  the  few  re- 
maining votJiries  of  Greek  science  and  supersti- 
tion."— E.  Oiblion,  Decline  itnil  Fiillaf  the  Itomdii 
Kinpire,  eh.  Ait. 

A.  D.  1205. —  The  founding  of  the  Latin 
Dukedom. — "The  portion  of  Oreec^e  lying  to  the 
south  of  the  kingdom  of  Haloniki  was  divided  by 
the  Crusaders  [after  their  conquest  of  Constan- 
tinople, A.  I).  1204  — see  IJvzantink  E.mpike: 
A.  I).  120;t-12()4J  amcmg  several  great  feudatories 
of  th('  Empire  of  Itomania.  .  .  .  Tho  lords  of 
Boudop'tza,  Saliraa,  Ncgropont,  and  Athens  aru 
alone  mentio.ied  as  existing  to  the  north  of  tho 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  the  history  of  the  petty 
sover(!igns  of  Athens  can  alone  be  traced  in  any 
detail.  .  .  .  Otho  de  la  Uoche,  a  Burgundian 
nol)leinan,  who  had  distinguished  himself  (hiring 
the  siege  of  ('onslantinojile,  marched  southward 
with  the  army  of  Boniface  the  king-marquis,  and 
gained  possession  of  Athens  in  120.1.  Thebes 
and  Athens  had  probably  fallen  to  his  share  in 
the  partition  of  the  Empire,  but  it  is  possible  that 
the  king  of  Saloniki  may  have  found  means  to 
increase  his  portion,  in  order  to  induce  him  to  do 
homage  to  the  ('rown  of  Saloniki  for  this  addi- 
tion. At  all  events,  it  appears  that  Otho  de  la 
Koehc  did  liomage  to  Boniface,  either  as  his  im- 
mediate superior,  or  as  viceroy  for  the  Emperor 
of  Uomania.  .  .  .  Though  the  Byzantine  aristoc- 
racy and  dignified  clergy  were  severe  sufferers 
by  the  transference  of  tho  government  into  the 
hands  of  the  Franks,  the  middle  classes  long  en- 
joyed peace  and  security.  .  .  .  Tho  social  civili- 
zation of  tho  inhabitants,  and  their  ample  com- 
mand of  tho  necessaries  and  many  of  the  luxuries 
of  life,  wore  in  those  days  as  much  superior  to 
the  condition  of  the  citizens  of  Paris  and  London 
as  they  are  now  inferior.  .  .  .  The  city  was  large 
and  wealthy,  the  country  thickly  covered  with 
villages,  of  which  the  ruins  may  still  be  traced 
in  spots  affording  no  indications  of  Hellenic  sites. 
.  .  .  Tho  trade  of  Atlicns  was  considerable,  and 
the  luxury  of  the  Athenian  ducal  court  was  cele- 
brated in  all  the  regions  of  the  West  where  chiv- 
alry nourished. " —  G.  Finlay,  Hist,  of  Oreece  from 
its  Conquest  by  the  Crusaders,  ch.  7. 

Also  in:  C.  C.  Felton,  Qreeee,  Ancient  and 
Modcrv    Wi  Course,  kct.  5. 


A.  D.  1311-1456. —  Under  the  Catalans  and 
the  Florentines.  See  Catalan  Ouand  Com- 
pany. 

A.  D.  1456, —  The  Turks  in  possession. — 

Athens  was  not  occupied  by  the  Turiis  until 
three  years  after  the  concjuest  of  Constantinople 
(see  C'oNSTANTiNopi.K:  A.  I).  14r)l)).  In  the  mean- 
time the  reign  of  the  Florentine  dukes  of  the 
house  of  Acciaioli  came  to  a  tragical  close.  The 
last  of  the  dukes.  Maurice  Acciaioli  died,  leaving 
a  yoiuig  son  and  a  young  widow,  the  latter  re- 
nowned for  her  beauty  and  her  talents.  Tho 
duchess,  whom  the  will  of  her  husband  had  made 
regent,  married  a  comely  Venetian  named  Pal- 
merio,  who  waswiid  to  have  pois(med  his  wiH'  in 
order  to  be  free  to  accept  her  hand.  Thereupon 
a  nephew  of  the  late  duke,  named  Franco,  stirred 
up  insurrections  at  Athens  and  lied  to  Constanti- 
nople to  complain  to  tho  sultan,  Mahomet  II. 
"The  sultan,  glad  of  all  pretexts  that  coloured 
his  armed  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  these  prin- 
cipalities, ordered  Omar,  son  of  Tourakhan, chief 
of  the  permanent  army  of  tho  Peloponnesus,  to 
take  possession  of  Athens,  to  dethrone  tho 
duchess  anu  *o  confine  her  sons  in  his  prisons 
of  tho  citadel  of  Megara. "  This  was  done; 
but  Palmerio,  the  duchess's  husband,  made 
bis  way  to  the  sultan  and  interceded  in  her  be- 
half. "  Mahomet,  by  the  advice  of  his  viziers, 
feigned  to  listen  eciually  to  the  complaints  of 
Palmerio,  and  to  march  to  reestablish  tho  legiti- 
mate sovereignty.  But  already  Franco,  en- 
tering Megara  under  the  nusi)iccs  of  the  Otto- 
man.s,  had  strangled  both  tho  duchess  and  her 
sou.  Mahomet,  advancing  in  turn  to  punish  him 
for  his  vengeance,  expelled  Franco  from  Athens 
on  entering  it,  and  gave  liim,  in  compensation, 
tho  inferior  ami  dependent  principality  of  Thebes, 
in  Bocotia.  Tho  sultan,  as  lettered  as  ho  was 
warlike,  evinced  no  less  pride  and  admiration 
than  Sylla  at  the  sight  of  the  monumer.cs  of 
Athens.  '  What  gratitude,'  exclaimed  he  before 
the  Parthenon  and  the  temjdoof  Theseus,  'do  not 
religion  and  the  Empire  owe  to  the  son  of  Tour- 
aklian,  who  has  made  them  a  present  of  these 
spoils  of  the  genius  of  tho  Greeks. '" —  A.  Lamar- 
tine,  Hist,  of  Turkey,  bk.  13,  sect.  10-13. 

A.  D.  1466. — Capture  and  plundering^  by  the 
Venetians.     See  Greece  :  A.  D.  14.')4-1479. 

A.  D.  1687. —  Siege,  bombardment  and 
capture  by  the  Venetians. — Destructive  ex- 
plosion in  the  Parthenon.  See  Turks:  A.  1). 
1684-1696. 

A.  D.  1821-1829. — The  Greek  revolution  and 
war  of  independence. — Capture  by  the  Turks. 
See  Greece:  A.  D.  1831-1829. 


ATHERTON  gag,  The.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1836. 

ATHLONE,  Siege  of  (A.  D.  1691).  See 
Iueland:  a.  1).  1689-1691. 

ATHRAVAS.     See  Maqians. 

ATIMIA.— Tlio  penalty  of  Atlmia,  under 
ancient  Athenian  law,  was  tho  loss  of  civic 
rights. — Q.  F.  SchOmann,  Antiq.  of  Greece :  The 
State,  pt.  3.  ch.  3. 

ATIMUCA,    The.     See    American    Abo- 

RKIINES:   TiMtTCUA. 

ATLANTA :  A.  D.  1864  (May— September). 
— Sherman's  advance  to  the  city. — Its  siege 
and  capture.  See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 
(864  (.May:  GEOiiaLA);  and  (May — Septeubek: 
Georgia). 


A.  D.  1864  (September). — Exclusive  military 
occupation  of  the  city. — Removal  of  inhabit- 
ants. See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864 
(September — Octoher  :  Georgia). 

A.  D.  1864  (November). — Destruction  of  the 
city.  See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864 
(November — December  :  Georgia). 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN:  The  name.— The 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  mentioned  by  that  name  in  a 
single  passage  of  Herodotus;  "hut  it  is  clear, 
from  the  incidental  way  in  which  it  [the  name] 
is  here  introduced,  that  it  was  one  well  known  in 
his  day." — E.  H.  Bunbury,  Hist,  of  Ancient  Oeog., 
ch.  7,  sect.  1,  iwte. — For  a  sketch  of  tlie  history  of 
the  modern  use  of  the  name,  see  Pacific  Ojean. 


186 


ATREBATES. 


.TTICA. 


ATREBATES,  The.— This  nnmc  wns  liorno 
by  H  Irilx'  i"  iiinii'iit  Hclj^irdaul,  which  occupiccl 
modern  Arlois  and  part  of  Krcncli  Flanders,  and, 
also,  by  a  tribe  or  group  of  tribi's  in  Hrilain, 
which  dwelt  in  a  region  between  the  Tluunes 
and  the  Severn.  The  latter  was  probably  a 
colony  from  the  former.  Sec  Beloa;;  also 
IJiiiTAiN,  Cki.tic  TniUEs. 

ATROPATENE.  — MEDIA  ATROPA- 
TENE. — "  Atr()i)atene,  aH  a  naniefor  the  Alpine 
land  in  the  northwest  of  Iran  (now  AderlK'ijan), 
came  into  use  in  the  time  of  tlie  Greek  Empire 
[Alexander's] ;  at  any  rate  we  cannot  tra(.'o  it 
earlier.  'Athrapaiti  means  'lord  of  lire;' 
'Athrapata,'  'one  protected  by  Are ; '  in  the  re- 
mote mountains  of  this  district  the  old  flre- 
worship  was  ])rcservc<l  with  peculiar  zeal  under 
the  Seleucids. " — M.  1)\\ncker,  Jlist.  of  Aiitir/niti/, 
bk.  7,  (h.  4. — Atropatenc  "comprises  the  entire 
basin  of  Lake  Lrumiycb,  together  with  the 
country  intervening  between  that  basin  and  the 
high  moimtain  cliain  which  curves  roimd  the 
southwestern  corner  of  the  Caspian." — G.  Raw- 
linson,  I<Hve  Oreat  Moiinivldcn :  Media,  ch.  1. — 
Atropatenc  was  "named  in  honour  of  the  satrap 
Atropates,  who  bad  declared  liimself  king  after 
Alexander's  death." — J.  P.  JIahally,  Story  of 
Alexiiniler'a  Empire,  ch.  13. 

ATSINAS.      Sec    Amehican    Aborigines: 

Bl.ACKKKKT. 

ATTABEGS.     Sec  Atatieos. 
ATTACAPAN  FAMILY,  The.    SeeAMEiii- 

CAN   AuDHKilNKS:    AtTACAI'AN   FAMILY. 

ATTAMAN,  or  HETMAN.    Sec  Cossacks. 

ATTECOTTI,  The.  See  Otadeni;  also, 
Bnn'AiN,  Celtic  'riuiiES. 

ATTIC  SALT. —  Thyme  was  a  favorite  con- 
diment among  the  ancient  Greeks,  "which 
tlirove  nowhere  else  so  well  as  in  Attica,  Even 
salt  was  seasoned  with  thyme.  Attic  salt,  liow- 
ever,  is  famed  rather  in  the  figurative  tliau  in 
the  literal  sense,  and  did  not  form  an  article  of 
trade." — G.  F.  SchOmaun,  Aiitiq.  of  Greece:  J'/ie 
Sl,ct,\  pi.  3,  ch.  3. 

ATTIC  TALENT.     See  Talent. 

ATTIC  WAR,  The.  See  Ten  Yeahs' 
Wau. 

ATTICA. — "It  forms  a  rocky  peninsula, 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  trackless  moun- 
tains, and  jutting  so  far  out  into  the  Eastern 
Sea  that  it  lay  out  of  the  path  of  the  tribes 
moving  from  north  to  south.  Hence  the 
migratory  pa.ssages  which  agitated  the  whole  of 
Hellas  left  Attica  untouclicd,  and  for  this  reason 
Attic  history  is  not  divided  into  such  marked 
epochs  as  that  of  Peloponnesus;  it  possesses  a 
superior  unity,  and  presents  an  uninterrupted 
development  of  conditions  of  life  native  in  their 
origin  to  the  land.  ...  On  the  other  'laud 
Attica  was  perfectly  adapted  by  natu.e  for 
receiving  immigrants  from  the  sea.  For  the 
whole  country,  as  its  name  indicates,  coirsists  of 
coast-land;  and  the  coast  abounds  in  harbours, 
and  on  account  of  the  depth  of  water  in  the 
roads  is  everywhere  accessible ;  while  the  best  of 
its  i)laius  open  towards  the  coast  and  invite  the 
mariner  to  land.  The  first  liiudings  by  which 
the  monotonous  conditions  of  the  age  of  the 
Pelasgians  were  interrupted  where  those  of  the 
Phoenicians,  who  domesticated  the  wor'ship  of 
Aphrodite,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Tyrian  Jlelcar 
on  the  coasts.  Afterwards  the  tribes  of  the 
sUores  of  Asia  Minor  came  across;  in  the  first 


place  the  Carians,  who  intr(«lnrcd  the  worship 
of  llic  Carian  Zeus  and  Posiilon.  and  were  fol- 
lowed by  ('rctans,  I,y<'ians,  Dardanians  and  Old 
lonians.  Tlie  population  became  mixed.  .  .  . 
Tins  first  epoch  of  the  national  history  the 
ancients  connected  with  the  name  of  Cccrops. 
It  forms  the  transitiim  from  the  life  of  rural  dis- 
tricts and  villages  to  that  of  a  slate.  Attica  lias 
become  a  land  with  twelve  citadels,  in  each  of 
which  dwells  a  chieftain  or  king,  who  has  his 
domains,  his  suite,  and  his  sul)jects.  Every 
twelfth  is  a  state  i)y  itself,  with  its  separate 
|)ublic  hall  and  common  hearth.  If  under  these 
circumstances  a  cimuntm  national  hi.story  was  to 
be  attained  to,  one  of  the  twelve  towns,  dis- 
tinguished by  special  advantages  of  situation, 
would  have  to  become  tlie  capital.  And  to  such 
a  position  undeniable  advantages  entitled  the 
city  whose  ?•  at  was  in  the  plain  of  the  Cephisus. 
.  .  .  Into  the  centre  of  the  entire  plain  advances 
from  the  direction  of  Hymettus  a  group  of  rocky 
heiglits,  among  them  an  entirely  separate  and 
mighty  block  which,  with  tlio  cxcepticm  of  a 
narrow  access  from  the  west,  offers  on  all  sides 
vertically  precipitous  walls,  surmounted  by  a 
broad  level  sufiiciently  roomy  to  afford  si)ace  for 
the  sanctuaries  of  the  national  gods  and  the 
habitations  of  the  naticmal  rulers.  It  seems  as  if 
nature  hud  designedly  placed  this  rock  in  this 
l)()sition  as  the  ruling  castle  and  tlic  centre  of  the 
national  history.  This  is  the  Acropolis  of  Athens, 
among  the  twelve  castles  of  the  land  tliat  which 
was  preeminently  named  after  the  national  king 
Cecrops.  ...  So  far  from  being  sulliciently 
luxuriant  to  allow  even  the  idle  to  find  easy 
means  of  sustenance,  the  Attic  soil  was  stony, 
devoid  of  a  sufflcient  supply  of  water,  and  for 
the  most  part  only  adapted  to  the  cultivation 
of  barley;  everywhere  .  .  .  lal)our  and  a  regu- 
lated industry  were  needed.  But  this  labour  was 
not  unremunerative.  Whatever  orchard  and 
garden  fruits  prospered  were  peculiarly  delicate 
and  agreeable  to  the  taste ;  the  mountain-herbs 
were  nowhere  more  odourous  than  on  Hymettus; 
and  the  sea  aboimdcd  with  fish.  The  mountains, 
not  only  by  the  beauty  of  their  form  invest  the 
whole  sc(;nery  with  a  certain  nobility,  but  in  their 
depths  lay  an  abundance  of  the  most  excellent 
building-stime  and  silver  ore;  in  the  lowlands 
was  to  be  found  the  best  kind  of  clay  for  pur- 
poses of  manufacture.  The  materials  existed  for 
all  arts  and  handicrafts;  and  finally  Attica 
rejoiced  in  wliat  the  ancients  wei  wise  enough 
to  recognize  as  a  special  favour  of  Heaven,  a  dry 
and  tiimsparent  atmosphere,  by  its  peculiar 
clearness  productive  of  bodily  freshness,  health 
and  elasticity,  while  it  sharpened  the  senses,  dis- 
posed the  soul  to  cheerfulness  and  aroused  and 
animated  the  powera  of  the  mind.  Sucli  were 
the  institutions  of  the  land  which  was  developing 
the  germs  of  its  peculiar  history  at  the  time 
when  the  [Dorian]  migrations  were  agitating  the 
whole  mainland.  Though  Attica  was  not  her- 
self overrun  by  hostile  multitudes,  yet  about  the 
same  time  she  admitted  manifold  accessions  of 
foreign  population  in  smaller  groups.  By  this 
means  she  enjoyed  all  the  advantages  of  an 
invigorating  impulse  without  exposing  herself 
to  the  evils  of  a  violent  revolution.  .  .  .  The 
immigrauts  who  domesticated  themselves  in 
Attica  were  .  .  .  ohieUy  families  of  superior 
eminence,  so  that  Attica  gained  not  only  in 
numbers  of  population,  but  also  la  materials  of 


187 


ATTICA. 


AUGURS. 


OUHOfaof  rvpry  (l('H('ri|itii)ii."— K.  Curtlus,  IIM. 
tfOfteu,  bk.  3,  <•/!.  3. 

Al.HO  in:  .1.  r.  L<Kklmrl.  Attica  and  Athens. — 
8(!c.  iilsd.  ,\riiKN«:  TiiK  I1k.<iinnin(i. 

ATTILA'S  CONQUESTS  AND  EM- 
PIRE.    S(c  Hi  Ns. 

ATTIOUANDARONK,  The.  See  Amkui- 
v.\s  .Viiouiimnkm:   III  uons,  &c. 

ATTYADiE,  The.— The  tli-st  dynasty  of  tlio 
kinuH  of  Lyilia,  claiiiicil  to  Ik;  spnm;;  froin 
Attvs,  son  of  Ui(!  K'xl  Manes. —  M.  Ountkcr, 
Ui^i  of  A  itiiiuilii.  hk.  4,  ell.  17. 

AUJBAINE,  The  rieht  of. — "A  prcrogntivo 
t)y  wliicli  \\\v  Kings  of  France  claiincd  tlio  prop- 
erty of  foreigners  wlio  (iicil  in  tlieir  liingdoni 
witliout  lieirig  naturalized."  It  was  suppressed 
l)y  ('oll)ert,  in  tlie  reign  of  Louis  XIV. —  J.  A. 
Hiamiui,  llUt.  nf  Pol.  hhinomi/  in  Euroj)e,  p. 
28.1. 

AUCH:  Orifirin  of  the  name.    See  Aquitaine: 

TlIK  .\N(Ii;ST  TlllUKS. 

AUCKLAND,  Lord,  The  Indian  Adminis- 
tration of.     See  Imjia:  A.  I).  1W!0-1«-15, 

AUDENARDE.     .See  Orni.NAiinE. 

AUDIENCIAS.— "For  more  tlian  two  cen- 
turies and  11  lialf  tlie  wiiole  of  Soiitli  America, 
except  iini/.il,  .s<'ttled  down  under  tlio  colonial 
government  of  Spain,  and  during  the  greater 
part  of  that  time  tliis  vast  territory  was  under 
the  rule  of  the  Viceroys  of  Peru  residing  at 
Limn.  Tlie  impossibility  of  conducting  an  elll- 
cient  administration  from  such  a  centre  ...  at 
once  became  apparent.  Court.s  of  justice  called 
Audiuncias  were,  therefore,  established  in  the 
distJtnt  provinces,  and  their  presidents,  sometimes 
with  the  title  of  captains-general,  had  charge  of 
the  executive  under  the  orders  of  the  Viceroys. 
The  Atidiencia  of  Charcas  (tlie  mo<lern  Bolivia) 
was  established  in  1550.  Chile  was  ruled  by 
captains-general,  and  an  Audicncia  was  estab- 
lished at  Santiago  in  1508.  In  Now  Grenada  the 
president  of  tlie  Audicncia,  created  in  15U4,  was 
also  captain-general.  The  Audicncia  of  Quito, 
also  with  its  president  as  captain-general,  dated 
from  1542;  and  Venezuela  was  under  a  captain- 
general." —  C.  U.  Markham,  Colonial  Hist,  of 
S.  Am.  {Narrative  and  Critical  Hist,  of  Am.,  v. 
8,  p.  29.-)). 

AUERSTADT,  Battle  of.  See  Geumany: 
A.  I).  18()6  (OcTonEU). 

AUGEREAU,  Marshal,  Campaigns  of.  Sec 
France:  A.  D.  1797  (SEPrEMUEu) ;  Gekmanv: 
A.  D.  1806  (OcTOBEK);  Spain:  A.  D.  1809 
(FEimuAHY  —  June);  and  Russia:  A.  D.  1813 
(June  —  Septembeii);  1813  (August),  (Octo- 
BEn),  (OcToiiEK  —  Deckmhek). 

AUGHRIM,  OR  AGHRIM,  Battle  of  (A.  D. 
1691).     See  Ireland:  A.  D.  l«89-169i. 

AUGSBURG:  Origin.     See  Auousta  Vi>'- 

DEMCOKUM. 

A.  D.  955.— Great  defeat  of  the  Hungarians. 
See  HuNdAiiiANS:  A.  I).  934-955. 

A.  D.  1530. — Sitting  of  the  Diet.— Signing 
and  reading  of  the  Protestant  Confession  of 
Faith. — The  Imperial  Decree  condemning  the 
Protestants.     .See  Papacy:  A.  D.  1530-1531. 

A.  D.  1555.— The  Religious  Peace  con- 
cluded.    .Se<' Gkumany:  A.  n.  1.5.52-1.501. 

A.  D.  1646. — Unsuccessful  siege  by  Swedes 
and  French.     See  Geumany;  A.   I).  1046-1648. 

A.  D.  1686-1697.— The  League  and  the 
War  of  the  League.  Sec  Geumany  :  A.  D. 
1086;  and  FiiANCE:  A.  U.  1689-1690,  and  afUir. 


A.  D.  1703.— Taken  by  the  French.  See 
Geumany:  .V.  I).  1703. 

A.  D.  1801-1803.— One  of  six  free  cities 
which  survived  the  Peace  of  Luneville.  .Seo 
(iKilMANV:   .\.  I».  1.S()1-;h()3, 

A.  D.  1806. — Loss  of  municipal  freedom. — 
Absorption  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria.  Seo 
(Jeumany:  A.  I).   180.5-1806. 

AUGURS.  —  PONTIFICES.  ~  FETIA- 

LES.—"  There  was  .  .  .  enough  of  priest lioml 
and  of  i)riests  in  Ronie.  Tho.si',  however,  who  had 
business  with  a  god  resorted  to  the  god,  and  not 
to  the  priest.  ICvery  suppliant  and  inquirer  ad- 
dressed himself  directly  to  the  divinity  •  .  .  ; 
no  intervention  of  a  i)ricst  was  allowed  to  con- 
ceal or  to  obscure  this  original  and  simple  rela- 
tion. But  it  was  no  easy  matter  to  hold  con- 
verse with  a  god.  The  god  had  his  own  way  of 
speaking,  wliich  was  intelligible  onlv  to  those 
ac(|uaiiited  with  it;  but  one  who  did  rightly 
understand  it  knew  not  only  how  to  ascertain, 
but  also  how  to  manage,  the  will  of  the  ginl,  ami 
even  in  case  of  need  to  overreach  or  to  constrain 
him.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  the  wor- 
shipper of  the  god  should  regularly  consult  such 
men  of  skill  and  listen  to  tlieir  advice;  and 
thence  arose  the  corporations  or  colleges  of  men 
spocially  skilled  in  religious  lore,  a  thoroughly 
national  Italian  institution,  which  had  a  far 
more  important  iiitltience  on  political  develop- 
ment than  the  individual  priests  or  priesthoods. 
These  coHeges  have  been  often,  but  erroneously, 
confounded  with  tlie  priesthoixls.  Tho  prie.st- 
IkkmIs  wore  churged  with  the  worship  of  a  specific 
divinity.  .  .  .  Under  the  Roman  constitution 
and  that  of  tho  Latin  communities  iu  general 
there  were  originally  but  two  such  colleges: 
that  of  the  augurs  and  that  of  the  pontitices. 
The  six  augurs  were  skilled  in  interpreting  tho 
language  of  the  gods  from  tho  (light  of  birds; 
an  art  which  was  prosecuted  with  great  earnest- 
ness and  reduced  to  a  ciuasi-scientiflc  system. 
The  five  'bridge  buildere'  (pontifices)  tlerived 
their  name  from  their  function,  as  sacred  as  it 
was  politically  important,  of  conducting  tlie 
buildnig  and  demolition  of  the  bridge  over  the 
Tiber.  Tliey  were  the  Roman  engineers,  who 
undorstowl  the  mystery  of  measures  and  num- 
bers; whence  there  devolved  upon  them  also  the 
duties  of  managing  the  calendar  of  the  state,  of 
proclaiming  to  the  people  the  time  of  new  and 
full  moon  am'  the  days  of  festivals,  and  of  see- 
ing that  every  religious  and  eveiy  judicial  act 
took  jilace  on  the  right  day.  .  .  .  Thus  they  ac- 
(juired  (althou;;h  not  probably  to  the  full  extent 
till  after  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy)  the  gen- 
eral oversight  of  Roman  worship  and  of  what- 
ever was  connected  with  it.  [The  president  of 
their  college  was  called  the  Pontifex  JIaxiinus.] 
.  .  .  They  themselves  described  tho  sum  of  tlieir 
knowledge  as  '  tho  science  of  things  divine  and 
human.'  ...  By  the  side  of  these  two  oldest 
and  most  eminent  cm-porations  of  men  versed  in 
spiritual  lore  may  be  to  some  extent  ranked  tiie 
college  of  tho  twenty  state-heralds  (fotiales,  of 
uncertain  derivation)  destined  as  a  living  reiKisi- 
tory  to  preserve  traditionally  tho  remorabrauce 
of  the  treaties  concluded  with  neighboring  com- 
munities, to  pronounce  an  authoritative  opiuiun 
on  alleged  infractions  of  treatyrights,  and  in 
case  of  need  to  demand  satisfaction  and  declare 


MommsuD,  Uist.  of  Borne,  bk.  1,  eh  12 


188 


AUGURS. 


AUSPICES. 


At,ho  in:  E.  Giilil  niiil  W.  Konpr,  Life  of  the 
(Greeks  niul  llomdim,  lud.  103. — Sou,  ii\no,  Ai'h- 
pirK«.  and  FKxrM.KH. 

AUGUSTA  TREVIRORUM.    SteTiifevKH, 

OllKlIN  <1K. 

AUGUSTA  VEROMANDUORUM.— Mod- 

<Tii  St.  {iiictitiii.     Si'c  |{ki.(i.k. 

AUGUSTA  VINDELICORUM.  —  "  Au- 
gusta Viii(l('li((iriiin  is  the  iiii«lirii  Aiij?sl)ur(f, 
foiiiidcd,  it.  miiy  1m'  suppowd,  idumt  tlic  yciir  710 
[U.  C.  14)  lifter  tiu'  comiucst  of  Hliii'tiii  l)y  Driiaus. 
.  .  .  Tliu  ItincniricM  ivprcwiit,  it  ii.s  llin  ccntrt'  of 
tlip  roiul.s  from  Vrroim,  .'^irmium,  iiiid  Trcviri." 
— (!.  iMcrividc,  Hint,  of  the  lliimans,  ch.  'M, 
note. 

AUGUSTODUNUM.  — Tlio  Emperor  Aii- 
flHstus  clmiiiii'd  1li(!  immcof  Hibriu'tc  in  (tiiul  to 
Auj!;iisto(iuniim,  v  'li  tiniu  lins  corniptt'd,  sinco 
to  .\utiiii. 

AUGUSTONEMETUM.   8co  GKunoviA  of 

Till'.  .\IIVK11NI. 

AUGUSTUS.- AUGUSTA:  The  Title.- 

"  OdaviiiM  [sc(!  UoMi;:  \\.  V.  ;U-14|  liad  warily 
(iccliiii'd  any  of  tlio  recoj^nizpd  designations  ol 
sovereipn  ndc.  Antoniiis  lind  abolisiied  tlio  dic- 
latorsliip;  lii.s  Kiucessor  respected  the  acelama- 
tions  witli  wliieh  tlu!  people  liud  greeted  this  di;- 
eree.  Tlu^  voiees  wliicli  had  saluted  (Jiesar  witli 
the  title  of  kinij  were  peremptorily  eoinmanded 
to  bo  duml).  Yet  Oetavius  was  fully  awar(!  of 
tlie  infiuence  wliicli  attached  to  distinctive  titles 
of  honour.  While  lie  scnipiilotisly  renouiued 
the  names  upon  wliieh  the  lireath  of  human  jeal 
ousy  had  liiown,  he  conceived  tlio  subtler  poli<T 
of  ereatin;^  another  forliimself,  wliieli  borrowing; 
its  original  splendour  from  his  own  charaeter, 
siiouhl  reflect  upon  him  an  untarnished  lustre. 
.  .  .  The  epithet  Augustus  .  .  .  ha<l  never  lieen 
borne  by  any  man  before.  .  .  .  But  tlie  adjunet. 
though  never  given  to  a  man,  had  been  applied 
to  things  most  noble,  most  venerable  and  most 
(iiviue.  The  rites  of  the  gofls  were  called  august, 
the  temples  were  august;  the  word  itself  was  de- 
rived from  the  holy  auguries  by  which  the  divine 
will  was  revealed;  it  was  connected  with  tlio 
favour  and  nutliority  of  Jove  himself.  .  .  .  The 
illustrious  title  was  bestowed  upon  the  heir  of 
the  Cicsarian  Empire  in  tlie  middle  of  the  month 
of  January,  737  [B.  C.  27],  and  thenceforth  it  is 
by  the  name  of  Augustus  that  he  is  recognized 
in  Roman  history." — C.  Merivale,  Hint,  of  the 
liomans,  ch.  30. — "  AVhen  Octavianus  liatl  firmly 
establislied  his  power  and  was  now  left  without 
8  rival,  the  Senute,  being  desirous  of  distinguish- 
ing him  by  some  peculiar  and  emphatic  title,  de- 
creed, in  B.  C.  37,  tliat  ho  should  be  styled  Au- 
gustus, an  epithet  properly  applicable  to  some 
object  demanding  respect  and  veneration  beyond 
what  is  bestowed  upon  hi'.man  tliinga.  .  .  .  This 
being  an  honorary  appellation  ...  it  would,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  have  been  transmitted  by  in 
heritance  to  his  immediate  descendants.  .  .  . 
Claudius,  although  he  could  not  be  regarded  as 
a  descendant  of  Octavianus,  assumed  on  his  ac- 
cession the  title  of  Augustus,  and  his  example 
was  followed  by  all  succeeding  rulers  .  .  .  who 
communicated  the  title  of  Augusta  to  their  con- 
sorts."— W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of  liomaii  Antiq., 
(h.  5.— See.  also,  Rome:  B.  C.  31-A.  1).  14. 
AULA  REGIA,  The.    See  Cuuia  Regis  op 

THE  NOHMAN  KiNOS. 

AULDEARN,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1645).  Sc.? 
Scotlakd;  a.  D.  1644-1645. 

^^  189 


AULERCI,  The.— The  Aulorrl  were  an  ex- 
tensive nation  in  luirient  Oaul  which  (x'cupied 
the  country  frum  I  be  lower  course  of  the  .Seine  to 
the  .Mayenne.  It  was  sulHlivided  into  threo 
great  tribes  —  tli(^  Aulerc-i  Cenomauni,  Aulercl 
Diablinles  and  Aulerei  Kburoviees. — Napoleon 
J II.,  l/iKt.  of  ('ii'«,i,:  M:  ;t,  ch.  a. 

AULIC  council,  The.  See  Geilmanv: 
a.  I).  MiCl-l.THt. 

AUMALE  Battle  of  (159a).  See  Fhance; 
A.  I).  I.'.»l-|.ji).t. 

AUNEAU,  Battle  of  (1587).  See  Fhance: 
A.  I),  l."iM4-l.'iH!t. 

AURANGZEB,  Moghul  Emperor,  or  Padis- 
chah  of  India,  A.  I),  U(.">H-1707. 

AURAV,   Battle  of  (1365).     See  Biuttany: 

A.  I).  i;ui-i;ttr>. 

AURELIAN,  Roman  Emperor.  A.  I).  270- 
27.->, 

AURELIAN  ROAD,  The.— One  of  tlie  great 
Roninii  roads  of  aiiti(niilv,  whicli  ran  from  Home 
to  I'isa  and  Luna. — T.  .Momniseii,  J/iiit.  <f  Home, 
Ilk:  4,ch.  11. 

AURELIO,  King  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias, 
or  Oviedo,  A.  I).  7(IH-774. 

AURUNCANS,  The.     See  Aubonians;  also 

OSCANH. 

AUSCI,  The.    See  Aquitaine,  the  ancient 

TllIllKS, 

AUSGLEICH,  The.  See  Austiha:  A.  J). 
lH<i(i-lH(lT, 

AUSONIANS,  OR  AURUNCANS,  The.— 
A  tribe  of  the  ancient  Volscians,  wlio  dwelt  in 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Liris,  and  who  are  said 
to  have  been  exterminated  by  tlu^  Romans,  B.  C. 
314.— W.  Ihne,  Hist,  of  Jiome,  bk.  3,  ch.  10.— 
See,  also,  Oscans. 

AUSPICES,  Takingr  the.— "Th"  Romans, 
in  the  earlier  ages  of  their  history,  never  entered 
upon  any  important  buainess  wliatsoever, 
whether  public  or  private,  without  endeavouring, 
by  means  of  divination,  to  ascertain  the  will  of 
the  gmis  in  reference  to  the  undertal<ing.  ,  .  . 
Tills  operation  was  termed  'suniere  auspicia;' 
ond  if  the  omens  proved  unfavourable  the  busi- 
ness was  abandoned  or  deferred.  .  .  .  No  meet- 
ing of  the  Couiitia  Curiiita  nor  of  the  Comitia 
Centuriata  could  be  held  unless  tlie  auspices  had 
been  previously  taken.  ...  As  far  us  public 
proceedings  were  concerned,  no  private  in- 
dividual, even  among  the  patricians,  had  tho 
right  of  taking  auspices.  This  duty  devolved 
upon  the  supremo  magistrate  alone.  ...  In  an 
army  this  power  belonged  exclusively  to  the 
commander-in-chief;  and  hence  all  achievements 
were  sad  to  be  performed  under  his  auspices, 
even  although  he  were  not  present.  .  .  .  The 
objects  observed  in  taking  these  auspices  were 
birds,  tlie  class  of  animals  from  which  the  word 
is  derived  ('Auspicium  ab  ave  spicienda ').  Of 
tliese,  some  were  believed  to  give  indications  by 
their  flight  .  .  .  others  by  their  notes  or  cries 
.  .  .  wliile  a  third  class  consisted  of  cliickens. 
Cpulli ')  kept  in  cages.  Wlien  it  was  desired  to 
obtain  an  omen  from  those  lait,  food  was  placed 
before  them,  and  the  manner  in  which  tliey  com- 
ported themselves  was  closely  watclied.  .  .  .  The 
manner  of  taking  tlio  auspices  previous  to  the 
Comitia  was  as  follows: — The  magistrate  who 
was  to  presido  at  tlie  assembly  arose  .inmediately 
after  midniglit  on  the  day  for  wliicli  it  Imd  been 
summoned,  and  called  upon  an  augur  to  assist 
him.  .  ,  .  With  his  aid  a  region  of  the  sky  and 


AU8PICB». 


AUHTUALIA.  1601-1800. 


n  (tpncn  of  f;roiii)(l,  within  which  the  imspirrs 
wiTc  oliHcrvnl,  wen-  iimrkcil  (iiit  l>v  thi,'  (livinin^ 
BtutT  ('liliius')<if  Ihc  iiiiKur.  .  .  .  1'hiH  opL'nttioii 
wuH  pcrforiiiril  with  tliv  );ri'itti'Ht  can'.  ...  In 
iniii(in)f  the  ncrcHsary  olwcrvations,  tlif  l)r('si(li,'nt 
wax  Kuiil''!  ftilirclv  l»y  tliu  aii;;ui',  wlio  ri'p()rli'<l 
to  liini  tlic  iTHiiU." — \V.  Kuiuauy,  Manual  of 
Jiuni.  Aiitiij.,  eh.  4. 

A1.W1  in:  \V.  llinc,  y/iX.  of  Itome,  U:  6,  eh.  13. 
— Hcc.  ulsci.  Al'fiiu. 

AUSTERLITZ,  Battle  of.  Sec  Pkance: 
A.  I).  IH(I."m.Mmi«  II — Dkckmiikh). 

AUSTIN,  Stephen  F.,  and  the  settlement 
of  Texas.     Sir  Tkxah:  A.  D.  IMI'.I-IKI.-). 

AUSTIN  CANONS,  OR  CANONS  OF 
ST.  AUGUSTINE. -■•Alioul  tlic  michllc  of 
the  tllli  ('('iitiiry  iin  atli'inpt  liad  been  mad*' to 
redress  I  lie  balance  between  the  regular  and 
secular  elerfjy.  and  restore  to  the  latter  the  inllii- 
enee  and  eoiiHidi'ration  in  spiritual  matters  whieli 
they  had,  partly  by  their  own  fault,  already  to  a 
great  extent  lost.  Some  earnest  and  ihouKhtful 
epirits,  distressed  at  once  by  tlii^  abuse  of  monastic 
priviicffes  and  by  the  general  decay  of  eccleshisti- 
cal  order,  sou^rht  to  elTecla  reform  by  the  estiibllsh- 
ment  of  a  stricter  and  belter  orpinlzed  diseipliiiG 
in  those  cathedral  and  other  churches  which 
were  Ber\ed  by  coileftes  of  secular  ])rie8t8.  .  .  . 
Towards  the  becinninjf  of  tlie  twelfth  century 
the  attempts  at  canonical  reform  issueil  in  the 
f(  in  of  what  was  virtually  a  new  relif,'ious 
order,  that  of  the  Augustinians,  or  Oanons 
l{e;;ular  of  the  iirder  of  S.  Au)?ustiiie.  Like  the 
monks  and  unlike  the  secular  canons,  from  whom 
they  were  eiu'efully  distin>fnislied,  Ihev  ha<l  not 
only  their  table  and  dwelling  but  all  things  in 
common,  and  were  bouml  v  a  vow  to  the  obser- 
vance of  their  rule,  frrouiKied  upon  a  i)assaj;e  in 
one  of  the  letters  of  that  s'"<'at  father  of  the  Latin 
Church  from  whom  they  took  their  name.  Tlieir 
Hcheme  was  a  compnmiiso  between  the  old- 
fashioned  system  of  canons  and  timt  of  the  mon- 
Miitie  confraternities:  but  a  couipromise  leaning 
strongly  towards  the  monastic  side.  .  .  .  The 
Austin  <anons.  as  tiiey  were  commonly  called, 
made  their  way  across  the  channel  in  Henry's 
reign." — K.  Xorgate,  Enrjland  nntkr  the  Aixjnciii 
Jkiiif/n,  r.  1,  eh.  1. 

Also  in:  E.  L.  Cutts,  Scenes  and  Outractem  of 
the  MiiUllf  A'leit.  rh.  3. 

AUSTRALIA:  A.  D.  1601-1800.  — Dis- 
covery and  early  exploration. — The  founding 
of  the  penal  colonies  at  Sydney  and  Norfolk 
Island. — "Australia  has  had  no  Columbus.  It 
is  even  doubtful  if  the  llrst  navigators  who 
reached  her  shores  .set  out  with  any  idea  of  dis- 
covering a  great  south  land.  At  all  events,  it 
would  seem,  their  ncliievemonts  were  so  little 
esteemed  by  themselves  and  their  countrymen 
that  no  means  were  taken  to  i)rcscrve  their 
names  in  connexion  with  their  discoveries. 
Holland  hmg  had  the  credit  of  bringing  to  light 
the  existence  of  that  island-continent,  which  until 
recent  yeai-s  was  best  known  by  her  name.  In 
1801,  however,  Mr.  JIajor,  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  for  more  recent  research  upon  the  sub- 
ject, i)roduccd  evidence  which  appeared  to 
demonstrate  tliat  the  Portuguese  had  reached  the 
shores  of  Australia  in  1001,  live  years  before  the 
Dutch  yacht  Duyphen,  or  Dove, —  the  earliest 
vessel  whose  name  has  been  handed  down, — 
sighted,  about  March,  1000,  what  is  believed  to 
liave  been  the  coast  near  Cape  York.  Mr.  Major, 


In  a  lenmed  paper  read  before  the  Sooioty  of 
Anti(|uaries  in  1H72,  indicated  the  probability 
that  tlie  Ili-st  discovery  was  made  'in  or  lieforo 
the  year  1531.'  The  dates  of  two  of  the  six 
maps  from  widch  Mr.  Major  derives  his  Infor- 
mation are  1531  and  154'i.  The  latter  clearly 
indicates  Australia,  which  is  calledJa  vela  Grande. 
New  Zealand  is  also  mai'kcd." — F.  P.  Lnbllllere, 
Kivh)  IHkI.  of  the  Ciilonji  of  Vielni-ia,  eh.  1. —  In 
1000,  Di'  Quiros,  a  Spanish  navigator,  sailing  from 
Peru,  acro.ss  tlie  Pacille,  ii'iiched  a  shore  which 
stretched  so  far  that  he  look  it  to  bo  a  continent, 
"lie  called  the  place  '  Tierra  Australls  dc 
Kspiritu  Hanto,'  that  Is  '  Southern  Land  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.'  It  is  now  known  tliat  this  was 
not  "really  a  continent,  but  merely  one  of  the 
New  lle'.rldes  Islands,  and  more  than  a  thou.sand 
miles  away  from  the  mainland.  ...  In  after 
vears,  the  name  he  had  invented  was  ilivlded 
into  two  (larts:  the  island  he  had  really  dis- 
covered being  called  Espiritu  Santo,  while  the 
continent  he  thought  he  had  di.seovered  was 
called  Terra  Australls.  This  last  name  was 
shortened  by  another  discoverer — Flinders  —  to 
the  iiresent  "term  Australia."  After  the  visit  to 
tlic  Australian  coast  of  the  small  Dutch  ship,  the 
"  Dove,"  it  was  touched,  during  the  next  twenty 
years,  by  a  number  of  ve».sels  of  the  siinio 
"nationality.  "In  1023  a  Dutch  ship,  the 
'  Leeuwiii,' or 'Lioness,' sailed  along  the  south- 
ern coast,  and  its  name  was  given  to  the  south- 
west cape  of  Australia.  ...  In  1028  General 
Carpenter  sailed  completely  round  the  large 
Gulf  to  the  north,  which  has  taken  its  name 
from  this  circumstance.  Thus,  by  degrees,  all 
the  northern  and  western,  together  with  part  of 
the  Boutliern  shores,  came  to  1^  roughly  explored, 
and  the  Dutch  even  had  some  idea  of  colonizing 
tills  continent.  ,  ,  .  During  the  next  fourteen 
yi'ars  we  hear  no  mon;  of  voyages  to  Atislralia; 
but  in  1013  Antony  Van  Diemen,  the  Governor 
of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  tlie  East  Indies,  scat 
out  his  f-icnd  Abel  Jansen  Tasman,  with  i  vo 
ships,  to  make  discoveries  in  the  South  Seas." 
Tasman  discovered  the  island  which  ho  called 
Van  DicMuen's  Land,  but  which  has  since  been 
named  in  his  own  honor  —  Tasmania.  "This 
he  did  not  know  to  be  an  i.sland ;  ho  drew  it  on 
his  maps  as  if  it  were  a  peninsula  belonging  to  the 
mainland  of  Australia."  In  1090,  the  famous 
buccane(!r,  William  Daini)ier,  was  given  the  com- 
mand of  a  vessel  sent  out  to  tlio  southern  seas, 
and  ho  explored  about  000  miles  of  tho  north- 
western coast  of  Australia;  but  the  description 
which  lie  gave  of  the  country  did  not  encourage 
the  adventurous  to  seek  fortinie  in  it.  "  We  hear 
of  no  further  explorations  in  >*;iis  part  of  the 
world  until  nearly  a  century  utter;  and,  even 
then,  no  one  thought  of  sei  ding  out  ships 
specially  for  the  i)urposo.  But  'u  tlio  year  1770 
a  series  of  important  discoveries  verc  indircctly 
brought  about.  The  Royal  Society  of  Loiulon, 
calculating  that  the  planet  Venus  would  cross 
the  disc  of  tlie  sun  in  1709,  persuaded  the 
English  Qovornmeut  to  send  out  an  expedition  to 
tlie  Pacific  Ocean  for  the  purpose  of  making 
observations  on  this  event  which  would  enable 
astronomers  to  calculate  the  distance  of  tho  earth 
from  the  sun.  A  small  vessel,  the  '  Endeavour,' 
was  chosen ;  astronomers  with  their  instruments 
embarked,  and  the  whole  placed  under  tho  charge 
of "  the  renowned  sailor,  Captain  James  Cook. 
Tho  astronomical   purposes  of   the  expedition 


190 


AUSTHALIA.  1601-1800. 


AUSTHALIA.  1800-1840. 


wore  siitlsfiictnrily  iirc'ompUslicd  iit  Otnlicltr,  nnd 
Citptuiii  C.'(ii)k  llii'ii  priici'ciird  to  iiii  cxploriitlDii 
of  till'  shores  iif  Ni'W  Zcalimd  and  Austriilia. 
llaviiiff  entfrrd  ii  lino  bay  on  llir  soiillicastciii 
coa.st  of  Australia,  "he  cxainiiiad  tlw  coiinlry 
for  11  few  miles  lidatid,  and  two  of  Ids  Keientille 
frii-nds  —  Sir  .losepli  Hanks  anil  Dr.  Solander  — 
inades|)lendid  colleetlotis  of  botanical  specimens. 
From  this  circiunslancc  the  place  was  called 
IJotany  Hay.  and  Its  two  head-lands  received  th(' 
names  of  Cape  Itanks  and  Cape  Solaniler.  It 
was  here  that  Captain  Cook  .  .  .  look  imssession 
of  tile  couiilry  on  behalf  of  Ills  lirilannie 
Majesty,  givlni;  it  the  name  "  New  Soulli 
Wales,^  on  account  ol  the  resemblance  of  its 
coasts  to  the  southern  shoresof  Wales.  Shortly 
after  they  had  set  sail  from  Holany  Hay  theV 
ol)serv'ed  a  small  opening  In  tlie  land,  but  Cook 
did  not  slay  to  examine  it.  merely  marUini;  It  on 
his  chart  as  Port  .lackson.  In  honour  of  his  friend 
Sir  Georgi'  Jackson.  .  .  .  Tlie  reports  brou?;lit 
home  by  Captain  Cook  completely  changed  the 
beliefs  current  in  those  days  with  re.a;ard  to 
Auslraliii.  ...  It  so  happened  that,  shortly 
after  Cook's  return,  tlu^  KiiKlisli  nation  had  to 
(leal  with  n  /^real  dilllcidt.y  in  regard  to  its 
criminal  population.  In  1770  tlie  United  Slates 
declared  their  Independence,  and  the  IOn:;lisli 
then  founil  they  could  no  lonj^er  send  their  con- 
victs over  to  Virgiiua,  as  they  had  formerly  done. 
In  a  short  time  the  gaols  of  England  were 
crowded  with  felons.  It  became  neces.sa.y  to 
select  11  new  place  of  transportation:  and,  just  as 
this  (UHlcuIly  arose.  Captain  Cook's  voyages 
called  attention  to  a  land  in  every  way  suited  for 
such  a  i)urpose.  botli  by  reason  of  its  ferlility 
and  of  its  great  distance.  Vi.scuunt  Sydney,  tlieie- 
fore,  determine<l  to  send  out  a  party  to  Botany 
Bav,  lu  order  to  found  a  convict  settlement  there ; 
and  in  May,  1787,  a  fleet  was  ready  to  sail." 
After  a  voyage  of  eight  months  the  lleet  arrived 
at  Botany  Baj',  in  January.  1788.  The  watew 
of  the  Bay  were  found  to  bo  too  shallow  for  a 
proper  harbour,  and  Captain  Phillip,  the 
appoinl.ed  Governor  of  the  settlement,  set  out, 
with  three  boats,  to  search  for  something  better. 
"As  he  pa.ssed  along  the  coast  he  turned  to 
cxa'iilne  the  opening  which  Captain  Cook  had 
called  Port  Jackson,  and  soon  found  himself  in  a 
winding  channel  of  water,  with  great  clilTs 
frowning  overhead.  All  at  once  a  magnificent 
prospect  opened  on  his  eyes.  A  harbour,  which 
is,  perhap.s,  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect  in  the 
worlil,  stretched  before  him  far  to  the  west,  till 
it  was  lost  <m  the  distant  horizon.  It  seemed  a 
vast  maze  of  winding  waters, dotted  hero  and 
there  with  lovely  islets.  .  .  .  Captain  Phillip 
selected,  as  the  pinco  most  suitable  to  the  settle- 
ment, u  small  inlet,  which,  in  honour  of  the 
Minister  of  State,  ho  called  Sydney  Covo.  It 
was  so  deep  as  to  allow  vessels  to  approach 
within  a  yard  or  two  of  tlie  shore."  Great 
dilficulties  and  sufferings  attended  the  founding 
of  tlie  penal  settlement,  and  many  died  of  actual 
starvation  as  well  as  of  (lisease ;  but  in  twelve  years 
the  population  had  liseu  to  between  (),000  and 
7,000  persons.  Meantime  a  branch  colony  had 
been  established  on  Norfolk  Island.  In  1793 
Governor  Phillip,  broken  in  health,  had  resigned, 
and  in  1795  he  had  been  succeeded  by  Governor 
Hunter.  "AVheu  Governor  Hunter  arrived,  in 
1795,  he  brought  with  him,  on  board  his  ship, 
tlie  'Keliance;'  a  young  surgeon,  George  Bass, 


and  a  mhlshipman  called  Matthew  Kllnder*. 
They  Were  young  men  of  the  most  admirable 
character.  .  .  .  Within  a  month  after  their 
arrival  Ihcy  purchased  a  small  boat  about  eight 
feet  in  lengtii.  which  Ihcy  christened  the  'Tom 
Thumb.'  Hs  crew  consisteil  of  Ibemselvcs  and  a 
boy  to  assist."  In  this  small  craft  they  began  a 
survey  of  the  coast,  usefully  charllng  many 
miles  of  it.  Soon  afterwards,  ('}eorg(^  Ha.ss,  In  an 
open  whale  boat,  pursued  his  exploralions  south- 
wards, to  till!  region  now  called  Victoria,  and 
through  tlii^  straits  which  bear  his  name,  lliiis 
discovering  llie  fact  that  Van  Dlemcn's  l.and,  or 
Tasmania,  is  an  Island,  n<il  a  peninsula.  In 
1708,  Bass  and  Klindcrs,  again  associated  and 
furnislie<l  with  a  small  sloop,  sailed  round  and 
surveyed  the  entire  coast  of  Van  Diemens  Land. 
Bass  now  went  to  .South  America  and  Ihere  dis- 
appeared. Flinders  was  commissioned  by  Ihu 
Hntisli  (iovernment  In  181)1)  to  make  jincxtcnslvo 
survey  of  the  Austndiaii  coasts,  and  did  so. 
Kelurning  to  England  with  his  maps,  lie  was 
laUcii  iirlsoner  on  tlie  way  by  tlu!  French  and 
held  in  captivity  for  six  years,  wliilu  tlie  fruits 
of  his  labor  were  stolen.  lU:  died  a  few  years 
after  being  rehiased. — A.  and  G.  Sutherland, 
Ifint.    'f  AuntrdliK,  eh.  1-3. 

Also  in:  G.  W.  Uusden,  Jlint.  of  Auatralin,  eh. 
l-:i  ((',  1). 

A.  D.  1800-1840.— Beginning  of  the  Pros- 
perity of  New  South  Wales.— Introduction  of 
sheep-farming. — The  founding  of  Victoria  and 
South  Australia. — "  For  tweiily  years  and  more 
no  one  at  homo  gwvo  a  thought  to  New  South 
Wales,  or  'Botany  Bay,'  as  it  was  still  erron- 
eously called,  unless  in  vague  horror  and  com- 
passion for  the  poor  creatures  who  lived  there  in 
exile  and  starvation.  The  only  civilizing  cle- 
ment in  the  place  was  the  incsenco  of  a  devoted 
c:lergyman  named  Johnson,  who  liad  voluntarily 
aecompaiiie<l  the  llrst  batch  of  convicts.  .  .  . 
Colonel  Lachlan  JIacquarie  entered  on  tlie  ollico 
of  governor  in  1810,  and  ruled  the  settlement  for 
twelve  yeai-s.  His  administration  was  the  tli-st 
turning  point  In  its  history.  .  .  .  Alaciiuarie  saw 
tliat  llie  best  and  cheapest  way  of  ruling  llie 
convicts  was  to  make  them  freemen  as  soon  as 
possible.  Before  his  time,  the  governors  had 
looked  on  the  convicts  as  slaves,  to  be  worked 
for  the  profit  of  tlio  government  and  of  the  free- 
settlers.  ]Mac<iuarie  did  all  ho  could  to  elevate 
the  class  of  emancipists,  and  to  encourage  the 
convicts  to  persevere  in  sober  industry  in  the 
hope  of  cno  day  ac<iulring  a  respectable  position. 
He  beiran  to  di.5toptinuo  the  government  farms, 
and  to  employ  the  cuvicts  in  road-making,  so  as 
to  extend  the  colony  m  all  directions.  When  ho 
came  to  Sydney,  the  country  more  than  u  day's 
ride  from  the  town  was  (iiiito  unknown.  I'lio 
growth  of  the  settlement  was  stopped  on  tlio 
west  by  a  range  called  the  Blue  .Mountains, 
which  before  his  time  no  one  had  succeeded  in 
cro.sslng.  But  in  1813,  there  came  a  drought 
upon  the  colony:  the  cattle,  on  which  everything 
depended,  wore  tmable  to  find  food.  jNIacciuaric 
surmised  that  there  in>:st  bo  plenty  of  pasture  oa 
the  plains  above  tho  Bli'o  'T';j:itains:  he  sent  an 
exploring  party,  tellinr,  them  that  a  pass  must 
be_  discovered.  In  a  few  months,  not  only  was 
this  task  accomplished,  and  the  vast  and  fertile 
pastures  of  Bathurst  reached,  but  a  road  130 
miles  long  was  made,  couuectiug  them  with  Syd- 
ney,    The  Lachlan  and  3lac(xuarie  rivers  wore 


191 


AUSTIIAMA.  1800-1840. 


AL'STIiALlA,  1800-1840. 


Kil  nut  to  till'  wrHt  (if  tlit^  tthw  MoiiiitalnN. 
IcHthlll,  colli   WIIH  follllll  111    llll'  lllolltll  llf  till' 

HnntiT  rlviT,  liml  tlir  Hclllctlirlil  ilt  NcwniHlIc 
fiiriiii'il.  .  .  .  Wlii'ii  il  iMTiuiir  known  lliiil  the 
|M'nitl  w'ttlrnicnt  wiiM  ){rii(liially  iHTiiniiti);  ii  frri- 
I'olonv,  itnil  tliiit  Sydney  luiil  ItM  |io|iiilitlliin  wrrc 
riipliny  clmnKinK  tliclr  cliiiriu'tcr.  I'nirliili  ami 
Hi'iiii'li  |M'o|>lt'  HiHni  Im'||ioii);IiI  tliriu  of  cini 
^'nitiiiji;  to  the  new  country.  .\iiici|iiiirii'  rcliirnnl 
lionic  in  \Hi-i,  lca>inu  New  Sonlli  WalcH  four 
tiini'MiiH  |)<i|iiiloiis,  anil  twenty  llnirs  as  larKe  a.s 
when  lie  went  out,  ami  ininy  years  in  aiivanec  of 
wiiat  II  iiil);iit  liave  lieen  uniler  a  less  iilile  anil 
«'Mer;fetie  (governor.  'I'lie  discovery  of  tlie  line 
pastures  iH'yond  tlie  lllue  .Mountains  Hcttled  the 
destiny  of  "the  colonv.  The  s4'tlltTS  came  up 
tliitlier  with  their  IIis'Kh  lon>;  iK'fore  .Maei|narle's 
road  was  linisiied:  and  II  liirned  out  tiiat  tlie 
downs  of  Australia  were  llie  liest  shecp-wallvs  in 
tiie  world.  Till'  sheep  thrives  biiti'r  there,  and 
prixliiees  liner  and  inorealiundaiil  wool,  than  any- 
where  else,  .loliii  .Maearlliiir.  a  lieiilenant  In  llie 
New  South  Wales  corps,  had  spent  several  years 
In  ^illd^  inn  the  elTect,  of  tlie  Anstraliiin  clliniile 
upon  the  sheep;  and  he  rli;litly  Hiirniised  that 
the  stii|ile  of  the  colony  would  Ih-  its  line  wool. 
In  1M(K(,  he  went  to  Knulaiid  and  procured  some 
pure  Spanish  merini)  sheep  from  the  Hock  of 
(JeorKi!  III.  .  .  .  The  I'rivy  Council  listened  to 
his  wool  projects,  and  he  received  a  lar^^n  grant, 
(if  land.  .Mai  artliur  had  found  out  tlie  true  way 
to  Australian  prosjierily.  When  tliu  jfrcat  up- 
land pastures  were  discovered,  the  nierino  lireed 
was  well  estuhlisheil  hi  tile  colony;  and  the 
glieepowners,  wiihoui  waiting  for  grants,  spread 
Willi  tliiir  Hocks  over  ininiense  tracts  of  (ouiitry. 
This  was  Ihu  lieginniiii;  of  what  is  called  sipiat- 
tiiig.  The  tKiualters  aficrwaids  jiaid  a  ipiit  rent 
to  llie  goveriimenl  and  thus  ;fot  their  runs,  as 
tli'7  called  the  great  districts  where  they  pas- 
tured tlieir  llocks,  to  n  certain  extent  secured  to 
tliein.  .  .  .  Hundreds  upon  hundreils  of  si|uare 
miles  of  the  great  Aiistialian  downs  wen;  now 
explored  and  stocked  with  sheep  lor  the  Knglish 
woolniarket.  ...  It  was  in  llie  ijnie  of  .Mai - 
quarie's  successor.  Sir  Tiioinas  lirisliane,  that  the 
prospects  of  Ne^v  Simtli  Wales  liecame  generally 
known  in  England.  Five  emi.'^rants,  eacli  bring- 
ing more  or  less  capital  with  him,  now  iioiired 
In;  lUiil  the  deinand  for  labour  became  enormous. 
At  (li'st  the  penal  seltleinents  were  renewed  as 
depots  for  the  supply  of  lalhiiir,  and  it  was  even 
proposed  that  the  convicts  slimilil  be  sold  bv  auc- 
tion on  tlieir  arrival ;  but  in  tiiC  end  the  iiilliix  of 
free  labourers  entirely  altered  the  iiuestion.  In 
Brisbane's  time,  and  tliat  of  his  successor.  Sir 
Kalph  Darling,  wages  fell  and  work  becanio 
scarce  in  England;  and  English  working  men 
now  turned  their  attention  to  Australia,  llitlierlo 
the  people  had  lieen  either  convicts  or  free  set- 
tlers of  more  or  less  wealth,  and  1,'ilween  these 
classes  there  was  great  bitterness  of  feeling,  eaeli, 
naturally  enough,  thinking  that  the  colony  ex- 
isted for  tlieir  own  exclusive  benetlt.  Tlie  free 
labourers  who  now  poured  in  greatly  contributed 
iu  course  of  time  to  fusing  tlie  population  into 
one.  In  Brisbane's  time,  trial  by  jury  and  a  free 
jiress  were  intriKliiced.  The  linest  jiastui-ea  in 
Australia,  the  Darling  Downs  near  Morcton  Hay, 
T/ere  discovered  and  settled  [1825].  The  rivers 
which  pour  into  jMoreton  Bay  were  explored: 
one  of  them  was  named  the  Brisbane,  and  a  few 
miles  from  its  luoulU  the  town  uf  the  same  uume 


WA8  founded,  nrlsbane  U  i.ow  tlio  ranltal  of  tlio 
colony  of  (jiieeiisland  :  and  olier  explorallonH  In 
Ills  time  led  to  the  foundallon  if  ii  m-coiiiI  liide- 
penileiil  colony.  Tin;  Macipiaric  was  traced  Im'- 
voiid  the  marshes,  In  which  il  w;.s  Hiipposed  to 
lime  itself,  and  named  the  Darling:  i.nd  the  Miir- 
niy  river  was  dlHi'ovcrcd  ||N21»|,  '1 'le  tracing 
out  of  the  iMiirray  river  by  the  ailvnlurous 
traveller  Stiirl,  led  to  u  colony  on  the  slti  which 
he  iiained  South  Australia.  In  DarlingK  :iini'. 
tlie  Swan  Hlver  Colony,  now  called  Westiin 
.Vustra!ia,  was  cominenced.  Darling  .  .  . 
was  till'  tirst  to  sell  the  land  at  a  sniall 
fixed  price,  on  tlie  system  adopted  in  America. 
,  .  .  Darling  returned  to  England  in  1N:||; 
and  the  six-years  ailminisirathin  of  his  kuc- 
cessor,  .Sir  Kichanl  Ilmirke,  marks  a  fresh 
turning  point  In  Australian  history.  In  his 
time  the  ciiliiny  threw  olT  two  great  olTsliools. 
Tort  I'liillip,  on  wliicli  now  stands  the  great  city 
of  .Melbourne,  had  been  discovered  in  IHO'J,  and 
in  the  !<ext  year  the  government  sent  hillier  u 
convict  ciiiony.  This  did  not  prosper,  and  ilis 
line  site  was  neglected  for  thirty  years.  Winn 
the  sudden  rise  of  New  South  Wales  began,  the 
squatters  began  to  settle  to  the  west  and  north  of 
Port  I'liillip;  and  the  government  at  once  sent 
an  exploring  parly,  who  reported  most  favour 
ably  of  the  conntry  around.  In  IH^IO,  Governor 
iloiirke  founileil  a  .settlement  in  tills  new  land, 
which  had  been  called,  from  its  ricli  promise, 
Australia  Felix:  and  iindi'r  bis  directions  the 
site  of  a  capital  was  laid  out.  to  be  called  Mel- 
bourne, In  honourof  the  English  Prime  .Minister, 
This  was  in  IMIJT,  so  that  the  beginning  of  the 
colony  (•oriesponds  nearly  witli  that  of  Queen 
Vietoria's  reign;  a  circumstance  wliich  after 
wards  led  to  its  being  lianied  Victoria.  Fiirtlier 
west  still,  a  second  new  colony  arose  about  this 
time  on  the  site  discovered  bv  Slurt  in  1820. 
This  was  called  South  Australia,  and  tlic  tirst 
governor  arrived  tlierc  at  the  end  of  Hie  year 
lH;tlt.  The  intended  capital  was  naineil  Ade- 
laide, in  honour  of  the  (Jiieen  of  William  IV. 
Botli  Hie  new  colonies  were  commenced  on  a  neiv 
system,  called  from  its  inventor  the  Waketield 
system,  but  the  founders  of  Soutli  Australia 
were  able  to  carry  it  out  most  efrectually.  be- 
cause they  were  (piite  independent  of  tlie  experi- 
ence and  the  prejudices  of  the  Sydney  govern- 
ment. Mr.  Waketield  was  an  ingenious  man 
and  a  clever  writer.  .  .  .  His  notion  was  that 
tlie  new  colonies  ought  to  be  made  '  fairly  to 
repiesent  English  society.'  His  ])lan  was  to  ar- 
rest tlie  strong  democratic  tendencies  of  the  new 
coininMiity,  and  to  reprinluce  in  Australia  the 
strciig  distinction  of  classes  wliii  li  was  found  in 
England.  He  wii-ited  the  land  sold  as  dear  as 
possible,  so  that  labourers  might  not  bcconie 
landowners:  and  the  produce  of  the  land  was 
to  be  ai)i)lie,l  in  templing  labourers  to  emigrate 
with  the  prospect  of  belter  \vagcs  than  they  got 
at  home.  A  Company  was  easily  formed  to  carry 
out  these  ideas  in  South  Australia.  .  .  .  Like 
the  seltlemeut  of  Carolina  as  framed  by  Locke 
and  Somers,  it  was  really  a  plan  for  getting  the 
advantages  of  the  colony  into  the  hands  of  the 
non-labouring  clas.scs:  and  by  the  natural  laws 
of  ])olitical  economy,  it  failed  everywhere. 
Adelaide  bccjiine  the  sctene  of  an  Australian 
'bubble.'  The  laud -jobbers  and  money-lenders 
made  fortunes:  but  the  people  who  emigrated, 
mostly  belonging   to   the   middle   aod    upper 


192 


AU8TUALIA,  JS00-1H40. 


AUWTHAIJA,  1830-183.'.. 


clnNxrH,  found  tli<t  Hclirnin  i<i  )h  <»  :'eluiiinn, 
bind  nipldly  pohk  In  vitliio,  iinti  iim  rii|>ldlv  Hiink; 
unci  liitH  f(ir  which  lh«  i'nil;;ninl.i  Inid  11111.1  hlfth 
prIrrH  ttfciunc  jihnost  wciilMisM  Tni!  ln'oiiircrs 
t'nilKnitcd  cIscwlH'ri-,  anil  mi  dlit  th(mu  of  the 
lapl'JiliNlH  will)  hud  unylhint;  Icl't.  .  .  Thu  dc 
prc^iiin  of  South  AuHtriiliu,  Iiowcmt,  wii.i  li\it 
trinporury.  It  containH  the  licst  corn  land  In  tho 
whole  iHliinil :  iin<l  hcnco  it  of  coui'mc  hoou  Iic- 
caiui!  tlu^  cliicf  Hourci!  of  the  food  Huppiv  of  tlic 
nel>?lil)ourinK  colonicH,  bi'sjdcs  cxporiln,:  liir>;n 
(pnintitlcH  of  corn  to  Kn^ljind.  It  contiiiis  ricli 
inincM  of  copper,  iind  produces  lar^u  (|Uiiiititiei< 
of  wool." — k.  J.  I'uyue,  Ui»l.  uf  li!iin>iiean  Colo- 
iiifii,  eh.  12. 
Al.m)  IN:  O.  W.   Uusilen,  Jfint.   uf  Aiiiilnilii,. 

r.  1-a. 

A.D.  1830-1855.— Prog;ress  of  the  Port  Phillip 
District. — Its  Separation  from  New  South 
Wales  nnd  erection  into  the  colonyof  Victoria. 
—Discovery  of  Cold. — Constitutional  organiza- 
♦  ion  of  the  colony. — "  In  H:il>  Hie  population  of 
I'crt  I'hillli)  amounted  to  nearly  (l.UOK,  and  wmi 
heln^  rapidly  uuitnieuted  from  without.  The 
Hheep  i.<  th(!  dlHtrlct  exceeded  half  a  million,  Jind 
cf  cattlu  .>nd  horscH  the  nuinliers  wen^  in  pro- 
poiiion  <'(ii.-dly  lari^e.  The  place  was  daily 
t'rowin.i;  in  Inii  ortanee.  The  Home  Government 
theref(n'e  decided  'o  send  an  olliccr,  with  the  title 
of  Superintendent,  ^i  take  charge  of  the  district, 
but  to  act  under  the  Uovernor  of  New  South 
Wales,  (,'harles  Joseph  la  Trobe,  Ksi|.,  wits  ap- 
pointed to  this  olllce.  .  .  .  He  arrived  at  Mel- 
bourne on  the  liOth  Septeml)er,  1*JD.  Soon  after 
this  all  classes  of  the  new  commi:uily  appear  to 
have  bccomo  affected  by  a  mania  for  .  oeculation. 
...  As  is  nlways  the  case  when  sp^'iuilation 
takes  the  place  of  steady  industry,  the  I'eees- 
miries  of  life  became  fabulously  dear.  ')f 
money  there  was  but  little,  in  consideration  01 
the  amount  of  bu.slness  done,  and  large  transac- 
tions were  effected  by  meansof  paper  and  credit. 
From  hiKhe.st  to  lowest,  all  lived  extniva^'antly. 
.  .  .  Such  II  slate  of  things  could  not  last  for- 
ever. In  1842,  by  which  time  the  population 
had  increased  to  24, 000,  tho  crash  came.  .  .  . 
From  this  depression  the  colony  slowly  recovered, 
and  a  sounder  business  system  took  the  jilace  of 
the  speculative  one.  .  .  .  All  this  time,  however, 
the  colony  was  11  dependency  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  .1  strong  feeling  had  gained  ground 
that  it  suffered  in  consc(|U('nce.  ...  A  ci-y  was 
raised  for  separation.  The  demand  was.  as  a 
matter  of  course,  resisted  by  New  Sotith  Wales. 
Ir^t  ns  the  agitation  was  carried  on  with  increased 
"••tivity,  :*  was  at  last  yielded  to  l)y  the  Home 
:  jtliorities.  The  vessel  bearing  the  intelligence 
arri  ed  on  the  11th  November,  1850.  The  news 
Boon  spread,  and  great  was  the  satisfaction  of 
the  colonists.  Uejo'eings  were  kept  up  in  Mc! 
bourne  for  five  consecutive  days.  .  .  .  Before, 
however,  the  sepanition  could  be  IcL^ally  accom- 
l^'ished,  it  was  necessary  that  an  Act  should  bo 
passed  in  New  South  Wales  to  settle  (Ictails.  .  .  . 
The  recjuisite  forms  were  at  length  given  effect 
to,  and,  on  the  Ist  July,  1851,  a  day  which  l>as 
ever  since  been  scrupulously  observed  ns  a  public 
holiday,  it  was  proclaimed  that  the  Port  Phillip 
tlistriet  of  New  South  Wales  had  been  erected 
into  a  separate  colony  to  be  called  Victoria,  after 
the  name  of  Her  Most  Gracious  Majesty.  At 
the  same  time  the  Superintendent,  Mr.  C.  J. 
La  Trobe,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant- 


Oovcrnor.  At  the  commencement  of  the  year  of 
Ncparatiiin  the  population  >>f  Port  Phillip  num- 
iH'rcd  TO.IKMI,  the  sheep  ll.(NNl.OIK>,  the  cattlii 
!IMO,000.  .  .  .  In  a  little  morethan  a  inoii;!i  iifier 
llie  cstablUhinent  of  VIcliiria  as  an  Independent 
colony,  it  lns'amc?  generally  known  that  rich 
ileposlls  of  gold  existed  witldn  its  iMinlcrs.  .  .  . 
The  discovery  of  gold  ...  In  New  South 
Wales,  l)y  Hargri'aveH,  in  February,  IH.'il,  caused 
numiiers  lo  endgrale  In  that  colony.  This  being 
considered  detrimental  to  the  Interests  of 
Victoria,  a  public  meeling  was  held  in  .Melbourno 
on  the  Ulh  of  June,  at  which  a  "gold -discovery 
committee'  wasappolnteil.  which  was  authorized 
to  offer  rewards  to  any  that  shoulil  discover  gr)l(| 
in  rcnunierative  (]uantiti<'s  wllhin  tin*  colony. 
The  colonists  wen;  already  on  the  alert.  At  tho 
lime  this  meeting  was  held,  several  parlies  wero 

lUt  searching  for,  and  some  had  already  found 
g.>ld.  The  '  rcelous  inelal  was  llrst  discovered 
at  v'lunes,  then  In  the,  Varra  ranges  at  Anderson'H 
C'reck  iion  after  at  lluidnyong  and  Hallarat, 
shortly  afterwards  at  Mount  Alexan<ler,  and 
eventually  ul  Ikn(!';;o  Thedeposits  were  found 
to  be  rlclwr  and  to  extend  over  a  wider  area  than 
any  which  had  been  discovered  in  New  South 
Wales.  Their  fame  soon  spread  to  Ww  adjacent 
coloides.  and  iboiisands  hastened  to  the  spot. 
.  .  .  When  I  be  news  reached  home,  crowds  of 
endgrants  from  the  l'nile<l  Klngilon>  hurried  to 
our  shores.  Inhabitants  of  other  Kuropean 
countricsi|ulcklv  joined  In  the  rush.  Americans 
from  the  Atlantic.  States  were  not  long  In  follow- 
ing. Stalwart  Californlaiu"  left  their  own  gold- 
yielding  rocks  and  placers  to  try  llieir  fortunes 
at  the  Southern  Kldoraihi.  Last  of  all,  swarms 
of  Chinese  arrived,  eager  to  unile  In  the  general 
scramble  for  wealth.  .  .  .  The  Important  posi- 
tion which  the  Auslralian  colonies  had  obtained 
In  eonseipienc<!  of  the  discovfry  of  gold,  and  tho 
i.'Hiix  of  |)opulation  conscMpient  thereon,  was  tho 
occasion  of  the  Imperial  Uoveniment  determin- 
ing in  tho  latter  end  of  18.52  that  each  colony 
should  be  iMviled  to  frame  such  a  (.'onstitution 
for  Its  govern. nent  as  its  representatives  might 
deem  best  suited  lo  its  own  peculiar  circum- 
stances. The  ConsilMition  framed  in  Vit'toriu, 
and  afterwards  approve.!  by  the  Hritish  I'arlia- 
ment,  was  avowedly  bused  upon  that  of  tho 
United  Kingdom.  It  providei'.  for  the  establish- 
ment of  two  Houses  of  Legis' .;.  i-  with  power 
to  make  laws,  subject  to  the  ,  -i.sen,  if  the  Crown 
as  represented  generallv  '  the  Gov  'rnor  of  tlio 
colony;  the  Legislati\  Council,  or  Ui),.er  House, 
to  consist  of  30,  and  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
or  Lower  House,  to  consist  of  (50  members. 
JMembers  of  both  Houses  to  bo  elective  and  to 
l)ossess  property  <nialilication.s.  Electors  of  both 
Ilouses  to  jiossess  either  property  or  professional 
(jualificrttions  [the  iiroperlyqualilicationof  mcm- 
beisand  electors  of  tho  Lower  House  has  sinco 
been  abolishedl.  .  .  .  The  Upper  House  not  to 
bo  dissolved,  but  live  members  to  retire  every 
two  years,  and  to  be  ejigible  for  ro  election.  The 
L(»wer  House  to  bo  dissolved  e\ery  five  yc.irs 
[sinco  reduced  to  three],  or  oftener,  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  Governor.  Certain  officers  of  tho 
Government,  four  at  least  of  whom  should 
havo  seats  in  Purliumeut,  to  be  deeme.l  '  Ke- 
tnonsiblo  Ministers."  .  .  .  This  Constitution  was 
liidclaimod  iu  Victoria  on  the  23d  November, 
18;.5."— H.  H.  Hayter,  Mtei  on  the  Colony  of 

Vici'iHa,  eh.  1. 


193 


AUSTRALIA,  1830-1855. 


nderatUm. 


AUSTKALIA,  1890. 


Al,(to  IN;  I'.  P.  Lal)ilIiorc,  Kiirli/  IIi»t.  of  the, 
Coliinn  of  Virloriii.  r.  2.  — \V.  WcstKurtli,  Fint 
IVi'iili/  YtiirH  <if  till'  f'oloiii/ of  Vii-tiin'ii. 

A.  D.  1859. — Separation  of  the  Moreton  Bay 
District  from  New  South  Wales. —Its  erection 
into  the  colony  of  Queensland. — "  Until  Dcccni- 
bfr,  IM.")!),  Ilic  iiortliwcsl  portion  of  tJR'  Fifth 
Continent  was  kno'.vn  lis  tliu  .Moreton  Buy  dislriel, 
anil  l>elon.i,'('il  to  the  colony  of  Now  South  Wales; 
hut  nt  that  date  it  had  grown  so  largo  that  it.  was 
crecte  1  into  a  .separate  and  independent  colony, 
under  the  nanu^  of  Queensland.  It  lies  hctween 
lat.  10^  -J;)'  S.  and  2«^S.,  and  long.  138^ and  1.530 
E.,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Torres  Straits;  on  the 
north-east  by  the  ('oral  Sea;  on  the  east  by  the 
South  Paeilie ;  on  the  south  by  New  South  wales 
and  South  Australia;  on  the  west  by  South 
Australia  and  the  Northern  Territory ;  and  on  the 
northwest  by  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  It 
covers  an  area  .  .  .  twenty  times  as  large  as 
Ireland,  twenty-three  tii  s  as  large  as  Scotland, 
and  eleven  times  the  i  i^nt  of  England.  .  .  . 
Numerous  good  harbours  are  found,  many  of 
which  form  tlie  outlets  of  navigable  rivers.  The 
principal  of  these  [is]  Moreton  Hay,  at  the  head 
of  which  stands  IJrisbane,  the  capital  of  the 
colony.  .  .  .  The  mineral  wealth  of  Queensland 
is  very  great,  and  every  year  sees  it  more  fully 
developed.  .  .  .  Until  the  year  1807,  when  the 
Gympie  field  was  discovered,  gold  mining  as  an 
industry  was  hardly  known." — C.  II.  Eden,  The 
Fifth  CmliiKHt,  eh.  10. 

A.  D.  1885-1892. — Proposed  Federation  of 
the  Colonies. — "It  has  been  a  common  saying 
in  Australia  tliat  our  fellow  countrymen  in  that 
part  of  the  world  did  not  recognise  the  term 
'Australian;'  each  recognised  only  his  own 
colony  and  the  empire.  But  the  advocates  of 
combination  for  certain  common  purposes 
achieved  a  great  steji  forward  in  the  formation  of 
ft  '  Federal  Council'  in  188.').  It  was  to  be  only  a 
'  Council,'  its  decisions  having  no  force  over  any 
colony  unless  accepted  afterwards  by  the  colonial 
Legislature.  Victoria.  Queenslancl,  Tasmania, 
and  West  Australia  ioi.ieil.  New  South  Wales, 
South  A.istralia,  and  New  Zealand  standing  out. 
and,  so  constituted,  it  met  twice.  The  results  of 
the  deliberations  were  not  un.satisfactorj',  and  the 
opinion  that  the  move  was  in  the  right  direction 
rapidly  grew.  In  February  of  1800  a  Federation 
Conference,  not  private  but  reiiresentative  of  the 
different  Governments,  was  called  at  Jlelbourne. 
It  adopted  an  address  to  the  Queen  declaring  the 
opinion  of  the  conference  to  be  that  the  best 
interests  of  tlie  A\istralian  colonies  rerjuire  the 
early  formation  of  a  union  under  the  Crown  into 
one  Government,  both  legislative  and  executive. 
Events  proceed  quickly  in  (Jolonial  History.  In 
the  course  of  1800  the  hesitation  of  New  South 
AVales  was  finally  overconu^  powerful  factors 
being  the  weakening  of  the  Free  Trade  position 
at  tlie  election  of  1890,  the  report  of  General 
Edwards  on  the  Defences,  and  the  difflculties 
about  C;hinese  immigration.  A  Convention 
accordingly  assembled  at  Sy<liiey  in  March,  1891, 
which  agreed  upon  a  Constitution  to  be  recom- 
mended to  the  several  Colonies." — A.  Caldecolt, 
Fii'/linh  Oiloniziitiou  and  Eini>ive,  eh.  7,  scet.  2, — 
"On  Monday,  March  2nd,  1891,  the  National 
Australasian  Conventiini  met  at  the  Parliament 
House,  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  and  was 
attended  by  seven  representatives  from  each 
Colony,  except  New  Zealand,  which  only  sent 


three.  Sir  Henry  Parkcs  (New  Soiith  Wales) 
was  elected  President  of  the  Convention,  and  Sir 
Samuel  GriHith  (Queensland),  Vice-President.  A 
series  of  resolutions,  in'  ved  by  Sir  Henry  Parkas, 
occupied  the  attention  of  tlie  Convention  for 
several  days.  Tliesc  resolutions  set  forth  the 
])rinciples  upon  which  the  Federal  Government 
shoiilil  be  established,  which  were  to  the  effect 
that  the  powers  and  privilegesof  existing  Colonics 
should  be  kei)t  intact,  except  in  cases  wliero 
surrender  would  be  necessary  iu  order  to  form  a 
Federal  Government;  that  intercolonial  trade 
and  intercourse  should  be  free;  that  power  to 
impose  Customs  duties  should  rest  with  the  Fed- 
eral Government  and  Parliament;  and  that  the 
naval  and  military  defence  of  Australia  should 
be  entrusted  to  the  Federal  Forces  under  one 
coinmaiul.  The  resolutions  then  went  on  to 
approve  of  a.  Federal  Constitution  which  should 
establish  a  Federal  Parliament  to  consist  of  a 
Senate  and  u  IIou.se  of  Keprcsentatives;  that  a 
Judiciary,  to  consist  of  a  Federal  Supreme  Court, 
to  he  a  High  Court  ot  Appeal  for  Australia, 
should  be  established;  and  that  a  Federal  Exe- 
cutive, cimsisting  of  a  Governor-General,  with 
respon.sible  advisers,  should  be  constituted. 
These  resolutions  were  discussed  at  great  length, 
and  eventually  were  ndoi)tcd.  The  resolutions 
were  then  referred  to  three  Committees  chosen 
from  the  delegates,  one  to  consider  (/'onstitutional 
Machinery  and  the  distribution  of  powers  and 
functions ;  one  to  deal  with  matters  relating  to 
Finance,  Taxation,  and  Trade  Regulations;  and 
the  other  to  consider  the  ((ucstion  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  Federal  Judiciary.  A  draft  Bill,  to 
constitute  the  '  Commonwealth  of  Australia,'  was 
brought  up  by  the  Ui-st  mentioned  of  these  Com- 
mittees, and  after  full  consideration  was  1  .opted 
by  the  Convention,  and  it  was  agreed  iiiat  the 
Bill  should  be  ])resented  to  each  of  the  Austra- 
lian P  vliaments  for  approval  and  adoption.  On 
Thursday,  April  0th.  the  Convention  closed  its 
proceedings.  The  Bill  to  provide  for  the  Feder- 
ation of  the  Australasian  colonies  entitled  '  A  Bill 
to  constitute  a  Commonwealth  of  Australia,' 
which  was  drafted  by  the  National  Australasian 
Convention,  has  been  introduced  into  the  Parlia- 
ments of  most  of  the  colonies  of  the  groi'p,  and 
is  still  (October,  1802),  under  consideration.  In 
Victoria  it  has  passed  the  Lower  House  with 
some  amendments." — Statesniaii'g  Year-book, 
1893,  ;*.  308. 

A.  D.  1890.— New  South  Wales  and  Vic- 
toria.—  "New  South  Wales  bears  to  Victoria  a 
certain  statistical  resemblance.  The  two  colonies 
have  [1800]  about  the  same  population,  and, 
roughly  speaking,  about  the  same  revenues,  ex- 
penditure, debt  and  trade.  In  each,  a  great  capital 
'inWevlti  in  one  neighbourhood  more  than  a  third  of 
the  total  population.  .  .  .  But  .  .  .  considerable 
differences  lie  behind  and  are  likely  to  develop  in 
the  future.  New  South  Wales,  in  the  opinion  of 
her  enemies,  is  less  enterprising  than  Victoria, 
and  has  less  of  the  go-ahead  spirit  which  distin- 
guishes the  Melbourne  |)eople.  On  the  other 
hand  she  possesses  a  larger  tei'ritory,  abundant 
supplies  of  coal,  and  willh  ve  probably,  in  con- 
sequence, a  greater  future.  Although  New 
South  Wales  is  thix'c  and  a  half  times  as  large  as 
Victoria,  and  has  the  area  of  the  German  Empire 
and  Italy  combined,  slie  is  of  course  much 
smaller  than  the  three  other  but  as  yet  less  impor- 
tant colonies  of  the  Australian  coatiucut  [namely 


194 


AUSTRALIA,  1800. 


AUSTRASIA. 


Qiiecnslnnd,  South  Australi:i  iinil  Wostorn  Aus- 
tralia |.  As  tlio  country  was  in  a  larijc  ilcgicc 
soltlfd  by  assisted  cmigrntits,  of  whom  some- 
thing liliC  lialf  altogether  have  been  Irish,  while 
the  English  section  was  li  rgcly  composed  of 
Chartists,  .  .  .  tlie  legislation  of  New  South 
Wales  has  natiirully  shown  signs  of  its  origin. 
Manhooil  sulfrage  was  carried  in  1858;  the  abo 
lition  of  iH'ir.i  >genitnre  in  1862;  safe  and  easy 
transfer  of  land  thro\igh  the  machinery  of  the 
Torrens  Act  in  the  same  year;  and  also  the 
abolition  of  state  aid  to  religion.  A  public  .sys- 
tem of  education  was  introduced,  with  other 
measures  of  democratic  legislation.  .  .  .  Public 
education,  which  in  Victoria  is  free,  is  still  paid 
for  by  fees  in  N^w  South  Wales,  though  children 
going  to  or  returning  from  school  arc  allowed  to 
travel  free  by  railway.  In  gencial  it  may  be  said 
that  New  Soutli  Wales  legislation  in  recent  times 
has  not  been  so  bold  as  tlic  legislation  of  Victoria. 
.  .  .  The  land  of  New  South  AVales  has  to  a 
large  extent  come  into  the  hands  of  wealthy  per- 
sons who  are  becoming  a  territorial  aristocracy. 
This  has  been  the  effect  tir.stly  of  grants  and  of 
squatting  legislation,  then  of  the  perversion  of 
the  Act^  of  1801  [for  '  Free  Selection  l)cforc 
Survey ']  to  the  use  of  those  against  whon  \'^  had 
been  aimed,  and  finally  of  natural  tau.ses  —  soil, 
climate  and  the  lack  of  water.  .  .  .  The  traces  of 
the  convict  element  in  New  South  Wales  'mve 
become  very  slight  in  the  national  character. 
The  prevailmg  cheerfulness,  running  into  flcklc- 
ness  and  frivolity,  with  a  great  deal  more 
vivacity  than  exists  in  England,  does  not  sug- 
gest in  the  least  the  intermixture  of  convict 
blood.  It  is  a  natural  creation  of  the  climate, 
and  of  the  full  and  varied  life  led  by  colonists 
in  a  young  country.  ...  A  population  of  an 
e.\ccllent  typo  has  swallowcil  up  not  only  the 
convict  element,  but  also  the  unstable  and 
thriftless  element  ship|)ed  by  friends  in  Ilrit- 
ftin  to  Sydney  or  to  ]\Ielbourne.  The  ne'er- 
do-weels  were  either  somewhat  above  the  aver- 
age in  brains,  as  was  often  the  case  with  those 
who  recovered  themselves  and  started  life 
afresh,  or  people  who  drank  themselves  to 
death  and  disap))eared  and  left  no  descendants. 
The  convicts  were  also  of  various  classes;  some 
of  them  were  men  in  whom  crime  was  the 
outcome  of  restless  energy,  as,  for  instance,  in 
many  of  those  transported  for  treason  and  for 
manslaughter;  while  some  were  jieople  of 
average  morality  ruined  through  companions, 
wives,  or  sudden  temptation,  and  some  persons 
of  an  essentially  depraved  and  criminal  life. 
The  better  classes  of  convicts,  in  a  new  countiy, 
away  from  their  old  companions  and  old  tempta- 
tions, turned  over  a  new  leaf,  and  their  abilities 
and  their  strong  vitality,  which  in  some  cases 
had  wrought  their  ruin  m  the  old  world,  foimd 
healthful  scope  in  subduing  to  man  a  now  one. 
Crime  in  their  cases  was  an  accident,  and  would 
not  be  tran'smitted  to  tlie  children  they  left  be- 
hind then.  On  the  otlier  hand,  the  genuine 
criminal'.,  and  also  tlie  drunken  ne"er-do-wcels, 
left  no  children.  Drink  and  vice  among  the 
'assigred  servants'  class  of  convicts,  and  an 
absence  ''f  all  facilities  for  marriage,  worked 
them  off  the  r.-.?o  of  the  earth,  and  those  who  had 
not  been  killed  before  the  gold  discovery  generally 
drank  themselves  to  death  upon  the  diggings. " — 
Sir  0.  W.  Dilke,  Probkim  of  Greaier  Jirilain, 
pt.  2,  ch.  3. 


AUSTRASIA  AND  NEUSTRIA,  OR 
NEUSTRASIA.— ••  It  iseonjeclured  by  Luden, 
with  great  probability,  that  the  Uipuarians  wto 
originally  called  the  '  Ea.stcrn  '  people  to  distiu- 
giush  them  ""roMi  the  Salian  Franks  who  lived  to 
the  West.  IJut  when  the  old  home  <  f  the  con- 
(picrors  on  the  right  bank  of  the  llliinc  was 
united  with  their  iiew  settlements  in  Gaul,  the 
latter,  as  it  woidd  seem,  were  called  Neustria  or 
Neustrasia  (New  Lands);  while  the  term  Aus- 
Irasia  came  to  denote  the  original  seats  of  the 
Franks,  on  what  we  now  call  the  German  bank 
of  the  Rhine.  The  most  important  di'Tcrence 
between  them  (a  (iiirer<'nce  so  great  as  to  lead  to 
their  pc-rmancnt  sepai-.ition  into  the  kingdoms  of 
France  and  Germany  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun) 
was  this:  that  in  Xeustria  the  Frankish  element 
was  ([Uickly  absorbed  by  the  nia.ss  of  Gallo- 
Romanism  by  which  it  was  surrounded;  while 
in  Austrasia,  which  included  the  ancient  seals  of 
the  Frankish  conijucrors,  the  German  element 
was  wholly  predimiinant.  The  import  of  the 
word  Austrasia  (Austria,  Austritrancia)  is  very 
fluctuating.  In  its  widest  sense  it  was  used  to 
denote  all  the  countries  ineorporate<l  into  the 
Frankish  Empire,  or  even  held  in  subjection  to 
it,  in  which  the  German  language  and  poi)ulatioa 
prevailed;  in  this  accept;ition  it  included  there- 
fore the  territorv  of  the  Alemanni,  Bavarians, 
Tburingians,  and  even  that  of  the  Saxons  and 
Frises.  In  its  more  common  and  projicr  sense  it 
meant  that  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Franks 
themselves  which  was  not  included  in  Neustria. 
It  was  s\d)divided  into  Upper  Austrasia  on  tho 
JfoscUc,  and  Lower  Austrasia  on  the  Rhine  and 
Jleuse.  Neustria  (or,  in  the  fulness  of  tho 
monkish  Latinity,  Neustrasia)  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Loire, 
and  on  the  southwest  [southeast?]  towards  Hur- 
gundy  by  a  line  which,  beginning  below  Gien  on 
the  Loire,  ran  tiirough  the  rivers  Loing  and  Yoinie, 
not  far  from  their  sources,  and  iiassing  north 
of  Auxerre  and  south  of  Troyes,  joined  the 
river  Aube  above  Arcis." — AV.  C.  Perry,  The 
Fraiik.i,  ch.  3. — "The  northeastern  part  of 
Gaul,  along  the  Rhine,  together  with  a  slice  of 
ancient  Germany,  was  already  distinguished,  as 
we  have  seen,  by  tlic  name  of  the  Eastern  King- 
dom, or  Oster-rike,  Latinized  into  Austrasia.  It 
embraced  the  region  first  occupied  by  the  Ri- 
puarian  Franks,  and  where  they  still  lived  the 
most  compactly  and  in  the  greatest  number.  .  .  . 
This  was,  in  the  estimation  of  the  Franks,  the 
kingdom  by  eminence,  while  the  rest  of  tho 
north  of  Gaul  was  simply  not  it  —  '  ne-oster- 
rike,'  or  Neustria.  A  line  drawn  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Scheldt  to  Cambrai,  and  thenco 
across  the  JIarno  at  Chateau-Thierry  to  the 
Aube  of  Bar-sur-Aube,  would  have  separated 
the  one  from  tho  other,  Neustria  comprising  all 
the  northwest  of  Gaul,  between  tho  Loire  and 
the  ocean,  with  the  excepfion  ot  Brittany. 
This  had  been  the  first  possession  of  tho  Salian 
Franks  in  Gaul.  ...  To  .iUcli  an  extent  had 
they  been  absorbed  and  influenced  by  the  Roman 
elements  of  the  population,  that  the  Austrasians 
scarcely  considered  them  Franks,  while  they,  in 
their  turn,  regarded  the  Austrasians  as  tho 
merest  untutored  barbarians. " — P.  Godwin,  ITist. 
of  France:  Ancient  Qavl,  bk.  3,  ch.  13,  tnith  note. 

Also  in:  E.  A.  Freeman,  Hist.  Geog.  of  Europe, 
ch.  5,  sect.  .'5. — See,  also,  Fiianks  (JIekovixgian 
Empire):  A.  D.  511-753. 


195 


AUSTRIA. 


AUSTRIA. 


AUSTRIA. 


The  Name.— "  The  nnnie  of  Austria,  Ocstpr- 
reioli  —  O.St ricli  lis  our  forcfiithcrs  wrote  it  —  is, 
miluriilly  enough,  n  comnioii  name  for  tlie  east- 
ern part  of  any  kini;<loMi.  Tlie  Franltisli  Iviiig- 
doiM  of  tlie  ^Merwings  had  its  Austria ;  tlie  Italian 
kingdom  of  the  Lombards  had  its  Austria  also. 
\Ve  are  half  inclined  to  wonder  that  the  name  was 
never  given  in  our  own  island  either  to  Essex  or 
to  KastAnglia.  But,  while  the  other  Austrias 
have  passeil  away,  the  Oesterreich,  the  Austria, 
the  Eastern  mark,  of  the  German  kingdom,  its 
defence  against  tlic  Magyar  invader,  has  lived 
on  to  our  own  times.  It  has  not  only  lived  on, 
but  it  has  become  one  of  the  chief  European 
powers.  And  it  lias  become  so  by  a  process  to 
which  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  parallel." — 
E.  A.  Freeman,  The  Ilistuneal  Qeoijraphy  of 
Burape,  v.  1,  ch.  8,  p.  305. 

The  birthplace. — "On  the  disputed  frontier, 
in  the  /one  of  jierpetual  conflict,  were  formed 
and  developed  the  two  states  which,  in  turn, 
■were  to  dominate  over  Germany,  namely,  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia.  Both  were  born  in  the  midst 
of  the  enemy.  The  cradle  of  Austria  was  the 
Eastern  march,  cstablislied  by  Cliarlcinagne  on 
tlie  Danube,  beyond  Bavaria,  at  I'w:  very  gate 
through  which  have  passed  so  many  i.ivaders 
from  the  Orient.  .  .  .  The  cradle  of  I'russia  was 
the  march  of  Brandenburg,  between  the  Elbe 
and  the  Oder,  in  the  region  of  the  e.xterminated 
Slavs." — E.  Lavissc,  General  View  of  the  Poliii- 
cal  Ilintory  of  EurojK,  ch.  3,  sect.  13. 

The  Singularity  of  Austrian  history. — A 
power  which  is  not  a  national  power. — "It  is 
by  no  means  an  easy  task  to  tell  the  story  of  the 
various  lauds  which  have  at  different  times 
come  under  the  dominion  of  Austrian  princes, 
the  story  of  each  land  by  itself,  and  the  story  of 
tliera  all  in  relation  to  the  common  power.  A 
continuous  narrative  is  impossible.  .  .  .  Much 
mischief  has  been  done  by  one  small  fashion  of 
nKHlern  speech.  It  has  within  my  memory  he- 
come  usual  to  personifj'  nations  and  j)owers  on 
the  smallest  occasions  in  a  way  which  was  for- 
merly done  only  in  language  more  or  less  solemn, 
rhetorical  or  jioetical.  We  now  talk  every  mo- 
ment of  England,  France,  Germany,  Russia,  Italy, 
as  if  they  were  persons.  And  as  long  as  it  is 
only  England,  France,  Germany,  Russia,  oi*  Italy 
of  which  we  talk  in  this  way,  no  practical  harm 
is  done;  the  thing  is  a  mere  question  of  style. 
For  those  are  all  national  powers.  .  .  .  But 
when  we  go  on  to  talk  in  this  way  of  'Austria,' 
of  'Turkey,"  direct  harm  is  done;  thought  is 
confused,  and  facts  are  misrepresented.  ...  1 
have  seen  the  words  'Austrian  national  honour ; ' 
I  have  come  across  jieople  who  believed  that 
'Austria '  was  one  Jand  inhabited  by  '  Austriaus,' 
and  that  '  Austriaus '  spoke  the  '  Austrian '  lan- 
guage. All  such  jihrases  are  misapplied.  It  is 
to  be  presumed  that  in  all  of  them  'Austria' 
means  something  more  than  the  true  Austria, 
the  archduchy;  what  is  commonly  meant  by 
them  is  the  whole  dominions  of  the  sovereign  of 
Austria.  People  fancy  that  the  inhabitants  of 
those  dominions  have  a  common  lieing,  a  com- 
mon interest,  like  that  of  the  people  of  England, 
France,  or  Italy.  .  .  .  There  is  no  Austrian 
language,  no  Austrian  nation;  therefore  there 
can  be  no  such  tl'.iag  as  'Austrian  national  hon- 
our.'   Nor  can  thi re  be  an  'Austrian  policy'  in 


tlie  same  sense  in  which  there  is  an  Engli.sh  or  a 
French  policy,  that  is,  a  policy  in  which  the 
English  or  French  government  carries  out  the 
will  of  the  Engli.sh  or  French  nation.  .  .  .  Such 
))hiases  as  'Austrian  interests,'  'Austrian  policy,' 
and  the  like,  do  not  mean  the  interests  or  the 
l)olicy  of  any  land  or  nation  at  all.  They  simply 
mean  the  interests  and  pol'cy  i,  f  a  particular  rul- 
ing family,  which  may  often  be  the  same  as  the 
interests  and  wishes  of  particular  parts  of  their 
dominions,  but  which  can  never  represent  any 
common  interest  or  common  wish  on  the  part 
of  the  whole.  .  .  .  We  must  ever  remember 
that  the  dominions  of  the  House  of  Austria  are 
simply  a  collection  of  kingdoms,  duchies,  etc., 
brought  together  Ijy  various  accidental  causes, 
but  which  have  nothing  really  in  common,  no 
common  speech,  no  common  feeling,  no  common 
interest.  In  one  case  only,  that  of  the  Magyars 
in  Hungary,  does  tlie  House  of  Austria  rule  over 
a  whole  nation ;  the  other  kingdoms,  duchies,  etc. , 
are  only  parts  of  nations,  liaving  no  tie  to  one 
another,  but  having  the  closest  ties  to  other 
parts  of  their  several  nations  which  lie  close  to 
them,  but  whicli  are  uniler  other  governments. 
The  only  bond  among  them  all  is  that  a  series  of 
marriages,  wars,  treaties,  and  so  forth,  liave 
given  them  a  common  sovereign.  The  same 
jierson  is  king  of  Hungary,  Archduke  of  Austria, 
C(iuut  of  Tyrol,  Lord  of  Trieste,  and  a  liundred 
other  things.  'Tliat  is  all.  .  .  .  The  growth  and 
ihe  abiding  dominion  of  the  House  of  Austria  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  pluenomena  in  Euro- 
pean liistory.  Powers  of  the  same  kind  have 
arisen  twice  before ;  but  in  both  cases  they  were 
very  short-lived,  wliile  the  power  of  the  House 
of  Austria  has  lasted  for  several  centuries.  The 
power  of  the  House  of  Anjou  in  the  twelftli  cen- 
tury, the  power  of  the  House  of  Burgundy  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  were  powere  of  exactly  the 
same  kind.  They  too  were  collections  of  scraps, 
with  no  natural  connexion,  brought  together  by 
the  accidents  of  warfare,  marriage,  or  diplomacy. 
Now  why  is  it  that  both  these  powers  broke  in 
pieces  almost  at  once,  after  the  reigns  of  two 
princes  in  each  case,  while  the  power  of  the  House 
of  Austria  has  lasted  so  long?  Two  causes  suggest 
themselves.  One  is  the  long  connexion  between 
the  House  of  Austria  and  tlie  Roman  Empire 
and  kingdom  of  Germany.  So  many  Austrian 
Ijrinces  were  elected  Emperoi-s  as  to  make  the 
Austrian  House  seem  something  great  and  im- 
perial in  itself.  I  believe  that  this  cause  liaa 
done  a  good  deal  towards  the  result;  but  I  be- 
lieve that  another  cause  has  done  yet  more.  This 
is  tliat,  though  the  Austrian  power  is  not  a 
national  power,  there  is,  as  has  been  already  no- 
ticed, a  nation  within  it.  AVliile  it  contains  only 
scraps  of  other  nations,  it  contains  the  whole  of 
the  Magyar  nation.  It  thus  gets  something  of 
the  strength  of  a  national  power.  •.  .  .  The 
kingdom  of  Hungary  is  an  ancient  kingilom, 
with  known  boundaries  which  have  changed  sin- 
gularly little  for  several  centuries;  and  its  con- 
nexion with  the  archduchy  of  Austria  and  the 
kingdom  of  Bolieinia  is  now  of  long  standing. 
Anything  beyond  this  is  modem  and  shifting. 
The  so-'"-"ed  'empire  of  Austria'  dates  only 
from  ,  iiir  1804.  This  is  one  of  the  simplest 
matte. o  .  ti.'e  world,  but  one  which  is  constantly 
forgc'.teu.  ...  A  smaller  point  on  which  con- 


19B 


mmtmHTmoeccoi/THmiii 


AUSTRIA. 


AUSTRIA,  A.  D.  80,')-1240, 


fusion  also  provnils  is  tliis.  All  the  mombcrs  of 
tliu  House  of  Austria  arc  ronimonly  spoken  of 
as  arclulukes  and  arcliduelicsses.  I  feel  sure  that 
many  people,  if  aslied  the  meaning  of  the  word 
nrrhdukc.  woiild  say  that  it  was  the  title  of  the 
children  of  the  'P^niperor  of  Austria,' as  grand- 
duke  is  used  in  Russia,  and  prinei!  in  most 
countries.  In  truth,  nrrhduke  is  the  title  of  the 
sovereign  of  Austria.  He  has  not  given  it  iip; 
for  he  calls  himself  Archduke  of  Austria  still, 
though  he  calls  himself  'Emperor  of  Austria'  as 
well.  But  hy  Gerninn  custom,  the  chihlren  of  a 
duke  or  count  arc  all  called  dukes  and  counts 
for  ever  and  ever.  In  this  way  the  Prince  of 
Wales  is  called  'Duke  of  Saxony,'  and  in  the 
same  way  all  the  children  of  an  Archduke  of 
Austria  are  archdukes  and  archduchesses.  For- 
mally and  historically  ftlicn,  the  taking  of  an 
liercilitary  imperial  title  hy  the  Archduke  of 
Austria  in  1804,  and  the  keeping  of  it  after  the 


growth,  apes  in  whioh  the  idea  of  right,  as  em- 
hodicd  in  law,  was  the  leading  idea  of  states- 
men, and  the  idea  of  rights  justified  or  Justillahle 
hy  the  letter  of  law,  was  a  profound  intluenco 
with  politician  ....  The  house  of  Austria  .  .  . 
lays  thus  the  foimdation  of  that  empire  whicli  is 
to  he  one  of  the  great  forces  of  the  next  age;  not 
hy  fra\id,  not  l)y  violenee,  hut  here  hy  a  politic 
marriage,  here  by  a  well  advocated  inheritance, 
here  by  a  claim  on  an  imperial  fief  forfeited  or 
escheated:  honestly  where  the  letter  of  the  law 
is  in  her  favour,  hy  chicanery  it  may  he  here 
and  there,  but  that  a  chicanery  that  wears  a  spe- 
cious garb  of  right.  The  imperial  idea  was  Init 
a  small  intluence  comoared  with  the  super- 
structure of  right,  inheritance,  and  suzerainty, 
that  legal  instincts  and  a  general  aecpiieseenee  in 
legal  forms  liad  raised  upon  it." — W.  Stubbs, 
Seventeen  [jcctures  on  the  Stm^i/  of  Medieval  and 
Modern  IHntory,  pp.  209-210. 


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jv>       B    O    S   N    I   A.»\ 

>    rk  I   8    E    R    V    I    A 

SSh  -^ — \       • 

fe|^»N"eomA^->.         \         ETHNOGRAPHICAL  MAP  OF 

^^^'      /     -v  V   ATJSTRIA- 

« o  N  T>.._  •^'^  HUNGARY 


N  E  a  R  o    ^^'— 

'.      NOTE;  Tht  aliaded  parts  denote  tfia 
\  distribution  of  the  Germans, 


prince  who  took  it  had  ceased  in  1806  to  be  King 
of  Germany  and  Roman  Emperor-elect,  was  a 
sheer  and  shameless  imposture.  But  it  is  an  im- 
posture which  has  thoroughly  well  served  its 
ends." — E.  A.  Freeman.  Prefnee  to  rAy/er'sJIiatory 
of  Austro-IIungary. — "Medieval  History  is  a 
history  of  rights  and  wrongs;  modern  History 
as  contrasted  with  medieval  divides  itself  into 
two  portions ;  the  tirst  a  history  of  jiowers,  forces, 
and  dynasties;  the  second,  a  history  in  which 

leas  take  the  place  of  both  rights  and  forces. 

.  .  Austria  may  be  regarded  as  representing 
ilie  more  ancient  form  of  right.  .  .  .  The  middle 
ages  proper,  the  centuries  from  tlic  year  1000  to 
the  year  1500,  from  the  Emperor  llcnry  II.  to 
the   Emperor  Slaxitniliau,  were  ages  of   legal 


The  Races. — "The  ethnical  elements  of  the 
population  are  as  follows  (1890  for  Austria  and 
1880  for  Huufary)  on  the  basis  of  language : — 
Austria  (1890):  German  8,461,580;  Boliemian, 
Moravian  and  Slovak  5,472,871;  Polish  3,719,- 
232;  Ruthenian  3,105,221;  Slovene  1,176,672; 
Servian  and  Croatian  644,920;  Italian  and  Latin 
675,305;  Roumanian  209,110;  Magyar  8,139. 
Hungary  (1880):  German  1,972,115;  Bohemian, 
Moravian  and  Slovak  1,893,800;  Ruthenian 
360,051;  Slovene  86,401;  Servian  and  Croatian 
2,3,59,708;  Roumanian  2,423,387;  Magyar 
6,478,711;  Gipsies  82.2.56;  Others  83,940.''— 
Statesman's  Vear-lJook.  1893  ;  ed.  bi/  J.  S.  Keltic. 

A.  D.  80S-1246. —  The  Rise  of  the  Margrav- 
iate,  and  the  creation  of  the  Duchy„  under  the 


197 


AUSTRIA.  A.  D.  80(5-1246. 


finhrnberg 
Itf/naily. 


AUSTRIA,  A.  D.  805-1246. 


Babenbergs.— Chaneingr  relations  to  Bavaria. 
—  End  of  the  Babenberg  Dynasty.—"  Austria, 
as  Is  wi'll  known,  is  Init  llic  li.'ilin  funii  of  tlie 
OrrinaiiOcstcrrcicli,  lli('l<iiij.'iloiii  of  tliccast  [an; 
aliovc:  Ai :sriiASiA|.  Tliis  cclcliralcd  liistrirical 
naiiic  a|)|>i'ars  for  tli(<  first  linu^  in  000,  in  a  docu 
incnl  signed  liy  tlio  onipcrorOtto  111.  ('  in  rcjiiono 
vulKari  iioniiiic  Ostcrnclii').  Tlic  land  to  wliicli 
it  is  tlicrc  applied  was  rri'al<'d  a  iiiarfli  afti'r  tlie 
(IcslrnclioM  of  tli('  Avar  iMiipiro  [80,")],  and  was 
frovcriK'il  lilu-  all  I  ho  other  (Jerinan  niarclies. 
Politically  it  wasdividcd  into  two  inari^raviates; 
that  of  Friuli,  in(lii(lin!.f  Friuli  properly  so  called. 
Lower  Paniionia  to  IIk^  south  of  the  Dravo,  Car- 
inthia,  Istria,  and  the  iiilerior  of  Dalnialia  —  tlio 
sea-coast  havinj;  been  ceded  to  the  Eastern  eni- 
lieror  ;  —  the  eastern  niariiraviate  comprising 
Lower  Pannonia  to  the  nortli  of  the  Drave, 
Upper  I'atnionia,  and  the  Ostniark  properly  so 
called.  The  Oslniark  inehided  the  TraUMKau  to 
the  east  of  the  Kniis,  which  was  coniplelelv  Ger- 
man, and  the  Griin/.vittigau.  .  .  .  Tlieearly  his- 
tory of  these  countries  lacks  the  unity  of  interest 
which  the  fate  of  a  dynasty  or  a  nation  jjives  to 
those  of  the  Majryar  and  the  t'hekh.  They  form 
but  a  port  ion  of  the  Gernian  kin.ij;don'i,and  have  no 
strongly  marked  life  of  their  own.  The  inarch, 
with  its  varying  frontier,  had  not  oven  a  geograph- 
ical unity.  In  870,  it  was  enlarged  by  the  ad- 
dition of  IJavaria;  in  800,  it  lost  I'annonia,  which 
was  given  to  Hracislav,  the  Croat  prince,  in  re- 
turn for  his  help  against  tlie  JIagyars,  and  in 
0;!7.  it  was  destroyed  and  absorbed  by  tlio  ^lag- 
yars,  who  e.vtendod  their  frontier  to  the  river 
Enns.  After  tlic  battle  of  Lcchfehl  or  Augsburg 
(9,>1),  Germany  and  Italy  being  no  longer  exposed 
to  llnugarian  invasions,  the  march  was  rocon- 
stituted"!!!!!!  f.rantod  to  the  margrave  IJurkhard, 
the  brother-in-law  of  Henry  of  liavaria.  Leopokl 
of  IJabenborg  succeeded  him  (97.'!),  and  witli  him 
begins  the  dynasty  of  15abenberg,  which  ruled 
the  country  (hu'ing  the  time  of  the  Promyslidcs 
[in  Bohemia]  and  the  house  of  Arpad  [in  Hun- 
gary]. The  IJaboiibergs  derived  their  name  from 
the  castle  of  Habonborg,  built  by  Henry,  mar- 
grave of  Nordgau,  in  honor  of  his  wife,  Baba, 
sister  of  Ilonry  the  Fowler.  It  reappears  in  tlie 
name  of  the  town  o'  Bamberg,  which  now  forms 
part  of  the  1  ig  .om  o/  Bavaria.  .  .  .  Though 
not  of  right  au  li  jreditary  ofllco,  the  margraviate 
soon  'lecame  so,  and  remained  in  the  family  of 
the  Babenbergs  the  niniili  was  so  important  a 
part  of  the  cm  )ire  thin  no  do.  '^t.  the  emperor 
was  glnd  to  mi  te  the  defence  of  this  exposed 
district  the  especial  interest  of  one  family.  .  .  . 
The  marriages  of  the  Babenbergs  were  fortunate ; 
in  1138  the  brother  of  Leopold  [Fourth  of  that 
name  in  the  Jlargraviate]  Conrad  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  Duke  of  Franconia,  was  made  emperor. 
It  was  now  that  the  struggle  began  between  the 
house  of  Ilohenstaufen  and  the  great  house  of 
■\Velf  [or  Guelf:  See  Guki,fs  and  Guiiiklines] 
whose  reprcsenttitivo  was  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke 
of  Sa.xony  and  Bavaria.  Henry  was  defeated  in 
the  unequal  strife,  and  was  i^laced  inidcr  the  ban 
of  the  Empire,  wlnle  the  duchy  of  Sa.vony  was 
nwaiiieil  to  Albert  the  Bear  of  lirandonbtirg,  and 
the  duchy  of  Bavaria  fell  to  tho  share  of  Leopold 
IV.  (1138).  Henry  the  Proud  died  in  tlie  follow- 
ing year,  leaving  behind  him  a  son  under  age, 
who  was  known  later  on  as  Ileury  the  Lion.  His 
uncle  Welf  would  not  submit  to  the  forfeiture  by 
his  house  of  their  old  domiuious,  and  marched 


against  Tjcopold  torccon(iupr  Bavaria,  but  bown» 
defeated  by  Conrad  at  tlie  buttle  of  Weinsbcrg 
(ll-tD).  Leopold  <lied  shortly  after  this  victory, 
and  was  succeeded  both  in  the  <luchy  of  Bavaria 
and  in  the  margraviate  of  Austria  by  his  brother, 
Henry  II."  Henry  II.  endeavored  to  strengthen 
himself  in  Bavaria  by  marrying  the  widow  of 
Henry  tlie  Proud,  and  by  extorting  from  her  son, 
Ilonry  the  Lion,  a  renunciation  of  the  lalter'.s 
rights.  But  Henry  the  Lion  afterwards  repudi- 
ated his  renunciation,  and  in  tb'iO  the  German 
diet  decided  that  Bavaria  should  bo  restored  to 
him.  Henry  of  Austria  was  wisely  persuaded 
to  yield  to  the  decision,  anil  Bavaria  was  given 
tip.  "  He  lost  nothing  by  this  unwilling  act  of 
disinterestedness,  for  he  secured  from  the  emperor 
considerable  compensation.  From  tlii.s  time  for- 
ward, Austria,  which  had  been  largely  increased 
by  the  addition  of  the  greater  part  of  the  lands 
lying  between  tlie  Enns  and  the  Inn,  was  re- 
moved from  its  almost  nominal  subjection  to 
Bavaria  and  became  a  .separate  duchy  [Henry  II. 
being  the  lirst  hereditary  Duke  of  Aiistria].  Aii 
imperial  edict,  dated  the  Ststof  September,  ll.ICi, 
declares  the  new  duchy  hereditary  even  in  the 
foinale  line,  and  authorizes  the  dukes  to  absent 
themselves  from  all  diets  except  those  whidi  were 
held  in  Bavarian  territory.  It  also  permits  them, 
in  case  of  a  tlireatoned  o.vtinction  of  theirdynasty. 
to  proiiose  a  successor.  .  .  .  Henry  II.  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  Vienna.  He  constructed  a 
fortress  there,  and,  in  order  to  civili/.e  the  sur- 
rouiKling  country,  sent  for  some  Scotch  monks, 
of  whom  there  were  many  at  this  time  in  Ger- 
many." In  1177  Heni'v  II.  was  succeeded  by 
Leopold  v.,  called  tho  Virtuous.  "  In  his  reign 
the  duchy  of  Austria  gained  Styria,  an  iir;/ortant 
addition  to  its  territory.  This  province  was  in- 
habited by  Slovenes  and  Germans,  and  took  its 
name  from  the  castle  of  Steyor,  built  in  080  by 
Otokar  III.,  cotmt  of  the  Trungau.  In  1050,  it 
was  created  a  iiiargraviate,  and  in  1150  it  was 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  the  counties  of  Maii- 
bor  (Marburg)  and  Cilly.  In  1180,  Otokar  VI. 
of  Styria  (1104-1192)obtained  the  hereditary  title 
of  duke  from  the  Emperor  in  return  for  his  help 
against  Henry  the  Lion."  Dying  without  cliil- 
dreii,  Otokar  made  Leopold  of  Austria  bis  heir. 
"  Styria  was  annexed  to  Austria  in  1192,  and  has 
remained  so  ever  since.  .  .  .  Leopold  V.  is  the 
first  of  the  Austrian  ]irinces  whose  name  is  known 
in  Western  Europe.  He  joined  the  third  crusade, " 
and  quarrelled  with  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  at 
the  siege  of  St.  Jean  d'  Acrc.  Afterwards,  when 
Ricliard,  returning  liomo  by  the  Adriatic,  at- 
temiited  to  pass  through  Austrian  territory  in- 
cognito, Leopold  revenged  himself  by  seizing 
and  imprisoning  the  English  king,  finally  selling 
his  royal  captive  to  a  still  meaner  Emperor  for 
20,000  marks.  Leopold  VI.  who  succeeded  to 
the  Austrian  duchy  in  1198,  did  much  for  the 
commerce  of  his  country.  ' '  He  made  Vienna  tlie 
staple  tovn,  and  lent  a  sum  of  30,000  marks  of 
silver  to  the  city  to  enable  it  to  increase  its  trade. 
He  adorned  it  with  mauy  new  buildings,  among 
tliom  the  None  Burg."  His  son,  called  Frederick 
the  Fighter  (1230-1346)  was  the  last  of  theBaben- 
berg  dynasty.  His  hand  was  against  all  his 
neighbors,  including  the  Emperor  Frederick  IL. 
and  their  liands  were  against  him.  He  pcrislied 
in  June,  1240,  on  the  banks  of  the  Leitlia,  while 
at  war  with  the  Hungarians. —  L.  Lcgcr,  Ilist.  of 
Austvo-IIuiujary,  ch.  9. 


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AUHTUIA,  rjw-iaw. 


fiinttihth  «/ 
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uii)tbury. 


AU8TUI.V,   12lrt-13b}. 


A1.H0  IN:  E.  F.  IlcndtTH-m,  SUd  Ifinl.  Duft.  nf 
the  Miiltlle  Ai/m.  Iik.  'i,  no.  7. 

A.  D.  I346-I383.— Rodolph  of  Hapiburs 
and  the  acquisition  of  the  Duchy  for  his 
family. — "'Inr  House  nf  Au-itriit  Dwcs  its  origin 
and  povviT  to  Hliinloljili  of  IIa|)Hliui'i;li,  Hoii  of 
Albert  IV.  cdunt  of  lla|>HlMirt,'li.  Tlio  AuHtiiiui 
KciicaloKists.  who  have  taken  inclefatli;aiil(!  but 
luelTcetuul  pahiK  to  trace  his  Illustrious  ilesi'etit 
from  thu  Koniaiis,  carry  It  with  Krcat  pniliahlllty 
to  Ktlilco,  (luku  of  Alstu'i',  III  the  sevi'iilh  century, 
aM<l  uui|UL'stlonalily  to  (iuntraui  \\u'.  Itleh,  count 
of  Alsacu  1111(1  Ilrls^^au.  who  llourislied  in  the 
tenth."  A  Kf""!^""  <'f  Ountniin.  Werner  hy 
name,  "  bucaniu  bl.sliop  of  iStrasburjih,  anil  ou  an 
enilneiicu  above  Winillsch,  built  the  castle  of 
Ilapsbur^h  [' llabichtHbur!,''  'the  castle  of  vul- 
tures' 1,  which  becanu!  the  residence  of  the  future 
counts,  and  gave  a  new  title  to  the  descendants 
of  Ountram.  .  .  .  The  successors  of  Werner  In- 
creased their  fai'iily  Inheritance  by  marrlai;es, 
donations  from  the  Emperoi-s,  and  by  becoming 
prefects,  advocates,  or  administrators  of  the 
neljfhbourlng  abbeys,  towns,  or  districts,  and  his 
gri  grandsim,  Albert  III.,  was  possessor  of  no 
ill  .siderablu  territories  in  Suabia,  Alsace,  and 
that  part  of  Switxurlaiid  which  is  now  called  the 
Argau,  and  held  tin;  landgnivlate  of  Upper 
^visace.  Ills  son,  Uhodolp'i,  received  from  the 
Kinperur,  in  addition  to  his  paternal  inheritance, 
the  town  and  district  of  Lauffenburgh.  an  im- 
perial city  on  tile  Uliine.  lie  aci|uirv(l  also  a 
considerable  acces-siou  of  lerritrry  by  obtalniiii; 
the  advocacy  of  Uri,  Scliwdtz,  and  Under- 
walden,  whoso  natives  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
Helvetic  Confederacy,  by  their  union  against  the 
oppressions  of  feudal  tyranny." — W.  Co.se,  IIM. 
vf  the  IldiiHe  of  Aimtrid,  ch.  1.  —  "(Jn  the  death 
(if  Hodolpli  In  1233  his  estates  were  divided 
between  Ids  sons  Albert  IV.  and  Uixlolph  II. ; 
the  former  receiving  the  landgravlute  of  L'pper 
Al.saee.  and  the  county  of  Hapsburg,  togetlicr 
with  the  patrimonial  castle ;  the  latter,  the  coun- 
ties Hlieinfelden  and  LautTenburg,  and  some 
other  territories.  Albert  espoused  Iledwige, 
daughter  of  Ulric,  count  of  Kybiirg;  and  from 
this  union  sprang  the  great  UiKlolph,  who  was 
burn  on  the  Ist  of  Aiay  1218,  and  was  pre- 
sented at  the  baptismal  font  by  tlie  Emperor 
Frederic  II.  On  the  death  of  his  father  Albert 
in  1340,  Rodolph  succeeded  to  his  estates ;  but 
the  greater  portion  of  these  were  in  the  hands  of 
his  paternal  iincle,  Rodolph  of  Laullenburg; 
and  all  lie  could  call  his  own  lay  within  sight  of 
the  great  Imll  of  his  castle.  .  .  .  Ills  disposition 
was  waywanl  and  restless,  and  drew  him  into 
repeated  contests  with  his  neighbours  and  rela- 
tions. ...  In  a  ([uarrel  with  the  Bishop  of 
Basic,  Rodolph  led  his  troops  against  that  city, 
and  burnt  a  convent  in  the  sidiurbs,  for  which 
he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Innocent  IV. 
He  then  entered  the  service  of  Ottocar  II.  King 
of  Bohemia,  imder  whom  he  served,  in  company 
with  the  Teutonic  Knights,  in  his  wars  against 
the  Prussian  pagans;  and  afterwards  against 
Bela  IV.  King  of  Hungary."  The  surprising 
election,  in  1373,  of  tids  little  known  count  of 
Hapsburg,  to  be  King  of  tlie  Romans,  with  the 
substance  if  not  the  title  of  the  imperial  dignitj 
which  that  ckctioa  carried  with  it,  was  due  to  a 
singular  frieuu'ship  which  he  had  acquired  some 
fourteen  years  before.  When  Archbishop  Wer- 
ner, Elector  of  Meatz,  was  on  his  way  to  Rome 


In  12.'D.  to  receive  the  pallium,  he  "  \\n%  enrnrtod 
across  till'  Alps  bv  RiHlolph  of  llapsliurg,  and 
under  Ills  proteelfiiii  seeurecl  from  ihe  robliers 
who  beset  the  pass<'S,  Channed  with  the  allii- 
blllty  and  frankness  of  his  protector,  (he  Arcli- 
bishop  conceived  a  slroint  regard  for  Uodolph;" 
and  when.  In  1272,  iifli  r  the  nieat  Interregnum 
Isee  Okum.vnv:  A.  1)  f.VV)-12?'.;|,  the  (iermanic 
Electors  found  dlllleiillv  In  choosing  an  Em- 
peror, the  Elector  of  .\|eiit/,  reeemmendeil  his 
i'rieiid  III'  Hapsburg  as  a  camlldale.  "The 
Electors  an-  described  by  a  contemporary  as 
desiring  an  Empemr  but  detesting  bis  jMiwer. 
The  comparative'  lowliness  of  the  Count  of 
Hapsburg  recoinmeniled  lilm  as  one  from  whom 
their  aiithorltv  stood  in  little  jeopardy ;  but  the 
cliiims  of  tlK^Klngof  Holienil;i  were  vigorously 
urged;  and  it  was  at  length  agreed  to  decide  the 
election  by  the  voice  of  the  Duki^  of  llavarla. 
Eewis  without  hesitation  noiniiiaied  Roilolph. 
.  .  .  'V\w  early  days  of  Rodolph's  reign  wero 
diKlurbed  by  the  contumacy  of  Ottocar,  King  of 
Itohemla.  ^Phat  Prince  .  .  .  persisted  in  refus- 
ing to  acknowledge  the  Count  of  Hapsburg  as 
his  soveridgn.  Possessed  of  the  diitchles  of 
Austria,  Styria,  Carnlola  and  Carinthia,  he  ndght 
rely  upon  his  own  resources;  and  lie  was  forli- 
lied  in  his  resistance  by  the  alliance  of  Henry, 
Duke  of  I<ower  Bavaria.  But  the  very  posses- 
sion of  these  four  great  fiefs  was  suttlcient  to 
draw  down  the  envy  and  distrust  of  the  other 
Qerman  Princes.  To  all  these  territories,  in- 
deed, the  title  of  f)ttocar  was  sulllciently  dis- 
putable. On  the  death  of  Frederic  II.  fifth 
duke  of  Austria  [and  last  of  the  Babenberg 
dynasty]  In  124(1,  tliat  dutcliy,  together  with 
Sty  I  la  and  Carniola,  was  claimed  bv  his  nieco 
Oertrude  and  his  sister  Margaret.  IJy  i.  mar- 
riage with  the  latter,  and  a  victory  over  Bela  IV. 
King  of  Hungary,  whose  uncle  married  Uer- 
triide,  Ottocar  obtained  po.ssession  of  Austria 
and  Styria;  and  in  virtue  of  a  purchase  from 
Ulric,  I)nko  of  Carinthia  and  Carniola,  he  pos- 
sessed himself  of  those  dutchies  on  Ulric's  death 
in  1269,  in  detiaiice  of  tlie  claims  of  Pliillp, 
brother  of  the  late  Duke.  Against  so  ))owerful 
a  rival  the  Princes  a.ssembled  at  Augsburg 
readily  voted  succours  to  Rodolph;  and  Ottocar 
having  refused  to  surrender  the  Austrian  domin- 
ions, and  even  hanged  the  heralds  who  wero 
sent  to  pronounce  tlie  coiise(iueiit  sentence  of 
Iiroscription,  Rodolph  with  his  accustomed 
l)romptitnde  took  tlic  field  [1276],  and  con- 
founded his  enemy  by  a  rapid  march  upon 
Austria.  In  his  way  he  surprised  and  van- 
quished the  reljel  Duke  of  Bavaria,  whom  ho 
compelled  to  join  his  fortes;  he  besieged  and 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity  the  city  of  Vienna; 
and  had  already  i)repared  a  bridge  of  boats  to 
cross  the  Danube  and  invade  Bohemia,  when 
Ottocar  arrested  his  progress  by  a  message  of 
submission.  The  terms  agr';ed  upon  were 
severely  humiliating  to  the  i)roi.ul  soul  of  (Jtto- 
car,"  and  he  was  so<m  in  revolt  i!gain,  with  the 
support  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaiia.  Roilolpli 
marched  against  him,  and  a  desperat;!  battle  was 
fought  at  Marschfeld,  August  26,  1278.  in  which 
Ottocar,  deserted  at  a  critical  moment,  by  the 
Moravian  trooi)s,  was  defeated  and  slain.  "  The 
total  loss  of  the  Bohemians  on  that  falnl  day 
amounted  to  more  than  14,000  men.  In  the 
lirst  moments  of  his  triumph,  Rodolph  designed 
to  appropriate  the  domiuious  of  his  dcceused 


199 


AUSTRIA,  1246-1883. 


AUSTKIA,  1201-1319. 


oncniy.  But  liis  avidity  was  restrained  by  tlio 
I'riiices  of  tlie  Empire,  wlio  interposed  ou  belialt 
(if  the  son  of  Oltociir;  and  Wcnceslaua  was  per- 
iiiitled  to  ri'liiiii  liolieniia  and  Moravia.  Tlie 
projected  union  of  liie  two  families  was  now 
reneweci:  Judilli  of  llapsburg  was  alllauced  to 
tlie  young  King  of  Boliemia;  wliose  sister  Agnes 
was  marrle(i  to  Hodolpli,  youngest  son  of  tlie 
King  of  the  Homaus."  lu  1283,  Rodolpb, 
"after  satisfying  tlie  several  claimants  to  those 
territories  by  various  cessions  of  lands  .  .  .  ob- 
tained the  consent  of  a  Diet  held  at  Augsburg  to 
•he  settlement  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carniola, 
upon  his  two  surviving  sons;  who  were  accord- 
ingly jointly  invested  with  those  dutchics  with 
great  pomp  and  solemnity ;  and  they  are  r  t  this 
hour  enjoyed  by  the  descendants  of  Rodo  ph  of 
llapsburg!"— Sir  R.  Comyn,  Uiat.  of  the  Western 
Empire,   ch.   14. 

Also  i.v  :  .1.  Planta,  Jfi.st.  of  the  Helvetic  Confed- 
eracy,  bk.  1.  ch.  Tt  (i\  1). 

A.  D.  1282-1315. — Relations  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg  to  the  Swiss  Forest  Cantons. — 
The  Tell  Legend.— The  Battle  of  Morgarten. 
See  SwiTZEUi.ANi):  Thk  Tiikke  FouKsf  Can- 
tons. 

A.  D.  1390. — Beginning  of  Hapsburg  designs 
upon  the  crown  of  Hungary.  Sei'  Iuxoakv: 
A.  I).  Illl-i:i01, 

A.  D.  1291-1349. — Loss  and  recovery  of  the 
imperial  crown. — Liberation  of  Switzerland. 
— Conflict  between  Fredericic  and  Lewis  of 
Bavaria. — The  imperial  crown  lost  once  more. 
—  Itiidolf  of  llapsburg  desired  the  title  of  King 
of  the  Romans  for  his  sou.  "But  tlie  electors 
already  fo\ind  that  the  new  house  of  Austria  was 
becoming  too  iiowerfui,  and  they  refused.  Ou 
Iiis  death,  in  fact,  in  1291,  a  prince  from  another 
family,  poor  and  obscure,  Adolf  of  Nassau,  was 
elected  after  an  interregnum  of  ten  mouths.  His 
reign  of  si.\  years  is  marked  by  two  events;  ho 
sold  himself  to  P^dward  I.  in  1291,  against  Philip 
the  Fair,  for  100,000  pounds  sterling,  and  used 
the  money  in  an  attempt  to  obtain  in  Tlmringia 
a  principality  for  liis  family  as  Rudolf  liad  done 
in  Austria.  The  electors  were  displeased  and 
chose  Albert  of  Austria  to  succeed  him,  who 
conquered  and  liillcd  his  adversary  at  Gollhcim, 
near  Worms  (1298).  Tlie  ten  years  reign  of  the 
new  king  of  the  Romans  showed  that  he  was 
very  ambitious  for  liis  family,  which  be  -vislied 
to  establi.sh  ou  the  throne  of  Bohemi'i  wlierj  the 
Slavonic  dynasty  had  lately  died  o.it,  and  also  in 
Tlmringia  and  ^Meissen,  wliere  he  lost  a  battle. 
He  was  also  bent  upon  extei'fling  his  riglits,  even 
unjiistly— 'u  Alsace  and  Switzerland  —  and  it 
proved  an  unfortunate  venture  for  liim.  For, 
ou  the  one  hand,  he  roused  the  three  Swiss  can- 
tons of  Uri,  Scbweitz,  and  Unterwalden  to 
revolt;  on  the  other  hand,  be  roused  the  wrath 
of  his  ncpliew  .lohu  of  Swabia,  wliom  he 
defrauded  of  his  inlieritanco  (domains in  Switzer- 
land, Swabia.  and  Alsace).  As  he  was  crossing 
tlie  Reuss,  .lolin  thrust  him  through  with  his 
sword  (i;i08).  The  assassin  escjiped.  One  of 
AUierl's  daughters,  Agnes,  dowager  queen  of 
Hungary,  had  more  than  a  thousand  innocent 
people  killed  to  avenge  the  death  of  her  father. 
The  greater  part  of  the  present  Switzerland  had 
been  originally  included  in  tlie  Kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  was  ceded  to  the  empire,  together 
with  that  kingdom,  in  103U.  A  feudal  nobility, 
lay  and  ecclesiastic,   had  gained  a  firm  footing 


there.  Nevertheless,  by  tlie  12th  century  the 
cities  had  ri.sen  to  some  Importance.  Znri<'li, 
Basel,  Bern,  and  Freiburg  had  an  extensive  com- 
merce and  obtained  municipal  privileges.  'I'hree 
little  canton.s,  far  in  the  heart  of  the  Swiss  moun- 
tains, jireserved  more  than  all  the  others  their  in- 
domitable spirit  of  independence.  When  Ai.jcrt 
of  Austria  became  Emperor  [King?]  be  arro- 
gantly tried  toencroach  up(m  their  independence. 
Three  heroic  mountaineers,  Wi.rner  StaiifTacher, 
Arnold  of  ^lelchthal,  and  Walter  FiU'st.  each 
witli  ten  chosen  f..ends,  conspired  together  at 
RlUli,  to  throw  olf  the  yoke.  The  tyranny  of 
the  Austrian  bailill  Oesslcr,  and  William  Tell's 
well-aimed  arrow,  if  tradition  is  to  bo  believed, 
gave  the  signal  for  the  insurrection  [see  Swit- 
zerland: The  Three  Forest  Cantons]. 
Albert's  violent  death  left  to  Leopold,  his  suc- 
cessor in  the  duchy  of  Austria,  the  care  of 
repressing  the  rebellion.  lie  failed  and  was 
completely  defeated  ot  Jlortgorten  (1315).  That 
was  Switzerland's  field  of  Mai  .Uhon.  .  .  .  Wlien 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  was  chosen  by  the  electors, 
it  was  because  of  his  poverty  and  weakness.  At 
his  deatli  accordingly  they  did  not  give  their 
votes  for  his  son  Albert.  .  .  .  Albert,  however, 
succeeded  in  overthrowing  his  rival.  But  ou  his 
death  they  were  firm  in  their  decision  not  to 
give  tlie  crown  for  a  third  time  to  the  new  and 
ambitious  house  of  Hapsburg.  They  likewise 
refused,  for  similar  reasons,  to  accept  Cliarles  of 
Valois,  brother  of  Philip  the  F'ir,  whom  the 
latter  tried  to  place  on  the  imperial  throne,  in 
order  tliat  he  might  indirectly  rule  over  Ger- 
many. They  supported  the  Couut  of  Luxem- 
burg, who  became  Henry  VII.  By  choosing  em- 
perors ['ingsV]  wlio  were  poor,  theeleotors  placed 
them  vinder  the  temi)tation  of  enriching  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  the  empire.  Adolf 
failed,  it  is  true,  in  Thuringia,  but  Rudolf 
gained  Austria  l)y  victory;  Henry  succeeded  in 
Boliemia  bj-  means  of  miu'riage,  and  Bohemia 
was  wortli  more  than  Austria  at  that  time 
beeatiso,  besides  Moravia,  it  was  made  to  cover 
Silesia  and  a  jiart  of  Lusatia  (Oberlausitz). 
Henry's  son,  John  of  Luxemburg,  married  the 
lieires  i  to  that  royal  crown.  As  for  Henry  him- 
self lie  remained  as  poor  as  before.  He  had  a 
vigorous,  restless  spirit,  and  went  to  try  bis  for- 
tunes on  his  own  account  bej'ond  the  Alps.  .  .  . 
He  was  seriously  threatening  Naples,  when  ho 
died  cither  from  some  sickness  or  from  being  poi- 
soned by  a  Dominican  in  partaking  of  the  host 
(1313).  A  year's  interregnum  followed ;  then  two 
emperors  [kings  Vj  at  once :  Lewis  of  Bavaria  and 
Frederick  the  Fair,  son  of  tlie  Emperor  Albert. 
After  eight  years  of  war,  Lewis  gained  his  i)oint 
by  the  victory  of  Mlihldorf  (1322V  which  deliv- 
ered Frederick  into  his  liauds.  Ho  kept  him  in 
captivity  for  three  years,  and  at  the  end  of  that 
time  became  reconciled  witli  him,  and  they  were 
on  such  good  terms  that  both  boro  the  title  of 
King  and  governed  in  conunon.  Tlie  fear 
inspired  in  Lewis  bv  France  and  the  Holy  See 
dictated  tliis  singular  agreement.  Henry  VII. 
had  revived  tlie  policy  of  interference  by  the 
f  Jermau  emperors  in  the  affairs  of  Italy,  and  had 
kindled  again  the  quarrel  with  the  Papacy 
which  had  long  appeared  extinguished.  Lewis 
IV.  did  tlie  same.  .  .  .  AVliilo  Boniface  VIH. 
was  making  war  on  Philip  the  Fair,  Albert 
allied  himself  with  him;  when,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Papacy  was  reduced  to  the  state  of  a 


200 


AUSTRIA,   1291-1349. 


Acquisition  of 
Tyrol. 


AUSTRIA,   1330-1304. 


servile  nuxilinry  to  France,  tlic  Emperor  returned 
to  liis  former  lio.stility.  When  ex-communicated 
by  I'ope  Jolin  XXII.,  wlio  wislied  to  give  tlie 
empire  to  tlie  king  of  France,  Clinrles  IV., 
Lewis  IV.  made  use  of  tlie  same  weapons.  .  .  . 
Tired  of  a  crown  loaded  with  anxieties,  Lewis 
of  Bavaria  was  Anally  about  to  submit  to  the 
Pope  and  al dieate,  wlien  the  electors  perceived 
the  necessity  of  supporting  their  Emperor  and  of 
fiiiiiii'.Hy  releasing  the  supremo  power  from 
foreign  dependency  which  brought  the  whole 
nation  to  shame.  That  was  the  object  of  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Frankfort,  pronounced  in 
1338  by  tlie  Diet,  on  the  report  of  the  electors. 
.  .  .  The  king  of  France  and  Pope  Clement  VI., 
whose  claims  were  directly  alTected  by  this 
declaration,  set  up  against  Lewis  IV.  Charles  of 
Luxemburg,  son  of  John  the  Blind,  who  became 
king  of  Bohemia  in  1340,  when  his  father  had 
been  killed  lighting  on  tlie  French  side  at  the 
battle  of  Crecy.  Lewis  died  the  following  year. 
He  had  gained  possession  of  Brandenburg  and 
the  Tyrol  for  his  house,  but  it  was  unable  to 
retain  possession  of  them.  The  latter  county 
reverted  to  the  house  of  Austria  in  1303.  The 
electors  most  hostile  to  the  French  i)arty  tried  to 
put  up,  as  a  rival  candidate  to  Charles  of  Lux- 
emburg, Edward  III.,  king  of  England,  who 
refused  the  empire;  then  they  offered  it  to  a 
brave  knight,  Gunther  of  Sehwarzburg,  who 
(lied,  perhaps  poisoned,  after  a  few  months  (1349). 
The  king  of  Bohemia  then  became  Emperor  as 
Charles  IV.  by  a  second  election." — V.  Duruy, 
T/ie.  Histvni  of  the  Middle  Ages,  bk.  9,  ch.  30.— 
See,  also,  Ukumanv:  A.  I>   1314-1347. 

A.  ^.  1330-1364. — Forged  charters  of  Duke 
Rudolf. —  The  Privilegium  Majus. —  His  as- 
sumption of  the  Archducal  title. — Acquisition 
of  Tyrol. — Treaties  of  inheritance  with  bohe- 
mia  and  Hungary. — King  .John,  of  Bohemia,  had 
uiarrieii  his  second  son,  .John  Ilenry,  at  the  ago 
of  eight,  to  the  afterwards  notable  JIargaret 
Jlaultasehe  (Pouchmouth),  daughter  of  the  duke 
of  Tyrol  and  Carinthia,  who  was  then  twelve 
years  old.  He  hoped  by  this  means  to  reunite 
those  provinces  to  Bohemia.  To  thwart  this 
scheme,  the  Emperor,  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  the 
two  Austrian  princes,  Albert  the  Wise  and  Otto 
the  Gay.  came  to  an  understanding.  "By  the 
treaty  of  Hageiiau  (1330),  it  was  arranged  that 
on  the  death  of  duke  Henry,  who  had  no  male 
heirs,  Carinthia  should  become  the  property  of 
Austria,  Tyrol  that  of  the  Emperor.  Ilenry 
died  in  1335,  whereupon  the  Emperor,  Louis  of 
Bavaria,, declared  that  Margaret  Maultasche  had 
forfeited  all  rights  of  inheritance,  and  proceeded 
to  assign  the  two  provinces  to  the  Austrian 
princfj,  with  the  exception  of  some  portion  of 
the  Tyrol  which  devolved  on  the  house  of  Wit- 
telsbaeh.  Carinthia  alone,  however,  obeyed  the 
Emperor ;  the  Tyrolese  nobles  declared  for  Mar- 
garet, and,  with  the  help  of  John  of  Bohemia, 
this  princess  was  able  to  keep  possession  of  this 
part  of  her  inheritance.  .  .  .  Carinthia  also  did 
not  long  remain  in  the  undisputed  possession  of 
Austria.  Margaret  was  soon  divorced  from  her 
very  youthful  husband  (1342),  and  shortly  after 
married  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
who  hoped  to  be  able  to  invest  his  son,  not  only 
with  Tyrol,  but  also  with  Carinthia,  and  once 
more  we  lind  the  houses  of  Hapsburg  and  Lux- 
emburg united  by  a  common  interest.  .  .  .  When 
■  .  .  Charles  IV.  of  Bohemia  was  chosen  em- 


l)eror,  he  consented  to  leave  Carinthia  in  the 
pos.session  of  Austria.  Albert  did  homage  for  it. 
.  .  .  According  to  tlu'  wish  of  their  father,  the 
four  sons  of  Albert  reigned  after  him;  but  tlio 
eldest,  Rudolf  IV.,  exercised  executive  authority 
in  the  name  of  the  others  [1358-130.')].  ...  Ho 
was  only  19  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  but  ho 
had  already  married  one  of  the  daughters  ol  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.  NotwitliHtandiiig  this 
family  alliance,  Charles  had  not  given  Austria 
such  a  place  in  the  Golden  Bull  [see  Gekmany: 
A.  H.  1347-1492]  as  seemed  likely  to  secure 
either  her  territorial  importance  or  a  projier 
position  for  her  princes.  They  had  not  been 
admitted  into  the  eletloral  cellege  of  the  ICmpire, 
and  yet  their  scattered  po.ssessions  stretched  from 
the  banks  of  the  Leitlia  to  the  Rhine.  .  .  .  These 
grievances  were  enhanced  by  their  feeling  of 
envy  towards  Bohemia,  which  had  attained  great 
prosperity  under  Charles  IV.  Jt  was  at  this 
time  that,  in  order  to  increase  the  importance  of 
his  house,  Rudolf,  or  his  ollicers  of  state,  had 
recourse  to  a  measure  which  was  often  employed 
in  that  age  by  princes,  religious  bodies,  and 
even  by  the  Holy  See.  It  was  pretended  that 
then;  were  in  (existence  a  whole  series  of  charters 
which  had  been  granted  to  the  house  of  Austria 
by  various  kings  and  emperors,  and  which 
secured  to  their  princes  a  position  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  both  empire  and  Emperor.  Accord- 
ing to  these  documents,  and  more  especially  the 
one  called  the  'privilegium  majus,'  the  duke  of 
Austria  owed  no  kind  of  service  to  the  empire, 
which  was,  however,  bound  to  protect  him ;  .  .  . 
he  was  to  appear  at  the  diets  with  the  title  of 
archduke,  and  was  to  have  the  first  place  among 
the  electors.  .  .  .  Rudolf  pretended  that  these 
documentshad  justcometo  light,  and  demanded 
their  coniirmation  from  Charles  IV.,  who  refused 
it.  Nevertheless  on  the  strength  of  these  lying 
charters,  he  took  the  title  of  palatine  archduke, 
without  waiting  to  ask  the  leave  of  Charles,  and 
used  the  royal  insignia.  Charles  IV.,  who  could 
not  fail  to  be  irritated  by  these  pretensions,  in  his 
turn  revived  the  claims  which  he  had  inherited 
from Premysl  Otokar  II.  t"  tli!  lands  of  Austria, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola.  These  claims, 
however,  were  simply  theorei  icul,  and  no  all. .  :it 
was  made  to  enforce  then',  nnd  the  mediation  of 
Louis  the  Great,  King  of  j  lungary,  linally  led  to 
a  treaty  between  the  two  princes,  which  satisUed 
the  ambition  of  the  H  bsburgs  (1304).  By  this 
treaty,  the  houses  of  Habsburg  in  Austria  imd  of 
Luxemburg  in  Bohemia  each  guaranteed  the  in- 
heritance oj  their  lands  to  the  other,  in  case  of 
the  extinction  of  cither  of  the  two  families,  and 
the  estates  of  Bohemia  and  Austria  ratilied  th  s 
agreement.  A  similar  (ompact  was  concluded 
between  Austria  and  Hungary,  and  thus  the 
boundaries  of  the  future  Austrian  state  were  for 
the  first  time  marked  out.  Rudolf  himself 
gained  little  by  these  long  and  intricate  negoti- 
ations, Tyrol  being  all  he  added  to  his  territcvry. 
Margaret  Maultasche  had  married  her  sou  Meiu- 
liard  to  the  daughter  of  Albert  the  Wise,  at  the 
same  time  declaring  that,  in  default  of  heirs  male 
to  her  son,  Tyrol  should  once  more  become  the 
possession  of  Austria,  and  it  did  so  in  1303. 
Rudolf  immediately  set  out  for  Botzen,  anil  there 
received  the  homage  of  the  Tyrolese  nobles.  .  .  . 
The  acquisition  of  Tyrol  was  most  important  to 
Austria.  It  united  Austria  Proper  with  the  old 
possessions  of  the  Habsburgs  in  Western  Oer- 


201 


AUSTRIA,  1330-1304. 


T!w  lluuduriim 
C'yowH. 


AUSTUIA,  1438-1403. 


mnny,  and  opened  the  way  to  Italy.  !Margaret 
Maiillasclio  died  at  Vienna  in  KiCiU.  The  memory 
of  tills  restless  and  dissolute  princes.s  still  survives 
BMioni;  the  Tyriilese." — L.  Leger,  Jlint.oJ ^iu^lro- 
Uiiiii/ii)-!/,  pp.  143-148. 

A.  D.  1386-1388.— Defeats  by  the  Swiss  at 
Sempach  and  Naefels.  See  Switmculani): 
A.  I).  i:!80-i;wH. 

A.  D.  1437-1516.— Contests  for  Hungary  and 
Bohemia.— The  right  of  Successioa  to  the  Hun- 
garian Crown  secured. —  "Euroi'.e  would  liiive 
na<l  nothing  to  fear  from  the  JJarhariiuis.  if  Hun- 
gary had  been  permanently  united  to  IJohemia, 
and  had  held  them  in  eheek.  Hut  Hungary  in- 
terfered both  with  the  independence  and  the  re- 
ligion of  Hoheuiia.  In  this  way  they  weakened 
caeh  other,  an<l  in  the  15lli  century  wavered  be- 
tween the  two  Sclavonic  and  German  ])owers  on 
their  borders  (Poland  and  Austria)  [se^.-  HrNr.AKY; 
A.  I).  1301-1443,  and  1'143-1458J.  United  undei 
a  German  i)rinee  from  1455  to  145S,  .separated 
for  a  time  iinder  national  sovereigns  (Bohemia 
initil  1471,  Hungary  iintil  1490),  they  were  once 
niori  united  mider  Polish  princes  until  152(5,  at 
wbii  h  period  they  passed  delinitively  into  the 
hands  of  Austria.  After  the  reign  of  Ladislas  of 
Austria,  who  won  so  much  glory  by  the  exploits 
of  John  Ilunniades,  George  Podiebrad  obtained 
the  crown  \f(  Uohemia,  and  Matthias  Corvinus, 
the  son  of  llumiiades,  was  elected  King  of  Hun- 
gary (1458).  These  two  jjrinces  opposed  suc- 
cessfully the  chimerical  i)reteusioii8  of  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  III.  Podiebrad  protected  the 
llussites  and  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  Popes. 
JIatthias  victoriously  encountered  the  Turks  and 
obtained  the  favour  of  Paul  II.,  who  offered  him 
the  crown  of  Podiebrad,  his  father-in-law.  The 
latter  opposed  to  the  hostility  of  JIatlhias  the 
alliance  of  the  Kingof  Poland,  whose  cld'^t  son, 
Ijadislas,  lie  designated  as  liis  successor  At  the 
same  time,  Casimir,  the  brother  of  Lam  las,  en- 
deavoured to  take  from  Slatthias  the  crown  of 
Hungary.  Matthias,  thus  pressed  on  all  sides, 
was  obliged  to  renoinice  t  he  conquest  of  IJohemia, 
and  content  him.self  with  the  i)roviuces  of  Mora- 
via, Silesia,  and  Lusatia,  which  were  to  return 
to  Ladislas  if  Matthias  died  first  (1475-1478). 
Tlie  King  of  Hungary  compensated  himself  at 
the  exiiense  of  Austria.  On  the  pretext  that 
Frederick  HI.  liad  refused  to  give  him  his 
daugliter,  lie  twice  invaded  liis  states  and  re- 
tained them  in  his  posses.siou  [see  Hunoahy: 
A.  I).  1471-1487].  With  thisgi-eat  prince  Chris- 
tendom lost  its  chief  defender,  Hungary  her  con- 
quests and  her  political  preponderance  (1490). 
The  civilization  which  he  had  tried  to  introduce 
into  his  kingdcmi  was  deferred  for  many  cen- 
turies. .  .  .  Ladislas  (of  Poland),  King  of  Bohe- 
mia, having  been  elected  King  of  Hungary,  was 
attacked  by  his  brother  John  Albert,  and  by 
Maximilian  of  Austria,  who  both  i>rctcnded  to 
tliat  crown.  He  aiijicased  his  brother  by  the  ces- 
sion of  Silesia  (1491),  and  Maximilian  by  vesting 
in  the  House  of  Austria  the  right  of  succession 
to  tlie  throne  of  Hungary,  in  case  lie  himself 
should  die  without  male  issue.  Under  Lad- 
islas, and  under  his  son  Louis  II.,  who  succeeded 
him  while  still  a  child,  in  1510  Hungarv  was 
ravaged  with  impunity  by  the  Turks. " — J.  Jliche- 
let,  A  SiiviiiKiri/  of  Modern  llhUn-y,  ck.  4.— See, 
also,  Boiikmia;  A.  I).  14.58-1471. 

A.  D.  1438-1493.— The  Imperial  Crown  last- 
ingly regained. — The  short  reign  of  Albert  II., 


and  the  long  reign  of  Frederick  III. —  "After 
the  death  of  Siglsniund.  the  |irinces,  in  1438, 
elected  an  emperor  [kingVj  from  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria, wliicli,  with  scarcely  any  intermission,  has 
ever  since  occupied  the  ancient  throne  of  Ger- 
many. Albert  II.  of  Austria,  who,  as  son-in-law 
of  the  late  Emperor  Sigismund,  had  become  at 
thesame  time  Kingof  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  was 
a  well-meaning,  distinguislied  prince,  iiud  would, 
without  doulit,  have  proved  of  great  benefit  to  the 
empire;  but  he  died  ...  in  the  second  year  of 
his  reign,  after  his  return  from  an  expedition 
against  the  Turks.  .  .  .  In  the  year  1431,  during 
the  reign  of  Sigismund,  a  new  council  was  assem- 
bled at  Basle,  in  order  to  carry  on  the  work  of  re- 
forming the  church  as  already  commenced  at  Con- 
stance. But  this  council  .soon  became  engaged 
in  many  perplexing  controversies  with  Po])e  Eu- 
gene IV.  .  .  .  The  Germans,  for  a  time,  took  no 
part  in  the  dispute;  at  length,  however,  under 
the  Emperor  [King?]  Albert  II.,  they  formally 
adopted  the  chief  decrees  of  the  council  of  Basle, 
at  a  diet  held  at  Mentz  in  the  year  1439.  .  .  . 
Amongst  the  resolutions  then  adopted  were  .such 
as  iiiiileiially  circumscribed  the  existing  privi- 
legesof  the  pope.  .  .  .  Tliese  and  other  decisions, 
calculated  to  give  important  privileges  and  con- 
siderable independence  to  the  German  church, 
were,  in  a  great  measure,  annulled  by  Albert's 
cousin  and  successor,  Duke  Frederick  of  Austria, 
who  was  elected  by  the  i)riiices  after  liim  in  the 
year  1440,  as  Frederick  III.  .  .  .  Frederick,  the 
emperor,  was  a  prince  who  meant  well  but,  at 
thesame  time,  was  of  too  quiet  and  easy  a  nature; 
bis  long  reign  presents  but  little  that  was  calcu- 
lated to  distinguish  Germany  or  add  to  its  re- 
nown. From  the  east  the  empire  was  endangered 
by  the  approach  of  an  enemy  —  the  Tui-ks,  against 
whom  IK)  precautionarv  measures  were  adojited. 
They,  on  the  29th  of  ^lay,  1453,  conquered  Con- 
stantinople. .  .  .  They  then  made  their  way  to- 
wards the  Danube,  and  very  nearly  succeeded 
also  in  taking  Hungary  [see  Hukoauy:  A.  D. 
1443-1458].  .  .  .  The  Hungarians,  on  the  death 
of  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Albert  II.,  "VViadislas 
Posthumus,  in  the  year  1457,  without  leaving  an 
heir  to  the  throne,  chose  JIatthias,  the  son  of 
John  Corvinus,  as  king,  being  resolved  not  to 
elect  one  from  amongst  the  Austrian  princes. 
The  Bohemians  likewise  selected  a  private  noble- 
man for  their  king,  George  Padriabrad  [or  Podie- 
brad], and  tlius  the  Austria'!  house  found  itself 
for  a  time  rej'icted  from  holding  possession  of 
either  of  iXw&y.  countries.  ...  In  Germany, 
meantime,  there  existed  numberk.ss  contests  and 
feuds;  each  party  considered  only  his  own  per- 
sonal quarrels.  .  .  .  The  cinpe?'or  could  not  give 
any  weight  to  jjublic  measures ;  scarcely  could 
he  maintain  his  dignity  amongit  his  own  sub- 
jects. The  Austrian  nobility"  were  even  bold 
enough  to  send  challenges  to  their  sovereign; 
whilst  the  city  of  Vienna  revolted,  'ind  his  brother 
Albert,  taking  pleasure  in  this  disorder,  was  not 
backward  in  adding  to  it.  Things  even  went  to 
such  an  extremity,  that,  in  1402,  the  Emperor 
Frederick,  together  with  his  consort  and  son, 
Maximilian,  tlien  four  years  of  age,  was  besieged 
by  his  subjects  in  his  own  castle  of  Vienna.  A 
plebeian  burgher,  nami.-'  Ilolzer,  liad  jilaced  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  insurgents,  1  nd  was  made 
burgomaster,  whilst  Duke  Albert  ci>.me  to  Vienna 
personally  to  superintend  the  siege  of  the  castle, 
which  was  intrenched  and  boitibarded.  .  .  .  The 


202 


AUSTRIA,  1438-1403. 


The  Burgundian 
Marriage. 


AUSTHIA,  1477-1495. 


German  princes,  however,  could  not  witness  witli 
iiidifterence  such  ilisgrnccful  treiitment  of  tlieir 
emperor,  and  tliey  assembled  to  liberate  bini. 
George  Padriabrad',  King  of  Hohen.ia,  >.-as  the  first 
who  hastened  to  the  spot  with  assistance,  set  the 
emiieror  at  liberty,  and  ellectcd  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween him  and  his  brother.  The  emperor,  how- 
ever, was  obliged  to  resign  to  him,  for  eight 
years.  Lower  Austria  and  Vienna.  Albert  died 
ni  the  following  year.  ...  In  the  Germanic 
empire,  the  voice  of  the  emperor  was  as  littlo 
heeded  as  in  his  hereditarv  hinds.  .  .  .  The 
feudal  system  raged  under  f  reilerick's  reign  to 
such  an  e.vtent,  tliat  it  was  pursued  even  by  the 
lower  classes.  Thus,  in  1471,  the  shoeblacks  in 
Leipsic  sent  a  challenge  to  the  university  of  that 
place;  and  the  bakers  of  the  C(  ,nt  Palatine 
Lewis,  and  those  of  the  Margrave  of  Baden  defied 
several  imperial  cities  in  Swabia.  The  most  im- 
portant transaction  in  the  reign  of  Frederick,  was 
the  uuion  which  he  formed  with  the  house  of 
Burgimdy,  and  which  laid  tlie  foundation  for  the 
greatness  of  Austria.  ...  In  the  year  1486,  the 
whole  of  the  assembled  princes,  infiuenced  es- 
])ecially  by  the  representations  of  the  faithful 
and  now  venerable  Albert,  called  the  Achilles  of 
Hnmdenburg,  elected  JIaximiliau,  the  emperor's 
sou,  King  of  Home.  Indeed,  about  this  period 
a  clianged  and  improved  spirit  began  to  show 
itself  in  a  remarkable  degree  in  the  minds  of 
many  throughout  the  empire,  so  that  the  pro- 
found conten'iplator  of  commg  events  might  easily 
see  the  dawn  of  a  new  era.  .  .  .  These  last  years 
were  the  best  in  the  whole  life  of  the  emperor, 
ami  yielded  to  him  in  return  for  Ins  many  suffer- 
ings that  trau(iuillity  which  was  so  well  merited 
l^y  his  failhful  generous  disposition.  He  died 
on  the  I'Jtli  of  August,  1403,  after  a  reign  of  54 
vears.  The  emperor  lived  long  enough  to  obtain, 
in  the  year  1400,  tlic  restoration  of  his  hereditary 
estates  by  the  death  of  King  llattliias,  by  means 
of  a  compact  made  with  Wladislas,  his  successor." 
— F.  Koldrausch,  Iliston/  of  Gcrnmini,  ch.  14. — 
SeeGEUMANv:  A.  D.  1347-1493. 

A.  D.  ii|68. — Invasion  by  George  Podiebrad 
of  Bohemia. — The  crusade  against  him.  See 
Bohemia:  A.  I).  1458-1471. 

A.  D.  1471-1491. — Hungarian  invasion  and 
capture  of  Vienna. — Treaty  of  Presburg. 
—Succession  to  the  throne  of  Hungary 
secured. — "  George,  King  of  Bohemia,  expired 
in  1471;  and  the  claims  of  the  Kmperor  and 
King  of  Hungary  being  equally  disregarded,  the 
crown  was  conferred  on  Uladislaus,  son  of 
Casimir  IV.  King  of  Poland,  and  grandson  of 
Albert  II.  To  this  election  Freileric  long  per- 
sisted in  withholding  his  assent;  but  at 
leugtli  he  detennined  to  crush  the  claim  of 
JIailhias  by  formally  investing  Uladislaus  Ati*b 
the  kingdom  and  electorate  of  Bohemia,  and  the 
office  of  imperial  cup-bearer.  In  revenge  for 
this  affront,  Matthias  marched  into  Austria:  took 
possession  of  the  fortresses  of  the  Danube ;  and 
compelled  the  Emperor  to  purchase  a  cessation 
of  hostilities  by  undertaking  to  pay  an  hundr.'d 
thousand  golden  florins,  one-half  of  which  was 
disbursed  by  the  Austrian  states  at  the  appointed 
time.  But  as  the  King  of  Hungary  still  delayed 
to  yield  up  the  captured  fortresses,  Frederic 
rcfu,sed  all  further  payment;  and  the  war  was 
again  renewed.  Matthias  invaded  and  ravaged 
Austria ;  and  though  he  experienced  fornndablo 
resistance  from  several  towns,  his  arms  were 


crowne<i  with  success,  and  he  iK'came  master  of 
Vienna  and  Neustadt.  Driven  from  his  capital 
the  terrified  Emperor  was  reduced  to  the  utmost 
distress,  and  wandered  from  to\.ii  to  town  and 
from  <'onvent  to  convent,  emleavouriiig  to  aroiise 
tlie  German  States  against  the  Hungarians.  Yet 
even  in  this  exigency  his  good  fDrtune  did  not 
wholly  forsake  him;  and  I;e  availed  himself  of  a 
Diet  at  Fraiii  I'ort  to  procure  the  election  of  his 
son  Maximilian  as  King  of  the  Uomans.  To  this 
Diet,  however,  the  King  of  Bohemia  received  no 
sununiins,  and  therefore  protested  against  the 
validity  of  the  election.  A  full  apology  and 
admissicm  of  his  right  easily  satisfie<l  Uladislaus, 
and  he  consented  to  remit  the  line  which  the 
Golden  Bull  had  fixed  as  the  penalty  of  the 
omission.  The  death  of  Jlatthias  t'orvinus  in 
1400,  left  the  throne  of  Hungary  vacant,  and  the 
Hungarians,  inlluenced  by  their  widowed  (|ueen, 
conferred  the  crown  upon  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
without  listening  to  the  pretensions  of  ^Maxi- 
milian. That  valorous  prince,  however,  sword 
in  hand,  recovered  his  Austrian  domiiuous;  and 
the  rival  kings  concluded  a  severe  contest  by  the 
treaty  of  Presburg,  by  which  Hungary  was  for 
the  present  secured  to  Uladislaus;  but  on  his 
ileath  without  heirs  was  to  vest  in  the  descen- 
dants of  tlie  Emperor." — Sir  K.  C'omyn,  The 
llistoni  of  the  Wextcni  Empire,  ch.  28  '(0.  2).— 
Sec  HuNCiAiiV:  A.  D.  1471-1487,  and  1487-1520. 
A.  D.  1477-1495. — Marriage  of  Maximilian 
V7ith  Mary  of  Burgundy. — His  splendid  do- 
minion.— His  joyous  character. — His  vigorous 
powers. —  His  ambitions  and  aims. —  ".Maxi- 
milian, who  was  as  active  and  enterprising  as  his 
father  was  indolent  and  timid,  married  at  eigh- 
teen years  of  age,  the  only  daughter  of  Chark'S 
the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy  [see  Nktiieui.anus: 
A.  D.  1477].  She  brought  him  Flanders, 
Pranchc-Comte,  and  all  the  Low  Countries. 
Louis  XL,  who  disputed  some  of  these  terri- 
tories, and  who,  on  the  death  of  the  duke,  had 
seized  Burgundy,  Picardy,  Ponthieu,  and  Arlois, 
as  fiefs  of  France,  whicli  could  not  be  i)ossessed 
by  a  woman,  was  defe.ited  by  Maximilian  at 
Guinegaste;  and  Charles  VIII.,  who  renewed  the 
same  claims,  was  obliged  to  conclude  a  disad- 
vantageous peace."  Maximilian  succeeded  to 
the  imperial  throne  on  the  death  of  Ins  father  in 
1403.— W.  Russell,  Hist,  of  Modem  Europe,  letter 
40  (v.  1). — "  Between  the  Alps  and  the  Bohemian 
frontier,  the  mark  Austria  was  first  founded 
round  and  about  the  castles  of  Krems  and  Jlelk. 
Since  then,  beginn  ng  first  in  the  valley  towards 
Bavaria  and  Hungary,  and  coming  to  the  House 
of  Habsburg,  it  had  extended  across  the  whole 
of  the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps  until  where  the 
Slavish,  Italian,  and  German  tongues  part,  and 
over  to  Alsace;  thus  becoming  an  arcliduchy 
from  a  mark.  On  all  sides  the  Archdukes  hall 
claims;  on  the  German  side  to  Switzerland,  on 
the  Italian  to  the  Venetian  possessions,  and  on 
the  Slavish  to  Bohemia  and  llungary.  To  sucli 
a  pitch  of  greatness  had  Maximilian" by  his  mar- 
riage with  Maria  of  Burgundy  brought  the  herit- 
age received  from  Charles  the  Bold.  True  to 
the  Netherlanders'  greeting,  in  the  inscripthm 
over  their  gates,  'Thou  art  our  Duke,  fight  our 
battle  for  us,'  war  was  from  the  first  his  handi- 
craft. He  adopted  Charles  the  Bold's  hosiile 
attitude  towards  France;  ho  saveil  the  greater 
part  of  his  inheritance  from  the  schemes  of 
Louis  XL     Day  and  uigUt  it    ..'u<  his  whole 


203 


AUSTRIA,  1477-149S. 


Maxitni'.ian, 


AUSTRIA,  1477-1495. 


thought,  to  conquer  it  entirdj'.  Hutaftcr Maria 
of  IJurKumly's  prcuuiture  dcatli,  revolution  fol- 
lowed revolution,  and  his  father  Frederick  lieing 
too  old  to  protect  liimself,  it  came  about  that  in 
the  year  1488  he  was  ousted  from  Austria  l)y  the 
Hungarians,  whilst  liis  son  was  kepta  prisoner  in 
Bruges  by  tlie  citizens,  and  they  liail  even  to  fear 
the  estrangement  of  tlie  Tyrol.  Yet  tliey  did 
not  lose  courage.  At  this  very  time  tlic  fatlicr 
denoted  with  the  vowels,  A.  E.  I.  O.  U.  (' Allcs 
Krdnich  ist  Oestcrreich  unterthan' — AH  the 
earth  is  subject  to  Austria),  tlie  extent  of  his 
liopes.  In  the  same  year,  his  son  negotiated  for 
a  Spanish  alliance.  Tlieir  real  strength  lay  in 
th(^  imperial  dignity  of  Ma.ximilian,  which  they 
had  from  the  German  Empire.  As  soon  as  it  l)e- 
gan  to  bestir  itself,  JIaximilian  was  set  at  Iil)erty ; 
as  soon  as  it  supported  him  in  the  persons  of  only 
a  few  princes  of  the  Empire,  he  became  lonl  in 
Ills  Netlicrlands.  .  .  .  Since  tlien  his  plans  were 
directed  against  Hungary  luid  Burgundy.  In 
Hungary  ho  could  gain  nothing  except  securing 
the  succession  to  his  house.  But  never,  fre- 
q\iently  as  he  concluded  i)cace,  di(i  he  give  up 
his  intentions  upon  Burgundy.  .  .  .  Xow  that 
lie  liad  allied  himself  with  a  Sforzi!  and  had 
joined  the  Liga,  now  that  his  father  wa.s  dead, 
and  the  Empire  was  jiledged  to  follow  him  across 
the  mountains,  and  now,  too,  tliat  tlic  Italian 
complications  were  threatening  Cliarles,  he  took 
fresh  hope,  and  in  this  hope  he  summoned  a  Diet 
at  Worms.  JIaximilian  was  a  prince  of  whom, 
although  many  portraits  Iiave  been  drawn,  yet 
there  is  scarcely  one  that  resemliles  another,  so 
easily  and  entirely  did  he  suit  himself  to  circum- 
stances. .  .  .  Ills  soul  is  full  of  motion,  of  joy 
in  tilings,  and  of  plans.  There  is  scarcely  any- 
thing that  lie  is  not  capable  of  doing.  In  his 
mines  lie  is  a  good  screeuer,  in  his  armoury  the 
best  plater,  capable  of  instructing  others  in  new 
inventions.  With  musket  in  hand,  lie  defeats  liis 
best  marksman,  George  Purkliard;  with  heavy 
cannon,  which  lie  lias  shown  how  to  cast,  and 
lias  placed  on  wheels,  he  comes  as  a  rule  nearest 
the  mark.  He  commands  seven  captains  in  their 
seven  several  tongues;  he  liimself  chooses  .md 
mixes  liis  food  and  medicines.  In  the  open 
country,  lie  feels  himself  liajipicst.  .  .  .  What 
really  distinguishes  his  public  life  is  that  pre- 
sentiment  of  the  future  greatness  of  his  dyuastj 
wliicli  he  has  inlierited  of  his  father,  and  the 
restless  striving  to  attain  all  that  devolved  upon 
him  from  the  House  of  Burgundy.  All  his 
policy  and  all  his  schemes  were  concentrated, 
not  upon  his  Empire,  for  the  real  needs  of  which 
he  evinced  little  real  care,  and  not  immediately 
upon  the  welfare  of  his  liercditary  lauds,  but 
upon  the  realization  of  that  sole  idea.  Of  it  all 
his  letters  and  speeches  arc  full.  ...  In  March, 
1495,  JIaxiniilian  came  to  the  Diet  at  Wonns. 
...  At  this  Reichstag  the  King  gained  two 
momentous  prospects.  In  Wurteraherg  there 
had  sprung  of  two  lines  two  counts  of  quite 
opposite  characters.  .  .  .  AVitli  the  elder,  Maxi- 
niiiian  now  entered  into  a  compact.  Wurtem- 
berg  was  to  be  raised  to  a  dukedom  —  an  eleva- 
tion wliich  excluded  the  female  line  from  the 
succession  —  and,  in  the  event  of  the  stock  fail- 
iog,  wa.a  to  be  a  '  widow's  portion '  of  the  realm 
to  tile  use  of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  Now  as  the 
sole  hopes  of  this  family  centred  in  a  weakling 
of  a  boy.  this  arrangement  held  out  to  Maximilian 
and  hia  successors  the  prospect  of  acquiring  a 


splendid  country.  Yet  this  was  the  smaller  of 
his  two  successes.  The  greater  was  the  espousal 
of  his  chihlren,  Philip  and  Mari'aret,  with  the 
two  children  of  Ferdinand  the  Cttholic,  ,Iuana 
and  Juan,  which  was  here  settled.  This  openeil 
to  his  house  still  greater  expectations,  —  it 
brought  him  at  once  into  the  most  intimate  alli- 
ance with  the  Kings  of  Spain.  These  matters 
might  possibly,  however,  have  been  arranged 
elsewhere.  Wliat  Maximilian  really  wanted  in 
the  Reichstag  at  "Worms  was  tlie  assistance  of 
the  Empire  against  the  French  with  its  world- 
renowned  and  much-envied  soldiery.  For  at  this 
time  in  all  the  wars  of  Europe,  German  auxilia- 
ries were  decisive.  ...  If  ^laximilian  liad 
united  the  whole  of  this  power  in  his  hand, 
neither  Europe  nor  Asia  would  have  been  able  to 
withstand  him.  But  God  disposed  that  it  should 
rather  be  employed  in  the  cause  of  freedom  than 
oppression.  What  an  Empire  was  that  which 
in  spite  of  its  vast  strength  allowed  its  Emperor 
to  lie  expelled  from  his  lieritage,  and  did  not  for 
a  long  time  take  steps  to  bring  him  back  again  ? 
If  we  examine  tlie  constitution  of  the  Empire, 
not  as  wc  sliould  picture  it  toour.selvcs  in  Jlenry 
III. '8  time,  but  as  it  liad  at  length  become  —  the 
legal  independence  of  the  several  estates,  the 
emptiness  of  the  imperial  dignity,  the  electivc- 
ness  of  a  head,  that  afterwards  exercised  certain 
rights  over  the  electors, —  we  are  led  to  inciuire 
not  so  much  into  the  causes  of  its  disintegration, 
for  tills  concerns  us  little,  as  into  the  way  in 
wliich  it  was  held  together.  What  welded  it 
together,  and  preserved  it,  would  (leaving  tra- 
dition and  the  Pope  out  of  the  question)  apjiear, 
liefore  all  else,  to  have  been  the  rights  of  in- 
dividuals, the  unions  of  neighbours,  and  tlm 
social  regulations  which  universally  obtained. 
Such  were  tho.se  rights  and  privileges  that  not 
only  protected  the  citizen,  his  guild,  and  his 
quarter  of  tlio  town  against  his  neiglibours  ami 
more  powerful  men  tlian  hitisclf,  but  wliich 
also  endowed  him  with  an  iuLer  independence. 
.  .  .  Next,  the  unions  of  neighbours.  These 
were  not  only  leagues  of  cities  and  peasantries, 
expanded  from  ancient  fraternities  —  for  who 
can  tell  the  origin  of  the  Hansa,  or  the  earliest 
treaty  between  LI ri  and  Scliwyz?  —  into  large  as- 
sociations, orof  knights, who .str.ngtliened  a  really 
insignificant  power  by  confederations  of  neigli- 
bours, but  also  of  the  princes,  who  were  bound 
together  by  joint  inheritances,  mutual  expectan- 
cies, and  the  ties  of  blood,  wliich  in  some  cases 
were  very  close.  Tliis  ramification,  dependent 
upon  a  supreme  power  and  coutirmed  by  it,  bound 
neighbour  to  neighbour;  and,  whilst  securing  to 
each  his  privilege  and  liis  liberty,  blended  together 
all  countries  of  Germany  in  legal  bonds  of  union. 
But  it  is  only  in  the  social  regulations  that  the 
unity  was  really  perceivable.  Only  as  long  as 
the  Empire  was  an  actual  reality,  could  the  su- 
preme power  of  the  Electors,  each  with  his  own 
.special  rights,  bo  maintained ;  only  so  long  could 
dukes  and  princes,  bishops  and  abbots  hold  their 
neigh)  ^urs  in  due  respect,  and  throiiorh  court 
offices  v.-  hereditary  services,  through  'fs  and 
tlie  di  uity  of  their  independent  i'  i  give 

their  vassals  a  peculiar  position  vholc. 

Only  so  long  could  tlie  cities  enjoyin  iliate- 

ness  under  the  Empire,  carefully  o  d  into 
free  and  imperial  cities,  be  not  merely  protected, 
but  also  assured  of  a  participation  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  whole.    Under  this  sanctified  and 


204 


AUSTRIA,   1477-1405. 


ir.  tiding 
Thrift. 


AUSTRIA,  1510-1555. 


traditional  system  of  siizeniinty  nixl  vassalage 
all  were  liappy  and  contented,  ami  bore  a  love  to 
it  such  as  is  clierialietl  towards  a  native  town  or 
a  fatlier's  house.  For  some  time  i)ast,  tlic  House 
of  A'.istria  had  enjoyed  tlie  foremost  jjosition. 
It  also  had  a  union,  and,  moreover,  a  great  fac- 
tion on  its  side.  Tlio  union  was  tlie  Suiil)iau 
League  Old  Suabia  was  divided  into  tlirce 
league.^  —  the  league  of  tl:e  peasantry  (tlie  origin 
of  Switzerland);  the  league  of  tlie  Itniglits  in  tlic 
Blaclv  Forest,  on  tlie  Koclier,  tlio  Neciiar,  and  tlio 
Danube ;  and  the  league  of  tlic  cities.  The  peas- 
antry were  from  the  tirst  hostile  to  Austria.  The 
Emperor  Frederick  brought  it  to  pass  that  the 
cities  aiul  knights,  that  had  from  time  out  of 
mind  lived  in  feud,  bound  themselves  together 
with  several  princes,  and  forme<l,  under  his  pro- 
tection, the  league  of  the  land  of  Suabia.  IJut 
the  party  was  scattered  throughout  the  whole 
Empire." — L.  von  Ranko,  Jlistory  of  tlie  Latin 
and  Teutonic  Nations,  bk.  1,  ch.  3. 

A.  D.  1493-1^19. —  The  Imperial  reign  of 
Maximilian. —  Formation  of  the  Circie  of 
Austria. — The  Aulic  Council.  See  Gkum.\ny: 
A,  1).  149;!-1519. 

A.  D.  1496-1499. — The  Swabian  War  with 
the  SwisF  Confederacy  and  the  Graubunden, 
or  Grey  Leagues  (Grisons). — Practical  inde- 
pendence of  both  acquired.  Sec  Switzeikl.us'u: 
A.  1).  1300-149!). 

A.  D.  1496-1526. —  Extraordinary  aggran- 
dizement of  the  House  of  Austria  by  its 
marriages. —  The  Heritage  ot  Charles  V. — 
His  cession  of  the  German  inheritance  to 
Ferdinand. — The  division  of  the  House  into 
Spanish  and  German  branches. — Acquisition 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. —  In  1400,  Philip  the 
Fair,  son  of  Ma.xirailian,  Archduke  and  Emper- 
or, by  his  marriage  with  JIary  of  Burgundy, 
"espoused  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  [of  Aragon]  and  Isabella  of  Castile. 
They  had  two  sons,  Charles  and  Ferdinand,  the 
former  of  whom,  known  in  history  by  the  name 
of  Charles  V.,  inherited  the  Low  Countries  in 
iight  of  his  father,  Philip  (1506).  On  the  death 
of  Ferdinand,  his  maternal  grandfather  (1510),  he 
became  heir  to  the  whole  Spanish  succession, 
which  comprehended  the  kingdoms  of  Spain, 
Naples,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  together  with 
Spanish  America.  To  these  vast  possessions 
were  added  his  patrimonial  dominions  in  Austria, 
which  were  transmitted  to  him  by  his  paternal 
grandfather,  the  Emperor  JIa.ximilian  I.  About 
the  siime  time  (1510),  the  Imperial  dignity  was 
conferred  on  this  prince  by  tlie  electors  [see 
Germany:  A.  D.  1510];  so  that  Europe  had 
not  seen,  since  the  time  of  Cliarlemagne,  a 
monarchy  so  powerful  as  that  of  Charles  V. 
This  Emperor  concluded  a  treaty  with  his 
brother  Ferdinand;  by  which  he  ceded  to  him 
all  his  hereditary  possessions  in  Germany.  The 
two  brothers  thus  became  the  founders  of  the 
two  principal  branches  of  the  House  of  Austria, 
viz.,  that  ot  Spain,  which  began  with  Charles 
V.  (called  Charles  I.  of  Spain),  and  ended  with 
Charles  II.  (1700);  and  that  of  Germany,  of 
which  Ferdinand  I.  was  the  ancestor,  and  wliich 
became  extinct  in  the  male  line  in  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  (1740).  These  two  branches,  closely 
allied  to  each  other,  acted  in  concert  for  the 
advancement  of  their  reciprocal  interests ;  more- 
over they  gained  each  their  own  separate  advan- 
tages by  Uie  marriage  connexions  which  they 
14 


formed.  Ferdinand  I.  of  the  German  line  married 
Anne  (1521),  sister  of  Louis  King  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  who  having  been  slain  by  the 
Turks  at  the  battle  of  Mohacs  (1520),  these  two 
kingdoms  devolved  to  Ferdiiiaiid  of  the  House  of 
A.istria.  Finally,  the  marriage  which  Charles 
V.  contracted  witli  the  Infant  Isaltella,  daughter 
of  Emmanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  procured  I'liilip 
11.  of  Spain,  the  sim  of  that  marriage,  the  whole 
Portuguese  monarchy,  to  which  he  succeeded  on 
the  death  of  Henry,  called  the  Cardinal  (1.580). 


So  vast  an  aggrandisement  of  power  alarmed  the 
lutionn  of  Europe,  period  0. 


Sovereigns  of  Europe. " — C.  W.  Koch,  The  Beta- 


Also  in  :  W.  Co.xc,  Hint,  of  the  Ifoime  of  Austria, 
eh.  25(tntli7  (c.  1).— W.  Robertson,  I'lial.  of  the 
Jiei(/n of  OhurlcsV., bk.  1. — See,  also,  Spain:  A.  I). 

um-ihn. 

A.  D.  1510.— Death  of  Maximilian.— Elec- 
tion of  Charles  V.,  "  Emperor  of  the  Romans." 
SccGku.manv:  A.  D.  1510. 

A.  D.  1519-1555. —  The  imperial  reign  of 
Charles  V. — The  objects  o^  his  policy. — His 
conflict  with  the  Reformation  and  with 
France. — ' '  Charles  V.  did  not  receive  from  nature 
all  the  gifts  nor  all  the  charms  she  can  bestow,  nor 
did  experience  give  him  every  talent ;  but  he  was 
equal  to  the  part  lie  had  to  play  in  the  world. 
He  was  sufliciently  great  to  keep  his  many- 
jewelled  diadem.  .  .  .  His  ambitioi'  was  cold 
aud  wise.  The  scope  of  his  ideas,  which  are  not 
quite  easy  to  divine,  was  vast  enough  to  control 
a  state  composed  of  divers  and  distant  portions, 
so  as  to  make  it  always  very  dillicult  to  amalga- 
mate his  arinies,  and  to  supply  them  willi  food, 
or  to  procure  money.  Indeed  its  very  existence 
woukl  have  been  exposed  to  permanent  ilaugcr 
from  ])owcrful  coiditions.  had  Francis  I.  known 
how  to  place  its  iiiost  vulnerable  jioiiits  under  a 
united  pressure  from  the  armies  of  France,  of 
England,  of  Venice,  and  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
Charles  V.  attained  his  first  object  when  he  pre- 
vented the  French  monarch  from  taking  pos- 
session of  the  inheritance  of  the  house  of  Anjou, 
at  Naples,  and  of  that  of  the  V^iscontis  at  Milan. 
Ho  was  more  successful  in  stopping  the  march  of 
Solyman  into  Austria  than  in  eheckiug  the  spread 
of  the  Reformation  iu  Germauv.  .  .  .  Charles 
V.  had  four  objects  very  much  at  heart:  ho 
wished  to  be  the  master  in  Italy,  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  Ottoman  power  in  the  west  of 
Europe,  to  cou(|uer  the  King  of  France,  and  to 
govern  the  Germanic  body  by  dividing  it,  and  by 
making  the  Reformation  a  religio\is  pretext  for 
oppressing  the  political  defenders  of  that  belief. 
In  three  out  of  four  of  these  objects  he  succeeded. 
Germany  alone  was  not  conquered:  if  she  was 
bc'Uen  in  battle,  neither  any  political  triunii)h 
nor  any  religious  results  ensued.  In  Germany, 
Charles  V.  began  his  work  too  late,  and  acted  too 
slowly ;  he  undertook  to  subdue  it  at  a  lime  when 
the  abettors  of  the  Reformation  had  grown 
strong,  when  he  himself  was  growing  weaker. 
.  .  .  Like  many  otlier  brilliant  careers,  the 
career  of  Charles  V.  was  more  successful  and 
more  strikiug  at  the  commencement  and  the 
middle  than  at  the  end,  of  its  course.  At 
Madrid,  at  Cambrai,  at  Nice,  he  made  his  rival 
bow  down  his  head.  At  Crespy  he  again  forced 
him  to  obey  his  will,  but  as  he  had  completely 
made  up  his  mind  to  have  peace,  Charles  dic- 
tated it,  in  some  manner,  to  his  own  detriment. 
At  Passauhe  had  to  yield  to  the  terms  of  his  enemy 


205 


AUSTUIA,   1.J10-15j5. 


Charlf  ilif 
Fifth. 


AUSTHIA,  1525-1527. 


—  of  nn  pncriiy  wlmin  ClmrU'S  V.  cnrountcrt'd 
in  his  1)1(1  i\v,^\  iitid  wlii'ii  his  powers  hud  dci'iiycd. 
Although  il  may  be  wiid  that  tho  extent  iimlthc 
jiowcrof  the  sovciX'ignty  which  Clmrles  V.  left  to 
his  siieeesKor  ill  his  death  were  not  diminished, 
still  his  armies  were  weakened,  his  (Inances  were 
exhausted,  and  the  eoiintrv  was  weary  of  the 
tyranny  of  the  imperial  lieutenants.  The 
supremacy  of  the  empire  in  Germany,  for  which 
lie  had  stVu,t;!;leil  so  much,  was  as  little  cstAl)- 
lisheilat  the  end  as  at  the  licginningof  his  reign; 
religious  unity  was  solemnly  destroyetl  by  tho 
•Recess' of  Augsburg.  Uut  that  wliich  marks 
the  position  of  Charles  V.  as  the  representative 
man  of  his  epoch,  and  as  the  founder  of  the 
l)oliey  of  mo<lern  times,  is  that,  -wherever  he  was 
victorious,  the  elTect  of  liis  success  was  to  crush 
the  last  ('(torts  of  the  spirit  of  the  middle  ages, 
and  of  the  independence  of  nations.  In  Italy,  in 
Spain,  in  Germany,  and  in  the  Low  Countries, 
his  triumphs  were  so  much  gain  to  the  eau.se  of 
nb.solule  monarchy  anil  so  much  loss  to  the 
liberty  derived  from  the  old  state  of  society. 
Whatever  was  the  chaiiicter  of  liberty  in  the 
middle  ages  —  whether  il  were  contested  or 
incomplete,  or  a  mockery  —  il  played  a  greater 
part  than  in  the  four  succeeding  centuries. 
Charles  V.  was  assuredly  one  of  those  who  con- 
tributed the  most  to  found  and  consolidate  the 
political  system  of  modern  governments.  His 
history  has  an  asi>ect  of  grandeur.  Had 
Fnuicis  I.  been  as  sagacious  in  the  closet  as  ho 
was  bold  in  the  Held,  i)y  a  vigorous  alliance  with 
England,  with  Protestant  Germany,  and  with 
soini.'  of  the  republics  of  Italy,  he  might  jierhtips 
have  balanced  and  controlled  the  jjowcr  of 
Charles  V.  But  tho  French  monarch  did  not 
possess  the  foresight  and  the  solid  understanding 
necessary  to  pursue  such  a  policy  with  success. 
His  rival,  therefm'e,  occupies  the  first  place  iu 
the  historical  picture  of  the  epoch.  Charles  V. 
had  the  .sentiment  of  his  |)osition  and  of  the 
l)art  he  had  to  play." — J.  Van  I'ract,  Kimii/s  on 
the  Pdlitkid  IlinlDii/  <if  the,  X'sth,  Utth,  iiiul  Vllh 
t'enturien,  pp.  190-194.— See,  also,  Gi;k.many; 
A.  D.  1519  to  l.V)2-1.5Ul,  and  Fit.\NCi::  A.  D. 
l.JSO-l.'iSa,  to  1.547-:5.59. 

A.  D.  1525-1527.— Successful  Contest  for 
the  Hungarian  and  Bohemian  Crowns. — In 
Hungary,  "under  King  JIatlbiiis  the  house  of 
Zapolya,  so  culled  from  a  Slavonic  village  near 
Posehega,  whence  it  originated,  rose  to  peculiar 
eminence.  To  this  house,  in  particular.  King 
Wladislas  had  owed  his  acces.sion  to  tho  throne; 
whence,  however,  il  thought  itself  entitled  to 
claim  a  .share  in  the  .sovereign  ])ower,  and  e»'en  u 
sort  of  prospective  right  to  the  throne.  Its  mem- 
bers were  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  magnates ;  they 
jjossessed  seventy-two  castles.  ...  It  is  said 
that  a  prophecy  early  promised  the  crown  to  the 
young  John  Zapolya.  Pos.sessed  of  all  the  power 
conferred  by  his  rich  iidieritance.  Count  of  Zips, 
and  AVoiwixle  of  Transylvania,  he  soon  collected 
11  strong  part)'  around  him.  It  was  he  who 
maiidy  persuaded  the  Hungarians,  in  the  year 
l.'iOu,  to  exclude  all  foreigners  from  the  throne 
by  a  formal  decree;  which,  though  they  were 
not  always  able  to  maintain  in  force,  they  could 
never  be  induced  absolutely  to  revoke.  In  the 
year  1514  the  Woiwmle  succeeded  in  putting 
down  nn  exceedingly  formidable  Insurrection  of 
the  peasants  with  Ids  own  forces ;  a  service  which 
the  lesser  nobility  prized  the  more  highly,  because 


it  enabled  thent  to  nvluec  the  jx-nsantry  to  a 
still  liardi  r  state  of  servitude.  His  wish  was,  on 
the  death  of  .Vladislas,  to  lx;come  Gul>crimtor  of 
the  kingdom,  to  ntarry  the  (lccease<l  king's 
daughter  Amie,  and  then  to  await  the  course  of 
events.  But  he  was  here  encounterwl  by  the 
policy  of  Maximilian.  Anne  was  married  to  tlie 
Archduke  Fenlinand;  Zapolya  was  excluded 
from  the  ndministratioii  of  the  kingtloni;  even 
the  vacant  Palatinate  was  refused  him  and  given 
to  his  old  rival  Stephen  Buthory.  Ho  was  highly 
incensed.  .  .  .  But  it  was  not  till  the  year  1535 
that  Zapolya  got  the  upper  hand  at  the  linkuscli. 
...  No  one  entertain".!  a  doubt  that  he  aimed 
at  the  throne.  .  .  .  But  before  anything  was 
accomplished  —  on  the  contrary,  just  as  these 
party  contliets  had  thrown  the  country  into  the 
utmost  confusion,  tho  mighty  enemy,  Soliman, 
appeared  on  the  frontiers  of  Hungary,  (letermined 
to  put  an  end  to  tho  anarchy.  ...  In  his  i)ri.son 
at  iMadrid,  Francis  I.  had  found  iiuanst*)  entreat 
the  assistance  of  Solimnn;  urging  that  it  well 
beseemed  a  great  emperor  to  succour  the  op- 
pressed. Plans  were  laid  at  Constantinople, 
according  to  which  tho  two  sovcreigiLS  were  to 
attack  Spain  with  a  combined  fleet,  and  to  send 
armies  to  invade  Hungary  and  the  north  of  Italy. 
Soliman,  without  any  formal  treaty,  was  by  his 
position  an  ally  of  tho  Ligue,  as  the  king  of 
Hungary  was,  of  the  emperor.  On  the  23(1  of 
April,  1520,  Soliman,  after  visiting  tho  graves  of 
his  forefathers  and  of  tho  old  Moslem  martyrs, 
marched  out  of  Constantinople  with  a  mighty 
host,  consisting  of  about  a  hiiiidred  tlioiLsaud 
men,  and  inces.santly  strengthened  by  fresh  re- 
cruits on  its  road.  .  .  .  What  ])ower  had  Hun- 
gary, in  the  condition  we  have  just  descril)ed, 
of  resisting  such  an  attack'?  .  .  .  The  young 
king  took  the  lield  with  a  following  of  not  more 
tliiin  three  thousand  men.  ...  He  proceeded  to 
the  fatal  plain  of  Mohaez,  fully  resolved  with 
his  small  band  to  await  in  tho  open  tiekl  the 
overwhelming  force  of  the  enemy  .  .  .  Pei-soiml 
valour  could  avail  nothing.  The  Hungarians 
were  immediately  thrown  into  disorder,  their 
best  men  fell,  the  others  took  to  flight.  The 
young  king  was  comjielled  to  liee.  It  was  not 
even  granted  him  to  (lie  iu  the  field  of  battle;  a 
far  more  niiserablo  end  awaited  him.  jMoimted 
behind  a  Silesian  soldier,  wlio  served  him  as  a 
guide,  ho  had  already  been  carried  across  tho 
dark  watera  that  divide  the  jjlaiii;  his  horse 
was  already  climbing  the  bunk,  when  lie  slijiped, 
fell  back,  and  buried  himself  and  liis  rider  in  tho 
morass.  Tliis  rendered  the  defeat  decisive.  .  .  . 
Soliman  had  gained  one  of  those  victories  which 
decide  the  fate  of  nations  during  long  epochs. 
.  .  .  That  two  thrones,  tho  succession  to  which 
was  not  entirely  free  from  doubt,  had  thus  liien 
left  vacant,  waa  an  event  that  necessarily  caused 
a  great  agitation  throughout  Christendom.  It 
was  still  a  (luestion  whether  such  a  European 
power  as  Austria  would  continue  to  exist; — a 
(lUestion  which  it  is  only  necessary  to  stale,  in 
order  to  be  aware  of  its  vast  importance  to  tl'.u 
fate  of  mankind  at  large,  and  of  Germany  iu  par- 
ticular. .  .  .  The  claims  of  Ferdinand  to  both 
crowns,  unquestionable  as  they  might  be  in 
reference  to  the  treaties  with  the  reigning  houses, 
were  ojiposed  in  tho  nations  themselves,  by  the 
right  of  election  and  the  authority  of  considerable 
!  rivals.  In  Hungary,  as  soon  as  tho  Turks  had 
I  retired,  John  Zapolya  appeared  with  tho  tiiic 

06 


AUSTRIA,  152.V1537. 


Uunyary  and 
Bohemia, 


AUSTHIV,   1504-1618. 


iiriny  whicli  he  had  kept  hack  from  tlie  conllict ; 
the  fall  (if  the  kiiii;  was  at  the  same  time  tlio  fall 
of  Iii8  ndvei'snries.  .  .  .  Even  in  Tokay,  how- 
ever, John  Zapolya  was  saluted  us  king.  Mean- 
wliile,  the  dukes  of  Bavaria  conceived  tlie  (le.si.i;n 
of  getting  pos-session  of  tlic  throne  of  lioheniia. 
.  .  .  Nor  was  it  in  the  two  king<loni3  alone 
that  these  pretenders  had  a  considerahle  party. 
The  state  of  politics  in  Kurope  was  such  as  to 
insure  them  powerful  supporters  ahroad.  In  the 
first  place,  Fnuicis  I.  was  intimately  connected 
with  Zapolya:  in  a  sliort  time  a  delegate  from 
tlie  pope  was  at  his  siile,  and  the  Ocrmnns  in 
Home  maintained  that  Clement  a.ssisted  the  fac- 
tion of  the  Woiwode  witli  money.  Zapolya  sent 
an  agent  to  Venice  with  n  direct  re(iuest  to  be 
admitted  a  member  of  tlie  Ligue  of  Cognac.  In 
lioheinia,  too,  the  French  had  long  had  devoted 
jiartisans.  .  .  .  Tlie  conse(|uences  thai  must 
liave  resulted,  had  this  sehenie  8uccee(le<l,  are  so 
iiicaleuli.ble,  that  it  is  not  too  much  to  .say  they 
would  have  completely  changed  the  political 
history  of  Europe.  The  power  of  Bavaria  would 
have  outweighed  that  of  Austria  in  both  German 
and  Slavonian  countries,  and  Zapolya,  thus  sup- 
ported, would  have  been  able  to  maintain  his 
station;  the  Ligue,  and  with  it  high  iiltra-mon- 
tano  opinions  would  have  held  the  ascendency 
in  eastern  Europe.  Never  was  there  a  project 
more  pregnant  with  danger  to  the  growing  power 
of  tlie  house  of  Austria.  Ferdinand  behaved 
witli  all  the  prudence  and  etiergy  which  that 
house  has  so  often  displayed  in  dillictdt emergen- 
cies. For  tile  present,  the  all-important  object 
was  the  crown  of  Bohemia.  .  .  .  All  his  meas- 
ures were  taken  with  sueli  skill  and  prudence, 
that  on  the  day  of  election,  though  the  Bavarian 
agent  had,  up  to  the  last  moment,  not  the  slightest 
doubt  of  the  success  of  his  negotiations,  an  over- 
whelming majority  in  the  three  estates  elected 
Ferdinand  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia.  This  took 
pliice  on  the  23d  October,  152G.  ...  On  his 
lirother's  birth-day,  the  24th  of  February,  l.')27, 
Fertlinand  was  crowned  at  Prague.  .  .  .  The 
affairs  of  Hungary  were  not  so  easilv"  or  so  peace- 
fully settled.  ...  At  tirst,  when  Zapolya  came 
forwanl,  full  armed  and  powerful  out  of  the 
general  desolation,  he  had  the  uncontested 
superiority.  The  capitjd  of  the  kingdom  sought 
his  i)rotection,  after  which  ho  marched  to  Stulil- 
weissenburg,  where  his  partisans  bore  down  all 
attempts  at  opposition:  he  was  elected  and 
crowned  (11th  of  November,  l.WO);  in 'Croatia, 
too,  he  was  acknowledged  king  at  a  diet;  he 
tilled  all  the  numerous  places,  temporal  and 
spiritual,  left  vacant  by  the  disaster  of  Jlohaez, 
with  his  friends.  .  .  .  [But]  the  Germans 
nilvanccd  witliout  interruption ;  and  as  soon  as 
it  aiipeiired  possible  that  Ferdinand  might  be 
successful,  Zapolya's  followers  began  to  desert 
liiiii.  .  .  .  Never  did  the  German  troops  (lisjilay 
more  bravery  and  constancy.  They  had  often 
neither  meat  nor  bread,  and  were  obliged  to  live 
on  sucli  fruits  as  they  found  in  the  gardens:  the 
inhabitants  were  wavering  and  imcertain  —  they 
submitted,  and  then  revolted  again  to  the  enemy ; 
Zapolya's  troops,  aided  by  their  knowledge  of 
the  ground,  made  several  very  formidable  attacks 
by  night;  but  tlie  Germans  evinced,  in  the 
moment  of  danger,  the  skill  and  determination  of 
a  liiimau  legion :  tliey  showed,  too,  a  noble  con- 
shmcy  under  ditti(!Ulties  and  privations.  At 
ToUay  they  defeated  Zaiwlyu  uud  comiMiUed  him 


to  (juit  Hungary.  .  .  .  On  the  :1<1  November, 
1527,  Ferdinand  was  crowned  in  !Stuhlweis.sen- 
burg:  only  tlve  of  the  magnates  of  the  kingdom 
adhered  to  Zapolya.  The  victory  appeared  com- 
plete. Ferdinand,  however,  distinctly  felt  that 
this  appearance  was  delusive.  ...  In  Boluuniii, 
too,  his  power  was  far  from  secure.  His  Bavarian 
neighbours  had  not  relir..iui.slied  the  hope  of 
drivin;^  him  from  the  thro  •  at  the  first  general 
turn  of  affairs,  The  Oltoi  ans,  meanwhile,  act- 
ing u|>on  the  ])ersua-iion  tli  'Very  land  in  which 
the  head  of  their  chief  liad  rested  belonged  of 
right  to  them,  were  jirepariiig  to  return  to  Hun- 
gary; either  to  take  possession  of  it  themselves, 
or  at  Hrst,  as  was  their  custom,  to  bestow  it  on  a 
native  ruler  —  Zapolya,  who  now  eagerly  sought 
an  alliance  with  them  —  as  tlieir  vassal." — L. 
Von  Kaiike,  Ilistorji  of  the  liifurmation  in  Ucr- 
mil  II  I/,  hk.  4,  rli.  4  ('•.  2). 

A.  D.  1564-1618. — The  tolerance  of  Maxi- 
milian II. —  The  bigotry  and  tyranny  of  Ro- 
dolph  and  Ferdinand  II. —  Prelude  to  the 
Thirty  Years  War. — "  There  is  no  perio<l  eon- 
nccte(l  with  tliese  religious  wars  that  ileserves 
more  to  be  studied  than  these  reigns  of  Ferdi- 
nand I.,  Ala.ximiiian  [tlie  Second],  and  those  of 
his  successors  who  preceded  the  thirtv  years' 
war.  We  have  no  sovereign  who  e.vhibitcd  that 
exercise  of  moderation  and  good  sense  wliicli  a 
philosoplier  would  require,  but  Mu.ximilian;  and 
lie  was  imniediately  foHowed  by  princes  of  a 
ditTerent  complexion.  .  .  .  Nothing  could  be 
more  complete  than  the  difflculty  of  toleration 
at  tlie  time  when  JIaximilian  reigned;  and  if  a 
mild  i)olicy  could  be  attended  with  favourable 
effects  in  liis  age  and  nation,  tliere  can  bo  little 
fear  of  the  experiment  at  any  oilier  i)eriod.  No 
party  or  person  in  the  state  was  thei.  disposed 
to  tolerate  his  neighbour  from  any  sen.se  of  the 
justice  of  sui'h  forbearance,  btit  from  motives  of 
temporal  policy  alone.  The  Lutherans,  it  will  be 
seen,  could  not  bear  that  the  Calvinists  sliould 
have  the  same  religious  privileges  with  them- 
selves. The  Calvinists  were  equally  opinionated 
and  unjust ;  and  Maximilian  himself  was  probably 
tolenint  and  wise,  chietly  because  .le  was  in  his 
real  opinions  a  Lutheran,  and  in  outward  pro- 
fession, US  th'!  head  of  the  empire,  a  Roman 
Catholic.  For  twelve  years,  the  whole  of  his 
reign,  he  preserved  thi  religious  peace  of  the 
community,  without  di'stroying  the  religious 
freedom  of  the  human  mind.  He  supported  the 
Roman  Catholics,  as  the  predominant  party,  in 
all  their  rights,  po.ssessions,  and  jirivileges ;  but 
he  protected  the  Protestants  in  every  exercise  of 
their  religion  which  was  then  [iracticable.  In 
other  words,  he  was  as  tolerant  and  just  as  the 
temper  of  society  then  admitted,  and  more  so 
than  tiie  state  of  things  would  have  suggested. 
.  .  .  The  merit  of  Maximilian  was  but  too  appar- 
ent the  moment  that  his  son  Rixloloh  was  called 
upon  to  supply  his  place.  ...  He  '  ,  always  left 
the  education  of  his  son  and  successor  too  much 
to  the  discretion  of  his  bigoted  consort.  Ro- 
dolpli,  his  son,  was  tlierefore  as  ignorant  and 
furious  on  his  part  as  were  tlie  PVotestants  on 
theirs;  ho  had  immediate  recourse  to  the  usual 
expedients  —  force,  and  the  execution  of  the 
laws  to  the  very  letter.  .  .  .  After  Rcxlolph 
comes  Matthias  and,  unhappily  for  all  Eurojie, 
Bohemia  and  the  empire  fell  afterwards  under 
the  management  of  Ferdinand  II.  Of  the  differ- 
ent Austrian  princes,  it  is  the  rcigu  of  Ferdinand 


>07 


AUSTKi.V.  1564-1018. 


% 


Wiir. 


AUSTRIA,  1618-1648. 


II.  tliiit  Ik  inon'  particularly  to  be  congidcrptl. 
Siii'li  wa.s  the  iirbltniry  nutiirc  or  IiIh  f;ovi'rii- 
niciil  over  lil.s  Hiilijcct.'i  in  liolii'inia,  tiiiit  tlicy 
r(!voii((l.  Tlicv  fi<'»i('(l  for  tiii'ir  kliig  tliu 
youii)r  Elt'ctor  l\tluliiii-,  hoping  thus  to  cxtricul)! 
tlicniwivcs  from  tlio  bigotry  iind  tyriimiy  of 
Ffrdiimiid.  This  crown  ho  olYcrcd  wiis  accepted ; 
and.  in  the  event,  tlie  cause  of  tln^  lioheniiaiis 
became  tlie  clause  of  tlie  J{efonnation  in  (}er- 
many,  and  the  Kleclor  Palatine  the  hero  of  thai 
cans*'.  It  is  this  which  gives  tlu;  great  Interest 
to  tills  reign  of  Ferdinand  II,  to  these  concerns 
of  his  subjects  in  Bohemia,  and  to  the  character 
of  this  Klector  Palatine.  For  all  these  events 
and  circuinstiinces  led  to  the  thirty  years' war. " 
—  W.  Sinvth,  J,ertiiriH  on  Mmlirn  JIihIoii/,  v.  1, 
hrt.  i:t.--See  Hoiii:mi.\:  A.  I).  lOU-1018,  and 
Okhm.xny:  a.  I).  l(ilH-U)-J(). 

A.  D.  1567-1660.— Struggles  of  the  Haps- 
burg  House  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania  to 
establish  rights  of  sovereignty.— Wars  with 
the  Turks.  .Sec  1Ii,noauy:  A.  D.  1507-1(104, 
and  10()«-1600. 

A.  D.  1618-1648.— The  Thirty  Years  War. 
— The  Peace  of  Westphalia. — "The  thirty 
vear.s'  war  made  Germany  the  centre-point  of 
European  ]iolitics.  .  .  .  No  one  at  itsconunence- 
menl  could  have  fores^een  the  dination  and 
extent.  15ut  the  train  of  war  was  everywliere 
laid,  and  reiiuired  only  the  match  to  set  it  going; 
more  than  one  war  was  joined  to  it,  and  swal- 
lowed up  in  it;  and  the  melancholy  truth,  that 
war  feeds  itself,  was  never  more  clearly  displayed. 
.  .  .  Though  the  war,  whicli  lirst  broke  out 
in  Bohemia,  concerne<l  only  the  house  of  Austria, 
yet  by  its  originating  in  religious  disputes,  by 
its  peculiar  character  as  a  religious  war,  anil  by 
the  measures  adopted  both  by  the  insurgents  and 
the  emperor,  it  acquired  such  an  extent,  that 
even  the  quelling  of  the  insurrection  was  insuf- 
fleient  to  put  a  stop  to  it.  .  .  .  Though^  the 
lioliemian  war  was  apparently  terminated,  yet 
tlie  llame  had  communicated  to  Germany  and 
Hungary,  and  new  fuel  was  added  by  the  act  of 
proscription  promulgated  against  the  elector 
Frederic  and  his  adherents.  From  this  l"mi  nar 
derived  that  revolutionary  character,  which  was 
henceforward  peculiar  to  it;  it  was  a  step  that 
could  nC  but  lead  to  further  results,  for  the  ques- 
tion of  vl>o  relations  between  the  emperor  and 
his  states,  was  in  a  fair  way  of  being  jjractically 
considered.  New  and  bolder  projects  were  also 
formed  in  Vienna  and  ^ladrid,  wliero  it  was 
resolved  to  renew  the  war  witli  the  Netlierlands. 
Under  the  present  circumstances,  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Protestant  religion  and  the  overthrow 
of  German  and  Dutch  liberty  appeared  insepar- 
able; while  the  success  of  the  imperial  arms, 
supported  as  they  were  by  the  league  and  the 
co-oi)eration  of  the  Spaniards,  gave  just  grounds 
for  hope.  ...  By  the  carrying  of  the  war  into 
Lower  Saxony,  the  principal  seat  of  tlie  Protes- 
tant religion  in  Germaiiy  'the  states  of  which 
had  appointl'd  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  as 
duke  of  Ilolstein,  head  of  their  confe<leracy), 
the  northern  states  had  already,  though  without 
any  benetieial  result,  been  involved  in  the  strife, 
anil  the  Danish  war  had  broken  out.  But  the 
elevation  of  Albert  of  Wallenstein  to  the  dignity 
of  duke  of  Friedlaud  and  imperial  general  over 
the  army  raised  by  himself,  was  of  considerably 
more  importance,  as  it  affected  the  wh  le  counse 
ttud  character  uf  the  war.     From  this  time  the 


war  was  completely  and  truly  revolutionary. 
The  peculiar  situation  of  the  general,  the  manner 
of  the  formation  as  well  as  the  maintenance  of 
his  army,  could  not  fail  to  make  it  such.  .  .  . 
The  distinguislied  success  of  the  imperial  arms 
in  the  north  of  Germany  unveiled  the  daring 
schemes  of  Wallenstein.  He  did  not  come  for- 
ward as  coiU|Ucror  alone,  but,  by  the  investiture  of 
Mecklenburg  as  a  state  of  the  empire,  as  a  ruling 
|irince.  .  .  .  But  the  elevation  and  conduct  of 
this  novus  homo,  exasperated  and  annoyed  the 
Catholic  no  less  than  the  Protestant  states, 
especially  the  league  and  its  chief;  all  implored 
peace,  and  Wallcnstein's  discharge.  Thus,  at 
the  diet  of  the  electors  at  Augsburg,  the  emperor 
was  reduced  to  the  alternative  of  resigning  him 
or  his  allies.  He  chose  the  former.  Wallen- 
stein was  dismis.sed,  tlie  majority  of  Ids  army 
disbanded,  and  Tilly  nimiinated  comniander-in- 
cliief  of  the  forces  of  the  emperor  and  the  league. 
.  .  .  On  the  side  of  the  emperor  sutlicienl  care 
was  taken  to  prolong  the  war.  The  refusal  to 
restore  the  unfortunate  Frederic,  and  even  the 
sale  of  his  upper  Palatine  to  Bavaria,  must  with 
justice  have  e.\cited  the  apprehensions  of  tlie 
other  princes.  But  when  the  .Jesuits  tlnally 
succeeded,  not  only  in  extorting  the  edict  of 
restitution,  but  also  in  causing  it  to  be  enforced 
in  the  most  (xlious  manner,  the  Catholic  st^ites 
themselves  saw  with  regret  that  peace  could  no 
longer  exist.  .  .  .  The  greater  the  success  that 
attended  the  house  of  Austria,  the  more  actively 
foreign  policy  laboured  to  counteract  it.  Eng- 
land had  tiiken  an  interest  in  the  fate  of  Fred- 
eric V.  from  the  first,  though  this  interest  was 
evinced  by  little  beyond  fruitless  negotiations. 
Denmark  became  engaged  in  the  (luarrel  mostlv 
through  the  iutluencc  of  this  power  ami  llollaiul. 
liic^helieu,  from  the  time  he  became  prime 
minister  of  France,  had  exerted  himself  in 
opposing  Austria  and  Spain.  He  found  employ- 
ment for  Spain  in  the  contests  resjiecting 
Vcltelin,  and  for  Austria  soon  after,  by  the  war 
of  Alantua.  Willingly  would  he  have  detached 
the  German  league  from  the  interest  of 
the  emperor;  and  though  he  failed  in  this, 
he  procured  the  fall  of  Wallenstein.  .  .  . 
Much  more  important,  however,  was  Kiclie- 
lieu's  influence  on  the  war,  by  the  essential 
share  he  had  in  gaining  Qustavus  Adolphiis' 
active  particijiation  in  it.  .  .  .  The  nineteen 
years  of  his  [Gustavus  Adolphus'l  reign  which 
had  already  elapsed,  together  with  the  Polish 
war,  which  lasted  nearly  that  time,  had  taught 
the  world  but  little  of  the  real  worth  of  this 
great  and  talented  hero.  The  decisive  superi- 
ority of  Protestantism  in  Germany,  under  his 
guidance,  soon  created  a  more  j  ust  knowledge,  and 
at  the  same  t;nie  showed  the  advantages  which 
must  result  to  a  victorious  supporter  of  that 
cau.se.  ,  .  .  The  battle  at  Leipzig  was  decisive 
for  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  his  party,  almost 
beyond  expectation.  The  league  fell  asunder; 
and  in  a  short  time  he  'was  master  of  the  coun- 
tries from  the  Baltic  to  Bavaria,  and  from  tlie 
Rhine  to  Bohemia.  .  .  .  But  the  misfortunes 
and  death  of  Tilly  brought  Wallenstein  again 
on  the  stage  lus  absolute  commander-in-chief, 
bent  on  plans  not  a  whit  less  extensive  than 
those  he  had  before  formed.  No  period  of  the  W!ir 
gave  i)romise  of  such  great  and  rapid  successes 
or  reverses  as  the  present,  for  both  leaders  were 
deteruiiued  to  effect  tliuin;  btit  the  victory  of 


208 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY:  FIRST  HALF. 

CONTEMPOKANEOUS  EVENTS. 


A.  D. 

KlOli.    Clmrtcrinj;  of  Dutch  Knst  Iiidiii  C'oinpiiny. — First  aclin?  of  Sliakcspciiro's  "Ilninlet." 

KtOH.     Death  of  Qui'(M\  Eli/.nlii'th  of  Kiiirlaiiil  ami  accession  of  .lames  I. 

1(«>5.  Cliiiipowder  plot  of  Enjtlisli  ('atlinlics. — Publication  of  Bacon's  "  Advaii'  incnt  of 
[iCaniin!,'."  and  part  1  of  Cervantes'  "Don  (Jnixotc." 

lOOO.  IMiarter  jrrajited  to  the  London  and  I'lymoiith  companies,  for  American  coloni/.ntion. — 
Organization  of  the  Independent  church  of  Hrowinsts  at  .Scrool)y,  England. 

1007.     Settlement  of  .lameslown,  Virginia. — Migration  of  Scrooliy  Independents  to  Holland. 

lOOJK  Settlement  of  the  exiled  Pilgrims  of  Scrooby  at  Leyden. — Construction  of  the  telescope 
by  Galileo  and  discovery  of  .lupiter's  moons.* 

KtlO.     Assassination  of  Henry  IV'.  of  Franco  and  accession  of  Louis  XHI. 

161  1.     Publication  in  England  of  thi'  King  .lames  or  Authorized  version  of  the  Bible. 

1014-.     Last  meeting  of  tlie  States  General  of  France  before  the  Hevolulion. 

mm.     Appearance  at  Frankforton  the-.Main  of  the  first  known  weekly  newspaper. 

lO  lO.     Opening  of  war  between  J^weden  and  Poland. — Death  of  Shakespeare  and  Cervantes. 

1((18.     IJising  of  Protestants  in  Bohemia,  l)eginning  the  Thirty  Years  War. 

1(tl)>.    Trial  and  execution  of  .lolm  of  Banieveldt. — Inlioductiou  of  slavery  in  Virginia. 

1U120.  Decisive  defeat  of  the  Protestants  of  ISohenua  in  tlie  battle  of  the  White  Moinitain. — 
Rising  of  the  Freni  h  Huguenots  at  Hoehelle. — Migration  of  tlie  Pilgrims  from  Leyden  to  America. 

1G21.  Formation  of  the  Dutcli  West  India  Company. — The  lirst  Tiianksgiving  Day  in  Xew 
England. 

I((2i2.     Appearance  of  the  first  known  i)rintcd  newspaper  in  England — "The  Weekly  Newcs," 

1024.     Beginning  of  Richelieu's  ministry,  in  France, 

loss.  Death  of  .lames  L,  of  England,  and  accession  of  Charles  I. ;  beginning  of  the  English 
struggle  between  King  and  Parliament. — Engagement  of  Wallenstein  and  Ills  army  in  the  service  of 
the  Emperor  against  the  Protestants. 

1027.  Alliance  of  England  witli  the  French  Huguenots. — Siege  of  Uochelle  by  Richelieu. 

1028.  Passage  by  the  English  Parliament  of  the  act  called  the  Petition  of  Uiglit. — A.ssassina- 
tlon  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham. — Surrender  of  Roehelle  to  Richelieu. — Publication  of  Harvey's 
discovery  of  tlie  circulation  of  the  blood. 

102il.  Tumult  in  the  English  Parliament,  dissolution  by  the  king  and  arrest  of  Eliot  and 
others. 

1030.  Appearance  in  Germany  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  as  the  champion  of 
Protestantism. — Settlement  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  New  England,  and  founding  of 
Boston. — The  Day  of  the  Dupes  in  France. 

1031.  Siege,  capture  and  sack  of  ^Magdeburg  by  tlie  imperial  general,  Tilly. — Defeat  of  Tilly 
on  the  ilreitenfeld,  at  Leipzig,  by  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

1G32.  Defeat  and  death  of  Tilly. — Victory  and  death  of  Gu.stavus  Adolphus  at  LUtzen. — 
Patent  to  Lord  Baltimore  by  James  L,  of  England,  granting  him  the  territory  in  America  called 
Man-land. — First  Jesuit  mi'.sion  to  Canada. 

1034:.    Assassination  of  Wallenstein. — Levy  of  Ship-money  in  England. 

1035.    First  settlements  in  the  Connecticut  valley. 

1030.    Banishment  of  Roger  Williams  from  Massachusetts,  and  his  founding  of  Providence. 

1037.  The  Pequot  War  in  New  England. — Introduction  of  Laud's  Service-book  in  Scotland; 
tumult  in  St.  Giles'  church. 

1038.  Banishment  of  Anno  Hutchinson  from  JIassachusetts. — Rising  in  Scotland  against  the 
Service-book;  organization  of  the  Tables;  signing  of  the  National  Covenant. 

1030.    The  First  Bishops'  War  of  the  Scotch  with  King  Charles  L 

1040.  Meeting  of  the  Long  Parliainont  in  England. — Recovery  of  independence  by  Portugal. 

1041.  Impeacbmcut  and  execut'  n  of  Strafford  and  adoption  of  the  Grand  Remonstrance  by 
the  English  Parliament. — Catholic  rising  in  Ireland  and  alleged  massacres  of  Protestants. 

1042.  ICing  Charles'  attempt,  in  England,  to  arrest  the  Five  Members,  and  opening  of  the 
Civil  War  at  Edgeliill. — Conspiracy  of  Cinq  Mars  in  France. — Death  of  Cardinal  Richelieu. 

1G43.  Meeting  of  the  Westtninstcr  Assembly  of  Divines. — Subscription  of  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  between  the  Scotch  and  English  nations. — Siege  of  Gloucester  and  lifst  battle  of 
Newl)ury. — Death  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France  and  accession  of  Louis  XIV. 

1044.  Battles  of  Marston  Jloor  and  the  second  Newbury,  in  the  English  civil  war. 

1045.  Oliver  Cromwell  jjlaced  second  in  command  of  the  English  Parliamentary  array. — His 
victory  nt  Nascby. — Exploits  of  Montrose  in  Scotland.  • 

1046.  Adoption  of  Presbyterianism  by  the  English  Parliament. —fjurrendcr  of  King  Charles 
to  the  Scottish  army. 

1047.  Surrender  of  King  Charles  by  the  Scots  to  the  English,  and  his  seizure  by  tue  Army. 

1048.  Tlie  second  Civil  War  in  England. — Cromwell's  victory  at  Preston. — Treaty  of  New- 
port with  the  king. — Grand  Army  Remonstrance,  and  Pride's  Purge  of  Parliament. — Last  campaigns 
of  the  Thirty  Years  War. — Peace  of  Westphalia;  cession  of  Alsace  to  Franc(!. 

1040.  Trial  and  execution  of  King  Charles  I.,  of  England,  and  establishment  of  the  Common- 
wealth.— Campaign  of  Cromwell  in  Ireland. — First  civil  war  of  the  Fronde  in  Prance. 

1050.  Charles  II.  in  Scotland. — War  between  the  English  and  the  Scotch.— Victory  of  Crom- 
well at  Dunbar. — The  new  Fronde  ia  France,  in  alliance  with  Spain. 


SEVENTEENTn  CENTURY:  SECOND  HALF. 

CONTKMPOIUNKOUM  EVENTS. 


A.  n. 


1(151.     Invasion  of  Kn^^land  by  Charles  II.  ami  tbu  Scots;  Crom^voll's  victory  nt  Wnrceater; 

COIII|llltl'  <'<>lll|ll('Nt  of    S<'(ltlllll(l, 

I<i52.  Victorious  imviil  war  of  the  English  with  the  Dutch.— End  of  the  Fronde.— InstitutiDM 
of  llif  l.ilicniiii  Veto  in  Poland. 

1<)5<'{.  Expulsion  of  "  the  lluinp  "  by  Cromwell,  and  eHtabllsliniGnt  of  the  Protectorate  In 
England.— Adoption  of  the  Instrument  of  Oovernruent. — Ucturn  of  Mazariu  to  power  In  France. — 
The  ('roniwellian  settlenu^nt  of  Ireland. 

.lOA-!:.  Incorporation  of  Hcotlatul  with  the  (English  Commonwealth,  under  Cromwell. — Peace 
between  the  English  and  Dutch. — ('on(iuest  of  Nova  Scotia  by  the  New  England  colonists. 

miiR.     Alliance  of  England  and  V  ranee  against  Spain. — English  conquest  of  Jamaica. 

lOnO.    licglnning  of  tlie  persecution  of  the  (Quakers  in  .Massaeliusetts. 

1058.  (lapture  of  Diuikirlt  from  tlie  Spaniards  and  possession  given  by  the  French  to  the 
English,  —  Deatli  of  Cromwell  and  succession  of  his  son  Kichard  as  Protector. 

1U50.  .Meeting  of  a  new  Parliament  in  England;  its  dissolution;  resuscitation  and  ro-expulsion 
of  the  Kum]),  and  formation  of  a  provisional  government  by  the  Army. 

lOOO.  .March  of  the  English  army  under  Monk  from  Scotland  to  London. — Call  of  a  new  Par- 
liament Ijv  Monk,  and  restoral:ion  of  the  monarchy,  in  tlie  person  of  (!liarles  II. 

KlOl.  Hestoratinii  of  the  (Jhurch  of  England  and  ejection  of  2,000  nonconformist  ministers. — 
Personal  assumption  of  government  by  Louis  XIV.  in  France. — Beginning  oT  tlie  ministry  of  Colb(Tt. 

lOOti.  Sale  of  Dunkirk  t(»  France  by  Charles  II. — Uestorution  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland  and 
persecution  of  the  Covenanters. 

1004.  Seizure  of  New  Netherland  (henceforth  New  York)  by  the  English  from  the  Dutch 
and  grant  of  the  province  to  the  duke  of  York. — Grant  of  New  Jersey  to  Berkeley  and  Carteret. 

1005.  Outbreak  of  the  great  Plague  in  London. — Formol  decluratiuus  of  war  between  the 
Englisli  and  the  Dutch. 

1GU<(.  The  great  Are  in  London. — Tremendous  naval  battles  between  Dutch  and  English  and 
defeat  of  the  former. 

1007.  Havagcs  by  a  Dutch  fleet  in  the  Thames. — Peace  treaties  of  Breda,  between  England, 
Holland,  France  and  Denmark. — War  of  Louis  XIV.,  called  the  War  of  the  Queen's  liights,  In  the 
Spanish  Netherlands. 

1008.  Triple  alliance  of  England,  Holland  and  Sweden  against  France. 
l((Ot>.    First  exploring  journey  of  La  Salle  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  West. 

I<t70.  Treaty  of  the  king  of  England  with  Louis  XIV.  of  Fronce,  betraying  his  allies,  the 
Dutch,  and  engaging  to  profess  himself  a  Catholic. 

1072.  Alliance  of  England  and  France  against  the  Dutch. — Ilcstoration  of  the  Stadtholdership 
in  Holland  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  murder  of  the  De  Witts. 

1073.  Hecovery  of  New  Netherland  by  the  Dutch  from  the  English. 

1074.  Treaty  of  Westminster,  restoring  peace  between  the  Dutch  and  English  and  ceding  Now 
Netherland  to  the  latter. 

1075.  War  with  the  Indians  in  Now  England,  known  as  King  Pliillp'a  War. 
1078.    Pretended  Popisli  Plot  in  England. — Treaties  of  Nimeguen. 

1071>.  Passage  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  in  England. — Oppression  of  Scotland  and  perseoi- 
tion  of  the  Covenanters. — Defeat  of  Claverhouse  at  Drumclog. — Defeat  of  Covenanters  at  Bothwell 
Bridge. 

1680.     First  naming  of  tlie  Whig  and  Tory  parties  in  England. 

1081.  Merciless  despotism  of  tlie  duke  of  York  in  Scotland. — Beginning  of  "dragonnado" 
persecution  of  Protestants  in  France. — Grant  of  Pennsylvania  by  Charles  II.  to  William  Penn. 

1082.  E.vploration  of  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth  by  La  Salle. 

1<{8:).  The  Uyehouse  Plot,  and  execution  of  Lord  iiussell  and  Algernon  Sidney,  in  England. 
— Great  invasion  of  Hungary  and  Austria  by  the  Turks;  their  siege  of  Vienna,  and  the  deliverance 
of  the  city  by  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland. — Establishment  of  a  penny  post  in  London. 

1085.  Death  of  Charles  II.,  king  of  England,  and  accession  of  his  brother  James  II.,  an 
avowed  ('atholic. — Uebcllion  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth. — Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  by 
Louis  XIV.  of  France. 

1086.  Consolidation  of  New  England  under  a  royal  governor-general. — League  of  Augsburg 
against  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 

1G88.  Declaration  of  Indulgence  by  James  II.  of  England,  and  imjirisonment  and  trial  of  the 
seven  bishops  for  refusing  to  publish  it. — Invitation  to  William  and  Mary  of  Orange  to  accept  the 
English  crown.— Arrivol  in  England  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  flight  of  James. 

1080.  Completion  of  tlie  English  Uevolution. —Settlement  of  the  crown  on  William  and  Mary. 
—Passage  of  the  Toleration  Act  and  the  Bill  of  Rights.- Landing  of  James  II.  in  Ireland  and  war 
in  that  island ;  siege  and  successful  defense  of  Londonderry. 

lOOO.    The  first  congress  of  the  American  colonies. —Battle  of  the  Boyne  in  Ireland. 

1602.    The  Salem  Witchcraft  madness  in  Massachusetts.— Massacre  of  Glencoe  in  Scotland. 

1095.    Passage  of  the  first  of  the  Penal  Laws,  oppressing  Catlioiics  in  Ireland. 

1007.    Peace  of  Ryswick. — Cession  of  Strasburg  and  restoration  of  Acadia  to  France. 

1690.    Peace  of  Carlowitz,  between  Turkey,  Russia,  Poland,  Venice,  and  the  Emperor. 

1700.    Prussia  raised  in  rank  to  a  kingdom. — First  campaigns  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 


AUSTRIA,  1618-1048. 


Pritct  of 
holla. 


Weiliiha 


AUSTRIA,  1072-1714. 


LUtzvn,  wlillf'  It  cost  OimtnviiH  IiIh  life,  prcnarcfl 
tliu  full  of  Wiillciistciii.  .  .  .  Tliiiii«li  the  fall  of 
Oustiivus  .V<l(>l|iliii-i  friistratcil  liis  own  pri  c 
views,  it  liiil  not  tl.oHc  of  hi.s  piirly.  .  .  I'lic 
BCliool  of  OuNtiiviis  produced  it  iiuiiiIkt  of  iiit'ii. 
Kri'itt  ill  the  cubiiK't  and  in  tliu  llcl<l ;  yet  it  waH 
hard,  even  for  an  O.v'nHteirn,  to  pre.serve  tlie 
importance  uf  iSweden  unimpaired :  and  it  waH 
l)ut  partially  done  by  tli"  ulliancc  of 'Ileilliroiin. 
...  If  tlie  fortes  of  Sweden  overrun  alniont 
every  part  of  Germany  in  tiu^  folluwiii^ 
niontliH,  under  tlic  K»idauce  of  tlic  pupilH  of  tlie 
l<inj?,  Hernard  of  Weimar  and  OuKtavus  Horn, 
we  must  appurently  attribute  It  to  Wallenstein's 
intentional  Inactivity  in  Roliemia.  Tlic  distrust 
of  liim  increased  in  Vienna  tlie  more,  as  he  toolt 
but  little  trouble  to  dimini.sli  it;  and  tlioufrli  his 
fall  was  not  sullicient  to  atone  for  treachery,  if 
proved,  it  was  for  Ills  ciiuivocal  cliaracter  and 
imprudence.  Hia  dealli  probably  saved  Ger- 
many from  a  catastroplie.  ...  A  great  change 
took  place  upon  tlie  deatli  of  Wallenstein;  as  a 
prince  of  tlio  bhxMl,  Ferdinand,  kinif  of  llunifary 
and  Uoiiemia,  obtained  I  he  coinmand.  Tlius  an 
end  was  put  to  plans  of  revolutions  from  this 
quarter.  But  in  the  same  year  the  liattle  of 
Nordlingeii  gave  to  the  imperial  arms  a  sudden 
preponderance,  such  as  it  had  never  before! 
acquired.  The  separate  peace  of  Saxouy  with 
the  emperor  nt  Prague,  and  soon  after  an  alli- 
ance, were  its  cimseciueiices;  Sweden  driven  liack 
to  Pomerania,  seemed  unable  of  lier.sclf,  during 
tlie  two  following  years,  to  maintain  lier  ground 
in  Germany:  the  victory  of  Wittstock  turned 
the  scale  iu  lier  favour.  .  .  .  Tlie  war  was  pro- 
longed and  greatly  extended  by  the  active  share 
taken  in  it  by  Prance:  lirst  against  Spain,  and 
soon  against  Austria.  .  .  .  Tlie  German  war, 
after  the  treaty  with  Hernliard  of  Weimar,  was 
mainly  carried  on  by  France,  liy  the  arming  of 
Germans  against  Germans.  But  the  pupil  of 
Gustavus  Adolplius  preferred  to  light  for  him- 
self rather  than  others,  and  ills  early  death  was 
almost  as  much  coveted  by  France  as  by  Austria. 
The  success  of  the  Swedisli  arms  revived  under 
Baner.  ...  At  the  general  diet,  wliicli  was  at 
last  convened,  the  emperor  j'ielded  to  a  general 
amnesty,  or  at  least  what  was  so  designated. 
But  when  at  tlic  meeting  of  tiie  aiiil)assadors  of 
tlie  leading  powers  at  Hamburg,  tlie  prelimin- 
aries were  signed,  and  tlie  time  and  place  of  tlie 
congress  of  peace  fixed,  it  was  deferred  ofter 
Richelieu's  death,  (wlio  was  succeedeil  by  JIaza- 
rin),  by  the  war,  which  both  parties  continued, 
in  the  hope  of  securing  better  conditions  by 
victory.  A  new  war  broke  out  in  the  north 
between  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and  when  at 
last  the  congress  of  peace  was  opened  at  Munster 
and  Osnabruck,  the  negotiations  drugged  on 
for  three  years.  .  .  .  Tlie  German  peace  was 
negotiated  at  Munster  between  tlie  emperor  and 
Prance,  and  at  Osnabruck  between  the  emperor 
and  Sweden;  but  both  treaties,  according* to 
express  agreement,  Oct.  34,  1648,  were  to  be 
considered  as  one,  under  the  title  of  the  West- 
phalian." — A.  H.  L.  Heeren,  A  Manual  of  Hie 
Ilktury  of  t/te  Political  System  of  Europe  and  its 
Colonies,  pp.  91-99. — "Tlie  Peace  of  Westphalia 
has  met  manifold  hostile  comments,  not  only  in 
earlier,  but  also  in  later,  times.  German  patriots 
complained  that  by  it  the  unity  of  tlie  Empire 
was  rent;  and  indeed  the  connection  of  the 
States,  \    ich  even  before  was  louse,  was  relaxed 


to  the  extreme.  Tliis  was,  however,  an  evil 
wliich  could  net  be  avohled,  and  it  had  to  \w. 
accepted  in  ordiT  to  prevent  the  French  and 
Swedes  from  using  their  opportunity  for  the 
fiirtlier  enslavement  of  the  land.  .  .  .  The 
rellgi(nis  parties  also  maiU;  objections  to  the 
peace.  The  strict  C'atliolies  condemned  it  ac  t 
work  of  Inexeusable  and  arliitrary  injustice. 
.  .  .  Tlie  dissatisfaclion  of  the  Protestants  was 
cliietly  Willi  the  recognition  of  tin-  Keclrsiastical 
Reservation.  They  complnincd  also  that  their 
bretliren  in  the  faith  were  not  allowed  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion  in  Austria.  Tlieir  hos- 
tility was  limited  to  llieorelical  di.scuHsIons, 
whicli  8(M)ii  ceased  when  Louis  XIV.  took  advan- 
tage of  the  preponderance  wliich  he  had  won 
to  make  outrageous  assaults  upon  Germany, 
and  even  the  Protestants  were  compi^lli'd  to 
acknowledge  the  Emperor  as  the  real  defender 
of  German  independence." — A.  Giihiely,  History 
of  the  Thirtii  Yearn' War.  r.  2,  eh.  10.  Hect.  4.— See, 
lilso,  Gku.\iany:  a.  1).  1618-1620,  to  1048; 
Fu.\nck:  a.  D.  1624-1626;  and  Italy:  A.  D. 
1637-16;!1. 

A.  D.  i62i.— Formal  establishment  of  the 
right  of  primogeniture  in  the  Archducal 
Family.     See  (Jkkma.nv:  A.  1).  16;!6-16.'i7. 

A.  D.  1624-1626. — Hostile  combinations  of 
Richelieu, — The  VaitelUne  war  in  Northern 
Italy.     See  Fuanck:  A.  I).  1624-1626. 

A.  D.  1627-1631. — War  with  France  over 
the  succession  to  the  Duchy  of  Mantua.  Sec 
Italy:  A.  I).  1627-16;il. 

A.  D.  1660-1664. — Renewed  war  with  the 
Turks. —  Help  from  France.  —  Battle  and 
victory  of  St.  Gothard. — Twenty  years  truce. 
See  IIi:n<iauv:  A.  I).  1660-1664. 

A.  D.  1668-1683. — Increased  oppression  and 
religious  persecution  in  Hungary.  Revolt  of 
Tekeli. — The  Turks  again  called  in. — Mus- 
tapha's  great  invasion  and  siege  of  Vienna. — 
Deliverance  of  the  city  by  John  Sobieski.  See 
lIixciAUY:    A.  I).  16(W-16«;I 

A.  D.  1672-1714. — The  wars  with  Louis 
XIV.  of  France :  War  of  the  Grand  Alliance. 
— Peace  of  Ryswick. — "The  leading  principle 
of  the  reign  [in  Francel  of  Louis  XIV.  ...  is 
the  principle  of  war  with  tlie  dynasty  of  Charles 
V.  —  tlie  ehler  bruucliof  which  reigned  in  Spain, 
while  the  descendants  of  tiio  younger  branch 
occupied  the  imperial  tlirono  of  Germany.  .  .  . 
At  the  death  of  Mazarin,  or  to  speak  more 
correctly,  immediately  after  tlie  death  of  Philip 

IV tlio    early    ambition  of   Louis   XIV. 

sought  to  prevent  tlie  junior  lirancli  of  the 
Austrian  dynasty  from  succeeding  to  tlio  in- 
lieritance  of  tlie  elder  brancii.  He  had  no  desire 
to  see  reconstituted  under  tlie  imperial  sceptre  of 
Germany  the  monarcliy  wliich  Cliarles  V.  had 
at  one  time  wislied  to  transmit  entire  to  his  son, 
but  which,  worn  out  and  weakened,  lie  sub- 
sequently allowed  without  regret  to  he  divided 
'  between  liis  son  and  his  brother.  Before  making 
war  upon  Austria,  Louis  XIV.  cast  his  eyes 
upon  a  portion  of  tlie  territory  belonging  to 
Spain,  and  the  expedition  against  Holland,  begun 
in  1672  [see  Netherlands  (Holland):  A.  D. 
1672-1674,  and  1674-1678],  for  the  purpose  of 
absorbing  the  Spanisli  provinces  by  overwhelm- 
ing them,  opened  the  series  of  his  vast  enter- 
prises. His  first  great  war  was,  historically 
speaking,  his  first  great  fault.  He  fulled  in  hfe 
object:  for  at  the  end  of  six  campaigns,  during 


209 


AUSTRIA,  lfl72-17U. 


Wan  tritk 
lAtuit  XIK 


AUSTRIA.  1673-1714. 


wlilrh  tlio  French  nrmlcs  olitiilixMl  (front  and 
ilrwrviMl  Hiio'c'SN,  lliilliinil  rriiiiilMcil  iitiniii' 
(|ii<Ti'il,  Thus  WHH  Kiiri)|M-  wiiriicil  Ihnt  the  lust 
of  i'c>ii(|U<'Mt  iif  It  yiiiiii);  iMDiiiiri'h,  whn  iliil  in't 
hiiiist'lf  piiMMcsM  iiiilittiry  Ki'iiiiiH.  lint  who  fimii>l 
in  hln  L'l'nrriil  I  the  rewiiirceH  iiiiil  iil)ility  in  wliicli 
lie  was  hlinsi'lf  (letlcjent,  wiiiild  kihim  threaten  her 
Indeiienilence,  Cciniii' iinil  Tnreiiiie,  after  havinit 
lieen  relielliiiiiM  duhjeets  under  the  UeKenev. 
were  aluiiit  tii  lieeoine  tlie  tlrnt  and  tlie  must 
illiistrioiiM  lleiileiiaiits  <if  liouis  XIV'.  KiirDpe, 
however,  tlioiii;h  warned,  was  not  iinmeiliately 
ready  to  detVnd  herself.  It  was  from  Austria, 
more  directly  exposed  to  tlii;  daniters  of  the 
){reat  war  now  <M)minen(ini,',  that  the  llrst  Kvs- 
tematlc  resistance  outfht  to  have  come.  IJut 
Austria  was  not  prepared  to  play  such  li  part; 
and  the  Kiiiperor  Leopold  possessed  neither  the 
(genius  nor  the  wish  for  it.  lie  was.  in  fact, 
nothliiif  more  than  the  nominal  head  of  Germany. 
.  .  .  Such  was  the  state  of  alTairs  in  Kuropu 
when  William  of  ()rani,'e  tlrst  made  li  anpear- 
iinre  on  the  Kta);e.  .  .  .  The  old  (juestion  of 
HuprcTuacy.  which  Loids  XIV.  wishcii  t<  IlLtht 
out  as  a  duel  witli  the  House  of  Austria,  was 
now  ahout  to  cliange  its  aspect,  and,  owini;  to 
tlie  presence  of  an  unexpected  j;eniiis,  to  hring 
into  tlie  riuarrel  other  powers  lipsides  the  two 
orijfinal  competitors.  The  foe  of  Louis  XIV.  ou(;ht 
by  rifrhts  to  have  been  horn  on  the  banks  of  the 
DaiMdie,  and  not  on  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea. 
In  fact,  it  was  Austria  that  at  that  moment  most 
needed  a  man  of  ijenius,  eilliei  on  the  throne  or 
at  the  head  of  allairs.  Tlie  eveiitsof  thecentury 
■would,  in  this  ca.se,  doiibtles.s  have  followed  a 
dilTerent  course:  the  war  would  have  been  less 
general,  and  the  maritime  nations  would  not 
have  been  involved  in  it  to llie  same  degree,  .  .  . 
Tlic  treatii'S  of  peace  would  have  been  signed  in 
some  small  place  in  France!  or  (rermany.  and  not 
in  two  towns  and  a  village  in  Holland,  such  as 
Nimcguen,  Uyswick,  and  I'lreclit.  .  .  .  William 
of  Orange  found  himself  in  a  jxisition  soon  to 
form  the  Triple  .Vlliance  wliuli  the  very  iioliev 
of  Louis  XIV'.  suggested.  For  France  to  attack 
Holland,  when  her  object  was  eventually  to 
reach  Austria,  and  kei^p  her  out  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  was  to  make  enemies  at  one  and  the 
same  time  of  Spain,  of  Austria,  and  of  Holland. 
lint  if  it  afierwards  rc(iuired  considerable  elTorts 
on  the  part  of  William  of  Orange  to  maintain 
this  alliance,  it  demanded  still  more  energy  to 
extend  it.  It  formed  jiart  of  the  Stadtliolder's 
ulterior  plans  to  couibine  the  uiiicm  between  liim- 
lelf  and  the  two  branches  of  the  Austrian 
family,  with  the  old  Anglo-Swedish  Triple 
Alliance,  which  had  just  been  dissolved  under 
the  strong  pressure  brought  to  bear  on  it  by 
Louis  XIV.  .  .  .  Louis  XIV^.,  whose  linanccs 
were  exhausted,  was  very  soon  anxious  to  make 
peace,  even  on  the  morrow  of  his  most  brilliant 
victories;  whilst  William  of  Orange,  beaten  and  , 
retreating,  ardently  desired  the  continuance  of 
tlie  war.  .  .  .  The  Peace  of  Nimeguen  was  at 
lost  signed,  and  by  it  were  secured  to  Louis  XIV. 
Frauche-Cointe,  and  some  important  places  in 
the  Spanish  Low  Countries  on  his  northern 
frontier  [sen  Nimeoven,  Pkace  op].  This 
was  the  culminating  point  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  Although  the  coalition  had  prevented 
him  from  attaining  the  full  object  of  his  designs 
against  the  House  of  Austria,  which  had  been 
to  absorb  by  conquest  so  much  of  the  territory 


belonging  to  Spain  as  would  sorure  him  agalimt 
the  ctTeel  of  a  will  preserving  the  whole  in- 
heritance intact  in  the  family,  vet  his  armies  had 
been  constantly  succcNsful.  and  icany  of  his  op- 
ponents wen-  evidently  llri'd  of  .he  struggle. 
.  .  .  Some  vears  passeil  thus,  with  the  appear- 
ance, of  calm.  ICurope  was  c(in((Uered ;  and 
when  peace  was  broken,  because,  as  was  said, 
the  Treaty  of  Nimcguen  was  not  duly  ex^M'Utcd, 
the  eventsof  the  war  were  for  some  time  neither 
brilliant  or  important,  for  M-veral  campaigns 
began  and  ended  without  any  consich'rablc  re- 
sult. .  .  .  .\t  length  liOuls  XIV.  entered  on  the 
second  half  of  his  reign,  which  dilTered  widely 
from  the  llrst.  .  .  .  During  this  second  period  of 
more  than  thirty  years,  which  begins  after  the 
Treaty  of  Nimeguen  aral  lasts  till  the  Peace  of 
Utreclit,  events  succeed  each  other  In  complete 
logical  setpience,  so  that  the  reign  presents  Itself 
as  one  continuous  whole,  with  a  regular  move- 
ment of  ascension  and  decline.  .  .  .  The  leading; 
principle  of  the  reign  remained  the  same;  it  was 
always  the  desire  to  weaken  the  House  of  At's- 
tria,  or  to  secure  an  advantageous  partition 
of  the  Spanish  succession.  I!ut  the  Kmperor  of 
Germany  was  protecti.'d  by  the  coalition,  and  the 
King  of  Spain,  whoso  deatli  was  considen-d 
imminent,  would  not  make  up  his  mind  to  die. 
.  .  .  During  the  first  League,  when  the  Prince 
of  Orange  was  contending  against  Louis  XIV. 
with  the  co-operation  of  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, of  the  King  of  Spain,  and  of  the  Klectors 
on  the  Khine,  the  religious  element  playe<l  only 
a  secondary  part  in  tlie  war.  Hut  we  shall  see 
this  clement  make  its  presence  more  manifest. 
.  .  .  Thus  the  irillui  nee  of  Protestant  Kngland 
made  itself  more  and  more  felt  in  the  alTairs  of 
Kurope,  in  proportion  as  the  government  of  the 
Stuarts,  from  its  violence,  its  unpopularity,  and 
from  tlie  opposition  olTcred  to  it,  was  apjiroach- 
ing  its  end.  .  .  .  The  second  coalition  was 
neither  more  united  nor  more  tlrm  than  the  first 
hail  been:  but,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Stuarts, 
the  germs  of  dissolution  no  hinger  threatened 
the  same  dangers.  .  .  .  The  Hritisli  nation  now 
made  itself  felt  iu  the  balance  of  F^iirope,  and 
Williiiniof  Orange  was  for  tlie  fii-st  time  in  his 
life  successful  in  w;ir  at  tlie  head  of  his  Kngli.sh 
troops.  .  .  .  This  was  the  most  brilliant  epoch 
of  the  life  of  William  HI.  .  .  .  He  was  now  at 
the  height  of  his  glory,  after  u  period  of  twenty 
years  from  liir  tart  in  life,  and  his  destiny  was 
!iecomi)lished;  .sO  that  until  tlu^  Treaty  of  Hys- 
wick.  which  in  1098  put  an  end  to  his  hostilities 
with  France,  and  brought  aliout  his  reciignition 
as  King  of  Kngland  by  Louis  XIV.,  not  much 
more  was  left  for  him  to  gain ;  and  lie  had  the 
skill  to  lose  nothing.  .  .  .  The  negotiations  for 
the  Treaty  of  Uyswick  were  conducted  with  less 
ability  and  boldness,  and  concluded  on  less 
advantageous  terms,  than  the  Truce  of  Ratisbon 
or  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen.  Nevertheless,  this 
treaty,  wliich  securc'd  to  Louis  the  possession  of 
Strasbourg,  might,  particularly  as  age  was  now 
creeping  on  him,  have  dosed  his  military  career 
without  disgrace,  if  the  eternal  (piestion,  for  the 
solution  of  which  he  had  made  so  many  sacri- 
flces,  and  which  had  always  held  the  foremost 
place  in  his  thoughts,  had  not  remained  as  un- 
settled and  as  full  of  dilliculty  as  on  the  day 
when  he  had  mounted  the  throne.  Charles  II. 
of  Spain  was  not  dead,  and  the  question  of  the 
Spanish    succession,    which    bad    so    actively 


210 


AUSTRIA,  1072-1711. 


Pntri- 
»/  Utrrchl. 


AUSTRIA,  1718-1738. 


cmploynl  the  iiriiiics  cif  I,i)iii>i  XIV.,  itnil  taxed 
IiIm  (llploiMiii'y,  wiLs  iiH  undi'iiilcil  itH  lit  tlii'  Ih;- 
{i(liiiilii){iif  IiIh  rt'l^n.  Louis  XIV.  kuw  two  niter- 
iiiitlvcH  iH'fon*  liliii:  n  piirtitloii  of  the  HiireesKlon 
Ix'twceii  the  Kinperor  ami  lilniHelf  (ii  Holiitloii 
proiMwed  thirty  years  before  as  a  means  to  avoid 
war),  or  else  a  will  in  favoiirof  France,  followed 
of  course  by  a  ree(aniiiencernent  of  j?''"''""' 
hostilities.  .  .  .  t.onis  XIV.  proposed  in  sue- 
Cl'iwion  two  scbenii'S,  not,  as  thirty  years  before, 
tn  the  Kniperor,  lint  to  the  KIiik  of  Kn^rlunil, 
whose  power  and  whose  jfenius  rendered  him 
the  arbiter  of  all  the  jtreat  alTairs  of  Kurope. 
...  In  the  first  of  the  treaties  of  partitlr)n, 
Spain  ami  the  Low  Countries  were  to  Ik^  j;I^''''> 
to  llie  I'rince  of  liavaria:  in  the  second,  to  the 
Archdiilii'  Cliarles.  In  both,  France  obtaini'd 
Naples  anci  Sicily  for  llie  Mauphln.  .  .  .  Ilolli 
tlies<,' arrangements  .  .  .  suited  both  France  and 
Kiigland  as  ii  paiillu  solution  of  tiie  (|uestion. 
,  .  .  Hut  events,  as  '■(.  know,  deranj;ed  all  these 
caloiihttlons,  and  Charles  II.,  who.  by  contituiinK 
to  live,  had  disappointed  so  mucii  impatient  <'X- 
IX'Ctation,  by  his  last  will  provokeil  a  ^j^eueral 
war.  to  be  carried  on  auMinsI  Friinie  by 
the  union  of  Knjjiaml  with  tiie  Kinpire  and  with 
Holland  —  a  luilon  which  was  much  strenj;lhcnecl 
under  the  new  dynasty,  and  which  afterwards 
embraced  the  northern  stales  of  (Jermany.  .  .  . 
William  III.  died  at  tiic  ajre  of  llfly-two,  on  tho 
llth  of  March,  170'),  at  the  beuihninif  of  the 
War  of  Succession.  After  him.  the  part  he  was 
to  have  played  was  <lividcd.  I'rince  Kujfcne, 
Marlborougli,  and  Ileinsius  (tlie  (irand  Pen- 
sionary) had  the  coiuluct  of  jxilitical  and 
especially  of  military  alTairs,  and  actecl  in  con- 
cert. The  disastrous  conseipienccs  t(»  France  of 
tliat  war,  in  winch  William  liad  no  part,  are 
iiolorious.  Tiie  battles  of  ISlenheim,  of  Hamilii's, 
and  of  Oudenardu  l)roUf,dil  the  allied  arnncs  on 
tlie  soil  of  France,  and  ])lace(l  l,()\iis  XIV.  on 
tiu'  vcrifi!  of  ruin." — ,1.  Van  I'niet.  A'wn/*  mt 
the  I'liiiticitl  IHkI-ii-ji  iif  the  Wh,  \Wi,  and  llth 
Centiirieii,  pp.  :t9()-4t4  ami  \-i\-AThi. 

Ai.s<>  IN':  II.  Martin,  Hint,  of  France:  Aqe  of 
hndx  XrV..  i\  3,  (■/(.  3  and  4-0.— T.  II.  I)y<'r, 
Hint,  of  )fo(lcni  Kiinipf,  hk.  5.  eh.  5-0  (c.  ;i). — 
See,  also,  <}kumanv:  A.  1).  1080;  and  Fii.v.M  i:: 
A.  1).  10H!)-l(i!)()  to  10!)7. 

A.  D.  1683-1687.— Merciless  suppression  of 
the  Hungarian  revolt.— The  crown  of  Hungary 
made  hereditary  in  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 
Sue  IliN(i.utv:    A.  I).  l(W!-UWr, 

A.  D.  i68vif99-— Expulsion  of  the  Turks 
from  Hungary. — The  Peace  of  Carlowitz.  Seo 
iIrN<iAKV.    A.  I).  lOHlt-lMUl). 

A.  D.  1699-1711.— Suppression  of  the  Re- 
volt under  Rakoczy  in  Hungary.  See  IIln- 
(iAKv:    A.  I).  10!)!l-iri«. 

A.  D.  1700. — Interest  of  the  Imperial  House 
in  the  question  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
See  Spain:    A.  I).  1C9H-170(). 

A.  D.  1701-1713.— The  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession.  See  OiiUMANv:  A.  D.  1(03,  to 
1704;  Italy:  A.  D.  1701-1718:  Si'ain:  A.  I). 
1703.  to  1707-1710,  and  Xi:tiii;hi,ax!)s:  A.  I). 
1703-1704.  to  1710-1713. 

A.  D.  171 1.— The  War  of  the  Spanish  Sue 
cession. — Its  Circumstances  changed. — "The 
death  of  the  Emperor  tlosepli  I.,  wiio  expired 
April  17,  1711,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  changed 
the  whole  character  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession.     As  Joseph  left  no  male  heirs,  tbu 


hereditary  dotniidons  of  the  House  of  .\uHtrlik 
devolved  to  his  brother,  the  Ari'hiluke  Charles; 
and  though  that  prince  had  not  been  ele<-ted 
King  of  the  Kianans,  and  had  tin  refore  to  Im-- 
come  a  candidale  for  the  imperial  cniwn,  yet 
there  coidd  be  little  doubt  that  he  would  attidn 
that  dignity.  Ileni-e,  if  Charles  slxudil  also  be- 
come sovereign  of  Spain  and  tin-  Indies,  the  vast 
empire  of  Charles  V,  WDuld  be  again  united  in 
one  person;  and  lliat  very  evil  of  an  almost  uni- 
versal monarchy  would  be  eslablislied,  the  pre- 
vention of  which  had  been  the  chief  cause  for 
taking  up  arms  airidnst  Philip  V.  .  .  .  After  an 
interregnum  of  half  a  yi'ar,  during  which  tho 
alTairs  of  the  F.inpire  had  been  1  '"iilucted  by  tlii; 
Klector  Palatine  juid  the  Klector  of  Saxony,  a.<i 
imperial  vicars  for  South  and  North  (lermany, 
the  Archduke  Charles  was  imaidmously  named 
Kmperor  by  the  Klecloral  College  (Oct.  13th). 
.  .  .  Charles  .  .  .  received  tho  imperial  crown 
a'  Frankfort,  Dec.  33d,  with  the  title  of  Charles 
VI."— T.  II.  Py.  r,  Hint,  of  .Viuiern  Kiiro]u\  hk.  B, 
eh.  0  (r.  :(). 

A.  D.  1713-1711J.— Ending  of  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.— The  Peace  of  Utrecht 
and  the  Treaty  of  Rastadt.— Acquisition  of 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  Naples  and  Milan. 
See  L'TUKdir:    A.  1).  1713-lTll. 

A.  D.  1713-1719. — Continued  differences 
with  Spain. —  The  Triple  Alliance. —  The 
See  Si  vi.N;     A.  1).  1713- 


Quadruple  Alliance. 
I.3.V 


A.  D.  1714.— The  Deserticiiof  the  Catalans. 

See  Si'ain;    A.  I).  17i;t-1714. 

A.  D.  1714-1718.— Recovery  of  Belgrade 
and  final  expulsion  of  the  Turks  from  Hun- 
gary.    See  III  XOAIIV:     A.   D.  1000-171H. 

A.  D.  1718-1738.— The  question  of  the  Suc- 
cession.— The  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Charles 
VI.,  and  its  guarantee  by  the  Powers. — "'»n 
the  death  [.V.  D.  17111  "''  •'"sepli,  the  hopes  .  f 
\\w  house  of  Austria  and  tlie  fuluri!  destiny  of 
Oermany  rested  on  Charles  |tlien,  as  titular  king 
of  Spain,  Charles  III.,  inelTectually  contesting 
the  Spanish  throne  with  the  Hourtion  heir, 
Philip  V.  ;  aflerwiirds,  as  ICmperor,  Cliarles  VI.] 
who  was  the  only  surviviiiir  male  of  liis  illius- 
trious  family.  Hy  that  event  the  I  iscs  of  Aus- 
tria, (termaiiy  and  Kurope  were  idarcd  in  a  new 
and  critical  situation.  From  a  principle  of  mis- 
taken policy  the  succession  to  the  licieditary  do- 
minions hail  neverliecn  eslablislied  according  to  an 
invariable  rule;  for  il  was  not  clearly  ascertained 
whetlier  males  of  the  collateral  branches  should 
be  preferred  to  females  in  lineal  descent,  a?i  un- 
certainty which  h:id  l'rc(|uently  occasioned  many 
veliement  disputes.  To  obviat,'  this  evil,  as 
well  as  to  lirevent  future  disputes.  Leopold 
I  father  of  .losepli  and  Cliarles]  lia<l  arranged  the 
order  of  succession:  to  ,Jo.se))li  he  assigned  Ilnn- 
gary  and  15olieiiiia.  and  the  other  hereditary  do- 
minions; and  to  Charles  the  crowu  of  Spain,  and 
all  the  ter:-itories  wliicli  belonged  to  the  Spanish 
inheritance.  Should  .loscph  die  without  issue 
male,  the  whole  succe.s.sion  was  to  descend  to 
Charles,  and  in  case  of  his  death,  under  similar 
circumstances,  tlie  Austrian  dominions  were  to 
dc'volvo  on  the  daughters  of  .Joseph  in  prefer- 
ence to  those  of  Charles.  This  family  compact 
was  signed  by  the  two  brothers  in  the  presence 
of  Leopold.  Joseph  died  without  male  issue; 
but  left  two  daujf liters."  He  was  succeeded  by 
Charles  in  uccoruaucc  with  the  compact.     "On 


211 


AUSTRIA,  1718-1738. 


Pragmatic 
Sanction. 


AUSTRIA,  1740. 


Ihf  2n(l  nf  Atiffiifit,  1718,  soon  ftfterthcsigniituri' 
of  tlic  (Quadruple  Alliance,  Charles  promulgated 
fl  new  law  of  suceession  for  the  inheritanee  of 
tlx-  house  of  Austria,  under  the  name  of  the 
Prairniati''  Sanction.  Aceordinp  to  the  family 
conipaet  formed  by  I,eo]ioId,  an<l  eonlinned  liy 
Jo.ieph  and  Charles,  the  succession  was  entailed 
on  the  dauiihters  of  .Joseph  in  preference  to 
the  daughters  of  Charles,  should  they  both 
die  without  issue  male.  Charles,  however,  had 
scarcely  ascended  the  throne,  tliough  at,  that 
time  without  children,  than  he  reversed  this 
compact,  and  settled  the  right  of  succession,  in 
■  default  of  his  male  issue,  first  on  his  daughters, 
then  on  the  (laughters  of  .Joseph,  and  afterwards 
on  the  queen  of  Portugal  and  the  oIIkt  daugli- 
tors  of  Leopold.  Since  the  promulgation  of  that 
decree,  the  Empress  had  borne  a  son  who  died  in 
his  infancy,  and  three  daughters,  Maria  Theresa, 
]\Iaria  Anno  and  Maria  Amelia.  With  a  view  to 
insure  the  succession  of  these  daughters,  and  to 
obviate  the  dangers  which  might  arise  from  the 
claims  of  the  .losephine  archduchesses,  he  pub- 
lished the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  compelled 
Ills  nieces  to  renounce  their  pretensions  on  their 
marriages  with  the  electors  of  Saxony  and  15a- 
varia.  .Vware,  however,  that  the  strongest  re- 
nunciations are  disregarded,  he  obtained  from 
the  (lifTerent  states  of  his  extensive  (hmiinions 
the  acknowledgement  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
and  made  it  the  great  object  of  his  reign,  to 
which  he  sacriliccd  every  other  consideration,  to 
procure  the  guaraiity  of  the  European  powers." 
This  guaranty  was  obtained  in  treaties  with  the 
several  powers,  as  follows :  Spain  in  172.');  Rus- 
sia, 1726,  renewed  in  17IW;  Prussia,  1728;  Eng- 
land and  Holland,  1731 ;  France,  1738;  the  Empire, 
1732.  The  inheritance  which  Charles  thus  en- 
deavored to  secure  to  his  daughter  was  vast  and 
imposing.  "lie  was  by  election  Emperor  of 
Gernianv,  by  hereditary  right  sovereign  of  Hun- 
gary, Transylvania,  Bohemia,  Austria,  Styria, 
Carinthia  and  Carniola,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  Bris- 
ga>i,  and  he  had  recently  obtained  Najdes  and 
Sicil}',  the  Milanese  and  the  Netherlands." —  W. 
Co.\e,  JUkI.  (if  the  Huune  of  Aiistrui,  ch.  80,  84-8.5 
(v.  3). — "The  Pragmatic  Sanction,  though  framed 
to  legalize  the  accessioi,  of  Maria  Theresa,  ex- 
cludes the  present  Emperor's  daughters  and  his 
grandchild  by  postponing  the  succession  of 
females  to  that  of  males  in  the  family  of  Charles 
VI."— J.   D.    Boure:  The    ITcritar/e    of   the 

ILipsburris  (Fortninh       llev.,  March,  1889). 

Also  i.n:  H.  Tuttk,  IlUt.  of  Prussia,  1740-1745, 
ch.  3. — S.  A.  Dunham,  Ilist.  of  the  Germanic 
Empire,  bk.  3,  rh.  3  (i\  3). 

A.  D.  1719. — Sardinia  ceded  to  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  in  exchange  for  Sicily.  See  Si'ai.v: 
A.  D.  1713-1725;  and  It.vi.v;  A.  D.  1715- 
1735. 

A.  D.  1731. — The  second  Treaty  of  Vienna 
with  England  and  Holland.  See  Siwik:  A.  D. 
1720-1731. 

A.  D.  1732-1733.— Interference  in  the  elec- 
tion of  the  King  of  Poland.  See  Poland; 
A.  1).  1732-1733. 

A.  D.  1733-1735.— The  war  of  the  Polish 
Succession.— Cession  of  Naples  and  Sicily  to 
Spain,  and  Lorraine  and  Bar  to  France.  Sec 
Ekanck:  a.  I).  1733-1735,  and  Italy;  A.  I). 
1715-173,5. 

A.  D.  1 737- 1 739. — Unfortunate  war  with  the 
Turks,  in  alliance  with  Russia. — Humiliating 


peace  of  Belgrade. — Surrender  of  Belgrade, 
with  Servia,  and  part  of  Bosnia.  See  Russia: 
A.  1).  172.5-1731). 

A.  D.  1740  (October).- Treachery  among 
the  Guarantors  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. — 
The  inheritance  of  Marie  Theresa  disputed. 
— "The  Enii)eror  Charles  VI.  .  .  .  died  on  the 
20th  of  October,  1740.  His  daughter  Maria 
Theresa,  the  heiress  of  his  dominions  with  the 
title  of  Queen  of  Hungary,  was  but  twenty- 
three  years  of  age,  without  experience  or  knowl- 
edge of  business;  and  her  husband  Francis,  the 
titular  Duke  of  Lorraine  and  reigning  Grand 
Duke  of  Tu.scany,  deserved  the  praise  of  amiable 
(|ualities  rather  than  of  commanding  talents. 
Her  Jlinisters  were  timorous,  irresolute,  and 
useless:  'I  saw  theuj  in  despair,'  writes  Mr. 
Robin.son,  the  British  envoy,  'but  that  very 
despair  was  not  capable  of  rendering  them 
bravely  desperate. '  The  treasury  was  exhausted, 
the  army  dispersed,  and  no  General  risen  to  re- 
I)lace  Eugene.  The  succession  of  JIaria  Theresa 
was,  indeed,  cheerfully  acknowledged  by  her 
subjects,  and  seemed  to  be  secured  amongst 
foreign  jjowers  by  their  guarantee  of  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction;  but  it  soon  appeared  that  such 
guarantees  are  mere  wortliless  parchments 
where  there  is  strong  temptation  to  break  and 
only  a  feeble  army  to  stipport  theuL  The 
l)rincipal  claimant  to  the  succession  was  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  maintained  that  the 
will  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  the  First  devised 
the  Austrian  states  to  his  daughter,  from  whom 
the  Elector  descended,  on  failure  of  male  lineage. 
It  appeared  that  the  original  will  in  the  archives 
at  Vienna  referred  to  the  failure,  not  of  the 
male  but  of  the  legitimate  issue  of  his  sons; 
but  this  document,  though  ostontatiou.sly  dis- 
played to  all  the  Jlinisters  of  state  and  foreign 
aml)assadors,  was  very  far  from  inducing  the 
Elector  to  desist  from  his  pretensions.  As  to  the 
Great  Powers  —  the  Court  of  France,  the  old 
ally  of  the  Bavarian  family,  and  mindful  of  its 
injuiies  from  the  House  of  Austria,  was  eager 
to  exalt  the  first  by  the  depression  of  the  latter. 
The  Bourbons  in  Spain  followed  the  direction  of 
the  Bourbons  in  France.  The  King  of  Poland 
and  the  Empress  of  Russia  were  more  friendly 
in  their  expressions  than  in  their  designs.  An 
opposite  spirit  pervaded  England  and  Holland, 
where  motives  of  honour  and  of  policy  combined 
to  supi)ort  the  rights  of  JIaria  Theresa.  In 
Germany  itself  the  Elector  of  Cologne,  the 
Bavarian's  brother,  warmly  espoused  his  cause; 
and 'the  remaining  Electors,' says  Chesterfield, 
'  like  electors  with  us,  thought  it  a  proper  op- 
portunity of  making  tlie  most  of  their  votes, — 
and  all  .at  the  expense  of  the  helpless  and 
abandoned  House  of  Austria!'  The  first  blow, 
however,  came  from  Prussia,  whore  the  King 
Frederick  William  had  died  a  few  months  be- 
fore, and  been  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick 
the  Second;  a  Prince  surnamcd  the  Great  by 
poets."— Lord  Mahon  (Earl  Stanhope),  Hist,  of 
Kmj.,  1713-1783,  ch.  23  (c.  3).  — "The  elector  of 
Bavaria  acted  in  a  i)rompt,  honest,  and  consistent 
manner.  He  at  once  lodged  a  protest  against 
any  disposition  of  the  hereditJtry  estates  to  the 
prejudice  of  his  own  rights;  insisted  on  the  will 
of  Ferdinand  I. ;  and  demanded  the  production 
of  the  original  text.  It  was  promptly  protluced. 
But  it  was  found  to  convey  the  succession  to  the 
heirs  of    his   daughter,    the  ancestress  of    the 


212 


AUSTRIA.  1740. 


Wnr  of  the 
Sncresaion, 


AUSTRIA,   1740-1741. 


elector,  not,  ns  ho  conteiulod,  on  the  failure  of 
male  heirs,  but  in  tlie  absence  of  more  direct 
heirs  born  in  wedloclc.  Maria  Tlieresa  could,  how- 
ever, trace  lierdcscert  through  nearer  mule  heirs, 
ami  had,  therefore,  a  superior  title.  Charles 
Albert  was  in  any  event  only  one  of  several 
claimants.  The  King  of  Spain,  a  liourbon,  pre- 
sented himself  as  the  heir  of  tlio  llapsi)urg 
emperor  Cliarles  V.  The  King  of  Sardinia 
alleged  an  ancient  marriaft'c  contract,  from  wliich 
he  derived  a  right  to  tlir  duchy  of  ^Milan.  Even 
August  of  Saxony  claimed  territory  by  virtue  of 
an  anti(iuated  title,  which,  it  was  i)rctended,  the 
renunciation  of  his  wife  could  not  alTect.  All 
tlu'sc  were,  however,  mere  vultures  compare<l  to 
the  eagle  [Frederick  of  7'ru.5siii]  which  was  soon 
to  descend  upon  its  prey." — II.  Tattle,  Hist,  of 
Pnima,  1740-1745,  ch.  2. 

A.  D.  I740(0ctober  — November).— The  War 
of  the  Succession.  — Conduct  of  Frederick  the 
Great  as  explained  by  himself. — "This  Prag- 
matic Sanction  ha<l  liccn  guarantied  by  France, 
England,  Holland,  Sardinia,  Saxony,  and  tlie 
Roman  empire;  nay  by  tlie  late  King  Frediric 
William  [of  Prussia]  also,  on  condition  that  tlie 
court  of  Vienna  would  secure  to  him  tlie  succes- 
sion of  Juliers  and  Berg.  Tlie  emperor  i)romiscd 
him  the  eventual  succession,  and  did  not  fullil 
his  engagements;  by  which  the  King  of  Prussia, 
his  successor,  was  freed  from  tliis  guarantee,  to 
which  his  father,  the  late  king,  liad  pledged  him- 
self, conditionally.  .  .  .  Frederic  I.,  when  he 
erected  Prussia  into  a  kingdom,  had,  by  that  vain 
grandeur,  planted  the  scion  of  ambition  in  the 
bosom  of  his  posterity ;  which,  soon  or  late,  must 
fructify.  The  monarchy  he  had  left  to  his  des- 
cendants was,  if  I  may  be  permitted  the  expres- 
sion, a  kind  of  hermaplirodite,  which  was  rather 
more  an  electorate  than  a  kingdom.  Fame  was 
to  be  acquired  by  determining  the  nature  of  tliis 
being:  and  this  sensation  certainly  was  one  of 
tliose  which  strengthened  so  many  motives,  con- 
spiring to  engage  the  king  in  grand  enterprises. 
If  tlie  acquisition  of  the  dutcliy  of  Berg  had  not 
even  met  witli  almost  insurmountable  impedi- 
ments, it  was  in  itself  so  small  that  the  possession 
would  add  little  grandeur  to  the  house  of  Bran- 
deubourg.  These  reflections  occasioned  the  king 
to  turn  his  views  toward  the  house  of  Austria, 
the  succession  of  which  would  become  matter  of 
litigation,  at  the  death  of  the  emperor,  when  the 
throne  of  the  Cajsars  should  be  vacant.  That 
event  must  be  favourable  to  the  distinguished 
part  which  the  king  l;.ul  to  act  in  Germany,  by 
the  various  claims  of  the  houses  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria  to  these  states ;  by  the  number  of  candi- 
dates wliich  Miight  canvass  for  the  Imiierial  crown ; 
and  by  the  projects  of  the  court  of  Versailles, 
which,  on  such  an  occasion,  must  naturally  prolit 
by  the  troubles  that  the  death  of  Charles  VI. 
could  not  fail  to  excite.  This  accident  did  not 
long  keep  the  world  in  expectation.  The  em- 
peror ended  his  days  at  the  palace  La  Favorite, 
on  I  he  26th  [20tli]  day  of  October,  1740.  Thenews 
arrived  at  Kheinsberg  when  tlie  king  was  ill  of  a 
fever.  ...  lie  immediately  resolved  to  reclaim 
the  principalities  of  Silesia ;  the  rights  of  his  house 
to  wliich  [lo.ig  dormant,  the  claim  dating  back 
to  a  certain  covenant  of  heritage-brotherhood 
with  the  du'ie  of  Liegnitz,  in  1587,  which  the 
cniperor  of  that  day  caused  to  be  annulled  by  the 
Stales  of  Bohemia]  were  incontestable:  and  he 
prepa.V'd,  at  the  same  time,  to  support  these  pre- 


tensions, if  necessary,  bv  arms.  This  project  ac- 
complished all  his  political  views;  it  ailordcd  the 
means  of  acquiring  reputation,  of  augmenting 
the  power  of  the  state,  and  of  terminating  what 
related  to  tlie  litigious  succession  of  tlie  dutchy 
of  Berg,  .  .  .  The  state  of  the  court  of  Vienna, 
after  the  <leath  of  the  emperor,  was  deplorable. 
'I'lie  finances  were  in  disorder;  the  army  was 
ruined  and  discouraged  liy  ill  success  in  its  wars 
with  the  Turks;  the  ministry  disunited,  and  a 
youthful  unex])eri('nced  iirincess  at  the  head  of 
the  government,  who  was  to  defend  the  succes- 
sion from  all  claimants.  The  result  was  that  the 
government  couhl  not  appear  formidable.  It 
was  besides  impossible  that  the  king  should  be 
destitute  of  allies.  .  .  .  Tlie  war  wliich  he  might 
undertake  in  Silesia  was  the  only  offensive  war 
that  could  be  favoured  by  the  situation  of  his 
states,  for  it  would  be  carried  on  upon  his  front- 
iers, and  the  Oder  would  always  furnish  him 
with  a  sure  communication.  .  .  .  Add  to  these 
reasons,  an  army  tit  to  marcli,  a.  treasury  ready 
prepared,  and,  perhaps,  the  ambition  of  acquir- 
ing renown.  Such  were  the  cau.ses  of  the  war 
wiiich  the  king  declared  against  Maria  Theresa 
of  Austria,  queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia." — 
Frederick  II.  (Frederick  tlie  Great),  Jlist.  of  My 
Own  Timfx;  I'onthutiunis  Works  {trans,  by  Ilol- 
croft),  V.  1,  ch.  1-2. 

A.  D.  1740-1741.— The  War  of  the  Succes- 
sion :  Faithlessness  of  the  King  of  Prussia. 
— The  Macaulay  verdict. — "From  no  ((uarter 
did  (he  young  ((Ueen  of  Hungary  receive  stronger 
as-:  .i ranees  of  friendship  and  support  than 
from  the  King  of  Prussia.  Yet  the  King  of 
Prussia,  the  '  Anti-Machiavel,' had  already  fully 
determined  to  commit  the  great  crime  of 
violating  his  plighted  faith,  of  robbing  the 
ally  whom  he  was  bound  to  defend,  and  of 
plunging  all  Europe  into  a  long,  bloody,  and 
desolating  war,  and  all  this  for  no  end  whatever 
except  that  ho  might  extend  his  dominions  and 
see  his  name  in  the  gazettes.  lie  determined  to 
assemble  a  great  army  with  sjieed  and  secrecy, 
to  invade  Silesia  before  Maria  Theresa  should  be 
apprized  of  his  design,  and  to  add  that  ricli 
province  to  his  king<lom.  .  .  .  Without  any 
declaration  of  war,  without  any  demand  for 
reparation,  in  the  very  act  of  ])ouring  fori  h  com- 
pliments and  assurances  of  good  will,  Frederic 
commenced  hostilities.  Many  thousands  of  his 
troops  were  actually  in  Silesia  before  the  Queen 
of  Hungary  knew  that  he  had  set  up  any  claim 
to  any  part  of  lier  territories.  At  length  he  sent 
her  a  message  which  could  be  regarded  only  as 
an  insult.  If  she  would  but  let  hi'.i  have  Silesia, 
he  would,  he  said,  stand  by  lier  against  any 
power  which  should  try  to  deprive  her  of  her 
other  dominions:  as  if  he  was  not  already  bound 
to  stand  by  her,  or  as  if  his  new  promise  could 
be  of  more  value  than  the  old  one.  It  was  the 
depth  of  winter.  The  cold  was  severe,  and  the 
roads  deep  in  mire.  But  the  Prussians  pressed 
on.  Resistance  was  impossible.  The  Austrian 
army  was  then  neither  numerous  nor  elli- 
cient.  Tlie  small  portion  of  that  army  which 
lay  in  Silesia  was  unprepared  for  hostilities. 
Glogau  was  blockaded ;  Breslau  opened  its  gates ; 
Ohlau  was  evacuated.  A  few  scattered  garri- 
sons still  held  out;  but  the  whole  open  country 
was  subjugated :  no  enemy  ventured  to  encounter 
the  king  in  the  field ;  and,  before  the  end  of  .Jan- 
uary, 1741,  he  return  ;d  to  receive  the  congratula- 


213 


AUSTRIA,  1740-1741. 


Conduct  of 
Frederick  the  Ureal. 


AUSTRIA,  1741. 


tions  of  his  sul)joct.s  at  Hcrlin.  Had  the  Silcslan 
(|ucsti()n  lit'cii  iiicrt'ly  a  fiucstion  hctwccii  FrediTic 
and  .Maria  Theresa  it  would  bo  iiiipossiblf  to 
aciiiiit  iIk;  I'ru.ssiaii  Itiiig  of  f!frf)ss  perfidy.  IJiit 
when  we  consider  tlie  effeots  whicli  Ids  policy 
produced,  and  could  not  fail  to  jiroduce,  on  the 
whole  community  of  civilized  nat;  )ns,  we  are 
<(irnpelled  to  pronoimco  a  conilcmnation  still 
more  severe.  .  .  .  Tlic  selfish  rapacity  of  the 
king  of  Prussia  gave  the  si/jiial  to  hi.s  neigh- 
Iiours.  .  .  .  The  evils  produceil  by  this  wicked- 
ness were  felt  in  lands  wliire  the  name  of  Prussia 
was  unknown;  and,  in  order  that  he  might  rob  a 
neiirhbour  whom  ho  had  promised  to  defend, 
black  men  fought  on  the  coa.st  of  Coroniandel, 
and  red  men  scalped  eacli  other  by  the  great 
lakes  of  North  America.  Silesia  had  been  occu- 
pied without  a  battle;  but  the  Austrian  troops 
were  advancing  to  the  relief  of  the  fortresses 
which  still  held  out.  In  the  spring  Frederic  re- 
joined his  army.  He  had  seen  little  of  war,  and 
had  never  commiindcd  any  great  body  of  men  in 
the  field.  .  .  .  Frederic's  first  battle  was  fought 
at  Molwitz  [April  10,  1741],  and  never  did  Uw 
career  of  a  great  commander  open  in  a  more  in- 
auspicious maimer.  His  army  was  victorious. 
Not  only,  however,  did  he  not  establish  his  title 
to  the  character  of  an  able  general,  but  ho  was 
so  unfortunate  as  to  make  it  doulrtful  whether  he 
possessed  the  vulgar  courage  of  a  soldier.  The 
cavalry,  whicli  he  comnian<lcd  in  person,  was 
put  to  flight.  Uimccustomed  to  the  tumult  and 
carnage  of  a  field  of  battle,  he  lost  his  self-pos- 
session, and  listened  too  readily  to  those  wlio 
urged  him  to  save  himself.  His  English  gray 
carried  him  many  miles  from  the  field,  while 
Schwerin,  though  wounded  in  two  places,  man- 
fully upheld  tile  day.  The  skill  of  tlie  old 
Field-Marshal  and  the  steadiness  of  the  Prussian 
l)attalli)ns  prevailed,  and  the  Austrian  army  was 
driven  from  the  field  with  the  loss  of  M.OIM)  men. 
The  news  was  carried  lato  at  night  to  a  mill  in 
which  the  king  had  taken  shelter.  It  gave  him 
a  bitter  pang.  He  was  successful ;  but  he  owed 
his  success  to  dispositions  which  others  had 
made,  and  to  the  valour  of  men  who  had  fought 
while  he  was  flying.  So  unpromising  was  the 
first  appearance  of  the  greatest  warrior  of  that 
age." — liord  .Macaulay,  Frederic,  the  Great  (A't- 
.*(//.«,  )'.  4). 

A.  D.  1741  (April— May).— The  War  of  the 
Succession:  French  responsibility.  —  The 
Carlyle  verdict. — "The  battle  of  MoUwitz  went 
off  like  a  signal  shot  among  the  Nations;  inti- 
mating tliat  they  were,  one  and  all,  to  go  battling. 
Whicli  they  cliii,  with  a  witness;  making  a  ter- 
rible tiling  of  it,  over  all  the  world,  for  above 
seven  years  to  come.  .  .  .  Not  that  .Mollwitz 
kindled  Europe;  ►Europe  was  alreaily  kindled 
for  some  two  years  past;  —  especially  since  the 
late  Kaiser  died,  and  his  Pragmatic  Sanction  was 
superadded  to  the  other  troubles  afoot.  But 
ever  since  that  image  of  Jenkins's  Ear  had  at 
Inst  blazed-up  in  the  slow  English  brain,  like  a 
flerv  constellation  or  Sign  in  the  Heavens,  sym- 
b'  'uC  of  such  injustices  and  unendurabilities,  and 
nad  lighted  the  Spanish-English  War  (.see  Eni;- 
I,.VNI):  A.  1).  1739-1741],  Europe  was  slowly  but 
liretty  surely  taking  fire.  France  'coidd  not  see 
Spain  humbled,'  she  said:  England  (in  its  own 
dim  fooling,  and  also  in  the  fact  of  things),  could 
not  do  at  .all  without  considerably  humbling 
Spain.      France,    endlessly   interested    in    that 


Spanish-English  matter,  was  already  sending  out 
lleet.s,  firing  shots. —  almost,  or  altogether,  put- 
ling  her  hand  in  it.  '  In  which  case,  will  not, 
must  not,  Au.strlahelp  usT  thouglit  England, — 
and  was  asking,  daily,  at  Vienna  .  .  .  when  the- 
late  Kai.ser  died.  .  .  .  IJut  if  not  as  cause,  then 
as  signal,  or  as  signal  and  cause  together  (which 
it  properly  was),  the  IJattle  of  Mollwitz  gave  the 
fiiiLsliing  stroke  and  set  all  in  motion.  .  .  .  For 
directly  on  the  back  of  Mollwitz,  thoro  ensued, 
first,  an  explosion  of  Diplomatic  activity,  sucli 
as  was  never  seen  b<'fore ;  E.tcellencies  from  the 
four  winds  taking  wing  towards  Friedrich;  and 
talking  and  insinualing,  and  fencing  and  fug- 
ling, after  their  sort,  in  that  Silesian  camp  of 
his,  the  centre  being  there.  A  universal  rookery 
of  Diplomatists,  .vhosc  loud  cackle  is  now  as  if 
gone  mad  to  us;  their  work  wholly  fallen  putres- 
cent and  avoidable,  dead  to  all  creatures.  And 
secondly,  in  the  train  of  that,  there  ensued  a 
universal  i.,,.ropean  War,  the  French  and  the 
English  being  chief  parties  in  it;  which  abounds 
in  battles  and  feats  of  arms,  spirited  but  delir- 
ious, and  cannot  be  got  stilled  for  seven  or  elglit 
years  to  come ;  and  ill  which  Friedrich  and  his 
War  swim  only  as  an  intermittent  Episode  hence- 
forth. .  .  .  Tlio  first  point  to  be  noted  is.  Where 
did  it  originate  ?  To  which  the  answer  mainly 
is  .  .  .  with  Monseigneur,  the  Marechalde  IJelle- 
isle  principally;  with  the  ambitious  cupidities 
and  baseless  vanities  of  tlie  French  Court  and 
Nation,  as  represented  by  IJelleisle.  .  .  .  The 
English-Spanish  War  bad  a  basis  to  stand  on  in 
this  Universe.  The  like  had  the  Prussian-Aus- 
trian one;  so  all  men  now  admit.  If  Friedrich 
had  not  business  there,  what  man  ever  had  in  an 
enterprise  he  ventured  on?  Friedrich,  after 
such  tri.il  and  i)roof  as  has  seldom  been,  got  his 
claims  on  Schlesien  allowed  by  the  Destinies. 
.  .  .  Friedrich  h.td  business  in  this  War;  and 
Jlaria  Thi^resa  versus  Friedrich  had  likewise 
cause  to  ajjpear  in  Court,  and  do  her  utmost 
pleading  ag;iinst  liiiii.  Hut  if  we  ask.  What 
Belleisle  or  France  and  Louis  XV.  had  to  do 
there?  the  answer  is  rigorously  Nothing.  Their 
own  windy  vanities,  ambitions,  sanctioned  nut 
liy  f.ict  and  the  Almiglity  Powers,  but  by  Phan- 
tasm and  the  babble  of  Versiilllcs;  transcendent 
.self-conceit,  intrinsically  insane;  pnHensionsover 
tlieir  fellow-creatures  which  were  without  basis 
anywhere  in  Nature,  except  in  the  French  liiaiu; 
it  was  this  that  brought  nelleisle  and  France 
into  a  German  War.  And  Helleislc  and  Fiance 
having  gone  into  an  Anti-Pragmatic  War,  the 
unlucky  George  and  his  Englnnd  were  dragged 
into  a  Pragmatic  one, —  (luilling  their  own  liusi- 
ness,  on  the  Spanish  Main,  and  hurrying  to  tier- 
many, —  in  terror  as  at  Doomsday,  and  zeal  to 
save  the  Keystone  of  Nature  there.  That  is  the 
notiible  point  in  regard  to  this  War:  'I'lmt 
France  is  to  bo  called  the  author  of  it,  who, 
alone  of  all  the  parties,  lm<l  no  business  there 
whatever."— T.  Carlyle,  Hint,  of  Fricdvkh  II..  hk. 
13,  (•/(.  11  ()i.  4).— See,  also,  Fkanch;  A.  D.  ITH;!. 
A.  D.  1741  (May — June). — Mission  of  Belle- 
isle.— The  thickening  of  tlie  Plot. — "  The  defeat 
of  Maria  Theresa's  onfy  army  [at  Mollwitz]  swept 
away  all  the  doubts  anil  scruples  of  France.  The 
fiery  Belleisle  had  already  set  out  upon  his 
mission  to  the  various  Gfcrraan  courts,  armed 
with  powers  which  were  reluctantly  granted  by 
the  cardinal  [Fleury,  the  French  minister j,  and 
were  promptly  enlarged  by  the  aiubassaaor  to 


214 


AUSTRIA,  1741. 


Maria  Therein 
in  Hungary. 


AUSTRIA,  1741. 


suit  Wa  own  more  ambitions  virws  of  tlie  situa- 
tiou.  He  travelled  in  orientiil  state.  .  .  .  The 
almost  royal  pomp  with  wliieli  lie  strode  into  the 
presence  of  prinres  of  tlie  blood,  the  copious 
eloquence  with  which  lie  jtlcaded  his  cause,  .  .  . 
were  only  the  outward  decorations  of  one  of  the 
most  iiiiquitous  schenies  ever  <levised  by  an  un- 
scrupulous diplomacy.  The  scheme,  when 
stripped  of  all  its  details,  did  not  indeed  at  first 
appear  absolutely  revolting.  It  proposed  simply 
to  secure  the  election  of  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria 
as  emperor,  an  honor  to  which  he  had  a  jierfect 
right  'D  aspire.  But  it  was  dilllcult  to  obtain 
the  votes  of  certain  electors  without  offering 
tliem  the  prospect  of  territorial  gains,  and  iinpos- 
sible  for  Charles  Albert  to  support  the  imperial 
dignity  without  greater  revenues  than  those  of 
Bavaria.  It  was  i>roposed,  therefore,  that  pro- 
vinces should  bo  taken  from  JIaria  Theresa  her- 
self, lirst  to  purchase  votes  against  lier  own 
husband,  and  then  to  swell  the  income  of  the 
successful  rival  candidate.  The  three  episcopal 
electors  were  tirst  visited,  and  .subjected  to  vari- 
ous forms  of  persuasion, —  bribes,  (lattery,  threats, 
—  until  the  elTects  of  the  treatment  began  to 
appear;  the  count  iialatine  wasdevoted  to  France : 
and  these  four  with  Bavaria  made  a  majority  of 
one.  But  that  was  too  small  a  margin  for  Belle- 
isle's  aspirations,  or  even  for  the  safety  of  liis 
project.  The  four  remaining  votes  belonged  to 
the  most  powerful  of  the  German  states,  Prussia, 
Hanover,  Saxony  and  Bohemia.  .  .  .  IJohemia, 
if  it  voted  at  all,  would  of  course  vote  for  the 
grand-duke  Francis  [husband  of  jMaria  Theresa]. 
Sa.\(my  and  Hanover  were  already  negotiating 
with  Maria  Theresa;  and  it  was  well  understood 
tliat  Austria  could  have  Frederick's  support  by 
paying  his  i>rice."  Austria  refused  to  pay  the 
price,  and  Frederick  signed  a  treaty  with  the 
king  of  France  at  Breslau  on  tlie  -lib  of  .June, 
1741.  "The  essence  of  it  was  contained  in  four 
secret  articles.  In  these  the  king  of  Prussia  re- 
nounced liis  claim  to  JiUicb-Berg  in  behalf  of  the 
house  of  Sulzbach,  and  agreed  to  give  his  vote  to 
t!ie  elector  of  Bavaria  for  emperor.  Tlie  king 
of  France  engaged  to  guarantee  Prussia  in  the 
possession  of  Lower  .Silesia,  to  send  within  two 
nioiitlis  an  arm}'  to  the  support  of  Bavaria,  and 
to  provoke  an  immediate  ruiitiire  between  Swe- 
den and  Russia." — II.  Tuttle,  Hist,  of  I'ruma, 
1740-1745,  <•/(.  4. 

Also  i\:  W.  Coxe,  Hist,  of  the  House  of  Austria, 
ch.  'J'J  (;•.  li). 

A.  D.  1741  (June— September).— Maria 
Theresa  and  the  Hungarians. — "  During  these 
anxious  summer  months  Maria  Tlieresa  and  the 
Anslriau  court  had  resided  mainly  at  Presliurg, 
in  Hungary.  Here  she  had  been  occuiiied  in  tlie 
solution  of  domestic  as  well  as  inleriialional 
proliliMns.  The  Magyars,  as  a  manly  and 
chivalrous  race,  had  been  touched  by  the  perilous 
situation  of  tliu  young  queen;  but,  while 
ardently  protesting  tlieir  loyalty,  insisted  not  the 
less  on  the  recognition  of  their  own  inalienable 
rights.  Tliese  had  been  inade(|Ualely  observed 
In  recent  years,  and  in  conse(iuence  no  little  dis- 
alfectiou  prevailed  in  Hungary.  The  magnates 
resolved,  therefore,  us  they  iiad  resolv<'d  at  the 
beginning  of  previous  reigns,  to  demand  the 
restoration  of  all  their  riglits  and  ])rivileges. 
But  it  does  not  apjiear  that  they  wislied  to  take 
any  ungenerous  advantage  of  the  se.\  or  the 
necessities  of  Maria  Theresa.     They  were  argu- 


iicntativc  and  stubborn,  yet  not  in  a  bargaining, 
liiercennry  spirit.  Tliey  accepted  in  .Tune  a 
(pialitied  compliance  with  tlieir  (lemands,  ;;:.d 
when  on  the  2.5tli  of  that  month  the  queen 
ap|)eare(l  liefore  the  diet  lo  receive  the  crown  of 
St.  Stephen,  and,  according  to  custom,  waved 
the  great  sword  of  the  kingdom  toward  the 
four  ])oints  of  the  conipa.'^s,  toward  the  north  and 
the  south,  the  east  and  the  west,  challenging  all 
enemies  to  dispute  her  right,  the  asst  nbly  was 
carried  away  by  enthusiasm,  and  it  seemed  as  it 
an  end  had  forever  been  put  to  constitiition.al 
technicalities.  Such  was.  liowever,  not  th(!  case. 
After  the  excitement  caused  by  the  dramatic 
coronation  had  in  a  measure  subsided,  the  old 
contentions  revived,  as  bitter  and  vexatious  as 
before.  Tliese  concerned  especially  the  manner 
in  which  the  administration  of  Hungary  should 
be  adjusted  to  meet  the  new  state  of  things. 
Should  the  chief  political  otlices  be  filled  by 
native  Hungarians,  as  the  diet  demanded  ?  Could 
the  co-regenev  of  the  grand-duke,  which  was 
ardently  desired  by  tlie  (pu'en,  be  accepted  by 
the  Magyars"?  For  two  months  the  dispute  over 
these  proljlems  raged  at  Preslnirg,  until  finally 
Maria  Theresa  herself  found  a  bold,  ingenious, 
and  patriotic  solution.  The  ni'ws  of  the  Franco- 
Bavarian  alliance  and  the  fall  of  Passau  deter- 
mined her  to  throw  lierself  completely  upon  the 
gallantry  and  devotion  of  tlie  JIagyars.  It  had 
long  been  the  policy  of  the  court  of  Vienna  not 
to  entrust  tlie  Hungarians  with  arms.  .  .  .  But 
Maria  Theresa  had  not  been  robbed,  in  spite  of 
her  experience  with  France  and  I'rus.sia,  of  all 
her  faith  in  human  nature.  She  took  the  respon- 
sibility of  her  decision,  and  the  result  proved 
that  her  insight  was  correct.  On  the  11th  of 
September  she  summoned  the  members  of  the 
diet  Ijc^fore  lier,  and,  seated  ini  I  lie  throne, 
explained  to  them  tlie  perilous  situation  of  her 
dominions.  Tlie  danger,  sin;  said,  threatened 
herself,  andall  that  was  deartoher.  Abandcmed 
by  all  her  allies,  she  took  refuge  in  the  fidelity 
and  the  ancient  valor  of  tlie  Hungarians,  to 
whom  slie  entrusted  he-self,  her  children,  and 
her  empire.  Here  she  broke  into  tears,  and 
covered  her  face  with  her  l.iiidkercliief.  The 
diet  responded  to  this  apjieal  by  proclaiming  tlio 
'  insurrection  '  or  the  rMiuipment  of  a  large  pop- 
ular I'cn'ce  for  the  defence  of  the  queen.  So 
great  was  .the  enthusiasin  that  it  nearly  swept 
away  even  the  original  avei-sion  of  the  Hun- 
garians to  the  grand-duke  Francis,  who,  to  the 
(lueen's  delight,  was  finally,  though  not  witliout 
some  murmurs,  accepted  as  co-regent.  .  .  . 
Tills  uprising  was  organized  not  an  hour  too 
early,  for  >'.ingers  were  pressing  upon  tlie  queen 
froiii  everjT  side." — H.  Tuttle, '//('«<.  of  Prussia, 
1740-1745,  ch.  4. 

Also  in  :  Due  de  Broglie,  Frederick  the  Great 
and  Maria  Thcrcia,  ch.  4  (c.  3). 

A.  D.  1 74 1  (August — November).  —  The 
French-Bavarian  onset, — "  France  now  licgan 
to  act  with  energy.  In  the  month  of  August 
[1711]  two  French  armies  crossed  the  Rhine,  each 
about  40, 000  strong.  The  lirst  inarched  into  West- 
phalia, and  frightened  George  11.  into  conclud- 
ing a  treaty  of  neutrality  for  Hanover,  and  jirom- 
ising  his  vote  to  the  Klector  of  Bavaria.  The 
second  advanced  through  South  Germany  on 
Passau,  the  frontier  city  of  Bavaria  and  Austria. 
As  soon  as  it  arrived  on  German  soil,  the  French 
officers  assumed  the  blue  and  white  cockade  of 


215 


AUSTRIA,  1741. 


Silesifi  to 
h^-ederick. 


AUSTRIA,  1742. 


Bnvnrin,  for  it  was  tlie  cue  of  Fmncc  to  nppfiir 
only  us  nil  auxiliary,  and  the  nominal  romnianil 
of  lirr  army  was  vested  in  the  Elector.  From 
Passavi  the  French  and  liavarians  passed  into 
Upper  Austria,  and  on  Sept.  11  entered  its  eai>i- 
tal,  I. in/.,  where  the  Elector  assumed  the  title  of 
Archduke.  Five  days  later  Sa.\ony  joined  the 
allies.  Sweden  had  already  declared  war  on  Rus- 
sia. Spain  trumped  up  an  old  claim  nud  at- 
tacked the  Austrian  domiiuonsin  Italy.  It  seemed 
ns  if  Belli'isle's  schemes  were  about  to  be  crowneil 
with  coniiilete  success.  Had  the  allies  pushed 
forward,  Vienna  must  have  fallen  into  their  hands. 
But  the  French  did  not  wish  to  bo  too  victorious, 
lest  they  should  make  the  Elector  too  jiowerful, 
and  so  indi'pendent  of  them.  Therefore,  after 
si.x  weeks'  delay,  they  turned  aside  to  the  con- 
quest of  Bohemia." — F.  W.  Lon>;man,  Frederick 
the  (Jrciit  niitl  the  Seven  Years  M'ar,  eh.  4,  sect.  4. 
— "  While  ...  a  portion  of  the  French  troops, 
under  the  command  of  the  Count  de  Segur,  was 
left  in  Upper  Austria,  the  remainder  of  tlie  allied 
army  turned  towards  Bohemia ;  where  they  were 
joined  by  a  body  of  Sa.xons,  under  the  couuuand 
of  Count  Rulowsky.  They  took  Prague  by  as- 
sault, on  the  nijj;lit  of  the  2.5th  of  Novend)er, 
while  the  Grand  l)ukc  of  Tuscauy,  the  husband 
of  JIaria  Theresa,  was  marching  to  his  relief.  lii 
Prague,  3,000  prisoners  were  taken.  The  elector 
of  Bavaria  hastened  there,  iiiion  hearing  of  the 
success  of  ills  arms,  was  crowned  King  of  Bo- 
hemia, during  the  month  of  December,  and  re- 
ceived the  oath  of  fidelity  from  the  constituted 
authorities.  But  while  he  was  thus  employed, 
the  Austrian  general,  Khevenlndler,  had  driven 
the  Count  de  Segur  out  of  A\islria,  and  had  him- 
self entered  Bavaria ;  which  obliged  the  Bavarian 
army  to  abandon  Bohenda  and  hasten  to  the  de- 
fence of  their  own  countiv." —  Lord  Dover,  Life 
of  Frederick  II.,  bk.  2,  c/i.'H  (r.  1). 

Also  in;  Frederick  II.,  Hist,  nf  My  Own  Times 
{Post/niiuoiis  M'orks,  r.  1,  c/i.  ■')). 

A.  D.  1741  (October).— Sect  et  Treaty  ^w^th 
Frederick. — Lower  Silesia  conceded  to  him. 
— Austrian  success. — "By  October,  1741,  the 
fortinies  of  JIaria  Theresa  had  sunk  to  the  low- 
est ebb,  but  a  great  revulsiim  speedily  set  in. 
The  martial  enthusiasm  of  the  Hungarians,  the 
subsidy  from  England,  and  the  brilliant  military 
talents  of  General  Khevenlndler,  restored  her 
armies.  Vienna  was  put  in  a  state  of  defence, 
and  at  the  same  time  jealnusies  and  suspicion 
made  their  way  among  the  confederates.  The 
Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony  were  already  in 
some  degree  divided;  and  the  Germans,  and  es- 
])eciaily  Frederick,  were  alarmed  by  the  growing 
ascendency,  and  irritated  by  the  haughty  de- 
meanour of  the  French.  In  the  moment  of  her 
extreme  depression,  the  Queen  consented  to  a 
concession  which  England  had  vaiidy  urged  upo3i 
her  before,  and  which  laid  the  fou.idation  of  her 
future  success.  In  October  1741  she  entered 
into  a  secret  convention  with  Frederick  [called 
the  convention  of  Ober-Schnellendorf],  !)■  which 
that  astute  sovereign  agreed  to  desert  li',  ,llies, 
and  desist  from  hostilities,  on  condition  of  ulti- 
mately obtaining  Lower  Silesia,  with  Brcslau  and 
Neisse.  Every  precauti(ra  was  tiiken  to  ensure 
secrecy.  It  was  arranged  that  Frederick  should 
continue  to  besiege  Neisse,  that  the  town  should 
ultimately  be  surrendered  to  him,  and  that  his 
troops  shouhl  then  retire  into  winter  quarters, 
and  take  no  '.urther   part  in  the  war.     As  the 


sacrifice  of  a  few  more  lives  was  perfectly  in- 
dillerent  to  the  contracting  parties,  and  in  order 
that  no  one  should  suspect  the  treachery  that 
was  contemplated,  Neisse,  after  the  arrangement 
had  been  made  for  its  surrender,  was  subjected 
for  four  days  and  four  nights  to  the  horrors  of 
bombardment.  Frederick,  at  the  same  time 
talked,  with  his  usual  cynical  frankness,  to  the 
English  ambassador  about  the  best  way  of  at- 
tacking his  allies  the  French;  and  ob.served,  that 
it  tlie  Queen  of  Hungary  prospered,  he  would 
perhaps  sujiport  her,  if  not  —  everyone  must  look 
for  himself.  He  only  assented  verbally  to  this 
convention,  and,  no  doubt,  resolved  to  await  the 
course  of  events,  in  order  to  decide  which  Power 
it  was  his  interest  finally  to  betray ;  but  in  the 
meantime  the  Austrians  obtained  a  respite, 
which  enabled  them  to  throw  their  whole  forces 
upon  their  other  enemies.  Two  brilliant  cam- 
jiaigna  followed.  The  greater  part  of  Bohemia 
was  recoven  d  by  an  army  under  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  and  the  Flench  were  hemmed  in  at 
I'rague;  while  another  army,  under  General 
Khevenhuller,  invaded  Ujiper  Austria,  drove 
10,000  French  soldiers  within  the  walls  of  IJnz, 
blockaded  them,  defeated  a  body  of  Bohemians 
who  were  sent  to  the  rescue,  compelled  the 
whole  French  army  to  surrender,  and  then,  cross- 
ing the  frontier,  poured  in  a  resistless  torrent 
over  Bavaria.  The  fairest  plains  of  that  beauti- 
ful land  were  desolated  by  hosts  of  irregular 
troops  from  Hungary,  Croatia,  and  the  Tyrol; 
and  (m  the  12tli  of  February  the  Austrians 
inarched  in  triumph  into  Munich.  On  that  very 
day  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  crowned  Emperor 
of  Germany,  at  Frankfort,  under  the  title  of 
Cliarh^s  VII.,  and  the  inipenal  crown  was  thus, 
for  the  fust  time,  for  many  generations,  .separ- 
ated from  the  House  of  Au.stria. " — W.  E.  II. 
Lecky,  ///-'.  „/  h'mj.,  \8lh  Codim/,  ch.  3  (c.  1). 

Also  in:  F.  7on  Itaumer,  Ci'ittribiitioiis  to 
Mmtcrn  Iliat.:  Fred'k  II.  and  his  Times,  ch. 
13-14. 

A.  D.  1741-1743. — Successes  in  Italy.  Sie 
It.\i.Y:    a.  D.  1741-17-13. 

A.  D.  1742  (January  —  May). —  Frederick 
breaks  faith  again. — Battle  of  Chotusitz.— 
"The  Queen  of  Hungary  had  assembled  in  the 
licginning  of  the  year  two  considerable  armies  in 
Moravia  and  Bohemia,  the  one  under  Prince 
Lobkowitz,  to  defend  the  former  ])rovince,  and 
the  other  commanded  by  Prince  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine, her  brother-in-law.  This  young  Prince 
possessed  ns  much  bravery  ami  activity  as 
Frederick,  and  had  equally  with  him  the  talent 
of  inspiring  attachment  and  confidence.  .  .  . 
Frederick,  alarmed  at  these  preparations  and  the 
progress  of  the  Auslriaus  iu  Bavaria,  ..bruptly 
broke  oil  the  convention  of  Ober  Schnellendorf, 
and  recommenced  Iioslilitiea.  .  .  .  The  King  of 
Prussia  became  apprehensive  that  the  Queen  of 
Hungary  would  again  turn  her  arms  to  recover 
Silesia.  He  therefore  dispatched  Marshal 
Schwerin  to  seize  Olmutz  and  lay  siege  to  Glntz, 
which  surrendered  after  a  desperate  resistance 
on  the  9th  of  January.  Soon  after  this  event, 
the  King  rejoinetl  his  army,  and  endeavoured  to 
drive  the  Austrians  from  their  advantageous 
position  in  the  southern  parts  of  Bohemia,  which 
would  have  delivered  the  French  troops  in  the 
neighbourhood  and  checked  the  progress  of 
Khevenhuller  in  Bavaria.  The  king  advonccd 
to  Iglau,  on  the  frontiers  of  Bohemia,  and,  oc- 


216 


AUSTRIA,   1742. 


Hattle  of 
Chotu3itz. 


AUSTRIA,   1742. 


cupying  the  bnuks  of  the  Taya,  made  irruptions 
into  Ujipcr  Austria,  liis  liussars  sjjrcadiiij!;  terror 
cvcu  to  tlio  gates  of  Vietuia.  Tlie  Austrians 
drew  from  Uavaria  a  eorps  of  10,000  men  to 
cover  tlie  ea])ilal,  wliile  Prince  Cliarles  of  Lor- 
rnine,  at  tlie  liead  of  ,'50,000  men,  tlireatened  tlie 
Prussian  magazine.s  in  Upper  Silesia,  an<l  by  this 
movement  compelled  Prederiek  to  detach  a  con- 
siderable force  for  their  protection,  and  to 
evacuate  Moravia,  which  he  had  invaded. 
Broglii',  who  commanded  the  French  forces  in 
that  country,  must  now  have  fallen  a  sacritice, 
hud  not  the  ever-active  King  of  Prussia  brought 
up  30,000  uien,  which,  under  the  Prince  of 
Anhalt-Dessau,  entering  Bohemia,  came  up  witli 
Prince  {.'harles  at  Czaslau,  about  thirty-live  miles 
from  Prague,  before  he  could  form  a  junction 
Willi  Prince  I.,obkowitz.  Upon  this  ensued  [May 
IT,  1742]  what  is  known  in  history  as  the  battle 
of  Czaslau  [also,  and  more  commonly,  called  the 
hattle  of  Ciiotusitz].  .  .  .  The  numbers  in  tlie 
two  armies  were  nearly  eiiual,  and  the  action 
was  warmly  contested  on  both  sides.  .  .  .  The 
Prus.sians  remained  masters  of  the  field,  with  18 
cannon,  two  pairs  of  colours  and  1,200  prisoners; 
hut  they  indeed  paid  dearly  for  the  honour,  for 
it  was  computed  that  their  loss  was  equal  to  that 
of  their  enemy,  which  amounted  to  7,0t*(>  men  on 
either  side;  while  the  Prussian  cavalry,  under 
Field-^Marshal  IJuddenbroch,  was  nearly  ruined. 
.  .  .  Although  in  this  battle  the  victory  was, 
without  doubt,  on  the  side  of  the  Prussians,  yet 
the  immediate  consequences  were  highly  favour- 
able to  the  Queen  of  Hungary.  The  King  was 
disappointed  of  his  expected  advantages,  and 
conceived  a  disgust  to  the  war.  lie  now  lowered 
his  demands  and  made  overtures  of  accommoda- 
tion, which,  on  the  11th  of  June,  resulted  in  a 
treaty  of  peace  between  the  two  crowns,  which 
was  signed  at  Breslau  under  the  mediation  of  the 
British  Ambas.sad<jr." — Sir  E.  Cust,  Annals  of 
the  Wars  of  tlie  ISth  Century,  v.  2,  ;).  19. 

Also  in  :  T.  Carlyle,  Hist,  of  Fricitrich  II.  of 
Prnma,  hk.  13,  ch.  13  (r.  Tj). 

A.  D.  1742  (June). — Treaty  of  Breslau  with 
the  King;  of  Prussia. — "The  following  are  the 
lireliininary  articles  which  were  signed  at 
Breslau:  1.  The  queen  of  Ilungarj'  ceded  to 
the  king  of  Prussia  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia, 
with  the  principality  of  Qlatz;  except  the  towns 
of  Troppau,  Jaegendorfl  and  tlio  high  mountains 
situated  beyond  the  Oppa.  2.  The  Prussians 
undertook  to  repay  the  EnglLsh  1,700,000  crowns; 
which  smn  was  a  mortgage  loan  on  Silesia.  The 
remaining  articles  related  to  a  suspension  of 
arms,  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  and  the  freedom 
of  religion  and  trade.  Thus  was  Silesia  united 
to  the  Prussian  States.  Two  years  were  suf- 
ficient for  the  conquest  of  that  important  jirov- 
Ince.  The  treasures  which  the  late  king  had  left 
were  almost  expended;  but  provinces  that  do 
not  cost  more  than  seven  or  eight  millions  are 
cheaply  purchased."— Frederic  II.,  Hist,  of  My 
Otni  'J'imcs  {Posthumous  Works,  v.  1),  ch.  6. 

A.  D.  1742  (June — December). — Expulsion 
of  the  French  from  Bohemia. — Belleisle's  re- 
treat from  Prague. — "  The  Austrian  arms  began 
now  to  he  successful  in  all  qiuirters.  Just  before 
the  signature  of  the  preliminaries.  Prince  Lob- 
cowitz,  who  was  stationed  at  Budweiss  Avith 
10,000  men,  made  an  attack  on  Frauenberg ;  Brog- 
lio  and  Belleisle  advanced  from  Piseck  to  relieve 
the  town,  and  a  combat  took  place  at  Sahay,  in 


whicli  the  Austrians  were  repulsed  with  the  losi* 
of  .'iOO  men.  This  trilling  alTair  was  magiiitied 
inio  a  decisive  viclory.  .  .  .  .Marshal  Broglio, 
elated  with  this  advantage,  and  relying  on  the 
immediate  junction  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  re- 
mained at  Frauenberg  in  jicrfect  security.  But 
his  expectations  were  disai)poiiited;  Frederic  had 
already  commenced  his  secret  negotiations,  and 
Prin('(!  Charles  was  enabled  to  turn  his  forces 
against  the  French.  Beii.g  joined  by  Prince  Lob 
cowitz,  they  attacked  Broglio,  and  compelled  him 
to  ((uit  Frauenberg  with  such  precipitation  that 
his  baggage  fell  intothe  hands  of  the  light  troops, 
and  the  French  retreated  towards  Branau,  har- 
assed by  the  Croats  and  other  irregulars.  .  .  . 
The  Austrians,  pursuing  their  success  against 
the  French,  drove  Broglio  from  Branau,  and  fol- 
1   lowed  him  to  the  walls  of  Prague,  where  he  fouial 

I   Belleisle Vfter  several  consultations,  the 

two  generals  called  in  their  posts,  and  secured 
i  their  army  jiartly  wilhiii  the  walls  and  partly 
I  within  a  peninsiila  of  the  Moldaii.  .  .  .  Soon 
j  afterwards  the  duke  of  Lorraine  joinetl  the  army 
i  [of  I'riiu'e  Charles],  which  now  amoiinled  to70,- 
'  000  men,  and  the  arrival  of  the  heavy  artillery 
I  enabled  the  Austrians  to  commence  the  siege." — 
j  W.  Coxe,  Hist,  of  the  House  if  Austria,  ch.  102 
(».  3). — "To  relievo  the  French  at  Prague,  Mar- 
shal Maillebois  was  directed  to  advance  with  his 
army  from  Westphalia.  At  these  tidings  Prince 
Charles  changed  the  siege  of  Prague  to  a  block- 
ade, and  marching  against  his  new  opponents, 
checked  their  jirogress  on  the  Bohemian  frontier; 
the  French,  however,  still  occupying  the  town 
of  Egra.  It  was  under  these  circumstances  that 
Belleisle  made  Ills  masterly  and  lenowned  retreat 
from  Prague.  In  the  night  of  the  lOtli  of  Di'cem- 
ber,  he  secretly  left  the  city  at  the  head  of  11,000 
foot  and  3,000  horse,  having  deceived  the  Aus- 
triars'  vigilance  by  the  feint  of  a  general  forage 
in  the  opposite  quarter;  and  pushed  for  Egra 
through  a  liostile  country,  destitute  of  resources 
and  surrounded  by  superior  enemies.  His  sol- 
diers, with  no  other  food  than  frozen  bread,  and 
compelled  to  sleep  without  covering  on  the 
snow  and  ice,  perished  in  great  numbers ;  but  the 
gallant  si)irit  of  Belleisle  triumphed  over  every 
obstacle;  he  struck  through  morasses  almost 
untrodden  before,  olTered  battle  to  Prince  Lobko- 
witz,  who,  however,  declined  engaging,  and  at 
length  succeeded  in  reaching  the  other  French 
army  with  the  Hower  of  his  own.  The  remnant 
left  at  Prague,  amlan.iuinting  only  to  6,000  men, 
seemed  an  easy  prey;  yet  their  threat  of  tiring 
the  city,  and  perishing  beneath  its  ruins,  and  the 
recent  proof  of  wliat  despair  can  do,  obtained 
for  them  honourable  terms,  and  the  permi.ssion 
of  rejoining  their  comrades  at  Egra.  But  in 
spite  of  all  this  skill  and  courage  in  the  French 
invaders,  the  final  result  to  them  was  failure; 
nor  had  they  attained  a  single  permanent  advan- 
tage beyond  tlK.'ir  own  safety  in  retreat.  Maille- 
bois anil  I)e  I>rogli(^  took  up  winter  quarters  in 
Bavaria,  while  IJelleisle  led  back  his  division 
across  the  Hhinc ;  and  it  was  computed  that,  of 
the  35,000  men  whom  he  hadlirst  conducted  inti 
Germany,  not  more  than  8,000  returned  beneati 
hislianner." —  Lord  Mahon  (Earl  Stanhope),  Hist, 
of  Enij.,  1713-1783,  ch.  24  (e.  3).—  "  Thus,  at  the 
termination  of  the  campaign,  all  Bohemia  was 
regained,  except  Egra;  and  on  the  12th  of  .May. 
1743,  Maria  Theresa  was  soon  afterwards  crowned 
at  Prague,  to  the  recovery  of  which,  says  her 


217 


AUSTRIA,  1742. 


Bnllte  of 
Dctiinyen. 


AUSTRIA,  1743-1744. 


grcftt  Hviil,  lipr  firmness  Imd  more  oontrihMtod 
tliiiii  llic  force  of  her  iirms.  The  only  reverse 
wliieli  the  A\i.striiins  experieneed  in  tlic  nildsl  of 
their  sueeesses  wiis  tlio  teniponiry  lo.ss  of  Ilii- 
vnriii,  wliicli,  on  the  retreat  of  Kevenliidler,  was 
occupied  by  niarslial  Seckt'ndorf;  and  the  Ktn- 
peror  made  his  entry  inti>  .Miinicli  on  tlie  2d  of 
October. " — W.  Coxo,  Hint.  ofthellouteofAvatria, 
ch.  im  0:  3). 

A.  D.  1743. — England  drawn  into  the  con- 
flict.— The  Pragmatic  Army.— The  Battle  of 
Dettingen. — " 'liie  causiM)!'  .Maria  'riieicsa  had 
bejiiin  to  excite  a  retnarkalilc  enthusiasm  in 
Enirland.  .  .  .  Tlie  couveiitiou  of  neutrality  :'n- 
tered  into  by  Cii'oru;o  II.  in  September  1741,  1  nd 
the  e.Mortioii  of  liis  vote  for  the  Elector  01  '.{a- 
viiria,  i)roperly  concerned  that  prince  oidy  as 
Elector  of  Ilanover;  yet,  as  ho  was  also  King  of 
Enirlaiid,  they  were  felt  us  a  distjrare  by  the 
English  iicoplo.  The  elections  of  that  year  went 
against  WalpoU ,  and  in  February  1742  he  found 
himself  compe'.lei'.  to  resign,  lie  was  succeeded 
ill  the  administration  by  Pulteney,  Earl  of  Bath, 
though  Lord  Carteret  was  virtually  prime  min- 
ister. Carteret  was  an  ardent  supporter  of  the 
cause  of  Maria  Theresa.  His  accession  to  office 
was  immediately  followed  t)y  a  large  increase  of 
the  army  and  navy;  live  millions  were  voted  for 
carrying  on  the  war.  and  a  subsidy  of  £.'>00,()0() 
for  the  t^ueen  of  Hungary.  The  Earl  of  Stair,  with 
an  army  of  Kt.OOO  men,  afterwards  reinforced  by 
a  large  Ixxly  of  Hanoverians  and  Hessians  in 
British  pay,  was  despatched  into  tlio  Xetherlunds 
to  cooperate  with  tlie  Dutch.  IJut  though  the 
8tates(Jeneral,  at  the  instance  of  the  liritish 
Cabinet,  voted  Maria  Theresa  a  subsidy,  they 
■were  not  yet  jirepared  to  tak(^  an  active  part  in  a 
war  which  might  ultimately  involve  them  in 
hostilities  with  France.  The  exertions  of  the 
English  ministry  in  favour  of  the  Queen  of  Hun- 
gary Imd  therefore  been  conlined  during  the  year 
1743  to  diplomacy,  and  they  had  helped  to  bring 
about  .  .  .  the  Peace  of  IJfeslau.  In  1743  they 
were  able  to  do  more."  In  April,  1743,  the  Em- 
peror, Charles  VII.,  regained  possession  of  Ba- 
varia and  returned  to  Munich,  but  only  to  be 
driven  out  again  by  the  Austrians  in  June.  The 
Bavarians  were  badly  beaten  at  Simpach  {.May  9), 
and  Jlunicli  was  taken  (June  12)  after  a  short 
bombardment.  "Charles  VII.  was  now  again 
obliged  to  fly,  and  took  refuge  at  Augsburg. 
At  his  cominand,  Scckendorf  [his  general]  made 
a  convention  with  the  Austrians  at  the  village  of 
NiederschOnfeld,  by  whicli  ho  agreed  to  abandon 
to  them  Bavaria,  on  condition  that  Charles's 
troops  should  bo  allowed  to  occupy  unmolested 
quarters  between  Frauconia  and  Suabia.  JIaria 
Theresa  seemed  at  first  indisposed  to  ratify  even 
terms  so  humiliating  to  the  Emperor.  She  had 
become  perliaps  a  little  too  niuch  exalted  \i  the 
rapid  turn  of  fortune.  She  had  caused  herself 
to  be  crowned  in  Prague.  Slie  had  received  the 
homage  of  the  Austrians.  and  entered  Vienna  in 
a  sort  of  triumpli.  She  now  dreamt  of  nothing 
less  than  contjuering  Lorraine  for  herself,  Alsace 
for  the  Empire;  of  hurling  Charles  VII.  from 
the  Imperial  throne,  and  placing  on  it  her  own 
consort. "  She  was  persuaded,  however,  to  con- 
sent at  length  to  the  terms  of  the  NiederscliOnfeld 
convention.  "Meanwhile  the  allied  army  of 
English  and  Germans,  under  the  Earl  of  Stair, 
nearly  40,000  strong,  which,  from  its  destined 
object,  hud  assumed  the  name  of  the  '  Pragmatic 


Army,'  had  oros.spd  the  Meiise  and  the  Rhine  in 
March  and  April,  with  a  view  to  cut  off  the 
army  of  Bavaria  fnmi  France.  George  II.  had 
not  concealed  his  intention  of  breaking  the  Treaty 
of  ilanover  of  1741,  alleging  as  a  ground  that 
the  duration  of  the  lu^itrality  .stipulated  in  it 
had  not  been  deterinin<'il;  and  on  June  lOtli  he 
had  joined  tlie  army  in  perscm.  lie  found  it  in  li 
most  critical  jiosition.  Lord  Stair,  who  had 
never  distinguislied  him.self  as  a  general,  and 
was  now  falling  into  dotage,  had  led  it  into 
a  narrow  valley  near  Aschatleuburg,  between 
.Mount  Spessart  and  the  river  Main ;  wldle 
Marshal  Noailles  [commanding  the  Frencli], 
who  had  crossed  the  Rhine  towards  the  end  of 
April,  by  seizing  the  principal  fords  of  the  Main, 
both  above  and  below  the  British  position,  Imd 
cut  him  ott  both  from  his  magazines  at  Hanau, 
and  from  the  supplies  whicli  lie  had  expected  to 
procure  in  Franconia.  Xothing  remained  but  for 
him  to  fight  his  way  back  to  Hanau."  In  the 
battle  of  Dottingen,  which  followed  (June  27), 
all  the  advantages  of  the  French  in  position 
were  thrown  away  by  the  ignorant  imiietuosity 
of  the  king's  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Grammont, 
who  comm;;iid"d  one  division,  and  thev  sufTerecl 
a  severe  defeat.  "The  French  are  said  to  have 
lost  6,000  men  and  the  British  half  that  number. 
It  is  the  last  action  in  which  a  king  of  England 
has  fought  in  pers(m.  But  George  II.,  or  rather 
Lord  Stair,  <lid  not  know  how  to  profit  by  liis 
victory.  Although  the  Pragmatic  Army  was 
joined  after  the  battle  of  Dottingen  by  15,000 
Dutch  troops,  under  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau, 
nothing  of  importance  was  done  during  the  re- 
mainder of  tlie  campaign." — T.  11.  Dyer,  Hist, 
of  Modern,  Eurojic,  bk.  0,  ch.  4  (r.  3). 

Also  in:  W.  Coxe,  IIM.  of  the  House  of  Aus- 
tria, ch.  104  (i\  3).  —  Sir  E.  Cust,  Annals  of  the 
Wars  of  the  IHth  Century,  v.  3,  ;);;.  30-30.— Lord 
Mahon  (Earl  Stanhope),  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1713-1783, 
ch.  3.5  (p.  3). 

A.  D.  1743. — Treaty  of  Worms  with  Sar- 
dinia and  England.     See  Italy:  A.  D.  1743. 

A.  D.  1743  (October).— The  Second  Bourbon 
Family  Compact,  --  ■     - 


See  FuAKCE:    A.   D.   1743 
Prussian     King 


1743-1744.  —  The 

again. — The  Union  of  Frankfort 


(OCTOllEU) 

A.  D 
strikes  in  again 
Siege  and  capture  of  Prague. — "Everywliore 
Austria  was  successful,  and  Frederick  had  reason 
to  fear  for  himself  unless  the  tide  of  contjucst 
could  be  stayed.  He  explains  in  the  '  Histoire 
de  Mon  Temps'  that  he  feared  lest  France  sliould 
abandon  the  cause  of  the  Emperor,  which  would 
moan  that  the  Austrians,  who  now  boldly  spoke 
of  compensation  for  the  war,  would  turn  their 
arms  against  liimself.  .  .  .  France  was  trem- 
bling, not  for  her  conquests,  but  for  her  own  ter- 
ritory. After  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  the 
victorious  Anglo-IIanoverian  force  was  to  cross 
the  Rhine  above  Mayence  and  march  into 
Alsace,  while  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  with  a 
strong  Austrian  army,  was  to  pass  near  Basle 
and  occupy  Lorraine,  taking  up  his  winter  quar- 
ters in  Burgundy  and  Champagne.  The  English 
crossed  without  any  check  and  moved  on  to 
Worms,  but  the  Austrians  failed  in  their  at- 
tempt. Worms  became  a  centre  of  intrigue, 
which  Frederick  afterwards  culled  '  Cette  abyme 
de  mauvaise  foi. '  The  Dutch  were  persuaded 
by  Lord  Carteret  to  join  the  English,  and  they 
did  at  last  send  14,000  meu,  who  were  never  of 


18 


AUSTRIA,  1743-1744. 


Couture  of 
Prague. 


AUSTRIA,   1744-1745. 


the  Icftst  iiBC.  Lonl  C'lirtcrcrt  also  (Icti.fhcd 
CliarU's  Eninnuol,  Kinj;  of  Siirdiniiv,  from  his 
Fri'iich  li'iuiings,  and  per.suach'd  him  to  (uitcr 
into  tlio  Austro-Enjilisli  allianie  [by  the  treaty 
of  Worms,  Sept.  lit,  1743,  wincli  "conceded  to 
tlic  Kinj;  of  Sardinia  Finale,  the  cily  of  Flaceii- 
tia,  with  some  other  small  districl.s  and  gave 
him  command  of  the  allied  forces  in  Italy],  It 
was  clear  that  action  could  not  be  long  post- 
poned, and  Frederick  began  to  recognize  the 
necessity  of  a  new  war.  Ilis  lirst  an.xiety  was 
to  guard  himself  against  interference  from  his 
northern  and  ca.stern  neighbours.  He  secured, 
ns  he  ho])e<l,  the  neutrality  of  Russia  by  mar- 
rying the  young  princess  of  Anhalt-Zorbst, 
afterwards  the  notorious  Empres.s  Catherine, 
with  the  Grand-Duke  Peter  of  Ru,ssia,  nephew 
and  heir  to  the  reigning  Empress  Elizabeth. 
.  .  .  Thus  sirengthened,  as  be  hoped,  in  bis  rear 
and  (lank,  and  having  made  the  conmiencement 
of  a  German  league  called  the  Union  of  Frank- 
furt, by  which  IIes.se  and  the  Palatinate  agreed 
to  join  Frederick  and  the  Kaiser,  Ik;  concluded 
on  the  i)th  of  .June,  1744,  a  treaty  which  brought 
France  also  into  this  alliance.  It  was  secretly 
agreed  that  Frerlciick  was  to  invade  Boliemia, 
coiiiiuer  it  for  the  Kaiser,  and  have  the  districts 
of  K()niggril*7.,  IJunzlau,  and  Leitmeritz  to  repay 
him  for  bis  trouble  and' costs;  while  France, 
which  was  all  tlii.s  time  at  war  with  Austria  and 
England,  should  send  an  army  against  Prince 
Charles  and  the  English.  ,  .  .  The  tirst  stroke  of 
the  coming  war  was  delivered  by  France.  Louis 
XV.  sent  a  large  army  into  the  Netherlands  under 
two  good  leaders,  Noailles  and  Maurice  de  Sa.xe. 
Urged  by  his  mistress,  the  Ducliessc  de  Chiiteau- 
roux,  he  joined  it  himself  early,  and  took  the 
nominal  command  early  in  June.  .  .  .  The 
towns  [Menin,  Ypres,  Fort  Knoque,  Funics] 
rapidly  fell  before  him,  and  Marshal  W'ade,  with 
the  Anglo-Dutcli-lIanoverian  army,  sat  still  and 
looked  at  the  success  of  the  French.  Hut  on 
the  night  of  the  3t)tli  June  —  1st  Jul^',  Prince 
Charles  crossed  the  Rhine  by  an  operation  which 
is  worth  the  study  of  military  students,  and 
invaded  Alsace,  the  French  army  of  observation 
falling  back  before  him.  Louis  XV.  hurried 
back  to  interpose  between  the  Austrians  and 
Paris.  .  .  .  Maurice  de  Baxe  was  left  in  the 
Netherlands  with  45,000  men.  Thus  the  French 
army  was  paralysed,  and  tlie  Austrian  array  in 
its  turn  was  actually  invading  France.  At  this 
time  Frederick  struck  in.  He  sent  word  to  the 
King  that,  though  all  the  terms  of  their  arrange- 
mLUt  had  not  yet  been  fulfilled,  he  would  at 
once  invade  Bohemia,  and  deliver  a  stroke 
against  Prague  which  would  certainly  cause  the 
retreat  of  Prince  Charles  with  his  70,000  men. 
If  the  French  army  would  follow  Prince  Charles 
in  his  retreat,  Frederick  would  attack  him,  ancl 
between  France  and-  Prussia  tlie  Austrian  army 
would  certainly  be  crushed,  and  Vienna  be  at 
their  mercy.  This  was  no  doubt  an  excellent 
plan  of  campaign,  but,  like  the  previous  opera- 
tions concerted  with  Proglio,  it  depended  for 
success  upon  the  good  faith  of  the  French,  and 
this  turned  out  to  be  a  broken  reed.  On  the  7th 
of  August  the  Prussian  ambassador  al  Vienna 
gave  notice  of  the  Union  of  Frankfurt  and  with- 
drew from  the  court  of  Austria;  and  on  the  loth 
the  Prussian  army  was  put  in  march  upon 
Prague  [opening  what  is  called  tlie  Second 
Silesian   VVar].      Frederick's   forces   moved    in 


16 


three  columns,  the  total  strength  being  over 
80,000.  .  .  .  Maria  'I'beresa  was  now  again  in 
great  danger,  but  as  usual  retained  her  high 
courage,  and  once  more  called  forth  the  enthu- 
siasm of  her  Hungarian  subjects,  who  sent 
swarms  of  wild  troops,  horse  and  fool,  to  tho 
seat  of  war.  .  .  .  On  the  1st  of  Septemli^r  tho 
thre<!  columns  met  before  Prague,  whidi  had 
better  defences  than  in  the  last  campaign,  and  a 
garrison  of  some  1(1, (Hto  men.  .  .  .  During  iho 
night  of  the  itlh  the  bombardinent  commenced 
,  .  .  and  on  the  Kith  the  garrison  surrendered. 
Thus,  one  month  after  the  commencement  of  the 
inarch  Prague  was  captured,  and  tlie  campaign 
opened  with  a  brilliant  feat  of  arms." — Col,  ('.  B. 
Brackenbury.  Fntlcrick-  the  (hint.  fh.  7. 

Also  IN:  W.  Riis.sell,  //int.  DjModrni  JC)i rope, 
pt.  2,  Mtir  28. — F.  Von  Raumer,  ('i/ittrihutions  to 
MiHlern  Hint.  :  Fralk.  II.  and  his  Times,  ch. 
17-10. 

A.  D.  1744-1745. — Frederick's  retreat  and 
fresh  triumph.— Austria  recovers  the  imperial 
crown. —  Saxony  subdued. —The  Peace  of 
Dresden. —  After  the  reduction  of  I'rague. 
Frederick,  "in  deference  to  the  opinion  of  Marshal 
Belleirile,  but  against  his  own  judgment,  advanced 
into  the  south  of  Bohemia  with  the  view  of 
threatening  Vienna.  He  thiisexiiosei'  himself  to 
the  risk  of  being  cut  oil  from  Prague.  Yet  even 
so  he  would  probably  have  been  able  to  main- 
tain himself  if  the  i'rench  had  fullilled  their 
engagements.  But  while  he  was  con((uering  the 
districts  of  the  Ui)per  Moldau,  the  Austrian 
army  returned  unimpaired  from  Alsace.  The 
French  had  allowed  it  tn  cross  the  Rhine  unmo- 
lested, and  had  not  niad'j  the  slightest  attempt  to 
harass  its  retreat  |but  applied  themselves  to  the 
siege  and  capture  of  Freiburg].  They  were 
only  too  glad  to  get  rid  of  it  themselves.  In  the 
ensuing  operations  Frederick  was  completely 
outmanoeuvred.  Traun  [the  Austrian  geuer'lj, 
witlDUt  risking  a  battle,  forced  him  back  towards 
the  Silesian  frontier.  He  had  to  choose  between 
abandoning  Prague  and  abandoning  his  com- 
munications with  Silesia,  and  as  the  Saxons  bad 
cut  oft  his  retreat  through  the  Electorate,  there 
was  really  no  choice  in  the  matter.  So  he  fell 
hack  on  Silesia,  abandoning  Prague  and  his 
iieavy  artillery.  The  retreat  was  attended  with 
considerable  loss.  Frederick  was  much  struck 
with  the  skill  displayed  by  Traun,  and  says,  in 
his  'llistoire  de  mou  Temps,'  that  he  regarded 
this  campaign  as  his  school  in  the  art  of  war  and 
M.  de.  Traun  as  his  teacher.  The  campaign  may 
have  been  an  excellent  lesson  in  the  art  of  war, 
but  in  other  respects  it  was  very  disastrous  to 
Frederick.  lie  had  drawn  upon  himself  the 
whole  power  of  Austria,  and  had  learnt  how 
little  the  French  were  to  be  depended  upon.  His 
prestige  was  dimmed  by  failure,  and  even  in  his 
own  army  doubts  were  entertained  of  his  capa- 
city. But,  bad  as  his  i)osition  already  was,  it 
became  far  worse  when  the  unliai)py  Emperor 
died  [Jan.  20,  174.)],  worn  out  with  disease  and 
calamity.  Tliis  event  put  an  end  to  the  Union 
of  Frankfort.  Frederick  could  no  longer  claim 
to  be  acting  in  defence  of  his  oppressed  sovereij;n ; 
the  ground  was  cut  from  uiuler  his  feet,  jsor 
was  there  any  longer  much  hope  of  preventing 
the  Imp-irial"  Crown  from  reverting  to  Austria. 
The  new  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  a  1  lere  boy.  In 
this  altered  state  of  affairs  lie  sovght  to  make 
peace.    But  Maria  Theresa  would  not  let  him 


219 


AUSTRIA,   17'W-174r). 


Ilnngp  of  Htlpn- 
tiuvij'Lurraine. 


AUSTIUA,  1755-1703, 


off  sornsily.  In  order  tlmt  slir  iiiij;lit  tisc  nil  licr 
forces  iiKiimst  liiiii,  she  Kraiile(l  pence  to  Biiviiria, 
and  )fave  buck  to  the  young  elector  his  hercdi- 
turv  dnniiiiioiis.  on  eoniiition  of  his  resif;ning  all 
tljiini  to  liers  and  promising  to  vote  for  lier  Tins- 
iMiiid  as  Kinperor.  While  Frederick  thus  lost  ii 
friend  in  IJavaria,  Siixony  threw  lierself  com 
pli'lely  into  t  lie  arms  of  his  enemy,  and  united 
with  Austria  in  a  treaty  [May  1H|  which  hail  for 
its  <il)jeet,  not  the  recon(|Uest  of  Hilesiii  merely, 
but  the  partition  of  Prussia  aiul  the  reduction  of 
l\\v  kini;  to  his  aii<ient  limits  as  JlnrL'rave  of 
Branilenliurg.  Sa.xony  was  then  much  larger 
than  it  is  now,  hut  it  was  not  oidy  the  luimlier 
of  troops  it  coidd  send  int.  the  tleld  that  made 
its  hostility  dangerous.  Jt  was  partly  the  geo- 
gra]>hical  po.sition  of  the  country,  which  maile  it 
an  excellent  base  for  operations  against  I'russia, 
but  .still  more  the  alliance  that  was  known  to 
subsist  iN'twecn  the  Elector  (King  Augustus  III. 
of  Poland)  and  the  Kussiir.i  Court.  It  was  prob- 
nlilc  that  a  Prussian  inv.ision  of  Sa.\ony  would 
be  followed  by  a  Hu.ssian  invasion  of  Prussia. 
Towards  the  end  of  May,  the  Austrian  and 
Sa.xon  army,  75,1)00  strong,  cros.sed  the  (iiant 
Mountains  and  descended  iiixin  Silesia,  Tin; 
Aiistrians  were  again  commanded  by  Prince 
Charles,  but  the  wise  liead  of  Traun  was  no 
longer  there  to  guide  him.  .  .  .  The  encoimter 
took  place  nt  Hohenfriedberg  [June  5J,  and 
resulted  in  a  comjilete  victory  for  Prussia.  The 
Austrians  and  Saxons  lost  9,000  killed  and 
woiunled,  and  7,000  iirisoners,  besides  0(!  cannons 
and  7;!  flags  and  standards.  Four  days  after  the 
battle  they  were  back  again  in  Holiemia. 
Frederick  followed,  not  with  the  intention  of 
attacking  them  again,  but  in  order  to  eat  the 
country  l)are,  so  tlmt  it  might  alTord  no  sust<'n- 
anee  to  the  enemy  during  the  winter.  For  his 
own  part  lie  was  really  anxious  for  peace.  His 
resources  we'O  all  but  exhausted,  while  Austria 
■\vaS|  fed  by  a  constant  stream  of  Kuglish  sub- 
sidies. As  in  tlic  former  war,  England  interposed 
with  her  good  offices,  hut  without  elTect;  Maria 
Theresa  was  by  no  means  disheartened  by  her 
defeat,  and  refiised  to  liear  of  peace  till  she  had 
tried  the  chances  of  battle  once  more.  On  Sept. 
13  her  Inisband  was  elected  Eini)eror  by  seven 
votes  out  of  nine,  the  dissentients  l)eing  tiie  King 
of  Prussia  and  the  Elector  Palatine.  This  event 
raised  the  spirits  of  the  Empress-Queen,  as  Maria 
Tlieresa  was  lienceforward  called,  and  opened  a 
wider  field  for  her  ambition.  She  sent  peremptory 
orders  to  Prince  Cliarles  to  attack  Frederick 
before  lie  retired  from  Boliemia.  A  battle  was 
accordingly  fought  at  Solir  [Sept.  30],  and  again 
victory  rested  witli  the  Prussians.  Tlic  season 
was  now  far  advanced,  and  Frederick  returned 
home  expecting  that  there  would  be  no  more 
fighting  till  after  the  winter.  Such  liowever, 
was  far  from  lieiiig  the  intention  of  liis  enemies." 
A  plan  for  the  invasion  of  Brandenburg  by  three 
Austrian  and  Saxon  armies,  simultaneously,  was 
secretly  concerted;  Imt  Frederick  iiad  timely 
wamiiii,'  of  it  and  it  was  frustrated  l)y  his 
BCtiviiy  nml  energy.  On  tlie  23d  of  November 
h')  surprised  and  defeated  Prince  Charles  at 
Ilenncrsdorf.  "Some  tlirc;  weeks  afterwards 
[Dec.  15]  tlie  Prince  of  De.«.snu  defeated  a  second 
Saxon  and  Austrian  army  at  Kesselsdorf,  a  few 
miles  from  Dresden.  Thii  victory  completed  the 
subjugation  of  Saxony  and  put  an  end  to  tlie 
war.    Three  days  after  Kesselsdorf,  Frederick 


entered  Dresden,  and  asfonislied  every  one  by 
the  graciousness  of  his  l)ehaviour  and  by  tlie 
modenition  of  his  terms,  Fn.ni  Saxony  he 
exacted  no  cession  of  territory,  l)ut  merely  aeon- 
trihutirm  of  1,000,()(H)  thalers"  (£150,000)  towards 
the  expenses  of  the  war.  From  Austria  ho 
deinanded  a  guarantee  of  the  treaty  of  Hreslau, 
in  return  for  which  he  agreed  to  recognize 
(■'iiuiiis  as  Emperor.  Peace  was  signed  [at 
Dresden]  on  Christmas  Day." — F.  W.  liOngman, 
Fnderick  the  Urtiit  ttml  the  Seven  Yuirs  War, 
c/i.  '). 

Ai.hoin:  T.  Carlvie,  IlUt.of  Fredenck  IL,  M: 
15,  <•//.  3-15  (r.  4).— liord  Dover,  Life  of  Fredtrick 
ir.hk.  3,  rh.  3-5  (r.  1), 

A.  D.  1745. — Overwhelming  disasters  in 
Italy.     Sii-  Ir.M.v:    A,  I),  1T4."., 

A.  D.  1745  (Mav). — Reverses  in  the  Nether- 
lands.—Battle  of  Fontenoy.  See  \i:tiii;ii. 
i..\Nl)s:    A.  I).  1745. 

A.  D.  174s  (September— October).— The 
Consort  of  Maria  Theresa  elected  and  crowned 
Emperor. — Rise  of  the  new  House  of  Haps- 
burg-Lorraine.— Francis  of  Lorrain(s  Cirand 
Diikeof  'I'uscaiiy  and  husl>and  of  Maria  Theresa, 
was  elected  Emperor,  at  Frankfort,  Sept.  13, 
1745,  and  crowned  Oct.  1,  wdtli  the  title  of  Fran- 
cis I.  "Thus  the  Empire;  returned  to  the  New 
House  of  Austria,  tlmt  of  Hapslmrg-Lorraine, 
and  France  had  missed  the  principal  object  for 
which  she  had  gone  to  war."  By  the  treaties 
signed  at  Dresden,  Dec.  25,  between  Prussia, 
Austria  and  Saxony,  Frederick,  as  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  assented  to  and  recognized  the 
election  of  Francis,  against  which  he  and  the 
Elector  Palatine  liad  previously  protested. — T. 
II.  Dyer,  Hint,  of  Mo<lern  Europe,  lik.  0,  c/i.  4 
(r.  3). 

A.  D.  1746-1747. — Further  French  con- 
quests in  the  Netlierlands. — Lombardy  recov- 
ered.— Genoa  won  and  lost.  See  Netiiku- 
lands:  a.  D.  1740-1747;  and  It.\ly:  A.  I). 
1740-1747. 

A.  D.  1748  (October). — Termination  and  re- 
sults of  the  War  of  the  Succession.    See  Aix- 

L.\-Cll.\I'EI.I.K,  Till-;  CONOIIKSS  OF. 

A.  D.  1755-1763.— The  Seven  Years  War.— 

Since  the  conquest  of  Silesia  by  Frederick  the 
Great  of  Prussia,  "lie  had  cast  off  all  reserve. 
In  his  extraordinary  Court  at  Potsdam  this  man 
of  wit  and  war  laughed  at  God,  and  at  his 
brother  philosophers  and  sovereigns;  he  ill- 
treated  Voltaire,  the  chief  organ  of  the  new 
opinions;  lie  wounded  kings  and  queens  with 
his  epigrams;  he  believed  neither  in  the  beauty 
of  Madam  de  Pompadour  nor  in  the  poetical 
genius  of  thq  Abbe  Bernis,  Prime  Minister  of 
France.  The  Empress  tliought  the  moineut 
favourable  for  the  recovery  of  Silesia;  she 
stirred  up  Europe,  especially  the  queens;  she 
persuaded  the  Queen  of  Poland  and  the  Empress 
of  Russiii ;  she  paid  court  to  the  mistress  of 
Louis  XV.  The  monstrous  alliance  of  Franco 
with  tlie  ancient  state  of  Austria  against  a  sov- 
ereign who  maintained  the  equilibrium  of  Oer- 
niauy  united  all  Europe  against  him.  England 
alone  supported  him  and  gave  him  subsidies. 
She  was  governed  at  tliat  time  by  a  gouty  law- 
yer, the  famous  William  Pitt,  afterwards  Lord 
Chatham,  who  raised  liimself  by  his  eloquence 
and  by  his  hatred  of  the  French.  England 
wanted  two  things;  the  maintenance  of  the 
balance  of  power  in  Europe,  and  the  destruction 


220 


AUSTRIA,  ITM-ITO:!. 


Seven  Yeurt  H'cir. 


Ar.STUIA,   1700-1707. 


of  the  French  nnd  Spanish  colonics.  Iler  pricfs 
were  seriouH;  tlio  Spiiiiiiinls  Imd  lll-trcotcil  licr 
smujjgliTs  and  tlic  Frencli  wanted  to  prevent 
her  from  settling  on  tlieir  territory  in  Cai\ndn. 
In  India,  J.a  Hourdonnaie  and  his  8ue<-essor 
Duplel.'c  threatened  to  found  a  great  empire  in 
the  face  of  tlie  Englisli.  As  a  declanition  of 
war  tlic  Englisli  eonllscntcd  300  French  ships 
(nnO).  Tlie  marvel  of  the  war  was  to  see  tlds 
little  Itingdom  of  Prussia,  interposal  between 
tlie  liuge  powers  of  Austria,  France,  and  Russia, 
run  from  one  to  the  otlier,  and  defj'  tliem  all. 
Tills  was  the  second  period  of  the  art  of  war. 
The  unskillful  adversaries  of  Frederick  thought 
that  he  owed  all  ids  success  to  the  precision  of 
the  inan(ruvres  of  the  Prussijin  soldiers,  to  their 
excellent  drill  and  rapid  tiring.  Frederick  had 
certainlv  carried  tiio  soldier  machine  to  perfec- 
tion. This  was  callable  of  imitation;  the  C'/.ar 
Peter  III.  and  the  Count  of  St.  Germain  created 
militaiy  automatons  by  means  of  the  lash.  Hut 
they  could  not  imitate  the  (piickness  of  his 
niaiueuvres;  the  happy  arrangement  of  his 
iimivhes,  which  gave  him  great  facility  for 
moving  and  concentrating  large  masses,  and 
directing  tliem  on  tlie  weak  points  of  theeneinv. 
In  this  terrible  cha.se  given  by  the  large  unwieldy 
armies  of  the  allies  to  the  agile  Prussians,  one 
cannot  help  noticing  the  amusing  ciicumspec- 
tion  of  the  Austrian  tacticians  and  the  stupid 
folly  of  the  fine  gentlemen  who  led  the  armies  r)f 
Fiance.  The  Fabius  of  Austria,  tlie  sage  and 
heavy  Daun,  was  satisfied  with  a  war  of  posi- 
tions; he  could  not  find  encampments  strong 
enough  or  mountains  suHlciently  inaccessible;  his 
stationary  troops  were  always  beaten  by  Fred- 
erick. To  begjn  witli,  he  freed  liinis"lf  from  the 
enmity  of  Saxony,  lie  did  not  hurt,  he  only 
disarmed  her.  lie  struck  his  next  blow  in 
Uoliemia.  Repul.sed  by  the  Austrians,  and 
aliandoned  by  the  Knglish  army,  wliicli  deter- 
mined at  Kioster-seven  to  fight  lio  more,  threat- 
ened by  the  Russians,  who  were  victorious  at 
Joegerndorf,  he  passe<l  into  Saxony  and  found 
tlie  French  nnd  Imperialists  combined  there. 
Prussia  was  surrounded  by  four  armies.  Fred- 
erick fancied  himself  lost  and  determined  on 
suicide.  He  wrote  to  his  sister  and  to  d'Argens 
announcing  his  intention.  There  was  only  one 
tiling  which  frightened  him:  it  was,  that  wlien 
once  he  was  dead  the  great  distributor  of  glory 
—  Voltaire  —  might  make  free  with  his  name:  ho 
wrote  an  epistle  to  disarm  him.  .  .  .  Having 
written  this  epistle  ho  defeated  the  enemy  at 
Ro.sbach.  The  Prince  of  Souhise,  who  tliought 
that  he  fled,  set  off  rashly  in  pursuit;  then  the 
Prussians  unmasked  their  batteries,  killed  3,000 
men,  and  took  7,000  prisonei's.  In  tlio  French 
camp  were  found  an  army  of  cooks,  actors,  hair- 
dressers; n  number  of  "parrots,  parasols,  and 
huge  cases  of  lavender-water,  ikc.  (1707).  None 
but  a  tactician  could  follow  tlie  King  of  Prussia 
i»i  this  series  of  brilliant  and  skillful  battles. 
The  Seven  Years'  War,  however  varied  its  inci- 
dents, was  a  political  and  strategic;il  war:  it  has 
not  the  interest  of  the  wars  for  ideas,  the 
struggles  for  religion  and  for  freedom  of  the 
Kith  century  and  of  our  own  time.  Tlie  defeat 
of  Hosbach  was  followed  by  another  at  Crevelt, 
nnd  by  great  reverses  balanced  by  small  advan- 
ta.!?es;  the  total  ruin  of  the  French  navy  and 
colonies;  the  Englisli  masters  of  the  ocean  and 
conquerors  of  India ;  the  exhaustion  and  huinili- 


)f  old   Europe   in  the  presence  of  younff 
I.     This  is  till!  history  of  the  Seven  Vi'ars 


ation   of 
Pru8.sia. 

War.  It  was  terminated  under  the  ministry  of 
the  Duke  of  Choiseul,"  by  the  Peace  of  Iluberts- 
iirg  and  the  Peace  of"  Paris. — J.  Miche'et,  A 
SumiiKiri/  iif  .ViKlifit  Ifistiiry,  pp.  3(MJ-302. — See 
aKiiMANV;  A.  I>.  17r(5-1758,  to  1703;  and,  also, 
Sevkn  Yk.\hs'  W.vii. 

A.  D.  1772-1773.— The  First  Partition  of 
Poland.     Set;  Poi.ANl):    A.  I).  17«;!-177;!. 

A.  D.  1777-1779. — The  question  of  the  Bava- 
rian Succession.  See  l!.\v.\iti.^:  A.  |).  1777- 
1770, 

A.  D.  1782-1811.— Abolition  of  Serfdom. 
See  Si..vvK.nv,  Mkdi.kv.m.:    Gkhm.vnv. 

A.  D.  1787-1791.— War  with  the  Turks.— 
Treaty  of  Sistova.— Slight  Acquisitions  of 
Territory.     See  Tiiiks:    A.  D.  177(l-17!r.'. 

A.  D.  1790-1797.— Death  of  Joseph  II.  and 
Leopold  II.— Accession  of  Francis  II.— The 
Coalition  against  and  war  with  revolutionary 
France,  to  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio.— 
"  It  is  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  the  Kuropeau 
Powers  attackrd  the  Revolution  in  France.  It 
was  the  Revolution  which  attacked  them.  The 
diplomatists  of  tlie  lt<tli  century  viewed  at  first 
witli  cynical  indiireieiice  the  meeting  of  the 
States  -  General  at  Versailles.  .  .  .  The  two 
points  which  occupied  the  attention  of  Europe 
in  1780  were  the  condition  of  Poiand  and  the 
troubles  in  the  East.  The  ambitious  designs  of 
Catherine  and  the  assistance  lent  to  them  by 
.Joseph  threatened  the  existence  of  the  Turkish 
Empire,  irritated  the  Prussian  Court,  and  awak- 
ened English  aiiprehensions,  always  sensitive 
about  the  safety  of  .Stamboul.  Poland,  the 
battle-field  of  cynical  diplomacy,  torn  by  long 
dissen.sions  and  ruined  by  a  miseiabh^  constitu- 
tion, was  vainly  endeavouring,  under  the  jealous 
eyes  of  her  great  neighbours,  to  avert  tlie  doom 
impending,  and  to  reassert  her  ancient  claim  to 
a  place  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  But 
Russia  had  long  since  determined  that  Poland 
must  be  a  vassal  State  to  her  or  cca.se  to  be  11 
State  at  all,  while  Prussia,  driven  to  face  a  hard 
necessitv,  realisi'd  that  a  strong  Poland  and  a 
strong  f'russia  could  not  exist  together,  and  that 
if  Poland  ever  rose  again  to  power,  Prussia  must 
bid  good-bye  to  unity  an(l  greatness.  These 
two  (luestions  to  the  States  involved  seemed  to 
be  of  far  more  moment  than  any  ])olitical  reform 
in  France,  and  engrossed  the  diplomatists  of 
Europe  until  the  summerof  1701.  In  February, 
1700,  a  new  infiuence  was  introduced  into 
European  politics  by  the  death  of  tlie  Einiieror 
.loseph  and  the  accession  of  his  brother,  Leopold 
II.  Leopold  was  a  man  of  remarkable  ability, 
no  entliusia.st  and  no  dreamer,  thoroughly  versed 
in  the  sellish  traditions  of  Austrian  policy  aifd  in 
some  of  the  subtleties  of  Italian  statecraft,  dis- 
cerning, temperate,  resolute  and  clear-headed, 
quietly  determined  to  have  his  own  way,  and 
gencnilly  skilful  enough  to  secure  it.  Leopold 
found  his  new  dominions  in  a  state  of  the 
utmost  C(mfusion,  witli  wiirand  rebellion  threaten- 
ing him  on  every  side,  lie  speedily  set  about 
restoring  order.  He  repealed  the  unpopular  de- 
crees of  Joseph.  He  conciliatcfl  or  repressed  his 
discontented  subjects.  He  gradually  re-estab- 
lished the  authority  of  the  Crown.  .  .  .  Accord- 
ingly, the  first  eighteen  months  of  Leopold's 
reign  were  occupied  with  his  own  immediate 
interests,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  his  success 


221 


AUSTRIA,  1700-1707, 


W'-rt  wilh 

Kntituliimary 

/•Vance. 


AUSTRIA,    170ft-lH06. 


■wftR  miirkod.  ('iithcrinc's  vast  srlicmrs  In  Tur- 
ki'y  liiiil  Ix'i'ti  clicckccl.  War  Imil  bcrii  averted. 
I'i)lati(l  had  lieeii  streiiKtlK'iied  by  internal 
cImnKes.  I'riiHKia  had  been  coneillated  and  oiit- 
mana'uvred,  and  her  inlliieneo  had  been  impaired. 
At  laKt,  at  tile  end  of  Aajfust,  1701,  the  Kniperor 
was  free  to  face  the  Freiieh  problem,  and  he  Het 
out  for  the  CaNtle  of  I'illnitz  to  meet  the  KiiiK  of 
I'rn.ssia  atid  the  Kmi),'rnnt  leaders  at  the  Sji.\on 
Elector's  Court.  For  some  time  past  the  restless- 
ness of  the  freneh  EmiKnints  had  been  eaiisiiiK 
grent  perple.xity  i[i  Knrope.  Heeeived  with  open 
arms  by  tlu^  eeelesiastieal  princes  of  the  Hhine, 
by  tli("  Klectors  of  .Mayencc  and  Trc^'ves,  they 
proceeded  to  ai^itate  busily  for  their  own  restora- 
tion. .  .  .  TIk'  object  of  the  Emigrants  was  to 
brinj,'  pressure  to  liear  at  the  Eurojiean  Courts, 
with  tile  view  of  inducing  the  Powers  to  inter- 
vene actively  in  their  behidf.  .  .  .  After  Ids 
eacaix!  from  France,  in  ,Iune,  1790,  tlu^  Comte  do 
Provence  establislie<l  his  Court  at  Cobleut.", 
where  he  was  joined  l)y  his  brother  the  Come 
d'Artois,  and  where,  on  the  plea  that  l/Otiis  was 
a  prisoner,  lie  claimed  the  title  of  Hegeiit,  and 
u.ssume<l  I  hi!  authority  of  King.  The  Court  of 
the  two  Fi<'ni'h  iniiices  at  Coblent/,  represented 
faithfully  the  faults  and  follies  of  liie  F.mignint 
parly.  IJiil  a  more  satisfactory  spectacle  was 
oHered  by  the  camp  at  Worms,  where  Condij  was 
bravely  trying  to  organi.se  an  army  to  flglit 
against  the  Hevclu.icm  in  France.  To  Comic's 
standard  Hocked  the  more  patriotic  Kniigrants. 
.  .  .  Hut  the  (ierman  Princes  in  tlie  neighbour- 
IkxhI  looked  witli  disfavour  on  the  Kniigrant 
army.  It  caused  confusion  in  their  dominions, 
and  it  drew  down  on  them  the  hostility  of  the 
Frencli  Government.  Tlie  Empenir  joined  them 
in  protesting  against  it.  In  February,  171)3, 
Conde's  army  was  compelled  to  abandon  its  camp 
at  Worms,  and  to  retire  further  into  Germany. 
The  Kmper.ir  was  well  aware  of  tlie  reciiless 
BcltLslinessof  the  Kmignint  princes.  He  had  as 
little  sympathy  with  them  as  his  sister.  He  did 
not  inteiul  to  listen  to  their  demands.  If  he  in- 
terfered in  France  at  all,  it  would  only  be  in  a 
cautious  and  tentative  manner,  and  in  order  to 
save  Marie  Antoinette  and  her  husband.  Cer- 
tainly he  would  not  undertake  a  war  for  the  restor- 
ation of  the  Ancien  Itegime.  .  .  .  Accordingly, 
the  interviews  at  Pillnitz  came  to  notliing.  .  .  . 
Early  in  .March,  1703,  Leopold  suddenly  died.  His 
heir  Francis,  unieslrained  by  his  father's  tact  and 
moderation,  assumed  a  dilTerent  tone  and  showed 
less  patience.  The  chances  of  any  eiTectivc  pres- 
sure from  tlie  Powers  declined,  as  the  ])rospect 
of  war  rose  on  the  horizon.  Francis'  language 
was  sulliciently  sharp  to  give  tlie  As.sembly  the 
pretext  which  it  longed  for,  and  on  the"  20th 
Apill,  Louis,  amid  general  enthusiasm,  came 
down  to  the  Assembly  and  declared  war  against 
Austria.  The  ellects  of  that  momentous  .step  no 
comment  can  exaggerate.  It  ruined  llie  best 
hopes  of  the  Hevolution,  and  prepared  the  way 
for  a  miiitniy  despotism  in  the  future." — C.  E. 
>Iallet,  T/ie  French  liemliition,  ch.  7. —  See 
Fiianck:  a.  I).  1790-1791:  1791  (.Ii:i.v— Decem- 
uiiU);  1791-1793;  1793  (Aruii.  — .h:i,v),  and 
(SEPTE.MnEii — DECEMHEn);  1793-1793  (Decem- 
BEU  — FEUiiu.\itV);  1793  (Febhuaiiy  —  Ariiii.), 
and  (Jri.Y— I)i-;cEMUEu)-.  1794  (JI.\iicir— July); 
1794-1795  (OcTOHEU— May)  ;  1795  (June— I)e- 
CEMUEit);  1790  (Ai'uii, — Octobek);  and  1796- 
1707  (Octobek— Atuil). 


A.  D.  1794-1796.— The  Third  partition  of 
Poland.— Austrian  share  of  the  spoils.  See 
Poland:  A.  D.  179:1-179(1. 

A.  D.  1707  (October).— Treaty  of  Campo- 
Formto  with  France.— Cessio.n  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  Lombard  provinces. — Acquisition 
of  Venice  and  Venetian  territories.  Seo 
FiiANci::  A.  I).  1797  (.May— OcronDH). 

A.  D.  1798-1806.— Congress  of  Rastadt,— 
Second  Coalition  aeainst  France.— Peace  of 
Luneville.— Third  Coalition.— Ulm  and  Aus- 
terlitz. — Peace  of  Presburg.— Extinction  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire. — Birth  of  the  Empire 
of  Austria. — "  When  Honaparte. sailed  for  Egypt 
he  lia.l  left  a  congress  at  Hastadt  discussing 
means  fia-  the  execution  of  certain  articles  in  tho 
treaty  of  Campo  Formio  which  were  to  establish 
])cace  between  France  and  the  Empire  .  .  . 
Tliough  openly  undertaking  to  invite  the  Ger- 
mans to  a  congress  in  order  to  settle  a  general 
peac<'  on  the  basis  of  tin;  integrity  of  the  Empire, 
tlie  Enipen)r  agreed  in  secret  articles  to  use  Ids 
inlltience  to  procure  for  the  Republic  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  with  the  exception  of  the 
Prus.sian  provinces,  to  join  with  France  in  obtain- 
ing compi'nsation  in  Germanv  for  tlio.se  injured 
by  this  change,  anil  to  contribute  no  more  than 
his  necessary  contingent  if  the  war  were  jiro- 
longed.  The  ratilication  of  these  secret  pro- 
visions had  been  extorted  from  the  Congress  by 
threats  before  Honaparte  had  left;  but  the  (pies- 
tion  of  indemnitlcation  had  progressed  no  farther 
than  a  decision  to  seculari.se  the  ecclesiastical 
states  for  the  purpo.se,  when  extravagant  de- 
mnnds  from  the  French  deputies  brought  nego- 
tiation to  a  deadlock.  Meanwhile,  another  coali- 
tion war  hail  been  brewing.  Paul  I.  of  Russia 
had  regarded  with  little  pleasure  the  doings  of 
the  Revolution,  and  when  his  proteges,  the  knights 
of  St.  .lolin  of  .lerusalem.  had  been  deprived  of 
^lalta  by  Honaparte  on  his  way  to  Egypt,  whoa 
the  Directory  established  by  force  <if  arms  a 
Helvetic  republic  in  Switzerland,  when  it  found 
occasion  to  carry  olf  the  Pope  into  exile  aiul  erect 
a  Roman  republic,  ho  abandoned  the  cautious 
and  self-seeking  policy  of  Catherine,  and  cordi- 
ally responded  to  Pitt's  advances  for  an  alliance. 
At  tho  same  time  Turkey  was  compelled  by  the 
invitation  of  Egypt  to  ally  itself  for  once  with 
Russia.  Austria,  conviiued  that  the  French  did 
not  intend  to  pay  a  fair  i)rice  for  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Fonuio,  also  deterMiined  to  renew  liostili- 
ties;  and  Naples,  exasperated  by  the  sacrilege  of 
a  republic  at  Rome,  and  alarmed  by  French  ag- 
gressiveness, enrolled  itself  in  the  league.  Tho 
Neapolitan  king,  indeed,  opened  the  war  with 
some  success,  before  he  could  receive  support 
from  his  allies ;  hut  he  was  soon  vanquished  by 
the  French,  and  his  dominions  were  converted 
into  a  Partlienopean  republic.  Austria,  on  tho 
contrary,  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  Russian 
forces;  and  the  general  cami)aign  began  carlj'  in 
1799.  The  French,  lighting  against  such  gener- 
als ns  the  Arcluhike  Charles  and  the  Russian 
Suvaroir,  without  the  supervision  of  Carnot  or 
the  strategy  and  enterprise  of  Bonaparte, 
sulTereil  severe  reverses  and  great  privations. 
Towards  the  end  the  Russian  army  endiu'ed 
much  hardship  on  account  of  the  selfish- 
ness of  the  Austrian  cabinet;  and  this  caused 
the  Tsur,  who  thotight  he  had  other  reasons  for 
discontent,  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  the  field. 
When  Bonaparte   was  made  First  Consul  the 


222 


AUSTRIA,  1708-1806. 


H'nrn  irith 


AUSTHIA,  170H-1SWI. 


military  iHwitioii  of  Friincn  wiis,  ncvcrlliclcss. 
vcrj'  pW'ciU'iiiiis.  .  .  .  Till' Koiimii  mill  ('isiiliiiiii' 
n'pulilli'H  liMil  fiillrii.  Till"  vrry  coiiKri's^  at  Itaf- 
tiiilt  liiul  lirrii  illMpiTKril  liy  tlii'  apprimcli  of  llic 
AiistriiMiH:  anil  tin-  Kiriicli  I'liils.sarii'H  had  liirn 
Halard  l>y  Ausliiun  Iripopn-s,  llioiiuli  Imw  lliilr 
ilisoli'iici-  caiui'  til  III'  tliiis  foully  punlslii'il  Iiiih 
iirviT  bcrit  clrmly  rxplainril.  At  tills  irisls 
Friimr  was  itkciii'iI  from  forilicn  fors  ami 
ilomcstic  (llsordi'i's  by  its  most  surrcssful  jri'ii- 
i-ral.  ...  Ill  tlio  rampaiirn  wliirli  followed, 
FniiHT  otitaincd  si!;iial  sallsfartiim  for  its 
(•liaj;riii.  [,caviiiK  .Moiraii  to  carry  tlii,'  war  into 
Gcrmanv,  IJonapar'i^  siiddrnly  crossi'd  tlir  .VIps, 
and  ili'^'iitL'd  tin'  Aiislrians  on  lliii  plain  of 
JlarenKo.  The  Aiistriuus,  llumirh  lomplrti'ly 
cowed,  refrained  from  eoiicludin);  iv  dellnite 
peace  out  of  respect  for  their  enita>;cments  with 
EiiKland ;  and  annislices,  expiring  into  desiil- 
torv  warfare,  proloiij^ed  the  eoiitesl  till  Moreiiii 
laiil  the  way  open  to  Vienna,  by  wiiniini''  i 
Hplendid  triumph  at  Holienlinden.  A  treat>  t 
jicace  was  llnally  concliiiled  iit,  Liineville,  win  n 
Francis  II.  pli'd(,'cd  the  Knipire  to  its  provisions 
oil  the  ground  of  the  con.sents  already  niven  at 
Ilastailt.  Ill  conformity  with  the  "treaty  of 
Canipo  Forniii),  Austria  retained  theliouiidary  of 
the  Ailigc  ill  Italy ;  France  kept  Helgium  and 
the  left  lianU  of  the  liliine;  and  the  princes,  dis- 
possessed by  the  cessions,  were  iiromised  com- 
pensation in  Germany ;  while  Tuscany  was 
given  to  France  to  sell  to  Spain  at  the  i)rice  of 
Parma,  Louisiana,  six  sliips  of  the  line,  and  a 
sum  of  money.  Shortly  afterwards  peace  was 
extended  to  N'lples  on  easy  terms.  .  .  .  The 
time  was  now  come  for  the  Uevolutiou  to  com- 
plete tii^,  ruin  of  the  Holy  lionian  Empire. 
I'ursuant  to  the  treaty  of  Luiieville,  the  German 
Diet  met  at  Uegensb'urg  to  discuss  a  scheme  of 
compensation  for  the  dis|)o.ssessed  rulers.  Vir- 
tually the  meeting  was  ii  renewal  of  the  congress 
of  Hastadt.  ...  At  Ifastadt  the  incolierence 
and  diiiintegration  of  the  venerable  Kmpire  had 
become  i)aiiifully  apparent.  .  .  .  When  it  was 
known  tliat  tin;  head  of  the  nation,  wlio  had 
guaranteed  ihe  integrity  of  the  Empire  in  the 
preliminaries  of  Leoben,  imil  hiul  renewed  the 
assiiraiice  when  he  convoked  the  as.senibly,  had 
in  trutli  belrnyed  to  the  striuiger  nearly  all  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine, —  the  Geriimn  rulers 
greedily  hastened  to  .secure  every  possible  trille 
ill  tlic  acrmnble  of  recMstribution.  The  slow  and 
wearisome  debates  were  supplemenled  by 
intrigues  of  the  most  degraded  nature.  Con- 
scious that  the  French  C'imsul  could  give  a 
casting  vote  on  any  disputed  question,  the 
princes  found  no  indignity  too  shameful,  no 
trick  too  base,  to  obtain  his  favour.  .  .  .  The 
First  Consul,  on  his  side,  prosecuted  with  a 
duplicity  and  address,  heretofore  unequalled, 
the  traditional  policy  of  France  in  German 
affairs.  .  .  .  Feigning  to  take  into  his  counsels 
the  young  Tsar,  whose  convenient  friendship 
was  thus  easily  obtained  on  account  of  his  family 
connections  with  the  Geriimu  courts,  he  drew 
up  a  scheme  of  iudemnilication  and  presented  it 
to  the  Diet  for  endorsement.  In  due  time  u  ser- 
vile assent  was  given  to  every  point  wliicli  con- 
cerned the  two  autocrats.  By  this  settlement, 
Austria  and  Prussia  were  more  equally  balancecl 
pgainst  one  another,  the  former  being  deprived 
of  influence  In  Western  Germany,  and  the  latter 
finding  in  more  convenient  situations  a  ri<'h 


recompeiiHc  for  its  ccHsions  on  tlu'  Klilno:  while 
the  iniddli' Hitites,  Ilavaria,  lladin,  and  WUrtem- 
berg,  leeeivid  very  considerable  accessions  of 
territory.  Hut  if  lionaparte  dislocated  yet  fur- 
ther the  |ioliticiil  slructure  of  (termany,  he  wiM 
at  least  instriiinriilal  in  removing  the  woi-st  of 
the  anachronisms  which  slilled  the  development 
of  improved  inslitiilioiis  among  a  iarge  division 
of  its  people.  The  sjinie  measure  which  brought 
German  si'paratism  loaclimax.  alsoe\tini;iiislieil 
the  ecclesiastical  soverei.rnlies  iind  nearly  all  the 
free  cities.  That  tliese  stiongliolds  of  priestly 
obscurantism  and  bourgeois  apathy  would  .some 
day  be  invaded  by  their  more  amiiilious  and 
active  neighbours,  hail  long  bieii  appaniit.  .  .  . 
And  war  was  declined  wlnii  Ihousaiids  of 
British  subjects  visiting  France  had  already 
been  ensnared  and  imprisoned.  .  .  .  Pitt  had 
taken  the  conduct  of  the  war  out  of  the  hands  of 
Aihlington's  feeble  ministry.  Po.ssessing  the 
conlldence  of  the  powers,  he  rapidly  concluded 
olTensive  alliances  with  Uussia,  Sweden,  and 
Austria,  though  Prussia  o'istinalely  remained 
iieiitriil.  Thus,  by  IHO."!,  Xtipolton  had  put  to 
hazard  all  his  lately  won  iiower  in  a  conllict 
with  the  greatiT  part  of  Europe.  Tlie  battle  of 
Cape  Trafalgar  crushed  for  goml  his  maritimo 
power,  and  rendered  England  sale  from  direct 
attack.  The  campaign  on  land,  however,  made 
him  master  of  central  Europe.  linnging  the 
Austrian  army  in  Germany  to  an  inglorious 
capitulation  at  Ulin,  he  marched  through 
Vienna,  and,  with  inferior  forces  won  in  Ills  best 
style  the  battle  of  Aiislerlitz  against  the  troops 
of  Francis  ami  Alexander.  The  action  was 
decisive.  The  allies  thought  not  of  renewing 
the  war  witli  the  relays  of  troops  which  were 
hurrying  up  from  North  and  South.  P"ssia'; 
and  Austrian  alike  wished  to  be  rid  oi  their  ill- 
fated  connection.  The  Emperor  Alexiinder 
silently  returned  home,  pursued  only  by  X.ipo- 
leon's  tlalteritig  tokens  of  esteem:  the  Emperor 
Francis  accepted  the  peace  of  Presburg,  which 
deprived  his  house  of  the  ill-gotteii  Venetian 
States,  Tyrol,  and  its  more  distant  posses- 
sions in  Western  Germany;  the  King  of 
Prussia,  who  had  been  on  the  point  of  joining 
the  coalition  with  ;>  large  army  if  his  lueiliation 
were  uiisucce.ssful,  was  committed  to  an  alliance 
with  the  conqueror  by  his  terrilied  negotiator. 
.Vnd  well  did  Xapoleon  apjiear  to  make  the 
fruits  of  victory  compciisivte  France  for  its  exer- 
tions. The  empire  was  not  made  more  unwieldy 
in  bulk,  but  its  dependents,  Bavaria,  Wl\rteni- 
berg,  and  Baden,  received  consideralile  acces- 
sions of  territory,  and  the  two  lirst  were  raised 
to  tlie  rank  of  kingdoms;  while  the  Emperor's 
Italian  i)rincipality,  which  he  had  already 
turned  into  a  kingdom  of  Italy  to  the  great  dis- 
gust of  Austria,  was  iiicreased  by  the  uddilion 
of  the  ceded  Venetian  lauds.  But  the  full  depth 
of  Europe's  humiliation  was  not  experienced  till 
the  two  following  years.  In  180(1  an  Act  of 
Federation  was  signed  by  the  kings  of  Bavaria 
and  Wttrtemberg,  the  Elector  of  Baden,  and 
thirteen' minor  princes  which  united  them  into  a 
league  under  the  protection  of  the  French 
Emperor.  The  objects  of  this  confederacy, 
known  as  the  Rheinbund  were  defence  against 
foreign  aggression  and  the  exercise  of  complete 
autonomy  at  homo.  .  .  .  Already  the  conse- 
(juences  of  the  Peace  of  Lunevillo  had  induced 
tiie  ruling  Hapsburg  to  assure  his  equality  with 


223 


AUSTRIA,  ITOH-INOO, 


W.irK  irlth 


AUSTRIA.  1800-1814. 


tliP  ROvrrrlffiiR  "f  Kninco  iiml  HuhhIu  by  tnkiii); 
till'  iinjii'riiil  tillr  ill  his  nwn  iIkIiI  :  uml  licfori-  tin- 
Coiifrili'tiillnii  (if  llic  Ithiiii'  was  iiiiiclc  piililic-  lir 
foriimlly  ic'IioiiikimI  liiHolllic  of  i'IimIIvc  KliipiTor 
iif  llii-  IIkIv  Itoiiiiiii  Kiiipirc  anil  I'cli'iisi'il  from 
iillrL'laiH  r  to  him  all  tlir  statiH  iiiiil  prilici'snf  the 
Krii'li.  Till'  triiimpli  of  the  Ocriiiiiii  iiolicy  of 
till'  CiiiiHiilali'  was  compli'lf." — A.  Wi'lr,  Tlif 
JliHliirirul  Itimiit  nf  Mmlifn  Kurojie,  rh.  4.  — Src, 
also,  KiiANCK:  A.  D.  lT!»H-nUl»,  to  1805,  ami 
(JKHMANv:  A.  I).  lH(ii-lHo;t,  to  isori-iMtwi. 

A.  D.  1809-1814.— The  second  struKgle  wit'i 
Napoleon  and  the  second  defeat.  -The  Ma:  ■ 
riage  alliance.-  -The  Germanic  War  of  LiUcr 
ation. — The  final  alliance  and  the  overthrow 
of  the  Corsican.— "  Mi  tlir  r.'tli  of  .Inly.  IHOtt, 
foiirlccii  princes  of  the  south  and  wi'st  of  (icr- 
inany  united  tlieniselves  into  the  confederation 
of  llie  Kliiiic,  iinil  recoL'iiised  Najjoleon  asllieir 
protector.  On  tlie  Isl  of  Aufjiist,  they  si'rnilled 
to  the  diet  of  Kalislion  their  separation  from  the 
(lermanlc  body.  The  lOmpiri'  of  (Jerniaiiy 
ceased  to  exist,  and  Francis  II.  alidicated  the 
title  hy  proclamation.  Ity  a  convention  siLrncd 
at  Vienna,  on  the  Lltli  of  Decemhcr,  Prussia 
exchanircd  the  territories  of  Aiispach,  Clevcs  and 
Ncufchritil  for  tlieeh'ctorateof  Hanover.  Niipo. 
Icon  had  all  the  west  under  his  power.  Absolute 
master  of  Knineeaiid  Italy,  11s  emperor  and  kini;, 
lie  w lis  also  master  of  JSpaiii,  by  the  dependence 
of  that  rourl  ;  of  Naples  and  Holland,  by  his 
two  brothers;  of  Switzerland,  by  the  act  of 
mediation',  and  in  Ocrmany  he  liail  at.  his  dis- 
])osal  the  Uintrsof  H.ivaria  and  Wurtemberir,  and 
the  confcilcration  of  the  Uliine  against  Au.stria 
and  Prussia.  .  .  .  Tliisencroachin.irproffrcssfjave 
rise  to  tlie  fourth  coalition.  Prussia,  neutral 
since  the  peace  of  IWlc,  Imd,  in  the  last  campaiKn, 
been  on  the  point  of  joininj;  the  AustroUnssian 
coalition.  'I'he  rapidity  of  the  cmjieror's  vic- 
tories had  alone  restrained  her;  but  now,  alarmed 
at  the  iifigrandi/.ement  of  the  empire,  and  eneour- 
iif^ed  by  tin;  line  condition  of  her  Iroop.s,  she 
lea)j:ue(l  with  Russia  to  dii  e  the  French  from 
(Jermany.  .  .  .  The  campaiun  opened  early  in 
October.  Kiipoleon,  as  usual,  everwhelmeif  the 
coalition  by  the  promptitude  of  his  marches  and 
the  vii^our  of  his  measures.  On  the  Mill  of 
t)ctob(r,  he  destroyed  at  Jena  the  military 
moniircliy  of  Prussia,  by  a  ilecisive  victory.  .  .  ". 
The  campaiirn  in  Poland  was  less  rajiid,  Init  ;'.s 
brilliant  as  that  of  Prussia.  Russia,  for  the  third 
time,  measured  its  strength  with  France.  Con- 
quered at  Zurich  and  Aiisterlitz,  it  was  also 
(lefeuted  at  Eyiau  and  Friedland.  After  these 
memorable  battles,  the  emperor  Alexander  entered 
into  a  nejrotiiilion,  and  concluded  at  Tilsit,  on 
the  21st  of  June,  1807,  an  iirmislice  which  was 
followed  by  u  definitive  treaty  on  the  7th  of  July. 
The  iieaee  of  Tilsit  extended  the  French  domina- 
tion on  the  conlinent.  Prussia  was  reduced  to 
half  its  extent.  In  the  south  of  Germany, 
Napoleon  had  Instituted  the  two  kingdoms  of 
Bavaria  and  Wurteniberg  against  Austria; 
further  to  the  north,  ho  created  the  two  feudatory 
kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Westphalia  against 
Prussia.  ...  In  order  to  obtain  imiversal  and 
uncontested  supremacy,  he  made  use  of  arms 
against  the  continent,  and  the  cessation  of  com- 
merce against  England.  But  in  forbidding  to 
the  continental  states  all  communicatiim  with 
England,  he  was  preparing  new  dilliculties  for 
himself,  and  soon  added    to   the   animosity  of 


opinion  excited  liy  his  degpotlHrn,  and  the  hatred 
of  states  pi'iHliiccil  by  Ills  com|Ueriiig  domination, 
the  exasperation  of  private  Interests  and  com- 
mercial  sulTering  iwcasioned  by  the  blockade. 
.  .  .  TluM'Xpeditlon  of  Portugal  In  1H07,  and  the 
invasion  of  Spain  in  INOH.  began  for  him  and  for 
Kiiropeimew  order  of  events.  .  .  .  The  reaction 
iniinifested  itself  in  three  countries,  liitlierti) 
allies  of  France,  'iml  It  brought  on  the  tiftli 
coalition.  The  court  of  Rome  was  dissatlstled; 
till'  |)eiiinsula  wii.-i  wounded  in  its  national  priile 
by  having  imposed  upon  it  a  foreign  king;  in  its 
isages,  liy  the  suppression  of  convents,  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  of  the  grandees;  Holland 
siili'ered  in  its  coinmerie  from  the  blockade,  and 
Austria  supported  impatiently  its  losses  and 
subordinate  condition.  England,  walcliing  for 
an  opportunity  to  revive  the  struggle  on  the 
continent,  excited  the  ii'sistiince  of  Rome,  tho 
peninsula,  and  the  cabinet  of  Vienna.  .  .  . 
.\ustria  .  .  .  madea  jiowerful  elTort,  and  raised 
.'."lO.tMKt  men,  comprising  the  I.iinilwelir,  and 
took  the  Meld  in  the  spring  of  IMdi).  Tlie  Tyrol 
rose,  anil  King  Jerome  was  driven  from  Ills 
capil.il  by  the  Westphali.ins;  Italy  wavered;  and 
Prus.sia  oidy  waited  till  Napoleon  met  willi  11 
reverse,  to  take  arms;  but  tlu^  emperor  was  still 
at  the  height  of  his  power  and  ))rc)sperity.  He 
ha.steiied  from  Madrid  in  the  beginning  of  Feb- 
ruary, and  directed  the  membci'sof  the  confedera- 
tion to  keep  their  I'ontingents  in  readiness. 
On  the  12th  of  \\m\  he  left  Paris,  passed  the 
Rhine,  jilunged  into  Germany,  gained  the 
victories  of  KikmUhl  and  Essling,  oceupieil 
Victuu',  a  second  time  on  the  l.'ith  of  May,  and 
overthrew  this  new  coalition  by  the  battle  of 
AVagrnm,  after  a  cami)aign  of  four  moiillis.  .  .  . 
Thepcaceof  Vienna,  of  liie  lltli  of  October,  IHO!). 
deprived  the  house  of  Austria  of  several  more 
provinces,  and  compelldl  it  again  to  adopt  the 
continental  system.  .  .  .  Napoleon,  who  seemed 
to  follow  a  rash  Imt  inllexible  policy,  deviated 
from  his  course  about  this  time  by  a  second 
marriage.  He  divorced  Josephine  that  li(^  might 
give  an  heir  to  the  empire,  and  married,  on  the 
l.st  of  Ajiril,  1810,  Marie-Ijouise,  areh-ducbess  of 
Austria.  Tliis  was  a  decided  error.  He  (luitted 
his  position  and  his  post  as  a  parvenu  and  revo- 
lutionary monarch,  opposing  in  I'Vance  the 
an<;ieut  courts  as  the  repulilii;  had  opposed  the 
ancient  governments.  He  placed  himself  in  a 
false  situation  with  respect  to  Austria,  which  he 
ought  either  to  have  crushed  after  the  victory  of 
Wiigram,  or  to  have  reinstated  in  its  possessions 
after  his  marriage  with  the  arch-duchess.  .  .  . 
The  birth,  on  the  2()th  of  .March,  1811,  of  a  son, 
who  received  the  title  of  king  of  Rome,  seemed 
to  consoliihite  the  pow'cr  of  Napoleon,  by  secur- 
ing to  him  a  successor.  Tlie  war  in  Spain  was 
prosecuted  with  vigourduring  tlie  years  IHlOand 
1811.  .  .  .  While  the  war  was  proieeding  in  the 
peninsula  with  advantage,  but  without  any 
decided  success,  a  new  campaign  was  preparing 
in  the  north.  Russia  perceived  tin;  empire  of 
Napoleon  approaching  its  territories.  .  .  .  About 
the  close  of  1810,  it  increased  its  armies,  renewed 
its  commercial  relations  with  Great  Britain,  and 
did  not  seem  indisposed  to  a  rupture.  The  year 
1811  was  spent  in  negotiations  which  led  to 
nothing,  and  preparations  for  war  were  made  on 
lioth  sides.  .  .  .  On  the  0th  of  March,  Napoleon 
left  Paris.  .  .  .  During  several  montlis  he  fixed 
his  court  at   Dresden,  wlicre   the   emperor  of 


224 


ALSTIUA.  1H()«-1«U. 


Ih^rthrotr  of 


Al^'lUIA.   ISLVlSSa. 


AiiKtrlii,  tlif  kiiiK  iif  Prii.sslii,  iinil  all  llii' 
(uivcrciKtiH  (if  Ocriimiiv,  (iiimc  Io  Ihiw  lictorc  hit 
lii^'li  fdrtiiiu'.  Oil  tli'f  'J'JikI  (if  .luiic.  will'  wiiH 
(lo'liircd  ii^'iiiiiNt  Itiisslii.  .  .  .  Nii|i(ili'<iii,  wild, 
a'ciirdini;  Io  his  ciiKtuni,  wished  to  llnisli  all  in 
iiiic  ('aiiipaiKn,  advanced  at  (incc  into  tlie  heart 
of  KiiNsia,  iiisteiid  (if  prudently  (irKaiii/.ini;  the 
I'dlish  liiiirler  against  it.  IliKariny  aiiKiiinted  t(i 
ahdilt  rilHI.INHI  iiieii.  lie  passed  llie  Nieiiiendll  the 
'.>4tli  (if  .lime :  tiKik  Wiliia.  and  Wilepslv,  defeated 
tlie  liiisslans  at  Asli'dWiiii,  I'dldtsU,  .Mdliilow 
Hiiidleiisiid,  at  the  Mdslidwa,  and  (in  the  14tli  (if 
Hepteinlier.  made  his  entry  iiilii  .Moscow.  . 
.Mdscow  was  hiuiicd  hy  its  ffdVcriKir.  .  .  .  Tlie 
ciiipei'dr  dilKlit  to  have  seen  that  this  war  would 
not  terminate  as  the  others  liad  done;  yel,  coii- 
(|iier(ir  of  the  f(H',  and  master  of  his  eimilal,  lie 
Cdiiccivcd  hopes  of  pcac-  which  the  Uiissians 
skilfully  eiieo'i rafted.  Winter  was  iipproacliiii);. 
and  Napolei.i  pniloiiKcd  his  stay  at  .Moscow  for 
si.\  Weeks.  He  (ielayed  his  moveinenls  on 
Hccouiit  of  tlie  deceptive  iiej,'otialioiis  of  tlie 
Kiissians;  and  did  not  decide  on  a  retreat  till  the 
IWtliof  Oclolier.  Tills  retreat  was  disastrous,  and 
began  the  downfall  of  the  einpiie.  .  .  ,  The 
taliinet  of  llerliii  began  the  defections.  On  the 
1st  of  March,  IHtli,  it  joined  Russia  and  England, 
which  were  forming  the  si.xtli  coalition.  Sweden 
needed  to  it  soon  after;  yet  the  emperor,  wliom 
the  confederatt'  powc  tliought  prostrated  by 
tlie  last  di.saster,  opened  llie  campaign  with  new 
victories.  The  battle  of  I,ut/.eii,  won  by  con- 
scripts, on  the  2Dd  of  Slay,  the  occupalioii  of 
Dresden ;  tilt!  victory  of  naiitzen,  and  the  war 
carried  to  the  Elbe,  astonished  the  coalition. 
Austria,  wliicli,  since  181(1,  liad  liccn  on  a  foot- 
ing of  peace,  was  resuming  arms,  and  already 
meditating  a  change  of  alliance.  Slie  now  pro- 
po.sed  herself  as  a  mediatri.x  between  the  emperor 
and  the  confederates.  Her  mediation  was 
iiccepted;  an  urmisticu  was  concluded  at  Pless- 
wit/.,  on  the  4tli  of  .Iiiuc,  and  a  tongres.s 
iis.semliled  at  Prague  to  negotiate  peace.  It  was 
impossible  to  come  to  terms.  .  .  .  Austria 
joined  the  coalition,  and  war,  tlic  only  means  of 
settling  this  great  contest,  was  resumed.  Tlie 
emperor  liad  only  280,000  men  against  520.000. 
.  .  .  Victory  seemed,  at  fli"st,  to  second  lilm. 
At  Dresden  ho  defeated  the  combined  forces; 
but  the  defeats  of  his  lieutenants  demnged  his 
plans.  .  .  .  Tlio  princes  of  the  confederation  of 
the  Khinc  chose  this  moment  to  desert  the  cause 
of  the  empire.  A  vast  engagement  having  taken 
place  at  Eeipsic  between  the  two  armies,  tlie 
ba.vons  and  Wiirteml  .rgcrs  passed  over  to  the 
enemy  on  the  liekl  of  battle.  This  defection  to 
the  strcngtli  of  the  coalesced  powers,  who  had 
learned  a  more  compact  and  skilful  mode  of  war- 
fare, oliligcd  Napoleon  to  retreat,  after  a  si  rug 
gle  of  tiiree  days.  .  .  .  The  empire  was  invaded 
in  all  directions.  The  Austrians  entered  Italy ; 
the  English,  having  made  tliemselves  masters  of 
the  peninsulii  during  the  last  two  years,  liad 
passed  the  Bidassoa,  under  general  Wellington, 
and  appeared  on  the  Pyrenees.  Three  armies 
pressed  on  France  to  the  east  and  north.  .  .  . 
Napoleon  was  .  .  .  obliged  to  submit  to  tlie 
conditons  of  the  allied  powers;  their  pretensions 
inerciwed  with  their  power.  .  .  .  On  the  11th  of 
April,  1814,  lii>  renounced  for  liimself  and 
children  the  thrones  of  France  and  Italy,  and 
received  in  exchange  for  his  vast  soverignty,  the 
limits  of  which  had  extended  from  Cadiz  to  the 


Ilallh'  S<'a,  the  liiile  island  of  F.lbu.'-P.  A. 
.Migliet,  llinlniii  iif  l/if  l''reiiih  l{i  rtiliitU'ii,  tit.  1.1. 
— .Sle(jKIIM.\NV:  A.  I)    IStmd.VNlIAUV— .Il.Nh),  to 

IHlll;  Ut'SMM     A    I)    1H12;  and  Fiianck;  A.  I). 

lHlO-1813  to  1M|.(. 

A.  D.  1 314.  -Restored  rule  in  Northern 
Italy.     Sec  Itm.v:  A.  I».  IHHIHI.-). 

A.  D.  1814-1815.— Treaties  of  Paris  and  Con- 
presa  of  Vienna.— Readjustment  of  French 
boundaries.  -  Recovery  of  the  Tyrol  from  Ba- 
varia and  Lombardy  in  Italy.— Acquisition  of 
the  Venetian  states.  Sec  Kuan(I.:A.  D.  1811 
(.Vruii, — .liNK).  and    IMi.'i   (.Iii.v — Novk.mukh): 

also  ViKNNA,  TlIK  ('llN(illKSS  (IK, 

A.  D.  1814-1820.— Formation  of  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation.     .See  (>i:um.\sv:    A.    I>. 

1811-1S-.M. 

A.  D.  1815.— The  Holy  Alliance.    Sec  lldi.v 

.\l.l.I  \N(  1;. 

A.  D.  1815.— Return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba. 
—  The  Quadruple  Alliance. —  The  Waterloo 
Campaign  and  Us  results,     See  Fii.\.N('I'.:  A.  I). 

1814-181."). 

A.  D.  1815-1835. — Emperor  Francis,  Prince 
Metternich,  and  "the  system."—  '  ,Mler  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  in  1801),  and  slili  more  con- 
spicuously after  the  pacilicatiiin  of  Eiinipe,  the 
political  wisdom  of  the  rulers  (if  Austria  in- 
clined them  ever  iiidre  and  more  to  the  main- 
tenance of  tliat  slat(!  of  things  which  was  known 
to  friends  and  foes  as  tlie  System.  l!ut  what 
was  the  System  V  It  was  the  organi.salion  of  do- 
nothing.  It  (iimidt  even  he  said  to  liave  been 
reactionary:  it  was  simply  inactionary.  .  .  . 
"Mark  time  in  place'  was  the  word  of  command 
in  every  goveriinient  ollice.  The  bureaucracy 
was  engaged  from  morning  to  night  in  niaking 
work,  but  nothing  ever  came  of  it.  Xot  even 
were  the  liberal  innovatidiis  wliich  had  lasted 
through  the  reign  (if  Lcopdld  got  rid  of.  Every- 
thing went  on  in  the  confused,  iintini.slied,  and 
inelTective  state  in  wliicli  the  great  war  had 
found  it.  Sucli  was  tlie  famous  System  which 
was  venerated  by  the  iiltra-Tdriis  of  every  land, 
and  most  venerated  wlieie  it  was  least  under- 
stood. Two  men  dominalo  the  histiiry  of 
Austria  during  this  iinliappy  tMiu;  —  men  who, 
though  utterly  unlike  in  clianutcr  and  intellect, 
were  nevertliele.ss  admirably  tilted  to  work  to- 
gether, and  whose  names  will  be  long  united  in 
an  unenviable  notorietv.  These  were  the 
Emperor  Francis  and  Prince  Metternich.  Tlio 
Jirst  was  the  evil  gi  nius  of  internal  politics;  the 
second  exercised  a  hardly  less  baneful  iiillucnco 
over  foreigii  affairs.  .  .  .  For  tlie  external  policy 
of  Prince  iietternich,  the  first  and  most  neces- 
sary condition  was,  tliat  Austria  should  give  to 
Europe  the  impression  of  fixed  adherence  to  the 
most  extreme  ('(Uiservntive  views.  So  for  iTiany 
years  they  worked  together,  Prince  Metternich 
always  declaring  that  he  was  a  mere  tool  in  the 
hands  of  his  master,  but  in  reality  far  more 
absolute  in  the  direction  of  his  own  "department 
than  the  emperor  was  in  his.  .  .  .  Prince  Metter- 
nich hud  the  power  of  making  the  most  of  ail 
he  knew,  and  constantly  left  upon  persons  of 
real  merit  the  impression  tliat  he  was  a  man  of 
lofty  aspirations  and  liberal  views,  who  forced 
himself  to  repress  such  tendencies  in  others  be- 
cause he  thought  that  their  repression  was  a  sine 
qua  non  for  Austria.  The  men  of  ability,  who 
knew  him  intimately,  thought  less  well  of  him. 
To  them  he  appearou  vain  and  superficial,  with 


2 '2: 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1835. 


Prince  Mettemlch  and 
*•  the  System." 


AUSTRIA,   1815-1840. 


much  thnt  recnlled  tlio  French  nohlcssc  of  the 
old  regime  in  liis  way  of  looliing  at  tilings,  and 
cmijhutically  wanting  in  every  element  of  great- 
ness. With  the  ontbrenk  of  the  Greek  insurrec- 
tion in  1821,  began  a  period  of  difllculty  and 
complications  for  the  statesmen  of  Austria. 
There  were  two  things  of  which  they  were 
mortally  afraid  —  Russia  and  the  revolution. 
Now,  il  tliey  assisted  the  Greelis,  tliey  would  be 
playing  into  tlie  hands  of  tlie  second;  and  if 
they  oppo.sed  the  Greeks,  they  wouhl  1)e  likely 
to  embroil  tliemsclves  with  tlio  tirst.  The  whole 
art  of  Prince  Metternic'h  was  tlierefore  exerted 
to  licep  things  (luiet  in  tlie  Eastern  Peninsula, 
and  to  postpone  the  intolerable  '  question 
d'Orient.'  JIaiiy  were  the  shifts  he  tried,  and 
sometimes,  as  j  nst  after  the  accession  of  Nicholas, 
his  hopes  '  se  very  higli.  All  was,  however,  in 
vain.  En(  and  and  Russia  settled  matters  bo- 
hind  liis  ba^k;  and  although  the  tone  which  tlie 
publicists  in  his  ])ay  adopted  towavds  the  Greeks 
became  more  favourable  in  1836-7,  the  battle  of 
Navariuo  was  a  sad  surjirLse  and  mortification  to 
the  wily  chancellor.  Not  less  annoying  was  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  on  tlie  Danube  be- 
tween HusfJa  and  the  Porte.  Tlie  reverses  with 
which  tlie  great  neigliliour  met  in  his  first  cam- 
paign cannot  liave  been  otherwise  than  pleasing 
at  Vienna.  But  tlie  unfortunate  succi'ss  which 
attended  his  arms  in  the  second  campaign  soon 
turned  ill-dissembled  joy  into  ill-concealed 
sorrow,  and  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  at  once 
lowered  Austria's  prestige  in  the  East,  and  de- 
posed Metternich  from  tlie  commanding  position 
which  he  had  occupied  in  the  councils  of  the 
Holy  Allies.  It  became,  indee<1,  "ver  more  and 
more  evident  in  the  next  few  years  that 
the  age  of  Congress  politics,  during  which  he 
had  been  the  observed  of  ah  observers,  was  past 
and  gone,  that  the  diplonatic  period  had  van- 
ished away,  and  that  the  military  period  had  be- 
gun. The  very  form  in  whidi  the  highest  in- 
ternational (pu'stions  were  ilebated  was  utterly 
changed.  At  V'ienna,  in  1814,  the  diplomatists 
had  been  really  the  primary,  the  sovereigns  only 
secondary  personages;  while  at  the  interview  of 
Mtinchengratz,  between  Nicholas  and  the  Em- 
peror Francis,  in  1883,  the  great  autocrat  ap- 
peared to  look  upon  Prince  Metternich  as  hardly 
more  than  a  confidential  clerk.  The  dull 
monotony  of  servitude  which  oppressed  nec''" 
the  wliole  of  the  empire  was  varied  by  the  at 
tions  of  one  of  its  component  parts.  AVheu  the 
Hungarian  Diet  was  dissolved  in  1813,  the  emperor 
had  solemnly  promised  that  It  should  be  ci,lled 
together  again  within  three  years.  Up  to  181.5, 
accordingly,  the  nation  went  on  giving  ex- 
tnionlinary  levies  and  supplies  without  much 
opposition.  When,  however,  the  appointed 
time  was  fulfilled,  it  began  to  murmur.  .  .  . 
Year  by  year  the  agitation  went  on  increasing, 
till  at  last  the  breaking  out  of  the  Greek  revolu- 
tion, and  the  thrt;;tenii<g  appearance  of  Eastern 
politics,  induced  Pru^c.,  Metternich  to  join  his 
entreaties  to  those  of  many  other  counsellors, 
who  could  i'  t  be  suspected  of  the  slightest  lean- 
ing to  constitutional  views.  At  length  the 
emperor  yielded,  and  in  1825  Presburg  was  once 
more  filled  with  the  best  blood  and  most  active 
spirits  of  the  land,  assembled  in  parliament. 
Long  and  stormy  were  the  debates  which  ensued. 
Bitter  was,  from  time  to  time,  the  vexation  of 
the   emperor,  and   great  was    the   excitement 


throughout  Hungary.  In  the  end,  however,  the 
court  of  Vienna  triumphed.  Hardly  any  griev- 
ances were  redressed,  while  its  demands  were 
fully  conceded.  The  Diet  of  1835  was,  however, 
not  witliout  fruit.  The  discussion  which  tooli 
plac('  advanced  the  political  education  of  the 
people,  who  were  brought  back  to  the  point 
where  they  stood  at  the  death  of  Joseph  II.-- 
tliat  is,  before  the  long  wars  with  France  had 
come  to  distract  their  attention  from  their  own 
affairs.  .  .  .  The  slumbers  of  Austria  were  not 
yet  over.  The  System  dragged  its  slow  length 
along.  Little  or  nothing  was  done  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  country.  Klebelsberg  ad- 
ministered the  finances  in  an  easy  and  careless 
manner.  Conspiracies  and  risings  in  Italy  were 
easily  checked,  and  batclv.i  of  prisoners  sent  off 
from  time  to  time  to  JIantua  or  Spielberg. 
Austrian  influence  rose  ever  higlier  and  higher 
in  all  the  petty  courts  of  the  Peninsula.  .  .  .  lu 
other  regions  Russia  or  England  niiglit  be  will- 
ing to  thwart  him,  but  in  Italy  Prince  Metter- 
nich might  proudly  reflect  that  Austria  was  in- 
deed a 'great  power.'  Tlie  French  Revoluticm 
of  1830  was  at  first  alarming;  but  when  it  re- 
sulted in  the  enthronement  of  a  dynasty  which 
called  to  its  aid  a  'cabinet  of  repression,'  all 
fears  were  stilled.  The  Emperor  Francis  con- 
tinued to  say,  when  any  change  was  proposed, 
'  We  must  sleep  upon  it,'  an(l  died  in  1835  in 
'  the  abundance  of  peace.'" — M.  E.  Grant  Duff, 
Stittlien  ill  European  Politics,  pp.  140-149. — See, 
also,  Geumany:  A.  D.  1819-1847. 

/>  D.  1815-1846. — Gains  of  the  Hapsburg 
monarchy.  —  Its  aggressive  absolutism.  ^ 
Death  of  Francis  I. — Accession  of  Ferdinand 
I. — Suppression  of  revolt  in  Galicia.— Extinc- 
tion ana  annexation  of  the  Republic  of  Ciacow. 
— "In  the  new  partition  of  Europe,  arranged  in 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  [see  Vienna,  The  Con- 
guess  of],  Austria  received  Lonibardy  and 
Venice  under  the  title  of  a  Lombardo-Venetian 
kingdom,  the  Ulyrian  provinces  also  as  a  king- 
dom, Venetian  Dalmatia,  the  Tirol,  Vorarlberg, 
Salzburg,  the  Innviertel  and  Ilausrucksviertel, 
and  the  part  of  Galicia  ceded  by  her  at  an  earlier 
period.  Thus,  after  three  and  twenty  years  of 
war,  the  monarchy  had  gained  a  considerable 
accession  of  strength,  having  obtained,  iu  lieu 
of  its  remote  and  unprofitable  possessions  in  the 
Netherlands,  territories  which  consolidated  its 
power  in  Italy,  and  made  it  as  great  iu  extent  as 
it  had  been  in  the  days  of  Charles  VI.,  and  far 
more  compact  and  defensible.  The  grand 
duchies  of  Modena,  Parma,  and  Placentia,  were 
moreover  restored  to  the  collateral  branches  of 
the  house  of  Hapsbi.rg.  .  .  .  After  the  last  fall 
of  Napoleon  .  .  .  the  great  powers  of  the  con- 
tinent .  .  .  constituted  themselves  the  champions 
of  the  principle  of  absolute  monarchy.  The 
maintenance  of  that  principle  ultimately  became 
the  chief  object  of  the  so-called  Holy  AUianco 
established  in  1816  between  Russia,  Austria  and 
Prussia,  and  was  pursued  with  remarkable  stead- 
fastness by  the  Emperor  Francis  and  his  min- 
ister. Prince  Metternich  [see  Holy  Alliance]. 
.  .  .  Tlienceforth  it  became  the  avowed  policy 
of  the  chief  sovereigns  of  Germany  to  maintain 
the  rights  of  dynasties  in  an  adverse  sense  to 
those  of  their  subjects.  The  people,  on  the 
other  hand,  deeply  resented  the  breach  of  those 
promises  which  had  been  'avishly  made  to 
them  on  the  general  summons  to  the  war  of 


226 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1846. 


Absolut  isni. 


AUSTRIA,  1815-1849. 


liberation.  Disaffection  took  the  place  of  that 
entliusiastic  loyalty  with  which  they  had  bled 
and  suffered  for  their  native  princes;  the  secret 
socictieu,  formed  with  the  concurrence  of  their 
rulers,  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  olf  the  yoke 
of  the  foreigner,  became  ready  instruments  of 
.sedition.  ...  In  the  winter  of  1819,  a  German 
federative  congress  assembled  at  Vienna.  In 
May  of  the  following  year  it  published  an  act 
containing  closer  detinitions  of  the  Fedei'ative 
Act,  having  for  their  essential  objects  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  various  provincial  Diets  from  all 
positive  interference  in  the  general  affairs  of 
Germany,  and  an  increase  of  the  power  of  the 
princes  over  their  respective  Diets,  by  a  guaran- 
tee of  aid  on  the  part  of  the  confederates"  (sec 
Gkrmanv:  a.  D.  1814-1820).  During  the  next 
three  years,  the  powers  of  the  Holy  Alliance, 
under  the  lead  of  Austria,  and  acting  under  a 
concert  established  at  the  successive  congresses 
of  Troppau,  Laybacli  and  Verona  (see  Veuona, 
C'ONOiiEss  OF),  interfered  to  put  down  popular 
risings  against  the  tyranny  of  government  in 
Italy  and  Spain,  wliile  they  discouraged  the  re- 
volt of  the  Greeks  (see  Italy:  A.  D.  1820- 
1831 ;  and  Spain :  A.  D.  1814-1837).  "The com- 
motions that  pervaded  Europe  after  the  French 
Revolution  of  1830  affected  Austria  only  in  her 
Italian  dominions,  and  there  but  indirectly,  for 
tlie  imperial  authority  remained  undisputed  in 
the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom.  But  tlie 
duke  of  Slodena  and  the  archduke  of  Parma 
were  obliged  to  quit  those  states,  and  a  formid- 
able insurrection  broke  out  in  the  territory  of  the 
C'luirch.  An  Austrian  army  of  18,000  men 
quickly  put  dowi  the  insurgents,  who  rose 
again,  however,  as  soon  as  it  was  withdrawn. 
Tlie  pope  again  invoked  the  aid  of  AiLstri-^i, 
whose  troops  entered  Bologna  in  January,  18''3, 
and  established  themselves  there  in  garrison. 
Upon  this,  the  French  imiuediately  sent  a  force 
to  occupy  Ancona,  and  for  a  while  a  renewal  of 
the  oft-re])catcd  conflict  between  Austrii',  and 
France  on  Italian  ground  seemed  inevitable ;  but 
it  soon  appeared  that  Prance  was  not  prepared 
to  support  the  revolutionary  party  in  the  pope's 
dominions,  and  that  danger  passed  away.  The 
French  remained  for  some  years  in  Ancona,  and 
the  Austrians  in  Bologna  and  other  towns  of 
Romagna.  This  was  the  last  important  incident 
in  tlie  foreign  affairs  of  Austria  previous  to  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  on  the  2nd  of 
March,  183.5,  after  a  reign  of  43  years.  .  .  .  The 
Emperor  Francis  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Ferdinand  I.,  whose  accession  occasioned  no 
change  in  the  political  or  administrative  syst<'iu 
of  the  empire.  Incapacitated,  by  physical  and 
mental  infirmity,  from  labouring  as  his  father 
had  done  in  the  business  of  the  state,  the  new 
monarch  left  to  Prince  Metternich  a  much  more 
unrestricted  power  than  that  minister  had 
wielded  in  the  preceding  reign.  .  .  .  The  prov- 
ince of  Galicia  began  early  in  the  new  reign  to 
occasion  uneasiness  to  the  government.  The 
Congress  of  Vienna  had  constituted  the  city  of 
Cracow  an  independent  republic  —  a  futile 
representative  of  that  Polish  nationality  which 
I'md  once  extended  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black 
Sea.  After  the  failure  of  the  Polish  insurrection 
of  IS'il  against  Russia,  Cracow  became  the  focus 
of  fresh  conspiracies,  to  put  an  end  to  whicii  the 
city  was  occupied  by  a  mixed  force  of  Russians, 
Prussians,  and  Austrians;  the  two  former  were 


soon  withdrawn,  but  the  latter  remained  until 
1840.  When  they  also  had  retired,  the  Polish 
propaganda  was  renewed  with  consideralile 
effect.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  Galii  ia  in 
1846,  when  the  scantiness  of  the  Austrian  mili- 
tary force  in  the  province  seemed  to  promise  it 
success.  It  failed,  however,  as  all  [irevious 
efforts  of  the  Polish  patriots  had  failed,  because 
it  rested  on  no  basis  of  popular  sympathy.  The 
nationality  for  which  they  contended  had  ever 
been  of  an  oligarchical  jiattern,  hostile  to  the 
freedom  of  the  middle  and  lower  cla°",es.  The 
Galician  peasants  had  no  mind  to  exchange  the 
yoke  of  Austria,  which  pressed  lightly  upon 
them,  for  the  feudal  opjiression  of  the  Poli.sli 
nobles.  They  turned  upon  the  insurgents  and 
slew  or  took  "them  prisoners,  the  police  inciting 
them  to  the  work  by  publicly  offering  a  reward 
of  live  florins  for  every  suspected  person  de- 
livered up  by  them,  alive  or  dead.  Thus  the 
agents  of  a  civilized  government  became  the 
avowed  instigator'  of  an  inhuman  'iac(iuerie.' 
The  houses  of  the  landed  proprietors  were  sacked 
by  the  jteasants,  their  inmates  were  tortured  and 
murdered,  and  bloody  anarchy  raged  throughout 
the  land  in  the  prostituted  name  of  loyalty. 
The  Austrian  troops  ,at  last  restored  order ;  but 
Szela,  the  leader  of  the  sanguinary  marauders, 
was  thanked  and  higlily  rewarded  iu  the  name 
of  his  sovereign.  In  the  same  year  the  three 
protecting  powers,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Pr  issia, 
took  possession  of  Cracow,  and,  ignoring  the 
right  of  the  other  parties  to  the  treaty  of  Vie  ina 
to  concern  themselves  about  the  fate  of  tbo  re- 
public, they  announced  that  its  iiulepindeiice 
was  annulled,  and  that  the  city  and  territory  of 
Cracow  were  annexed  to,  and  forever  incorpo- 
rated with,  the  Austrian  monarchy.  From  tills 
time  forth  the  political  atmosphere  of  Europe 
became  more  and  more  loaded  with  the  presages 
of  the  storm  that  burst  in  1848."— W.  K.  Kelly, 
Continuation,  of  ('o.re'n  Hist,  of  the  IIouhc  of 
Austria,  ch.  .'i-O. 

A.  D.  1815-1840. — Arrangements  in  Italy  of 
the  Congress  of  Vienna. — Heaviness  of  the 
Austrian  yoke. — The  Italian  risings. —  "By 
the  treaty  of  Vienna  (181.5),  the  .  .  .  entire  king- 
dom of  Venetian- Lombardy  was  handed  over  to 
the  Austrians;  the  duchies  of  Modena,  Iteggio, 
with  Massa  and  Carrara,  given  to  Austrian 
princes;  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla  to 
Napoleon's  queen,  Maria  Luisa,  because  she  was 
an  Austrian  princess ;  the  grand-duchy  of  Tus- 
cany to  Ferdinand  III.  of  Austria ;  the  duchy  of 
Lucca  to  a  Bourbon.  Rome  and  the  Roman 
states  were  restored  to  the  new  Po|)e,  Pius  VII. ; 
Sicily  was  united  to  Naples  under  the  Bourbons, 
and  later  deprived  of  her  constitution,  despite 
the  promised  protection  of  England ;  the  Canton 
Ticino,  though  strictly  Italian,  annexed  to  the 
Swiss  Confederation;  the  little  republic  of  St. 
Slarino  left  intact,  even  as  the  principality  of 
Monaco.  England  retained  ]\Ialta ;  Corsica  was 
left  to  France.  Italy,  so  Jletternich  and  Europe 
foudly  hoped,  was  reduced  to  a  geographical  ex- 
pression. Unjust,  brutal,  and  treacherous  as 
was  that  partition,  at  least  it  taught  the  Italians 
that  '  who  would  be  free  himself  must  strike  the 
blow.'  It  united  them  into  one  common  hatred 
of  Austria  and  Austrian  satellites.  By  substitut- 
ing pa])al,  Austrian,  and  Bourbon  despotism  for 
the  free  institutions,  codes,  and  constitutions  of 
the  Napoleonic  era,  it  taught  them  the  difference 


227 


AUSTHIA,  1815-1849. 


The  Fi-iink/ort 
Asui'mhly, 


AUSTRIA,   1848-1840. 


l)CtW(>('ii  rule  ami  misru'c.  Hence  the  (leniiiiKl 
nf  the  Neapolitans  iliiriii);  their  lirst  I'evohitiiui 
(1821))  was  for  a  conslitiition;  that  of  tlie  I'ied 
monle.so  anil  Lombards  (18^1)  for  a  constitiitioii 
iiml  war  aijaliist  .Viistria.  The  liimrhoii  swore 
aiKl  foreswore,  aiicHhe  Austriaiis  '  restored  orih'r  ' 
in  Naples.  The  I'iednionlese.  who  had  not  con- 
certed Ihiir  movenient  iiiilil  Naples  was  crushed 
—  after  the  alidication  of  Victor  Kniinamul  I.,  the 
jiranting  of.the  constitution  by  the  re;;ent  Charles 
Albert,  and  its  abropition  l>y  the  new  kiii?r 
Cliarles  Felix  —  saw  the  Aiistrians  enter  Pied- 
mont,  while  Ihu  leaders  of  the  revolution  went 
out  into  e.xile  [see  It.vi.y:  A.  I).  182(»-1S,>1]. 
Hut  those  revoliilioiisand  those  failures  were  the 
beijinninir  of  the  end.  The  will  to  be  independent 
of  all  fca'eiirners,  the  thirst  for  freedom,  was 
universal;  the  very  name  of  empire  or  of  em- 
peror, was  rendere<l  ridiculous,  reduced  to  a 
parody  —  in  the  person  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria. 
But  one  illusion  remained  —  in  the  lilieratin.;,' 
virtties  of  France  and  the  French;  this  had  to  be 
dispelled  by  bitter  experience,  and  for  it  substi- 
tuted the  new  idea  of  one  Italy  for  the  Italians. 
11  nation  tuii'cd,  iniU'pendent,  free,  j;overned  by 
a  president  or  by  a  kini;  cliosen  by  the  soveieijin 
jieople.  The  apostle  of  tliLs  idea,  to  which  for 
lifty  years  victims  and  martyrs  were  sacriticed 
by  thousands,  was  Joseph  Mazzini ;  its  champion, 
Joseph  Uaribaldi.  IJy  the  genius  of  the  former, 
the  prowess  of  the  litter,  the  al)nejjation,  the 
constancy,  the  tenacity,  the  iron  will  of  both,  all 
thi.'  i)op\ilations  of  Italy  were  sul)jugated  by  that 
idea:  iihilosophers  ilemonstrated  it,  i)oets  sung 
it,  ])ioiis  Christian  priests  proclaimed  it,  states- 
men found  it  confronting  their  negotiations, 
baffling  their  half-i'ieasures." — J.  W.  V.  Mario, 
Inlrodnctioii  to  Aitt(iliiof/nij)/ii/  of  Oin\hid(U. — 
ScelT.M.Y:  A.  D.  18;i0-18,32,  and '1848-1819. 

A.  D.  1835.— Accession  °f  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  I. 

A.  D.  183^-1840.— The  Turko-Egyptian 
question  end  its  settlement. — ^Quadruple  Alli- 
ance.    SeeTi:uKs:  A.  I).  ls;il-lS.l(». 

A.  D.  1848. — The  Germanic  revolutionary 
rising. — National  Assembly  at  Frankfort. — 
Archduke  John  elected  Administrator  of  Ger- 
many.—  "When  the  third  French  Hevolution 
broke  out,  its  inlluence  was  immediately  fell  in 
Germany.  The  jiopidar  movement  this  time  was 
very  dilferent  from  any  the  Governments  liad 
hitherto  had  to  contend  with.  The  people  were 
cvidciuly  in  earnest,  and  resolved  to  obtain,  at 
whatever  cost,  their  chief  demands.  .  .  .  The 
Hevolution  was  most  .serious  in  the  two  great 
German  Stales,  I'russia  and  Austria.  ...  It 
was  g<'nerally  hoped  that  union  as  well  as  free- 
dom was  now  to  be  achieved  by  Germany ;  but, 
as  Prussia  and  Austria  were  in  too  much  dis- 
order to  do  anything,  about  .WO  Germans  from  the 
various  States  met  at  Frankfurt,  and  on  ;\larcli 
21  constituted  themselves  a  provisional  I'ailia 
ment.  .\ii  extreme  party  wished  the  assembly 
to  declare  itself  permanent;  but  to  this  the  ma- 
jority would  not  agree.  It  was  decided  thai  a 
National  A.s.sembiy  should  be  elected  forthwith 
by  the  German  people.  The  Confederate  Diet, 
knowing  that  the  i>rovisioual  Parliament  was 
approved  by  the  nation,  recognized  its  authority. 
Through  the  Diet  the  various  Governments  were 
communicated  with,  and  all  of  thi^m  agreed  to 
make  aiTangcmenIs  for  the  elections.  .  .  .  The 
National  Assembly  was  upeucd  in  Fruukfurt  on 


May  18,  1848.  It  elected  the  Archduke  John  of 
-Vu.stria  as  the  licad  of  a  new  provisional  central 
(Jovcrnment.  The  choice  was  a  happy  one. 
The  .Vrchduko  was  at  onee  iicknowlcdged  bv  the 
diirercnt  governments,  and  on  July  12  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Confederate  Diet  formally  made  over 
to  him  the  authority  wliicli  had  hitherto  belonged 
to  the  Diet.  Tl.e  I)iel  tlien  ceased  to  e.xist.  The 
AichduUe  chos{^  from  the  Assembly  seven  mem- 
bers, who  forjued  a  responsible  ministry.  The 
Assembly  was  divided  into  two  parties,  the 
Kight  and  the  Left.  These  again  were  broken 
u|)  into  varicms  sections.  Much  time  was  lost  in 
useless  discussions,  and  it  was  soon  suspected 
that  the  Assembly  would  not  in  the  end  prove 
equal  to  the  great  task  it  had  undertaken." — 
J.  Sime,  lliHiory  of  Oerinrny,  eh.  IP,  ,i(C<«.  8-11. 
— .See  Giou.m.\ny:  A.  D.  1848'  (.Makcii— Sept;;m- 

UKIi). 

A.  D.  1848  (December).— Accession  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  I. 

A.  D.  1848-1849.— Revolutionary  risings. — 
Bombardment  of  Prague  and  Vienna.— Abdica- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand. — Accession  of 
Francis  Joseph. — The  Hungarian  struggle  for 
independence. —  "The  rise  of  n.iticaial  feeling 
am  nig  (Ik;  Hungarian,  Slavonic,  and  Italian 
subject  i)f  the  House  of  Ilapsburg  wa.s  not  the 
only  dillictilty  of  the  Emperor  "Ferdinand  I. 
Vienna  was  then  the  gayest  and  the  dearest  centre 
of  fashion  and  lu.xury  in  Europe,  but  side  by  side 
with  wealth  there  seethed  a  mass  of  wretched 
lioverty;  and  the  protective  trade  system  of 
.\ustria  so  increased  the  price  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  that  bread-riots  were  frecinent.  .  .  .  The 
university  students  were  foremost  in  the  demand 
for  a  constitution  and  for  the  removal  of  the 
rigid  censorship  of  the  press  and  of  all  books. 
So,  wdien  the  news  came  of  the  llight  of  Louis 
Philippe  from  Paris  [see  Fii.\nck:  A.  D.  1841- 
1848,  and  1848]  the  students  as  well  as  the 
artisans  of  Vienna  rose  iu  revolt  (.March  13, 
1848),  the  latter  breaking  machinery  and  attack- 
ing the  houses  of  unpopular  employers.  A 
deputation  of  citizens  clnmoured  for  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  bated  Metternicli:  his  house  was 
burnt  down,  and  ho  tied  to  England.  A  second 
outbreak  of  the  e.xcited  populace  (May  1,5.  1848), 
sent  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  in  heli)less  Hight  to 
InnsprUck  in  Tyrol;  but  lie  returned  when  they 
avowed  their  loyalty  to  his  person,  though  they 
detested  the  old  bureaucratic  system.  Far  more 
comi)licate(l,  however,  were  the  race  jealousies 
of  the  Empire.  The  Slavs  of  Bohemia  ,  .  ,  had 
demanded  of  Ferdinand  the  union  of  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  and  Austrian  Silesia  iu  Estates  for  those 
provinces,  and  that  the  Slavs  should  enjoy  equal 
jirivileges  with  the  Germans.  After  an  unsatis- 
factory answer  had  been  received,  they  convoked 
a  Slavonic  Congress  at  Prague.  .  .  .  But  while 
this  Babel  of  tongues  was  seeking  for  a  means  of 
fusion.  Prince  windiscligriltz  was  assembling 
Austrian  troops  around  tlie  Bohemian  capital. 
Fights  in  the  streets  led  to  a  bombardment  of  the 
city,  which  Windi»eiigiai£.  soon  entered  in 
triumph.  This  has  left  11  bitterness  between  the 
Tsechs  or  Bohemians  and  the  Germans  which 
still  divides  Bohemia  socially  and  jiolitically. 
.  .  .  The  exciting  news  of  the  spring  of  1848 
had  made  the  hot  Asiatic  blood  of  the  Magyars 
boil;  yet  even  Kossuth  and  the  democr-ats  at 
first  only  demanded  tlic  abolition  of  Metter- 
nich's  systtni  in  favour  of  a  represeututive  gov- 


28 


AUSTRIA,   1848-1849. 


Ilnngarinn  Struggle 
for  Indeiitfmience. 


AUSTIUA,  1848-lH4n. 


trnmcnt.  .  .  .  Unfortuniiloly  Kossuth  (^liiiiiu'd 
lliiit  tliL'  T.Iiigyiir  laws  iiiul  liuiguiij^e  iiuisl  now 
be  siipri'iuc,  not  only  in  Iliuifriirv  propiT,  but 
also  in  the  IIttn.L,'iuian  'crown  lands'  of  Diilnni- 
tia,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia,  and  tlu;  enthusiastic 
Magyars  wi:  hcd  also  to  absorb  tlic  ancient 
principality  o"  Transylvania;  l)ut  this  a;xain  was 
stoutly  resisted  by  the  Roumanians,  Slavs,  and 
Saxons  of  that  little  known  corner  of  Kurope. 
and  their  discontent  was  fanned  by  the  court  of 
Viennii.  .lellachich,  the  Ban  or"  G()vern(n-  of 
Croatia,  headed  this  movement,  which  aimed  at 
making  Agram  the  capital  of  tlie southern  Slavs. 
Their  revolt  against  the  Hungarian  ministry  of 
Battliyanyi  was  at  lirst  disavowed  in  June,  1848, 
but  in  October  was  encouraged,  by  the  perlidious 
government  of  Vienna.  A  co'iference  between 
IJatthyanyi  and  .Tellachich  ended  with  words  of 
deliance:  'Then  wo  must  meet  on  the  Drave  ' 
said  the  Hungarian.  "No,  on  the  Danube,'  re- 
torted the  champion  of  the  Slavs.  The  vacil- 
lating Ferdinand  annulled  his  acceptance  of  the 
new  Hungarian  constitution  and  declared 
.lellachich  dictator  of  Ilungarj-.  His  tool  was 
unfortunate.  After  crossing  the  Drave,  the 
Slavs  were  defeated  by  the  brave  Hungarian 
'honveds'  (defenders);  and  as  many  as  (),()()() 
were  made  prisoners.  Unable  to  sid)due 
Hiuigary,  .lellachich  turned  aside  towards 
Vienna  to  crush  the  popular  pii'y  there.  For 
the  democrats,  exasperated  by  the  perlidious 
policy  of  the  government,  liad,  on  October  6, 
1848,  risen  a  third  time:  the  war-minister, 
Latour,  had  been  banged  on  a  lamppost,  and 
the  t.  ,  .'ror  again  lle<l  from  histurl)ulent  capital 
to  the  ever-faithful  Tyrolese.  But  now  .lella- 
chich and  WindisehuTiltz  bombanled  the  rebel- 
lious cai)ital.  It  was  on  the  point  of  surrendering 
when  the  Hungarians  appeared  to  aid  the  city; 
but  the  levies  raised  by  the  exertions  of  Kossuth 
were  this  time  outmameuvrcd  [and  defeated]  by 
the  imperialists  at  Scliwecliat  (October  30,  1848), 
and  on  the  next  day  Vienna  surrendered.  Blum, 
a  delegate  from  Saxony  [to  the  Olerman  Piulia- 
ment  of  Frankfort,  who  had  come  on  a  mission 
of  mediation  to  Vienna,  but  who  had  taken  a 
part  in  the  lighting],  and  some  other  democrats, 
vere  shot.  By  this  clever  but  unscrupulous  use 
of  race  jealousy  the  Viennese  Government 
seemed  to  have  ovijrcome  Bohemians,  Italians, 
Hungarians,  and  the  citizens  of  its  own  capital 
in  turn;  while  it  had  diverted  the  southern 
Slavonians  from  hostility  to  actual  service  on  its 
side.  .  .  .  The  weak  health  and  vacillating 
spirit  of  Ferdinand  did  not  satisfy  the  knot  of 
courtiers  of  Vienna,  who  now,  flushed  by  success, 
sought  to  concentrate  all  p  iw  er  intheVienne.se 
Cabinet.  W<r.n  out  by  the  excitements  of  tin; 
year  and  by  the  demands  of  these  men,  Ferdi- 
nand, on  December  'i,  1848,  yielded  up  the 
crown,  not  to  his  rightful  successor,  his  brother, 
but  to  his  nephew,  Francis  .Joseph,  lie,  a  yo\ith 
of  eighteen,  ascended  the  throne  so  rudely 
shaken,  and  still,  in  spite  of  alir.ost  tuiiform  dis- 
aster in  war,  holds  sway  over  an  empire  larger 
and  more  powerful  than  he  found  it  in  1848. 
The  Hungarians  refused  to  rccogidse  the  young 
sovereign  thus  forced  upon  them ;  and  the  fact 
that  he  was  not  crowned  at  Presburg  with  the 
sacred  iron  crown  of  St.  Stephen  showed  that  he 
did  not  intend  to  recognise  the  Hungarian  con- 
stitution. Austrian  troops  under  Windischgriltz 
entered  Buda-Pusth,  but  the  Hungarian  patriots 


witlalrew  from  their  capital  to  organize  a 
jiational  resistance;  and  when  the  Austrian  (Jov- 
ennnciit  proclaimed  the  Hungarian  constitution 
abolished  and  the  complete  absorption  of  Hun- 
gary in  the  Austrian  Kinpire.  Kossuth  and  his 
collea'.rues  retorli'd  bv  a  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence (April '.U,  184!)).  The  House  of  Haps- 
hurg  was  declared  biuiishe<l  from  Hungary, 
which  was  to  be  a  republic.  Kossuth,  the  tirst 
governor  of  the  new  rcpulilic.  and  (Jiirirei,  its 
general,  raised  ai.nies  which  soon  showed  their 
prowess."  The  lirst  important  battle  of  the  war 
had  been  fought  at  Kapolna,  "ii  the  right  bank 
of  the  Theiss,  on  the  'itilli  ol  February,  184!», 
OOrgei  and  Dendiinski  conunaeding  the  Hun- 
garians and  Windiscbgrilt/  leading  the  .Vustri- 
ans.  The  latter  won  the  victory,  and  the 
Hungarians  retreati'd  toward  the  Theiss.  About 
the  middle  of  .March,  Oorgei  resumed  the  olVeii- 
sivc,  advancing  toward  Peslh,  and  encountered 
the  Austriansatlsas/.eg,  where  he  defeated  them 
in  a  hard-fought  battle, — or  rather  in  two  bat- 
tles which  are  sometimes  caUed  by  dilTerent 
names:  viz.,  that  of  Tapio  Biscke  fought  \pril 
4th,  and  that  of  Godolo,  fought  on  the  ."ith.  It 
was  now  the  turn  of  the  Austrians  lo  fall  back, 
and  they  («ncentrated  behind  the  Hakos,  to 
cover  Pestli.  The  Hungarian  general  passed 
round  their  left,  carried  W'aitzen  by  storm, 
forced  them  to  evacuate  Pcsth  and  to  retreat  to 
Presburg,  abandoning  the  'vhole  of  Hungary 
with  the  exception  of  a  fev,  fortresses,  which 
they  held.  The  most  import  ut  of  these  fort- 
resses, that  of  Bud;i,  the  "  twin-city,  "  opposite 
Pesth  on  the  Danube,  was  besieged  by  the 
Hungarians  and  carried  by  storm  on  the  tilst  of 
.May.  "In  Transylvania,  too,  the  Hungarians, 
under  the  talented  Polish  gener.d  Bem,  overcame 
the  Auslrians,  Slavonians,  ind  Uoiunanians  in 
many  lirilliant  encounters.  But  the  proclama- 
tiim  of  a  republic  had  alienated  those  Hunga- 
rians who  had  only  striven  for  their  old  constitu- 
tional rights,  so  ((Uarrels  arose  between  Gorg<'i 
and  the  ardent  democrat  Kos.suth.  Worse  still, 
the  Czar  Nicholas,  dreading  the  formation  of  a 
republic  near  his  Polish  provinces  sent  the 
military  aid  which  Francis  .Joseph  in  May  1840  i.n- 
plored.  Soon  80,000  Uussians  unchr  Paskiewitch 
poured  over  the  northern  Carpathians  to  hel]> 
the  beaten  Austrians,  while  others  overpowered 
the  gallant  Bem  in  Transylvania.  .Jellachich 
with  his  Croats  again  invaded  South  Hungary, 
and  Haynau,  the  scourge  of  Lombardy,  marched 
(m  the  siruigest  Hungarian  fortress,  Komoru,  ou 
the  Danube.  '  The  Hungarian.s,  overpowered  by 
the  combination  of  Austrians  and  Uussians 
against  them,  were  defeated  at  Pered,  .June  21; 
at  Acz,  July  3;  at  Kombrn,  July  11 ;  at  Waitzen, 
July  10;  at  Tzombor,  July  30;  at  Segesvar,  July 
;U;  at  Debreczin,  August  3;  atSzegedin,  August 
4;  at  Temesvar,  August  10.  "In  despair 
Kossuth  handed  over  his  dictatorship  to  his  rival 
(liirgei,  who  soon  surrendered  at  Vilagos  with 
all  his  forces  to  the  HiLssians  (Aug\ist  13,  1849). 
About  5,000  men  with  Kossuth,  Bem,  and  other 
leaders,  escaped  to  Turkey.  Even  there  Uussia 
and  Austria  sought  to  drive  them  forth;  but  the 
Porte,  upheld  by  the  Western  Powers,  main- 
tained its  right  to  give  sanctmiry  according  to 
the  Koran.  Koss\ith  and  many  of  his  fellow- 
exiles  finally  sailed  to  England  [and  afterwards 
1:>  America],  where  his  nuijestic  elocjuence 
aiuuscd  deep  sympathy  for  the  iilllicted  country. 


229 


AUSTRIA.  1848-1849. 


fifrman 
Hurvaucravy. 


AUSTRIA,  1840-1859. 


Many  Ilunnaiiiin  ))iitrir)ts  sulTorcil  (Iciilli,  All 
ivIh'Is  hull  tlirir  property  contiscntcil,  imil  tlic 
<'i)imlry  was  for  yciws  ruled  l)y  armed  force, 
and  lis  old  ri^rlils  were  iil)olislied." — J.  11.  Rose, 
A  C'ciitiin/  <;/'  ('nntinentitl  lliKtory,    eh.  31. 

Ai.so  I.N:  Sir  .\.  Ali.son.  IHhI.  nf  Europe,  ISLV 
IH.Vi,  eh.  Tht. — A.  CJilr^cei,  My  Life  ami  Aetn  -'ii 
Jlinir/an/.  —  (Jeiieral  Klapka,  MenmirH  af  the  War 
of  IniU'peiiiU  nee  in  Jliiii;/un/.  —  Count,  llartij;, 
deiiiKin  of  the  lleroliitioii  in  Austria. —  W.  II. 
Stiles,  Auxfria  in  lH4H-4». 

A.  D.  i848-i849.^Revolt  in  Lombardy  and 
■  Venetia. — War  with  Sardinia. — Victories  of 
Radetzky. — Italy  vanquished  again.  See 
Itm.v:  a.  1).  IHIS-IHH  . 

A.  D.  1848-1850. — Failure  of  the  movement 
for  Germanic  national  unity. — End  of  the 
Frankfort  Assembly. — "  Krank-forf,  bad  become 
tlieeentreof  tliemoveineut.  The  helpless  Diet  had 
acknowledged  the  ne<  essity  of  a  Geriuau  i)arlia- 
uienl,  and  had  sunimoned  twelve  men  of  conti- 
dence  charged  with  drawing  up  a  new  imperial 
constitution.  But  it  was  unable  to  supply  what 
was  most  wanted  —  a  strong  executive.  .  .  . 
Instead  of  establishing  before  all  u  strong  execu- 
tive able  to  control  and  to  realise  its  resolution.s, 
the  Assembly  lost  months  in  discussing  the 
fundamental  rights  of  the  German  people,  and 
tluis  was  overhauled  by  the  events.  In  June, 
Prince  Windiscligraetz  crushed  the  insurrection 
at  I'rague;  and  in  November  the  anarchy  which 
had  prevailed  during  the  whole  summer  at 
Herlin  was  put  down,  when  Count  Ilrandenburg 
became  first  minister.  .  .  .  Sehwarzeiiberg  [at 
Vienna]  declared  as  soon  as  he  had  taken  the 
reins,  that  his  programme  was  to  maintain  the 
unity  of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  demanded 
that  the  whole  of  it  should  enter  into  the  Ger- 
manic confederation.  This  was  incompatible 
with  the  federal  state  as  contemplated  by  tlie 
National  Assembly,  and  therefore  Gagern,  who 
had  become  president  of  the  imperial  ministry 
[at  Frankfort],  answered  Schwarzeiiberg's  pro- 
gnunme  by  declaring  that  the  entering  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy  with  a  majority  of  lum-Ger- 
niau  nationalities  into  the  German  federal  state 
was  an  impossibility.  Thus  nothing  was  left 
but  to  place  the  king  of  Prussia  at  the  head  of 
the  German  state.  But  in  order  to  wi"  a 
majoritj'  fo:'  this  plan  Gagern  foi.ud  it  neires- 
sary  to  make  large  concessions  to  the  d  'inocratic 
party,  amongst  others  universal  suffrage.  This 
was  not  calculated  to  make  the  olTer  of  the 
imperial  crown  uci'cptable  to  Frederic  Williaui 
IV.,  but  his  princii)al  reason  for  declining  it  was, 
that  he  would  not  exercise  any  pressure  on  the 
other  German  sovereigns,  and  that,  notwitu- 
standiiig  Schwarzenberg's  haughty  demeanour, 
he  could  not  make  up  his  mind  to  exclude  Aus- 
tria from  Germany.  After  the  refusal  of  the 
crown  by  the  king,  the  National  Assembly  was 
<ic)onu'd;  it  had  certainly  committed  great  faults, 
but  the  decisive  reason  of  its  failure  was  the  lack 
of  a  clear  and  resolute  will  in  Prussia.  History, 
however,  teaches  that  great  enterprises,  such  as 
it  was  to  unify  iiii  empire  dismen-.bered  for  cen- 
turies, rarely  succeed  at  the  first  attempt.  The 
capital  importance  of  the  events  of  1848  was 
that  lliey  had  made  the  German  unionist  move- 
ment an  historical  fact;  it  could  never  be  effaced 
from  the  annals,  that  all  the  Qerinan  govern- 
ments had  publicly  acknowledged  '.hat  tendency 
us  legitimate,   the  direction  for  the  future  was 

230 


given,  and  even  at  the  time  of  failure  it  was 
certain,  as  Stockinar  said,  that  the  necessity  of 
circumstances  would  bring  forward  the  man  who. 
lirofitiug  by  theexpericiu'esof  1848,  would  fuHil 
the  national  aspirations." — F.  II.  GetTckeii, 
The  I'liiti:  <if  (ri'-iniiiiil  (KiniUnh  llintorieal  Iter., 
Ai  V.  ly.ll).— See  Gki'imanv:  A.  I).  lM4K-lH.-)(t. 
A.  D.  1849-1859. — The  Return  to  pure  Ab- 
solutism. —  Bureaucracy  triumphant.  —  ' '  Tin.' 
two  great  gains  whi<'h  the  moral  earth(|uake  of 
1848  brought  to  Austria  were,  that  through  wide 
provinces  of  the  Empire,  and  more  especially  in 
Hungary,  it  swept  away  the  sort  of  .semi- 
vassalage  in  which  the  peasan'.ry  had  been  left 
by  the  Urbariutii  of  -Maria  Theresa  [an  edict 
which  gave  to  the  peasants  the  right  ot  moving 
from  |)lace  to  i)lace,  and  the  riglit  of  bringing 
up  tlK'ir  children  as  they  wished,  while  it  estab- 
lished in  certain  courts  the  trial  of  all  suits  to 
which  they  were  parties],  and  other  reforms  akin 
to  or  foimded  upon  it,  and  introduced  modern  in 
the  place  of  middle-age  relations  between  the 
two  extremes  of  society.  Secondly,  it  overthrew 
the  policy  of  do-uotliiug  —  a  surer  guarautee  for 
the  continuance  of  abuses  than  even  the  deter- 
mination, which  soon  manifested  itself  at  head- 
quarters, to  make  the  head  of  tlie  state  more 
absolute  than  ever  After  the  taking  of  Vicuna 
by  Windischgriltz,  the  Natioaal  Assembly  had, 
on  the  15th  of  November  1848,  been  removed 
from  the  capiti;"  >  the  small  town  of  Kremsier, 
in  Moravia.  Here  it  itrolongcd  an  ineffective; 
existence  till  March  1849,  when  the  eoiu'l 
camarilla  felt  itself  strong  enough  to  i)ut  an  end 
to  an  inconvenient  censor,  and  in  March  184!) 
it  ceased  to  exist.  A  constitution  was  at  the 
same  time  promulgated  which  contained  many 
good  provisioui,  but  which  was  never  heartily 
ai)prove(l  by  the  ruling  jiowers,  or  vigorously 
carried  into  cITcct  —  the  proclamation  of  a  state 
of  sic;;e  in  many  cities,  and  other  expedients  of 
authority  in  a  revolutioiuuy  period,  easily  enab- 
ling it  to  be  set  at  naught.  The  8ucces.ses  of  the 
reaction  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  and,  above  all, 
the  coup  d'etat  in  Paris,  emboldened  Schwartz- 
enberg  to  throw  off  the  mask ;  and  011  the  last 
day  of  1851  Austria  became  ou('e  more  u  l)ure 
despotism.  The  young  emperor  had  taken 
'  Viribus  unitis' for  his  motto;  and  his  advisers 
iuterjireted  those  words  to  luciui  that  Austria 
was  henceforward  to  be  a  state  as  highly  cen- 
tralised as  France  —  a  state  in  which  the  minister 
at  Vienna  was  absolutely  to  govern  cverythiug 
from  Salzburg  to  the  Iron  Gate.  The  baud  of 
authority  laul  been  severely  felt  in  the  pre- 
revolutionary  jieriod,  but  now  advantage  was  to 
be  taken  of  the  revolution  to  make  it  felt  far 
more  than  ever.  In  Hungary,  for  example,  .  .  . 
it  was  fondly  imagined  that  there  woidd  be  no 
more  trouble.  The  old  political  division  into 
counties  was  swept  away;  the  whole  land  was 
divided  into  live  provinces;  and  the  coin-tiers 
might  imagine  that  from  henceforth  the  Magyars 
would  be  as  easily  led  as  the  inhabitants  ot 
Upper  Austria.  These  delusions  soon  became 
general,  but  they  owed  their  origin  partly  to  the 
enthusiastic  ignorance  of  those  who  were  at  the 
head  of  the  army,  and  partly  to  two  men" — 
Priiu'e  Schwartzenberg  and  Alexaiuler  Bach. 
Of  the  latter,  the  "two  leading  ideas  were  to 
cover  the  whole  empire  with  a  German  buifau- 
cracy,  and  to  draw  closer  the  tics  which  con- 
nected the  court  of  Vieima  with  that  of  Rome. 


AUSTRIA,  1840-1850. 


Tlie  It'iir 
t'n  Italy. 


AUSTRIA.  1802-1800. 


...  If  iil)solutism  in  Austria  Imil  ii  fair  trial 
from  tlic  ;tlst  of  I)i'cc'iiil)cr  1851  to  tin-  Italian 
war,  it  is  to  Hat  "i  tliat  it  was  owinii;  and  if  it 
utterly  and  ludicrously  failed,  it  is  lie  more  than 
any  other  nnm  who  mist  bear  the  blame. 
Already,  in  1840,  the  bureaucracy  liad  been 
reorj^anised.  l)iit  in  18.52  new  and  stricter  resula- 
tiiins  were  introduced.  Everythin;;  was  deter- 
mined l>y  jirecise  rules — oven  the  e.xact  amount 
of  hair  whieli  the  employe  was  i)ermitt"d  to 
wear  upon  his  face.  Hardly  any  (jucstion  was 
thought  sulliciently  insigiiiticant  to  l)e  decided 
upon  the  spot.  The  smallest  matters  had  to  be 
referred  to  Vienna.  .  .  .  We  can  hardly  be  sur- 
prised that  the  great  nun  of  the  Italian  war 
brought  down  with  a  crash  the  whole  editice  of 
the  reaction. " — M.  E.  G.  Dull,  studies  in  Euro- 
pctiii  Politics,  ch.  3. 

Al^so  IN:  L.  Eegor,  llint.  c  Ailxtro-ITuiii/nri/, 
ch.  3;i. 

A.  D.  1853. —  Commercial  Treaty  with  the 
German  Zollverein.  See  Tahiff  LK(ii.si,ATio.v 
((JioitMA.NY):  A.  I).  185:i-18!)2. 

A.  D.  1853-1856. —  Attitude  in  the  Crimean 
War.  See  UtssiA;  A.  1).  185;j-1851,  to  1854- 
18.50. 

A.  D.  1856-1859.— The  war  in  Italy  with 
Sardinia  and  France. — Reverses  at  Magenta 
and  Solferino. — Peace  of  Villafranca. — Surren- 
der of  Lombardy. —  "From  the  wars  of  1848-0 
the  King  of  Sardinia  was  looked  upon  by  the 
moderate  party  as  the  champi(m  of  Italian  free- 
dom. Charles  Albert  had  failed:  yet  his  sim 
would  not,  and  indeed  could  not,  go  back, 
though,  wlien  he  be,gan  his  reign,  there  were 
many  things  against  him.  .  .  .  Great  elTorts 
were  made  to  win  him  over  to  the  Austrian 
jmrty,  b\it  the  King  was  neither  cast  down  by 
defeat  and  distrust  nor  won  over  by  soft  words. 
He  soon  showed  that,  though  he  had  been  forced 
to  make  a  treaty  vith  Atistria,  yet  he  would  not 
cast  in  his  lot  with  the  oppression  of  Italy.  He 
made  .Massimo  d'A/.eglio  bis  chief  Jlinister,  and 
Ciunillo  Benso  di  Cavour  bis  Minister  of  Com- 
merce. AV'ilh  the  help  of  these  tvo  men  he 
honestly  carried  out  the  reforms  which  bad  been 
granted  by  his  father,  and  set  new  ones  on  foot. 
.  .  .  The  (juick  progress  of  reform  frightened 
Count  Massimo  d'Azeglio.  lie  retireil  from 
otlice  in  1853,  and  his  place  was  taken  by  Count 
Cavour,  who  made  a  coalition  with  the  demo- 
cratic party  in  Piedmont  headed  by  Urbano  Rat- 
tiizzi.  The  new  chief  Minister  began  to  w(nk 
not  only  for  the  good  of  Piedmont  iait  for  Italy 
at  large.  Tlie  Milanese  still  listened  to  the 
hopes  which  Mazzini  held  out,  and  could  not 
.quietly  bear  their  subjection.  Count  Cavour 
indignantly  remonstrated  with  Radetzky  for  his 
liarsh  govermnent.  .  .  .  The  divi  i(m  and  slavery 
of  Italy  had  shut  her  out  from  European  itolitics. 
Cavour  held  that,  if  she  was  once  looked  tipon 
as  an  useful  ally,  then  her  deliverance  might 
ho  hastened  bj'  foreign  interference.  The  Sar- 
dinian army  had  been  brought  into  good  order 
by  Alfonso  della  Marmora ;  and  was  ready  for 
action.  In  18.55.  Sardinia  made  alliance  with 
England  and  France,  who  were  at  war  with 
Russia;  for  Cavour  looked  on  that  power  as  the 
great  support  of  the  system  of  despotism  on  the 
Continent,  and  held  that  it  was  necessary  for 
Italian  freedom  that  Russia  should  be  hunibled. 
The  Sardiiuau  army  was  therefon^  sent  to  the 
Crimea,  under  La  Marmora,  where  it  did  good 


service  in  the  battle  of  Tchernaya.  .  .  .  The 
ne.xt  year  the  Congress  of  Paris  was  held  to 
arrange  terms  of  peace  between  the  allies  and 
Russia,  and  Cavour  took  the  opportuiutv  of  lay- 
ing before  the  representatives  of  the  liuropeau 
powers  the  unhappy  state  of  his  couiitrymeu. 
.  .  .  In  December.  1851,  Louis  Napoleon  Huo- 
naparte.  the  President  of  the  French  Republic, 
.seized  tlie  government,  and  the  next  year  took 
the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  French.  He  was 
anxious  to  weaken  the  power  of  Austria,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  18.50  it  became  evident  that  war 
Avould  soon  break  out.  As  a  sign  of  the  friendly 
feeling  of  the  French  Emperor  towards  the 
Italian  cause,  his  cousin.  Napoleon  .Joseph,  mar- 
ried Clotilda,  the  daughter  of  V'ietor  Emmanuel. 
Count  Cavour  now  declared  that  .Sardinia  would 
make  war  on  Austria,  unless  a  separate  and  na- 
tional govcrnmi'iit  was  granted  to  Lombardy 
and  Venetia.  and  unless  .Vustiia  promised  to 
meddle  no  more  with  the  rest  of  Italy.  On  the 
other  band,  Austria  demanded  the  disarmament 
of  Sardinia.  The  King  would  not  listen  to  this 
demand,  and  France  and  Sardinia  declared  war 
against  Austria.  The  Emperor  Najxileon  de- 
ciared  that  he  would  free  Italy  from  tla;  Alps  to 
the  Adriatic.  .  .  .  The  Austrian  army  crossed 
the  Ticino,  but  was  defeated  by  the  King  and 
General  Cialdini.  The  French  victory  of  3Ia- 
genta,  on  June  4th  forced  the  Austrians  to  re- 
treat from  Lombardy.  .  .  .  (Jn  .June  24tli  the 
Austrians,  who  had  crossed  the  .Mincio,  were 
defeated  at  Solferino  by  the  allied  armies  of 
France  and  .Sardinia.  It  seemed  as  though  the 
French  Emperor  would  keep  his  word.  Rut  he 
found  that  if  he  went  further.  Prussia  would 
take  up  the  cause  of  Austria,  and  that  lie  would 
have  to  tight  on  the  Rhine  as  well  as  on  the 
Adige.  When,  therefore,  the  French  army 
came  before  Verona,  a  meeting  was  arranged 
between  the  two  Emperors.  This  took  place  at 
Villafranca,  and  there  liuonaparle,  without  con- 
sulting his  ally,  airreed  with  Francis  Joseph  to 
favour  the  establishment  of  an  Italian  (.'oiifeder- 
atioii.  .  .  .  Austria  gave  u])  to  the  King  of  Sar- 
dinia Lombardy  to  tiie  west  of  jNIincio.  Rut  the 
({rand  Duke  of  Tuscany  and  the  Duke  of  Mo- 
deiia  were  to  return  to  their  Slates.  The  \)Vo- 
posed  Confederation  was  never  made,  for  the 
people  of  Tuscany,  Modena.  Parma,  and  Ro- 
magna  sent  to  the  King  to  pray  that  they  miglit 
be  mi'de  part  of  his  Kingdom,  aii<l  Victor  Em- 
manuel refused  to  enter  (m  the  scheme  of  the 
French  Emperor.  In  return  for  allowing  the 
Italians  of  Central  Italy  to  shake  off  the  yoke, 
Ruonaparte  asked  for  Savoy  and  Nizza.  .  .  . 
The  King  .  .  .  consented  to  give  up  the  'glorious 
cradle  of  his  Monarchy '  in  exchange  for  Central 
Italy."— W.  A.  Hunt,  Ilintovy  of  itnlij.ch.  11. 

Also  in:  J.  AV.  Probyn,  Jtoiy  from  1815  to 
1800,  ch.  0-10.— C.  de  Maznde,  Life  of  Count 
Giroiir,  ch.  3-7.  — See,  also,  Italy:  A.  1).  1850- 
1850,  and  1850-1801. 

A.  D.  1862-1866.— The  Schleswig-Holstein 
question. — Quarrel  with  Prussia.— The  humili- 
ating S  ven  Weeks  War. — Conliict  with  Prus- 
sia ..trew  out  of  the  complicated  Schleswigllol- 
steii,  (}uestion,  reopened  in  1803  and  i)rovisioiially 
settled  by  a  delusive  arrangement  between  Prus- 
sia and  Austria,  into  which"tlie  latter  was  artfully 
drawn  by  Prince  Bismarck.  See  Scandi.navian 
St.\te9(Den.ma:ik):  A.  1).  1848-1803,  aiul  Gku- 
MANY:  A.  D.  1801-1800.     No  sooner  was  the  wur 


231 


AUSTRIA,   1862-lSOO. 


Seven  Week* 
War. 


AUSTRIA,  186tt-lH67. 


■wifli  Drnmnrk  over,  tlinn  "Prussia  sliowcil  llmt 
it  wiiH  liiT  intciilioii  to  annex  tin-  iit'wly  a('(|uir<'il 
(liicliicK  to  licrsclf.  This  Austiiii  foiilil  not  cn- 
duro,  iind  Bicoiilinjrly.  in  1W(H!,  wiir  hroke  out 
between  Austria  and  I'russia.  Prussia  soujrlit 
nllianee  with  Italy,  wliich  slie  stirred  u|)toatta(k 
Austria  in  lier  Italian  nossessiiais.  Tlio  Austrian 
army  (h'fealed  tlic  Italian  at  I^ustaz/.a  [or  Cus- 
tozza  (see  Italy:  A.  I).  18(l2-18(i0)] :  hut  the 
fortunes  of  war  were  ajjainst  them  in  Germany. 
Allieil  witli  the  Austriai\s  were  the  Saxons,  the 
Ravarians,  the  WUrtenibeiXf'rs,  Radeii  and 
Ilesse,  and  Hanover.  The  Prussians  advan(<Ml 
with  their  chief  armv  into  Uohemia  witli  tlie 
utmost  rapidity,  dreading  lest  tlie  .So\itliern  allies 
fihouUl  march  north  to  Hanover,  and  cut  the 
kim;dom  in  half,  an<I  ])ush  on  to  Rerlin.  The 
Prussians  had  three  armies,  which  were  to  enter 
Holieiuia  and  elTect  a  junction.  The  fllbe  army 
wider  tlie  Kiiij;.  tlie  tiist  army  \nidcr  Prince 
Frederick  Charles,  and  the  second  army  under 
the  Crown  Prince.  The  Elbe  army  advanced 
across  Saxony  by  Dresden.  The  first  army  was 
in  Lusatia,  at  Reiclienberg,  and  the  second  army 
in  Silesia  at  Ileisse.  Tliey  were  all  to  meet  at 
Oitschin.  The  Austrian  army  under  General 
Renedek  was  at  KiMiiggriltz,  in  Eastern  Holiemia. 
...  As  in  the  wars  with  Napoleon,  so  was  it 
now ;  the  Austrian  generals  .  .  .  never  did  the 
right  tliini?  at  the  right  moment.  Uenedek  did 
indeed  march  against  the  first  army,  but  too  late, 
and  when  he  found  it  was  already  through  the 
niountain  door,  ho  retreated,  and  so  gave  time  for 
the  three  armies  to  cimcentrate  upon  biin.  The 
Elbe  army  and  the  first  met  at  Milnchengratz, 
and  defeated  an  Austrian  army  then.',  pushed  on, 
and  drove  them  back  out  of  Gitschin  on  ICOnig- 
griltz.  .  .  .  The  PriLssians  pushed  on,  and  now 
the  Elbe  army  went  to  Smidar,  and  the  first  army 
to  llorzitz,  whilst  the  second  army,  under  the 
Crown  Prince,  was  pushing  on,  and  had  got  to 
Gradlitz.  The  littUt  river  Ristritz  is  cro.s.sed  by 
the  high  road  to  Kitniggriltz.  It  runs  through 
swampy  ground,  and  forms  little  inarehy  jiools 
or  lakes.  To  the  north  of  Ki'iniggriltz  a  little 
stream  of  much  the  same  character  dribbles 
through  boL's  into  the  Elbe.  .  .  .  Rut  about 
Chlum,  Xnlclist  and  Lippa  is  terraced  liigh 
ground,  and  there  Renedek  planted  his  cannon. 
Tlie  Prussians  advanced  from  Smidar  against 
the  left  wing  of  the  Austrians,  from  llorzitz 
against  tlie  centre,  and  the  thrown  Prince  was  to 
attack  ^lie  right  wing.  The  battle  began  on  the 
3d  of  July,  at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning,  by  the 
simultaneous  advance  of  the  Elbe  and  the  first 
army  upon  the  Ristritz.  At  Sadowa  is  a  wood, 
and  there  the  battle  raged  most  fiercely.  .  .  . 
Two  things  were  against  the  Austrians;  first, 
th'j  incompetence  of  their  general,  and,  secondly, 
the  inferiority  of  their  guns.  The  Prussians  had 
■what  are  called  needle-guns,  breach-loaders, 
■which  are  fired  by  the  prick  of  a  needle,  and  for 
the  rapidity  with  which  tliey  can  be  fired  far 
sur])assed  the  old-fashioned  muzzle-loaders  used 
bv  the  Austrians.  After  this  great  battle,  which 
is  called  by  the  French  and  English  the  battle  of 
Sadowa  (Sadowa,  not  Sadowa,  as  it  is  erroneously 
pronounced),  but  wliich  the  Germans  call  the 
battle  of  Kiiniggn'ltz.  the  Prussians  marclied  on 
Vienna,  and  reached  the  Marchfchl  before  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  would  come  to  terms. 
At  last,  on  the  33d  of  August,  a  peace  which 
£avc  a  crushing  prupondentnco  ia  Germany  to 


Prussia,  was  concluded  at  Prague."— S.  Raring- 
Gould,  T/ir  KOiry  <>f  Oirmaini,  pp.  39()-3!»-l.— 
See  (}H:iiM.\NV:  A.  I).  1800. 

A.  D.   i866.— The  War  in  Italy.— Loss  of 
Venetia.     See  Itai.v:  A.  1).  1802-|H(iO. 

A.  D.  1866-1867. — Concession  of  nationality 
to  Hungary. —  Formation  of  the  dual  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire. — "For  twelve  years  the 
name  of  Hungary,  as  a  Stale,  was  erased  from 
the  map  of  Kuiope.  Riireaucratic  Absolutism 
ruled  suiireme  in  Austria,  and  did  its  best  to  ob- 
literate all  Hungarian  institutions.  Germani.sa- 
tiiiii  was  the  order  of  the  day,  the  German  tongue 
being  declared  the  exclusive  language  of  otilcial 
life  as  well  asof  the  higher  school.s.  riovernnunt 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  foreign,  German,  and 
(,'zcch  odieials.  No  vestige  was  left,  not  only  of 
the  national  independence,  but  either  of  Home 
Rule  or  of  self-government  of  any  sort;  the 
country  was  divicled  into  provinces  without  re- 
gard for  historical  traditions;  in  short,  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  wipe  out  every  trace  denoting 
the  existence  of  a  separate  Hungary.  All  ranks 
and  classes  opposed  a  sullen  pikssive  resistance  to 
these  attacks  against  the  existence  of  the  nation; 
even  the  sections  of  the  nationalities  which  had 
rebelled  against  the  enactments  of  184S,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  reactionary  Camarilla,  were 
e(iually  di.salTected  in  consenuence  of  the  short- 
sighted policy  of  despotical  centralisation.  .  .  . 
Finally,  after  the  collapse  of  the  system  of  Ab- 
solutism in  conse<iuencc  of  financial  disasters  and 
of  the  misfortunes  of  the  Italian  War  of  18.")!), 
the  Hungarian  Parliament  was  again  convoked; 
and  after  jirotracted  negotiations,  broken  olT  and 
resumed  again,  the  impracticability  of  a  system 
of  provincial  Federalism  having  been  proved  in 
the  meantime,  and  the  defeat  incurred  in  the 
Prussian  War  of  1860  having  demonstrated  the 
futility  of  any  reconstructi(m  of  the  Empire  of 
Austria  in  which  the  national  aspiratiims  of 
Hungary  were  not  tjiken  into  due  consideration  — 
an  arrangement  was  concluded  under  the  aus- 
pices of  Francis  Deak,  Count  Andra.ssy,  and 
Count  Reust,  on  the  basis  of  the  full  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  separate  national  existence  of 
Hungary,  and  of  the  continuity  of  its  legal 
rights.  The  idea  of  a  centralised  Austrian  Em- 
pire had  to  give  waj'  to  the  dual  Au.stro-Hiin- 
garian  monarchy,  which  is  in  fact  an  indissoluble 
federation  of  two  equal  .States,  under  the  com- 
mon rule  of  a  single  sovereign,  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  King  of  Hungary,  each  of  the 
Slates  having  a  constitution,  government,  and 
parliament  of  its  own,  Hungary  especially  retain- 
ing, witli  slight  'Modiflcatious,  its  ancient  institu- 
ti(ms  remodelled  in  1848.  The  administration  of 
the  foreign  iiolicy,  the  management  of  the  army,^ 
and  the  disbursement  of  the  expenditure  neces- 
sary for  these  purposes,  were  settled  upon  he 
common  affairs  of  the  entire  monarchy,  for  the 
management  of  which  common  ministers  were 
instituted,  responsible  to  tlu;  two  delegations, 
co-equal  committees  of  the  parliaments  of  Hun- 
gary and  'if  the  Cisleithanian  (Austrian)  prov- 
inces. E  'orate  provisions  were  framed  for  the 
smooth  WDiking  of  these  common  institutions, 
for  giving  weight  to  the  constitutional  inlluence, 
even  in  matters  of  common  policy,  of  the  sepa- 
rate Cisleii  lian  and  Hungarian  ministries,  .ind 
for  renderi  their  responsibility  to  the  respect- 
ive Parliaments  an  earnest  and  solid  reality. 
The  fiuancial  questions  pending  in  the  two  iiide- 

32 


AUSTHIA,  1800-1867. 


Atutro-Hun- 
gnrian  Empire, 


AUSTRIA,   1800-1887. 


pendent  nnd  cfiiial  States  wcro  .settled  by  a  eoiii- 
Ijioiiiise;  lueasures  were  taken  for  the  eiiuitable 
arraugeiueiit  of  all  inalteis  whieh  might  luise  in 
relation  to  interests  toiicliing  both  States,  sneli 
as  duties,  eonmieree,  and  indireet  ta.\ation,  all 
legislation  on  these  subjerts  taking  place  by 
means  of  identical  laws  separately  enacted  by 
the  Parliament  of  each  State.  .  .  .  Simulta- 
neously with  these  arrangements  the  political 
diirereiices  between  Hungary  and  Ooatia  were 
compromised  by  granting  provincial  Ilomc^  Hule 
to  the  latter.  .  .  .  Thus  the  organisation  of  tlie 
AustroIIimgarian  monarchy  on  the  basis  of 
dualism,  and  the  compromise  entered  into  be- 
tween the  two  halves  composing  it,  whilst  uniting 
for  the  purposes  of  defence  the  forces  of  two 
States  of  a  moderate  .size  and  extent  into  those  of 
r.  great  empire,  able  to  cope  with  the  exigencies 
of  an  a(h'(iuate  position  amongst  the  lii'st-class 
Powers  of  Kurope,  restored  also  to  Hungary  its 
iudcpendenee  and  its  \mfettered  sovcrei.^nty  in 
all  internal  matters."  —  A.  Pulszky,  Iliiiir/nri/ 
(ytitwiiiil  Life  (iiid  Tlwurjht.  /^W."  3).  —  "The 
Ausgloich,  or  agreement  with  Hungary,  was 
arranged  by  a  committee  of  07  membera  of 
the  Hungarian  diet,  at  the  head  of  whom  was 
the  Franklin  of  Hungary,  Francis  Deak,  tlu; 
true  patriot  and  inexorable  legist,  who  had 
taken  no  part  iu  the  revolutio'is,  but  who 
had  never  given  up  one  of  the  smallest  of 
the  rights  of  his  country.  ...  On  the  8th  of 
June  [I'^OT],  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  was 
crowned  with  great  pomp  at  Pesth.  Onthe  38th 
of  the  following  June,  he  approved  the  decisions 
of  the  diet,  which  settled  tlie  position  of  Hun- 
giu'y  with  n^ganl  to  the  other  countries  belong- 
ing to  his  majesty,  and  moditied  some  portions 
of  the  laws  of  1848.  .  .  .  Since  the  Ausglcich 
the  empin^  has  consisted  of  tv.o  parts.  .  .  .  For 
the  sake  of  clearness,  ])olitical  language  has  been 
increa.sed  by  the  invent  ion  of  two  new  term-, 
Cisleithauia  and  Transleilhaniii,  to  <leseribc  the 
two  groups,  separated  a  little  below  Vienna  by  a 
small  aflluent  of  the  Danul)e,  called  the  Leitha — 
a  stream  which  never  expected  to  become  so 
celebrated." — L.  Leger,  llist.  of  Austro-Ilun- 
ijiiri/,  eh.  35. 

Also  in:  Francis  Deak,  A  ifemnir,  ch.  20-31. — 
Count  von  Beust,  Memoirs,  v.  3,  ch.  38.  —  L. 
Pelbermann,  Ilinir/nri/  (iiul  its  I'caplr,  ch.  5. 

A.  D.  1866-1887.— The  Austro-Hunp^arian 
Empire, — Its  new  national  life. — Its  difficul- 
ties and  promises. — Its  ambitions  and  aims  in 
Southeastern  Europe. — "  Peace  politicians  may 
Siiy  that  a  war  always  does  more  harm  than 
good  to  the  nations  wliich  engage  in  it.  Perhaps 
it  alwiiys  does,  at  any  rate,  moralli'  speaking,  to 
the  victors:  but  that  it  does  not  to  the  van- 
(piished,  Austria  stands  as  a  living  evidence. 
Finally  excluded  from  Italy  and  Germany  by 
the  campai^'U  of  1860,  she  has  cast  aside  her 
dref.n..^  of  foreign  domination,  and  has  set  her- 
self manfullj'  to  the  task  of  making  a  nation  out 
of  the  vanou.s  conflicting  nationalities  over 
which  she  presides.  It  does  not  require  much 
insight  to  perceive  that  as  long  as  she  held  her 
position  in  Germany  this  fusion  was  hopeless. 
The  overwhelming  preponderance  of  the  Ger- 
man element  made  any  api)roach  to  a  recipro- 
city of  interests  impossible.  The  Germans 
always  were  regarded  as  soverciins,  the  icmain- 
ing  nationalities  as  subjects;  it  was  for  thesi'  to 
conunaud,  for  tLose  to  obey.    In  like  maancr,  it 


wa.s  impos.sible  for  the  Austrian  Government  to 
(■.■itabli.sh  a  mutual  undei-standing  with  a  popu- 
lation which  felt  itself  attracted  —  alike  by  the 
tics  of  riu:e,  langmige,  ami  geographical  position 
—  to  another  political  union.  Nay  more,  as 
long  as  the  occupation  of  the  Italian  provinces 
remained  as  a  blot  on  the  Imperial  escutcheon, 
it  was  impossible  for  the  Uovermnent  to  com- 
mand any  genuine  sympathy  from  any  of  its 
subjects.  Uut  with  the  close  of  the  war  with 
Prussia  these  two  dilllcullies  —  the  relations 
with  Germany  and  the  relations  with  Italy  — 
were  swept  iiwiy.  From  this  time  forward 
Austria  could  appear  before  the  world  as  u 
Power  binding  (o,:;etlier  lor  the  interests  of  all, 
a  nund)er  of  petty  nali(ai:'.lilies.  each  of  whieh 
was  too  feeble  to  maintain  ;i  separate!  existence. 
In  short,  from  the  year  1860  Austria  had  a 
raison  d'Otre,  whereas  beto  e  she  had  noia'.  .  .  . 
liaron  Heust,  on  the  Vth  of  February,  1807,  took 
ollice  under  Fran/.  .1  weph.  His  ijrogranune 
may  be  stated  as  follow.;.  He  saw  that  the  day 
of  centralism  and  imperi:,l  unity  was  gone  past 
recall,  and  that  tlie  most  liberal  (.'onstilution  iu 
the  world  would  never  reconcile  the  nationalities 
to  their  present  position,  as  provinces  under  the 
always  detested  and  now  dcspi.sed  Empire.  But 
then  came  the  ((Uesticai  —  Gran'ed  that  a  eerlain 
disintegration  is  iiu^vitablc,  ho.v  far  is  this  dis- 
integration to  go  ?  licust  proposed  to  disarm 
the  opposition  of  the  leading  uatDuality  by  the 
gift  of  an  almost  complete  indepciidence,  and, 
resting  on  tla^  support  thus  obtained,  to  gain 
time  for  conciliating  the  remaiiung  provinces  by 
building  \ip  a  new  system  of  free  govermnent. 
It  would  be  out  of  place  to  give  a  detailed 
account  of  the  well-known  measure  which  con- 
verted the  'Austrian  empire'  into  the  '  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy.'  It  will  be  necessary, 
however,  to  describe  the  additions  made  to  it  by 
the  political  machinery.  The  Hungarian  Keichs- 
t;ig  was  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
Austrian  Ileichsrath.  It  was  to  meet  in  Pesth, 
as  the  Heichsrath  at  Vienna,  and  was  to  have  its 
own  responsibli!  ministers,  From  the  mendjcrs 
of  tlie  keielisratli  and  Kcichstag  respectively 
were  to  be  chosen  annually  sixty  delegates  to 
represent  Cisleithanian  and  sixty  to  represent 
Hungarian  interests  —  twenty  being  taken  in 
each  case  from  the  Upper,  folty  from  the  Lower 
House.  These  two  'Delegations,'  whose  votes 
were  to  be  taken,  when  necessary,  collectively, 
though  each  Delegation  sat  in  a  distinct  chamber, 
owing  to  the  diircrence  of  language,  formed 
the  Supreme  Imperial  Assembly,  and  met  alter- 
nate years  at  Vienna  and  Pesth.  They  were 
competent  in  matters  of  foreign  policy,  in  mili- 
tary admini.strati(m,  and  in  Imperial  liiiancc. 
At  their  head  stood  three  Imperial  ministers  — 
the  Keichskan/.ler,  who  presided  at  the  Foreign 
Ollice,  and  was  ex  olHeio  Prime  Jlinister,  tho 
Jlinistcr  of  War,  and  the  1  inister  of  Finance. 
These  three  ministers  were  independent  of  the 
Heichsrath  and  Keich.stag,  nnd  could  only  be 
dismissed  by  a  vote  of  want  of  eonlidence  on  tho 
part  of  the  Delegatiims.  Tlic  '  Ausglcich  '  or 
scheme  of  federation  with  Hungary  is,  no  doubt, 
much  open  to  criticism,  both  is  a  whole  and  in 
its  several  parts.  It  must  always  be  borne  iu 
mind  that  administratively  and  politically  it  was 
a  retrogression.  At  a  time  in  which  -W  other 
Eiiopeau  nations  —  notably  Xorlli  (Jermany  — 
were  simplifyiug  and  unifying  their  political 


233 


AUHTIUA,   180(}-I88;, 


A  uttlft}' Hun- 
garian Empire. 


AUSTRIA,  1806-1887 


gysU-ms,  Aiistriii  wiis  found  ilolncf  the  very 
reverse.  .  .  .  The  true  iiuswer  to  these  objec- 
tions is,  that  tlu!  measure  of  1H(I7  wiis  eon- 
sirueled  to  meet  ii  pruetleal  ilidieulty.  Its  end 
was  not  tlie  formation  of  a  syninietrlral  system  of 
government,  but  tlu'  paeilieation  of  llunv;ary. 
.  .  .  Tile  inlernul  liistory  of  tlie  two  Iialvcs  if 
tlio  empire  Hows  in  two  dilTerent  channels 
Oriif  Andrassy,  tlio  Ilunf^arlaii  Premier,  liad  a 
comparatively  easy  task  before  him.  There 
were  sev<'ral  reasons  for  this.  In  the  lirst  jjliice, 
the  pnMlominunet!  of  Ihe  Magyai-s  in  Uun^fary 
was  more  assured  llian  that  of  the  Oi'rmans  in 
Cisleitliaiiia.  It  is  true  lliat  tliev  luimlieredonlv 
ri.mtO.OOO  out  of  tlie  l(!,(M)().(mO  inlmbitants;  bu"t 
in  tliesi-  .j,01)(),()(M)  were  ineluded  almost  all  the 
rank,  wealth,  and  iiitellii^enee  of  the  country. 
Hence  they  formed  in  the  Ueichstag  a  compact 
and  homogeneous  majority,  under  which  the 
remainiiiu,'  Slovaks  and  Oroatians  soon  learnt  to 
ran.ije  tliemselves.  In  tlie  second  place,  Hun- 
(jary  had  the  >;rcat  advaiUa^e  of  slartini?  in  a 
certain  degree  afresh.  Her  goveiiunent  was  not 
bound  by  the  traditional  policy  of  former 
Viemia  ministries,  and  ...  it  had  manngcd  to 
keep  its  tinancial  credit  unimpaired.  In  the  third 
place,  as  those  who  are  accpiainted  with  Hun- 
garian history  well  know.  Parliamentary  institu 
tions  ,'iad  for  a  long  time  nourished  in  Hungary. 
Indeed  the  Magyars,  who  among  their  many 
virtues  can  hardlj'  be  credited  witli  the  virtue  of 
humility,  assert  that  the  world  is  mistaken  in 
ascribing  to  England  the  glory  of  having 
invented  representative  government,  and  claim 
this  glory  for  themselves.  Hence  one  of  the 
main  dilli<^ulties  with  which  the  Cisleithanian 
Government  bad  to  deal  was  already  solved  for 
Graf  Andrassy  and  his  colleagnes." — Aiixtriti 
siin'c  Sdditita  (QiKiHciiji  liericin,  i\  lUl,  j>j>.  00- 
95). — "It  is  dilUcult  for  any  one  except  an 
Auslro-Hungarian  statesman  to  realise  the  dilll- 
ctilties  of  governing  the  Dual  ilonarchy.  Cis- 
Leithania  lias,  as  is  well-known,  a  Uciehsratb 
and  seventeen  Provincial  Diets.  Tlic  two 
Austrias,  Stvria,  Carinthia,  and  Salzburg  i)re- 
sent  no  dillfeulties,  but  causes  of  trouble  are 
abundant  in  the  other  districts.  The  Emperor 
will  probably  end  by  getting  himself  crowned 
King  of  IJohemia,  although  it  will  be  dilllcult 
for  him  to  lend  himself  to  a  pro.scription  of  the 
German  language  by  the  Tsi'  :hs,  as  he  has  been 
forced  by  the  .Magyars  to  lend  himself  to  the 
proscription  in  parts  of  Hungary  of  Uoiunau  ai\d 
of  various  Slavonic  languages.  But  how  far  is 
this  process  to  continue  ?  The  German  Austrians 
are  as  unpopular  in  Istria  and  Dalmatia  as 
in  Bohemia;  and  Dalmatia  is  also  an  ancient 
kingdom.  These  territories  were  originally 
obtained  by  the  election  of  the  K.!!-^  of  Hun- 
gary to  the  crown  of  the  tripartite  ^i.igdom  of 
Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia.  I,  ■  Ferencz 
Jozspf '  to  be  crowned  King  of  Dalmitia?  And 
is  Dalmatia  to  have  its  separate  Miinsfy  and  its 
separate  olUcial  language,  and  its  c;ompletely 
separate  laws?  And  what  then  of  Fiume,  tlio 
so-called  Hungarian  port?  Then,  again,  Galicia 
is  also  an  ancient  kingdom,  although  it  has  at 
other  times  formed  part  of  Poland;  and  the 
Emperor  is  King  of  Galicia,  as  he  is  King  of 
Hohemia  and  Dalmatia.  Is  he  to  be  crowned 
King  of  Galicia?  And  if  so,  is  the  separate 
e.vistenco  of  Galicia  to  be  a  Polish  or  a  Ruthenian 
existence,  or,  indeed,  a  Jewish?   for  the  Jews 


are  not  only  cxtrncrdlnarily  powerful  and 
numerous  there,  but  arc  gniniiig  ground  day  by 
day.  The  Rutheriians  complain  as  bitterly  of 
being  bullied  by  the  Poles  in  Galicia  as  the 
Croats  complain  of  the  Magyars.  Even  here  the 
dilflculties  are  not  ended.  The  .Mnrgraviatc  of 
iMoravia  contains  a  large  Tsecli  population,  and 
will  have  to  be  adile<l  to  the  Hohemian  kingdom. 
Hukowinj'.  iiay  go  with  Galicia  or  Transylvania. 
Austria'.  Silesia  may  be  divided  between  the 
Tsedis  of  Bohemia  and  .Moravia  on  the  one  part, 
and  the  Poles  or  Rutbenians  or  Jews  of  Oalicia 
on  the  other.  But  what  is  to  become  of  that 
which,  with  the  most  obstinate  disregard  of 
pedants,  I  intend  to  continue  to  call  the  Tyrol  ? 
Trieste  must  go  with  Austria  and  Sal/.burg,  and 
the  Northern  Tyrol  and  Styria  and  Carinthia  no 
doubt;  but  it  is  not  difliciilt  to  show  that 
Austria  would  actually  be  strengthened  by 
giving  up  the  Southern  Tyrol,  where  the  Italian 
ijcople.  or  at  least  the  Italian  language,  is  gain- 
ing groimd  day  by  day.  There  really  seems 
very  little  left  of  the  integrity  of  the  Austrian 
E;m|)ir(.'  at  the  conclusion  of  our  survey  of  its 
constituent  parts.  Matters  do  not  hmk  nuich 
better  if  we  turn  to  Trans- Lcithania.  Hungary 
has  its  Reichstag  (which  is  also  known  by  some 
terrible  Magyar  name),  its  Hou.sc  of  Representa- 
tives, and  its  House  of  Magnates,  and,  although 
there  are  not  so  many  Provincial  Diets  as  in 
Austria,  Slavonia  and  the  Banat  of  Croatia 
possess  a  Common  Diet  with  which  the  JIagyars 
are  far  from  popular;  and  the  Principality  of 
Transylvania  al.so  pos.sessed  separate  local  rights, 
for  trying  completely  to  suppress  which  tlu! 
Magyars  are  at  present  highly  luipopular.  The 
Principality,  although  undi'r  Magyar  rule,  is 
divided  between  'Sa.\<ms'  and  Rinimans,  who 
eipially  detest  the  Magyars,  and  the  Croats  and 
Slovenes  who  people  the  IJniiat  are  Slavs  who 
also  e.\ecrato  their  iJgi '  m  rulers,  inscriptions  in 
whose  language  are  deiaced  whenever  seen. 
Croatia  is  uiuler-rcpresented  at  Pest,  and  says 
that  .she  goes  unheard,  and  the  Croats,  who 
have  partial  Home  Rule  without  an  executive, 
ask  for  a  local  executive  as  well,  and  demand 
Fiume  and  Da.matia.  If  we  look  to  the  numbers 
of  the  various  races,  thcie  are  in  Austria  of  Ger- 
mans and  Jews  about  9,01)0,000  to  about 
13,000,000  Slavs  and  a  few  Italians  and  Ron- 
mans.  There  are  in  the  lands  of  the  Crown  of 
Hungary  3,000,000  of  Germans  and  .lew.s.  of 
Roumaiis  nearly  3,000,000.  although  the  M-.w, 
yars  only  acknowledge  3,500,000,  and  of  Mag- 
yars and  Slavs  between  five  and  six  millions 
apiece.  In  the  whole  of  the  territories  of  the 
Dual  Monarchy  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are 
18,000,000  of  Slavs  and  only  17,000,000  of  the 
ruling  races  —  Germans,  Jews,  and  Magyars  — 
while  between  three  and  four  millions  of  Rou- 
mans  and  Italians  count  along  with  the  Slav 
majority .  as  being  hostile  to  the  dominant 
nationalities.  It  is  difflcult  to  exa.^genite  the 
gravity  tor  Austria  of  the  state  of  things  which 
these  tlgures  reveal." — T/ie  Present  Position  of 
European  Politics  (Fortnif/htly  Reciein,  April, 
1887). — "  In  past  times,  when  Austria  had  Iwld 
France  tight  bound  between  Spain,  Germany, 
and  the  Nc'lierlands.  she  had  aspired  to  a 
dominant  position  in  Western  Europe;  and,  so 
long  as  her  eyes  were  turned  in  that  direction, 
she  naturally  had  every  interest  in  preserving 
the  Ottoman  Empire  intact,  for  she  wos  thus 


S84 


AUSTRIA,  1800-1887. 


AVARS. 


i;\mrftntrr(l  ii);i'''i*'t  ""  attnrka  from  the  fioiUh. 
But.  lifter  till'  loss  i>f  licr  Itii'iaii  i)()sscssi()iis  In 
IHO.j,  iind  of  piirt.  of  Croiiliii  in  IHOll,  ufiiT  tlio 
(li»iUit<T»  of  1H41),  1H.-)1I  and  IStlrt,  she  tlioUKlit 
more!  and  more  seriously  of  indemnifying  lier- 
.self  at  the  expense  of  Turkey.  It  was  niori'over 
evident  that,  in  on'eivto  paralyse  tli<^  daniiii;inK 
power  of  Hunpirv,  it  was  essential  for  her  to 
assimilntt!  the  priiiiit  ve  and  scattered  peoples  of 
Turkey,  aeeu.stomed  to  centuries  of  complete 
suhniission  and  oliedience,  anil  form  thus  a  kind 
of  iron  hand  whi<h  shouhl  encircle  Iliuiuary  and 
elfectually  prevent  her  from  risinj?.  If,  in  fact, 
we  glance  hack  at  the  position  of  Austria  in 
IHfiO,  and  tak(!  the  trouble  carefully  to  study  the 
clmn;;e  of  ideas  and  interests  which  hud  then 
taken  place  in  the  policy  of  France  and  of 
Kussia,  the  tendencies  of  tlie  .strongly  consti- 
tuted nations  who  were  repiigniint  to  the 
authority  and  inlluence  of  Austria,  the  hasis  of 
the  power  of  that  empire,  and,  linnlly,  the 
internal  ruin  with  which  she  was  then  threat- 
ened, we  cannot  but  arrive  at  the  conclusion 
that  Austria,  by  the  very  instinct  of  self- 
preservation,  was  forced  to  turn  eastwards  and 
to  consider  how  best  she  might  devour  .sonic,  at 
least,  of  the  European  provinces  of  Turkey. 
Austrian  statesmen  have  been  thoroughly  con- 
vinced of  this  fact,  and,  impelled  by  the  instinct 
above-mentioned,  liave  not  ceased  carefully  and 
consistently  to  prepare  and  follow  out  the  policy 
here  indicated.  Their  objects  have  already  been 
partially  attained  by  the  practical  annexation  of 
liosiiia  and  Herzegovina  in  1878  [see  TuilKS: 
A.  I).  1878] ;  and  it  was  striking  to  observe  with 
what  bitter  feeling  and  rescntineut  this  measure 
was  looked  upon  at  tlu!  time  by  the  Hungarian 
section  of  the  empire.  .  .  .  Russia  has  never 
made  any  secret  of  her  designs  upon  Turkey; 
she  has,  indeed,  more  than  once  openly  made 
war  in  order  to  carry  them  out.     Hut  Austria 


AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  SMPIRE.  See 
AfsTKl.v:  A.  I).  1800-1867. 

AUTERI,  The.  Sec  Iuei-and,  Tribks  op 
EAiti.v  Cki.tic  INMIAHITANTS. 

AUTUN  :  Origin.     See  Gai;ia 

A.  D.  287.— Sacked  by  the  Bagauds.  Sec 
Haoacds. 


Sec 


D. 


AUVERGNE,  Ancient.    The  country  of  the 
Arveiiii.     See/Enui;  also  Gai'I.s. 

AUVERGNE,   The   Great    Days   of. 
Franct::  A.  I).  lOfi.l. 

AUXILIUM.     See  Tat,i„\ok. 

AVA.     See  India:  A.  I).  1823-1833. 

AVALON.      See    NKWFOuxni.AND:     A 
lfllO-in.5.5;  and  Mauyi.ani):  A.  D.  1033. 

AVARICUM.     See  Bouikiks,  Oiiioi.\  op. 

AVARS,  The. — The  true  Avars  arc  repre- 
sented to  have  been  a  iiowerful  Turanian  people 
who  exercised  in  the  sixth  century  a  wide 
dominion  in  Central  Asia.  Among  the  tribes 
subject  to  them  was  one  called  tin;  Ogors,  or 
Oiiigours,  or  Oniars,  or  Ouar  Kliouni,  or  Varch- 
onitcs  (these  diverse  names  have  been  given  to 
the  nation)  which  is  supposed  to  have  belonged 
to  the  national  familv  of  the  Huns.  Some  time 
in  the  early  half  of  the  sixth  century,  the  Turk.s, 
then  a  people  who  dwelt  in  the  very  center  of 
Asia,  at  the  foot  of  the  Altai  mountains,  making 
their  first  appearance  in  history  as  conquerors, 
crushed  and  almost  annihilated  the  Avars,  there- 
16  ^ 


remains  a  fatal  obstacle  in  her  path.  Even  as 
things  at  pri'sent  stand,  Austria,  bv  her  geo- 
grapliieal  position,  so  commands  and  dominates 
the  Hu.ssian  line  >>f  operations  that,  once  the 
Danulx-  pas.sed,  the  Uussians  are  constantly 
menaced  b^' Austria  (in  the  Hank  and  rear.  .  .  . 
And  if  tins  be  true  now,  how  much  more  true 
would  it  be  were  Austria  to  continue  her  inarch 
eastwards  towards  .Salcniici.  That  necessiirily, 
at  some  time  or  other,  th.it  inarch  must  be  con- 
tinued may  he  taken  for  almt  ttcertain;  but  that 
Austria  has  it  in  lier  power  to  commence  it  for 
till!  present,  cannot,  I  think,  be  admitted.  She 
must  further  consolidate  and  make  certain  of 
wnat  she  has.  .Movement  now  would  bring 
upon  iier  astruggk'  for  life  or  death  —  a  struggle 
wlio<e  issue  may  fairly  be  saiil  in  no  uiirriendly 
spirit  to  Austria,  to  be  doubtful.  With  at  hnrnu 
a  bitterly  discontented  Croatia,  strong  I'an- 
slavistic  tendencies  in  llosnia,  Herzegovina,  and 
Dalinatia,  a  (tii'ck  population  thoroughlv  dis- 
aflectcil,  and  a  Hungary  whose  loyally  is  iloubt- 
fill,  sIk^  would  have  to  deal  bcyonil  her  frontiers 
with  the  not  contemptible  armies,  when  coir- 
bineil.  of  Servia,  Hulguria,  and  (Jreecc,  whose 
a"p  'Dtions  she  would  be  asphyxiating  for  ever, 
with  a  bitterly  hostile  population  in  Macedonia, 
with  the  wlioW  armed  force  of  Turkey,  and  with 
the  gigantic  military  power  of  Russia;  whilst  it 
is  not  fantastic  to  suppo.se  that  Germany  would 
be  hovering  near,  rcadjf  to  pounce  on  her  Ger- 
man provinces  when  the  '  moment  psychologi- 
<iue'  should  occur.  With  such  a  prospect 
before  her,  it  would  be  worse  than  madness  for 
Austria  to  move  until  the  cards  fell  more 
favourably  for  her." — V.  C'aillard,  The  Bill- 
f/iiriiin  Imbroglio  (Fortnightly  lici'icw,  Dreemlxr, 
188.')). 

A.  D.  1878.— The  Treaty  of  Berlin.— Acqui- 
sition of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  See  Tuhks: 
A.  I).  1878. 


bv  becoming  the  lords  of  the  Ouigours,  or  Ouar 
Ivhouni.  Hut  the  latter  found  ;im  opportunity  to 
escape  from  the  Turkish  yoke.  "Gathering 
together  their  wives  and  their  children,  their 
flocks  and  their  herds,  they  turned  their  waggons 
towards  the  ,Setting  Sun.  This  immense  exodus 
comprised  upwards  of  200.0i)i)  jxTsons.  The 
terror  which  inspired  their  flight  rendered  them 
resistless  in  the  onset;  for  the  avenging  Turk 
was  behind  their  frr.ck.  They  overturneil  e very- 
thin,'!;  before  them,  even  the  Hunnic  tribes  of 
kindred  origin,  who  had  long  hovered  on  the 
north-east  frontiers  of  the  Empire,  and,  driving 
out  or  enslaving  the  inhabitants,  established 
themselves  in  tiie  wide  plains  which  stretch 
between  the  Volga  and  the  Don.  In  that  age  of 
imperfect  information  they  were  naturally  enough 
confounded  with  the  greatest  and  most  formid- 
able tribe  of  the  Turanian  stock  known  to  the 
nations  of  the  AVest.  The  report  that  the  Avars 
had  broken  loose  from  Asia,  and  were  coming  in 
irresistible  force  to  overrun  Europe,  spread  itself 
all  along  both  banks  of  t  he  Danube  and  penetrated 
to  the  Byzantine  cour*  '*'ith  true  barbaric  cun- 
ning, the  Ouar  Khoui.  I  themselves  of  the 
mistake,  and  by  calling  Ives  Avars  largely 
increased  the  terrors  of  li.  .  name  and  their 
chances  of  conquest."  The  pretended  Avars 
were  taken  into  tlic  pay  of  the  Empire  by  .Jus- 
tinian and  employed  against  the  Hun  tribes  north 
and  cast  of  the"  Black  Sea.      They    presently 


35 


AVAKS, 


AVIONON. 


nrriiilrcil  ii  Arm  fcMjtinj;  'Hi  Ixitli  banks  of  the 
DiiniilH',  iinil  tur'X'cl  tlx'ir  iiriiiH  iiKaiiist  tlic 
Kiiipirc,  Thf  impou.'it  cily  of  (Siniiitim  wiih 
taken  by  tliciii  ul'icr  an  '>t>»linal('  Kii';^<;  and  il.H 
inlialiitantH  put  ti>  tlic  sword.  Tlicir  ravagi'S ex- 
tended over  central  Kumpe  to  tlie  Elbe,  wliere 
tliey  were  l)ealen  l)a(k  l)y  the  warlike;  Kninks, 
aiicl,  Hoiitliwards,  tliroiiL'li  Moesia,  Illyria,  Thrace, 
Macedonia  and  (Jreere,  eventotlie  I'eloponnesus. 
Conslanlinopli'  itself  was  tbn'atened  more  tliaii 
once,  anil  in  the  suinnicr  of  *\'M,  it  was  desper- 
ately attacked  tty  Avars  and  Persians  in  con- 
j  1111(1  ion  (see  UoMic:  A.  I).  .')(),'>-(l28),  with  dis- 
astrous results  to  tlic  assailants.  Hut  the  seat  of 
their  Knipire  was  tlu;  Dacian  coiintrv  —  iiKwlerii 
Houinunia.  Transylvania  and  part  of  Hunirary  — 
in  which  the  Avars  had  helped  the  Loinbanis  to 
crush  and  cxlinijuisli  the  (icpidu'.  Thi'  Slavic 
tribes  which,  by  this  time,  had  movcii  in  j;reat 
numbers  into  central  and  .south-eastern  Kurope, 
were  larirely  in  subjection  to  the  Avars  and  did 
their  biddiiu;  in  war  and  peace.  "These  iinfor 
tunalc  creatures,  of  apparently  an  imperfect, 
or,  at  liny  rate,  imperfectly  I'ultivated  intelli- 
jronce,  endured  such  fri.iflitfiil  tyranny  from  their 
Avar  con(iuerors,  that  their  very  name  has  passed 
iiitoasynoiiyme  for  tin- most  de^^radedserviuide." 
— J.  G.  Shepi)ard,  h'dU  nf  liinne,  lid.  4. 

Also  in:  K,  Giblxm,  7>fr/*H«  and  Fall  of  the 
lioiniin  ICmpiiv,  ch.  4'J. 

7th  Century.— The  Slavic  Revolt.— The  Em- 
[lire  of  the  Avars  was  shaken  and  much  diniiii- 
islied  in  the  Seventh  ('eiiturv  by  an  extensive 
risiiis;  of  their  oppres.sed  Slavic  subjects,  rouseil 
and  led,  it  is  said,  by  a  Frank  merchant,  or  ail- 
vcnlurer,  named  .Sanio.  who  l)ecame  their  kiiifr. 
The  tirst  to  throw  olf  the  yoke  were  a  tribe  called 
the  Veiides,  or  Wendes,  or  Veiiedi,  in  JJohemia, 
who  were  reputed  to  be  lialf-castes,  resultini;: 
from  intercourse  tictween  the  Avar  warriors  and 
the  woiie  -I  of  their  Slavic  vassals.  Under  the 
lead  ot  lino,  the  Wendes  and  Slovenes  or 
Slavonians  drove  the  Avars  to  the  east  and 
north;  and  it  seems  to  have  been  in  connection 
with  this  revolution  that  the  Emperor  lleraclius 
induced  the  Serbs  or  .Servians  and  Croats  — 
Slavic  tribes  of  the  same  race  and  region — to 
sottle  in  depopuhited  Dalmatia.  "'From  the 
year  (i^O  A.  I).'  writes  >I.  Thierry,  'the  Avar 
people  are  no  longer  mentioned  in  the  annals  of 
of  the  East ;  the  successors  of  Attila  no  longer 
figure  beside  the  succes.sors  of,  Coustantine.  It 
required  new  wars  in  the  West  to  bring  upon 
the  stage  of  history  the  khan  and  his  jieoph.' 
In  these  wars  [of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne] 
they  were  linally  swept  off  from  the  roll  of  Euro- 
pean nations." — J.  G.  Sheppard,  Fall  of  Rome, 
led.  4. 

A.  D.  791-805. — Conquest  by  Charlemagne. 
— "  Hungary,  now  so  called,  was  po.sses,sed  by 
the  Avars,  who,  joining  witli  themselves  a  multi- 
tude of  llumiish  tribes,  accumulated  the  im- 
mense spoils  whieli  both  they  themselves  and 
their  eiiually  barbarous  predecessors  had  torn 
fmni  the  other  naticms  of  Europe.  .  .  .  They 
extended  their  limits  towards  Lombardy,  anil 
touched  upon  the  very  verge  of  Bavaria.  .  .  . 
Much  of  their  eastern  frontier  was  now  lost,  al- 
most without  a  struggle  on  their  part,  by  tlie 
rise  of  other  barbarous  nations,  especially  the 
various  tribes  of  Bulgarians."  This  was  the 
position  of  the  Avars  at  the  time  of  Cliarli!- 
mague,  whom  they  jirovokcd  by  funniug  an  al- 


liance with  the  ambitious  Duke  of  Bavaria,  Tas- 
silo,  —  most  obstinate  of  all  who  resisted  the 
Frank  king's  imperious  and  imperial  rule.  In 
a  series  of  vigorous  cuinpaigus,  between  7Ut  and 
71)7  Charlenmgne  crushed  the  power  of  the  Avars 
and  took  po.sM'Ssion  of  their  country.  The 
royal  "ring"  or  stnmghoUl  —  believed  to  have 
been  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tatar,  lie- 
Iween  the  Danube;  and  the  Tlieiss — was  pene- 
trateil,  and  the  vast  treasure  ston'd  there  was 
seized.  Charlemagne  di.stribuled  it  with  a  gen- 
erous hand  to  churches,  to  monasteries  and  to 
the  poor,  as  well  as  to  his  own  nobles,  servants 
and  .soldiers,  who  are  said  to  have  iH'cn  madu 
rich.  There  were  sub.se(|iienl  risings  of  the 
Avars  and  wars,  until  H0."»,  when  the  remnant  of 
that  almo.st  annihilated  people  obtained  permis- 
sion to  settle  on  a  tract  of  land  between  Sarwar 
and  Ilaimbiirg,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
where  they  would  bo  jirotected  from  their 
Slavonian  enemies.  This  was  the  end  of  the 
Avar  nation. — O.  P.  H.  Jumus,  IIM.  of  Charle- 
miii/iie,  bka.  l)  iiiiil  11. 

Al.so  in:  J.  I.  Mombert.  Hint,  of  Charles  the 
Great,  bk.  2,  di.  7. 

» 

AVARS,  The  Rings  of  the.— The  fortilica- 
lions  of  the  Avars  were  of  a  iieculiar  and  effec- 
tive construction  and  were  called  Ilrings,  or 
liiugs.  "They  seem  to  have  been  a  series  of 
eight  or  nine  gigantic  ramparts,  constructed  in 
concentric  circles,  the  iuui.'  one  of  all  being 
called  the  royal  circle  or  camp,  where  was  de- 
posited all  the  valuable  |)lun(ler  which  the  war- 
riors had  collected  in  their  expeditions.  The 
method  of  constructing  these  ramparts  was 
.somewhat  singular.  Two  para'lel  rows  of  gigan- 
tic piles  were  driven  into  .he  ground,  some 
twenty  feet  apart.  The  intervening  space  was 
tilled  with  stones,  or  11  species  of  chalk,  so  com- 
pacted as  to  become  a  solid  nia.ss.  The  sides 
and  summit  were  covered  with  soil,  upon  which 
were  iilantcd  trees  and  shrubs,  who.se  interlacing 
branches  formed  an  impenetrable  hedge." — J.  O, 
Shejipard,  Full  of  Itinnc,  led   U. 

AVEBURY.     Sec  Auuuv. 

AVEIN,  Battle  of  (1635).  See  Netiier- 
i.ANDs:    A.  D.  lOri-1038. 

AVENTINE,  The.    See  Seven  Hills  of 

HoMK. 

AVERNUS,  Lake  and  Cavern.— A  gloomy 
lake  called  Avernus,  wliicli  tilled  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano,  situated  a  little  to  the  north  of 
tlie  Bay  of  Naiili'S,  was  the  object  of  many  super- 
stitious imaginations  among  the  ancients. 
"Tliere  was  a  place  near  Lake  Avernus  called 
the  prophetic  cavern.  Persons  were  in  attend- 
ance there  who  called  up  ghosts.  Anv  one 
desiring  it  came  thither,  and,  liaving  killed  a 
victim  and  poured  out  liliatioiis,  siiminoncd  what- 
ever ghost  he  wanted.  The  ghost  came,  very 
faint  and  doubtful  to  the  siglit,  but  vocal  and 
prophetic;  and,  having  answered  the  questions, 
went  off." — Maxinuis  Tyrius,  i|Uoted  by  C.  C. 
Felton,  in  Greece,  Ancient  iiiul  Modern,  e.  2,  led. 
9. — See,  also,  CUM.K  and  B.\l.«. 

AVERYSBORO,  Battle  of.  See  United 
St.\tks  OK  Am.  :  A.  D.  18(35  (Feuhuauy—Maiich; 
TiiK  Cakoi.inas). 

AVIGNON:  loth  Century.— In  the  Kingdom 
of  Aries.     Sec  Buikiunuv:  A.  D.  843-933. 

A.  D.  1226.— Siege  by  Louis  VIII.  See  Al- 
muENSEs:  A.  D.  1217-1229. 


236 


AVIONON 


AZTKC  WD  MAYA  PICTUni:  WRITING. 


A.  D.  1300-1348.— Made  the  seat  of  the  Pa- 
pacy.—Purchase  of  the  city  by  Clement  V. 
■Sec  I'aI'Acy;  A.  1>.  l'i!)4-i:tlM. 

A.  D.  1367-1369.— Temporary  return  of  Ur- 
ban V.  to  Rome.    Sec  I'.vi-At  v;  A.  D.  i;r»0-i;i7H. 

A.  D.  1377-1417.— Return  of  Pope  Gregory 
XI.  to  Rome.  — Residence  of  the  anti-popes  of 
the  great  Schism.    .Scr  I'acacy:  .\..  1).  I;i7i-1UT. 

A.  O.  1790-1791.— Revolution  and  Anarchy. 
—Atrocities  committed. —Reunion  with  France 
decreed.     Sic  Kiianck;  A.  I).  lTi)i)-17i)l. 

A.  D.  1797.— Surrendered  to  France  by  the 
Pope.  Std  Fkasck:  A.  I).  I7mi-171)7  (Octoueb 
— .(I'ltii,). 

A.    D.    1815. — Possession  by  France  con- 
firmed.     .Sec  \  IK.NNA,  'rilK  CONdllKSS  OK. 
♦-       - 

AVIONES,  The. —  •' Tilt!  Avloncs  were  11 
Sui'vl<:  c'liiii.  Tlicy  iir(!  inciitlDncd  by  Tiicitiis  in 
councxiun  with  the  lieuilignl,  Angll,  ViirinI, 
Euilosi's,  HuiirdDncs  niid  Nuithoncs,  all  Suuvic 
clans.  These  tribi'S  must  Imvo  occupit'd  iMcck- 
leubiirj?Sch\verin,  Meckli'nl)ur;;-8lri'litz  and 
Slt'swick-IIolstfiii,  tli(.'  Klbu  bciiij?  their  Eastern 
boundary.  It  is,  however,  Impossible  to  dellne 
their  precise  loeiilltles." — A.  J.  Church  and  W.  .1. 
Brodribb,  Minov  Works  of  Tacitus,  Q»>'i.  Notes  to 
the  ilirmiinn. 

AVIS,  The  House  of.  See  Poiituoai,:  A.  D. 
1383-l;!8r). 

AVIS,  Knights  of.— This  is  a  Portuguese 
military  rellu:ious  order  which  originated  about 
1147  during  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  and  which 
formerly  observed  the  monastic  rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict. It  became  connected  with  the  order  of 
Calatrava  in  Spain  and  rei^eived  from  the  latter 
its  property  in  Portugal.  Pope  Paul  III.  united 
the  Qnuid  .Mastership  to  the  Crown  of  Portugal. 
— P.  C.  'tVoodhouse,  Militavy  Religious  Orders, 
pt.  4.— Ree,  also,  Poktuoai,:  A.  I).  lOaVKia."). 

AVITUS,  Roman  Emperor  (Western),  A.  D. 
45.'i-4.')(!. 

AVVIM,  The.  —  The  original  inhabitants  of 
the  south-west  corner  of  Canaan,  from  which 
they  were  driven  by  the  Philistines.— II.  Ewahl, 
Hist,  of  hruel.  bh.  1.  sect.  4. 

AYACUCHO,  Battle  of  (1824).  See  Pehu: 
A.  1).  18'.J(»-182(!. 

AYLESBURY  ELECTION  CASE.  Sec 
En(ii.a.ni):  a.  1).  171:!. 

AYLESFORD,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  455).— The 
first  battle  fought  and  won  by  the  invading 
Jutes  after  their  landing  in  Britain  under  Hen- 
gest  and  Horsa.  It  was  fought  at  the  lowest 
ford  of  the  river  Med  way.  See  Enuland:  A.  D. 
44«-47;i. 

AYMARAS,  The.    SeePEUU:  TiieAuokioi- 

NAI,  iNMAmTANTS. 

AYOUBITE  OR  AIYUBITE  DYNASTY. 
See  Sai.adin,  Tub  Emimuio  of. 

AZINCOUR  (AGINCOURT),  Battle  of. 
See  PitANCK:  A.  I).  141;). 

AZOF  OR  AZOV  :  A.  D.  1696.— Taken  by 
the  Russians.     See  Tuiuw:  A.  I).  l(i84-l(i'J(). 

A.  D.  171 1. — Restoration  to  the  Turks.  .See 
Scandinavian  St .ATEs  (Sweden):  A.  I).  1707- 
1718. 

A.  D.  1736-1739. — Captured  by  the  Russians. 
—Secured  to  them  by  the  Treaty  of  Belgrade. 
See  Russia;  A.  D.  1725-1739. 


AZTEC.    See  Mexico,  Ancient  ;  and  A.  D. 
1835-1503;  also,  Amkuican  AuoKiQiMES:  Mayas. 


AZTEC  AND  MAYA  PICTURE-WRIT- 
ING.—  "  .\o  nation  ever  reduced  it  |  pictography  1 
more  to  a  system.  It  was  in  constmit  us<'  In  liie 
dally  transactions  of  life.  They  [the  A/tecs| 
manufactured  for  writing  purposes  a  thick 
coarse  paper  from  the  leaves  of  tliir  agave  plant 
by  a  process  of  maceration  ami  pre.ssuri-.  .\n 
Aztec  book  closely  resembles  one  of  our  i|Uarl() 
volumes.  It  Is  made  of  a  sIngh?  sheet,  12  to  15 
inches  wide,  and  often  (iO  or  70  feel  long,  and  is 
not  rolled,  but  foldeil  eitlier  in  sipiares  or  xlgxagH 
in  such  a  manner  that  on  oiieiiing  there  are  two 
pages  exposed  to  view.  '1  hill  wooden  boards 
lire  fastened  to  each  of  the  outer  leaves,  so  that 
the  whole  presents  as  neat  an  appearance,  remarks 
Peter  .>fartyr,  as  if  it  had  come  from  the  shop  of 
a  skilful  book  binder.  They  al.so  covereil  build- 
ings, tapestries  and  scrolls  of  parchment  willi 
these  devices.  .  .  .  What  Is  still  more  astonish- 
ing, there  is  rea.son  lo  believe,  in  some  instances, 
their  figures  wen;  not  painted,  but  actually 
printed  with  movable  blocks  of  wood  on  which 
the  symbols  were  carved  in  relief,  though  this 
was  probably  conlliied  to  those  intemled  for 
ornament  only.  In  these  records  we  discern 
soinetbing  higher  than  a  mere  symbolur  notation. 
They  contain  the  germ  of  a  iihonetic  alphabet, 
and  represent  .sounds  of  spoken  language.  The 
symbol  is  often  not  comiected  with  the  idea,  but 
with  the  word.  The  iiUHle  in  which  this  is  dono 
correspomls  precisely  to  that  of  the  rebus.  It  is 
a  simple  method,  readily  suggesting  it.self.  In 
the  middle  ages  it  was  mtich  in  vogue  In  Europe 
for  the  same  purpose  for  which  it  was  chielly 
employed  in  Mexico  at  tlie  .same  time  —  tho 
writing  of  |)roper  names.  For  example,  tho 
English  family  Bolton  was  known  in  heraldry 
by  a 'tun '  transfixed  by  a 'bolt.'  Precisely  so 
the  Mexican  Emp«"ir  Ixcoatl  is  mentioned  in  tho 
Aztec  innniiscript  idcr  the  figure  of  a  serpent, 
'coatl,' pierced  by  oljsidiiin  knives,  'ixtli.'.  .  . 
As  a  syllable  could  be  expres.sed  by  any  object 
whose  name  commenced  with  it,  as  few  words 
can  be  given  the  form  of  a  rebus  without  soino 
change,  as  the  figures  sometimes  represent  their 
full  phonetic  value,  sometimes  (mly  that  of  their 
initial  sound,  and  as  universally  the  attention  of 
the  artist  was  directed  less  to  the  sound  than  to 
the  idea,  the  didactic  painting  of  the  .Mexicans, 
whatever  it  might  have  been  io  them,  is  a  sealed 
book  to  us,  and  must  remain  so  in  great  part. 
.  .  .  Immense  masses  of  sucli  documents  wero 
stored  in  the  imperial  archives  of  ancient  .Mexico. 
Toniuemadii  asserts  that  five  cities  alone  yielded 
to  the  Spanish  governor  on  one  reipiisition  no 
less  tlian  10,000  volumes  or  scrolls!  Every  leaf 
was  destroyed.  Indeed,  so  thonnigh  and  whole- 
sale was  the  destruetiou  of  these  memorials,  now 
so  precious  in  our  eyes,  that  hardly  enough 
remain  to  whet  the  wits  of  antiiiuaries.  In  tho 
libraries  of  Paris,  Dresden,  Pestli,  and  tho 
Vatican  are,  however,  a  sulUcieiit  number  to 
make  us  despair  of  deciphering  them,  had  wu 
for  comparison  all  which  the  Spaniards  des- 
troyed. Beyond  all  others  the  Mayas,  resident 
on  the  peninsula  of  Yucatiin,  would  seem  to 
have  approached  nearest  a  true  phonetic  system. 
Tliey  had  a  regular  and  well  understood  alpha- 
bet of  37  elemenuiiy  s<mn<ls,  tho  letters  of  which 
are  totally  dilferent  from  those  of  any  other 
nation,  and  evidently  originated  with  themselves. 
But  besides  these  they  used  a  large  number  of 
purely    couveatioaal    symbols,    uud    moreover 


237 


AZTKU   VNI)  MAYA  I'ICTUUE  WUITINO. 


UAHYLONIA. 


were  iirruHtomcd  ronstiintiv  to  fmploy  tlu' 
iiiiclnil  |ii('ti>Kr»|ilii(.'  iiii'tli(H(  ill  aililllion  as  ii 
Horl  of  ('iiiiiiiit'mary  mi  tlu;  hoiimiI  rcpiTHt'iitol. 
.  .  .  With  till'  alil  of  this  alplialM't,  wliicli  liax 
fiirtiiiiatcly  Imi'Ii  priscrvcd,  we  art'  cnublcil  ti) 
Hpcll  nut  a  few  words  on  the  Viicalccaii  iiiaiiil- 
HcrijiUi  uud  fuviulen,  but  thus  fur  with  no  puitilivL' 


rcgultn.  The  losM  iif  the  nncii'iit  pmnunclatloti 
Is  cHiiccijilly  III  the  way  of  such  Htudlcs.  In 
South  Ariicrica,  also,  thi'ru  is  luxM  to  have  lu'vu 
a  nation  wlio  ciiltivulcd  tliu  art  of  piituro- 
wrltlnj;,  the  I'unos,  on  thii  river  Ucuyalf. " — 
I).  O.  llrluton,  The  Myth*  of  th»  Neie  World, 
eh.  1. 


B. 


BABAR,  King  of  Ferghana,  A.  I).  1404—; 
King  of  Kabul,  A.  I).  WM  —  -.  Moghul  Em- 
peror or  Padischah  of  India,  A.  I).  i:i;>(i-iri;ti). 

BABENBERGS,  The.  .SccAustuia:  A.I). 
wr.  ijKi. 

B  AB  V  LON  :  The  City.— "  The  city  stands  on 
a  broad  plain,  ami  is  an  exact  Nipiare,  a  litiiidrcd 
and  twenty  furloiiRS  in  U'nj,'tli  caitli  wi.y,  so  that 
tlic  eritiro  circuit  is  four  hundred  and  ei;;lity 
furlongs.  Wliile  sucli  is  its  si/.c,  in  inaKliili- 
cence  there  Is  no  otiier  city  that  approaches  it. 
It  is  surrounded,  in  tlie  tiist  place,  by  a  broad 
and  deep  moat,  full  of  water,  licbiiid  whicii  rises 
a  wall  llfly  royal  cubits  in  widlli  mid  two  bun- 
dreil  in  heij;lit.  .  .  .  And  here  I  may  not  omit 
to  tell  the  use  to  wliicli  tlie  iiioiild  dug  out  of 
the  H''''i't  iiioiit  was  tinned,  nor  llu!  manner 
wlierein  th(^  wall  was  wrought.  As  fast  as  they 
duj;  the  moat  llie  soil  wliicli  they  t^i'l  from  the 
cutting;  was  made  into  bricUs,  and  wlien  a  siif- 
flcieiit  iiumlier  were  completed  lliey  baked  the 
bricl^s  in  kilns.  Then  they  set  to  biiildiii!;,  and 
bej;aii  with  lirickin.i;  the  borders  of  I  lie  inoal, 
after  which  they  proceeded  to  construct  the 
wall  itself,  usinj;  tliroun'iout  for  their  cement 
hot  bilumen,  and  interposinj;  a  layer  of  wattled 
reeils  at  every  tliirlietli  course  of  I  lie  brick.  On 
the  to|),  aloiii'  the  edges  of  the  wall,  they  con- 
structed liuililings  of  a  single  chamber  facing 
one  another,  leaving  between  tliem  room  for  a 
four  horse  cliariot  to  turn.  In  tlie  circuit  of  tlie 
wall  are  a  iiuiidred  gates,  all  of  brass,  with 
lira/.en  lintels  and  side  po.sts.  Tlie  bitumen  used 
in  tlie  work  was  brmiglit  to  Babylon  from  the  Is, 
a  small  stream  wliicli  flows  into  the  Euphrates 
at  the  point  wliere  the  city  of  the  same  name  stands, 
eiglit  days'  journey  from  Uabyloii.  Lumps  of 
iiitumenare  found  in  great  aliinulance in  this  river. 
Tlie  city  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  the 
river  wiiicli  runs  through  the  midst  of  it.  This 
river  is  tlie  Euplirales.  .  .  .  The  citv  wall  is 
brouglii  down  on  both  sides  to  the  cilge  of  the 
stream;  thence,  from  the  corners  of  the  wall, 
there  is  carried  along  each  bank  of  the  river  a 
fence  of  burnt  bricks.  The  houses  are  mostly 
three  and  four  stories  liigli;  the  streets  all  run  in 
straight  lines;  not  only  those  parallel  to  the 
river,  but  also  the  cross  streets  which  lead 
down  to  tlie  water  side.  At  the  river  end  of 
these  cross  streets  are  low  gates  in  the  fence 
that  skirts  the  stream,  whieli  are,  like  the  great 
gates  in  the  outer  wall,  of  bra-ss,  and  open  on 
the  water.  Tlic  outer  wall  is  the  main  defence 
of  the  city.  There  is,  however,  a  second  inner 
wall,  of  less  tliickncss  than  the  first,  but  very 
little  inferior  to  it  in  strength.  Tlic  centre  of 
each  division  of  the  town  was  occupied  bj'  a 
fortress.  In  tlie  one  stood  ^he  palace  of  the 
kings,  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  great  strength 
and  size:  in  the  other  was  the  sacred  precinct  of 
Jupiter  Bulus,  a  square  enclosure,  two  furlongs 
each  way,  with  .-ates  of  solid  brass;  which  was 


al.su  remaining  in  my  time.  In  the  miihlle  of 
the  precinct  there  was  a  tower  of  solid  ni;isonry, 
a  fui'long  111  lengtli  and  lireadlh,  upon  which  wu» 
raised  a  second  tower,  and  on  that  a  third,  and 
so  on  up  to  eiglit.  Tlie  ascent  to  the  top  is  on 
tlie  (lUlsiile,  by  a  path  which  winds  round  all 
tlie  towers.  .  .  .  On  the  topmost  tower  there  is 
a  spacious  teiii|)le."— HeriMlolus,  lliiit..  trans. 
Ill/  (I.  JlnwUiiMoii,  bk.  1,  rh.  178-181. — According 
to  (;tesias,  the  circuit  of  tlie  walls  of  liabyloa 
was  but  IIIIO  furlongs.  The  historians  of  Alex- 
ander agreed  nearly  with  this.  As  regards  the 
lieiglii  of  llu!  walls,  "Strabo  and  the  historians 
of  Ale.vander  substitule  50  for  the  iJOO  cubits  of 
Herodotus,  and  it  may  Ihercfon'  be  suspected 
that  tlie  latter  author  refc^rred  to  Imiids,  four  of 
whicli  were  e(|ual  to  the  cubit.  The  measure, 
inileed,  of  50  fathoms  or  200  royal  cubits  for  the 
walls  of  a  city  in  a  iilain  is  iiuite  preposterous. 
.  .  .  >Iv  own  belief  is  that  the  height  of  tlio 
walls  of  Halivloii  did  not  exceed  flO  or  70  Eng- 
lish fci't."— ll.  0.  Uawlinson,  note  to  iilKire. — Sec, 
al.so.  nAiivi.()Nt.\:  H.  V.  02.5-5:19. 

BABYLON  OF  THE  CRUSADERS,  The. 
See  CltiHADKs:  A.  I).  1248-1254. 

BABYLONIA,  Primitive.— (So  much  new 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  peoples  in  tlic  East  ling 
been  and  is  being  brouglit  to  light  by  recent 
search  and  study,  and  the  account  of  it  in  English 
historical  literature  is  so  meagre  as  yet,  that  there 
.seems  to  be  good  reason  for  deferring  the  treat- 
ment of  these  subjects,  for  llie  most  part,  to  a 
later  volume  of  tliis  work.  Tlu^  reader  is  referred, 
therefore,  to  the  article  "Semites,"  in  the  hope 
that,  before  its  publication  is  rcacbi'd,  in  the 
fourth  or  fifth  volume,  there  will  be  later  and 
better  works  to  cpiotc  from  on  all  the  subjects 
embraced.  Terrien  de  Lacouperie's  interesting 
theory,  which  is  introduced  below,  in  this  jilace, 
is  questioned  by  many  scholars;  and  Professor 
Sayce,  whose  writings  have  done  mucli  to  popu- 
larize the  new  oriental  studies,  .seems  to  g.isonie- 
times  in  advance  of  the  sure  ground.) — The 
Sumirians,  inhabitants  of  tlie  Sliinar  of  the  Old 
Testament  narrative,  and  Accadians,  who  di- 
vided primitive  Babylonia  between  them,  "were 
overrun  and  conquered  by  the  Seniitic  Baby- 
loniaus  of  Inter  history,  Accad  being  apparently 
the  first  half  of  the  country  to  fall  under  the 
sway  of  the  new  comers.  It  is  possible  that 
Casdim,  the  Hebrew  word  translated  Clialdecsor 
C'haldeans  in  tlie  authorized  version,  is  the  Baby- 
lonian 'casidi'  or  conquerors,  n  title  whicli  con- 
tinued to  cling  to  them  in  consequence  of  tlieir 
conquest.  The  Accadians  had  been  the  inven- 
tors of  the  pictorial  hieroglyphics  which  after- 
wards developed  into  the  cuneiform  or  wedge- 
shaped  writing ;  tliey  had  found  d  the  great  cities 
of  Clialdea,  and  Iind  attained  to  a  high  degree  of 
culture  and  civilization.  Their  cities  possessed 
libraries,  stocked  with  books,  written  partly  on 
papyrus,  partly  on  clay,  which  was,  while  still 


238 


nAUYI.ONI.V. 


nABVLONIA. 


iioft,  ItnprpiuM'il  wlili  clmriicliTH  liy  mrnnn  of  ri 
iiu'tiil  KtyliiH.  Till'  iMHikH  wi'rr  iiiiiiicniiis,  and 
rt'liiltMl  lo  It  vurli'ty  of  HultjcclH.  .  .  .  Iti  nmrsi' 
of  llinc.  Imwfvcr,  llii' two  (llalcctn  i>f  Suiiilr  and 
Accad  ri'iiHctl  to  Im'  Hpokoii;  Imt  tlir  ni'ccHMitv  for 
IcariiiiiK  tlii'in  Htill  rrliiaiiicd,  and  w<>  Mtxl,  ac- 
('(mlln){ly.  that  down  totlifilalcHt  ilay.sof  tH)tli  As 
Nyria  anil  Baliylonia,  tlic  cdiicali'd  clasMi'M  were 
tiiUfclit  till'  old  extinct  Accadian,  Inst  as  In  imihI- 
t'rnEuro|H'  tlicyanitaiiiflit  Jiatin.'  —A.  II.  Haver, 
Frenh  IA<lht  //•«/;»  the  Ain-liiit  Monumiiitii,  eft.  2. 
— ".Slni-i'  Siitnlr,  the  Slihiar  of  the  lllhlc,  was 
tlic  tlntt  pail  of  till'  country  occupiiil  liy  tlic  in- 
vading; S<'inil<'S,  wliilo  Accuil  lon<;  continued  to 
Ik!  rcKitrded  as  tlie  Heat  of  an  alien  race,  tlie  lan- 

&w\liv  ami  population  of  prindtive  Ciialdea  liave 
t'cn  named  Aecadian  l)y  tlic  ninjorily  of  As 
1  yrlan  scholars.  Tli<'  i)art  |)layed  by  tliesi- Ac- 
eailians  in  the  intellectual  liislorv  of  mankind  is 
liiilhly  iinporlanl.  They  were  tlic  I'arliest  eivili- 
/.ers  of  Western  Asia,  and  it  Is  to  them  that  we 
have  to  trace  the  arts  and  .sciences,  the  reliKioiis 
traditions  and  the  philosophy  not  only  of  tlie  As- 
Syrians,  hut  also  of  the  I'lioMiicians,  the  Ara- 
nia'ans,  and  even  the  Hebrews  (hemselvcs.  It 
was,  t(M),  from  Chaldca  that  the  xerms  of  (Jreek 
art  and  of  much  of  tlii'  (J reek  pantlieon  and  niytli- 
ology  orljxinally  came.  Columnar  areliiteelure 
reached  its  llrst  and  highest  development  in 
Hahylonia;  the  lions  that  still  gourd  tlw  main  en- 
trance of  .MykeniL'  arc  distinctly  Assyrian  In  char 
iicler;  and  the  Ureek  lleniklcs  willi  liis  twelve 
lalMiurs  finds  his  prototype  in  the  hero  of  the 
grciit  C'haUlean  epic.  It  is  dillicult  to  say  how 
much  of  our  present  culture  is  not  owed  to  the 
stunted,  olilicpie-eyed  people  of  ancient  Baby- 
lonia; Jerusalem  and  Athens  are  the  sacred  cities 
of  our  modern  life ;  and  both  .Icrusalem  and  AIIkmis 
were  profoundly  intluenced  by  tlic  ideas  which 
had  their  first  starting-point  in  priniieval  Accad. 
The  Semite  has  ever  been  a  trader  and  an  inter- 
niedinry,  and  his  earliest  work  was  the  ])recious 
trade  in  spiritual  and  mental  wares.  Babylonia 
was  the  home  and  mother  of  Semitic  culture  and 
Semitic  inspiration;  the  I'h<eniciaiis  never  forgot 
that  they  were  a  colony  from  the  Persian  Gulf, 
while  the  Israelite  recounted  that  his  fatiier 
Abraham  had  been  born  in  Vr  of  the  (!hal(lees. 
Almost  the  whole  of  the  As.syrian  literature  was 
derived  from  Accad,  and  translated  from  the  dead 
language  of  primitive  Ciialdea." — A.  II.  Sayce, 
liiibyliiiiMn  Literature,  pp.  0-7.  —  Tlie  same. 
Ancient  Empiren  of  the  fjixt,  ii/ip.  2. — "The  place 
of  China  in  the  past  and  future  is  not  that  which 
it  was  long  supposed  to  1k'.  Uecent  researches 
linve  disch)se(l  that  its  civilization,  like  ours,  was 
variously  derived  from  the  same  old  focus  of  cul- 
ture of  south-western  Asia.  .  ,  .  It  was  my  good 
fortune  to  be  able  to  show,  in  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  a  score  or  so  of  papers  in  periodicals,  of 
communications  to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  and 
elsewhere,  published  and  unpublished,  and  of 
contributions  to  .several  works  since  April  1880, 
downwards,  that  the  writing  and  some  knowl- 
edge of  irts,  science  and  government  of  the  early 
Chinese,  more  or  less  enumerated  below,  were 
derivei'.  from  the  old  civilization  of  Babylonia, 
through  the  secondary  focus  of  Susiana,  and  that 
this  derivation  was  a  social  fact,  resulting  not 
from  scientilic  teaching  but  from  practical  in- 
tercourse of  some  leugtn  between  the  Susian  con- 
federation and  the  future  ci vilizers  of  the  Chinese, 
the  Bak  tribes,  who,  from  their  neighbouring 

239 


(M>ttlemont«  In  the  N.,  moved  cn.^twards  nt  the 
timi' of  the  gn'iit  rising  of  tlii'  XXIII,  crnlnry 
B.  C.  Coming  again  in  tlie  Held,  Dr.  .1.  Kdkins 
has  Joined  me  on  the  same  line." — Terrien  <hr 
I.acouperic.  Itilii/I'iniu  unit  Chimi  [.{dideni)/, 
A'l;/.  I.  IHMO).— ••  We  could  enumerate  a  loiig 
series  of  alllnities  between  Chaldean  culture  ami 
Chini'se  civili/.alion.  allhough  the  last  was  not 
iMirrowcfl  directly.  From  what  evidenc'c  we  have, 
it  Heeins  highly  probable  that  ac(  rtain  number  of 
families  or  of  tribes,  wilhoiit  any  apparent  gen 
eric  mime,  but  among  wliicli  the"  Kutia  tilled  an 
important  .>osilioii,  ciime  to  China  about  the  year 
'J.'idil  11.  C,  Thi'se  trilx  v,  which  came  from  the 
West,  were  obliged  to  (piit  the  neighlHinrhiKid, 
probiibly  north  of  the  Susiana,  and  were  com- 
prised in  tli(!  feudal  agglomeration  of  that  region, 
where  thiy  must  have  been  iiilliii'iieed  by  the 
Akkado-Chaldeim  culture." — Terrien  de  I.iicoii- 
perie,  h'lirl;/  lli't.  of  ('liiiieiie  ('irili:;iitiiin,  ;i.  32. 
—  See,  also,  Ciiiw  TukOhkiinof  thi-:  I'koim.k. 
The  early  (Chaldean)  monarchy.— "  Our 
earliest  glimpse  of  the  polilical  condition  of 
Ciialdea  shows  us  the  connliy  divided  into 
numerous  sniiill  states,  each  headed  by  a  gri'iit 
city,  made  famous  and  powerful  by  thesanetuiiry 
or  temple  of  .some  particular  deity,  and  ruled  by 
a  piitesi,  a  title  wliicli  is  now  thought  to  mean 
I)riest-king.  i.  e.,  i)riest  ii.id  king  in  one.  There 
Clin  be  liltle  doubt  that  the  beginning  of  tlie  city 
was  every  where  the  temple,  with  its  college  of 
ministering  priests,  and  that  the  surrounding 
settlement  was  gradually  formed  by  pilgrims 
and  worshippers.  That  royalty  developed  out 
of  the  priestlioiHl  is  also  more  than  probable. 
.  .  .  There  comes  a  time  when  for  the  title  of 
l>iitesi  is  substituted  that  of  king.  ...  It  is 
noticeable  tliat  the  distinction  between  the 
Semitic  newcomers  and  the  indigenous  Sliumiro- 
Aecadians  continues  long  to  be  tmceable  in  the 
names  of  the  royal  lemple-bnilders,  even  after 
the  new  Seinilic  idiom,  wliich  we  call  the 
Assyrian,  had  entirely  ousted  the  old  language. 
.  .  .  Furthermore,  even  suiierlicial  observation 
shows  that  the  old  language  and  the  old  names 
survive  longest  in  Sliiimir, —  the  South.  From 
this  fact  it  is  to  be  inferred  witli  little  chance  of 
mistake  that  the  North, —  the  land  of  Accad, — 
was  earlier  Semiti/.ed,  that  the  Semitic  im- 
migrants established  their  first  heiidciuarters  in 
that  part  of  the  country,  that  their  power  and 
influence  thence  spread  to  the  South.  Fully  in 
accordance  with  tliese  indications,  the  first  grand 
historical  figure  that  meets  us  at  the  threshold  of 
Chaldean  history,  dim  with  the  mists  of  ages  and 
fabidous  traditions,  yet  immistakably  real,  is 
that  of  the  Semite  Sliamikin,  king  of  Accad, 
or  Agade,  as  the  great  Northern  city  came  to  be 
calle(l  —  more  gencndly  known  in  history  under 
the  corrupt  mcMlern  reading  of  Sargon,  and 
called  Sargon  I.,  'the  First,'  to  distinguish  him 
from  a  very  famous  Assyrian  monarch  of  the 
same  name  who  reigned  many  centuries  later. 
As  to  the  city  of  Agade,  it  is  no  other  than  the 
city  of  Accad  mentioned  in  Genesis  x,  10.  It 
was  situated  close  to  the  Euplmites  on  a  wide 
canal  just  opposite  Sippar,  so  that  in  time  the 
two  cities  came  to  be  considered  as  one  <lcuble 
city,  and  the  Hebrews  always  called  it  'the  two 
Sippars ' —  Sepharvaim,  which  is  often  spoken  of 
in  the  Bible.  .  .  .  The  tremendcmsly  ancient 
date  of  3800  B.  C.  is  now  generally"  accepted 
for  Sargon  of   Agade  —  perhaps  the    remotest 


BABYLONIA. 


BACTRIA. 


autliontic  date  j'ct  nrrlvi'tl  at  in  history." — Z.  A. 
Hajjoziii,  Shin/ I  if  V/mlileit,  e/i.  4.  —  ••.(.  liordi'  of 
Cassilcs  or  Kossii'ans  swept  down  from  the 
iiiouMlaiiis  of  Nortliern  Khun  under  tlieir  h'adcr, 
Khaninnirafras;  Aecad  was  (•on(iuered,  a  foreign 
dynasty  estalilislied  in  tlie  land,  and  tlie  capital 
transferred  from  Aga(U!  to  Babylon.  Bah-lon 
now  lH(ame  a  city  of  importanee  for  the  lirst 
time:  the  rank  assij,'ne(l  to  it  in  the  mythical  age 
was  hilt  a  rellection  of  the  |)osition  it  held  after 
the  Cassile  >  ()n<piest.  The  ('.issite  dyna.sty  is 
prohahly  the  Arabian  ynasty  of  Berosos.  .  .  . 
A  newlv-found  insenption  ot  Nabonidos  makes 
the  date  fof  its  advent]  B.  ('.  3~r,0  [fo,il-ii„ti'\. 
.  .  .  The  tirst  care  of  Kliammiiragas,  after  estab- 
lishing Idmself  in  Aecad,  was  to  extend  his  sway 
over  tlie  southern  kingdom  of  Sinner  as  well. 
.  .  .  Khamni'Tiigas  hecamit  king  of  the  whole 
of  Babylonia.  From  this  time  onward  the  coun- 
try remained  a  united  monarchy.  The  C'assito 
dynasty  must  have  lasted  for  several  cemuries, 
and  probably  included  more  than  one  line  of 
kings.  ...  It  was  under  the  C'as.site  dynasty 
that  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  tiist  took  its  rise, — 
partly,  perhai)s,  in  conseiiuence  of  the  Asiatic 
conquests  of  tlie  Egyptian  monarchs  of  tiie 
eighteenth  dynasty.  ...  In  B.  C.  1400  the 
Cassite  king  married  an  Assyrian  princess.  Iler 
son,  Kara-Murdas,  was  murdered  by  the  party 
oppo.sed  to  Assyrian  intluence,  but  the  usurjier, 
Nazi-bugas,  was  (pnckly  overthrown  by  the 
Assyrians,  who  placed  a  vassal-iirince  on  the 
throne.  This  event  may  bo  consiilercd  the  turn- 
ing-jioint  in  the  history  of  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates;  As.syria  henceforth  takes 
the  place  of  the  worn-out  monarchy  of  Babylonia, 
and  plays  the  chief  part  in  the  affairs  of  Western 
Asia  until  the  day  of  its  final  fall.  In  little  more 
than  a  liundred  years  later  the  Assyrians  were 
again  in  Babylonia,  but  this  time  as  avowed 
enemies  to  all  ])arlies  alike ;  Babylon  was  captured 
by  the  Assyrian  monarch  Tiglath-Adar  in  B.  C. 
1270,  and  the  rule  of  the  Cassite  dynasty  came 
to  an  end." — A.  II.  Saj'ce,  Ancient  Enipin^  of 
the  Eimt,  iipp.  2. 

Al.fo  IN:  G.  Kawlinson,  FtK  Grrnt  Monarchies : 
Chnldea,  ch.  H.— See.  also,  Asuviii.v. 

B.  C.  625-539.— The  later  Empire.— For 
more  than  si.\  centuries  after  the  conquest  of 
B.  C.  1270,  Babylonia  was  oiiscurcd  by  Assyria. 
During  most  of  that  hing  period,  the  tJhalilcan 
kingdom  was  subject  to  its  northern  neighbor 
and  governed  by  Assyrian  vicen)ys.  There  were 
frequent  revolts  and  some  intervals  of  indepen- 
dence: but  they  were  brief,  and  the  political  life 
of  Babylonia  a.s  a  distinct  p(,wer  nniy  be  said  to 
have  been  suspended  from  1270  until  625  B.  C, 
when  Nabopolassar,  who  rii!jd  tirst  as  the  viceroy 
of  the  As.syrian  monarch,  threw  olT  bis  yoke,  took 
the  attributes  of  sovereignty  to  himself,  and 
joined  the  Jlcdes  in  extinguishing  the  glory  of 
Nineveli.  "The  Assyrian  Empire  was  now 
shared  between  Media  and  Babylon.  lyabu- 
cudur-utser.  or  Nebuchadrezzar,  Nabojiolassar's 
eldest  son,  was  the  real  founder  -'f  the  Babylonian 
empire.  The  attempt  of  Pharaoh  Nceho  to  win 
for  Egypt  the  inheritance  of  Assyria  was  over- 
thrown at  the  battle  of  Carcheniish,  and  when 
Nebuchadrezzar  succeeded  his  father  in  B.  C. 
604,  he  fo"-id  himself  the  <indisputed  lord  of 
Western  As)  Palestine  was  coerced  in  (102,  ai  ' 
I'.ie  destruction  of  Jeruaalcra  in  587  laid  a  way 
open  for  the  invasion  of   Egypt,  wliiuh  took 


place  twenty  years  later.  Tjtc  also  u.idorwent 
a  long  siege  of  thirteen  years,  but  it  is  doiib'.lul 
whelher  it  was  taken  after  all.  Babyl:)ri  was 
now  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  foreign  conquest. 
It  owed  as  much  to  Nehuehadrezzar  as  Home 
owed  to  Augustus.  The  buildings  and  walls 
with  which  it  was  adorned  were  worthy  of  the 
metropolis  of  the  world.  The  piilace,  now  rep- 
reseiiU'd  by  the  Kasr  mound,  was  built  in  (ifteen 
days,  and  the  outermost  of  its  three  walls  was 
seven  miles  in  circuit.  Hanging  gardens  were 
constructed  for  Queen  Amytis,  the  (laughter  of 
the  Median  prince,  and  the  great  temple  of  Bel 
was  roofed  with  cedar  aiid  overlaid  with  gold. 
The  temifle  of  the  Seven  Lights,  dedicated  to 
Nebo  at  Borsi|)i)a  by  an  early  king,  who  had 
rai.sed  it  to  a  height  of  forty-two  cubits,  was 
completed,  and  various  other  temples  were 
erected  on  a  s.imptuous  scale,  both  in  Babylon 
and  in  the  neighbouring  cities,  while  new  libra- 
ries were  estalilislied  there.  After  a  reign  of 
forty-two  years,  six  nuinths  and  twenty -one 
days,  Nebuchadrezzar  died  (B.  ('.  562),  an  ■  tt 
the  crown  t(-  his  sou  Evil->Ierodach,  who  i  a 
short  and  inactive  reign  of  three  years,  and  1  ,.irty- 
four  days,  when  he  was  murdered  by  his  brother- 
in-law,  Nergal-slmrezer,  the  Neriglissar  of  the 
Greeks.  .  .  .  Tlie  chief  event  of  his  reign  of 
four  yeii"^  and  four  months  was  the  construction 
of  a  new  palace.  His  son,  who  succeeded  him, 
was  a  mere  lioy,  and  was  murdered  after  a  brief 
reign  of  four  months.  The  power  now  passed 
from  the  house  of  Nabopolassar, —  Niibu-uahid 
or  Nabonidos,  who  was  mised  to  the  throne, 
being  of  anotli.r  family.  Ilis  reign  flisted 
.seventeen  years  and  tiv(^  months,  and  witnessed 
the  end  of  the  Babylonian  empire," —  which  was 
overthrown  by  Cyrus  the  Great  (or  Kyros), 
B.  0.  530  [see  Peiisia:  B.  C.  54t)-52)],  and  swal- 
lowed up  in  the  Persian  empire  which  he 
founded. — A.  II.  Sayce,  Ancient  Eminres  of  the 
East,  app.  2. 

Also  in:  M.  Duncker,  Hist,  of  Antiquity,  hk. 
4,  ch.  15. — G.  Rawlinson,  Five  Great  Monarchies  : 
The  Fourth  Monarch//,  ch.  8. 


BABYLONIAN  JEWS.  See  .Iews:  B.  C. 
53(!-A.  D,  50,  and  A.  1).  200-100. 

BABYLONIAN  TALENT.     See  Talent. 

BABYLONIAN  TALMUD,  The.  See  Tal- 
mud. 

"BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY"  OF  THE 
POPES.     See  PaI'Acv:  A.  I>.  1294-1348. 

BACCALAOS,  OR  BACALHAS,  OR 
BACALHAO  COUNTRY.  See  Newkoi:,.)- 
L.VNii:  A.  I).  1501-1578. 

BACCHIADiE.     See  Couintii. 

BACCHIC  FESTIVAi-S.    See  Dionysia. 

BACENIS,  Forest  of.   See  Hekcynian  For- 

' BACON'S   REBELLION.    See  Virginia: 
A.  D.  16(!0-107V. 

BACTRIA.— "Where  the  edge  [of  the  table- 
land of  Iran]  rises  to  the  lofty  Hindu  Kusli, 
tlu-e  !ies  on  its  northern  slope  a  favored  district 
in  the  region  of  the  Upper  Ox  us.  .  .  .  On  the 
banks  of  the  river,  which  Hows  in  a  north- 
westerly direction,  extend  broad  mountain  pas- 
tures, where  support  is  found  in  the  fresh  moun- 
tain air  for  numerous  herds  of  horses  and  sheep, 
and  beneath  the  wooded  hills  are  blooming  val- 
leys. On  those  slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  the 
middle  stage  between  the   table-land   and  the 


240 


BACTRIA. 


BAODAD. 


deep  plain  of  the  Caspian  Sen,  l(iy  tho  Baotrians 
—  tlic"  Bal<litri  of  tlio  Achacmcniirs,  tlic  Bal(h(llii 
of  tlio  Avestii.  ...  In  ancient  times  tlie  Bac- 
trians  were  liardly  distinguislied  from  nomads; 
but  tliiiir  land  was  e.x^vr.cive  and  produced  fruits 
of  nil  kinds,  witli  the  exception  of  the  vine.  Tlie 
fertility  of  tho  land  enabled  the  Hellenic  princes 
to  make  great  conqtiests. " — >I.  Dunckcr,  Hist,  of 
Anlii/inti/,  lik.  6.  ch.  3.  —  Tlio  Bactrians  were 
among  tlie  people  subjugated  by  Cyrus  tlie 
Great  and  their  country  formed  part  of  tlie  Per- 
sian Empire  until  tho  latter  was  overthrow  n  bv 
Alexander  (see  Macedoni.v,  &c.  :  B.  C.  330-323). 
In  the  division  of  tho  ]^Iacedonian  conquests, 
after  Alexander's  death.  Bnctria,  with  nil  the 
fartlier  east,  fell  to  the  share  of  Seleucus  Nicator 
and  formed  part  of  what  came  to  be  called  the 
kingdom  of  Syria.  About  2.50  B.  C.  the  Bactrian 
province,  being  then  governed  by  an  ambitious 
Greek  satrap  named  Diodotus,  was  led  by  him 
into  revolt  against  the  Syrian  monarchy,  and 
easily  gained  its  in<'.epen(lenct,  witli  Diodotus 
for  its  king  (see  SeleuciDvE:  B.  C.  281-224). 
"Tho  authority  of  Diodotus  was  confirmed  and 
riveted  on  liis  subjects  by  an  undisturbed  reign 
of  eighteen  years  before  a  Syrian  army  even 
showed  itself  in  his  neighbourhood.  .  .  .  The 
Bactrian  Kingdom  was,  at  any  rate  at  its  com- 
mencement, as  thoroughly  Greek  as  that  of  the 
Seleucidffi."  "From  B.  C.  206  to  about  B.  C 
185  was  tlie  most  tlouri-shing  period  of  the  Bac- 
trian monarchy,  which  expanded  during  that 
s'>aee  from  a  small  kingdom  to  a  considerable 
empire  "  —  extending  over  tho  greater  part  of 
modern  .\fgliani.»ta'i  ami  across  the  Indus  vato 
the  Punjaub.  But  meantime  tho  neighboring 
Parthians.  who  tlirt  v  oti  the  Scleucid  yoke  soon 
after  the  Bactrians  Had  done  so,  were  growing 
in  pe  "r  «nd  they  soon  passed  from  rivalry  to 
mn:  f.  Tlie  iJactrian  kingdom  was  prac- 
tica  extinguished  about  150  B.  C.  by  the  con- 
qui.'Si  )f  Iho  Parthian  Jlithridatcs  I,,  "although 
Gieek  1..  'larclis  of  the  Bactrian  series  continued 
airsters  of  Cabul  and  Western  India  till  about 
B.  C.  lt?C."— G.  Itiiwlinson,  Sixth  Omit  Oriental 
Ml  narchji,  eh.  3-5. 

iIADAJOS  :  The  Geographical  Congress 
(1524).     See  Amkuicv:  A.  1).  1510-1524. 

BADEN  :  Early  Suevic  population.  See 
Si;i;v;. 

A.  D.  1801-1803. — Acquisition  of  territory 
under  the  Treaty  of  Luneville.  See  Geumanv: 
A.  1).  1801-1803. 

A.  D.  1805-1806.— Aggrandized  by  Napo- 
leon.— Created  a  Grand  Duchy. — Joined  to  the 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  See  Gkilmany: 
A.  1).  18,)5-1800,  and  Wm  (Jakuauv— AuousT). 

A.  D.  1813. — Abandonment  of  the  Rhenish 
Confederacy  and  the  French  Alliance.  See 
Fu,vnck:A.  I).  18'4(.Ianiiauv— Maucii). 

A.  D.  1849. — Revolution  .suppressed  by 
Prussian  troops.  See  Gkh.many:  A.  D.  1848- 
18.50. 

A.  p.  1866.— The  Seven  Weeks  War.— In- 
demnity and  territorial  ession  to  Prussia. 
SicGi:ii.\iANy:  A.  D.  18U0. 

A.  D.1870-1871.— Treaty  of  Union  with  the 
Germanic  Confederation,  soon  transformed 
into  the  German  Empire.  See  Gkkmanv:  A. 
D.  1870  (Septe.mueii— December\  and  1871. 


BADEN,  OR  RASTADT,  Treaty  of  (1714). 
See  Utueciit:  A.  D.  1713-1714. 


BAOn,  OR  BEDR,  Battle  of.  See  Ma-- 
IIOMKTAN  CoNCJUMST:  A.   1).  000-633. 

BiECULA,  Battle  of.  See  Plnic  Wau, 
TiiK  Sr.coNi). 

BjERS/ERK.     See  BEnsERKEU. 

BiETICA. —  The  at  cient  name  of  the  prov- 
ince in  Spain  which  afterwards  took  from  the 
Vandals  the  name  of  Andalusia.  See  Spain: 
B.  C.  218-25,  and  A.  D.  428;  also  Tuudetani, 
and  Vandals:  A.  D.  428. 

B./ETIS,  The. — The  ancient  name  of  the 
GuadaUiuiver  river  in  Spain. 

BAGACUM.     See  Neuvii. 

BAGAUDS,  Insurrection  of  the  (A.  D.  287). 
— The  peasants  of  Caul,  whose  conditio-i  had 
become  very  wretched  during  the  distractions 
and  misgovernment  of  the  third  century,  were 
provoked  to  an  insurrection,  A.  I).  .187,  which 
was  general  and  alarming.  It  was  a  rising 
which  seems  to  have  becm  much  like  those  tliat 
occurred  in  France  and  England  eleven  centuries 
later.  The  rebel  peasants  were  called  Bagnuds, 
—  1'  name  which  some  witers  derive  from  the 
Celtic  word  "bagad"  or  "bagat,'  signifying 
"tumultuous  assemblage."  They  sacked  and 
ruined  several  cities, — taking  Autun  after  a  siege 
of  seven  months, — and  committed  many  terrible 
atrocities.  The  Emperor  Maximian  —  colleague 
of  Diocletian, — succeeded,  at  last,  in  suppressing 
the  general  outbreak,  but  not  in  extinguishing 
it  every  where.  There  were  traces  of  it  surviv- 
ing long  afterwards. — P.  'Godwin,  IIi»t.  of 
France,  0.  1:  Ancient  (ia  .1,  lik.  2,  ch.  6. 

Also  in:  W.  T.  Arnold,  The  Roman  System  of 
Pnirinfial  Administration,  ch.  4. — See,  also, 
Dedititm.s. 

BAGDAD,  A.  D.  763.— The  founding  of  the 
new  capital  of  the  Caliphs.  See  Mahometan 
C0W7UKST     Ni)  Empiui;:  a.  I).  763. 

A.  D.  815-945.— Decline  of  the  Caliphate. 
See  Mahomi-.tas  CIoncji'kst  and  Fh'Piui;:  A.  1). 
815-945. 

A.  D.  1050. — In  the  !;ands  of  the  Seldjuk 
Turks.     S(cTruKs:A.  1).  1004-100;!. 

A.  D.  1258.— The  Fall  of  the  Caliphate.— 
Destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Mongols. — In 
1252,  on  the  accession  of  ^Mangu  Kliaii,  grandson 
of  .lingis  Khan,  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Moagol  Empire  [sco  Mongols]  ■■>  ^r^.-.t  Kuiiltai 
or  council  was  held,  at  wluuli  it  was  decided  to 
send  an  expedition  into  the  West,  for  two  pur- 
poses: (t),  to  exterminate  tho  Isinaileans  or 
Assassins,  who  still  maintained  their  power  in 
northern  Per.sia;  (2),  to  reduce  tlu!  (,'alipli  of 
Bagdad  to  subini.ssion  to  the  Mongol  supreiuacy. 
The  command  )f  the  expedition  was  given  to 
3Iaugu's  brothci'  Kliulagu,  or  lloulagou,  wlio 
])erformed  his  aj. pointed  tasks  with  tliorough- 
iiess  and  unmerciuil  resolution.  In  1257  ho 
made  an  end  of  the  Assassins,  to  tho  great 
relief  of  the  whol.  eastern  world,  JIahometan 
and  Christian.  In  1258  he  psw-sed  on  to  Bag<lad, 
preceded  by  an  embassy  which  euininoned  the 
Caupli  to  sui-init,  to  nizo  the  walls  of  Bagdad, 
to  give  up  his  vain  pretensions  to  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Moslem  world,  and  to  acknowledge  the 
Great  Khan  for  his  lord.  The  feebU;  calipli  and 
his  treacherous  and  incapable  ministers  neither 
submitted  nor  made  vigorous  preparations  for 
defence.  As  a  consequence,  Bagdad  was  taken 
after  a  siege  which  only  exc'ted  the  ferocity  of  the 
Mongols.  They  tired  the  city  and  .slaughtered 
its  people,  excepting  some  Christuius,  who  ore 


241 


BAGDAD. 


HAINBRIDOK. 


Raid  to  Imvo  been  sijiircd  tlir<>uj,'li  the  influence 
of  one  of  KliiiliiKu's  wives,  wiio  wns  e  Nestoriiui. 
The  siiek  of  Biigdiul  liisted  seven  days.  Tlie 
numl.  r  of  tlie  (leml,  we  lire  told  by  Rii.scliid, 
wiiH  800,000.  The  ciiliph,  iM().stiis.seni.  with  all 
his  family,  was  put  to  death. — H.  11.  Il(,  vortli. 
Hint,  of  tlie  Moiifiith,  V.  1,  pp.  103-201. — For  a 
I  considerable  period  before  thi.s  final  catastrophe, 
in  the  decline  of  the  Seljuic  Empire,  tli(^  C'liliphnte 
at  Ha;;clad  had  become  once  more  "an  inde- 
pendent temporal  state,  though,  instead  of  rul- 
ing in  the  three  .piarters  of  the  globe,  the 
caliphs  riih^d  only  over  the  province  of  Irak 
And)i.  Their  position  was  not  unlikt!  that  of 
th(^  Popes  in  recent  times,  whom  they  itlso 
resembled  in  a.ssuming  a  new  name,  of  a  pious 
character,  at  their  inaui^uration.  Hoth  the 
Christiiin  and  the  Jloslem  pontiff  was  the  real 
temporal  sovereign  of  a  small  state ;  each  claimed 
to  be  spiritual  sovereign  over  the  whole  of  the 
Faithful;  each  was  recogni/.ed  assucli  by  a  large 
body,  but  rejected  by  others  But  in  truth  the 
spiritual  recognition  of  the  Abbaside  caliphs  was 
more  nearly  universal  in  their  last  age  than  it 
had  ever  been  before."  Witli  the  fall  of  Bagdad 
fell  the  caliphate  sis  a  temporal  sovereignty^;  but 
it  stirvived,  or  was  resurrected,  in  its  spiritual 
functions,  'o  become  merged,  a  little  later,  in 
the  supremacy  of  the  sultan  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks.  "  A  certain  Ahmed,  a  real  or  pretended 
Abbasside,  fled  [from  Bagdad]  to  Egypt,  where 
he  was  proclaimed  caliph  by  the  title  of  Al 
Mostanser  Billah,  under  the  protection  of  the 
then  Sultan  Bibars.  He  and  his  successors  were 
deemed,  in  spiritual  tilings.  Commanders  of  the 
Faithful,  and  they  were  found  to  be  a  convenient 
instrument  both  by  the  Mameluke  sultans  and 
by  other  Mahometan  princes.  From  one  of  them, 
Baiazet  the  Thunderbolt  received  the  title  of 
Sultan ;  from  another,  ,Sclim  the  Inflexible  pro- 
cured the  cession  of  his  claims,  and  obtained  the 
right  to  deem  himself  the  shadow  of  God  upon 
earth.  Since  then,  the  Otto.nnn  Padishah  has 
been  held  to  inherit  the  rights  of  Omar  and  of 
Ilaroun,  rights  which  if  strictly  pressed,  might 
be  terrible  alike  to  enemies,  neutrals,  and  allies." 
— E.  A.  Freeman,  Hut.  and  Conq.  of  tlie  Saracens, 
leet.  4. 

A.  D.  1393. — Timour's  pyramid  of  heads. 
See  Ti.Mot'u. 

A.  D.  1623-1638.— Taken  by  the  Persians  and 
retaken  by  the  Turks. — Fearful  slaughter  of 
the  inhabitants.     See  Ti:nKs:  A.  D.  1C23-1G40. 

BAGISTANA.    See  Bkiiistcn,  Rock  of. 

BAGLIONI,  The.— "TheBaglioni  first  came 
into  notice  during  tlie  ^\a^s  they  carried  on  with 
the  Oddi  of  Perugia  in  the  14th  n'rd  l.'ith  cen- 
turies. Tliis  was  one  of  those  duels  to  the  death, 
like  that  of  tlie  Visconti  with  the  Torrensi  of 
Milan,  on  which  the  fate  of  so  many  Italian 
cities  of  the  middle  ages  hung.  The  nobles 
fought;  the  townsfolk  assisted  like  a  Greek 
chorus,  sharin;^  the  passions  of  tlie  actors,  but 
contrr'buting  little  to  the  catastrophe.  The 
piazza  was  the  theatre  on  whicli  the  tragedy 
was  played.  In  this  contest  the  Baglioni  proved 
the  stronger,  and  began  to  sway  the  state  of 
Perugia  after  the  irregular  fashion  of  Italian 
despots.  They  had  no  legal  right  over  the  city, 
no  hereditarj'  magistracy,  no  title  of  princely 
authoiity.  The  Church  was  reckoned  the 
supreme  administrator  of  the  Perugian  common- 


wealth.  But  in  reality  no  man  could  set  foot  on 
the  rmbrinn  i)lain  witliout  pemiis.sion  from  the 
Baglioni,  They  elected  tiie  olUcers  of  stale. 
The  lives  and  goods  of  the  citizens  were  at  their 
discretion.  When  a  Papal  legale  showed  his 
face,  they  made  the  town  too  hot  to  hold  him, 
...  It  was  in  vain  that  from  time  to  time  tlie 
l)<o])le  ro.se  against  them,  massacring  Pandolfo 
iJ.'iglioid  on  tlie  public  sijuaro  in  UiiKi,  and  join- 
ing with  Uidolfo  and  Braccio  of  the  dominant 
house  to  assassinate  another  Pandolfo  with  his 
son  Niccolo  in  1400.  The  more  they  were  cut 
down,  the  more  they  fli>uri.slicd.  The  wealth 
they  derived  from  tlieir  lordships  in  the  duchy 
of  "Spoleto  and  the  Uinbrian  liillcitics,  and  the 
treasures  they  accumulated  in  tlic  service  of 
the  Italian  republics,  made  them  omnipotent 
in  their  native  town.  .  .  .  From  father  to  son 
they  were  warriors,  and  we  have  records  of 
few  Italian  houses,  except  perhaps  the  JIalatesti 
of  Rimini,  who  ecpialled  them  in  hardihood  and 
fierceness.  Esi)(^cially  were  they  noted  for  the 
remorseless  vendette  which  they  carried  on 
among  themselves,  cousin  tracking  c.iusin  to 
death  with  the  ferocity  and  and  craft  of  sleuth- 
hounds.  Had  they  rcstraineil  these  fratricidal 
passions,  they  might,  perhaps,  by  following 
some  common  policy,  like  that  of  the  Medici  in 
Florence  or  the  Bentivogli  in  Bologna,  have  suc- 
cessfully resisted  the  Papal  authority,  and  se- 
cured dynastic  sovereignty.  It  is  not  until  1495 
tliat  the  history  of  the  Baglioni  becomes  dra- 
matic, possibly" because  till  then  tliey  lacked  the 
pen  of  Matarazzo.  But  from  this  year  forward 
to  their  final  extinction,  every  detail  of  their 
doings  has  a  picturesque  and  awfu!  interest. 
Domestic  furies,  like  the  revel  descried  by  Cas- 
sandra above  the  palace  of  Mycenae,  seem  to 
take  possession  of  the  fated  house ;  and  the  doom 
which  lias  fallen  on  tlieni  is  worked  out  with 
pitiless  exactitude  to  the  last  generation." — J.  A. 
Symonds,  Sketches  in  Italy  and  Greece,  pp.  70-73. 

BAGRATIDAE.  The.  SccAkmenia:  12th- 
14th  Cknturies. 

BAHAMA  ISLANDS :  A.  D.  1492.— Dis- 
covery by  Columbus.  See  Amebica:  A.  D. 
14i)2. 

BAHRITE  SULTANS.  See  Egypt:  A.  D. 
19,')0-1,')17. 

BAIiE. — Baia>,  m  Campania,  opposite  Puteoli 
on  a  small  bay  near  Naples,  was  the  favorite 
watering  place  of  the  ancient  Romans.  "As 
soon  as  the  reviving  heats  of  April  gave  token 
of  advancing  summer,  the  noble  and  the  rich 
hurried  from  Rome  to  this  choice  retreat;  and 
here,  till  the  raging  dogstar  forbade  the  toils 
even  of  amusement,  they  disported  themselves 
on  shore  or  on  sea,  in  the  thick  groves  or  on  the 
placid  lakes,  in  litters  and  chariots,  in  gilded 
boats  with  painted  sails,  lulled  by  day  and  night 
with  the  sw(."test  symphonies  of  song  and  music, 
or  gazing  indo.^^ntly  on  the  wanton  measures  of 
male  and  female  lancers.  Tlie  bath,  elsewhere 
their  relaxation,  wan  here  the  business  of  the 
day ;  .  .  .  they  turned  the  pools  of  Avernus  and 
Lucrinus  into  tanks  for  swimming ;  and  in  tlk  se 
pleasant  waters  both  sexes  mot  familiarly  to- 
gether,  and  conversed  amidst  the  roses  sprinkled 
lavishly  on  their  surface." — C.  Merivale,  llist. 
of  the  IlDinniiD,  ch.  40. 

BAINBRIDGE,  Commodoie  William,  in 
the  War  of  1812.  See  United  States  ok  Am.  : 
A.  D.  18ia-1813. 


242 


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IJAIHEUTH, 


BALKAN  AND  PANUniAN  STATES, 


BAIREUTH,  Creation  of  the  Principality 

of.      Sec  (JkkMANY;    TllIUTKKNTlI    t'KNTl'UY, 

Separation  from  the  Electorate  of  Branden- 
burg.    See  BuANDE.MiLiKi:  A.  1).  1417-1040. 

BAJAZET  I.— Turkish  Suhan,  A.  D.  1380- 
14(1'-' Bajazet  II.,  A.  I).  MHI-loia. 

BAKAIRI,  The.  Sec  Amkuican  Aiioni(3i- 
NKs:  Cauiiw. 

BAKER,  Colonel  Edward  D.,  Killed  at 
Ball's  Bluff.  Hoe  L'nitkd  (States ok  Am.  :  A.  D. 
18(11  ((_)(Ti>i!i:u:  Viu(iiNiA). 

BAKSAR,  OR  BAXAR,  OR  BUXAR, 
Battle  of  (1764).     Hoc   India:  \.  1).  n.J7-17T:J. 

BALACLAVA,  Battle  of.   See  Ulbsia:  A.  U. 

IS.W  (OtTOIli:!! — NoVEMllKIi). 

BALBINUS,  Roman   Emperor,  -' .   1) 

BALBOA'S  DISCOVERY  OF  THE 
CIFIC.     See  Amicuiia:  A.  I),  inilj-l,-)!?. 

BALCHITAS,  The.  See  A.MEiacAN  Abo- 
uioiNEs:  Pampas  Tuihrs. 

BALDWIN  OF  FLANDERS,  The  Cru- 
sade of.     Soe  Ckusai>es:   A.  I).  r.;oi-12()3 

Baldwin  I.,  Latin  Emperor  at  Constantinople 

(Romania),     A.  1).   1204-120.") Baldwin  II., 

A.  1).  12;!7-iaoi. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS:  Origin  of  the 
Name,  &c. — "The  iiilmbitiiiits  were  celebrated 
for  the  skill  and  force  with  whicli  they  man- 
aged their  slings  of  leather,  hemp  or  rushes;  in 
the  wurs  of  the  Carthagiuiaus  with  the  liomans 


238. 
PA- 


tliey  were  a  most  formidable  description  of  light 
troops.  Tlic  imme  '  lialcarcs  '  was  <lcrive(l  liy 
the  Greeks  from  '  ballciii,' to  throw ;  but  tlie  art 
was  taught  thcni  by  the  Pliieniciaiis,  and  the  name 
is  no  doul)t  I'hoMiiCian." — ,J.  Keurlek.  I'/innirin, 
r/i.  4. — For  the  chief  incidents  in  the  history  of 
these  islands,  sec  MiNoitiA  and  .Ma.iokia. 

BALIA  OF  FLORENCE,  The.— The  chief 
iiistrument  eni|doycd  liy  the  .Medici  to  establi'ih 
their  jiowcr  in  Florence  was  "the  pernicious 
system  of  tlie  I'arlamcnto  and  IJali;!,  by  means  of 
winch  tiie  people,  ass"inblc(l  from  time  to  time  in 
tlie  public  S((uare.  and  intimidated  l)y  tlie  reigning 
faction,  entru.sted  full  powers  to  a  k(  led  com- 
mittee nominated  in  private  by  the  chiefs  of  the 
great  house.  .  .  .  Scgni  say.s:  'The  Paianiento 
is  a  meeting  of  the  Florentii"'  people  on  the 
Piazza  of  the  Sigiiory.  When  tlie  Signory  lias 
taken  its  place  to  address  the  meeting,  the  piazza 
is  guarded  by  armed  men,  and  then  the  people 
are  nskcd  wlK'thcr  they  wish  to  give  absolute 
power  (Balia)  and  authority  to  the  citizens  named, 
for  their  good.  When  the  answer,  yes,  prompted 
partly  by  inclination  ai  il  partly  liy  compulsion, 
is  returned,  the  Signory  immediately  retires  into 
tlie  palace.  Tliis  is  all  that  is  meant  by  this  par- 
lamento,  which  thus  gives  away  the  full  ])ower 
of  effecting  a  change  in  the  stale." — ,1.  A.  Sy- 
monds,  Renaissance  in  Italy :  Af/e  of  the  Desjmts, 
p.  164,  and  foot-note. — See,  also,  Floiiencb: 
A.  D.  1378-1427,  and  1458-1469. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


Ancient  History.  —  The  States  of  south- 
eastern Europe,  lately  emancipated,  for  the 
most  part,  from  the  rule  of  the  Turks,  arc  so 
nssociited  by  a  common  history,  nlthougli  re- 
marka'-'.y  diverse  in  race,  tliat  it  seems  expedient 
to  brill  T  them  for  discussion  together.  They 
occupy  mainly  the  regions  known  in  Roman 
times  as  Moe8i.\,  Dacia  and  Ili.vuicum,  to 
which  names  the  reader  is  referred  for  some 
account  of  the  scanty  incidents  of  their  early 
history. — See,  also,  Avars. 

Races  existing. — "In  no  part  of  Western 
Europe  do  wc  find  districts  inh-bited  by  men 
differing  in  speech  and  national  feeling,  lying  in 
distinct  patches  hero  and  there  over  a  large 
country.  A  district  like  one  of  our  larger  coun- 
ties in  which  one  parish,  perhaps  one  hundred, 
spoke  Welsh,  another  Latin,  anotlicr  English, 
another  Dani.sh,  another  Old  French,  anothc- 
the  tongue  of  more  modern  settlers,  Flemings, 
Huguenots  or  Palatines,  is  something  which  we 
find  hard  to  conceive,  and  which,  as  applied  to 
our  own  land  or  to  any  other  Western  land,  sounds 
absurd  on  the  face  of  it.  Wiien  we  pass  into 
Souvli-„astern  Europe,  this  state  of  things,  the 
very  idea  of  which  seems  absurd  in  the  West,  is 
found  to  be  perfectly  real.  All  the  races  which 
we  find  dwelling  there  at  the  beginning  of 
recorded  history,  together  with  several  races 
which  have  come  in  since,  all  remain,  not  as 
mere  fragments  or  survivals,  but  as  nations, 
eaoh  with  its  national  language  and  national 
feelings,  and  each  having  its  greater  or'  less 
share  of  practical  importance  in  the  politics  of 
the  pr-sent  moment.  Setting  aside  races  which 
have  simply  passed  through  the  coi.ntry  without 
occupying  it,  we  may  say  that  all  the  races 


wliich  have  ever  .settled  in  the  country  are  there 
still  as  distinct  races.  And,  though  each  race 
has  its  own  partictdar  region  where  it  forms  the 
whole  people  or  the  great  majority  of  the  people, 
still  there  are  large  districts  where  different 
races  really  live  side  by  side  in  the  very  way 
which  seems  .so  absurd  when  we  try  to  conceive 
it  in  any  Western  country.  We  cannot  coa- 
ceive  a  Welsh,  an  English,  a:  id  a  Norman  vil- 
lage side  by  side;  but  a  Greek,  a  IJulgarian,  and 
a  Turkish  village  side  by  side  is  a  tiling  which 
may  be  seen  in  11  any  parts  of  Thrace.  The 
oldest  races  in  thoije  lands,  those  which  answer 
to  Basques  and  Bretons  in  Western  Europe,  hold 
([uite  another  position  from  that  of  Basques  and 
IJretons  in  Western  Europe.  They  form  three 
living  and  vigorous  nations,  Greek,  Albanian, 
and  Uouman.  They  stand  as  nations  alongside 
of  the  Slaves  who  came  in  later,  and  who  answer 
roughly  to  the  Teutons  in  the  West,  while  all 
alike  are  ur.'ler  the  rule  of  the  Turk,  who  has 
nothing  ai.  .wering  to  him  in  the  West.  .  .  . 
When  the  itomans  contjuered  the  Southeastern 
laiids,  they  found  there  three  great  races,  the 
Greek,  the  Illyrian,  and  the  Thracian.  Those 
three  races  are  all  there  still.  The  Greeks  speak 
for  themselves.  The  Illyrians  are  represented 
by  the  nioderr  Albanians.  The  Thracians  are 
represented,  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe, 
by  the  modern  Roumaiis.  Now  had  the  whole 
of  the  Soutli-eastern  lands  been  inhabited  by 
Illyrians  and  Thracians,  those  lands  would 
doubtless  have  become  as  thoroughly  Roman  as 
the  Western  lands  became.  ...  But  the  [losi- 
tiou  of  the  Greek  nation,  its  long  history  and  its 
high  civilization,  hindered  this.  The  Greeks 
could  not  become  Romans  iu  any  but  the  most 


243 


BALKAN  AND  DANUniAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANLHIAN  STATKS. 


purely  politiral  scnsr.  Like  otlior  siibjrctH  o( 
the  Kdinan  Kinpirc,  tlicy  Rrudimlly  look  i\\r 
Komaii  nninc;  but  they  ki'pt  their  own  liiii 
guugr,  HtLTiituro,  luid  civili/aliiin.  In  Hliorl  we 
may  say  tliat  tlio  Hotuan  Km|)irc  in  llic  Kust 
became  (ireek,  and  tbat  tlie  (Jrirk  nation  lie- 
came  H(mmn.  Tlie  EasttTu  Enii)irc  and  tlu; 
Oretk-spoakinj?  lands  bccanio  nearly  (UH'Xtx'u- 
sive.  Greek  lieeanie  the  om:  lan)j;uaKo  of  the 
Eastern  Homau  Empire,  while  those  tliat  .spoke 
it  still  ealled  themselves  Homans.  Till  (piitc^ 
lately,  tbat  is  till  the  miMlern  ideas  of  nationality 
bega'n  to  spread,  the  Greek-speaking  siibjeets  of 
the  Turk  called  themselves  by  no  name  but  that 
of  Uontans.  .  .  .  While  the  Greeks  thus  took 
the  Uoman  name  without  adopting  the  Latin 
language,  another  people  in  the  Eastern  penin- 
sula adopted  both  name  and  language,  exactly 
asthenationsof  the  West  (lid.  If,  as  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe,  the  modern  Houmaiis  repre- 
sent the  old  Thracians,  tbat  nation  came  under 
the  gei.oral  law,  exactly  like  the  Western 
nations.  The  Thracians  became  tbnrotighly 
Homan  in  speech,  as  they  have  ever  since  kept 
the  lioman  name.  They  form  in  fact  one  of  tlii' 
Romance  nations,  just  as  nuich  as  the  people  of 
Gaul  or  Spain.  .  .  .  In  short,  the  existence  of  a 
highly  civilized  people  like  tiie  Greeks  hindered 
in  every  way  the  inlluence  of  Home  from  being 
80  thorough  in  the  East  as  it  was  in  llie  West. 
The  Greek  nation  lived  on,  and  alongside  of 
itself,  it  preserved  the  other  two  ancient  nations 
of  tlie  peninsula.  T  lus  all  three  have  lived  on 
to  the  ])resent  as  dist  n(a  nations.  Two  of  them, 
the  Greeks  and  the  Ulyrians,  still  keep  their  own 
languages,  while  the  llurd,  the  old  Thracians, 
speak  a  Homance  language  and  call  themselves 
jjoumans.  .  .  .  The  Slavonic  nations  bold  in  the 
East  a  place  answering  to  that  wliich  is  hekl  by 
the  Teutoidc  nations  in  the  West.  .  .  .  Rut 
though  the  ."slaves  in  the  East  thus  answer  in 
many  ways  to  the  Teiitons  in  the  West,  their 
position  with,  regard  to  the  Eastern  Empire  was 
not  (luitc  the  sanu'  as  that  of  the  Teutons  to- 
wards the  Western  Empire.  .  .  .  They  learned 
much  from  the  half  Komau,  half  Greek  power 
with  which  they  had  to  do;  but  they  did  not 
themselves  become  either  Greelc  or  Homan,  in 
the  way  in  which  tbi!  Teutonic  con(iuerors  in 
die  Western  Empire  became  Homan.  .  . 
Thus,  while  in  tlie  West  everything  ex( 
few  survivals  of  c;,rlier  nations,  is  either  Hianaii 
orTciitoiiie,  in  llie  East,  Greeks,  Ulyrians,  Thraci- 
aus  or  Houmaiis,  and  Slaves,  all  stood  side  by 
side  as  distinct  nations  when  the  next  set  of  in- 
vaders came,  and  they  remain  as  distinct  nations 
still.  .  .  .  TlM'reci.meamoiigthem,  inthel'ormof 
the  Ottoman  Turk,  a  jieople  witli  whom  union 
was  not  only  hard  but  imiKissible,  a  peojile  who 
were  kept  distinct,  not  by  special  circumstances, 
hut  by  tli6  inherent  naiiirc  of  the  case.  Had 
the  Turk  been  other  than  what  he  really  was, 
he  iiiiglit  simply  have  become  a  new  nation 
aloiig.sido  of  the  other  South-eastern  nations, 
lieing  what  be  was  the  Turk  could  not  do  this. 
.  .  .  Tlie  original  Turks  did  not  belong  to  the 
Aryan  branch  of  mankind,  and  their  original 
speech  is  not  an  Aryai  speech.  The  Turks  and 
their  speecli  belong  to  altogether  another  class 
of  nations  and  languages.  .  .  .  Long  before  tlu; 
Turks  came  into  Europe,  the  JIagyars  or  Hun- 
garians had  come ;  and,  before  the  jlagyars  came, 
the  Bulgarians  had  <:omc.    Both  the  Magyars 


and  the  Bulgarians  were  In  their  origin  Tur- 
anian lations,  nations  as  foreign  to  the  Aryan 
jH'ople  of  Europ(^  as  the  Ottoman  Turks  them- 
selves. Hut  their  history  shows  that  a  Turanian 
nation  settling  in  Europe  may  cither  be  assimi- 
lated with  an  existing  European  nation  or  may 
sit  (l')wn  as  an  European  nation  alongside  of 
others.  The  Iliilgiiriaiis  hav('  done  one  of  these 
things;  tlie  .Magyars  have  done  the  oilier;  Uiit 
Ottoman  Turks  have  done  neither.  So  iiuicli 
has  been  iieard  lately  of  the  Bulgarians  as  being 
in  our  times  the  special  victims  -i'  the  Turk  that 
some  peopli!  may  lliid  it  stra  ige  to  bear  who 
the  original  Bulgarians  wer  .  They  were  a 
people  more  or  less  nearly  iinin  to  the  Turks, 
and  they  came  into  Europe  as  barbarian  con- 
querors who  were  as  much  dreade<l  by  the 
nations  of  Soiitii-eastern  Europe  as  the  Turks 
themselves  were  afterwards.  The  old  Bulgar- 
ians were  a  Turanian  people,  who  settled  in  r 
large  imrl  of  the  South-eastern  peninsula,  in 
lands  wliich  had  been  already  occupied  by 
Slaves.  They  came  in  as  barbarian  couiiuerors; 
but,  exactly  as  happened  to  so  many  conijuerors 
in  Western  Europe,  they  were  jiresently  assimi- 
lated by  their  Slavonic  subjects  and  neighbours. 
They  learned  the  Slavonic  speech;  they  gradii- 
allylost  all  traces  of  their  foreign  origin.  Those 
whom  we  now  call  Bulgarians  are  ,.  Slavonic 
peoide  speaking  a  Shivoiiic  tongue,  and  they 
have  nothing  Turanian  about  them  except  the 
name  which  they  borrowed  from  their  Turanian 
masters.  .  .  .  The  Bulgarians  entered  the  Em- 
pire in  the  seventh  century,  and  embraced 
Christianity  in  the  ninth.  Tliey  rose?  to  great 
]iower  in  tlie  South-eastern  lands,  and  played  a 
great  iiart  in  tlieir  hi.story.  But  all  their  later 
liistory,  from  a  comparatively  short  time  niter 
the  first  Bulgarian  conquest,  lias  been  that  of  a 
Slavonic  and  not  that  of  a  Tuii'iiian  people. 
Tlie  history  of  tlu^  Bulgarians  therefore  shows 
that  it  is  quite  iiossible.  if  circumstances  are 
favourable,  for  a  Turanian  people  to  settle 
among  the  Aryans  of  Europe  and  to  be  thor- 
oughly assiniilaled  by  the  Arvaii  nation  among 
whom  they  settled." — E.  A.  I'Vcenian,  The  Otto- 
.iKUi  Poircr  ill  I'Si(ro/)(\  cli.  3. 

Also  in:  H.  G.  liatham,  The  Xationalities  of 
Kiiyiipt'. 

7th  Century. —  (Servia,  Croatia,  Bosnia, 
Dalmatia  and  Montenegro.) — The  Slavonic 
settlement. — "No  couiuiy  on  the  face  of  our 
unl'ortunate  planet  has  been  ofteiier  ravaged,  no 
land  so  often  soaked  with  the  blood  of  its  in- 
habitants. At  the  dawn  of  history  Bosnia 
formed  part  of  Illyria.  It  was  .said  to  have  been 
already  i)eopled  by  Slav  tribes.  Home  con- 
(piereii  all  tliis  region  as  far  as  tlie  Danube,  and 
annexed  it  to  Dalmatia.  Two  jirovinc  were 
f.  •ined,  'Dalmati.i  maritima,' and  '  Daliiiatia  in- 
tci  'a,'  or  'lllyris  barbara.'  Order  reigned,  and 
as  the  interior  comiiuinieated  with  tlie  coast,  the 
whole  country  tlouiished.  Important  ports 
grew  upon  the  littoral.  ...  At  the  fall  of  the 
Emiiire  came  tlie  (lOtlis,  then  the  Avars,  who,  for 
two  centuries,  burned  and  massacred,  and  turned 
the  whole!  country  into  a  desert.  ...  In  030  the 
Croats  began  to  occupy  the  ])rcscnt  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  and  the  north  of  Bosnia,  and  in  040  the 
Servians,  of  the  same  "  jc  and  language,  ex- 
terminated tlie  Avars  .iiid  peopled  Servia, 
Southern  Bosnia,  Montencgn,  and  Dalmatia. 
TUe  etUiic  situation  which  exists  to-day  dales 


245 


BALKAN  AND  DANI'IUAX  STATKS. 


HALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


from  tills  opncli." — E.  do  Lnvclcyc,  Thf  ndhin 
J'ii(iii»iilii,  c/i.  iJ,  — "  Hcnii-liilH  [will)  ociiipifil 
tlic  tliriuic  of  the  KiihIitm  Kiiililrc  iit  Consliiii- 
tiiiiiplr  frciMi  (110  til  tll'J|  iippi'urs  to  liiivc  InriiiiMl 
till'  plan  or  rNtiililisliiiiu;  ii  prnimiit'Tit  Imrrirr  In 
p^uriipr  ii;;iiliist  tliu  t'iKToiicliiiii'iits  of  tlm  Avars 
iinilSclavDiiiaiis.  .  .  .  Ti)«cci)iiiplisli  lliisolijcct, 
lli'racliiis  liiilii'.'ril  the  iScrbs,  or  Wcslrrii  iScla- 
VDiiiaiis,  will)  iHTupli'il  till!  cimiitry  aliiiiit  t.ii; 
Carpalliiaii  iiiiiiiiitaiiis,  anil  who  liail  siirri'ssfii'ly 
<i|)piisi'il  till'  I'xiriisloii  of  till'  Avar  riiipiri'iii  that 
din  rl  ion,  to  aliandon  tlirir  aiirii'iit,  scats,  and 
iiiovr  down  to  till!  SiMilli  into  tlu'  proviiici's  br- 
twi'i'ii  till'  Adriatirand  tlir  Daiiiibi-.  Thr  Konian 
and  (ini'k  popiilatiiiii  of  thi'sc  prnvincos  had 
hern  drivrii  towards  tlin  scacnast  by  the  con- 
tinual iiiriirKiiais  of  till' norlhirii  tribi's,  and  thi! 
<lrsolati!  plains  of  tliu  iiili'rior  had  bri'ii  orrnpicil 
by  u  few  Srlavoiiian  subji'Cts  and  vassals  of  tlio 
Avars.  Tlii'  most  important  of  tlii!  wrstcra 
Hclavoniaii  tribi'S  who  moved  southward  at  tlin 
invitutioii  of  irerat'lius  were  thu  Servians  and 
<!roiitiaiis,  who  settled  in  the  countries  still 
peopled  by  their  deseemiants.  Their  orijjiiial 
settlements  were  formed  in  con.seiiuenee  of 
friendly  arranj^ements,  and,  doubtless,  under  the 
sanction  of  an  express  treaty ;  for  the  .Sclavonian 
people  of  Illyria  and  Dalmatia  long  regarded 
Iheinselves  as  bound  ii)  pay  a  certain  degree  of 
territorial  allegiance  to  the  l-jastern  Kiiipire.  .  .  . 
These  colonies,  unlike  tlie  earlier  invaders  of  the 
Kmpire,  were  composed  of  agricultuml  com- 
munities. .  .  .  Unlike  the  military  races  of 
Ooths,  Huns,  and  Avars,  who  had  ])receded 
them,  the  Servian  nations  inca'ased  and  tlourislied 
in  the  lands  whi(!li  they  liaii  colonized ;  and  by 
tlio  absorption  of  every  relic  of  the  ancient 
liiipiilation,  they  formed  political  communitich 
and  independent  states,  which  olTered  n  firm 
barrier  to  the  Avars  and  other  hostile  nations. 
.  .  .  The  states  which  they  constituted  were  of 
considerable  weight  in  the  history  of  Europe; 
and  the  kingdoms  or  bannats  of  Croatia,  Servia, 
Bosnia,  Itascia  and  Dalmatia,  occupied  for  some 
centuries  a  political  position  very  similar  to  that 
now  held  by  the  secondary  monarchical  states  of 
the  present  day." — O.  Finlay,  Greece  uiuler  the 
litwuiim.  ch.  4,  sect.  0. — See,  also,  Avahs:  TifE 
BiiKAKiNoop  TiiEiu  DOMINION;  and  Slavonic 
Nations;  (Itii  and  7tii  Centuuieb. 

yth'-Sth  Centuries  (Bulgaria). — Vassalage  to 
the  Khazars.    See  Khazahs. 

9th  Century  (Servia).— Rise  of  the  King- 
dom.—  "At  the  iieriod  alluded  to  [the  latter  part 
of  the  ninth  century]  the  Servians  did  not,  like 
the  rest  of  the  L'llavonians,  constitute  a,  distinct 
state,  but  ncknovv'edged  the  8U)iremacy  of  the 
Eastern  lloman  Eniiieror:  in  fact  the  country 
they  ir.'.abitcd  had,  from  ancient  times,  formed 
part  of  the  Boman  territory ;  and  it  Mill  remained 
part  of  the  Eastern  Kmpire  when  the  Western 
Empire  wasreestablished,  at  the  liine  of  Charle- 
magne. The  Servians,  at  tlie  same  period,  em- 
braced the  Christian  faith ;  but  in  doing  so  they 
did  not  subject  themselves  entirely,  either  to  the 
empire  or  church  of  the  Greeks.  .  .  .  The  Em- 
l)eror  .  .  .  permitted  the  Servians  to  be  ruled  by 
native  chiefs,  .solely  of  their  own  election,  who 
preserved  a  patriarchal  form  of  government. 
...  In  the  eleventh  century,  the  Greeks,  des- 
pite of  the  stipulations  they  had  entered  into,  at- 
tempted to  lake  Servia  under  their  immediate 
control,  and  to  subject  it  to  their  liuaucial  sys- 


tem." The  attempt  met  with  a  defeat  which 
wasdeclslve.  "  Not  only  did  it  put  a  speedy  ter- 
miiialion  to  the  encroachment  of  the  Court  of 
Conslanlinopli'  in  imposing  a  direct  governmint, 
but  it  also  tirnily  cslalilished  the  princi'ly  power 
of  the  Grand  Shiipanes;  whose  existence  du- 
Iiended  on  the  preservation  of  the  national  iiidc- 
peiidenie.  .  .  .  Pope  Gregory  VII.  was  the 
first  who  saluted  a  Grand  .Shupane  as  King." — 
Ij.  Von  Itaiike,  Hint,  af  S-rri<i.  c!i.  1. 

9th-i6th  Centuries  (Bosnia,  Servia,  Croatia, 
Dalmatia.)— Conversion  to  Christianity.— The 
Bogoiniles. —  Hungarian  crusades.  —  Turkish 
conouest.  — .Vflir  tlie  Slavonic  sillleinent  of  Ser- 
via, Bosnia,  Croatia iind  Dalmatia,  foratimn  "the 
sovereignty  of  By/.antium  was  acknowledged. 
But  the  conversion  of  these  tribes,  of  Identieal 
race,  totwodiirereiitChristian  rites,  created  an  an- 
tagonism which  .still  exists.  The  (,'roats  were  con- 
verted llrst  bv  missionaries  from  Home;  tliey 
thus  adopted  ).iatiii  letters  and  Latin  ritual ;  the 
Servians,  on  the  contrary,  and  consei|ueiitly 
))art  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bosnia,  were  brought 
to  Christianity  by  Cyril  and  Methodius,  wlio, 
coining  from  Thcssalonica,  brought  the  char- 
acters and  rites  of  the  Eastern  ('liurcli.  About 
860  Cyril  translated  the  Bible  into  Slav,  invent- 
ing an  alphabet  which  bears  his  name,  and 
which  is  still  in  use.  ...  In  874  Budimir,  tlio 
first  Christian  King  of  Bosnia,  Croatia  and 
Dalmatia,  called  a  diet  upon  the  plain  of 
Dalminium,  where  ho  tried  to  establish  a  regular 
organization.  It  was  about  this  time  that  the 
name  Bosnia  appeared  for  the  first  time.  It  is 
st.id  to  bo  derived  from  a  Slav  tribe  coming 
originally  from  Tliraci!.  In  905  Brisimir,  ICing 
of  Servia.  annexed  Croatia  and  Bosnia;  'iiit  this 
union  iliil  not  last  long.  The  sovereignty  of 
By/.antium  cca.sed  in  these  parts  after  tlie  year 
ItiOO.  It  was  gained  by  Lailislaus,  King  of 
Hungary,  about  1091.  In  1103  Coloman,  King 
of  Hungary,  added  the  titles  of 'Uex  I^lmlB ' 
(Herzegovina),  then  of  '  Kcx  Bosniic.'  Since  then 
Bosnia  has  always  been  a  dependence  of  the 
crown  of  Saint  Stephen.  .  .  .  About  this  time 
some  Albigenses  came  to  Bosnia,  who  converted 
to  their  beliefs  a  large  number  of  the  people  who 
were  called  Cauire,  in  German  Patarener.  In 
Bosnia  they  received  and  adopted  the  nai)ie  of 
Bogomile,  which  means  'loving  God.'  Nothing 
is  more  tragic  than  the  history  of  this  heresy. 
.  .  .  They  [the  BogomilesJ  became  in  Bosnia  a 
oliicf  factor,  both  of  its  history  and  its  present 
.situation.  .  .  The  Hungarian  Kings,  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  Pope,  ceaselessly  endeavoured  to 
extirpate  them,  and  their  frequent  wars  of 
extermination  provoked  the  hatred  of  the 
Bosnians.  ...  In  1238  the  first  great  crusado 
was  organized  by  Bela  IV.  of  Hungary,  in 
obedience  to  Pope  Gregory  VII.  The  whole 
country  was  devastated,  and  the  Bogomiles  nearly 
all  massacred,  except  a  number  who  escapoil  to 
the  forests  and  mountains.  In  124.')  the  IIiui- 
garian  Bishop  of  K^ilocsa  himself  ?  1  a  second 
crusade.  In  1280  a  third  crii«aile  was  luuk'r- 
taken  by  Ladi.slaus  IV.,  King  of  Hungary,  in 
order  to  regain  the  Pope's  favour.  .  .  .  About 
the  year  1300  Pan'  of  Brebir,  'Banu.-  Croatorum 
et  llosnia;  dominus,'  final!_>  added  Herzegovina 
to  Bosnia.  Under  the  Ban  Stejihen  IV.,  the 
Emperor  of  Servip,  the  great  Dushan,  occupied 
Bosnia,  but  it  soon  regained  its  independeiice 
(1355),  au'l  under  Stephen  Tvartko,   who  took 


246 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


HAI-KAN  AND  DANUDIAN  STATES. 


tlio  title  of  kins,  tlm  cmintry  enjoyed  ii  last 
pcrliiil  (if  jieiiee  iind  prospcilty.  .  .  .  Uefore  Ills 
(lentil  the  Turks  appejired  iiii  the  frontiers.  At 
the  inenionilile  unci  dei.'lslve  haltle  of  Kos.sovo 
[seeTlltKs:  A.  D.  IMIIO-IUHII).  whieh  iriwe  them 
Servhi,  ;)(),(Mm  liosnlans  were  engiitred.  and, 
thoii^fli  retreatiiii;  stopped  the  conciueror. 
Under  Tvariko  II.,  the  second  kinir,  who  was  iv 
Uo;;otuile.  IJo-inla  en|ove(l  some  years'  peaeo 
(l!)'-'fl-IU;)).  Then  followed  |seeTlliKs:  A.  I). 
14()'J -I4.")l|  a  liloodv  interlude  of  civil  war," 
■which  invited  the  Turks  and  prepared  the  way 
for  them.  "Mohammed  II..  wiioha<l  just  taken 
ConstantinopI '  (ll.Vt),  ailvaiicd  with  a  fonnid- 
nblc  armv  of  l.'iD.OdO  men,  wliicli  notldn.i;  could 
resist.  The  country  was  laid  waste:  ;ltl,(M)() 
younj?  men  were  circumcised  and  enrolled 
lUiKUiftst  the  janissaries;  2(M),tHI0  (irisoners  were 
nu.le  hi'ives;  the  towns  which  resisted  were 
buri.ed,  the  churches  turned  into  mosr|ues,  and 
Uic  lui.,1  coiillscated  by  Ihr  conciuerors  (I4ti;t). 
.  .  .  \.  period  of  stni^fgle  lasted  from  1 1(K{  till 
tho  detlnil(i  concpiest  in  l.V.>7  Isee  Ti:i<Ks:  A.  I). 
1451-1481 1.  .  .  .  When  the  l)allU!  of  Mohac/ 
(August  2l»,  1520)  jjavi!  llun^rarv  to  the  Otto- 
mans [see  lIiNOAilV:  A.  I).  14H7-1.V.J(()  .laitche. 
the  last  rampart  of  Hosniu,  whoso  detenee  had 
inspired  acts  of  legendary  co\ira)r<',  fell  In  its 
tuin  in  1527.  A  strange  cin  umstauco  facilitated 
the  Musf.ulninn  concpicst.  To  .save  their  wealth, 
the  greater  nund)er  of  magnates,  and  almost  all 
the  Uogoniiles,  who  were  exasperated  by  the 
cruel  persecution.s  directed  against  them,  went 
over  to  Islauiism.  From  that  time  they  became 
the  most  ardent  followers  of  -Mohanui'cdanism, 
whilst  keeping  the  language  and  names  of  their 
anc(  stors.  They  fouglit  everywhere  iii  the  fore- 
front of  the  battles  which  gained  llungiiry  for 
the  Turks."  Within  the  present  century  the 
Bosnian ^lussulmans  have  risen  in  arms  "against 
all  the  reforms  that  Europe,  in  the  name  of 
modern  pri.iciples,  wrested  from  the  Porte." — 
E.  de  Laveleye,  T/ie  Ihtlhui  PcniuKuUt,  ch.  3. 

Also  in:  L.  von  lliuike.  Hint.  <if  Serriii,  ita. 

loth-iith  Centuries  (Bulgfaria).— The  First 
Bul|;arian  Kingdom  and  its  overthrow  by 
Basil  II. — "The  glory  of  the  Huljarians  was 
<;onliue(l  to  a  narrow  scope  both  of  time  and 
place.  In  the  Olh  and  10th  eeiiturioH  they 
reigned  to  the  south  of  the  Danube,  but  the 
moro  powerful  nations  iliat  bad  followed  their 
■emigration  rci)elled  all  return  to  the  north  and 
all  I'rogrcss  U,  the  west.  ...  In  the  beginning 
of  the  ilth  century,  the  Second  Basil  [Byzantine 
or  (Ireek  Emperor,  A.  I>.  97(5-102r)J  who  wivs 
born  in  the  purple,  deserved  the  appellation  of 
confjueror  of  the  Bulgarians  [subdued  by  his 
predecessor,  John  Zimi.sces,  but  still  rebellious]. 
His  avarice  was  in  some  measure  gratified  by  a 
treaiiure  of  400,000  nounds  sterling  (10,000 
pounds'  weight  of  gold)  which  he  found  in  the 
palace  of  Lychuidus.  His  cruelty  inllicted  a  cool 
and  exquisite  vengeance  on  15,001)  captives  who 
had  been  guilty  of  the  defence  of  their  country. 
They  were  deprived  of  sight,  but  to  one  of  each 
hunllred  a  single  eye  was  left,  that  he  might  con- 
duct Ills  bliiul  century  to  the  presence  of  their 
king.  Their  king  is  said  to  have  expired  of 
grief  and  horror;  the  nation  was  awed  by  this 
terrible  example,  the  Bulgarians  were  swept 
away  from  their  settlements,  and  circumscribed 
witliin  a  narrow  province;  tlie  surviving  chiefs  be- 
queuthcd  to  their  children  the  ail  vice  of  patience 


and  the  iluly  of  revenge." — E.  Qlblion,  Dteliiie 
iindj'iill  iif  tlic  Uiimdii  /•'mpirf,  ch.  55. 

Also  i.n:  (1.  Kinlay,  Hint,  nf  ihf  fii/zmitiiit 
Kmiiiir,friim  "Itl  to  1(H»7,  hk.  2,  ch.  2.— See.  also, 
('oNHT.\NTi.Noi'i.i::  \.  I).  ll07-104iJ,  and  AciiliiiiA, 

TlIK   KINOIIOM  ul'. 

A.  D.  1096  (Bulgariai.— Hostilities  with  the 
First  Crusaders.  .Se  Cm  sauks:  V.  I),  lultd- 
lOllO. 

I2th  Century  (Bulgaria).— The  Second  Bul- 
garian or  Wallachian  Kingdom.— "  Thi'  reign 
of  Isaac  II.  I  llv/anline  or  (ireek  Emperor.  A.  I). 
1 1H5-I11(.')|  is  tilled  with  a  series  of  revolts,  caused 
by  his  incapable  administration  anil  linamial 
rapacity.  'I  hi' most  important  of  these  was  thn 
great  rebellion  of  the  V'allacbian  and  Hulgiirian 
population  which  oceupied  the  country  between 
Mount  Ibeiniis  and  the  Danube.  The  imiueiiso 
po|)ulation  of  this  extensive  country  now  sep- 
arated itself  llnally  from  the  government  of  tlio 
Ea.stern  Empire,  and  its  political  destinies  ceased 
to  be  united  with  those  of  the  Greeks.  A  new 
European  monarrhy,  called  the  Vallachian,  or 
Second  Biilgnriaii  kingdom,  was  formed,  which 
for  some  time  acti'd  an  important  part  in  the 
alTairs  of  the  Ity/.antine  Empire,  and  contributed 
|)owerfully  to  the  depression  of  the  Greek  race. 
The  sudden  ImportauciMi.ssumed  by  the  Vallachian 
population  in  this  revolution,  and  the  great  extent 
of  C'ountry  then  occupied  by  u  |)eople  who  had 
I)reviously  acted  no  ])rominent  part  in  the  political 
events  of  the  East,  render  it  necessary  to  give 
some  account  of  their  previous  history.  Four 
dilTerent  countries  are  spoken  of  under  the  name 
of  Vallacbia  by  the  Byzantine  wr'ters:  Gre.it 
Vallachia,  which  was  the  country  round  the  plain 
of  Thessaly,  particularly  the  southern  and  south- 
western part.  White  Vallachia,  or  the  modern 
Bulgaria,  which  formed  the  Vallachiollulgariaa 
kingdom  that  revolted  from  Isaac  II. ;  Black 
Vallachia,  Mavro- Vallachia,  or  Karabogdon, 
which  is  Moldavia;  and  Ilungarovallachia,  or  the 
Vallachia  of  the  jjresent  day,  comprising  a  part 
of  Transylvania.  .  .  .  The  ciuestion  remains  un- 
decided whether  these  Vallachians  are  the  lineal 
descendants  of  the  Thracian  race,  who,  Strabo 
tells  us,  extended  as  far  south  as  Thessaly,  and  as 
far  north  as  to  the  borders  of  Pannonia;  for  of 
the  Thracian  language  we  know  nothing." — 
O.  Finlay,  Jlht.  of  the  Hyzdntiiw  and  Greek  Km- 
pircs,  from  710  to  145H,  lik.  3,  ch.  3,  sect.  1. — 
"  Whether  they  were  of  Slavic  origin  or  of  Gaelic 
or  Welsh  origin,  whether  they  were  the  abo- 
riginal inhabitants  of  theco\intry  whohadcome 
under  the  influence  of  tl;e  elder  Home,  and  had 
acijuired  so  many  Latin  words  as  to  overlay  their 
language  and  to  retain  little  more  than  the  gram- 
maticai  forms  and  mould  of  their  own  language, 
or  whether  they  were  the  descendants  of  the  Latin 
colonists  of  Dacia  [see  Dacia:  Thajan's  Con- 
ijlt.st]  with  a,  large  mixture  of  other  peoples, 
are  all  questions  which  have  been  much  contro- 
verted. It  is  remarkable  that  while  no  peojilo 
living  on  the  south  of  the  Balkans  appear  to  be 
mentioned  as  Wallachs  until  the  tenth  century, 
when  Anna  Comneua  mentions  a  village  called 
Ezeban,  near  Mimnt  Kissavo,  occupied  by  them, 
almost  suddenly  we  hear  of  them  as  a  gieat 
nation  to  the  south  of  the  Balkans.  They  spoko 
a  language  which  differed  little  from  Latin. 
Thessaly,  during  the  twelfth  century  is  usually- 
called  Great  Wallachia.  .  .  .  Besides  the  Wal- 
lachs in  Thessaly,  whose  descendants  are  now 


247 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


riilk'(i  KutzoWnlliichs,  there  were  the  Wnllachs 
ill  Diiciii,  th(!  aneestors  of  the  jirescnt  Uouman 
inns,  1111(1  Miivro-Wullnclis  in  Dtilmatin.  Indeed, 
iiocording  to  tlie  Iliingiiritin  and  Byzantine  writ- 
ers, tlien!  were  during  tlie  twelftli  rentury  ii 
series  of  Wallncliian  peoples,  (extending  from  the 
Tlieiss  to  tlie  Dniester.  .  .  .  Tlie  word  Wallacli 
is  used  hy  tlie  Byzantine  writers  as  equivalent  to 
shepherd,  and  it  may  be  that  the  eonimon  use  of 
a  dialeet  of  Latin  by  all  the  Wallaohs  is  the  only 
bond  of  union  among  the  peoples  bearing  that 
name.  Thcj  were  all  occasionally  spoken  of  by 
the  By/.antinc!  writers  as  descendants  of  the 
Itomaiis." — E.  Pears,  The  Fall  of  Constantinople, 
eh.  3. — "  The  classical  type  of  feature,  so  often 
met  with  among  Roumanian  peasants,  pleads 
strongly  for  the  theory  of  Roman  extraction,  and 
if  just  now  I  compared  the  Saxon  pca.sants  to 
Noah's  ark  figures  rudely  carved  out  of  the 
coarsest  wood,  the  Roumanians  as  often  remind 
me  of  a  type  of  face  chiefly  to  be  seen  on  cameo 
ornaments,  or  ancient  signet  rings.  Take  at  ran- 
dom a  score  of  individuals  from  any  Roumanian 
village,  and,  like  a  handful  of  antique  gems 
which  liave  been  strewn  broadcast  over  the  land, 
you  will  there  surely  find  a  good  choice  of  classi- 
cal profiles  wortliy  to  be  immortalized  on  agate, 
onyx,  or  jasper.  An  air  of  plaintive  melancholy 
generally  characterizes  the  Roumanian  peasant: 
it  is  the  melancholy  of  a  long-subjected  and 
oppres.sed  race.  .  .  .  Perhaps  no  other  rac  pos- 
sesses in  such  marked  degree  the  blind  and  im- 
movable sense  of  nationality  whicli  charac  ierizes 
the  Roumanians.  They  liardly  ever  mingle  with 
the  surrounding  races,  far  less  adopt  manners 
and  customs  foreign  to  their  own.  Tliis  singular 
tenacity  of  tlie  Roumanians  to  their  own  dress, 
manners  and  customs  is  probably  due  to  the  in- 
fiiience  of  their  religion  [the  Greek  church], 
which  teaches  tliat  any  divergence  from  their  own 
established  rules  is  sinful." — E.  Gerard,  Trnn- 
nt/lriiiiiini  PcojilcK  (Coiiti'mp.  Jicv.,  Mareh,  1887). 
A.  D.  1341-1356  (Servia). — The  Empire  of 
Stephan  Dushan. — "In  llUl,  when  .John  C'nn- 
tacuzeiius  assumed  the  purple  [at  Constantinople], 
important  prospects  were  opened  to  the  Servians. 
Cantaeiizenus  .  .  .  went  up  the  mountains  and 
prevailed  upon  Stephan  Dushan,  the  powerful 
king  of  the  Servians,  whom  he  found  in  a  coun- 
try palace  at  Pristina,  to  join  his  cause."  As  the 
result  of  this  connection,  and  by  favor  of  the  op- 
portunities which  tlie  civil  war  and  general  de- 
cline in  the  Greek  Emiiire  afforded  him,  Stephan 
Dushan  extended  his  dominions  over  Epirus, 
Thessaly,  Macedonia,  and  a  part  of  Thrace. 
"The  Shkypetares  in  Albania  followed  his 
standard ;  Arta  and  Joanninu  were  in  his  posses- 
sion. From  these  points  his  Voivodes  [Palatines], 
whose  districts  may  easily  be  traced,  spread 
themselves  over  llic  whole  of  the  Roumelian 
terri  iry  on  the  Vardar  and  the  Mariz/.a.  as 
far  as  Bulgaria,  which  he  also  regarded  as  a 
province  of  his  kingdom.  Being  in  the  posses- 
sion of  so  extensive  a  dominion,  he  \  iw  ventured 
to  assume  a  title  which  was  still  in  dispute  be- 
tween the  fjastern  and  Western  I'Imiiires,  and 
could  not  riirhtly  be  claimed  by  either.  As  a 
Servian  Krale,  he  could  neither  ask  nor  expect 
the  obedience  of  tlie  Greeks:  therefore  he  called 
himself  Emperor  of  the  Rounielians — the  Mace- 
donian (,'lirist-Ioving  Czar —  and  began  to  wear 
the  tiara.  .  .  .  Stephan  Dushan  died  [Dec.  2, 
1S56J  before  he  had  completed  the  Empire  of 


which  he  had  laid  tlu;  foundation,  and  ere  he 
had  strengtliened  his  power  by  the  bulwark  of 
national  institutions." — L.  Von  lianke,  Hut.  of 
Srria,  ch.  1-2. 

Ai.soin:  M'me  E.  L.  Mijatovicli,  Kokkhvo,  Int. 

A.  D.  1389  (Bulgaria). — Conquest  by  the 
Turks.  See  Tithkk  (The  Otto.mans):  A.  D. 
13fiO-i;!89. 

14th  Century  (Bulgaria). —  Subjection  to 
Hungary.     See  Hunoauv:  A.  D.  l;)01-1442. 

I4th-i8th  Centuries  (Roumania,  or  Wal- 
lachia,  and  Moldavia). — Four  Centuries  of 
Conflict  with  Hungarian'j  and  Turks. — "The 
AVallacho-Bulgarian  monarchy,  whatever  may 
have  been  its  limit.s,  was  annihilated  by  a  horde 
of  Tartars  about  A.  1).  IS.W.  The  same  race 
committed  great  havoc  in  Hungary,  conquered 
the  Kuniani,  overran  Moldavia,  Transylvania, 
Ac,  and  held  their  ground  there  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  14th  century,  when  they  were 
driven  northward  by  the  Hungarian,  Saxon,  and 
other  settlers  in  Transylvania;  and  with  their 
exit  we  have  done  with  the  barbarians.  .  .  . 
Until  recently  the  historians  of  Roumania  have 
had  little  to  guide  them  concerning  the  events 
of  the  ])eriod  beyond  traditions  which,  though 
very  interesting,  are  now  gradually  giving  place 
to  recorded  and  authenticated  facts.  ...  It  is 
admitted  that  the  plains  and  slopes  of  the 
Carpathians  were  inhabited  by  communities 
ruled  over  by  chieftains  of  varying  power  and 
influence.  Some  were  banates,  as  that  of 
Craiova,  which  long  remained  a  semi-indepen- 
dent State;  then  there  were  petty  voivofles  or 
])rinces  .  .  .  ;  and  besides  these  there  were 
Khanates,  .  .  .  some  of  which  were  petty 
principalities,  whilst  others  were  merely  the 
govcrnorsliips  of  villages  or  groups  of  them. 
.  .  .  ^lircea,  one  of  the  heroes  of  Roumanian 
history,  not  only  secured  the  independent 
sovereignty,  and  called  himself  Voivodc  of  Wal- 
lacliia  'by  the  grace  of  God,'  but  in  1389  he 
formed  an  alliance  with  Poland,  and  assumed 
other  titles  by  the  right  of  conquest.  This 
alliance  .  .  .  had  for  its  objects  the  extension  of 
his  dominions,  as  well  as  protection  against 
Hungary  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Ottoman 
power  on  the  other;  for  the  .  .  .  Turki.sli  armies 
had  overrun  Bulgaria,  and  about  the  year  1391 
they  first  made  tlieir  appearance  north  of  the 
Danube.  At  first  the  bravery  of  Mircea  was 
successful  in  stemining  tlie  tide  of  invasion;" 
but  after  a  year  or  two,  "finding  himself  be- 
tween two  powerful  enemies,  the  King  of  Hun- 
gary and  the  Sultan,  Jlircea  elected  to  form  an 
alliance  with  the  latter,  and  concluded  a  treaty 
with  him  at  Nicopolis  (1393),  known  as  the  First 
Capitulation,  by  which  Walla'-hia  retained  its 
autonomy,'  but  agreed  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
and  to  acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan. 
.  .  .  According  to  several  historians  Mircea  did 
not  adheri!  to  it  long,  for  he  is  ^  lid  to  have  been 
in  command  of  a  contingent  in  tlie  army  of  the 
crusaders,  and  to  have  been  present  at  the  battle 
of  Nicopolis  (1396),  in  which  the  fiower  of  the 
French  nobility  fell,  and,  when  he  found  their 
cause  to  be  hopeless,  once  more  to  have  deserted 
them  and  joined  the  victorious  arms  of  Bajazct. 
(1f  the  continued  wars  and  dissensions  in  Wal- 
lacliia  during  the  reign  of  Mircea  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  speak.  He  ruled  with  varjfing  fortunes 
until  1418  A.  D."  A  Second  Capitulation  was 
concluded,  at   Adrianople,  with  the  Turks,  in 


248 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


1400.  1-v  a  Inter  Walliutliiiiu  voivcdi',  named 
Vlad.  It  iiiereased  the  tribute  to  tlie  I'ortc,  Imt 
made  no  other  important  chaniie  in  tlie  terms  of 
suzerainty.  Meiuilime,  in  tlie  neigld)()uring 
Moldavian  principality,  eveut.s  were  bcKinning 
to  shape  themselves  into  some  historical  distinet- 
nes.s.  "For  a  century  after  the  foundation  of 
Moldavia,  or.  as  it  was  at  tirst  called,  Bogdania, 
hy  Bogdan  Dragosch  [a  legendary  hero],  the 
history  of  the  country  is  shrouded  in  darkness. 
Kings  or  princes  are  named,  one  or  more  of 
whom  were  Lithuanians.  .  .  .  Atlengthaiirince 
more  )iowerful  than  the  rest  ascended  the  throne. 
.  .  .  This  was  Stephen,  sometimes  called  tlus 
'Great'  or  '  Good.'  ...  He  came  to  the  throne 
about  115(5  or  1458,  and  reigned  until  1504,  and 
his  whole  life  was  spent  in  wars  against  Transyl- 
vania, AVallu('hia,  .  .  .  the  Turks,  a.  '  TartaV.s. 
...  In  1475  he  was  at  war  with  t.-e  Turks, 
whom  he  defeated  on  the  river  Birlad.  ...  In 
that  year  also  Stephen  .  .  .  completely  overran 
Wallachia.  Having  reduced  it  to  siibmission, 
he  placed  a  native  boyard  on  the  throne  as  his 
viceroy,  who  showed  his  gratitude  to  Stephen 
by  rebelling  •  nd  libc'rating  the  country  from  his 
rule;  but  he  was  in  his  turn  murdered  by  his 
Wnllacliian  subjects.  In  1470  Steiihen  sustained 
a  terrible  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Ottomans  at 
Valea  Alba  (the  'White  Yalk^),  but  eight  years 
afterwards,  allied  with  the  Poles,  he  again  en- 
countered [and  defeated]  this  terrible  enemy. 
.  .  .  After  the  battle  of  .Moliacs  [see  IIunoahy: 
A.  D.  1487-1520]  the  Turks  began  to  encn)ach 
more  openly  upon  IJoinr.anian  (Moldo-Wal- 
lachian)  territory.  They  occupie<l  and  fortified 
Braila,  Giurgevo,  and  Galatz;  interfered  in  the 
election  of  the  princes  .  .  .  adding  to  their  own 
intluence,  and  rendering  the  ])rinces  more  and 
more  suli.servient  to  their  will.  This  state  of 
things  histed  until  the  end  of  the  10th  century, 
when  another  hero,  Jlichael  the  Brave  of  Wal- 
lachia, restored  tranquility  and  independence  to 
the  Principalities,  and  raised  i  hem  for  a  .season 
in  the  esteem  of  surrounding  nations."  Michael, 
who  moiuited  the  throne  in  1593,  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  Prince  of  SiebenbUrgen 
(Transylvania)  and  tlu?  voivode  <if  Jloldavia, 
against  the  Turks.  He  began  his  warfare, 
November.  1594,  by  a  wholesale  massacre  of  the 
Turks  in  Bucharest  and  .Tassy.  lie  then  took 
Giurgevo  by  storm  and  defeated  the  Ottoman 
forces  in  a  battle  at  Hustchuk.  In  1595, Giurgevo 
was  the  scene  of  two  bloody  battles,  in  both  of 
which  ]\lichael  came  off  victor,  wiJi  famous 
laurels.  The  Tui-ks  were  effectually  driven  from 
the  country.  The  ambition  of  the  victorious 
Michael  was  now  excited,  and  he  invaded 
Transylvania  (1599)  desiring  to  add  it  to  his  do- 
minions. In  a  battle  "  whieli  is  called  by  some 
the  battle  of  Schellcnberg,  and  by  others  of 
Hermanstadt."  he  defeated  the  reignir.g  prince. 
Cardinal  Andreas,  and  Transylvania  was  at  his 
feet.  He  subdueil  ^lohlavia  with  equal  ease, 
and  the  whole  of  ancient  Dacia  became  subject 
to  his  rule.  The  Emperor  Rudolph,  as  suzerain 
of  Transylvania,  recognized  his  authority.  But 
his  reign  was  brief.  Before  the  close  of  the  year 
1600  a  rising  occurred  in  Transylvania,  and 
Michael  was  defeated  in  a  battle  tbught  at 
Miriszlo.  He  escaped  to  the  mountjiins  and  bi;- 
came  a  fugitive  for  some  months,  while  even  his 
Wallachian  throne  was  occupied  by  a  brother  of 
tlui   Moldavian  voivode.    At  length  he  made 


terms  with  the  P2ni])eror  Rudolph,  wlio.se  au- 
thority had  been  slighted  by  the  Tran.sylvanian 
insurgents,  and  procured  men  and  money  with 
whicli  heretuna-d  in  force,  <ruslic(l  hisopponents 
at  Goioszlo,  and  reigned  again  as  viceroy.  Hut 
he  quarrelef'  soon  with  tlie  cdmmandci- 'if  the 
imperial  troi  d.s,  General  Basta,  and  the  hillcr 
caii.sed  him  to  be  assassinated,  some  time  in 
Augu.st,  1601.  .  .  .  TlK!  history  of  Mohh)-\Val- 
laeliia  (luring  the  17th  century  .  .  .  possesses 
little  interest  for  English  readers."  At  the  end 
of  the  17th  century  "another  great  Power 
[Russia]  was  drawing  nearer  and  nearer  to  Rou- 
niania,  which  was  e\  eiitually  to  exercise  a  grave 
intluence  upon  her  ilestiiiy.  ...  In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ]8tl  century  there  ruled  two 
voivodes,  f'oiistaiu.n,'  Br.ucovano.  in  AVallaihia. 
and  Deme.'vius  C'antei"''r  in  Moldavia,  both  of 
whom  had  been  apji  liuted  in  the  usual  manner 
under  the  suzerainty  of  tli(!  Porte;  but  these 
jiriuces,  indejiendently  of  each  other,  had  entered 
into  ni'gotiations  with  Peter  the  Great  after  the 
defeat  of  diaries  XII.  at  Pultawc  (1701.,.,  to 
assist  them  against  the  Sultan,  tlieii  suzi-rain, 
stipulating  for  their  own  iudepeisdiuce  under 
the  protection  of  the  Czar."  Peter  was  induced 
to  enter  the  country  with  a  CijusuleriJiIe  army 
[1711],  but  s"on  found  himself  in  a  position  from 
which  there  appeared  little  cha.ice  or  escape. 
He  was  extricated  only  by  the  cleverness  of  the 
Czarina,  who  bribe<l  the  Turkish  commander 
with  her  jewels  —  sec  Scandix.\vi.\n  St.\te8 
(SwEDKN);  A.  D.  1707-1718.  The  Moldavian 
Voivode  escaped  with  the  Russians.  The  Wal- 
lachian, Braneovano,  was  seized,  taken  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  put  to  death,  along  with  his 
four  sons.  "Stephen  Cautacuzeue,  the  son  of 
his  accusers,  was  made  Voivode  of  Wallachia, 
but  like  his  iiredecessors  he  only  enjoyed  the 
honour  for  a  brief  term,  and  two  years  after- 
wards he  was  deposed,  ordered  to  Constantinople, 
imprisoned,  and  decapitated;  and  with  him 
terminated  the  rule  of  the  native  princes,  who 
were  followed,  both  in  Wallachia  and  ^loldavia, 
by  the  so-callcil  Phanariote  governors  [see 
PiiANAHioTEs]  or  farmers-general  of  the  Porte." 
— J.  Samuelson,  lioumania.  Pant  and  Present, 
pt.  2,  di.  ii-i;i. 

I4th-I9th  Centuries :  (Montenegro)  The 
new  Servia. — "  The  people  that  inhabit  the  two 
territories  known  on  the  map  as  Serv;a  and 
Jlontenegro  are  one  and  the  same.  If  you  ask 
a  Montenegrin  what  language  he  speaks,  he 
replies  'Serb.'  The  last  of  the  Serb  Czars  fell 
gloriously  lighting  at  Kossovo  in  1389  [.see 
TuKKs:  A.  D.  1360-1380].  To  this  day  the 
jMontenegrin  wears  a  strip  of  black  silk  upon 
his  headgear  in  memory  of  that  fatal  day.  .  .  . 
The  brave  Serbs  who  escaped  from  Kossovo 
found  a  sanctuary  in  the  mountains  that  overlook 
the  Bay  of  Cattaro.  Their  leader,  Ivo,  sur- 
nanied  T,sernoi  (Black),  gave  the  nauic  of 
Tzrnogora  (Montenegro)  to  these  de.scrt  rocks. 
.  .  .  Servia  having  become  a  Turkish  province, 
her  colonists  created  in  Montenegro  a  new  and 
independent  Servia  [see  Tukks:  A.  D.  1451- 
1481].  The  iiH-'inory  of  Ivo  the  Black  is  still 
greeu  in  the  country.  Springs,  ruins,  and 
caverns  are  called  after  him,  and  the  people  look 
forward  to  the  day  when  lie  will  reappear  us 
a  political  Messiah.  But  Ivo's  descendants 
proved  unworthy  of  him;  they  committed  the 
unpardonable  sin  of  marrying  alieua,  and  early 


249 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


in  the  ■'.fltli  century  the  Iftst  dcsrcndant  of  Ivo  the 
Blnck  retired  to  Venice.  From  1516  to  Kii)? 
Montenegro  wius  ruled  by  elective  Vlndikii-s  or 
Bishops;  from  1097  to  1^51  by  hereditnry  Vlii- 
dil  a.s.  For  the  Montenegrins  the  16th,  17tli 
and  18' 1>  centuriea  formed  a  period  of  incessiuit 
wnrfiirc.  .  .  .  Up  till  1703  the  Serbs  of  the 
mountHin  were  no  more  absolutely  independent 
of  the  Sultan  than  their  enslaved  kinsmen  of  the 

f)lain.  The  Iluvatch  or  Sultan's  slipper  tax  was 
evied  on  the  mountaineers.  In  1703  Danilo 
Petrovitch  celebrated  his  consecration  as  a 
Christian  Bi.shop  by  ordering  the  slaughter  ;  f 
every  Mussulman  who  refused  Lo  bo  baptised. 
This  ma.ssacre  took  jdaeeon  Christmas  Eve  1703. 
.  .  .  The  17th  and  18th  centuries  were  for 
IMontenegro  a  struggle  for  existence.  In  the 
10th  century  began  their  struggle  for  an  outlet 
to  the  sea.  The  fall  of  Venice  would  naturally 
have  given  the  mountaineers  the  bay  of  Cattaro, 
Inid  not  the  French  stepped  in  and  annexed  Dal- 
matia."  In  1813,  the  Vladika,  Peter  I.,  "with 
the  aid  of  the  British  fleet  .  .  .  too!;  Cattaro 
from  the  French,  but  (pursuant  toan  arrangement 
between  Russia  and  Austria)  was  compelled  sub- 
sequently to  relin<iuish  it  to  the  latter  power. 
.  .  .  Peter  I.  of  Montenegro  .  .  .  died  in  1830, 
at  the  age  of  80.  .  .  .  His  nephew  Peter  II.  was 
a  wise  ruler.  .  .  .  On  the  death  of  Peter  II., 
Prince  Danilo,  the  uncle  of  the  iirescnt  Prince, 
went  to  Russia  to  be  consecrated  Bishop  of 
JMontenegro.  The  czar  seems  to  have  laughed 
him  o>it  of  this  ancient  practice;  and  the  late 
Prince  instead  of  converting  himself  into  monk 
and  bishop  returned  to  his  own  country  and 
married  [IH.'il].  .  .  .  Prince  D.inilo  was  a.ssas- 
Binated  at  Cattaro  (1860).  .  .  .  He  was  succeeded 
l)y  his  nephew  Nicholas." — J.  G.  C.  Jlinchin, 
fkrvin  and  Montenegro  (Natiomd  Life  (Did 
Thoufiht,  ket.  19).  —  "The  present  form  of 
government  in  Jlontcnegro  is  at  once  the  most 
despotic  and  the  most  pojiular  in  Europe — des- 
potic, because  the  will  of  the  Prince  is  the  law  of 
the  land ;  and  popular,  because  the  ])ersonal  rule 
of  the  Prince  meets  all  the  wants  and  wishes  of  the 
people.  No  Sovereign  in  Europe  sits  so  firmly 
on  his  throne  as  the  Prince  of  this  little  St^'^e, 
and  no  Sovereign  is  so  absolute.  The  -Montene- 
grins have  no  army;  they  are  themselves  a 
standing  army." — J.  G.  C.  Mi^'jhin,  The  Growth 
of  Freedom  in  the PalKon Pent nmihi,  eh.  1. — A.  A. 
faton,  Renciirehes  on  Jie  Dnniihe  amltheAdriatie, 
bk.  3,  c!i  7  (p.  1). — L.  Von  Ranke,  Jlist  of  Seritia. 
Ac.  :  Slnre  Provinces  of  TurK-eij,  eh.  3-0. — 
"  Montenegro  is  an  extremely  curious  instance 
of  the  way  in  wliich  favourable  geographical 
'  conditions  may  aid  a  small  jieople  to  achieve  a 
fame  and  a  place  in  the  world  quite  out  of  pro- 
portion to  their  numbers.  Tlie  Black  Mountain 
is  the  one  place  wliere  a  South  Sclavonic  com- 
munity maintained  themselves  in  independence, 
sometimes  seeing  their  territory  overrun  by  the 
Turks,  but  never  acknowledging  Turkish 
authority  de  jure  from  the  time  of  the  Turkish 
Conquest  of  the  15th  century  down  to  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin.  Montenegro  could  not  have  done 
that  but  for  her  geographical  structure.  She  is  a 
high  mass  of  hmestone;  you  cannot  call  it  a 
plateau,  because  it  is  seamed  by  many  valleys, 
—  and  rises  into  many  sharp  mountain-peaks. 
Still,  it  is  a  mountain  mass,  the  average  height 
of  which  is  rather  more  than  2,000  feet  above 
; the  sea,  with  summits  reaching  5,000.    It  is  bare 


limestone,  so  that  there  is  hardly  anything 
grown  on  it,  only  grass  —  and  very  good  grass — 
in  spots,  with  little  patclies  of  corn  and  jiotatoes, 
and  it  has  scarcely  any  water.  Its  upland  is 
covered  with  snow  in  winter,  while  m  sum- 
mer the  invaders  have  to  carry  their  water  with 
them,  a  .serious  diffleidty  when  there  were  no  roads, 
and  active  mountaineers  fired  from  behind  e%'ery 
rock,  a  dilficulty  which  becomes  more  serious  the 
larger  the  invading  force.  Consequently  it  is 
one  of  the  most  impracti(.ablo  regions  imaginable 
for  an  invading  army.  It  is  owing  to  those 
circumstances  that  this  handful  of  people — 
i)ecause  the  Alontenegrins  of  the  17th  century 
did  not  number  more  than  40,000  or  50,000  — 
have  maintained  their  independence.  That  they 
did  maiiUain  it  is  a  fact  most  importjxnt  in  the 
history  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  may  have 
great  con.seq\ience8  yet  to  come." — J.  Bryce, 
Jlelationa  of  Jlistori/  and  Qeography  (Contemp. 
Iter.,  Mar.,  1880). 

I4th-i9th  Centuries.— (Servia) :  The  long 
oppression  of  the  Turk. — Struggle  for  free- 
dom under  Kara  Georg  and  Milosch. — Inde- 
pendence achieved. — The  Obrenovitch  dy- 
nasty.— "The  brilliant  victories  of  Stephan 
Dushan  wore  a  misfortune  to  Christendom. 
They  .shattered  the  Greek  empire,  the  last  feeble 
bulwark  of  Europe,  and  paved  the  way  for 
those  ultimate  successes  of  the  Asiatic  conquer- 
ora  wliich  a  timely  imion  of  strength  might  liavc 
lireventod.  Stephan  Dushan  conquered,  but  did 
not  consolidate:  and  his  scourging  wars  were  in- 
suflleiently  balanced  by  the  advantage  of  the 
cotlo  of  laws  to  which  he  gave  his  name.  His 
son  Urosh,  b'  ing  a  weak  and  incapable  prince, 
was  murdered  by  one  of  the  generals  of  the 
army,  and  thus  ended  the  Neman  dynasty,  after 
havuig  subsisted  313  years,  and  produced  eight 
kiu-^s  and  two  cmijorors.  The  crown  now  de- 
volved on  Knes,  or  Prince  Lasar,  a  connexion  of 
the  house  of  Neman.  ...  Of  all  the  ancient 
rulers  of  the  country,  his  memory  is  liold  the 
dearest  by  the  Servians  of  the  jiresont  d;iy." 
Knes  Lasar  perished  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Ivos- 
.sovo,  and  with  liim  fell  the  Servian  monarchy 
(see  TuuKS:  A.  D.  1300-1389,  1403-1451,  anU 
1459;  also  Mo:;tenkoho).  "The  Turkish  con- 
quest was  followed  by  the  gradual  dispersion  or 
(lisappeanmce  of  the  native  nobility  of  Servia, 
tlie  last  of  whom,  the  Brankovitch,  lived  as 
'  despots '  in  the  castle  of  Semoudria  up  to  the 
l-iginning  of  the  18th  century.  .  .  .  The  period 
lirocoding  the  second  siege  of  Vienna  was  tlie 
spring-tide  of  Islam  conquest.  After  this  event, 
in  1684,  began  the  ebb.  Hungary  was  lost  to 
the  Porte,  and  six  years  afterwards  37,000  Ser- 
vian fap'ilies  emigi  -ted  into  that  kingdom ;  this 
first  led  the  way  to  ccntact  with  the  civilization 
of  Germany.  .  .  .  Seivia  Proper,  for : a  short 
time  wrested  from  the  Porte  by  the  victories  of 
Prince  Eugene,  again  became  a  part  of  tlie  do- 
minions of  the  Sultan  [see  Russia:  A.  D.  1739]. 
But  a  turbulent  militia  overawed  the  govern- 
ment and  tyrannized  over  the  Rayahs.  Pasvan 
Oglou  and  his  bauds  at  Widdin  were,  at  the  end 
of  the  last  century,  in  open  revolt  against  the 
Porte.  Otlier  chiefs  liad  followed  liis  example ; 
and  for  the  first  time  the  Divan  thought  of 
associating  Christian  Rayahs  with  the  spaliis,  to 
put  down  these  rebels.  The  Daliis,  as  these 
brigand-chiefs  were  called,  resolved  to  anticipate 
the  approaching  struggle  by  a  massacre  of  tho 


250 


BALKAN  AND  BANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


most  influential  Cliristiiins.  This  nlrooious  nms- 
siirrc  was  ciirriod  out  witli  indcscribiiljlo  liorrors. 
.  .  .  Kiira  Qt'org  [Black  Georj^i'],  a  peasant, 
born  at  ToDola  about  the  year  1707,  Kfttinfr 
timely  information  tliat  his  name  was  in  tin;  list 
of  the  (loomed,  tied  into  tlie  woods,  and  gradu- 
ally orjranized  a  formidable  force.  In  tlie  rame 
ofthePorIc  lie  cond)ated  the  Dahis,  wlio  liad 
usurped  local  autliority  in  defiance  of  tlie  I'aslia 
of  Belgrade.  Tlie  Divan,  little  anticipating  tlie 
idtimate  is.stio  of  tlie  struggle  in  iServia,  was  at 
first  deliglited  at  tlie  siiccess  of  Kara  Georg;  but 
soon  sjiw  witli  constLrnation  that  tlieri.sing  of  tlic 
Servian  peasants  grew  into  a  formidalilc  rebellion, 
and  ordered  tlie  I'aslias  of  Bosnia  and  Scodra  to 
assemble  all  thei  disposable  forces  and  invade 
Scrvia.  Between  40,000  ai.d  .")0,000  Bosniac 
burst  into  Scrvia  on  the  west,  in  the  spring  of 
1800,  catting  to  pieces  all  who  refu.sed  to  receive 
Turkish  authority.  Kara  (Jcorg  undauntedly 
met  the  storm,"  defeating  'the  Turkish  forces 
near  Tchoupria,  September,  1804,  and  more 
severely  two  years  later  (August.  1800)  at  Slia- 
batz.  In  December  of  the  same  year  he  surprised 
and  took  Belgrade.  "The  succeeding  years  were 
passed  in  the  vicissitudes  of  a  guerilla  warfar.i, 
neither  party  obtaining  any  marked  success;  and 
an  au.xdiary  corps  of  Uiissians  assisted  in  pre- 
venting the  Turks  from  making  the  re-coiKjuest 
of  Scrvia.  .  .  .  Kara  Georg  was  now  a  Russian 
lieutenant-general,  and  exercised  an  almost  un- 
limited power  in  Scrvia;  the  revolution,  after  a 
struggle  of  eight  years,  api)cared  to  be  .success- 
ful, but  the  momeiitous  events  then  passing  in 
Europe  completely  altered  the  aspect  of  affairs. 
Russia,  in  1813,  on  the  approach  of  ihe  countless 
legions  of  Napoleon,  precipitately  concluded  the 
treaty  of  Bucharest,  the  eighth  article  of  wlii( :!i 
foriually  assured  a  separate  administration  to  the 
Servians.  Next  year,  however,  was  fatal  to 
Kara  Georg.  In  18l;J,  the  vigour  of  the  Otto- 
man cmpir  .  .  .  was  now  concentrated  on  the 
resubjugation  of  Seri  ■'a.  A  general  panic  .seemed 
to  seize  the  nation;  and  Kara  Geor),  and  his 
companions  in  arms  sought  a  retreat  on  the  A\is- 
trian  territory,  and  thence  passed  into  Wallachia. 
In  1814,  300  Christians  wereimjinled  at  Belgrade 
by  the  Pasha,  and  every  valley  in  Scrvia  pre- 
sented the  spectacle  of  infuriated  Turkish  spahis 
avenging  on  the  Servians  the  blood,  exile  and 
confiscation  of  the  ten  ])receding  years.  At  this 
period,  Jlilosh  Obrenovitch  api)ears  iironiinently 
on  the  political  tapis,  lie  spent  his  youth  in 
herding  the  famed  swine  of  Scrvia;  and  during 
the  revolution  was  employed  by  Kara  Georg  to 
watch  the  ]iasses  of  the  Balkans.  .  .  .  lie  now 
saw  that  a  favourable  conjuncture  had  come  for 
his  advancement  from  the  positio;i  of  cliieftain 
to  that  of  chief;  he  therefore  lost  no  time  in 
making  terms  with  the  Turks,  offering  to  collect 
the  tribute,  to  serve  them  faithfully,  and  to  aid 
them  in  the  resubjugation  of  the  people.  .  .  . 
He  now  displayed  singular  activity  in  the  ex- 
tirpation of  all  the  other  popular  chief.s,"  until 
lie  found  reason  to  suspect  that  the  Turks  were 
only  using  him  to  destroy  him  in  the  end.  Then, 
in  1815,  Tie  turned  upon  them  and  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt.  The  movement  which  he 
headed  was  so  formidable  that  the  Porto  made 
liaste  to  treat,  and  Milosch  made  favvnirable 
terms  for  himself,  being  reinstated  as  tribute- 
collector.  "Many  of  the  chiefs,  impatient  at 
the  speedy  submission  of  Milosh,  wished  to  flght 

17 


the  matter  out,  and  Kara  Georg,  in  order  to  give 
effect  to  tlieir  i)laiis,  landed  in  Scrvia.  iMilosh 
pretemled  to  he  friendly  to  his  designs,  but 
secretly  betrayed  his  place  of  concealment  to  the 
governor,  whose  men  brok(!  into  the  cottage 
where  lie  .slejjf,  and  |)ut  him  to  death." — A.  A. 
Paton,  KiDiiuv/iiK  on  the  Ihumlie  iiiiil  the  Ailriatic, 
Ilk.  1,  (•/(.;!.  —  "In  1817  Milosch  was  proclaimed 
hereditary  Prince  of  Scrvia  by  the  National 
As.sembly.  ...  In  1830  the  autonomy  of  Scrvia 
was  at  length  .solemnly  rceogni/ed  by  the  Porte, 
and  Miloscli  proclaimed  '  the  father  of  the  Father- 
land.'. .  .  If  asked  why  the  desceiulants  of  M'l- 
os  1'  still  rule  over  Scrvia,  am',  not  tlic  dcsceuil- 
nnts  of  Kara  George,  my  answer  is  that  every 
step  in  Servian  progress  is  connected  witli  the 
(ibrenovitcli  dynasty.  The  liberation  of  the 
country,  the  creation  of  a  juNisant  jiroprietary, 
the  filial  withdrawal  of  tlie  Turkish  troops  from 
Belgrade  in  1803,  tlie  independence  of  the 
country,  the  extension  of  its  territory,  and  tlie 
making  of  its  railways, —  all  of  these  are  among 
the  results  of  Obrenovitch  rule.  The  founder  of 
the  dynasty  had  in  1830  a  great  opportunitv  of 
making  his  people  free  as  well  as  independent. 
But  Milosch  hi'd  lived  too  long  with  Turks  to  be 
a  lover  of  freedom.  ...  In  1839  Milo.scli  ab- 
dicated. The  reason  for  this  step  was  that  he- 
refused  to  accept  a  constitution  which  Hu.ssia 
and  Turkey  concocted  for  him.  Tliis  charter 
vested  the  actual  government  of  the  country  in 
a  Senate  comjiosed  of  Miloseh's  rivals,  and  en- 
tirely independent  of  that  Prince.  ...  It  was 
anti-democratic,  no  less  tlian  anti-dynastic.  Jlil- 
oscli  was  succeeded  first  by  liis  son  Milan,  and 
on  Jlilan's  deatli  by  Michael.  Micliacl  was  too 
gentle  for  the  troubled  times  in  which  lie  lived, 
and  after  a  two  years's  reign  lie  too  started  upon 
his  travels.  .  .  .  When  Micliacl  crossed  the  Save, 
A  lexander  Kara  Georgevitcli  was  elected  Prince 
of  Servia.  F.om  1843  to  18r)8  the  son  of  Black 
George  lived  —  he  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
reigned  —  in  Belgrade.  During  these  17  years 
this  feeble  son  of  a  strong  man  did  absolutely 
nothing  for  liis  country.  .  .  .  Late  in  1858  lie 
fled  from  Servia,  and  >lilosch  ruled  in  his  stead. 
Milosch  is  the  Grand  Old  Man  of  Serb  history. 
His  mere  presence  in  Scrvia  cliccked  the  in- 
trigues of  foreign  powers.  lie  died  peacefully  in 
his  bed.  .  .  .  Slicliacl  succeeded  his  father.  .  .  . 
Prince  Micliacl  was  murdered  by  convicts  in  the 
park  at  Topschidera  near  Belgrade."  lie  "was 
succeeded  (1808)  by  Milan,  the  grandson  of  Ze- 
lihrem,  the  brotlicr  of  Milosch.  As  Milan  was 
barely  fourtec^n  years  of  age,  a  Regency  of  three 
was  api)ointcd." — J.  G.  C.  Jlincliin,  Seirin  and 
Montenegro  {Nntionid  Life  diul  Thout/ht,  leet.  19). 

Ai.so  IN:  E.  de  Luvelcye,  The  lidlhni  I'cnin- 
siilfi,  eh.  0. 

A.  O.  1718  (Bosnia). — A  part  ceded  to  Aus- 
tria by  the  Turks.  See  IIuno.\uv:  A.  I).  1099- 
1718. 

A.  D.  1739  (Bosnia  and  Roumania). — Entire 
restoration  of  Bosnia  to  the  Turks,  and  Ces- 
sion of  Austrian  Wallachia.  See  Russia:  A.  D. 
1725-1739. 

19th  Century  (Roumania  Jtnd  Servia). — 
Awakening  of  a  National  Spirit.— The  effect 
of  historical  teaching. — "No  political  fact  is  of 
inort!  importance  and  interest  in  modern  conti- 
nental history  than  the  tenacity  with  which  the 
smaller  nations  of  Europe  jireserve  their  pride  of 
nationality  in  the  face  of  the  growing  tendency 


251 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STAT:3S. 


lowiiids  the  fi)rinnli(m  (if  liirgc,  strniiKly  cm- 
fciitnilt'di'inpircs,  suppdi'lcd  by  pDWcmil  armies. 
Why  HliDiild  I'nrtugal  utterly  refuse  to  unite 
with  Spain?  Wliy  do  Holland  and  Belgium 
cling  to  their  existence  as  separate  States,  in 
spite  of  all  IheefTorts  of  .statesmen  to  join  them  1 
Why  do  the  people  of  Bohemia  and  C^roalia, 
of  Finland,  and  >f  Polani!,  refuse  to  ('oalesee 
with  the  rest  of  the  ixiniil.ition  of  tlie  em- 
pires of  v.hich  they  form  hut  small  sections? 
Why,  linally,  <lo  the  new  kingdoms  of  Houmania 
and'Servia  show  such  astonishing  vitality  V  Tlic 
arguments  as  to  distinctive  race  or  distinctive 
lHnguag(.' fail  to  answer  all  these  (piestions.  .  .  . 
This  rekindling  of  the  nati(mal  spirit  is  the  result 
chiefly  of  the  (levelopnient  of  tlie  new  historical 
school  all  over  the  Continent.  Instead  of  remain- 
ing in  ignorance  of  their  pa.st  history,  or,  at 
l)e8t,  regarding  u  mass  of  legends  as  containing 
the  true  talc  of  their  countries'  •ichievcmenls, 
these  small  nations  have  now  learnt  from  the 
works  of  their  great  historians  what  the  story 
of  their  fatlierlands  really  is,  and  what  title  they 
have  to  be  proud  of  their  ancestors.  These  great 
historians — llerctdano,  Palacky,  Szuchenyi,  and 
the  rest  —  wlio  made  it  their  aim  to  tell  the  truth 
aud  l..^t  to  sliow  off  the  beauties  of  a  tine  literary 
style,  all  belonged  to  the  generation  winch  had  its 
interest  aroused  in  the  history  of  the  past  by  tlic 
novels  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  the  iiroductions  of 
tlie  Romantic  School,  and  they  all  learnt  how 
history  was  to  be  studied,  and  tiien  written,  from 
Nielmhr,  Von  Banke  and  their  disciples  and  fol- 
lowers. From  these  masters  tlicy  learnt  that 
their  Instories  were  not  to  be  mad'.'  interesting  at 
the  expense  of  truth.  .  .  .  The  vitality  of  the 
new  historical  .school  in  Uouimuila  is  particularly 
remarkable,  for  in  the  Dai'.ubian  jjrovinces, 
which  form  that  kingdom,  ccn  more  strenuous 
efforts  had  been  made  to  stamp  out  the  national 
spirit  than  in  Boliemia,  The  e.Mraordinary 
rapidity  with  which  the  .{oumanian  ])eople  has 
rea.ss<!rted  itself  in  recent  y. 'ars,  isoneof  the  most 
remarkable  facts  in  m(xlern  European  history, 
aud  it  is  largely  due  to  the  labours  of  its  histor- 
.luis.  Up  till  1833  the  Roumanian  language  was 
vigorously  proscribed ;  the  rulers  of  the  Danubiau 
provinces  permitted  instruction  to  the  upper 
cluisses  in  the  language  of  the  rulers  (mly.  and 
while  Slavonic,  anl  in  the  days  of  the  Phanariots 
Greek,  was  the  oflicial  and  fashional)le  language, 
used  in  educating  the  nobility  and  bourgeois, 
the  pcitsants  were  left  in  ignorance.  Four  men, 
wnose  names  deserve  record,  tiret  endeavoured 
to  raise  the  Roumanian  language  to  a  literary 
level,  and  not  only  studied  IJoumanian  history, 
but  tried  to  teach  the  Roumanian  people  some- 
thing of  their  own  early  history.  Of  these  four, 
George  SchinkaY  was  by  far  the  most  remark- 
able, lie  was  an  inhabitjint  of  Tmnsylvania,  a 
Roumanian  province  which  still  remains  subject 
to  Hungary,  and  he  lirst  thought  of  trying  to 
revive  the  Roiunanian  "nationality  by  teaching 
t/ic  people  their  history.  He  arranged  the  amials 
of  his  country  from  A.  D.  80  to  A.  '>.  1739  with 
indefiitigaJ)le  hdniur,  during  the  last  .iilf  of  the 
18th  century,  ami,  according  to  Edgar  Quiuct, 
in  such  a  trulj-  nyKlcni  manner,  after  such  care- 
ful weighing  of  originid  autlM>rities,  aud  with 
such  critical  power,  that  he  deserves  tc  be  ranV.cd 
with  the  (treators  of  the  modern  historical  sch'Md. 
It  need  hardly  lie  sakl  that  SchinkaYs  His'  /ry 
was  not  allowed  to  \xi  priatcd  by  the  Hungarian 


authorities,  who  had  no  desire  to  see  the  .'Rou- 
manian nationality  re-as.sert  itself,  and  the  ceiisor 
marked  on  it  'opus  igue,  auctorpatibulodignus. ' 
It  was  not  published  tmtil  1H.");J,  more  than  forty 
years  after  its  completion,  andtlien  only  al.Ta.ssy, 
"for  the  Hun';ari  ins  still  proscri'oed  it  in  Transyl- 
vania. Si'hinkal's  friend,  Peter  .Major,  was  more 
fortunat(Mii  his  work,  a  '  History  of  the  Origin 
of  the  Roumanians  in  Dacia,'  which,  as  it  did 
not  touch  (m  modern  society,  was  jiassed  by  tlio 
Hungarian  censorsliip,  and  printed  at  Buda 
instil  in  181!t.  The  two  men  who  llrst  taught 
Roumanian  history  in  the  provinces  which  now 
form  the  kin.gdoni  of  Roumania  were  not  such 
learned  men  as  SchinkaV  an<l  Peter  Major,  but 
their  work  was  of  more  practical  importance. 
In  IHlli  George  Asaky  got  leave  to  open  a  Rou- 
manian class  at  the  Greek  Academy  of  Jassy, 
under  the  pret(t.\t  that  it  was  necessary  to  teacli 
surveying  in  the  Roumanian  tongue,  because  of 
the  (piesiions  whicli  c(aistantly  arose  in  that  pro- 
fession, in  which  it  would  bo  neces.sary  to  .s])eak 
to  the  ijcasants  in  their  own  language,  and  in 
his  lectunis  he  carefully  inserted  lessons  in  Rou- 
mnnian  history,  and  tried  to  irousc  the  spirit  of 
the  people.  George  Lazarus  imitated  him  at 
Bucharest  in  1810,  and  the  fruit  of  this  instruc- 
tion was  seen  when  the  Roumanians  partially  re- 
gained their  freedom.  The  Moldo-Waliachian 
princes  encouraged  the  teaching  of  Roumanian 
idstory,  as  they  encouraged  the  growth  of  the 
spirit  of  Roumanian  independence,  and  when  the 
Roumanian  Academy  was  founded,  an  historical 
section  was  formed  with  the  special  mission  of 
studying  and  publishin.g  documents  connected 
with  Rouniaiuan  history.  The  modern  scientitic 
spirit  has  spread  widely  throughout  the  king- 
dom."— II.  Morse  Stephens,  Modern  Jlistoii  'Ui 
ami  Hmall  Nationalities  (ConttMp.  Rev.,  July, 
1887). 

A.  D.  1829  (Roumania,  or  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia).  —  Important  provisions  of  the 
Treaty  of  Adrianople. — Life  Election  of  the 
Hospodars. — Substantial  independence  of  the 
Turk.     See  Tuiiks:  A.  1).  182«-183!). 

A.  D.  X856  (Roumania,  or  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia). — Privileges  guaranteed  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris.     See  Russi.v:  A.  I).  IHnt-lH.jO. 

A.  D.  1858-1866.— (Roumania  or  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia). — Union  of  the  two  provinces 
under  one  Crowrn. —  Accession  of  Prince 
Charles  of  Hohenzollern.  See  Tuuks:  A.  I). 
18()1-1877. 

A.  D.  1875-1878.— The  Breaking  of  the 
Turkish  yoke. — Bulgarian  atrocities. — Russo- 
Turkish  War.-— In  1875,  a  re\olt  broke  out  in 
Herzegovina.  "The  efforts  made  to  suppress 
the  growing  revolt  strained  the  already  weakened 
resources  of  the  Porte,  until  tliev  could  bear  up 
against  it  no  longer,  and  the  lierzegovinese  re- 
bellion proved  tlie  last  straw  which  broke  the 
back  of  Turkish  solvency.  .  .  .  The  liojies  of 
the  insurgents  were  of  course  quickened  by  tliis 
catastroidie,  wliich,  as  they  saw,  would  alienate 
much  sympathy  from  the  Turks.  The  advisers 
of  the  Sultan,  tlicrefo'o,  thought  it  necessary  to 
be  conciliatory,  and  .  .  .  they  induced  him  to 
i-ssiie  an  Inule,  or  circular  note,  promising  tlie  re- 
mission of  taxes,  and  economical  am!  social 
reforms.  .  .  .  Europe,  however,  had  grown  tired 
of  the  Porte's  promises  of  amemlment,  and  for 
some  time  the  Imperial  Powers  liad  been  laying 
their  heails  togetlier,  and  the  result  of  tlicir  con- 


}52 


UALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN'  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


sultatioiis  WHS  the  Aiulnissy  Note.  The  iliito  of 
this  (lociiinent  wiis  DfccinbtT  !10tli,  1^75,  mid  it 
WHS  scut  to  tliosu  of  tlie  Wt'steni  Powers  who 
liiul  signed  tlie  treaties  of  185(5.  It  dechired  tlmt 
iiltlioujjh  tlie  spirit  of  llie  suggested  reforms  was 
good,  tliere  was  some  doiil)t  whetlier  tlic  I'orU^ 
had  the  strcngtli  to  carry  tliem  out;  Count  An- 
drassy,  tlierefore,  projiosed  tliat  tlie  o.xccutioii 
of  tlie  iieee.s.sar}'  measures  should  be  placed  under 
the  care  of  a  special  commission,  half  the  mem- 
bers of  which  should  be  Mu.ssuhiiaiis  and  half 
Christians.  .  .  .  It  concluded  with  a. serious  warn- 
ing, that  if  the  war  was  not  gone  witli  the  snow, 
'  the  Governmcuts  of  Sijrvia  and  .Montenegro, 
rt'liich  have  lia<l  great  dillleulty  in  keeping  aloof 
from  the  movement,  will  be  unable  to  resist  the 
current.'.  .  .  It  was  evident,  however,  that  this 
note  would  have  but  little  or  no  ellect;  it  con- 
tained no  coercive  precautions,  and  accordingly 
the  Porte  quietly  allowed  the  (juestion  to  drop, 
and  contented  liiinself  with  profuse  promises. 
.  .  .  So  affairs  drifted  on;  the  little  war  continued 
to  sputter  on  the  frontier;  reinforced  by  Servians 
and  Montenegrins,  the  ilcrzegovinese  succeeded 
in  keeping  their  enemy  at  bay,  and,  instigated,  it 
is  saicl,  by  Russian  emissaries,  put  forward  de- 
mauds  whicli  the  Porte  was  unable  to  accept. 
.  .  .  The  Powers,  in  no  wise  disconcerted  by  the 
failure  of  their  first  attempt  to  settle  the  dittl- 
culties  between  the  Sultan  and  his  rebellious  sub- 
jects, had  published  a  sequel  to  the  Andrassy 
Note.  There  was  an  informal  conference  of  the 
three  Imperial  Chancellors,  Prince  Bismarck, 
Prince  Qortschakoff,  and  Count  Andrassy,  at 
Berlin,  in  JIay.  .  .  .  Then  on  3Iay  IfJth  the  Am- 
bassadors of  England,  France,  and  Italy  were 
invited  to  Prince  Bismarck's  house,  and  the  text 
of  the  famous  Berlin  Memorandum  was  laid  be- 
fore them.  .  .  .  While  the  three  Chancellors 
were  forging  their  diplomatic  thunderbolt,  a 
catastroplie  of  such  a  terrible  nature  had  occurred 
in  the  interior  of  Turkey  that  all  talk  of  armis- 
tices and  mixed  coinmissions  had  become  stale 
and  unprofitable.  The  Berlin  ^Memorandum  was 
not  even  presented  to  the  Porte ;  for  a  rumour, 
though  carefully  suppressed  by  Turkish  olHcials, 
was  beginning  to  leak  out  that  there  had  been  an 
insurrection  of  the  Christian  population  of  Bul- 
garia, and  that  the  most  horrible  atrocities  had 
been  committed  by  the  Turkish  irregular  troops 
in  its  suppression.  It  was  communicated  to  Lord 
Derby  by  Sir  Henry  Elliot  on  the  4th  of  JIay. 
...  On  June  Iflth  a  letter  was  received  from 
him  at  the  Foreign  Ottice,  saying,  '  The  Bul- 
garian insurrection  appears  to  be  unquestionably 
put  down,  although  I  regret  to  say,  with  cruelty, 
and,  in  some  places,  with  brutality. ' .  .  .  A  week 
afterwards  the  Constantinople  correspondent  of 
the  Daily  News  .  .  .  gave  the  estimates  of  Bul- 
garians slain  as  varying  from  18,000  to  30,000, 
and  the  number  of  villages  destroyed  at  about  a 
hundred.  .  .  .  That  there  was  much  truth  in  the 
statements  of  the  newspaper  correspondents  was 
.  .  .  demonstrated  beyond  possibility  of  denial 
as  soon  as  Sir  Henry  Elliot's  despatches  were 
made  public.  ...  'I  am  satisfied,'  wrote  Sir 
Henry  Elliot,  '  that,  while  great  atrocities  have 
been  committed,  both  by  Turks  upon  Christiana 
and  Christians  upon  Turks,  the  former  have  been 
by  far  the  greatest,  although  the  Christians  were 
undoubtedly  the  first  to  commence  them.'  .  .  . 
Meanwhile,  the  Daily  News  had  resolved  on  send- 
ing out  a  special  commissioner  to  make  an  iuvesti- 


galioii  iiiilcpi  udciil  of  olUiial  reports.  Jlr.  .1.  A. 
5lac(iahaii,  an  American,  who  had  been  one  of 
that  journal's  correspondents  during  tlie  Franco- 
German  War,  was  the  person  selected.  He 
started  in  comiiany  with  Mr.  Eugeni!  Schuyler, 
the  great  authority  on  the  Central  Asian 
(luestion,  who,  in  the  capacity  of  Consul- 
General,  was  about  to  prepare  a  similar  state- 
ment for  the  Hon.  lIora<;e  .Mayiiard,  the  riiiled 
States  jMinisterat  Ccaistantiiiople.  They  arrived 
!  at  Pliilippopolis  on  the  Wtliof  .luly,  when  .Mr. 
<  Walter  Bariiiif,  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  the 
I  British  Legation  at  Constantinople,  was  already 
;  engaged  in  collecting  iiiforniati(ai.  The  first  of 
1  Mr.  .MacGahan's  letters  was  dated  .luly  the  28th, 
and  its  publication  in  this  country  revived  in  a 
i  nioinent  the  half-extiuct  excitt'iiunt  of  the  popu- 
lace. .  .  .  Perhaps  the  iiassage  whirli  was  u'-st 
frequently  in  men's  mouths  at  the  time  was  i.iat 
in  which  he  described  the  appearance  of  the 
mountain  village  of  Batak.  '  We  entered  the 
town.  On  ever'  side  were  skulls  luid  skeletons 
charred  anumg  the  ruins,  or  lying  entire  where 
they  fell  in  their  clothing.  There  were  skeletons 
of  girls  and  women,  with  long  brown  hair  hang- 
ing to  their  skulls.  We  approached  the  church. 
There  the.se  remains  were  more  frequent,  until 
the  ground  was  literally  covered  by  skeletons, 
skulls,  and  putrefying  bodies  in  clothing. 
Between  the  church  and  school  there  were 
heaps.  The  stench  was  fearful.  We  entered 
the  ciiurchyard.  The  sight  was  more  dreadful. 
The  whole  churchyard,  for  three  feet  deep,  was 
festering  with  dead  bodies,  i)artly  covered; 
hands,  legs,  arms,  and  heads  projecting  in 
ghastly  confusion.  I  saw  many  little  hands, 
heads,  and  feet  of  children  three  years  of  age, 
and  girls  with  heads  covered  with  beautiful 
hair.  The  church  was  still  worse.  The  floor 
was  covered  with  rotting  bodies  {juito  uncovered. 
I  never  imagined  anything  so  fearful.  .  .  .  The 
town  had  9,000  inhabitants.  There  now  remain 
1,200.  JIany  who  had  escaped  had  returned 
recently,  weeping  and  moaning  over  their  ruined 
homes.  Their  sorrowful  wailing  could  be  iieard 
half  a  mile  olT.  Some  were  digging  out  the 
skeletons  of  loved  ones.  A  woman  was  sitting 
moaning  over  three  small  skulls,  with  hair 
clinging  to  them,  which  she  had  in  her  hip. 
The  man  who  did  this,  Achmed  Agra,  has  been 
promoted,  and  is  still  governor  of  the  district.' 
An  exceeding  bitter  cry  of  horror  and  disgust 
arose  throughout  the  country  on  the  receipt  of 
this  terrible  news.  3Ir.  Anderson  at  once  asked 
for  information  on  the  subject,  and  Mr.  Bourke 
was  entrusted  with  the  dilUcult  duty  of  replying. 
Ho  could  only  read  a  letter  from  Jlr.  Baring,  in 
which  he  said  that,  as  far  as  he  had  been  able  to 
discover,  the  proportion  of  the  numbers  of  the 
slain  was  about  13,000  Bulgarians  to  500  Turks, 
and  that  00  villages  had  been  wholly  or  partially 
burnt.  .  .  .  Mr  Schuyler's  opinions  were,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  circumstance  that 
his  investigations  had  been  shorter  than  those  of 
Mr.  Baring,  and  that  ho  was  ignorant  of  the 
Turkish  Tanginige  —  which  is  that  cliietly 
spoken  in  Bulgaria  —  and  was  therefore  at  the 
mercy  of  his  interpreter,  the  more  liighly 
coloured.  He  totally  rejected  Lord  Beacons- 
field's  idea  that  there  had  been  a  civil  war,  and 
that  cruelties  had  been  committed  on  both  sides. 
On  the  contrary  he  asserted  that  '  the  insurgent 
villages  made  little  or  no  resistance.     In  iiiauy 


m 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


cases  they  siirrciulcred  tlicir  arms  on  tlic  llrst 
demand.  .  .  .  No  Tiirki.sli  woniei,  -)r  children 
were  killed  in  cold  l)l(Mid.  No  Mn.-is  iliimn 
women  were  violated.  No  Mii.ssiilmanc  were 
tortured.  No  purely  Turkish  villa(;e  was 
attacked  or  burnt.  No  Moscpic  was  desecrated 
or  destroyed.  The  llaslii-Hazouks,  on  the  other 
hand,  hail  liuriit  about  «.')  villages,  and  killed  at 
least  15,000  Buljiarians. '  Tlu^  terrible  story  of 
the  destruction  of  Hatak  was  told  in  lanRuajjc^  of 
|)recis<'Iy  similar  import  to  that  of  ,Mr.  .Slac- 
Gahan,  wlioso  narrative  the  American  Consul 
hiui  never  seen,  though  there  was  a  slight  dilTer- 
ence  in  the  numbei's  of  the  ma.ssacre<l.  'Of  the 
8,000  inhabitants,'  he  said,  'not  '2,000  are  known 
to  survive'.  .  .  .  Abdul  Aziz  had  l"t  loose  the 
hordes  oi  BashiBazouks  on  <lefenceless  Bul- 
garia, but  Murad  seenud  utterly  unable  to 
rectify  the  fatal  error;  the  proviiiee  fell  into  a 
state  of  complete  anarcliy.  ...  As  Lord  Derby 
reimu'ked,  it  was  impossible  to  effect  much  with 
an  imbecile  monarch  and  ba.ikrupt  treasury. 
One  thing,  at  any  rate,  tlie  Turks  were  strong 
enough  to  <lo,  and  that  was  to  <lefcat  the  Ser- 
vians, who  declared  war  on  Turkey  on  July  1st. 
.  .  .  Up  to  the  last  Prince  Milan  "declared  that 
his  intentions  were  purely  i)aeilic;  but  the 
Increa.sing  troubles  of  the  Porte  enabled  him, 
with  some  small  chance  of  success,  to  avail  liim- 
self  of  the  anti-Turkish  spirit  of  his  people  and 
to  declare  war.  His  example  was  followed  by 
Prince  Nikita  of  Montenegro,  who  set  out  with 
his  brave  little  army  from  Cettigne  on  July  2nd. 
At  first  it  appeared  as  if  the  principalities  would 
have  the  better  of  the  struggle.  The  Turkish 
generals  showed  their  usual  dilatoriness  in 
attacking  Servia,  and  Tchernaieir,  who  was  a 
man  of  considerable  military  talent,  gave  them 
the  good-bye,  and  cut  them  ofT  from  their  base  of 
operations.  This  success  was,  however,  tran- 
sitory; Abdul  Kerim,  the  Turkish  Conuuander- 
in-Chief,  drove  back  tlie  enemy  by  mere  force  of 
numbers,  and  by  the  end  of  the  month  he  was 
over  the  border,  jreaiiwhile,  the  hardy  ^Monte- 
negrins  had  been  consider;.  )ly  more  fortunate; 
but  their  victories  over  Mukhtar  Pasha  were  not 
sufficiently  important  to  effect  a  diversion.  The 
Servians  fell  back  from  all  their  positions  of 
defetice,  and  on  September  1st  received  a  most 
disastrous  beating  before  the  walls  of  Ale.xinatz. 
.  .  .  On  September  10th  the  Porte  agreed  to  a 
8usj)ensi(m  of  hostilities  until  the  3."ilh.  It  must 
be  acknowledged  that  the  Servians  used  this 
period  of  grace  e.xceedingly  ill.  Prince  Milan 
was  procl;;imcd  by  General  Tchernaieff,  in  his 
absence  and  r-rainst  his  will,  King  of  Servia  and 
Bosnia;  and  though,  on  the  remonstrance  of  the 
Powers,  he  readily  consented  to  waive  the 
obnoxious  title,  the  evil  effect  of  the  declaration 
remained.  Lord  Derby's  propo.sals  for  peace, 
which  were  made  on  September  21st,  were 
nevertheless  accejited  by  the  Sultan  when  he  saw 
that  unanimity  prevailed  among  the  Powers, 
and  he  offered  in  addition  to  prolong  the  formal 
suspension  of  hostilities  to  October  3nd.  This 
offer  the  Servians,  relying  on  the  Russian  volun- 
teers who  were  flocking  to  join  Tcliernaieff, 
rejected  with  some  contempt,  and  hostilities 
were  resumed.  They  paid  dearly  for  their 
temerity.  Tchernaielf's  position  before  Alex- 
iniitz  was  forced  by  the  Turks  after  three  days' 
severe  fighting;  position  after  position  yielded 
to  them ;  ou  October  31st  Alexiuatz  was  taken, 


and  Delif<rad  was  occupied  on  November  1st, 
Nothing  remained  betwcf  n  the  outpost  of  the 
crescent  and  Belgrade,  and  it  .seemed  as  if  tho 
new  Kingdom  of  Servia  must  perish  in  the  throes- 
of  its  birth."  Russia  now  invoked  the  inter- 
vention of  the  powers,  and  brought  about  a  con- 
ference at  Constantinople,  which  effected 
nothing,  the  Porte  rejecting  all  the  proposals 
submitted.  On  the  24th  of  April,  1877,  Russia 
declared  war  and  entered  upon  a  conflict  with 
the  Turks,  which  had  for  its  result  the  readjust- 
ment of  affairs  in  South-eastern  Europe  by  the 
Congress  and  Treaty  of  Berlin. — Ciikik'II'h  [Uiih- 
tr<U((l  llhtorii  of  h'lii/ldiid,  r.  10,  '■//.  22-23.— Sec 
TruKS:  A.  I).  1877-1878,  and  1878. 

A.  D.  1878.— Treaty  of  Berlin.— Transfer  of 
Bosnia  to  Austria. — Independence  of  Servia, 
Montenegro  and  Roumania. — Division  and 
semi-independence  of  Bulgaria. — "(t)  Bosnia, 
including  Herzegovina,  was  assigned  to  Austria 
for  pcnnanent  occupation.  Thus  Turkey  lost  a 
great  province  of  nearly  1,250,000  inhabitants. 
Of  these  about  500,000  were  Christians  of  tho 
Greek  Church,  4.')0,000  were  Jlohammedana, 
mainlj'  in  the  towns,  who  offered  a  stout  resist- 
ance to  tlie  Austrian  troops,  and  200,000  Roman 
Catholics  By  the  occupation  of  the  Novi-Baznr 
district  Austria  wedged  in  her  forces  between 
Montenegro  and  Servia,  and  was  also  able  to- 
keep  watch  over  the  turbulent  province  of  Mace- 
donia. (2)  Jlontenegro  rePeived  less  than  the- 
San  Stefano  terms  had  i)romiscd  her,  but  secured 
the  s(  aports  of  Anti  vari  and  Dulcigno.  It  needed 
a  demonstration  of  the  European  fleets  off  tho 
latter  port,  and  a  threat  to  seize  Smyrna,  to  make 
the  Turks  yield  Dulcigno  to  the  Montencgrians 
(who  alone  of  all  the  Christian  races  of  the  penin- 
sula had  never  been  coiKpiered  by  tho  Turks). 
(3)  Servia  was  proclaimed  an  independent  Prin- 
cipality, and  received  the  district  of  Old  Servia 
on  tho  upper  valley  of  the  Jlorava.  (4)  Rou- 
mania also  gaiii.'d  her  independenco  and  ceased 
to  pay  any  tribute  to  the  Porte,  but  had  to  jjivo 
up  to  her  Russian  benefactors  the  slice  aciiuired 
from  Russia  in  1850  between  the  Prutli  and  tho 
northern  mouth  of  the  Danube.  In  return  for 
this  sacrifice  she  gained  tlie  large  but  marshy 
Dobnidscha  district  from  Bulgaria,  and  so  ac- 
(juired  the  port  of  Kustendjo  on  the  Black  Sea. 
(5)  Bulgaria,  which,  according  totlw  rin  Stefano 
terms,  would  have  been  an  indepeiKkiit  State  as 
large  as  Roumania,  was  by  the  Berlin  Treaty 
subjected  to  the  suzerainty  of  tlie  sultan,  divided 
into  two  jiarts,  and  confined  witliin  much  nar- 
rower limits.  Besides  the  Dobrudscha,  it  lost 
the  northern  or  Bulgarian  part  of  Alacedonia,  and 
the  Bulgarians  who  dwelt  between  the  Balkans 
and  Adrianople  were  separated  from  their  kins- 
folk on  the  north  of  the  Balkans,  in  a  province 
called  Eastern  Roumclia,  with  Philippopolis  as 
capital.  Tho  latter  province  was  to  remain  Turk- 
ish, under  aChristain  governor  nominated  by  the- 
Porte  with  the  cons;!nt  of  the  Powers.  Turkey 
was  allowed  to  occupy  the  passes  of  the  Balkans 
ill  time  of  war." — J.  11.  Rose,  A  CeiUuri/  of  C(«i.- 
tinental  IlUtovy,  c/i.  43.— See  Tukks:  A.  D.  1878. 

Also  in:  E.  Hc.'tslet,  The  Map  of  Europe  by 
Treaty,  r.  4,  ms.  518,  534-533. 

A.  D.  1878-1891.— Proposed  Balkan  Con- 
federation and  its  aims. — "  During  the  reaction 
against  Russia  wliich  followed  the  great  war  of 
1878,  negotiatians  were  actually  set  on  foot  with 
a  view  to  forming  a  combination  of  the  Balkan 


254 


BALKAN  AND  DANUHIAN  STATES. 


BALXAN  AND  DANUBIAN  STATES. 


StntfiS  for  the  piirpose  of  rcflisting  Ruasinn  nffgrcs- 
sion.  .  .  .  Prinro  Alcxiiiidcr  iilwiiys  favoiiri'd 
the  idea  of  ii  Hidkiin  (^jiifedcrtitioii  wliicli  wiis 
to  include  Turlicy ;  uiiil  even  listened  to  proposals 
on  the  piirtof  Greece,  (h'tlninjj  the  Biiljjrtriaii  and 
Greek  spheres  of  intiuence  in  .Macedonia.  But 
the  revolt  of  Eastern  Uounielia,  followed  by  the 
Hervo-l!iil;rarian  war  and  the  clui.stisement  of 
Greece  by  the  Powers,  provoked  so  much  bitter- 
ness of  feelintt  among  the  rival  races  that  for 
many  years  nothini;  more  was  heard  of  a  Balkan 
Confederation.  Tlie  idea  lias  lately  been  revived 
under  dilTerent  auspices  and  with  somewhat  dif- 
ferent aims.  Durinj;  the  past  si.v  years  the 
Triple  Alliance,  with  England,  has,  despite  the 
indilTerenee  of  Prince  Bismarck,  protected  the 
Balkan  States  in  general,  and  Biilgiria  in  par- 
ticular from  the  armed  intervention  of  Russia.  It 
has  also  acted  the  part  of  i)oliceman  in  ])reserv- 
ing  the  peace  throughout  tin-  Peninsula,  and  in 
deterring  the  young  nations  from  any  dangerous 
Indulgence  in  tluir  angry  jjassion.s.  Tlie  most 
remarkable  feature  in  the  history  of  this  period 
has  been  the  extraordinary  ])rogress  made  by 
Bulgaria.  Since  the  revolt  of  Eastern  Roumelia, 
Bulgaria  lias  been  treated  by  Dame  Europa  as  a 
naughty  child.  But  the  Bulgarians  hav(!  been 
shrewd  enough  to  .sec  that  Mie  Oentral  Powers 
and  England  have  an  interest  in  their  national 
independence  and  consolidation;  they  have  re- 
cognised the  truth  that  fortune  favours  those 
who  help  themselves,  and  they  have  boldly  taken 
their  own  course,  while  carefully  avoiding  any 
breach  of  the  proprieties  such  as  might  again 
b:  ing  them  under  the  censure  of  the  European 
Ar(-op';gus.  They  ventured,  indeed,  to  elect  a 
Prince  of  their  own  choosing  w"thout  the  sanc- 
tion of  that  a\igust  conclave ;  the  wiseacres  shook 
their  heads,  and  prophesied  tliat  Prince  Ferdi- 
nand's days  in  Bulgaria  might,  ])erliaps,  be  as 
many  as  Prince  Alexander's  years.  Yet  Prince 
Ferdinand  rf  mains  on  the  throne,  and  is  now  en- 
gaged in  celebrating  the  fourth  anniversary  of 
his  accession;  the  internal  development  of  the 
country  proceeds  ajjace,  and  the  progress  of  the 
Bulgarian  sentiment  outside  tlie  country  —  in 
other  words,  the  Macedonian  propaganda — is 
not  a  whit  behind.  The  Bulgarians  have  made 
their  greatest  strides  in  Slacedonia  since  the  fall 
of  Prince  Bismarck,  who  was  always  ready  to 
humour  Russia  at  the  expense  of  Bulgaria.  .  .  . 
Wliat  liapi)encd  after  the  great  war  of  1878  ?  A 
portion  of  the  Bulgarian  race  was  given  a  nomi- 
nal freedom  wliicli  was  never  expected  to  be  a 
reality;  Russia  pounced  on  Bessarabia,  England 
on  Cyprus,  Austria  on  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 
France  got  something  elsewhere,  but  ^liat  is 
another  mutter.  The  Bulgarians  have  never  for- 
given Lord  Beaconslield  for  the  division  of  their 
race,  and  I  have  seen  some  liitter  poems  upon  the 
great  Israelite  in  the  Bulgarian  tongue  ■v'vhich 
many  Englishmen  would  not  care  to  hear  trans- 
lated. The  Greeks  have  hated  us  since  our  occu- 
pation of  Cyprus,  and  tirmly  believe  that  we 
mean  to  take  Crete  as  well.  'The  Servians  have 
not  forgotten  how  Russia,  after  instigating  them 
to  two  disastrous  wars,  dealt  with  their  chiims 
at  San  Stefano ;  they  ^ annot  forgive  Austria  for 
her  occupation  of  B  aia  and  Herzegovina,  and 
every  Servian  peasant,  as  he  pays  his  heavy  taxes, 
or  reluctantly  gives  a  big  price  '  <  some  worth- 
less imported  article,  feels  the  galling  yoke  of 
her  fiscal  and  commercial  tyranny.    Need  it  be 


said  how  outraged  Bulgaria  scowls  at  Russia,  or 
how  Roumania,  who  won  Plevna  for  lu  r  heart- 
less allv,  weeps  for  lier  Bessarabian  <liildren, 
and  will  not  be  comforted  V  It  is  evident  that 
the  Balkan  peoples  have  no  reason  to  expect 
much  benetit  from  the  next  great  war,  from  the 
European  (.'onferenee  which  will  follow  it,  or 
from  the  sympathy  of  the  Christian  Pov.ers. 
.  .  .  What,  then,  do  the  authors  of  the  proposed 
Confederation  sugge  '  as  its  ullimate  aim  .md 
object'?  The  Balkan  States  are  to  act  independ 
ently  of  the  foreign  Powers,  and  in  concert  with 
one  another.  The  Sick  Man's  inherilanec  lies 
before  them,  and  they  are  to  take  it  when  an  op- 
l)ortunity  presents  itf^df.  They  must  not  wait 
for  the  great  Armageddon,  for  then  all  may  be 
lost.  If  the  Central  Powers  come  victorious  out 
of  the  conlliet,  Austria,  it  is  believed,  will  go  to 
Salonika;  if  Russia  con(|uers,  slii!  will  plant  her 
standard  at  Stamboul,  and  practically  annex  the 
Peninsulii.  In  either  case  the  hopes  of  the  young 
nations  will  be  destroyed  forever.  It  is,  there- 
fore, sought  to  extricate  a  portion  at  li'asl  of  the 
Eastern  Question  from  the  tangled  web  of 
European  politics,  to  isolate  it,  to  deal  with  it 
as  a  matter  wliidi  solely  concerns  the  Sick  Man 
and  his  imnii'diate  successors.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  Sick  Man  may  be  induced  by  the  determined 
attitude  of  his  expectant  heirs  to  make  over  to 
them  theirseveral  portions  in  his  lifetime;  should 
he  refuse,  they  must  act  in  concert,  and  provide 
eutliaimsia  for  tlie  moribund  owner  of  Macedonia, 
Crete,  and  Thrace.  In  other  words,  it  is  believed 
tliat  the  Balkan  States,  if  once  they  could  come 
to  an  understanding  as  regards  their  claims  to 
what  is  left  of  the  Uttonian  Empire  in  Europe, 
miglit  conjointly,  and  without  tlie  aid  of  any 
foreign  Power,  bring  such  pressure  to  bear  upon 
Turkey  as  to  induce  her  to  surrender  peaceably 
her  European  possessions,  and  to  content  herself 
henceforth  with  the  position  of  an  Asiatic  Power. " 
— J.  D.  Bourchier,  A  Biilkaii  Confederation 
(FortniuhtUi  lifvietn,  Sept.,  1891). 

A.  D.  1878-1886  (Bulg;aria) :  Reunion  of  the 
two  Bulgarias. — Hostility  of  Russia.— Vic- 
torious war  with  Servia.  — Abduction  and 
abdication  of  Prince  Alexander. — "The  Berlin 
Treaty,  by  cutting  Bulgaria  into  three  pieces, 
contrary  to  tlie  desire  of  her  inhabitants,  and 
with  utter  disregard  of  botli  geographical  and 
ethnical  litne.ss,  liad  jirepared  the  grouml  from 
wliicli  a  crop  of  never-euding  agitation  was 
inevitably  bound  to  spring  —  a  crop  wliicli  tlie 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano  would  have  ended  in  pre- 
venting. On  eitlier  siilc  of  the  Balkans,  botli  in 
Bulgaria  aud  in  Roumelia,  the  same  desire  for 
union  existed.  Both  parties  were  agreed  as  to 
this,  and  only  dilTered  as  to  the  means  by  which 
tlie  end  should  be  attained.  The  Liberals  were 
of  opinion  that  the  course  of  events  ought  to  be 
awaited ;  the  unionists,  on  tlie  otlicr  hand,  main- 
tained that  tliei  '  ould  be  challenged.  It  was 
a  few  individuiiio  .lelonging  to  the  latter  party 
and  acting  witli  M.  Karaveloff,  the  head  of  the 
Bulgarian  Cabinet,  wlio  prepared  and  successfully 
carried  out  tlie  revolution  of  September  18,  1885. 
So  unanimously  was  this  movement  supported  by 
the  whole  population,  including  even  the 
Slussiilmans,  that,it  was  accomplished  and  the 
union  proclaimed  without  the  least  resistance 
being  encountered,  and  without  the  shedding  of 
one  drop  of  blood  !  Prince  Alexander  was  in  no 
way  made  aware  of  what  was  in  preparation; 


255 


BALKAN  AND  DANUHIAN  STATES. 


BALKAN  AND  DANUBL\N  STATES. 


but  111'  kiuw  very  wiOl  thai  it  would  be  his  duty 
to  phici'  hijusi'lf  lit  the  licnd  of  iiny  iiationiil 
iiiovi'iiu'iit,  iind  ill  II  iH'iK  Iiuuiitioii  diitrd  tlu>  ItMli 
of  Scpti'iuticr.  mid  iidilivssi'd  from  Tiniova,  tlii' 
aiicii'iit  lapitiil.  lie  rrcoiniiii'iidi'd  union  and 
assuiniil  tlic  litli'  of  I'rinco  of  Nortli  anil  Soulli 
Huluaria,  'I'lii'  I'ortc  protrstrd  in  ii  ciiciilar. 
dated  tlio  2.'li(l  of  ScptcTiiln'r,  and  calliMJ  upon 
the  I'owcrs  who  liiid  sif;iii'd  tlii'  Trnily  of  Hciliii, 
to  I'lifoici'  till'  obsorvmici!  of  its  HtipulationM. 
On  till' l;ith  of  October,  the  Powcrn  colU'ctively 
declare  'lliatthey  eondenin  this  violation  of  the 
Troatv,  and  are  sure  that  tlie  Sultan  will  do  all 
that  lie  call,  consistently  with  lii.s  soverei^'ii 
rights.hefore  resortinj;  to  the  force  which  he  has 
at  his  disposal.'  From  tlie  nionieiit  when  there 
was  opposition  to  the  use  of  force,  whidievcii 
the  Porte  did  not  seem  in  a  hurry  to  employ,  the 
union  of  the  ;wo  Hulgarias  necessarily  became 
an  accomplished  fact.  .  .  .  Whilst  Enu:land  and 
Austria  both  accepted  the  union  of  the  two 
Bulgariiis  as  being  rendered  necessary  by  the 
position  of  affairs,  whilst  even  the  Porte  (although 
protesting)  was  resigned,  the  Kmperor  of  Ifiissia 
displiiyed  a  passionate  hostility  to  it,  not  at  all  in 
accorcl  with  the  feelings  of  the  Russian  nation. 
...  In  Uussia  they  hud  reckoned  upon  all  the 
liberties  guaranteed  by  the  (."onstitutiou  of 
Timova  becoming  so  many  causes  of  disorder 
and  anarchy,  instead  of  whicli  the  Bulgarians 
were  growing  accustomed  to  freedom.  Schools 
were  being  endowed,  the  countrv  was  progress- 
ing in  every  way,  and  thus  the  Bulgorians  were 
becoming  less  and  less  fitted  for  transformation 
into  llussian  subjects.  Their  lot  was  a  prefer- 
able one,  by  far,  to  that  of  the  people  of  Russia 
—  henceforth  they  would  refuse  to  accept  the 
Russian  yoke!  ...  If,  then,  Russia  wanted  to 
maintain  her  high-handed  policy  in  Bulgaria, 
she  must  oppose  the  union  and  hinder  the  con- 
solidation of  Bulgarian  nationality  by  every 
means  in  her  power ;  this  she  has  done  without 
scruple  of  any  sort  or  kind,  as  will  be  shown  by 
a  brief  epitome  of  what  has  happened  recently. 
Servia,  hoping  to  extend  her  territory  in  the 
direction  of  Tru  and  Widdin,  and,  pleading 
regard  for  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  and  the  theory  of 
the  balance  of  power,  attacks  Bulgaria.  On 
November  14th  [17th  to  19th?]  188,5,  Prince 
Mcxander  defends  the  Slivuitza  positions  [in  a 
throe  days'  battle]  with  admirable  courage  and 
strategic  skill.  1  he  Roumelian  militia,  coming 
in  by  forced  marches  of  unheard-of  length,  per- 
form prodigies  of  valour  in  the  field.  Within 
eight  days,  i.  e.,  from  the  20th  to  the  28th  of 
November,  the  Scirviiin  army,  far  greater  in 
numbers,  is  driven  back  into  its  own  territory ; 
the  I>ragonuin  Pass  is  crossed ;  Pirot  is  taken  by 
assault;  and  Prince  Alexander  is  marching  on 
Niscli,  when  his  victorious  progress  is  arrested 
by  the  Austrian  Jlinister,  under  threats  of  an 
armed  intervention  on  the  part  of  that  country  I 
On  December  21st,  an  armistice  is  concluded, 
afterwards  made  into  a  treaty  of  peace,  and 
signed  at  Bucharest  on  March  3rd  by  M. 
Miyatovitch  on  behalf  of  Servia,  by  :M.  GuechofI 
on  beholf  of  Bulgaria,  and  by  Aladgid  Pascha 
for  the  Sultan.  Prince  Alexander  did  all  he 
could  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  with  the 
Czar  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  attribute  to 
Russian  instructors  all  the  merit  of  the  victories 
he  had  just  won.  The  Czar  would  not  yield. 
Then  the  Prince  turned  to  the  Suit*  n,  and  with 


him  MUcceeded  In  coming  to  a  direct  understand- 
ing. The  I'rincc  was  to  be  nominated  (Jovernor- 
(k'lieral  of  RouiiH'lia;  a  mixed  Commission  wa.l 
to  meet  and  modify  tlie  Roiimeliiin  stututes; 
more  tlian  lliis.  the  Porte  was  .xmnu  to  iiliicu 
troops  at  his  (lispo.sal,  in  the  eveiil  of  his  being 
attacked.  .  .  .  From  tliat  date  the  Czar  sworo 
that  he  would  cause  Prince  Alexander's  down- 
lull.  It  was  said  that  Prince  Alexander  of 
Hiittenlierg  had  changed  into  a  sword  thesceptro 
which  Uussia  had  given  him  and  was  going  to 
turn  it  against  his  liencfactor.  Nothing  could 
he  more  untrue.  Up  to  the  very  last  moment, 
he  dill  everylhing  he  (iiiild  to  disarm  the  anger 
of  the  Czar,  but  what  was  wanted  from  him  was 
this  —  that  he  should  make  Bulgaria  an 
obedient  satellite  of  RiLss^a,  and  rather  than  con- 
sent to  do  so  he  left  Solia.  The  story  of  the 
Prince's  dethronement  by  Russian  intluence,  or, 
as  Lord  Salisbiirv  said,  by  Russian  gold,  is  well 
known.  A  humlful  of  malcontent  olllcers,  a  few 
cadets  of  the  fecole  Miiitaire,  and  some  of  Zan- 
kofT's  adherents,  banding  themselves  together, 
broke  into  the  palace  during  tlie  night  of  the 
21st  of  August,  seized  the  Prince,  and  had  him 
carried  olT,  without  escort,  to  Rahova  on  the 
Danube,  from  thence  to  Reni  in  Bessarabia, 
where  he  was  handed  over  to  the  Russians  1  The 
conspirators  endeavoured  to  form  a  government, 
but  the  whole  country  rose  against  them,  in 
spite  of  the  support  openly  given  them  by  M. 
Bogdanoff  the  Russian  diplomatic  agent.  On 
the  3rd  of  September,  a  fc'w  days  after  these 
occurrences,  Prince  Alexander  returned  to  his 
capital,  welcomed  home  by  the  acclamations  of 
the  whole  peojile ;  but  in  answer  to  a  respectful, 
not  to  say  too  humble,  telegram  in  which  he 
offered  to  re])lace  his  Crown  in  the  hands  of  the 
Czar,  that  i)oteutate  replied  that  he  ceased  to 
have  any  relations  with  Bulgaria  as  long  as 
Prince  Alexander  remained  there.  Owing  to 
advice  which  came,  no  iloubt,  from  Berlin, 
Prince  Alexander  decided  to  abdicate ;  he  did  so 
because  of  the  demands  of  the  Czar  and  in  the 
interests  of  Bulgaria." — E.  de  Laveleye,  T/i6 
Balkan  Peninnulit,  Introd. 

Also  in:  A.  Von  Iluhn,  Tlie  Struggle  of  tht 
liulgarianH. — J.  G.  C.  ^linchin,  Orowth  of  Free- 
dom ill  the  lialkun  Peninsula. — A.  Koch,  Princt 
Alexander  of  liattenberg. 

A.  D.  i8y9-i88c)  (Servia).— Quarrels  and 
divorce  of  King  Milan  and  Queen  Natalia. — 
Abdication  of  the  King.— "In  October,  1875. 
.  .  .  Aliliiii,  then  but  twenty -one  years  old,  mar- 
ried Natalia  Kechko,  herself  but  sixteen.  The 
present  Queen  was  the  daughter  of  a  Russian 
officer  and  of  the  Princess  Pulckerie  Stourdza. 
She,  as  little  as  her  husband,  had  been  born 
with  a  likelihood  to  sit  upon  the  throne,  and  a 
((uiet  burgher  education  had  been  hers  at  Odessa. 
But  even  here  her  great  beauty  attracted  notice, 
as  also  her  abilities,  her  ambition  and  her 
wealth.  ...  At  first  all  went  well,  to  outward 
appearance  at  least,  for  Milan  was  deeply  en- 
amoured of  his  beautiful  wife,  who  soon  became 
the  idol  of  the  Servians,  on  account  of  lier 
beauty  and  her  amiability.  This  affection  was 
but  increased  when,  a  year  after  her  marriage, 
she  presented  her  subjects  with  an  heir.  But 
from  that  hour  the  domestic  discord  began.  The 
Queen  had  been  ill  long  and  seriously  after  her 
boy's  birth ;  Milan  had  sought  distractions  else- 
where.   Scenes  of   jealousy  and  recrimination 


>56 


BALKAN  AND  DANUDlAX  STATES. 


BALTIMOnE. 


ffTPW  fr('<|ucnl.  Fiirthor,  Sorviii  was  tlien  pnss- 
inj,'  tliroiiKli  u  (lilllciilt  |)(>litlnil  rrlsis;  tli<' 
Turkish  war  wiis  in  full  Hwiiijj;.  .Milan,  litllclic 
loved  ever  siiKT  lie  lic;j;an  to  reign,  brought  home 
no  wreaths  fruiu  tlii.'s  coiitlict,  iilthoui^h  Jiis  siib- 
jectK  (Ilstinguislied  IhcMiselves  l)V  their  valour. 
Then  followed  In  18H2  tlie  rnisiiijV  of  the  prinei- 
pnlity  hilo;a  kingdom — ii  fact  whieli  left  the 
Servians  very  indilTereiit.  and  in  wliieh  they 
merely  beheld  the  prospect  of  increased  taxes,  a 
ju'evisinn  that  was  reali/.ed.  As  time  went  on, 
and  troubles  increased.  King  Mil.in  l)ccan.e some- 
what of  a  despot,  who  was  sustaine<l  solely  by 
the  army,  itself  undermined  by  faetious  in- 
trigues. iMeantiiue  thetjuecn,  now  grown  some- 
wdiat  callous  to  her  liusbaiid'sintidelitiis.  aspired 
to  comfort  herself  by  assuming  a  l)oliti<'al  role, 
for  which  slie  believed  herself  to  have  giuat  ap- 
titude. ...  As  she  could  not  intluenco  tlin  de- 
cisions of  the  I'rinc<',  the  Ind;,  vntered  Into  op- 
position to  liiui,  and  made  it  lier  aim  to  oppose 
all  Ills  projects.  Tlie  ((uarrel  spread  throughout 
the  entire  I'alace.  and  two  inimical  factions  were 
formed,  that  of  the  King  and  tliat  of  the  (^lU'en. 
.  .  .  Meantime  Milan  got  deeper  and  deeper  into 
debt,  so  that  after  u  time  he  ha<l  almost  mort- 
gaged his  territory.  .  .  .  Wliile  theliushandaiid 
wife  were  thus  (piarrelling  and  going  tlieir  own 
ways,  grave  events  were  maturing  in  neighbour- 
ing Uulgaria.  The  coup  d'etat  of  Fillipi)opoli, 
which  annexed  Eastern  Houmella  to  tli,e  i)rin(  i- 
pality,  enlarged  it  in  such  wise  that  Servia 
henceforth  had  to  cut  a  .sorry  ligure  in  tlie 
Balkans.  Lilian  roused  himself,  or  i)retended 
to  rouse  himself,  and  war  was  declared  against 
Bulgaria.  .  .  .  There  followed  the  crushing  (h'- 
feat  of  Slivitza,  in  which  Prine(!  Alexander  of 
Battcnbcrg  carried  olT  such  laurels,  and  the 
Servians  had  to  beat  a  disgraceful  and  precipitate 
retreat.  Far  from  proving  himself  the  hero  Na- 
thalie had  dreamed,  Milan  .  .  .  telegraphed  to 
the  Queen,  busied  with  tending  tlie  woinidcd, 
that  he  intended  to  abdicate  forthwitli.  This 
cowardly  conduct  gave  the  death  blow  to  any 


BALKH. — Destruction  by  Jingis  Khan 
(A.  D,  I22I). — From  his  concpiest  of  the  region 
heyond  the  Oxus,  Jingis  Klian  moved  southward 
with  his  vast  liordc  of  Jiongols,  in  pursuit  of  the 
fugitive  Khalirezmlan  prince,  in  1220  or  122!, 
and  invested  the  great  city  of  Balkh, —  wlilch  is 
thought  In  the  east  to  be  the  oldest  city  of  the 
world,  and  wdiich  may  not  impossibly  have  been 
one  of  the  capitals  of  tin;  primitive  Aryan  nice. 
"Some  idea  of  its  extent  and  riches  [at  that 
time]  may  possibly  be  formed  from  the  statement 
that  It  contained  1,200  large  mosques,  without 
including  chapels,  aud  200  public  baths  for  the 
use  of  foreign  merchants  and  travellers  —  though 
it  has  been  suggested  that  the  more  correct 
reading  would  be  200  nios(pies  and  1,200  baths. 
Anxious  to  avert  the  horrors  of  storm  and 
pillage,  the  citizens  at  once  offered  to  capitulate; 
but  Chinghiz,  distrusting  the  sincerity  of  their 
submission  so  long  as  Sultan  jMohammed  Shah 
was  yet  alive,  preferred  to  carry  the  place  by 
force  of  arms  —  an  achievement  of  no  great  diffl- 
ctilty.  A  horrible  butchery  ensued,  and  the 
'  Tabernacle  of  Islam  ' — as  the  pious  town  was 
called  —  was  razed  to  the  ground.  In  the  words 
of  the  Persian  poet,  quoted  by  Major  Price, 
'  The  noble  city  he  laid  as  smooth  as  the  palm  of 
his  hand  —  its  spacious  and  lofty  structures  he 


fooling  the  Quocn  might  have  retained  for  the 
King.  Henceforth  she  dcspiHcd  him,  and  took 
no  pains  to  hiile  the  fact.  ...  In  IHH7  the  pair 
parted  without  outward  scandals,  the  (Jueen 
taking  with  her  the  Crown  Prince.  .  .  .  Florence 
was  the  goal  of  the  (Jui'cn's  wanderings,  and 
here  she  spent  a  ((ulet  winter.  .  .  .  The  winter 
enilcd,  Nathalie  th'sired  to  return  to  Belgrade, 
Milan  would  not  hear  of  it.  .  .  .  Tlie  (Jueen 
went  to  Wiesbaden  in  cdiiscquenee.  While  re- 
siding tliere  .Milan  professed  to  be  smldenly  taken 
with  a  liaternal  craving  to  see  his  son,  .  .  .  And 
to  the  shame  of  the  (jerman  (iovcrnmcnt,  be  it 
said,  tiiey  lent  tliii''  hand  to  abducting  an  only 
child  from  his  mother.  .  .  ,  Before  ever  the  ex- 
citement about  this  act  could  subside  in  Europe, 
Jlihin  .  .  .  pctitioiicd  the  Servian  Synod  for  a 
divorce,  on  the  ground  of  'irreconcilable  mutual 
antipathy  '  Neither  by  canonical  (>r  civil  1,'iw 
was  this  iiosslble,  and  the  (Jueen  refused  her 
consent.  .  .  ,  Nor  could  the  divorcf  have  lieen 
oblaini'd  t-ut  'or  the  servile  complaisance  of 
t. A  "c'vian  Metropolitan  Theodore.  .  .  .  Quick 
vengc'  lee,  however,  was  in  store  for  Milan. 
The  interiiatlonal  affairs  of  Servia  had  grown 
niori  iMid  more  disturbed.  .  .  .  The  King,  per- 
plex I,  .ifraid,  storm-tossed  between  (livided 
counsels,  highly  Irritable,  aud  deeply  impressed 
by  Uudolph  of  Hapsburg's  recent  suicide,  sud- 
denly minounced  his  intention  to  alKlicate  in 
favotirof  his  son.  .  .  .  Without  regret  his  people 
saw  (lc))art  from  among  them  a  man  who  at 
thirty-live  j  ( ars  of  age  was  already  decrepit,  and 
who  had  not  the  pluck  or  ambition  to  try  and 
overcome  a  didlcult  political  crisis.  .  .  .  After 
kneeling  down  before  his  son  and  swearing 
fldelity'to  him  as  ri  subject  (March,  1889),  Milan 
betook  himself  off  lo  tour  through  Europe  .  .  . 
leaving  the  little  uoy  and  his  guardians  to  extri- 
cate themselves.  ..."  Now  I  can  see  mamma 
again,' were  tlie  first  words  of  the  boy  King  on 
hearing  of  his  elevation.  .  .  .  Three  Regents  are 
appointed  to  aid  the  King  during  his  niinority." 
—  "  Politlkos,"  The  Sovereiijns,  pp.  353-363. 


levelled  In  the  dust.'" — J.  llutton,  Central 
Asiit,  eh.  4. 

Also  in:  H.  H.  Iloworth,  Hist,  of  the  Mongols, 
V.  \,rh.  3. 

BALL'S  BLUFF,  The  Battle  of.  See 
United  Statkh  OF  Am,  :  A.  I).  1801   'October: 

VlUCltNI.V), 

BALMACEDA'S  DICTATORSHIP.    See 

Cim,E:  A,  D.  1885-1891. 

BALNEiE.    See  TirERM.5:. 

BALTHI,  OR  BALTHINGS.— "  The  ru'ers 
of  the  Visigoths,  though  they,  like  the  An.<il 
kings  of  the  Ostrogoths,  had  a  great  house,  the 
Bnlthi,  sprung  from  the  seed  of  gods,  did  not 
at  this  time  fwlien  driven  across  the  Danube 
by  the  Huns]  bear  the  title  of  King,  but  con- 
tenteil  themselves  with  some  humbler  designa- 
tion, whicli  the  Latin  historians  translated  into 
Judex  (Judge)." — T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her 
Inr(tih'V!i.  int.,  rh.  3.— See  Baitx,   Louds  of, 

BALTIMORE,  Lord,  and  the  Colonization 
of  Maryland.  See  Makyi.and  :  A,  D.  1032,  to 
1088-17.", 

BALTIMORE,  A.  D.  1729-1730.— Found- 
ingof  the  city.    See  JIauvland  :  A.  1).  1729-1730. 

A.  D.  1812.— Riotineof  the  War  Party. —The 
mob  and  the  Federalists.  See  United  States 
OK  Am.  :  A.  D.  1812  (June— OcTOUiiii)- 


t&r 


L\LTIMORE. 


BARBARY  8TATE8. 


A.  D.  1814.—  British  attempt  againjt  the 
city.    H('<!  I'N' iKi)  HTAiriti  OK  Am.:  \.  I»    lMt4 

(Au<H!»r— Hpi.TKMllKIl). 

A.  D.  i860.  —The  Douglas  Democratic  and 
Constitutional  Union  Conventions.  !S(^c 
UNriKii  Statkm  ok   Am.:  A.  I).  1H<K)    (Aimul— 

NoVKMIIKU). 

A.  D.  1861  (April).— The  city  controlled  hy 
the  Secessionists. — The  Attack  on  the 
Sixth  Massachusetts  Regiment.  Hcu  Uniteu 
Htatkmi.k  .\M.  :   A.  I).  lH(lT(Al'iiil,). 

A.  D.  1861  (May).— Disloyalty  put  down. 
8p<!  Unitki)  Htatkh  ok  Am.  :  A.  1).  '»*ll  (Ai-un. 
— .May:  Maiivi.and). 


BALUCHISTAN.     Hec  Siiipluineut  in  v   5. 

BAN.— BANAT.— "  Han  Is  Duke  (I)p.:«),  ami 
riiiiiat  i.s  Duchy.  TlietiTrilorj  [lliinfi;ariatij  ca.st 
of  the  {'Hrpiithians  is  llu'  llaiiat  of  Sovori"  aii'i 
that  of  the  west  llic  Haiiat  of  Tcmcs.'i 
Tlu^  Haiiat  is  tliu  ciirnucopin,  not  only  o  .uii- 
gary,  liiit  of  tlic  wIkjU;  Austrian  Knipiro." — A. 
A.  Paton,  lltKiiiir/un  oil  the  Ihtniitie  'iiid  the  Ad- 
riatic, i\  2,  i>.  'iH. —  A'lionj;  tlui  Croats,  "after 
the  kinj?,  the  most  important  olHcersof  the  state 
wiTe  tlu!  bans.  .Vt  first  there  was  but  one  l)an, 
who  was  a  kind  of  lieuienaut-general;  but  later 
on  there  were  seven  of  them,  eaeli  known  by  the 
name  of  tlii!  province  he  governed,  as  the  linn 
of  Sirniia,  ban  of  Dalmatiu,  etc.  To  tliis  day 
the  royal  lieutenant  of  Croatia  (or  '  governiir-gi'n- 
eml,'  if  tliat  title  be  preferred)  is  called  llu^  i>an." 
—  L.  Legi'r,  lli«t.  nf  Aiintru-llungiiry,  p.  55. 

BAN,  The  Imperial.  See  Sa.\ony:  A.  I). 
1178-1 IHH. 

BANBURY,  "Battle  of.—  Sometimes  called 
the  "  Uattle  of  Edgecote";  fought  July  20, 1409, 
and  with  success,  by  a  body  of  Lancastrian  in- 
surgents, in  the  English  "  Wars  of  the  Ko.scs," 
against  the  forces  of  the  Yorkist  King,  Edward 
IV.  Tlio  latter  were  routed  and  most  of  their 
leaders  taken  and  beheaded. —  Mrs.  llookham. 
Life  lUid  TiiiKH  of  ^fin'</<ii'it  of  Aiijon,  v.  2,  c/i.  5. 

BAND  A  ORIENTAL,  The.— .Signify  ing  the 
"  Eastern  Horder";  a  name  ai)plied  originally  by 
the  Spaniards  to  the  country  on  th(^  eastern  side 
of  Uio  de  La  Plata  winch  afterwards  took  the 
name  of  I'ruguay.  See  Auoemtine  Uei'uulic: 
A.  1).  ir.H(l-17T7. 

BANGALORE,  Capture  of  (1790).  See 
Inmia:  A.  I).  178.V17!»:i. 

BANK  OF  ST.  GEORGE.  See  Genoa: 
A.  I).  1407-1448. 

BANK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  See 
United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1«33-1838. 


BANKS,  General  Nathaniel  P.— Command 
in  ihe  Shenandoah.      H<'e  Uniti'.h  Statkm  ok 

\M. :  A.  I>.  18(12  (.Mav — IrsK:    VlltoiNiA) 

SiegeandCaptureof  Port  Hudson.  See  Unitki> 
.States    >►'  Am.:  A.    I).  18(j;l  (.May  — ,I(!i,v:  On 

THE    .MisHiHsii'i'i) Red    River   Expedition. 

.See  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  I).  18IU  (.Maikii 
—  May:  Loiisiana). 

BANKS  OF  AMSTERDAM,  ENGLAND 
AND  FRANCE.— The  Ilaiik  of  Amsterdam 
was  founded  in  K'Oll,  uid  icplared,  after  1814, 
by  the  Netherland  Bank.  The  Bank  of  England 
was  founded  in  KilM  bv  William  Pulterson,  u 
Scolciiman;  anil  lliat  of  Prance  by  .Tohn  Law,  in 
1710.  The  latter  eollupsed  with  the  Mississippi 
scheme  and  was  revived  in  1770,  — J.  J.  Lalor, 
ed.  C'l/dojxmliii  of  Ikil.  Seifiice. 

Aiiso  IN:  J.  W.  Oilburt,  JIi»l.  ami  I'rinciplM 
of  liiiukimj,  met.  1  mid 'A. 

BANKS,  Wildcat.    See  Wildcat  Banks. 

BANNACKS,  The.  See  American  Auout- 
oiNKs:  Siiosiio.NiA.s'  Family. 

BANNERETS,  Knights.  See  Knioiits 
Bannkukts. 

BANNOCKPURN,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1314). 
See  Scotland:  A.  I).  l;!14;and  1314-1328. 

BANT,   The.     .See  Gau. 

BANTU  TRIBES,  The.  See  South  Af- 
rica: Ti'E  AitoEiKiiNAi.  iniiahitants;  and 
Akuica:  The  iNiiAiuriNo  uaces. 

BAPTISTS.     See  article  In  the  Supplement,  / 

V.  n.  ' 

BAR.  A.  D.  1659-1735.— The  Duchy  ceded 
to  France.  Seel-^iANCE:  A.  I).  1050-1001,  and 
17;!3-173;5. 

BAR  :  The  Confederation  of.  See  Poland: 
A.  1).  170.3-1773. 

BARATHRUM,  The.— "The  barathrum,  or 
'  pit  of  ou'iislinieiit'  at  Athens,  was  a  deep  hole 
like  a  well  iatc  which  criminals  were  precipi- 
tated, iron  hooks  were  insiTted  in  the  sides, 
which  t  >re  tlr-  body  in  pieces  as  it  fell.  It  cor- 
respondc  1  to  the  Ceadas  of  the  Laccdiemonians." 
— O.  Haw  'inson,  Hist,  of  llerodotnit,  bk.  7,  nec.t. 
133,  wit,: 

BARBADOES  :  A.  D.  1649-1660.— Royalist 
attitude  towards  the  English  Commonwealth. 
See  Xavkiatio.n  Laws;  A.  1).  Ui.ll. 

A.   D.   1656. —  Cromwell's   colony  of  disor- 
derly woien.    See  Jamaica:  A.  D.  1655. 
♦ 

BARBARIANS.     See  AiivANa. 

BARBAROSSAS,  Piracies  and  dominioo 
of.    See  Baubaiiy  States:  A.  D.  1510-1535. 


BARBARY   STATES. 


A.  D.  647-709.— Mahometan  conquest  of 
North  Africa.  See  Mauometak  Conqoest: 
A.  D.  047-709. 

A.  D.  908-1 171.— The  Fatimite  Caliphs. 
See  JIaiiometan  Conijuest  and  E.mpire  :  A.  D. 
908-1171. 

A.  D.  1415.— Siege  and  capture  of  Ceuta  by 
the  Portuguese.  See]  Portugal  :  A.  D.  141.'>- 
1460. 

A.  D.  1505-1510.— Spanish  conquests  on  the 
coast. —  Oran. —  Bugia. —  Algiers. —  Tripoli. — 
In  1505,  a  Spanish  expedition  pir.nned  and  urged 
by  Cardinal  Ximencs,  captured  Mazarquivcr,  an 


"important  port,  and  formidable  nest  of  pirates, 
on  the  Barbary  coast,  nearly  opposite  Cartha- 
gena."  In  15()9,  the  same  energetic  prelate  led 
personally  an  expedition  of  4,CH)0  horse  and 
10,000  foot,  with  a  fleet  of  10  galleyr,  and  80 
smaller  vessels,  for  the  conquest  of  Oran.  "This 
place,  situated  about  a  league  from  the  former, 
was  one  of  the  most  considerable  of  the  Moslem 
possessions  in  the  Jleditcrranean,  being  a  princi- 
pal miirt  for  the  trade  of  the  Levant,"  and  main- 
tained a  swarm  of  cruisers,  which  swept  the 
Mediterranean  "  and  made  fearful  depredations 
on  its  populous  borders."    Oran  was  taken  by 


258 


HAIIBAKY  STATE'S,  150.V1310. 


Vtr 

ItariHtniHMiH. 


BA  :BAUY  states,   1516-1885. 


ttortn,  "  No  merry  was  h1i(  wn ;  no  rcspt'ct  for 
age  or  SOX ;  un<l  tin  Hohliciy  iiIiuikIomi'iI  tliciii- 
HulvuH  to  all  the  lirutiil  llcciist  iiiiil  ferocity  wliicli 
soeiii  to  Htiiin  religious  warn  ahovc  I'vcry  other. 
.  .  .  No  less  than  4,()()()  .Moors  were  sa'd  to  havi' 
fulh'ii  in  llic  liattle,  and  from  Tt.WW  to  H,(Ml()  were 
nmcl(!  prisoners.  The  loss  of  tlie  Christians  was 
Inconsiderahle."  Ki'called  to  Spain  by  Kin^ 
Ferdinand,  Ximenes  left  the  army  In  AfrUii 
under  the  command  of  Count  I'eilro  Navarro. 
Navarro's  "tlrst  enterprise  was  a;{alnst  Hii^jla 
(Jan.  l:tlh,  VtUh.  whose  kinj;,  al  the  heail  of  a 
powerful  artny,  ne  routed  in  two  pitched  hatth'S, 
and  Kot  pos.sessiiin  of  his  tlourishlnj;  capital 
(Jiin.  yist).  Algiers,  Tennis,  Treiuecin,  and  other 
cities  on  the  IJarliary  coast,  submitted  one  after 
another  to  tlie  Hpaidsh  urn\s.  The  inliabitaiits 
were  received  as  vassals  of  the  Catholic  king. 
.  .  .  They  giniranteed,  moreover,  tlu^  liberation 
of  nil  ('hrislian  captives  in  their  <lominions;  for 
which  the  Algerines,  liowever,  took  care  to  in- 
demnify themselves,  by  e.Morting  the  full  ran- 
som from  their  •'. 'vi.sh  resiilents.  .  .  .  On  the 
26th  of  July,  l.)l(),  ti.,'  ancient  city  of  Trip  Hi. 
after  a  most  Moody  and  <I"sperate  delenee,  i  iir- 
rcndered  to  the  arms  of  the  victorious  gene  al, 
whose  nami.'  bad  now  become  \"rnble  ii'-mi"  the 
wliole  norlliern  bordersof  Africa.  In  the  follow- 
ing nionlli,  however  (Aug.  i8th),  lio  met  willi  a 
serious  discomtilure  in  the  isliiid  if  Gelves, 
where  i,00()  of  his  men  were  slain  or  made 
prisonirs.  This  cheek  ill  the  brilliant  career  of 
Count  Navarro  put  a  tbial  stoji  to  the  progress 
of  the  Castilian  arms  in  Africa  under  Ferdinand. 
Tilt  results  obtained,  however,  were  of  great  im- 
portance. .  .  .  jAlost  of  the  new  concpiests 
escaped  from  the  Spanish  crown  in  later  times, 
through  the  imbecility  or  Indolence  of  Ferdi- 
nand's successors.  The  conciuests  of  Ximenes, 
liowever,  were  placed  in  so  strong  a  ])ostuie  of 
defence  as  to  resist  every  attempt  for  their  re- 
covery by  tlie  enemy,  and  to  remain  permanentlv 
incorporated  with  the  Spanish  empire." — W.  li. 
Prescott,  Hint,  of  the  Ileigii  of  Ferdinand  diul 
IsahcUii,  eh.  21  (c.  3). 

A.  D.  1516-1535. — Piratical  dominion  of  the 
Barbaiossas  in  Als^iers.  —  Establishment  of 
Turkish  sovereignty.  —  Seizure  of  Tunis  by 
the  Corsairs  and  its  conquest  by  Charles  V. 
— "  About  the  beginning  of  the  Itith  century,  a 
sudden  revolution  happened,  which,  by  render- 
ing the  states  of  IJarbary  formidable  to  the 
Europeans,  hath  made  their  history  worthy  of 
more  attention.  This  revolution  was  brought 
about  liy  pel•.s^ns  born  in  a  rank  of  life  which 
entitled  them  to  act  no  such  illustrious  part. 
Home  and  Il.iyradin,  the  sons  of  a  potter  in  the 
isle  of  Lisbo.s,  prompted  by  a  restless  and  enter- 
prising sjjirit.  forsook  their  father's  trade,  ran  to 
sea,  and  joined  a  crew  of  pirates.  They  soon 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  valor  and  ac- 
tivity, and,  becoming  masters  of  a  small  brigan- 
tine,  carried  on  their  infamous  trade  with  such 
conduct  and  success  that  they  as.seml)led  a  licet 
of  13  galleys,  besides  many  vessels  of  smaller 
force.  Of  this  fleet  Ilorue.  the  elder  brotlier, 
calh^l  Rarbarossa  from  the  red  color  of  his  beard, 
was  admiral,  and  Hayradiu  secoml  in  command, 
but  with  almost  cijual  authority.  They  called 
themselves  the  friends  of  the  sea,  and  the  ene- 
mies of  all  who  sail  upon  it;  and  their  names 
soon  became  terrible  from  the  Straits  of  the  Dar- 
danelles to  those  of  Gibraltar.  .  .  .  Tliey  often 


carried  the  prizes  which  they  took  on  the  roasts 
of  Spain  and  lialy  into  the  ports  of  liarli.try, 
and.  eiirieliiiig  the  inhabitants  by  the  Mile  of 
their  booty,  and  the  thoiighth.'ss  pnxligality  of 
their  crews,  were  welcome  guests  In  every  place 
at  whicli  tliev  toiielied.  The  convenient  sitna 
tion  of  these  iiarboiirs.  lying  so  near  the  greati'st 
commercial  slates  at  tliiit  time  in  Christendom, 
made  the  brothers  wish  fra-  an  establishment  in 
tliat  country.  An  opiKirtiiiiily  of  aecomplishlng 
this  (|uickly  pre.s<'nted  itself  fl'iKll.  which  they 
did  not  siilTer  to  pa.ss  nnimpnived."  Invited 
liy  Kntenii,  king  of  Algiers,  to  assist  him  in 
taking  a  Spanish  fort  which  had  been  built  in 
his  neighlioiirliood.  liarbiirossa  was  able  to  ninr 
der  Ills  too  conllding  employer,  master  the  Al 
gerine  kingdom  and  usurp  its  crown.  "Not 
satisfied  willi  the  throne  whicli  be  bad  aci|uired, 
he  attacked  the  neighbouring  king  of  Tieiiiecen, 
and,  having  vaii(|uislied  liiin  in  battle,  added  his 
dominions  to  those  of  Algiers.  At  tlie  same 
time,  he  continued  to  infest  the  coasts  of  Spain 
and  Italy  with  fleets  whicli  resembled  the  iirina- 
inents  of  a  great  moiiareh,  rather  than  the  light 
scpiadrons  of  a  corsair.  Their  frci)ueiit  cruel  dn- 
vastations  obliged  Charles  I  the  Fifth  —  thi^  great 
Emperor  and  King  of  Spain:  151t)-l.'),"i.')|,  about 
the  beginning  of  bis  reign,  to  furnish  the  Mar- 
(piis  dc  Comares.  governor  of  Oran,  with  troops 
sultlcient  to  attack  him."  Barlmrossa  was  de- 
feated ill  the  ensuing  war,  driven  from  Trcnie- 
ceil,  and  slain  [LjISJ.  "His  brother  llayradin, 
known  likewise  by  tlu;  name  of  Barbaros.sa, 
assumed  tlu;  sceptre  of  Algiers  with  the  same 
anibitioii  and  abilities,  but  with  better  fortune. 
His  reign  being  undisturbed  by  the  arms  of  the 
'jpaniards,  whicli  had  full  occupation  in  the  wars 
among  the  European  powers,  he  regulated  with 
admirable  prudence  the  interior  police  of  his 
kingdom,  carried  on  bis  naval  operations  with 
great  vigour,  and  e.vtended  his  con(|nests  on  the 
ciailiiient  of  Africa.  Hut  perceiving  that  the 
jMoors  and  Arabs  submitted  to  bis  government 
with  reluctance,  and  being  afraid  that  his  con- 
tinual depredations  would  one  day  draw  upon 
him  the  arms  of  the  Christians,  be  put  his  do- 
iiiiniiais  under  the  protection  of  the  Grand  Seig- 
nior [151!)],  and  received  from  him  [with  the 
title!  of  Bey,  or  Beylerbey]  a  liody  of  Turkish 
.soldiers  sulllcient  for  his  domestic  as  well  &i 
foreign  enemies.  At  last,  the  fame  of  his  exploits 
daily  increasing,  Solyman  offered  him  the  com- 
mand of  the  Turkish  tleet.  .  .  .  Barbarossa  re- 
])aired  to  (,'oiistaiitinople,  and  .  .  .  gained  the 
entire  confidence  both  of  the  sultan  and  his 
vizien  To  them  he  communicated  a  scheme 
which  he  had  formed  of  making  himself  master 
of  Tunis,  the  most  fl;)url.  "ling  kingdom  at  thai 
lime  oil  the  coast  of  .A.fiica;  and  tills  being  aji- 
jiroved  of  by  them,  he  obtained  whatever  he 
demanded  for  carrying  It  into  e.\eeutioii.  His 
hopes  of  success  in  iliis  undertaking  were 
founded  on  the  intestine  divisions  in  the  king- 
dom of  Tiini.s."  The  last  king  of  that  country, 
having  31  sons  by  different  wives,  had  estab- 
lished one  of  the  younger  sons  on  the  throne  as 
his  successor.  I'liis  young  king  attempted  to 
put  all  of  his  brothers  to  death ;  but  Alraschid, 
who  was  one  of  the  eldest,  es(;apcd  and  fled  to 
Algiers.  Barbarossa  now  jiroiKised  to  the  Turk- 
i.sli  sultan  to  attack  Tunis  on  the  jiretence  of 
vindicating  the  rights  of  Alraschid.  His  pro- 
posal was  adopted  and  carried  out;  but  even 


259 


BAItlJARTi  STATES,  1510-1535. 


Kxnrrliliim 
of  Charles  V. 


HARBAItY  STATES,  154a-1560. 


before  tlie  Tiirkisli  expedition  siiiled,  Alraseliid 
hiuiHclf  dififtijpeured  —  ii  prisoner,  slnit  up  in  tlie 
Heriifflio  —  iind  was  never  heard  of  iijf"'"-  T'"-' 
use  of  liis  name,  liowever,  enabled  Uarbarossa  to 
enter  Tunis  in  triumph,  and  tlie  betrayed  in- 
habitants diseovered  too  late  that  he  eainc  ns  a 
vieeroy,  to  make  them  the  subjects  of  the  sultan. 
' '  Being  now  possessed  of  sueh  extensive  ter- 
ritories, he  carried  on  his  depredations  against 
the  C'hriatian  states  to  a  greater  extent  and  with 
more  destructive  violence  than  ever.  Daily 
complaints  of  the  outrages  committed  by  his 
cruisers  were  brought  to  the  emperor  by  his 
subjects,  both  in  Spain  and  Itjily.  All  C'liristen- 
dom  seemed  to  expect  from  him,  as  its  greatest 
and  most  fortunate  prince,  that  he  would  put  an 
end  to  this  new  and  odious  species  of  ()pi)ressi(m. 
At  the  sjime  time  Jluley-Ilascen,  the  exiled  king 
of  Tunis,  .  .  .  apilied  to  Charles  as  the  only 
person  who  could  assert  his  rights  in  opposition 
to  such  a  formidable  tisurpcr."  Tiie  Emperor, 
accordingly,  in  15ii5,  prepared  a  great  expedition 
against  Tunis,  drawing  men  and  ships  fronj 
every  part  of  Ids  wide  dominions  —  from  Spain, 
Italy,  Germany  and  the  Netherlands.  "On  the 
10th  of  July  the  lleet,  consisting  of  near  500  ves- 
sels, liaving  on  board  above  30,000  regidar 
troops,  set  sail  from  Cagliari,  and,  after  a  pros- 
perous navigation,  lande<l  within  sight  of  Tunis." 
The  fort  of  (joletta,  eonunanding  the  bay,  was 
invested  and  taken;  tlie  corsair's  fleet  sur- 
rendered, and  Barbarossa,  advancing  boldly  from 
Tunis  to  attack  the  invaders,  was  overwhelm- 
ingly beaten,  and  lied,  abandoning  his  capital. 
Charle-s's  soldiers  rushed  into  the  unfortunate 
town,  eseajjing  all  restraint,  and  making  it  a 
scene  of  indescribable  horrors.  "Above  550,000 
of  the  innocent  inhabitants  perished  on  that  un- 
happy day,  and  10,000  were  carried  away  as 
slaves.  Muley-IIascen  took  possession  of  a 
throne  surrounded  with  carnage,  abhorred  by 
his  subjects,  on  whom  he  had  brought  such 
calamities."  Before  quitting  the  country,  Charles 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Muley-IIaseen,  under 
wliicli  the  latter  iteknowledged  that  he  held  his 
kingdom  in  fee  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  doing 
homage  to  the  Emperor  as  his  liege,  and  main- 
taining a  Spanish  garrison  in  the  Golctta.  lie 
also  released,  without  ransom,  all  the  Christian 
slaves  in  his  dominions,  20,0P^  in  number,  and 
jvioniised  to  detain  in  servitude  no  subject  of  tlie 
Em|)eror  thereafter.  He  opened  his  kingdom  to 
the  t;liristian  religion,  and  to  free  trade,  and 
pledged  himself  to  exclude  Turkish  corsairs 
from  liis  jjorts. — W.  Robertson,  Hist,  of  the  Bcign 
of  Vharlei  V.,  bk:  5  (c.  2). 

A.  D.  1541. — The  disastrous  expedition  of 
Charles  V.  against  Algiers. —  Kneouraged,  ami 
deceived,  by  his  easy  success  at  Tunis,  the  em- 
peror, Charles  V.,  determined,  in  1541,  to  under- 
take the  reduction  of  Algiers,  and  to  wholly 
exterminate  the  freebooters  of  the  north  African 
coast.  Before  his  iireparations  were  completed, 
"the  season  unfortunately  was  far  advanced,  on 
which  account  the  Pope  entreated,  and  Doria 
conjured  him  not  to  expose  his  whole  armament 
to  a  deslnuaiou  almost  unavoidable  on  a  wild 
shore  during  the  violence  of  the  autumnal  gales. 
Adhering,  howevi  1,  to  his  plan  with  determined 
obstinacy,  he  embarked  at  Porto  Venere.  .  .  . 
The  force  .  .  .  which  he  had  collected  .  .  . 
consisted  of  20,000  fwit  and  2,000  horse,  mostly 
veterans,  together  with  8,000  volunteers.  .  .  . 


Besides  these  there  had  joined  his  standard  1,000 
soldiers  sent  by  the  Onler  of  St.  John,  and  led 
by  100  of  its  most  valient  kniglits.  Landing 
near  Algi(^rs  without  opposition,  Charles  imme- 
diately advanced  towards  the  town.  To  oppose 
the  invaders,  IIas.san  had  only  800  Turks,  and 
5,000  Jlcxirs,  partly  natives  of  Africa,  and  partly 
refugees  from  Spain.  When  summoned  to  sur- 
render he,  nevertheless,  returned  n  tierce  and 
haughty  answer.  But  with  such  a  handful  of 
troops,  neither  his  desperate  courage  nor  con- 
summate skill  in  war  could  have  long  resisted 
forces  superior  to  those  which  had  formerly 
defeated  Barbarossa  at  the  head  of  00,000  men." 
He  was  speedily  relieved  from  danger,  however, 
by  an  ojiportune  stonn,  which  burst  upon  the 
region  during  the  second  day  after  Charles's  de- 
barkation, 'i'lie  Spanish  camp  was  flooded ;  the 
soldiers  drenched,  chilled,  sleepless  and  dis- 
liirited.  In  this  condition  they  were  attacked 
iiy  the  Moors  at  dawn,  and  narrowly  escaped  a 
rout.  "But  all  feeling  of  this  disaster  was 
soon  obliterated  by  a  more  affecting  spectacle. 
As  the  tempest  continued  with  unabated  vio- 
lence, the  full  li.ght  of  day  showed  the  ships,  on 
which  alone  their  safety  depended,  driving  from 
their  anchors,  dashing  against  one  another,  and 
many  of  them  forced  on  the  rocks,  or  sinking  in 
the  waters.  In  less  than  an  hour,  15  ships  of 
war  and  140  transports,  with  8,000  men,  per- 
ished before  their  eyes;  and  sueh  of  the  unhappy 
sailors  as  escaped  the  fury  of  the  sea,  were  mur- 
(h^red  by  the  Arabs  as  soon  as  they  reai^hed  land. " 
With  such  ships  as  lie  could  save,  Doria  sought 
shelter  behind  Cape  JIatafuz,  sending  a  mes- 
sage to  the  emperor,  advising  that  he  follow 
with  the  army  to  that  point.  Charles  could  not 
do  otherwise  than  act  according  to  the  sugges- 
tion; but  his  army  suffered  horribly  in  the 
retreat,  which  occupied  three  days.  "JIt.ny 
jierished  by  famine,  as  the  whole  army  subsisted 
eliielly  on  roots  and  berries,  or  on  the  llesh  of 
horses,  killed  for  that  purpose  by  the  empe-or's 
orders;  numbers  were  drowned  in  the  swollen 
brooks;  and  not  a  few  were  slain  by  the  enemy." 
Even  after  the  army  had  regained  the  fleet,  and 
was  reembarked,  it  was  scattered  by  a  second 
storm,  and  several  weeks  passed  before  the 
emperor  reached  his  Spanish  dominions,  a  wiser 
and  a  sadder  man. — 31.  Russell,  Ilist.  of  the  Bar- 
bary  States,  ch.  8. 

Also  in  :  W.  Robertson,  Ilist.  of  the  Reign  of 
Charles  V.,bk.  Q  (v.  2.) 

A.  D.  1543-1560. — The  pirate  Dragfut  and 
his  exploits. — Turkish  capture  of  Tripoli. — 
Disastrous  Christian  attempt  to  recover  the 
place. — Dragut,  or  TorgliQil,  a  native  of  the 
Caramanian  coast,  opposite  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
began  his  career  as  a  Alediterranean  corsair  some 
time  before  the  last  of  the  Barbarossas  quitted 
the  scene  and  was  advanced  by  the  favor  of  the 
Algerine.  In  1540  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  one 
of  the  Dorias  and  uiis  bound  to  the  oar  as  a 
galley-slave  for  three  years, —  which  did  not 
sweeten  his  temper  toward  the  Christian  world. 
In  1543  he  w-as  ransomed,  and  nsumed  his 
piracies,  with  more  energy  than  before.  "Dra- 
gut's  lair  was  at  the  island  of  Jerba  [called 
Gelves,  by  the  Spaniards].  .  .  .  Not  content 
with  the  rich  spoils  of  Europe,  Dragut  took  the 
Spanish  outposts  in  Africa,  one  by  one  —  Siisa, 
Sfax,  Mouastir;  and  finally  .set  forth  to  conquer 
'  Africa. '    It  is  nut  uueommuu  in  Arabic  to  call 


260 


DAKBAUY  STATES,  1543-13B0. 


LOMS  of 

Tripoli. 


UAKBAUY  STATES,  1572-1573. 


a  coiintry  niul  its  capital  by  tlic  same  name.  .  .  .  | 
'  Africi' '  nitwit  to  the  Arab.s  the  province  of 
Cartilage  or  T'lnis  and  its  capital,  wliich  was 
notat  first  Tunis  but  successively  Kayrawannnd 
Malidiya.  Throughout  the  later  middle  ages  the 
name  'Africa'  is  applied  by  C^hrlstian  writers 
to  the  latter  city.  .  .  .  This  was  the  city  which 
Dragul  took  without  a  blow  in  the  spring  of 
LViO.  j^Iahdiya  was  then  in  an  anarchic  stat" 
ruled  by  a  council  of  chicf.s,  each  ready  to  betni) 
the  ether,  and  none  owing  the  smallest  allegiance 
to  aiy  king,  least  of  all  the  despised  king  of 
Tui  Is,  Ilamid,  who  had  deposed  and  blinded  his 
father,  Hasan,  Charles  V.'s  protege.  One  of 
M.,  .se  chiefs  let  Dragut  and  his  merry  men  into 
ih  J  city  by  night.  .  .  .  So  ea.sy  a  triumph  roused 
th  •  emulation  of  Christendom.  .  .  .  Don  Garcia 
de  Toledo  dreamed  of  outshining  the  Corsair's 
glory.  His  father,  the  Viceroy  of  Naples,  the 
Pope,  and  others,  promised  their  ai(l,  and  old 
Andrea  Doria  took  the  c'ommand.  After  much 
delay  and  consultation  a  large  body  of  troops 
■was  conveyed  to  Mahdiya  and  disembarked  on 
Juno  28,  1550.  Dragut,  though  aware  of  the 
project,  was  at  sea,  devastating  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa,  and  paying  himself  in  advance  for  any 
loss  the  Christians  might  inllict  in  Africa:  his 
nephew  Ili.sar  Ueis  cimimanded  in  the  city. 
When  Dmgut  returned,  the  siege  iiad  gone  on 
for  a  month,"  but  he  failed  in  attempting  to 
raise  it  and  retired  to  .lerba.  Alabdiya  was 
airried  by  assault  on  the  8th  of  Septtiinber. 
"Ke.xtyear,  1551,  Dragut's  place  was  with  the 
Ottoman  navy,  then  commanded  by  Sinan  Pasha. 
.  .  .  With  nearly  150  galleys  or  galleots,  10,000 
soldiers,  and  numerous  siege-guns,  Sinan  and 
Dragut  sailed  out  of  the  Dardanelles  —  whitlier 
bound  no  Christian  could  tell.  They  ravaged, 
as  usual,  the  Straits  of  Messina,  and  then  revealed 
the  point  of  attack  by  making  direct  for  Malta." 
Hut  the  deinonstratif)n  nnulc  against  the  strong 
fortifications  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  was  ill- 
planned  and  feebly  executed;  it  was  easily 
repelled.  To  wipe  out  his  defeat,  Sinan  "sailed 
straight  for  Tripoli,  some  04  leagues  away.  Tri- 
poli was  the  natural  antidote  to  Alalta ;  for  Tripoli, 
too,  belonged  to  the  Knights  of  St.  Jolin  —  much 
against  their  will  —  inasmuch  as  the  Emperor 
liad  made  their  defence  of  this  easternmost 
Barbary  state  a  condition  of  their  tenure  of 
MaltJi.  Hut  the  fortifications  of  Tripoli  were 
not  strong  enough  to  resist  the  Turkish  bom- 
bardment, and  Gaspard  de  Villiers,  the  com- 
mandant, was  forced  to  surrender  (A  gust  15tli), 
"on  terms,  as  he  believed,  identical  with  those 
■which  Suleyman  granted  to  the  Knights  of 
Khodes.  Hut  Sinan  was  no  Suleyman;  more- 
over, he  was  in  a  furious  rage  with  the  wliole 
Order.  He  put  the  garrison  —  all  save  a  few  — 
in  chains  and  carried  them  olt  to  grace  his 
triumi)h  at  Stambol.  Thus  did  Tripoli  fall  once 
more  into  the  hands  of  the  Moslems.  .  .  .  The 
misfortunes  of  the  Christians  did  not  end  here. 
Year  after  year  the  Ottoman  fleet  appeared  in 
Italian  watere.  .  .  .  Unable  as  they  felt  theni- 
selves  to  cope  with  the  Turks  at  sea,  the  powrs 
of  Southern  Europe  resolved  to  strike  one  more 
blow  on  land,  and  recover  Tripoli.  A  fleet  of 
nearly  100  galleys  and  ships,  gathered  from 
Spain,  Genoa,  '  the  Iteligion,' the  Pope,  from  all 
quarters,  with  the  Dnke  de  Medina-Celi  at  their 
head,  assembled  at  >[e.ssina.  .  .  .  Five  times  the 
expedition  [-'t  to  sea;  live  times  was  it  driven 


back  by  contrary  winds.  At  las.,  on  February 
10,  1560.  it  was  fairly  away  for  the  African 
C(.ist.  \ln-i\  fresh  troubles  awaited  it.  Long 
delays  in  crowded  vesre'-'  had  produce<l  their 
disastrous  elfectM;  fevers  and  scurvy  and 
dysentery  were  working  their  terrible  ravages 
among  the  crews,  and  2,000  corpses  were  filing 
into  the  sea.  It  was  impossible  to  lay  siege  to 
Tripoli  with  a  diseased  army,  and  wheii  actually 
in  sight  of  their  object  the  admirals  gave  orders 
to  return  to  Jerha.  A  sudden  <le.scent  ijuickly 
gave  them  the  command  of  the  beautiful  island!. 
...  In  two  months  a  strong  castle  was  built, 
with  all  scientific  earthworks,  and  the  admiral 
jtrepared  to  carry  home  such  troojis  as  were  not 
needed  for  its  defence.  Unliai)|)ily  for  him,  he 
had  lingered  too  long.  .  .  .  He  was  about  to 
prepare  for  deiiarture  when  news  came  that  the 
Turkish  fleet  had  been  seen  at  Goza.  Instantly 
all  was  panic.  Valiant  gentlemen  forgot  their 
valour,  forgot  their  coolnes.s.  .  .  .  Bef  ire  they 
could  make  out  of  the  strait  .  .  .  the  dread 
Corsair  [Dragut]  himself,  and  Ochiali,  ind  Piali 
Pasha  were  upon  them.  Then  ensued  a  scene; 
of  confusion  that  baflles  description.  Despairing 
of  weathering  the  north  side  of  .lerba  the  panic- 
stricken  Christians  ran  their  ships  ashore  and 
deserted  them,  never  stopping  even  to  .set  them 
on  fire.  ...  On  rowed  the  Turks ;  galleys  and 
galleons  to  the  number  of  50  fell  into  their  hands; 
18,000  Christians  bowed  down  before  their 
scimitars;  the  beach  on  that  memorable  lltli  of 
!May,  1500,  was  a  confused  medley  of  stranded 
sliips,  helpless  iirisoners,  Turks  busy  in  looting 
men  and  galleys  —  and  a  hideous  heap  of 
mangled  bodies.  The  fleet  and  the  army  which 
had  sailed  from  ^Messina  .  .  .  were  absolutely 
lost." — S.  Lane-Poole,  Story  ,</  the  Darlmry 
Cormirs. 

Also  in:  W.  H.  Prescott,  Hint,  of  the  liei'juof 
Philip  IL,  bk.  4,  <•//.  1. 

A.  D.  1563-1565. — Repulse  of  the  Moors 
from  Oran  and  Mazarquiver.  -Capture  of 
Penon  de  Velez:. — In  the  spring  of  1503  a 
most  determined  ind  formidable  attempt  was 
made  by  Hassem,  the  dey  of  Algiers,  to  drive 
the  Spaniards  from  Oran  and  Mazarquiver, 
which  they  had  held  since  the  African  con- 
quests of  "{/"ardinal  Ximenes.  The  siege  was 
fierce  and  desperate;  the  defence  most  heroic. 
The  beleaguered  garrisons  held  tlicir  ground 
until  a  relieving  expedition  from  Spain  came  in 
sight,  on  the  8th  of  June,  when  the  Moors 
retrer.ted  hastily.  In  tlie  summer  of  the  next 
year  the  Spaniards  toolc  the  strong  island  fortress 
of  Penon  de  Velez,  breaking  up  one  more  nest  of 
piracy  and  strengthening  their  footing  on  the 
IJarbary  coast.  In  tlie  course  of  the  year  fol- 
lowing they  blocked  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Tetuan,  wh'icli  was  a  place  of  refuge  for  the 
marauders. — W.  H.  Prescott,  Hist,  of  the  Reign  of 
Philip  II.,  hk.  4,  ch.  1  (p.  2). 

A.  D.  1565.— Participation  in  the  Turkish 
Siege  of  Malta. — Death  of  Dragut.  See 
IIosi'iT.\i.Li;ns  oi- St.  John:  A.  1).  l.'iliO-b'iOo. 

A.  D.  1570-1571. — War  •with  the  Holy- 
League  of  Spain,  Venice  and  the  Pope. — The 
Battle  of  Lepanto.  See  Turku:  A.  D.  1566- 
1571. 

A.  D.  1572-1573. — Capture  of  Tunis  by 
Don  John  of  Austria.— Its  recovery,  with 
Goletta,  by  the  Turks.  See  Tuuks;  A.  D. 
1572-1573. 


261 


BARBARY  STATES,  1579. 


Wars  wiih 
France. 


BARBARY  STATES,  1004-1084. 


A.  D.  1579.— Invasion  of  Morocco  by  Sebas- 
tian ci  Portugal. — His  defeat  and  death.  Suu 
PoKTi  (iAi.:  A.  I).  15711-l.Wl). 

A.  D.  1664-1684. — Wars  of  France  against 
the  piratical  powers. — Destructive  bombard- 
ments of  Algiers. — "Tlii^  iiiiciciit  alliance  of 
till'  cTdwii  of  Kiiuicc  with  the  Ottoman  Porte, 
always  unpopular,  and  less  necos.snry  since  France 
had  become  so  strong,  was  at  this  montent  [early 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.]  well-nigh  bn.ken,  to 
the  great  satisfaction  both  of  the  Christian 
nations  of  the  South  and  of  the  Austrian  empire. 
.  .  .  Divers  jilans  were  ])roposed  in  the  King's 
council  for  attacking  the  Ottoman  jjower  on  the 
Moorish  coasts,  and  for  repressing  the  pirates, 
who  were  tho  terror  of  the  merchautshipping 
and  maritime  provinces.  Colbert  induced  the 
king  to  attempt  a  military  settlement  among  the 
Moors  as  the  best  jueans  of  holding  them  in 
check.  A  squadron  commanded  by  tlie  Dukede 
Beaufort  .  .  .  landed  ft, 000  picked  soldiers  be- 
fore ■Jijeli  (or  Djigelli),  a  small  Algerine  port 
between  Bougiah  and  Bona.  They  took  [losses- 
sion  of  Jijeli  without  dilliculty  (.fuly  ;.>3,  1004); 
but  discord  arose  between  Beaufort  and  his 
officers;  they  did  not  work  actively  enough  to 
fortify  themselves,"  and  before  the  end  of 
September  they  were  obligeil  to  evacuate  the 
place  precipitately.  "  Tlie  success  of  Beaufort's 
squadron,  commanded  >iiider  the  didic  by  the 
celebrated  Chevalier  Paul,  ere  long  clTaccd  the 
impression  of  th's  reverse:  two  Algerine  flotillas 
were  destroyed  in  the  cour.se  of  1005."  The 
Dey  of  Algiers  sent  one  of  his  French  captives, 
an  officer  named  l)u  Babiuais,  to  France  with 
propo.sals  of  peace,  making  him  swear  to  return 
if  his  mission  failed.  The  proposals  were  re- 
jected; l)u  Babinais  was  loyal  to  his  oath  and 
returne<l  —  to  sutTer  death,  as  he  cxjiected,  at  the 
hands  of  the  furious  barbarian.  "The  devotion 
of  this  Breton  Hegulus  was  not  lost:  despondency 
soon  took  the  place  of  anger  in  the  heart  of  the 
Sloorish  chi(^fs.  Tunis  yielded  first  (  )  the  gui;s 
of  the  French  S(iuadron,  brought  to  bear  on  it 
from  the  Bay  of  Goletta.  The  Pacha  and  the 
Divan  of  Tunis  obligated  themselves  to  restore 
all  the  French  slaves  they  possessed,  to  re- 
spect French  ships,  and  thenceforth  to  release 
.•xll  Frenchmen  whom  they  should  capture  on 
foreign  ships.  .  .  .  Rights  of  aubaine,  and  of 
admiralfv  and  shipwreck,  were  suppressed  as  re- 
garded trenchmep  (November  25,  1005).  The 
station  at  Cape  Ne,.5ro  was  restored  to  France. 
.  .  .  Algiers  submitted,  six  months  after,  to 
nearly  the  same  conditions  imposed  o;i  it  by 
Louis  XIV. ;  one  of  the  articles  stipulated  that 
French  merchants  shoidd  be  treated  as  favorably 
as  any  foreign  nati(m,  and  even  more  so  (May  17, 
1060).  :More  than  3,000  French  slaves  were  set 
at  liberty."  Between  100!)  and  1072,  Louis  XIV. 
was  .serib\isly  meditating  a  great  v  it  of  conquest 
with  the  Turks  and  their  dependencies,  but  pre- 
ferred, finally,  to  enter  upon  his  war  with  Hol- 
land, which  brought  the  other  project  to  naught. 
France  and  the  Ottoman  emi)ire  then  remained 
on  tolerably  good  terms  until  1081,  when  a 
".squiulron  of  Tripolitau  corsairs  having  carrie<l 
off  a  French  shij)  on  the  coast  of  Provence, 
Duquesne,  at  the  head  of  seven  vessels,  pur- 
sued the  pirates  into  the  waters  of  Greece.  They 
took  refuge  in  the  harbor  of  Scio.  Duquesne 
summoned  the  Pacha  of  Scio  to  expel  them. 
The  Pacha  refused,   and  flred  ou  the  French 


8(|ua(Iron,  when  Duquesne  canror.inled  both  the 
jjirates  and  the  town  witii  such  violence  that  the 
Pacha,  terrilied,  asked  for  a  truce,  in  order  to 
refer  the  matter  to  the  Sultan  (.July  23,  1081). 
Duquesne  converted  the  attack  into  a  bl<K;kade. 
At  the  news  of  this  viohition  of  the  Ottoman 
territory,  the  Sultan,  Mahomet  IV.,  fell  into  u 
rage  .  .  .  and  dispatched  the  Captain-Pacha  to 
Scio  with  32  galleys.  Duquesne  allowed  tho 
Turki.sh  galleys  to  enter  tho  harbor,  then  block- 
aded thi^m  with  the  pirates,  and  declared  that  ho 
would  burn  the  wholo  if  satisfaction  were  not 
had  of  the  Tripolitans.  The  Divan  hesitated. 
War  was  about  to  recommence  with  the  Em- 
l)eror;  it  was  not  the  moment  to  kindle  it  against 
France."  In  the  end  there  was  a  "ompromise, 
and  the  Tripolitans  gave  up  the  French  vessel 
and  tho  slaves  they  had  captured,  promising, 
also,  to  receive  a  French  consul  at  Tripoli. 
"During  this  time  another  squadron,  commanded 
bv  Chateau-Renault,  blockaded  the  coasts  of 
>lorocco,  the  men  of  Maghreb  having  rivalled 
in  depredations  the  vassals  of  Turkey.  The 
jiowcrful  Emperor  of  Morocco,  Muley  Ismael, 
sent  the  governor  of  Tetuan  to  France  to  solicit 
peace  of  Louis  XIV.  The  treaty  was  signed  at 
Saint-Germain,  January  29,  1082,  on  advantage- 
ous conditions."  including  restitution  of  French 
slaves.  "  iVflairs  did  not  terminate  so  amicably 
with  Algiers.  From  tliis  piratical  centre  had 
proceeded  the  gravest  offenses.  A  captain  of 
the  royal  navy  was  held  in  slavery  there,  with 
many  other  Frenchmen.  It  was  resolved  to  in- 
flict a  terrible  piuiishment  on  the  Algerines. 
The  thought  of  con({uering  Algeria  had  more 
than  once  presented  itself  to  the  king  and 
Colbert,  and  they  appreciated  the  value  of  this 
conquest ;  the  Jijeli  expedition  had  been  fn.-merly 
a  first  attempt.  They  did  not,  however,  deem 
it  incumbent  on  them  to  embark  in  sudi  an 
enterprise;  a  descent,  a  siege,  would  have  re- 
quired too  great  preparations;  tliey  lii.J  recourse 
to  another  means  of  attack.  The  regenerator  of 
the  art  of  naval  construction,  Petit-Renau,  in- 
vented bomb-ketches  expressly  for  the  purpose. 
.  .  .  July  23,  1082,  Duquesne  anciiored  before 
Algiers,  with  11  ships.  15  galleys,  5  bomb- 
ketches,  and  Petit-Renau  to  guide  them.  After 
five  weeks'  delay  caused  by  bad  weather,  then 
by  a  fire  on  one  of  the  bomb-ketc/ies,  the 
thorough  trial  took  place  during  the  night  of 
August  30.  The  effect  was  terrible;  a  part  of 
the  great  mos((ue  fell  on  the  crowd  that  had 
taken  refuge  there.  During  the  night  of  Sep- 
tember 3-4,  the  Algerines  attempted  to  capture 
the  bomb-ketches  moored  at  the  entrance  of  their 
harbor;  they  were  repulsed,  and  the  bombard- 
ment continued.  The  Dey  wished  to  negotiate; 
the  people,  exasperated,  prevented  him.  The 
wind  shifting  to  the  northwest  presaged  the 
equinoctial  storm;  Duquesne  set  sail  again, 
September  12.  The  expedition  had  not  been 
decisive.  It  was  begun  anew.  June  18,  1083, 
DiKiuesnc  reappeared  in  the  road  of  Algiers;  he 
had,  this  time,  seven  bomb-ketches  instead  of  five. 
These  instruments  of  extermination  had  been 
perfected  in  the  interval.  The  nights  of  June 
20-27  witnessed  the  overthrow  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  hou  les,  several  mosques,  and  the  palace 
of  the  Dey.  A  thousand  men  perished  in  the 
harbor  and  the  town. "  The  Dey  opened  noirotia- 
tions,  giving  up  700  French  slaves,  hu.  was 
killed  by  Ms  Juuizaries,  aud  oue  Uudgi-Uusseiu 


262 


BARBARY  STATES,  1664-1684. 


American 
JiesiHtaiice. 


BARBARY  STATES,  1785-1801. 


pnxjiaiined  in  his  stciid.  "The  boiubardniciit 
wiis  rt'suiucd  witli  iiicreiising  violence.  .  .  .  The 
.  Llgeriuos  avcuj;ed  themselves  by  binding  to  the 
muzzles  of  their  guns  a  number  of  Krenchmen 
who  remained  in  their  hands.  .  .  .  The  fury  of 
the  Algerines  drew  upon  them  redi/Ubled 
calamities.  .  .  .  Tlie  bombs  rained  ubi.,)st  with- 
out intermission.  The  harbor  was  strewn  with 
the  wrecks  of  vessels.  Tlie  city  was  ...  a 
heap  of  bloody  ruins."  Hut  "the  bomb-ketebes 
had  exhausted  tlieir  ammunition.  September 
was  approaching.  Duquesue  again  departed; 
but  a  strong  l)lockading  force  was  kept  up,  dur- 
ing the  whole  winter,  as  a  standing  threat  of  the 
return  of  the  'infernal  vessels.'  Tlie  Algerines 
finally  bowed  their  head,  and,  April  2,"),  1084, 
peace  was  accorded  by  Tourville,  the  coin- 
uiauder  of  the  blockade,  to  the  Pacha,  Dey, 
Divan,  and  troops  of  Algiers.  The  Algerines 
restored  !!20  French  slaves  remaining  in  their 
power,  and  180  other  Christians  claimed  by  the 
King;  the  janizaries  only  which  had  been  taken 
from  them  were  restored;  they  engaged  to  make 
no  prizes  within  ten  leagues  of  the  coast  of 
France,  nor  to  assist  tlie  other  ^Moorish  corsairs 
at  war  with  France ;  to  recognize  the  iireceihmce 
of  the  Hag  of  I'^ance  over  all  other  Hags,  &c., 
&c. ;  lastly,  they  sent  an  embassy  to  carry  their 
submission  to  Louis  XIV. ;  they  did  not,  how- 
ever, pay  the  damages  which  Du(iuesne  had 
wished  to  exact  of  tlieni." — II.  Martin,  Jlixt.  of 
Fraiicc:   Arje  of  Lutiis  XIV.,  v..  1,  eli.  4  and  7. 

A.  D.  1785-1801. — Piratical  depredations 
upon  American  commerce. — Humiliating  trea- 
ties and  tribute.  ^The  example  of  resistance 
given  by  the  United  States. — "It  is  dillicult 
.for  us  to  realize  that  only  70  years  ago  the  Jledi- 
terranean  was  so  unsafe  that  the  merchant  ships 
of  every  nation  stood  in  danger  of  being  cap- 
tured by  pirates,  unless  they  were  iiroteeted 
cither  by  an  armed  convoy  or  by  tribute  paid  to 
the  petty  Barbary  powers.  Yet  we  can  scarcely 
open  a  book  of  travels  during  the  last  century 
without  mention  being  made  of  the  immense 
risks  to  whicli  every  one  was  exposed  who  ven- 
tured by  sea  from  j\Iarseilles  to  Najdes.  .  .  . 
The  European  states,  in  orilor  to  protect  their  com- 
merce, had  the  choice  either  of  paying  certain 
sums  per  head  for  each  captive,  which  in  reality 
was  a  premium  on  capture,  or  of  buying  entire 
freedom  for  their  commerce  by  the  expenditure  of 
large  sums  yearly.  The  treaty  renewed  by 
France,  in  1788,  with  Algiers,  was  for  lifty  years, 
and  it  was  agreed  to  piij-  $200,000  annually,  be- 
sides large  jiresents  diatributed  according  to 
custom  every  ten  years,  and  a  great  sum  given 
down.  The  peace  of  Spain  witli  Algiers  is  said 
to  have  cost  from  three  to  Ave  millionsof  dollars. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  at  the  same  time 
England  was  jiaying  an  annual  tribute  of  about 
$280,000.  England  was  the  only  power  sutli- 
ciently  strong  on  the  sea  to  ]5ut  down  these  pirates ; 
but  in  order  to  keep  her  own  position  as  mistress 
of  the  seas  she  preferred  to  leave  them  in  existence 
in  order  to  be  a  scourge  to  the  commerce  of  other 
European  powers,  and  even  to  supjiort  them  by 
paying  a  sum  so  great  that  other  states  might 
And  it  dillicult  to  make  peace  with  them.  When 
the  Revolution  broke  out,  we  [of  the  United 
States  of  America]  no  longer  hod  the  safeguards 
for  our  commerce  that  bad  been  given  to  us  by 
England,  and  it  was  therefore  that  in  our  very 
first  uegotitttioiis  for  a  treaty  with  Franco  we 


desired  to  have  an  article  inserted  into  the  treaty, 
that  the  king  of  France  should  secure  the  in- 
habitants of  the  United  Statia,  and  iheir  vessels 
and  elTects,  against  all  attacks  or  depR'dations 
from  any  of  the  Barbary  iiowers.  It  was  fouml 
impossible  to  insert  this  article  in  tlic  treaty  of 
1778,  and  instead  of  that  the  king  agreed  to  'em- 
ploy his  good  otllces  and  interposition  in  order 
to  provide  as  fully  and  ellicaciously  as  po.ssiblo 
for  the  benedt,  conveniency  and  safety  of  the 
United  States  against  the  jirinces  and  the  states 
of  Barbary  or  their  subjects.' " —  Direct  negotia- 
tions between  the  United  States  and  the  jiiratical 
powers  were  opened  in  KH.").  by  a  call  which  Jlr. 
Adams  made  upon  the  Tripolilaii  ambassador. 
The  latter  announced  to  .Mr.  Adams  tliat  "  '  Tur- 
kej',  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algiei's,  and  Morocco  were 
the  sovereigns  of  the  Mediterranean;  and  that 
no  nation  could  navigate  that  sea  without  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  them.'  .  .  .  The  ambassador  de- 
manded as  the  lowest  price  for  a  perpetual  peace 
30,000  guineas  for  his  emiiloyers  and  £3,000  for 
himself;  that  Tunis  would  probably  treat  on  the 
same  terms;  but  he  could  not  answer  for  Algiers 
or  ^lorocco.  Peace  with  all  four  powers  would 
cost  at  least  ,^1,000,000,  and  Congress  hadai)pro- 
priated  only  $80,000.  .  .  .  3Ir.  Adams  was 
strongly  opposed  to  war,  on  account  of  the  ex- 
pense, and  preferred  the  payment  of  tribute. 
.  .  .  Mr.  ticfierson  quite  as  deeidedl}-  iireferrcd 
war."  The  opinion  in  favor  of  a  trial  of  pacific 
negotiations  prevailed,  and  a  treaty  with  the 
Emperor  of  Morocco  was  concluded  in  1787.  An 
attempt  at  the  same  time  to  make  terms  with  the 
Dey  of  Algiers  and  to  redeem  a  number  of 
American  caiitives  in  his  bands,  came  to  nothing. 
"  For  the  sake  of  saving  a  few  thousand  dollars, 
fourteen  men  were  allowed  to  remain  in  imprison- 
ment for  ten  years.  ...  In  November,  1793, 
the  number  of  [American]  prisoners  at  Algiers 
amounted  to  115  men,  among  whom  there  re- 
mained only  ten  of  the  original  captives  of  1785." 
At  last,  the  nation  began  to  realize  the  intolerable 
shame  of  the  matter,  and,  "on  January  2,  17U1, 
the  House  of  Representatives  resolved  that  a 
'  naval  force  adequ^jte  for  the  protection  of  the 
eommerco  of  the  United  States  against  the  Al- 
gorine  forces  ought  to  be  provided.'  In  the  same 
year  authority  was  given  to  build  six  frij^ates, 
and  to  procure  ten  smaller  ves.sels  to  be  C(iuipped 
as  galley.s.  Negotiations,  however,  continued 
to  goon,"  and  in  SepteniVier,  1795.  a  treaty  with 
the  Dey  was  concluded.  ' '  In  making  this  treaty, 
however,  we  had  been  obliged  to  follow  the 
usage  of  European  powers  —  not  only  pay  a  large 
sum  for  the  purpo.se  of  obtaining  peace,  but  an 
annual  tribute,  in  order  to  ke(!p  our  vessels  from 
being  captured  in  the  future.  The  total  cost  of 
fuimiing  the  treaty  was  estimated  at  $992,- 
463.25." — E.  Schuyler,  Ameriaiii  Diplomiuij,  pt. 
4. — "The  tirst  treaty  of  1795.  with  Algiers, 
which  was  negotiated  during  Washington's  ad- 
ministration, cost  the  United  States,  for  tlie  ran- 
som of  American  captives,  and  the  Dey's  forbear- 
ance, around  $1,000,000,  in  addition  to  which  an 
annuity  was  jjroinised.  Treaties  with  other  Bar- 
bary i^tatcs  followed,  one  of  which  purcliaseil 
peace  from  Tripoli  by  the  payment  of  a  gross 
sum.  Nearly  $3,000,000  had  been  squandered 
thus  far  in  bribing  these  powers  to  respect  our 
flag,  and  President  Adams  complained  in  1800 
that  the  United  States  had  to  pay  three  times  the 
tribute  Imposed  upon    Swcdcu  and  Deumurk. 


268 


BJUBAUY  STATES,  1785-1801. 


D*'ratHr'H 
Exploit. 


BAUBARY  STATES,  1803-18015. 


But  tliis  toniporizin^;  policy  only  mndo  mnUprs 
worse.  C'liptiiiii  Bainl)ri(lKc  iirrivcd  iit  AlgicTs 
ill  1800,  benriiig  tlic  annuiil  ti'lbut,(!  money  for  tlio 
I)('3'  in  II  niitioiiiil  frigiite,  aiul  tlie  Dey  ordered 
liiiii  to  proceed  to  Constimtinople  to  deliver  Al- 
ijerino  dispatches.  '  English,  French,  and  Span- 
ish ships  of  war  have  done  the  same,' said  the 
Dey,  insolently,  when  Bainbridgo  and  the  Ameri- 
can consul  remonstrated.  '  You  pay  me  tribute 
because  you  are  my  slaves. '  Bainbridf^e  had  lO 
obey.  .  .  .  Tlie  lesser  Barbary  States  were  still 
more  exasperating.  The  Bashaw  of  'I'ripoli  had 
threatened  to  seize  American  vessi'ls  unless 
President  Adams  sent  him  a  present  like  that 
bestowed  upon  Algiers.  The  Bashaw  of  Tunis 
made  a  similar  demand  iipon  the  new  President 
[Jefferson].  .  .  .  Jefferson  had,  while  in  Wash- 
ington's cabinet,  expressed  his  (U'testation  of  the 
method  hitherto  favored  for  pacifying  these  pests 
of  commerce ;  and,  availing  himself  of  the  pres- 
ent favonible  opportunity,  lie  sent  out  (Commo- 
dore Dale  with  a  squadron  of  three  frigates  and 
a  sloop  of  war,  to  make  a  naval  demonstration 
on  the  coast  of  Barbary.  .  .  .  Commodore  Dale, 
upon  arriving  at  Gibraltar  [July,  1801],  found 
two  Triijolitan  cruisers  watcliing  for  American 
vessf's;  for,  as  had  been  suspected,  Tripoli 
already  meditated  war.  Tlie  frigate  Pliiladelphia 
blockaded  these  vessels,  while  Baiubridge,  with 
tUo  frigate  Essex,  convoyed  American  vessels  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Dale,  in  the  frigate  Presi- 
dent, proceeded  to  cruise  off  Tripoli,  followed 
by  the  »''hooner  Experiment,  which  presently 
captured  a  Tripolitim  cruiser  of  14  guns  after 
a  spirited  actio.?.  The  Barbary  powers  were  for 
a  time  overawed,  and  the  United  States  thus  set 
the  first  example  among  Christian  nations  of 
making  reprisals  instead  of  ransom  the  rule  of 
security  against  these  commercial  marauders. 
In  this  respect  Jefferson's  conduct  was  applauded 
at  liome  by  men  of  all  parties." — J.  Schoulcr, 
JlUt.  of  the  U.  S.,  ch.  5,  sect.  1  (v.  3). 

Also  in:  11.  L.  Playfair,  T/te  Scourr/c  of  Chris- 
tendom, ch.  10. 

A.  D.  1803-1805. — American  War  with  the 
pirates  of  Tripoli. — "The  war  with  Tripoli 
dragged  tediously  along,  and  seemed  no  nearer 
its  end  at  the  close  of  1803  than  18  months  be- 
fore. Commodore  Morris,  whom  the  President 
sent  to  command  the  jSIediterranean  squadron, 
cruised  from  port  to  port  between  May,  1802, 
and  August,  1803,  convoying  merchant  vessels 
from  Gibraltar  to  Leghorn  and  JIalta,  or  lay  in 
liarbor  and  repaired  his  ships,  but  neither  block- 
aded nor  molested  Tripoli ;  until  at  length,  June 
21,  1803,  the  President  called  him  home  and  dis- 
missed him  from  the  service.  His  successor 
was  Commodore  Preble,  who  Sept.  12,  1803, 
reached  Gibraltar  with  the  relief-squadron  which 
Secretary  Gallatin  thought  unnecessarily  strong. 
...  He  found  Morocco  taking  part  with 
Tripoli.  Captain  Bainbridge,  who  reached  Gib- 
raltar in  the  'Philadelphia'  August  24,  some 
tliree  weeks  before  Preble  arrived,  caught  in  the 
neighborhood  a  Moorish  cruiser  of  22  guns  vitli 
an  American  brig  in  its  clutches.  Another 
American  brig  liiul  just  been  seized  at  Mogador. 
Determined  to  stop  this  peril  at  the  outset, 
I'reble  united  to  his  own  squadron  the  ships 
which  he  had  come  to  relieve,  and  -with  this 
combined  force,  .  .  .  sending  the  '  Pliiladelphia ' 
to  blockade  Tripoli,  he  crossed  to  Tangiers 
October  0,  and  brought  the  Emperor  of  Morocco 


to  reason.  On  both  sides  prizes  and  prisoners 
w<'re  restored,  and  the  old  treaty  was  renewed. 
This  'iffair  consumed  time;  ami  when  at  length 
Preble  got  the  '  Constitution '  under  way  for  the 
Tripolitan  coast,  he  spoke  a  British  frigate  off 
the  Island  of  Sardinia,  which  reported  that  the 
'Philadelphia'  had  been  captureil  October  21, 
more  than  three  weeks  before.  Bainbridge, 
cruising  off  Tripoli,  had  chased  a  Tripolitan 
cruiser  into  shoal  water,  and  was  hauling  off, 
when  the  frigate  struck  on  a  reef  at  the  mouth 
of  the  harbor.  Every  effort  was  made  without 
success  to  float  her;  but  at  la.st  she  was  sur- 
rounded by  Tripolitan  gunboats,  and  Bainbridge 
struck  his  flag.  The  Tripolitans.  after  a  few 
days  work,  floated  the  frigate,  and  brought  her 
under  the  guns  of  the  castle.  The  olIl(«rs  be- 
came prisoners  of  war,  and  the  crew,  in  number 
300  or  more,  were  iiut  to  hard  labor.  The  affair 
was  in  no  way  discreditable  to  the  squadron. 
.  .  .  The  Tripolitans  gained  nothing  except  the 
jirisoncrs ;  for  at  Bainbridge 's  suggestion  Preble, 
some  time  afterward,  ordered  Stephen  Decatur, 
a  young  lieutenant  in  command  of  the  'Enter- 
prise,' to  take  a  captured  Tripolitan  craft  re- 
named the  'Intrepid,'  and  with  a  crew  of  75 
men  to  sail  from  Syracuse,  enter  the  harbor  of 
Tripoli  by  night,  board  the  'Philadelphia,' and 
burn  her  under  the  castle  guns.  The  order  was 
literally  obeyed.  Decatur  ran  into  the  harbor 
at  ten  o'clock  in  the  night  of  Feb.  16,  1804, 
boarded  the  frigate  within  half  gun-shot  of  the 
Pacha's  castle,  drove  the  Tripolitan  crew  over- 
board, set  the  ship  on  fire,  remained  alongside 
until  the  flames  were  beyond  control,  and  then 
withdrew  without  losing  a  man." — H.  Adams, 
Hist,  of  the  U.  8. :  Administration  of  Jefferson, 
V.  2,  e?i.  7. — "Commodore  Preble,  in  the  mean- 
time, hurried  his  preparations  for  more  serious 
work,  and  on  July  35th  arrived  off  Tripoli  with 
a  squadron,  consisting  of  the  fiigate  Constitu- 
tion, three  brigs,  three  schooners,  six  gunboats, 
and  two  bomb  vessels.  Opposed  to  him  were 
arrayed  over  a  hundred  guns  mounted  on  shore 
batteries,  nineteen  gunboats,  one  ten-gun  brig, 
two  schooners  mounting  eight  guns  each,  and 
twelve  galleys.  Between  August  3rd  and  Sep- 
tember 3rd  five  attacks  were  made,  and  though 
the  town  was  never  reduced,  substantial  damage 
was  inflicted,  and  the  subsequent  satisfactory 
peace  rendered  possible.  Preble  was  relieved 
by  Barron  in  September,  not  because  of  any  loss 
of  confidence  in  his  ability,  but  from  exigencies 
of  the  service,  which  forbade  the  Government 
sc  "di'.ig  out  an  oHicer  junior  to  him  in  the  relief 
squidron  which  reinforced  his  own.  Upon  his 
return  to  the  United  States  he  was  iiresented 
with  a  gold  medal,  and  the  thanks  of  Congress 
were  tendered  him,  his  otlicors,  and  men,  for 
gallant  n>  1  faithful  services.  The  blockade 
was  main  1  ued  vigorously,  and  in  1805  an  attack 
was  made  upon  the  Tripolitan  town  of  Derna, 
by  a  combined  land  and  naval  force ;  the  former 
being  under  command  of  Consul-General  Eaton, 
who  had  been  a  captain  in  the  American  army, 
and  of  Lieutenant  O'Bannou  of  the  Marines. 
The  enemy  made  a  spirited  though  disorganized 
defence,  but  the  shells  of  the  war-ships  drove 
them  from  point  to  point,  and  finally  their  prin- 
cipal work  was  carried  by  the  force  under 
O'Bannon  and  Jlidshipmau  Mann.  Eaton  was 
eager  to  press  forward,  but  he  was  denied  rein- 
forcements and  military  stores,  and  much  of  his 


264 


BARBARY  STATES,  180»-1806. 


Bombardment 
u/  Algieri. 


BARBARY  STATES,  1816. 


adviuitngc  was  lost.  All  further  openitloiis 
w<Ti',  however,  (liseontinueil  in  Ju  .'\  1805, 
when,  niter  the  ii.stiul  inlrifjues,  ilelay.s,  iiiid 
prevuriciitidiis,  a  Ire.ity  was  signed  by  the 
i'asim,  whieh  ])ri)\  ided  that  no  further  trilmto 
should  be  exaeted,  and  tliat  Anieriean  ve.ssels 
should  'le  forever  free  of  his  rovers.  Satisfac- 
tory as  was  this  conclusion,  tlie  uncomfortable 
fact  remains  that  tribute  entered  into  the  settle- 
ment. After  all  the  prisoners  had  been  ex- 
changed man  for  man,  the  Tripolitan  Govern- 
ment demanded,  and  the  United  States  paid,  the 
handsome  sum  of  si.\ty  thousand  dollars  to 
close  the  contract.  This  treaty,  however, 
awakened  the  conscience  of  Europe,  and  from 
the  day  it  was  signed  the  power  of  tlie  Uarbary 
Corsairs  began  to  wane.  The  older  countries 
saw  their  duty  more  clearly,  and  ceased  to  legalize 
robbery  on  the  high  seas." — S.  Lauo-Poolu, 
Story  of  the  liarbary  Vur»air»,  eh.  20. 

Also  in  :  J.  P.  Cooper,  Hist,  (if  the  U.  8. 
Navy,  V.  1,  eh.  18  and  t.  2,  ch,  1-7. — The  same. 
Life  of  I'rchlc. — A.  S.  .Mackenzie,  Life  of  Deca- 
tur, ch.  3-7. 

A.  D.  1815.— Final  War  of  Algiers  with  the 
United  States. — Death-blow  to  Algerine 
piracy. — ".Just  as  the  late  war  with  Great 
Britain  broke  out,  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  taking 
offense  at  not  having  received  from  America  the 
precise  articles  in  the  way  of  tribute  demanded, 
had  unceremoniously  dismissed  Lear,  the  consul, 
had  declared  war,  and  had  since  captured  an 
American  vessel,  and  reduced  her  crew  to 
slavery.  Immediately  after  the  ratification  of 
the  treaty  with  England,  this  declaration  had 
been  reciprocated.  Efforts  liad  been  at  once 
made  to  fit  out  ships,  new  and  old,  including 
several  small  ones  lately  purchased  for  the  pro- 
posed squadrons  of  Porter  and  Perry,  and  before 
many  weeks  Decatur  saded  from  New  York 
with  the  Guerriiire,  Macedonian,  and  Constel- 
lation frigates,  now  rideased  from  blockade ;  the 
Ontario,  new  sloop  of  war,  four  brigs,  and  two 
schooners.  Two  days  after  passing  Gibralter,  ho 
fell  in  with  and  captured  an  Algerine  frigate  of 
44  guns,  the  largest  ship  in  the  Algerine  navy, 
which  struck  to  the  Ouerrifire  after  a  running 
light  of  twenty-live  minutes.  A  day  or  two 
after,  an  Algerine  brig  was  chased  into  shoal 
water  on  the  Spanish  coast,  and  captured  by  the 
smaller  vessels.  Decatur  having  appeared  oil 
Algiers,  the  terrified  Dey  at  once  consented  to  a 
treaty,  which  he  submitted  to  sign  on  Decatur's 
quarter  deck,  surrendering  all  prisoners  on  hand, 
making  certain  pecuniary  indemnities,  renouncing 
all  futuni  claim  to  any  American  tribute  or 
presents,  and  the  practice,  also,  of  reducing 
prisoners  of  war  to  slavery.  Decatur  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Timis  and  Tripoli,  and  obtained  from 
both  indcnuiity  for  certain  American  vessels 
captured  under  the  guns  of  their  forts  by  British 
cruisers  during  the  late  war.  The  Bey  of 
Tripoli  being  short  of  cash,  Decatur  agreed  to 
accept  in  part  payment  the  restoration  of  liberty 
to  eight  Danes  and  two  Neapolitans  held  as 
slaves." — R.  llildrcth,  Hint,  of  the  U.  S.,  Second 
Series,  ch.  30  (p.  3). 

Also  in:  A.  S.  JIackenzio,  Life  of  Decatur,  ch. 
18-14. 

A.  D.  1816.— Bombardment  of  Al|;iers  by 
Lord  Exmouth. — Relinquishment  of  Christian 
slavery  in  Algiers,  Tripolis  and  Tunis. — "The 
corsairs  of   Barbary   still  scoured   the  Mediter- 


ranean; the  eai)tives,  whom  they  had  taken  from 
{Christian  vessels,  still  languished  iii  eaptivilv  in 
Algiers;  and,  to  the  disgrace  of  the  civilized 
world,  a  piratical  state  was  suffered  to  exist  in 
its  very  centr<'.  .  .  .  The  C(m<'lusion  of  the  war 
[of  the  Coalition  against  N'a])oleon  and  France | 
made  the  continuance  of  the.se  ravages  utterly 
intolerable.  In  the  interests  of  civilization  it 
was  essential  that  piracy  shoidd  be  put  down; 
Britain  was  mistress  of  the  seas,  and  it  therefore 
devolved  upon  her  to  do  the  work.  .  .  .  Happily 
for  this  country  the  Mediterranean  command  was 
held  by  anodicer  I  Lord  Exmouth  |  whose  bravery 
and  sliill  were  fully  (Mpi.tl  to  the  dangers  before 
him.  .  .  .  Early  in  181(1  Exmouth  was  instructed 
to  proceed  to  ilie  several  stales  of  Barbary ;  to 
re(|uin;  them  to  recognize  the  cession  of  the 
Ionian  Islands  to  Britain;  to  conclude  peace  with 
the  kingdoms  of  Sardinia  an<l  Naples;  and  to 
abolish  Christian  slavery.  The  Dey  of  Algiers 
readily  assented  to  the  two  first  of  these  condi- 
tions; the  Beys  of  Tripolis  and  Tunis  followed 
the  example  of  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  and  in  addi- 
tion consented  to  refrain  in  future  from  treating 
l)risoners  of  war  as  slaves.  Exmouth  thereupon 
returned  to  Algiers,  anil  endeavoured  to  obtain  a 
similar  concession  from  the  Dey.  The  Dey 
pleaded  that  Algiers  was  subject  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte,"  and  obtained  a  truce  of  three  months  in 
order  to  confer  witli  the  Sultan.  But  meantime 
the  Algerincs  made  an  luiprovoked  attack  upon 
a  neighbouring  coral  fishery,  which  was  pro- 
tected by  the  British  flag,  massacring  the  fisher- 
men and  destroying  the  flag.  This  brought 
Exmouth  back  to  Algiers  in  great  haste,  with  au 
ultimatum  which  he  delivered  on  the  27th  of 
August.  No  answer  to  it  was  returned,  and  the 
fleet  (which  had  been  joined  by  some  vessels  of 
the  Dutch  navy)  sailed  into  battle  range  that 
same  afternoon.  "  The  Algorines  permitted  the 
ships  to  move  into  their  stations.  The  British 
reserved  their  fire  till  they  could  deliver  it 
with  good  effect.  A  crowd  of  spectators 
watched  the  ships  from  the  shore;  and  Exmouth 
waved  his  hat  to  them  to  move  and  save  them- 
selves from  the  fire.  They  had  not  the  prudence 
to  avail  themselves  of  his  timely  warning.  A 
signal  shot  was  fired  by  the  Algeriues  from  the 
mole.  The  'Queen  Charlotte'  replied  by 
delivering  her  entire  broadside.  Five  hundred 
men  were  struck  down  by  the  first  discharge. 
.  .  .  The  battle,  which  had  thus  beguu  at  two 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  continued  till  ten  o'clock 
in  the  evening.  By  that  time  half  Algiers  had 
been  destroyed ;  the  whole  of  the  Algerine  navy 
had  been  burned;  and,  though  a  few  of  the 
enemy's  batteries  still  maintained  a  casual  fire, 
their  principal  fortifications  were  cnunbling 
ruins;  the  majority  of  their  guns  were  dis- 
mouuted."  The  Dey  humbled  himself  to  the 
terms  proposed  by  the  British  commander.  "On 
the  first  day  of  September  Exmouth  had  the 
satisfaction  of  acquainting  his  government  with 
the  liberation  of  all  the  slaves  in  the  city  of 
Algiers,  and  the  restitution  of  the  money  i)aid 
since  tlie  commencement  of  the  year  by  the 
Neapolitan  and  Sardinian  Governments  for  the 
redemption  of  slaves."  He  had  also  extorted 
from  the  piratical  Dey  a  solemn  declaration  that 
he  would,  in  future  wars,  treat  all  prisoners 
according  to  the  usages  of  European  nations. 
In  the  battle  which  won  these  important  results, 
"  138  men  wero   killed   and   090   wounded  on 


265 


UAUBAHY  STATES,  1810. 


Algler» 
Subdued. 


BARBARY  STATES,  1830-1846. 


boiml  tlip  British  fleet ;  the  Diiteli  lost  13  killed 
and  ry2  wounded." — 8.  Wiilpole,  IIi»t.  of  Kinj. 
from  1815,  ch.  2  (r.  1). 

Also  in:  II.  Mnrtineaii,  IIi»t.  of  the  riiirty 
Tears  Peace,  bk.  1,  ch.  6  (c.  1).— L.  Ilertslet, 
OolUctii/ii  of  Treittie*  uitd  Coittentionn,  v.  1. 

A.  D.  1830. — French  conquest  of  Algiers. — 
"DuriuK  llie  Niipoleonie  wars,  the  Dey  of  Al- 
giers sii|)pli('<l  grain  for  tlie  use  of  the  Fr<'iuh 
armies;  it  was  bouglit  by  mereliants  of  .Mar- 
seille.s,  and  there  was  a  dispute  about  tlie  niiiltir 
wliicli  was  unsettled  as  late  as  1829.  Several  in- 
stalments liad  been  paid;  tlie  dey  demanded 
payment  in  full  nceonling  to  his  own  figures, 
while  ilie  French  government,  believing  tlie  de- 
mand exee.ssive,  required  an  investigation.  In 
one  of  tlio  numerous  debates  on  the  subject, 
Ilussiein  Paslia,  the  reigning  dey,  became  very 
angry,  struclt  tlie  consul  with  a  fan,  and  ordered 
him  out  of  tlie  house.  lie  refused  "ll  reparation 
for  the  insult,  even  on  the  formal  demand  of  the 
French  government,  and  conseipiently  there  was 
no  alternative  but  war."  Tlie  expedition  launched 
from  the  port  of  Toulon,  for  the  chastisement  of 
the  insolent  Algerine,  "compri.sed  37,.W()  men, 
3,000  horses,  and  180  pieces  of  artillery.  .  .  . 
The  sea-forces  included  11  ships  of  tlie  "line,  23 
frigates,  70  smaller  ves.sels,  377  transports,  and 
830  boats  for  landing  troops.  General  Uourmont, 
Minister  of  War,  commanded  the  expedition, 
which  appeared  in  front  of  Algiers  on  tlie  13th 
of  June,  1830."  Hussein  Pasha  "had  previously 
asked  for  aid  from  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  but 
that  wily  ruler  had  blankly  refu.sed.  The  beys 
of  Tunis  and  Tripoli  had  also  declined  to  medclle 
with  the  affair."  The  landing  of  the  Freni'h 
was  effected  safely  and  without  serious  oppo.si- 
tion,  at  Sidi-Ferruch,  about  16  miles  west  of 
Algiers.  The  Algerine  army,  40,000  to  50,000 
strong,  commanded  by  Aga  Ibrahim,  son-in-law 
of  the  dey,  took  its  position  on  the  table-land  of 
Staoueli,  overlooking  the  French,  where  it  waited 
while  their  landing  was  miuie.  On  the  19th 
General  IJourmont  was  ready  to  advance.  His 
antagonist,  instead  of  adhering  to  the  waiting 
attitude,  and  forcing  the  French  to  attack  liiiii, 
on  his  own  ground,  now  went  out  to  meet  tlieiii, 
and  flung  his  disorderly  mob  against  their  dis- 
ciplined battalions,  with  the  result  that  seldorti 
fails.  "The  Arab  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  about  3,000,  .  .  .  while  the  French  loss  was 
less  than  500.  In  little  more  than  an  hour  the 
buttle  was  over,  and  the  Osmaulis  were  in  full 
and  disorderly  retreat."  General  Bourmont  took 
possession  of  the  Algerine  camp  at  Staoueli, 
wliere  he  was  again  attiicked  on  the  24tli  of 
June,  with  a  similar  disjistrous  result  to  the  Arabs. 
Ho  then  advanced  uiwii  the  city  of  Algiers, 
established  his  army  in  jxisition  behind  the  city, 
constructed  batteries,  and  oiieued,  on  the  4th  of 
July,  a  bombardment  so  terrific  that  the  dey 
hoisted  the  white  flag  in  a  few  hours.  "  Hussein 
Pasha  hoixid  to  the  last  moment  to  retain  his 
country  and  its  indeiiendence  by  making  liberal 
conces.sions  in  the  way  of  indemnity  *or  tlie  ex- 
]x;nses  of  the  war,  and  offered  to  liberate  all 
Christian  slaves  in  addition  to  paying  them  for 
their  services  and  sufferings.  The  English  con- 
sul tried  to  mediate  on  this  basis,  but  his  offers 
of  mecllation  were  politely  declined.  ...  It  was 
finally  agreed  that  the  dey  should  surrender 
Algiers  with  all  its  forts  and  military  stores,  and 
be  permitted  to  retire  wherever  he  chose  with 


his  wives,  children,  and  personal  belongings, 
but  he  was  not  to  remain  in  the  country  under 
any  circumstances.  On  the  5tli  of  July  the 
French  entered  Algiers  in  gr:>at  pomp  aiuf  took 
possession  of  the  city.  .  .  .  The  spoils  of  war 
were  such  as  rarely  tall  to  the  lot  of  a  cou(|uer- 
ing  army,  when  its  numbers  and  the  circumstan- 
ces of  the  campaign  are  considered.  In  the 
treasury  was  fouiui  a  large  room  filled  with  gold 
and  .<ilver  coins  heaped  together  indiscriminately, 
the  fruits  of  three  centuries  of  piracy;  they  were 
the  coins  of  all  the  nations  that  had  suffered 
from  the  depredations  of  the  Algerines,  and  the 
variety  in  tlie  dates  showed  very  clearly  that 
the  accumulation  had  been  the  work  of  two 
or  three  hundred  years.  How  much  money 
was  contained  in  this  vast  pile  is  not  known; 
certain  it  is  that  nearly  50,000,000  francs,  or 
£2,000,000  sterling,  actually  reached  the  French 
treasury.  .  .  .  The  cost  of  the  war  was  much  more 
than  covered  by  the  captured  property.  .  .  . 
Jlany  slaves  were  liberated.  .  .  .  The  Algerine 
power  was  forever  broken,  and  from  that  day 
Algeria  has  been  a  prosperous  colony  of  France. 
TIu'  .sein  Pasha  embarked  on  the  10th  of  July  with 
a  suite  of  110  persons,  of  whom  55  were  women. 
He  proceeded  to  Naples,  where  he  remained  for 
a  time,  went  afterwards  to  Leghorn,  and  finally 
to  Egypt."  In  Egypt  he  died,  under  circum- 
stances which  indicated  poison. — T.  W.  Knox, 
Decisive  Battles  Since  Waterloo,  eh.  5. 

Ai.so  IN:  R.  L.  Playfair,  Tlie  Scourge  of  Ghria- 
teiulom,  ch.  19. — E.  E.  Crowe,  Hist,  of  the  Iteigna 
oflMiiis  XVIIT.  and  Charles  X.,  v.  2,  ch.  13. 

A.  D.  1830-1846.— The  French  war  of  Sub- 
jugation in  Algeria  with  Abd-el-Kader. — 
"  When  Louis  Philippe  ascended  the  throne  [of 
France,  A.  D.  1830]  the  generals  of  lii."  predeces- 
sor had  overrun  the  country  [of  Algiers]  — 
though  they  did  not  effectually  subdue  it ;  their 
absolute  dominion  not  extending  far  round  Al- 
giers—  from  Bona,  on  the  east,  in  lat.  36°  53'  N., 
long.  7°  46'  W.,  to  Oran,  on  the  west  —  nearly 
the  entire  extent  of  the  ancient  Libya.  .  .  . 
There  was  always  a  party  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies  oppo.sed  to  the  concjuest  who  deprecated 
tlie  colonisation  of  Algeria,  and  who  steadily  op- 
posed any  grants  of  either  men  or  money  to  bo 
devoted  to  the  African  enterprise.  The  natural 
result  followed.  Ten  thousand  men  could  not 
effect  the  work  for  which  40,000  were  required; 
and,  whilst  the  young  colony  languished,  the 
natives  became  emboldened,  and  encouraged  to 
make  that  resistance  which  cost  the  French  so 
dear.  Marshal  Clausel,  when  entrusted  with  the 
government  of  the  colony,  and  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  troops  .  .  .  established  a  series  of 
fortified  posts,  which  were  adequately  garrisoned ; 
and  roads  were  opened  to  enable  the  garrisons 
promptly  to  communicate  with  each  other. 
These  positions,  rapidly  acquired,  he  was  unable 
to  maintain,  iu  consequence  of  the  home  govern- 
ment recalling  the  greater  part  of  his  force.  To 
recruit  his  army  he  resolved  to  enlist  some  corps 
of  the  natives;  and,  in  October,  1830,  the  first 
regiment  of  zouaves  was  raised."  ...  In  1833 
we  "  fli-st  hear  of  Abd-el-Kader.  This  chief  was 
the  son  of  a  marabout,  or  priest,  in  tlie  ])rovinco 
of  Oran.  He  united  consummate  ability  with 
great  valour;  was  a  devout  Moliammedan;  and 
when  he  raised  the  standard  of  the  prophet,  he 
called  the  Arabs  around  him,  with  the  fullest  con- 
fidence of  success.    His  countrj  men  obeyed  his 


266 


BARBARY  STATES,  1830-1840.      AMei-K<uirr.     BARBARY  STATES,  1830-1840. 


call  in  groat  numhrrs;  ami,  rnroiiragcd  by  tlie 
entliusiasiii  tlicy  (lispliiy<'il,  lu!  llrst,  iit  tlio  close 
of  1833,  proclaiiiu'd  liiin.sclf  t'inirof  Tli'iiiscn  (the 
forriKT  niiiiie  of  Oriiii),  and  then  seized  on  tlio 
port  of  Ar/.ew,  on  tlie  west  sid((  of  tlic  gulf  of 
tliatnamc;  and  the  port  of  Mostaganem,  on  the 
opposite  coast.  The  province!  of  Mascara,  lying 
at  tiie  foot  of  the  Atlas,  was  also  under  his  rule. 
At  that  time  general  Desniiehels  commanded  at 
Oran.  lie  had  not  a  very  large  force,  but  he 
acted  promptly.  .Marching  against  AbdelKader, 
1:0  defeated  him  in  two  pitched  battles;  retook 
Arzew  and  Mo.staganem;  and,  on  the  2(lth  of 
February,  1834,  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the 
emir,  by  whieli  both  parties  were  liound  to  keep 
the  peace  towardseacli  other.  During  that  year 
the  terms  were  ob.served;  but,  in  183."),  the  Arab 
chief  again  commenced  hostilities.  He  marched 
to  the  east,  entered  the  French  territories,  and 
took  possession  of  J[edeali,  being  receive  "  with 
tlie  utmost  joy  by  the  inhabitants.  On  the  20th 
of  June,  general  Trezel,  with  only  3.300  men, 
marched  against  him.  Abd-el-Kader  had  8,000 
Arabs  under  his  command ;  and  a  sanguinary 
combat  took  place  in  the  deliles  of  .Moidey-Ismnel. 
After  a  severe  combat,  the  French  forced  the 
passage,  b\it  with  considerable  loss.  .  .  .  The 
French  general,  tinding  liis  positi(m  untenable, 
commenced  a  retrograde  movementon  the28lli  of 
June.  In  his  retreat  he  was  pursued  by  the  Arabs ; 
and  before  he  reached  Oran,  on  the  4th  of  Jidy, 
he  lost  all  his  waggons,  train,  and  baggage ;  be- 
sides having  ten  olllcers,  and  'i'ri  sous-ollicers 
and  rank-and-tile  killed,  and  308  wounded.  The 
heads  of  many  of  the  killed  were  displayed  in 
triumph  by  the  victors.  This  was  a  severe  blow 
to  the  French,  and  the  cause  of  great  rejoicing 
to  the  Arabs.  The  former  called  for  marshal 
Clausel  to  be  restored  to  bis  command,  and  the 
govennnent  at  home  complied ;  at  the  same  time 
issuing  a  proclamation,  declaring  tliat  Algeria 
should  not  be  abandoned,  but  that  the  honour  of 
the  French  arms  should  be  maintained.  The 
marshal  left  France  on  the  28th  of  July;  and  as 
soon  as  he  landed,  he  organised  an  expedition 
against  Slascara,  which  was  Abd-el-  Kader's  capi- 
tal. .  .  .  The  Arab  chieftain  advanced  to  meet  the 
enemy;  but,  being  twice  defeated,  he  resolved  to 
abandon  his  capital,  which  tlic  French  entered 
on  the  0th  of  December,  and  found  completely 
deserted.  Tlw  streets  and  houses  were  alike 
empty  and  desolate;  and  the  only  living  creature 
they  encountered  was  an  old  woman,  lying  on 
some  mats,  wlio  could  not  move  of  hereelf,  and 
had  been  either  forgotten  or  abandoned.  The 
French  set  lire  to  the  deserted  houses ;  and  having 
effected  the  destruction  of  Mascara,  they  marched 
to  Mostaganem,  which  Clausel  determined  to 
make  the  centre  of  F/encli  power  in  that  dis- 
trict."—  Thos.  AVrif^'.it.  History  of  France,  v.  3, 
m>.  033-035. — "  A.  camp  was  established  on  the 
Taafna  in  April  1830,  and  an  action  took  place 
there  on  the  2oth,  when  the  Tableau  states  that 
3,000  French  engaged  10,000  natives;  and  some 
of  the  enemies  being  troops  of  ^Morocco,  an  ex- 
planation was  required  of  JIuley-Abd-er-Rach- 
man,  the  emperor,  who  said  that  the  assistance 
was  given  to  the  Algcrines  witliout  his  knowledge. 
On  July  01  h,  1830,  Abd-el-Kader  suffered  a  dis- 
astrous'defeat  on  the  river  Sikkak,  near  Tlemsen, 
at  the  hands  of  Marshal  Bugeaud.  November 
1830,  the  first  expedition  was  formed  against 
Constantina,  .  .  .  After  the  failure  of  Clauzel, 
18 


26 


General  Damremont  was  appointed  governor, 
Fi'b.  12th,  18:t7;  and  (m  the  3Uth  of  May  the 
treaty  of  the  Taafna  between  GcMKTal  Hugeaud 
and  AbdelKader  left  the  French  government  at 
liberty  to  direct  all  their  attention  against  ("on- 
stanlina,  a  camp  being  formed  at  .Medjoy-el- 
Ahmar  in  that  direction.  An  army  of  l(i,00ii 
men  set  out  thence  on  the  1st  of  October,  1837, 
for  Constantina.  On  the  0th  it  arrived  before 
(-onstantina;  and  on  the  13th  the  town  was  taken 
with  a  severe  loss,  including  Damremont.  Mar- 
shal Vallee  succeeded  Damremont  as  governor. 
The  fall  of  (,'onstaniina  destroyed  the  last  relic 
of  the  old  Turkish  govennnent.  .  .  .  Hythe2*th 
January,  1838,  100  tribes  had  subnntted  to  the 
French.  A  road  was  cleare<l  in  Ajiril  by  (Jeneral 
Negrier  from  Constantina  to  Stora  on  the  sea. 
Tills  road,  passing  by  the  camiis  of  Smcndou  and 
the  Arroiich,  was  22  leagues  in  length.  The 
coast  of  the  Bay  of  Stora,  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Rusicada,  became  covered  with  French 
settlers:  and  I'hilippeville  was  founded  Oct.  1838, 
threatening  to  supplant  Bona.  Abd-i'lKader 
advaii  ing  in  December  1837  to  the  province  of 
Constantina,  the  French  advanced  also  to  observe 
him;  then  both  retired,  without  coining  to  blows. 
A  misunderstanding  which  arosc^  respecting  the 
second  artieleof  the  treaty  of  Taafna  was  settled 
in  the  beginning  of  1838.  .  .  .  Wlien  Abd-el- 
Kader  assumed  the  royal  title  of  Sultan  and  the 
command  of  a  numerous  army,  the  French,  with 
re])ublican  charity  and  fraternal  .sympathy, 
sought  to  infringe  tlie  Taafna  treaty,  and  embroil 
tlie  Arab  hero,  in  order  to  ruin  his  rising  empire, 
and  found  their  own  on  its  ashes.  The  Kmir  had 
been  recognised  by  the  whole  country,  from  the 
gates  of  Ouchda  to  the  river  Alijerda,  .  .  .  The 
war  was  resumed,  and  many  French  razzias  took 
jilace.  They  once  marched  a  large  force  from 
Algiers  on  INlilianah  to  surprise  the  sultan's  camp. 
They  failed  in  tlieir  chief  object,  but  nearly  cap- 
tured the  sultan  himself,  lie  was  surrounded  in 
the  middle  of  a  French  sepiare,  which  thought 
itself  sureot  the  rewardof  100,o00francs(E4,0O0) 
offered  for  him ;  but  uttering  his  favourite  '  en- 
sliallair  (with  the  will  of  Ood),  he  gave  his  white 
horse  the  spur,  and  came  over  their  bayonets  un- 
wounded.  lie  lost,  however  thirty  of  his  body- 
guard and  friends,  but  killed  six  Frenchmen 
witli  his  own  hand.  Still,  notwithstanding  his 
successes,  Abd-el-Kader  had  been  losing  all  his 
former  power,  as  his  Arabs,  though  brave,  could 
not  match  P"  000  French  troops,  with  artillery 
and  all  the  oilier  ornaments  of  civilised  warfare. 
Seven  actions  were  fought  at  the  Col  de  Mouzaia, 
where  the  Arabs  were  overthrown  by  the  royal 
dukes,  in  1841 ;  and  at  the  Oued  Foddha,  where 
Changarnier,  witli  a  handful  of  tnxips,  defeated 
a  whole  population  in  a  frightful  gorge.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  tliat,  having  no  gun.s,  lie  launched 
his  Chasseurs  d'Afriquc  against  the  fort,  saying, 
'  Voili  mon  nrtillerie!'  Abd-el-Kader  had  then 
only  two  chances, — the  support  of  Muley-Abd-er- 
liidiinan.  Emperor  of  Morocco;  or  the  iieace  that 
the  latter  might  conclude  witli  France  for  him. 
General  Bugeaud,  who  had  replaced  Marshal 
Vall6e,  organised  a  plan  of  campaign  b}'  movable 
columns  riuliating  from  Algiers,  Oran,  and  C'on- 
stantina;  and  having  100,000  excellent  soldiers 
at  his  disposal,  the  results  as  against  the  Emir 
were  slowly  but  surely  effective.     General  Ne- 

fricr  at  Constantina,  Cliangarnier  amongst  the 
ladjouts  about  Medcali  and  Aliliauah,  Civaiguac 

7 


UAKH.VliV  HTATE-S,   18H0-1846. 


BAHCELONA. 


iinil  Liiiuipricii'^rc  in  Onin,  —  niiricil  out  the 
c'oiiiiimiiili'riii'cliicf'H  instruc-tioiis  witli  iiiitiriiii; 
t'ncp,'y  and  jM'rsi'V('r:iiu(,';  iiiiil  in  tlic  sprliiK  "f 
IHIll  llio  Diir  il'Aunmli',  in  coinpiiny  wllli  (icn- 
rnii  C'li:in,':irnliT,  surpriswi  tlit,'  Kniir's  camp  in 
llic  iil).s<'ni'('  of  tlic  firciilcst  part  of  lil.s  force,  and 
it  was  witii  (iillicuitv  lliat  lie  lilmself  escaped. 
Not  lonK  afterwards  lie  tools  refiii?e  in  Moroeeo, 
t'.\<'ile(l  tlie  fanatical  passions  of  tlie  populace  of 
that  empire,  and  llicrcliy  forced  its  ruler,  .Muley- 
Abil-eritaliman,  nuich  aj^ainst  his  own  inclina- 
lion,  into  a  war  wiJi  Kran<te;  a  war  very  speedily 
terminated  liv  (rcncral  Hui;eaud's  victory  of  Isly, 
with  some  sli^jht  assistance  from  the  liomburd- 
mcnt  of  Tani^ier  and  MoKiwIor  by  the  I'rince  de 
JoiiiVille.  In  1845  the  stniKifle  was  maintained 
amidst  the  hills  by  the  partisansof  Abdellvadcr; 
but  our  limits  ])revent  us  from  dwelling  on  its 
particulars,  save  in  onc!  instance.  .  .  .  On  the 
night  of  tlic  lath  of  .June,  1845,  about  three 
months  before  Marshal  Uugoaud  left  Algeria, 
Colonels  Pelissicr  and  St.  Arnaiid,  at  the  head  of 
a  considerable  force,  attempted  a  ra/./.la  upon 
the  tribe  of  the  Beni-Ouled-Uiali,  numbering,  in 
men,  women,  and  children,  about  TOU  persons. 
This  was  in  the  Dahra.  The  Arabs  escaped  the 
first  clutch  of  tlieir  pursuers;  and  wlien  hard 
pres-sed,  as  they  soon  were,  t<x)k  refuge  in  tlie 
ciivo  of  Khartani,  which  had  some  oilour  of  sanc- 
tity about  it:  some  holy  man  or  maraliout  had 
lived  and  died  there,  wc  believe.  Tlie  Frendi 
troops  came  up  (|uickly  to  the  cntranc^e,  and  the 
Arabs  were  summoned  to  surrender.  Tliey  made 
no  reply.  Possibly  they  did  not  hear  the  sum- 
mons. ...  As  there  was  no  other  outlet  from 
the  cave  than  that  by  which  tlie  Arabs  entered, 
a  few  hours'  pati(Mice  must  have  been  rewarded 
by  the  unconditional  surrender  of  the  imprisoned 
tribe.  Colonels  Pcdissier  and  St.  Arnaiid  were 
(h:sirous  of  a  speedier  result;  and  Ijy  their  order 
an  immense  tire  was  liindled  at  the  moutli  of  the 
cave,  and  fed  sedulously  dtiring  tlie  summer 
night  with  wood,  grass,  reeds,  anything  that 
would  help  to  keep  up  the  volume  of  smoke  and 


flame  which  the  wind  ilrove,  in  roaring,  whirling 
eddies,  into  the  mouth  of  the  cavern.  It  was 
1(H)  late  now  for  the  unfortunate  .Vnibs  to  olTer 
to  surreniicr;  the  discharge  of  a  cannon  woulil 
not  have  Dccn  licanl  in  the  roar  of  that  liuge 
blastfurnace,  mucli  less  smoke-strangled  (Ties  of 
human  agony.  TIk-  tire  was  kept  up  throughout 
the  night;  and  when  the  day  had  fully  dawnc<l, 
the  tli(!n  expiring  emli<TS  were  kicked  aside,  and 
as  s<H)n  as  a  sulHcienl  time  Imd  elapsed  to  render 
IhcMiir  of  th(^ silent  cave  breathable,  some  soldiers 
were  directed  to  ascertain  liow  niatters  wen; 
within.  They  were  gone  but  a  few  minutes;  and 
they  came  back,  we  are  told,  pale,  trembling, 
tcri-ilied,  hardly  daring,  it  seemed,  to  confront 
the  light  of  day.  No  wonder  they  trembled  and 
looked  pale.  They  had  found  all  the  Arabs 
dead  —  men,  women,  <;hildren.  ...  St.  Arnaud 
and  Pelissicr  were  rewarded  by  the  French  min- 
ister; and  Marshal  Soult  observed,  that  'what 
would  be  a  crime  against  civilisation  'n  Europe 
miglit  be  a  justiliable  necessity  in  Africa.'  .  .  . 
A  taste  of  Frencli  bayonets  at  Isly,  and  the 
booming  of  French  guns  at  Mogador,  liatl 
brought  Morocco  to  reason.  .  .  .  Morocco  sided 
witli  France,  and  threatened  Abd-cl-Kader,  who 
cut  one  of  their  corps  to  pieces,  and  was  in  June 
on  tlie  point  of  coming  to  blows  with  Muiey-Alid- 
el-Ilahman,  the  emperor.  But  the  Emperor  of 
Morocco  took  vigorous  measures  to  oppose  him, 
nearly  exterminating  the  tribes  frieuiliy  to  him; 
which  drew  off  many  partisans  from  the  Emir, 
who  tried  to  pacify  the  emperor,  but  unsuc- 
cessfully." In  December,  1840,  "he  asked  to 
negotiate,  offered  to  surrender;  and  after  24 
hours'  discussion  he  came  to  Sidi  Braliim,  the 
scene  of  his  last  exploits  against  the  French, 
where  he  was  received  with  military  honours, 
and  conducted  to  the  Duke  of  Aumale  at  Ne- 
mours. France  has  been  severely  abused  for  the 
detention  of  Abdel-Kader  in  Ham." — ,T.  K. 
Morell,  A/i/crid,  fk.  "23. 

A.  D.  i88i. — Tunis  brought  under  the  protec- 
torate of  France.    See  Fuance  :  A.  D.  187o-1889. 


BARBES.— BARBETS.— Theeldersamong 
the  early  Waldeiises  were  called  barbes,  wliicli 
signirted  "  Uncle."  Wlu^nce  came  the  nickname 
Barbets,  applieil  to  tlie  \Valdensian  peoi)le  gen- 
erally.— B.  Comba,  Hint,  of  the  Waldenaes  of 
Italy,  p.  147. 

BARCA.    SeeCTRENE. 

BARCELONA:  A.  D.  713.— Surrender  to 
the  Arab-Moors.     See  8i'.\in':  A.  D.  711-713. 

A.  D.  1151. — The  County  joined  to  Aragon. 
See  Sp.u.v:  A.  D.  1035-1258. 

I2th-i6th  Centuries. — Commercial  prosper- 
ity and  municipal  freedom. — "The  city  of  Bar- 
celona, whicli  originally  gave  its  name  to  the 
county  of  which  it  was  the  capital,  was  distin- 
guished from  a  very  early  period  by  ample 
miuiicipal  privileges.  After  tlie  union  with  Ara- 
gon  in  the  13tli  century,  the  momirclis  of  the  lat- 
ter kinjjdom  extended  towards  it  the  same  liberal 
legislation;  so  that,  by  tlie  13th,  Barcelona  had 
reached  a  degree  of  commercial  prosperity  rival- 
ling that  of  any  of  the  Italian  republics.  She 
divided  witli  them  the  lucnitive  commerce  with 
Alexandria ;  and  her  port,  thronged  with  foreign- 
ers from  every  nation,  became  a  principal  em- 
l)orliim  in  the  Mediterranean  for  the  spices, 
drugs,  perfumes,  and  other  rich  commodities  of 
the  Eiust,  whence  tUey  were  diffused  over  the  in 


terior  of  Spain  and  the  European  continent.  Her 
consuls,  and  her  commercial  factories,  were  es- 
tablished in  every  considerable  port  in  the  .Medi- 
terranean and  in  tlie  north  of  Europe.  The  natu- 
ral products  of  her  soil,  and  her  various  domestic 
fabrics,  supplied  her  with  abunchmt  articles  of 
export.  Fine  wool  was  imported  by  her  in  con- 
siderable quantities  from  England  in  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries,  and  returned  there  manu- 
factured into  cloth ;  an  exchange  of  commodities 
the  reverse  of  that  existing  betwecm  tlio  two 
nations  at  the  present  day.  Barcelona  claims  the 
merit  of  having  established  the  flrst  bank  of 
exchange  and  deposit  in  Europe,  in  1401 ;  it  was 
devoted  to  the  accommodation  of  foreigners  as 
well  as  of  her  own  citizens.  She  claims  the  glory, 
tix),  of  having  compiled  the  most  ancient  written 
code,  among  the  moderns,  of  maritime  law  now 
extant,  digested  from  the  usages  of  commercial 
nations,  and  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  mer- 
cantile jurisprudence  of  Europe  duriu"  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  The  wealth  which  tlowcd  in  ujioii 
Barcelona,  as  the  result  of  her  activity  and  enter- 
prise, was  evinced  by  her  numerous  public  works, 
her  docks,  arsenal,  warehouses,  exchange,  hospi- 
tals, and  other  constructions  of  general  utility. 
Strangers,  who  vi.sited  Spain  in  the  14th  and  1,5th 
centuries,  expatiate  on  the  luaguiflccnce  of  tliis 


-  .:i 


UAUCEF.OXA. 


nAKNEVELDT. 


city,  Itscommodlniw  private  cdlflrM,  tlio  rlonnll- 
nciisof  its  si  reels  mill  publie  Mc(iiares  (ii  virtue  by 
no  nienns  iisiiul  in  that  duyi.  luid  on  tliu  iimenily 
«f  ItH  ;r»rili'ii.s  and  ciillivaled  enviri)iis.     lint  the 

Eeculiar  ijlory  iif  IJarcelona  was  the  freedom  of 
er  iiiiiiiielpal  institutions.  Her  government 
consisted  of  a  senate  or  rouncil  of  one  hundred, 
and  a  body  of  rei^idores  or  eounseliors,  as  they 
Were  styli'd.  varyin;?  at  times  from  four  to  six 
in  numlicr;  llic>  former  intrusted  wilii  the  lej^is- 
Jiilive,  the  latter  with  tlii?  executive  functions  of 
ndiulnistration.  A  larj;e  proportion  of  these 
bodies  weri!  selected  from  the  mercliants,  trades- 
men, and  nieclianics  of  the  city.  They  were  In- 
vested not  merely  with  municipal  authority,  but 
with  many  of  the  rights  of  soven^iu'nty.  They 
entered  into  commercial  treaties  with  foreifju 
powers;  superintended  llie  defence  of  the  city 
in  time  of  war;  provided  for  the  seciuMty  of 
trade;  jjranted  letters  of  reprisal  ajjainst  any  na- 
tion who  mi^lit  violate  it;  and  raised  ami  appro- 
priated the  public  moneys  for  the  construction 
of  useful  works,  or  the  encoura^jemeut  of  such 
commercial  adventures  as  were  too  hazardous  or 
expensive  for  individual  enterprise.  The  coun- 
sellors, who  ])re.sidedoverth(!  municipality,  were 
complimented  with  certain  lionorary  iirivileges, 
not  veil  .•iccorded  to  the  nobility.  They  were 
addressed  liy  the  title  of  maifnilicos;  were  .seated, 
with  their  lieads  covered,  in  the  presence  of  roy- 
alty; were  preceded  by  mace-bearers,  or  lietors, 
in  their  jirogress  through  the  country ;  and  depu- 
ties from  their  body  to  tlio  court  were  admitted 
oil  tlie  footini;  and  "received  the  honors  of  foreif^n 
ambassadors.  These,  it  will  be  recollected,  were 
plel)eians,-  merchants  and  mechanics.  Trade 
never  was  esteemed  a  dei^radation  in  ('ataloiiia, 
as  it  came  to  be  in  (Castile." — \V.  II.  I'rescott, 
7/('.^^  (if  the  lUiijii  (if  Finliiiniul  anil  IiuiMla,  in- 
trod.,  Ki'i'l.  3. 

A.  D.  1640.— Insurrection.  See  Sp.vin:  A.  D. 
164O-104U. 

A.  D.  1651-1652. — Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Spaniards.     SeeSi-.u\:  A.  1).  lOW-KI.Vi. 

A.  D.  1705. —  Capture  by  the  Earl  of 
Peterborough.     ScoSi-.vin:  A.  I).  nO.T 

A.  D.  1706. — Unsuccessful  siege  by  the 
French  and  Spaniards.    .See  Sp.mn:  A.  D.  170(1. 

A.  D.  1713-1714.— Betrayal  and  desertion  by 
-the  Allies. — Siege,  capture  and  massacre  by 
French  and  Spaniards.  See  Spai.n:  A.  U. 
17i:i-1714. 

A.  D.  1842. — Rebellion  and  bombardment. 
See  Spain:  A.  D.  1S:!:{-1840. 


BARCELONA,  Treaty  of.  See  Italy:  A.D. 
l.TJT-l.Vii). 

BARCIDES,  OR  BARCINE  FAMILY, 
The. — The  family  of  tlie  jjreat  Carlhai^iiiian, 
liamilcar  'Jarcii,  father  of  the  more  famous 
Hannibal.  Tlie  surname  Barca,  or  IJurcas,  given 
to  Hamilcar,  is  c(iuivalent  to  the  Hebrew  IJarak 
and  signirted  lightning. — II.  U.  Smitli,  Cart'iuge 
and  till'  C(irt/uir/<iHiiii,i,  cl'.  7. 

BARDS.     See  Fii.r. 

BARDULIA,  Ancient  Cantabria.  See 
Spain:  A.  D.  1026-1>;50. 

BARE,  The.  See  A.mehican  AuouiaiNEs: 
GucKou  Coco  GiiofP. 

BAREBONES  PARLIAMENT,  The.   See 

EniILAND:    a.    I).    lfi.");J  (•IlINK— I)K('KMIIKU). 

BARfeRE  AND  THE  COMMITTEE  OF 
PUBLIC   SAFETY.     See    France :    A.    1). 


1793  or  .Mini— .Il'NK);(SRPTP.>'ltF.K — DECEMnElO; 

TO  lTltl-17!l.',  (.Iii.Y— .Vl'liii,), 

BARKIAROK,  Seljoulc  Turkish  Sultan, 
A.  I>.  I(i!t3-ll()l. 

BARMECIDES,  OR  BARMEKIDES, 
The. —  The  liarmecides,  or  llarmekides,  famoiH 
iu  the  history  of  the  Caliphate  at  Bagdad,  ami 
made  familiar  to  all  the  world  by  the  stories  of' 
the  "  .Vnibian  N'ighls,"  were  a  family  which  rose 
to  great  power  anil  wealth  uu<ler  the  Caliph 
llarouri  .Viraschid.  It  took  its  name  from  ono 
Khaled  ibn  Barmek.  a  Tcrsian,  whose  father  had' 
been  the  "  Barmek  "  or  cuslodian  of  one  of  the 
most  celebratecl  temples  of  the  Zoroastrian  faith. 
Ivhali'd  ai'ccpted  .Mahometaiiism  and  bec.ime  0110 

of  till!   abli'st  agents  of    tli uspiracy    which 

overthre',.'  the  ()mmlail  Caliphs  and  Viiised  thu 
Abbasides  to  the  thioiie.  The  tlrst  of  the  .Vbba- 
siile  Caliphs  recogni/ed  his  ability  and  made 
him  vizier.  His  son  Yaliya  succeeded  to  his 
power  and  was  the  llrst  vizier  of  the  Tamoiis 
Ilaroun  .Viraschid.  But  it  was  .laafar,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Valiya,  who  became  the  prime 
favorite  of  Haroun  and  who  raised  the  family  of 
the  Barmecides  to  its  acme  of  splendor.  So 
much  greatness  hi  a  Persian  house  excited  wide 
Jealousy,  however,  among  the  Arabs,  and,  in  tliu 
end,  the  capricious  lord  and  master  of  the  all 
powerful  vizier  .Jaafar  turned  his  heart  against 
him,  and  against  all  his  house.  The  fall  of  tho 
Barmecides  was  made  a.s  cruel  as  their  advance- 
ment had  been  unscrupulous.  .Taafar  was  be- 
headed without  a  moment's  waniiiig;  his  father 
and  brother  were  imprisoned,  anil  a  thou.sand 
members  of  the  family  are  said  to  liave  been 
slain.- -If.  I).  Us'iorn,  IkIiuii  under  the  Klodifii  iif 
liiif/ZidHd,  pt.  3,  (•/(.  3. 

Also  in:  E.  II.  Palmer,  Ilaroun  Alnwchid, 
ch.  3. 

BARNABITES.  —  PAULINES.—  "Tho 
clerks-regular  of  St.  Paul  (Paulines),  wiiose  con- 
grcgatiou  was  founded  by  .Vntonio  .Maria 
Zachariiiof  Cremona  and  cwo  Milanese  associates 
in  l.");i3,  approviMl  by  Clement  VII.  in  I'M,  and 
continued  as  independent  by  Paul  HI.  in  l.l;i4, 
iu  X'A'i  toolc  the  name  of  Barnabites,  from  tho 
church  of  St.  Barnabas,  which  was  given  up  to 
them  at  Milan.  The  Barnabites,  who  have  been 
described  as  tho  democmtic  wing  of  tho  Tliea- 
tiiie.s,  actively  engaged  in  the  cimversiim  of 
lieretics,.  botliin  Italy  and  in  Franco  and  iu  that 
homo  of  heresy,  Bohemia." — A.  W.  Ward,  Tlie 
Counter  lieforniatioii,  j>.  39. 

BARNBURNERS.  Sec  U.nited  States  of 
A>r. :  A.  I).  1845-1840. 

BARNET,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1471).— The  do- 
cisive  battle,  and  the  last  but  ono  fought,  in  tho 
"Wars  of  tho  Hoses."  Edward  IV.,  havinji; 
been  driven  out  of  England  and  Henry  VI.  re- 
instated by  Warwick,  "tlie  King-maker,"  the 
former  returned  before  six  montlis  Iwid  pn  'd 
and  made  his  way  to  London.  Warwick  liiustciird 
to  meet  him  with  an  army  of  Laiica.strians  and 
the  two  forces  camo  together  on  Ea-ster  Sunday, 
April  14,  1471,  near  Barnet,  only  ten  miles  from 
London.  The  victory,  long  (hmbtful,  was  won 
for  tho  white  rose  of  Y()rk  and  it  was  very 
biiKxlily  achieved.  Tlio  Earl  of  Warwick  wa.s 
among  tho  slain.  See  England:  A.  D.  1455- 
1471. 

BARNEVELDT,  John  of,  The  religious 
persecution  and  death  of.  See  NiiiuiiiiLANOS: 
A.  D.  1003-1019. 


2iid 


HAUON. 


nA8IN0  HOUSE. 


BARON.— "Tlic  title  of  Imrnn,  tinlike  tlmt  of 
Kuri,  is  II  (Ti'iitloti  of  tile  [Nomiiiiil  OonqiiCHt. 
Tlie  woni,  in  its  oriKi"  eiiiiivaleiit  to  'lioino,' 
receives  iiiider  feudal  institiltioiiH,  like  'hoiiii>' 
itHi'lf,  tlii^  nteaniiiK  of  vtiHStil.  Iloinii^e  (lioiniii- 
iiim)  is  tlio  ceremony  by  wliieli  tiie  vassal 
becomes  the  man  of  liis  lord;  and  tlie  lioinines 
of  tlie  kiuK  are  barons.  I'ossibly  the  kin);'s 
tliegn  of  \nj?lo-Saxoii  tiin:'S  may  answer  to  the 
Norman  baron." — \V.  Htubbs,  Cout^.  lli»t.  of 
Eitf/.,  <•!,.  11,  «'•<.  124. 

BARON,  Court.    See  Manouh. 

BARONET.— "One  approaches  with  reluc- 
tance the  modern  title  of  baronet.  .  .  .  Gram- 
matically, the  term  is  clear  enoURli;  it  is  lli<' 
ditninutive  of  baron;  but  baron  Ls  einpliatically 
a  man,  the  lieRc  va.ssal  of  the  kiiifj;  ami  baronet, 
therefore,  etymologically  would  seem  to  imply  a 
a  doubt.  Degrees  of  honor  admit  of  no  diminu- 
tion; a  'damoisel'  and  u  'donzello'  are  gram- 
matical diminutives,  but  they  do  not  lessen  the 
rank  of  the  bearer;  for,  on  the  contrary,  they 
denote  the  heir  to  the  larger  honor,  being 
attributed  to  none  but  the  sons  of  tiie  prince  or 
nobleman,  who  boro  the  paramount  title.  Tliey 
did  not  degrade,  even  in  their  etymological 
signitlcation,  which  baronet  apixart.  to  do,  and 
no  act  of  i)arliainent  can  remove  this  radical 
defect.  .  .  .  Independently  of  these  considera- 
tions, the  titli^  arose  from  the  expedient  of  a 
needy  monarch  [.lames  I.]  to  raise  money,  and 
was  offered  for  sale.  Any  man,  provided  he 
were  of  good  birth,  might,  '  for  a  consideration,' 
cantcm  his  family  shieUl  with  the  red  hand  of 
Ulster." — U.  T.  llampson,  Originea  Patricia,  pp. 
868-it«l). 

BARONS'  WAR,  The.  See  England: 
A.  1).  121(i-l'..'7i 

BARONY  OF  LAND.— "Fifteen  acres,  but 
in  some  places  twenty  acres." — N.  H.  Nicolas, 
Notitia  Ilistorien,  p.  134. 

BARRIER  FORTRESSES,  The  razing 
of  the.  See  Netiieki.ands  (Holland)  :  A.  D. 
1746-1787. 

BARRIER  TREATIES,  The.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  D.  1(01),  and  NKTnEUL.\ND8  (Hol- 
land): A.  I).  1713-1715. 

BARROW. — A  mound  raised  over  the  buried 
dead.  "  This  form  of  memorial,  .  .  .  a.s  ancient 
as  it  has  been  lasting,  is  found  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  globe.  Barrows,  under,  diverse 
names,  line  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
seats  of  ancient  empires  and  civilisations.  .  .  . 
They  abound  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  dif- 
fering in  shape  and  size  and  made  of  various 
materials;  onil  are  known  as  barrows  (mounds  of 
earth)  and  cairns  (mounds  of  stone)  and  popu- 
larly in  some  parts  of  England  us  lows,  houes, 
and  tuinps." — AV.  Oreenwell,  British  Barrows, 
pp.  1-3. 

Also  in  :  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Times, 
eh.  5. 

BARTENSTEIN,  Treaty  of.  See  Ger- 
many: A.  D.  1807  (Februaky — June). 

BARWALDE,  Treaty  of.  See  Germany: 
A.  I).  1031  (January). 

BASH  AN.  See  Jews:  Israel  under  the 
J  u  does. 

BASHI  BOZOUKS,  OR  BAZOUKS.— 
For  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  of  1875-77  in 
the  Cliristian  provinces  of  the  Turkish  dominions 
(see  Turks:  1801-1876),  "besides  the  regular 
forces   engaged   against   the  Bulgarians,  great 


numlK'rs  of  the  Moslem  part  of  the  local  popu- 
lati<m  hiul  been  armed  bv  the  Government  and 
turned  loose  to  tight  the  Insurgents  In  their  own 
way.  These  irregular  warriors  are  called  Hashl 
lio/.oiiks,  or  Uottenlieads.  The  term  alludes  to 
their  iM'liig  sent  out  without  regular  organization 
and  without  olllcers  at  their  head." — H.  O. 
Dwij^ht,  Turkish  l.ifc  in  Wiir  Time,  p.  15. 

BASIL  I.  (called  the  Macedonian),  Emperor 
in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  1).  867- 

Ht6 Basil,  or  Vassili,   I.,  Grand    Duke  of 

Volodomir,     A.    I).     127a-ls.'7tl Basil    11., 

Emperor  in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek), 

A.  1).  U(t3-l()'.>5 Basil,  or  Vassili,  II.,  Grand 

Prince  of  Moscow,  A.  1).   138i)-14-.>5 Basil 

III.  (The   Blind),  Grand   Prince   of  Moscow, 

A.  I).  14a5-l4;i2 Basil  IV.,  Czar  of  Russia, 

A.  I).  1.505-1.5JJ3. 

BASILEUS.— "From  the  earliest  period  of 
history,  the  .sovereigns  of  Asia  had  been  cele- 
brated in  the  Greek  language  by  the  title  of 
Basileus,  or  King ;  and  since  it  was  considered 
as  tlie  llrst  distinction  among  men,  it  was  soon 
employed  by  the  servile  provincials  of  the  east 
in  their  humble  address  to  the  Uonian  throne." — 
E.  Gibbon,  Ikdinc  iiiul  Fall  of  the  llomaii  Enipire, 
ch.  13. 

BASILIAN  DYNASTY,  The.  See  Byzan- 
tine Emimre:  a.  D.  820-1057. 

BASILICiE. — "  Among  the  buildings  appro- 
priated to  tile  public  service  at  Koine,  none  were 
more  important  than  the  Basilicic.  Altliougli 
their  name  is  Greek,  yet  they  were  essentially 
a  Uoman  creation,  and  were  used  for  practical 
purposes  peculiarly  Uoman, —  the  administration 
of  law  and  the  trausaetiou  of  merchants'  busi- 
ness. Historically,  considerable  interest  attacl^es 
to  them  from  their  connection  witli  the  first 
Christian  churches.  The  name  of  Basilica  was 
applied  by  the  Romans  equally  to  all  large 
buildings  intended  for  the  special  needs  of  public 
business.  .  .  .  Qenendly,  however,  they  took 
the  form  most  ndaptetl  to  their  ')urposes  —  a 
semicircular  apse  or  tribunal  for  legal  trials  and 
a  central  nave,  with  arcades  and  galleries  on 
each  side  for  tlie  transaction  of  business.  They 
existed  not  only  as  separate  buildings,  butlulso 
as  reception  rooms  attached  to  the  great  man- 
sions of  Rome.  ...  It  is  the  opinion  of  some 
writers  that  these  private  basilictD,  and  not  the 
public  edifices,  served  as  the  model  for  the 
Christian  Basilica." — R.  Burn,  Rome  and  the 
Campaf/na,  introd. 

Also  IN:  A.  P.  Stanley,  Christian Imtitutioiis, 
eh.  0. 

BASILIKA,  The.— A  compilation  or  codifi- 
cation of  the  imperial  '..\vs  of  the  Byzantine  Em- 
pire promulgated  A.  D.  884,  in  the  reign  of 
Basil  I.  and  atterwarc  s  revised  and  amplified  by 
his  son,  Leo  VI. — Q.  i'inlay.  Hist,  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  from  716  to  1057,  bk.  2,  ch.  1,  sect.  1. 

BASING  HOUSE,  The  Storming  and  De- 
struction of. — "Basing  House  [mansion  of  the 
Alarquis  of  Winchester,  near  Basingstoke,  in 
Hampshire],  an  immense  fortress,  with  a  feudal 
castle  and  a  Tudor  palace  within  its  ramparts, 
had  long  been  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  tlie  Parlia- 
ment. I'our  years  it  had  held  out,  with  an  army 
within,  well  provisioned  for  years,  and  blocked 
the  road  to  the  west.  At  last  it  was  resolved  to 
take  it ;  and  Cromwell  was  directly  commissioned 
by  Parliament  to  the  work.  Its  capture  is  one 
of  the  most  terrible  and  stirring  incidents  of  the 


270 


BASINO  nOl'SE. 


BATAVIANS. 


wnr.  After  hIx  dnys'  constant  ninnonmlp.  the 
Mtorm  Ix'Kiin  at  hIx  o'clock  in  tli«  incirnin^  of  the 
14th()f  Oclohrr  [A.  I).  UUr,].  After  homu- hours 
of  dcNpcrutc  (Ijflititift,  oni'  after  another  Itn  ile 
fences  were  taken  and  lis  ({arrison  put  to  the 
Hword  or  taken.  The  pUinder  was  |)rodi^'i(iiis: 
the  destru('ti()t\  of  properly  unsparhi;;.  It  was 
gutted,  Imrnt,  and  the  very  ruiim carted  uway," 
— F.  Harrison,  (Jlinr  ('niinirrll,  cli.  T). 

Al.HolN:  S.  11.  Oardlner,  llint.  nft/ic  Ciril  War, 
ch.  U7(r.  2). — .Mrs.  Thonip.son,  Jl)T,>ll,vliuii»i>J' /.it- 
irari/  C/inriifti  m  iiiid  Cilthniliil  I'liii-in,  r.  3,  eh.  1. 

BASLE,  Council  of.  Hee  l».vi'.\CY:  A.  1). 
li:il-ltis. 

BASLE,  Treaties  of  (1795).  See  Fii.vNCB: 
A.  I).  ITUl-r.in  (( )(ToHKU— .\1\Y),  and  17U5 
(Jink — I)Kri'.Mni;iii. 

BASOCHE.-  BASOCHIENS.— "  The  Bas 
oche  was  an  association  of  tiie  '  cleros  du  I'arle- 
meiit'  [Parlliinient  of  I'aris].  The  etymolojry 
of  the  name  is  uncertain.  .  .  .  Tlie  Hii.socho  is 
Rupposed  to  liave  l)ecn  inslitiit<'d  in  VM'i,  l)y 
Pliilippe-lelJel,  wlio  pive  it  the  title  of  '  Itov- 
aurne  dc  la  Hasoclii','  and  orilered  tluit  it  should 
form  a  trilmnal  for  judi^inj;,  witliout  appeal,  all 
civil  and  criminal  matters  that  ndght  arise  among 
the  clerks  and  all  actions  brought  eijainst  them. 
Ho  likewise  ordered  that  the  president  should  be 
caHed  '  Koi  de  la  Ha.soclie.'and  that  the  king  and 
his  subjects  should  have  iui  annual  'montre'or 
review.  .  .  .  L'nder  tlie  reign  of  Henry  III.  the 
number  of  subjects  of  the  roi  de  la  lla.sochi! 
nmounted  to  nearly  lO.OIW.  .  .  .  The  members 
of  the  Uusoche  t(M)k  upon  themselves  to  exhibit 
plays  in  the  '  Palais,'  in  which  they  censured  the 
public  manners;  indeed  they  mny  be  sidd  to  have 
been  the  first  comic  authors  and  actors  that  ap- 
peared in  Paris.  ...  At  the  commencement  of 
the  Revolution,  the  Hasochicns  formed  a  troop, 
the  uniform  of  which  was  red,  witli  epaulettes 
and  silver  buttons;  but  they  were  afterwards 
disbanded  by  a  decree  of  the  >  ational  Assem')l  y. " 
—lli«t.ofPariit(tA>n(lon:G.B.  Whittaher,  1837), 
«.  2,  ;).  iO«. 

BASQUES,  The.— "The  western  extremity 
of  the  Pyrenees,  where  France  and  Spain  join, 
gives  us  a  locality  .  .  .  where,  although  the 
towns,  like  Hayonue,  Panipeluna,  and  Bilbao, 
are  French  or  Spanish,  the  country  people  are 
Basques  or  Biseayaus  —  Basques  or  Biscayans  not 
only  in  the  provinces  of  Biscay,  but  in  Ahvva, 
Upper  Xavarre,  and  the  French  districts  of  La- 
bourd  and  Soule.  Their  name  is  Spjnisli  (the 
word  having  originated  in  that  of  the  ancient 
Vascones),  and  it  is  not  the  one  by  which  they 
designate  themselves;  though  possibly  it  is  in- 
directly connected  with  it.  Tiie  native  name  is 
derived  from  the  root  Eusk-;  which  becomes 
Euskani  when  the  language,  Euskkerria  when 
the  country,  and  Euskaldunac  when  the  people 
are  spoken  of." — U.  G.  Latham,  Ethnology  of 
Euro])e,  ch.  2. 

Ai.so  IN :  L  Taylor,  Origin  of  the  Aryans,  ch. 
4,  iiect.  4. — See,  also,  Ibekiass,  The  Western, 
and  Appendix  A,  v.  1. 

BASSANO,  Battle  of.  See  Prance:  A.  D. 
1706  (April— OcToiiKit.) 

BASSEIN,  Treaty  of  (1802).  See  India: 
A.  n.  17118- 1  SIC). 

BASSORAH.     See  Bussoraii. 

BASTARN./E,  The.    See  Peucini. 

BASTILLE,  The.— "The  name  of  Bastille 
or  Bastel  was,  in  ancient  times,  given  to  any 


kind  of  erection  calculated  to  withstand  a  mill 
tary  fonc;  and  thus,  formerly  in  Knglaml  and 
on  the  borders  of  ScollanrI,  the  term  Bastel- 
house  was  usuidly  applied  to  places  of  strength 
and  fancied  security.  Of  tlie  many  Bastilles  in 
France  that  of  Paris,  .  .  .  which  at  first  was 
called  the  Bastille  St.Vntoi  '',  from  being 
erected  near  the  suburb  of  l|  Aiitoine,  retained 
the  name  longest.  This  fortress,  of  nielancholy 
celcbrlly,  was  erected  under  the  following 
eireunistances:  In  the  year  i;i.'')(l,  when  the 
English,  then  at  war  wiili  France,  1  'n  the 
ncighlKMirhood  of  I'aris,  it  wasconsidired  neees- 
sary  by  the  inhabilaiits  of  the  French  capital  to 
repair  the  biilwiirks  of  their  city.  Stephen 
Marcel,  provost  of  the  merchants,  undertook  this 
task,  and,  amongst  <itlier  defences,  added  to  the 
fortillcations  at  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  town 
a  gate  fianked  with  a  tower  on  eai'h  sidi ."  This 
was  tlie  beginning  of  tlie  constructii'is  of  tlie 
Bastille.  They  were  enlarged  in  IIHIK  by  Hugh 
Aubriot,  provost  of  Paris  under  Charles  V. 
He  "added  two  towers,  which,  being  placed 
opposite  to  those  ain  iiily  existing  on  eacli  side 
of  the  gate,  made  of  the  Bastille  a  s<iuare  fort, 
witli  a  tower  at  each  of  the  four  angles." 
After  the  death  of  Charles  V.,  Vubriot,  who 
had  many  enemies,  was  prosecuted  for  alleged 
crimes,  "was  condemned  to  perpetual  conllne- 
ment,  and  placed  in  tin?  Bastille,  of  which,  ac- 
cording to  some  hi.storians,  he  was  the  tlrst 
])risoner.  At'<  ■•  some  time,  lie  was  removed 
thence  to  Fori  rEvC(|ue,  another  jirLson,"  from 
which  he  was  lilKiated  in  1:181,  by  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Jlaillotiiis  (see  Paris:  A.  I).  l:t81). 
"After  the  insurrection  of  the  Maillotins,  in 
ll!83,  the  young  king,  Charles  VI.,  still  further 
enlarged  the  Bastille  by  adding  four  lowers  to 
it,  thus  giving  it,  instead  of  the  square  form  it 
formerly  posscs.seil.  the  shape  of  an  oblong  or 
parallelogram.  Tlie  fortress  now  consisted  of 
eight  towers,  each  101)  feet  high,  and,  like  the 
wall  which  united  them,  nine  feet  thick.  Four 
of  these  towers  looked  on  the  city,  and  four  on 
the  suburb  of  St-Antoine.  To  increase  its 
strength,  the  Bastille  was  surrounded  by  a  ditch 
25  feet  deep  and  120  feci  wide.  The  road  which 
formerly  passed  througli  it  was  turned  on  one  side. 
.  .  .  The  Bastille  was  now  completed  (1383),  and 
though  additions  were  subsequently  made  to  it, 
the  body  of  the  fortress  underwent  no  important 
change.  .  Both  as  a  place  of  military  de- 
fence, and  as  a  state  prison  of  great  strength, 
the  Bastille  was,  even  at  an  early  period,  very 
formidable." — Hist,  of  the  Ba»tille  (Chambers » 
MMcllany,  no.  132,  r.  17). — For  an  account  of 
the  taking  and  destruction  of  the  Bastille  by  the 
people,  in  1789,  see  France:  A.  I).  1789  (.July). 

Also  ix:  1).  Bingham,  Tlic  Bastille. — It.  A. 
Davenport,  Hint,  of  the  liastile. 

BASTITANI,  The.    See  Tukdetanl 

BASUTOS,  The.  See  South  Africa:  A.  D. 
1811-1808. 

BATAVIA  (Java),  Origin  of.  See  Netiier- 
LA.NDs:  A.  D.  1594-1020. 

BATAVIAN  REPUBLIC,  The.  See 
Fr'ANCE;  A.  1).  1794-1795  (OcTonER  — May). 

;:.1.T  AVIANS,  OR  BAT  AVI,  The.— "The 
Oermauic  Batavi  had  been  peacefully  united 
with  the  [RomiiD]  Empire,  not  by  Cicsar,  but 
not  long  afterwards,  perhaps  by  Drusus.  They 
were  settled  in  the  Rhine  delta,  that  is  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  and  on  the  islands  formed 


271 


BATAVIAN8. 


BATTr.E  OF  TIIK  KE08. 


by  Itn  nrmn,  iipwnnN  ii«  fur  nt  Icnut  nn  flic  Old 
Itliiti)',  iukI  ho  iirarlv  fniii)  Antwrrp  to  I'trcrht 
iiikI  l/('yil<'ri  tn  /rafiiml  iinil  HoutliiTii  llollaml, 
oil  trrrltory  oriiflrmlly  Crlllc  —  iit  li'iiHt,  the  IcmuI 
niiiiii's  urn  nn'iloiiiliiiintly  Ccllir:  lliiir  riaiiii'  \n 
Hiill  liornt'  liv  llic  Itrtiiwi',  the  liiwl:iiiil  Itrtwccn 
till'  Wiial  itiic)  till-  1,1'i'k  with  till!  capital  Novlinii- 
UKiiH,  now  Niim'KUi'ii-  Tliry  wcri'.  I'spi'dally 
'•oMiimri'il  with  till'  ri'Htli'SH  iiiiil  refractory  (ilN, 
olM'illi'iit  anil  iiNi'fiil  KiiliJi'clH,  ami  hence  occiipieil 
u  ilistlnctive  poHitioii  ill  the  aKK<°<'K»t<'.  <■'<''  P'T- 
ticiilarly  in  the  military  HyNteiii  of  the  Uoniaii 
Kiiipinv  Tliey  reniained  i|iille  free  from  taxa- 
tion, Imt  Wire  (III  the  other  hand  drawn  upon 
moro  largely  lliaii  any  other  canton  in  llie  re- 
cruiting; thin  one  canton  fnrnisheil  to  llie  army 
l.IMM)  horsemen  and  D.OlHI  foot  HoldierM;  hesldeM, 
the  men  of  the  imperial  licMly-jjuard  were  taken 
(■Hpecially  from  them,  The  comieand  of  thcHe 
Uutiivian  dlvisioim  was  conferred  ixcliisivelv  on 
native  Hatuvi.  Tiie  Ilalavl  were  accoiinteil  lii- 
dlsputahly  not  merely  as  the  best  riilers  ami 
swimmers  of  the  army,  hut  nUo  as  the  moilel  id' 
true  soldiers. " — T.  Mommsen,  Hint,  nf  linaie,  hk. 
8,  fh.  \. — "  When  tlieCimlirl  and  their  iissi«'iates, 
fttioiit  a  century  before  our  erii,  made  their 
menioralile  oiiHlaiiirlit  upon  Itome,  tiie  early  in- 
habitants of  the  iiliinu  island  of  Hatavia,  who 
were  proliabiy  Celts,  joined  in  tlie  expedition. 
A  recent  and  tremendous  Iniindatioii  had  swept 
II way  their  miserable  homes.  .  .  .  The  island 
was  deserted  of  its  population.  At  alioiit  tlie 
Sttino  period  a  civil  dissension  amonjj  the  C'liatti 
—  a  powerful  Oermaii  race  within  tlic  Iler- 
cynian  forest  —  resulted  in  the  expatri.itiim  of  a 

fi'ortion  of  the  people.  The  exiles  soiigiit  a  new 
loiiio  in  the  empty  Hliine  island,  called  it 
'Bet-iiuw,'  or  'Rood  meadow,'  and  were  tliem- 
gelves  called,  tlieiiieforward,  IJatavi,  or  Hiitav- 
ians. " — J.  L.  Jlotiey,  Itineof  the  Dutch  Ikpublic, 
intrntl.,  mrt.  2. 

A.  D.  69.— Revolt  of  Civilis.  —  "  Galba 
[Roman  EmperorJ,  siicceedinK  to  the  purplo 
upon  the  suicide  of  Nero,  dismissed  tlie  Bntavmn 
life-guards  to  w  lioin  he  owed  his  elevation.  He 
is  murdered,  Otlio  and  Vitelliiis  contend  for  the 
succession,  while  all  eyes  are  turned  upon  the 
eight  Hatavian  rei;iinents.  In  their  hands  the 
scales  of  Empire  seem  to  rest.  Tliey  declare  for 
Vitellius  and  the  civil  war  begins.  Otho  Is 
defeated;  Vitellius  acknowledged  by  Senate  and 
people.  Fearing,  like  his  predecessors,  the 
imperious  turbulence  of  the  Hatavian  legions, 
he,  tix),  sends  them  into  Oermany.  It  was  tlia 
signal  for  a  long  and  extensive  revolt,  wliifh 
had  well-nigh  overturned  the  lioman  pow>r  in 
Gaul  and  Lower  Germany.  Claudius  Civilis 
was  a  Hatavian  of  noble  raci',  who  had  served 
twenty-tlvo  years  in  the  Konian  armies.  His 
Teutonic  name  has  perished.  .  .  .  After  a  quarter 
of  a  century's  service  he  was  sent  in  chains  to 
Rome  and  his  brother  executed,  both  falsely 
charged  with  conspiracy.  .  .  .  Desire  to  avenge 
his  own  wrongs  was  mingled  with  loftier 
motives  in  his  breast.  lie  knew  that  the  sceptre 
was  in  the  gift  of  the  Batavian  soldiery.  .  .  . 
By  his  courage,  eloiiucnco  and  talent  for  politi- 
cal combinations,  Civilis  effected  a  general  con- 
federation of  nil  the  Netherland  tribes,  both 
Celtic  and  German.  For  n  brief  moment  there 
was  a  united  people,  a  Batavian  commonwealth. 
.  .  .  The  details  of  the  revolt  [A.  D.  091  have 
been  carefully  preserved  by  Tacitus,  and  form 


one  of  Ills  grandest  and  most  elaborate  plctiirpn. 
.  .  .  The  battles,  the  sieges,  the  defeats,  thii 
imlninituble  spirit  of  CiviliH,  still  llainlng  most 
brightly  wlien  the  clouds  were  darkest  around 
him,  have  been  described  by  the  great  historian 
in  his  most  powerful  inanner.  .  .  .  Thestriigghi 
was  an  unsuccessful  one.  After  manv  vIctorleH 
and  many  overthrows,  Civilis  was  left  alone. 
.  .  .  lie  accepted  the  offer  of  negotiathin  from 
Cerialis  [the  lioman  commanderj.  ...  A  co|- 
iiiipiy  was  agreed  upon.  The  bridge  across  t ho 
Nabalia  was  broken  asunder  In  the  middle  and 
Cerialis  mill  Civilis  met  upon  the  severed  sides. 
.  .  .  Here  the  story  abruptly  terminates.  Tho 
remainder  of  the  Itoman's  narrative  is  lost,  and 
upon  that  broken  bridge  the  form  of  the  Hatiivlan 
hero  disaiipears  foreviT  " — J.  L.  .Motley,  Jliiie  of 
the  hutch  Ittpiililic,  iiitrixl.,  mrtK.  !(-4. 
Almoin:  Tacitus,  Ilintovn,  li/cn.  4-5. 

BATH,  The  Order  of  the.— "The  present 
Military  Order  of  the  Hath,  founded  by  King 
(Jeorgel.  in  tlie  year  11V>,  differs  so  essentially 
from  the  KniglitiioiHl  of  tlii'  Hath,  or  the  custom 
of  making  Kniglits  with  various  rites  and  cero- 
inonies,  of  wliicli  one  was  Hathing,  that  it  may 
almost  be  considered  a  distinct  and  new  fni- 
ternlty  of  chivalry.  The  last  Knights  of  the  Hath, 
inadeiiccording  to  the  ancient  forms,  were  at  the 
coronation  of  Kint,'  Charles  II.;  and  from  that 
period  until  tlii'  reign  of  tlie  llrsl  fleorge,  tlie  old 
inslitiition  fell  into  total  oblivion.  At  the  latter 
epoch,  however,  it  was  determined  to  revive,  as 
it  was  termed,  Tlie  Order  of  tlie  Hath,  by 
erecting  it  '  into  a  regular  Military  Order';  and 
on  the  25tli  May,  I7'J5,  Letters  Patent  were 
issued  for  tliat  purpose.  Hv  the  .Statutes  then 
promulgated,  the  number  of  Knights,  indepen- 
dent of  the  Sovereign,  a  I'rince  of  the  BIoikI 
Royal,  and  a  Great  Master,  was  restricted  t()il5." 
It  1ms  since  been  greatly  increased,  and  the 
Order  divided  into  three  classes:  First  Class,  con- 
sisting of  "  Knights  Grand  Cross,"  not  to  exceed 
50  for  military  and  25  for  civil  survice:  Second 
Class,  consisting  of  "  Kni>^!-ts  Commanders,"  not 
to  exceed  103  for  military  aii.l  50  for  civil 
service;  'Third  Class,  "Companions."  not  to 
exceed  H'i'y  for  military  and  200  for  civil  seii-lco. 
— Sir  B.  Burke,  Jiook  of  Orders  if  Knighthmd,  p. 
104. 

BATH,  in  Roman  times.     See  AijU/K  Sous. 

BATHS  OF  CARACALLA,  Nero,  etc. 
See  Tm;uM-K. 

BATONIAN  WAR,  The.— A  formidable 
revolt  of  the  Dalmatians  and  Pannonlans,  A.  D. 
6,  involved  the  Roman  Ev.ioire,  under  Aiigu.stus, 
in  a  serious  war  of  tlirie  years  duration,  which 
was  e:illed  the  Batoniaii  ^Var,  from  tlie  names  of 
two  leaders  of  the  insurgents, —  Bato  the  Dalma- 
tian, and  Bato  the  Pannonian. — T.  Mommsen, 
Jlint.  of  Home,  bk.  8,  ch.  1. 

BATOUM  :  Ceded  to  Russia.— Declared  a 
free  port.     See  Turks:  A.  1).  1878. 

BATTIADiE,  The.     See  Cvuene. 

BATTLE  ABBEY.    Sec  England:  A.  D. 

1000  (OCTOIIEU). 

BATTLE  ABOVE  THE  CLOUDS,  The. 
See  United  States  of  A>i.  :  A.  D.  1803  (Octo- 
iiEii — NovE.MUF.u :  Tennessee). 

BATTLE  OF  THE  CAMEL.  See  Ma- 
hometan Conquest:  A.  D.  601. 

BATTLE  OF  THE  KEGS,  The.  Sec 
PHiLADELPniA:  A.  D.  1777-1778. 


272 


r\TTLK  OF  THK  NATIONS. 


HAVAHIA. 


BATTLE  OP  THE  NATIONS  (Lelpiic). 

R<l'  OKUMANV.     \.    '>.    1H|;|   (SKI'IKMIIKII— OCTO- 

UKio,  iind  (OcTi'ii  '.III. 

BATTLE  OF  THE  THREE  EMPER- 
ORS.- Till' >,., lie  <il  AiiHlcrllt/,  —  Mcc  Fiian<k: 

A.   I).  1H(»,T(M.\IU'II— DMKMHKK)—  WUHMOCullcil 

by  NjiiKplcdii. 

BATTLES.— Tli<'  iMittlcH  of  which  mioiint 
Id  k'^''"  i»  ll'i'*  wiirk  arc  mi  nuiiicroiiH  that  no 
C()tivciilciic(^  would  be  wrvcd  by  collect  iii){ 
n-fcrciiccH  to  them  under  iliit  Keiicrul  lieiidiiiK. 
Tlicy  arc  Mevcrally  Imlcxed  \inilcr  tlic  iiunicH  by 
which  they  are  hlHtorlcally  known. 

BAURE,  The.  Sei^  Amkiiidan  Aiiohioinkh: 
Andknian.-i. 

BAUTZEN,  Battle  of.  See  Qriimanv:  A.  D. 
1H|;|(Mav— Atoisr), 

BAUX,  Lords  of;  Gothic  Origin  of  the.— 
The  illustrious  Vlsiijolhlc  rac((  of  the  "Ilallhi" 
or  "lialtha"  ("the  bold"),  from  which  Hpraii^ 
Alaric,  "continued  to  llourish  in  Kraiu'c  in  tlie 
Ootldc  province  of  Sc|itiinania,  or  Ijingu  doc. 
under  tiiu  corniiitcd  appellation  of  ''"<ix,  and  ii 
branch  of  that,  family  afterwards  8,  ilcd  in  tin- 
kingdom  of  NapicN. " — K.  Gibbon,  Decline  aiul 
Ji'iltnt' l/if  lliiniiin  h'miiin;  ch.  !l(l,  note. 

BAVARIA:  The  name.— Bavaria  derived  its 
name  from  the  Hoii. — U.  (J.  Latliuin,  The  tier- 
null  id  iif  Tiieitun;  Epilegomciui,  Met,  20. — See, 
also,  BoiANs. 

The  Ethnology  of. — "Bavaria  .  .  .  falls  into 
tAvo  (liviHionM;  the  Bavaria  of  the  lihine,  and  the 
Biivuria  of  tin;  Daiuilx-.  In  Itlienisli  Bavaria  the 
descvut  h  from  tlie  ancient  Vangiones  ami  Nc- 
mctes,  cither  Qermanized  Qauis  or  Ouliici/.cd 
GermauM,  with  Homan  8uperiidditi(ms,  After- 
■warda,  an  extension  of  tlic  Alemamncand  Huevic 

{)opulations  from  ihu  riitlit  bank  of  the  Upper 
thine  completes  the  cvoiulion  of  their  present 
Germanic  cliaractcr.  Danubian  Uaviirm  fails 
Into  two  sulxlivisions.  North  of  the  Danube  the 
valley  of  the  Naab,  at  Ica.st,  was  orij;inally  Sla- 
vonic, containini;  an  extension  of  tlie  Slavonic 
popnhition  of  Bohemia.  But  disturlmnco  and 
displacement  l)e);an  early.  ...  In  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries,  the  Suevi  and  Alemanni  ex- 
tc-ndcd  themselves  from  tlie  Upper  Uhine.  .  .  . 
The  northwestern  parts  of  Bavaria  were  jirolialily 
German  from  the  bcRinninK.  Soutli  of  tlte  Dan- 
ube the  ethuoloKy  clianses.  In  the  first  place 
the  Uonian  eleiiK'nts  increase;  since  Viudelicia 
was  a  Uoniaii  province.  ...  Its  present  charac- 
ter has  arisen  from  an  extension  of  tlie  Germans 
of  the  Upper  Rhine." — K.  0.  Latham,  Ethrutlogy 
of  Ell  rope,  eh.  8. 

A.  D.  547.— Subjection  of  the  Bavarians 
to  the  Franks. — "  It  is  about  this  period  [A.  D. 
647]  that  the  Bavarians  first  become  known  iu 
history  as  tributarioa  of  the  Pranks;  but  at  what 
time  they  became  so  is  matter  of  dispute. 
From  the  previous  silence  of  the  annalists  re- 
specling  this  pi  »i)le,  we  may  perhaps  infer  that 
both  tliey  and  the  Huabians  remained  independ- 
ent until  the  fall  of  the  Ostrogothic  Empire  'n 
Itidy.  The  Gotliic  dominions  were  bounded  on 
the  "north  by  Bliietia  and  Noricum ;  and  between 
these  cimntries  and  tlie  Tluiringians,  wlio  lived 
still  further  to  the  north,  was  the  cotmtry  of  the 
Bavarians  and  Suabians.  Tliuringia  liad  long 
been  possessed  by  tlie  Franks.  Hhietia  was  ceded 
by  Vitisges,  king  of  Italy,  and  Venetia  was  con- 
quered by  Tlieudebert  [the  Austrasian  Frank 
King].     The  Bavarians  Avere  therefore,   at  tliis 


perirKJ,  almost  Riirroundcd  by  the  Prankish  ter- 
ritories. .  .  .  Whenever  lliey  may  liave  tintt 
h  ibndtted  to  the  yoke,  it  is  certain  that  at  the 
line  of  Theudcbcrt's  death  |A.  I).  Wi],  or 
Nho.'tly  after  that  event.  iHith  Bavarians  and 
Suali'aiis  (or  AlemannianN),  had  lieconie  subjects 
of  the  .Merovingian  kings." — W.  ('.  Perry,  The 
FiiiiikH,  eh.  H. 
A.  O.   843-963.— The  ancient   Duchy.     See 

(}|;UMANV:    \.   I)    Hi:t  im>. 

A.  D.  876.— Added  to  the  Austrian  March. 

See  Auslriii:   .V   I).  HO.".- 1  OKI. 

A.  D.  I07i-i;78.— The  Dukes  of  the  House 
ofGuelf.  See  t^i'Kl.Ks  AND  ()iiiiil':i.i.iM.s;  and 
Saxo.nv:  a.  D.  1I.s-iih:i 

A.  D.  iioi.— Disi'strous  Crusade  of  Duke 
Welf.     SecCiusADDs.  a.  I).  IKM-llO'i. 

A.  D.  1125-1153.— Tl."!  origin  of  the  Elector- 
ate.    See  (iKitMANY:  A.  I?    1 1 •-'.■)   1 1 .'. .. 

A.  D.  ii38-ii83.^Invoi"cd  in  the  begin- 
nings of  the  Guelf  and  Ghibctline  Conflicts.— 
The  struggles  of  Henry  the  Pioud  and  Henry 
the  Lion.  See  <Jri:i,Ks  and  Oiiihi:i.i.i.\kh.  and 
Saxon v:  A.  I).  117H-I1H;1. 

A.  D.  1 156. — Separation  of  the  Austrian 
March,  which  becomes  a  distinct  Duc.Sy.  See 
Aistuia:  a.  I),  H().Vlil((. 

A.  D.  1 180-1356.— The  House  of  Wittels- 
bach.— Its  acquisition  o'  Bavaria  and  the 
Palatinate  of  the  Rhine— uoss  of  the  Elec- 
toral Vote  by  Bavaria.— When,  iu  IIHO,  tlio 
dojuinions  of  Henry  the  Mon,  under  the  brin  of 
the  Kmpire,  were  stripped  from  liim(sce  Saxony: 
A.  I).  1 178-1 18;t).  by  the  imperial  sentence  of  for- 
feiture, and  were  divided  and  conferred  upon 
others  by  Krcdcrick  Barbaro.ssa,  tla;  Duchy  of 
Bavaria  "was  given  to  Otto,  (,'ounl  Palatine  of 
Wittelsbacli.  "  As  he  claimed  a  descent  from  an 
ancient  royal  family  of  Bavaria,  it  was  alleged  that, 
in  obtainiiig  the  sovereignty  of  tliat  state,  he  had 
only  iu  some  inea.-sure  regained  those  riglits 
which  in  former  times  belonged  tohis  ancestors." 
— Sir  A.  Ilalliday,  Aniiiitu  of  the  lloime  of  linn- 
orer,  v.  1,/).  'i~H\. — "Otto  .  .  .  was  a  descendant 
of  that  Duke  I.uilpoid  who  fiH  in  ccmiliat  with 
the  Hungarians,  and  wliose  sons  ancl  gniudsons 
had  already  worn  the  ducal  cap  of  Bavaria.  No 
princely  race  in  Europe  is  of  sucli  ancient  ex- 
traction. .  .  .  Bavaria  was  as  yet  destitute  of 
towns:  Lan('.shutt  and  ^Itinich  tirst  rose  into  con- 
sideration in  the  course  of  the  KHh  century; 
Hatisb  "1,  already  a  flourishing  town,  Avas  re- 
ga-'  d  '  tile  capital  and  resilience  ot  the  Dukes 
of  .  avar.  ....  A  furtlier  accession  of  dignity 
...ui  powei  awaited  the  family  iu  1314  in  the 
acquisition  if  tlie  Palatinate  of  the  Khino. 
Duke  Ludwig  Avas  now  the  nio.st  powerful  ptince 
of  Southern  Germany.  .  .  .  Ilis  son  Otto  tho 
Illustrious,  remaining  .  .  .  true  to  the  impcriil 
house,  died  excommunicate,  and  his  :ioininioni> 
were  placed  for  several  years  under  an  interdict. 
.  .  .  Upim  the  death  of  Otto  a  partition  of  the 
inlieritance  took  place.  This  partition  liccaine 
to  the  family  an  hereditary  evil,  a  fatal  source  of 
(luarrcl  and  of  secret  or  open  enmity.  ...  In 
[the]  dark  and  dreadful  periiKl  of  interreguum 
[see  Geilmanv:  A.  D.  12.50-1272J,  when  all  men 
waited  for  the  tinal  dis-solution  of  tlie  empire, 
nolliing  ajipears  concerning  the  'Wittelsbacli 
family.  .  .  .  Finally  in  1373  Kudolf,  the  first  of 
die  I'labsburgs,  ascended  the  long-unoccupied 
throne.  .  .  .  He  Avon  over  the  Bavarian  princes 
by    bestowing    his   daughters    upon    them   in 


273 


BAVARIA. 


BAVARIA. 


itiP'Hftffe.  TjOiiis  romninod  fiiithfiil  and  rendered 
him  jfood  Hervicn:  Imt  the  lurhulcnt  llciirv,  who 
hud  already  made  -.var  iipdii  liis  brother  for  the 
pos.soHsion  of  the  ch'rtoral  vote,  deserU'd  Inm, 
and  for  this  Havaria  was  punislicd  by  '.lie  loss  of 
the  vole,  and  of  the  territory  above  the  Eiins. " 
Afterwards,  for  a  time,  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  and 
the  (Jount  Palatine  e.\ercised  the  risht  of  the 
electoral  vote  altemaU^lv;  but  in  11)50  by  the 
Gohlen  Bull  of  Charles  IV.  [seoGEiiMANY:  A.  O. 
1C47-14.13],  the  vote  was  given  wholly  to  the 
Count  I'alatine,  and  lo.st  to  Bavaria  for  nearly 
300  years. — .1.  I.  von  DOllinger,  The  JfoiiKe  of 
Wittehhurh  (Studies  in  Kuropiitii  Hinloiji,  cli.  3). 

A.  D,  1314. — Election  of  Louis  to  the  im- 
perial throne.     .See  Okum.\nv:  A.  D.  1314-1347. 

A.  D.  1500.— Formation  of  the  Circb.  Sec 
Qekmany:  a.  D.  1493-1.519. 

A.  D.  1610, — The  Duke  at  the  head  of  the 
Catholic  Leafi^ue.  See  (jKini.^Ny:  A.  I).  1608- 
1018. 

A.  D.  161^  The  Duke  in  command  of  the 
forces  of  the  Jatholic  League.  Sec;  Gekm.vnv  : 
A.  D.  1618-1020. 

A.  D.  1623. — Transfer  to  the  Duke  of  the 
Electoral  dignity  of  the  Elector  Palatine.  See 
Germany:  A.  J).  1021-1623, 

A.  D.  1632. — Occupation  by  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus.     See  Germany:  A.  I).  1031-1033. 

A.  D.  1646-1648. — Ravaged  by  the  Swedes 
and  French  —Truce  made  and  renounced  by 
the  Elector. — The  last  campaigns  of  the  war. 
See  Germany:  A.  D.  1040-1048. 

A.  D.  1648. — Acquisition  of  the  Upper  Pala- 
tinate in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  Sec  Ger- 
many: A.  D.  1648. 

A.  D.  1686. — The  League  of  Augsburg.  See 
Germany:  A.  D.  1686. 

A.  D.  1689-1696.— The  war  of  the  Grand 
Alliance  against  Louis  XIV.  See  France: 
A.  D.  1689-1690;  1689-1691;  1093;  1093  (.July)- 
1694;  ie9,')-1696. 

A.  D.  1700. — Claims  of  the  Electoral  Prince 
on  the  Spanish  Crown.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1698-1700, 

A.  D.  1702. —  The  Elector  joins  France 
against  the  Allies.     See  Germany:  A,  D.  1703. 

A.  D.  1703.— Successes  of  the  French  and 
Bavarians.     See  Germany:  A.  D,  1703. 

A.  D.  ^704. — Ravaged,  crushed  and  surren- 
dered by  the  Elector.  See  Germany:  A.  D. 
1704. 

A.  D.  1705. — Dissolution  of  the  Electorate. 
SeeGER.MANY;  A.  D.  no.-i. 

A.  D.  1714.- The  Elector  restored  to  his 
Dominions.     See  Utrecht:  A.  D.  1713-1714. 

A.  D.  1740.— Claims  of  the  Elector  to  the 
Austrian   succession.     See    Austria:    A.    D. 

1740  (OCTOliKR). 

A.  D.  1742.- The  Elector  crowned  Emperor. 
See  Austria  :  A.  D.  1741  (Ootoher). 

A.  D.  1743  (April).— The  Emperor-Elector 
recovers  his  Electoral  territory.  See  Aus- 
tria: A.  I).  1743  (.June— December),  and  1743. 

A.  D.  1743  (June).— The  Emperor-Elector 
again  a  fugitive.— The  Austrians  in  Posses- 
sion.    .See  AiSTuiA:  A.  1).  1743. 

A.  D.  1745.- Death  of  the  Emperor-Elector. 
—Peace  with  Austria.  Sec  Austria:  A.  D. 
1744-1745. 

A.  D.  1748. — Termination  and  results  of  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  See  Aix-i.a- 
CuAPBLLE,  The  Congress. 


A.  D.  1767. — Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.    See 
Jesuits:  A.  I).  1761- '.709. 

A.  D.  1777-1779. — The  Succession  question. 

— "  With  the  death  of  Ma.ximiliau  .Joseph,  of 
Bavaria  (30  December,  1777),  the  younger  branch 
of  th(!  house  of  Wittelsbach  became  e.xtinct,  and 
the  eleetorale  of  Bavaria  .  .  .  came  to  an  end. 
By  virtue  of  the  original  partition  in  1310,  the 
(lucliy  of  Bavaria  ought  to  pass  to  the  elder  branch 
of  the  family,  represented  by  Charles  Theodore, 
the' Kleetor  P.datine.  But  .Joseph  [the  Second, 
the  Kmperor],  saw  the  po.ssibility  of  securing 
valuable  additions  to  Austria  which  woidd  round 
otT  the  frontier  on  the  west.  The  Austrian  claims 
were  legally  worthless.  They  were  based  chietiy 
upon  a  gift  of  the  Straubingen  territory  which 
Sigismund  was  said  to  have  made  in  1436  to  his 
son-in-law,  Albert  of  Austria,  but  which  had 
never  taken  effect  and  had  since  been  uttcly 
forgotten.  It  would  be  impossible  to  induce  tho 
diet  to  recognise  such  claims,  but  it  might  be 
possible  to  come  to  an  imderstanding  with  tho 
aged  Charles  Theodore,  who  had  no  legitimate 
ciiildren  and  was  not  likely  to  feel  any  very  keen 
interest  in  his  new  inheritance.  Without  much 
difficulty  the  elector  was  half  frightened,  half 
induced  to  sign  a  treaty  (3  January,  1778),  by 
which  he  recognised  the  claims  put  forward  by 
Austria,  while  the  rest  of  Bavaria  was  guaranteed 
to  him  and  his  successors.  Austrian  troops  were 
at  once  despatched  to  occupy  the  ceded  districts. 
The  condition  of  Europe  seemed  to  assure  the 
success  of  Joseph's  bold  venture.  .  .  .  There 
was  only  one  quarter  from  which  opposition  was 
to  be  expected,  Prussia.  Frederick  promptly  ap- 
pealed to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  Empire, 
and  declared  his  intention  of  upholding  them 
with  arms.  But  he  could  And  'j  supporters  ex- 
cept those  who  were  immediately  interested,  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  whose  mother,  as  a  sister  of 
the  late  elector  of  Bavaria,  had  a  legal  claim  to 
hisallodial  propert}',  and  Charles  of  ZweibrUcken, 
the  heir  apparent  of  the  childless  Charles  Tlieo- 
dore.  .  .  .  Frederick,  left  to  himself,  despatched 
an  army  into  Bohemia,  where  the  Austrian  troops 
had  been  joined  by  the  emperor  in  person.  But 
nothing  came  of  the  threatened  hostilities.  Fred- 
erick was  unable  to  force  on  a  battle,  and  the 
so-called  war  was  little  more  than  an  armed  nego- 
tiation. .  .  .  France  and  Russia  undertook  to 
mediate,  and  negotiations  were  opened  in  1779  at 
Teschen,  where  peace  was  signed  on  the  13th  of 
May.  Austria  withdrew  the  claims  which  had 
been  recognised  in  tho  treaty  with  the  Elector 
Palatine,  and  received  the  'quarter  of  the  Inn,' 
i.  e.,  tho  district  from  Passau  to  Wildshut. 
Frederick's  eventual  claims  to  tho  succession  in 
the  Franconian  principalities  of  Anspaeh  and 
Baircuth,  which  Austria  had  every  interest  in 
opposing,  were  recognised  by  the  treaty.  The 
claims  of  Saxony  were  bought  off  by  a  payment 
of  4,000,000  thalers.  Tho  most  unsatisfactory 
part  of  the  treaty  was  that  it  was  guaranteed  by 
France  and  Russia.  ...  On  the  whole,  it  was  a 
great  triumph  for  Frederick  and  an  equal  humili- 
ation for  Joseph  II.  His  schemes  of  aggrand- 
isement had  becL  foiled." — R.  Lodge,  Jlist.  of 
Modern  Europe,  eh.  30,  sect.  3, 

Also  in  :  T.  H.  Dyer,  Hist,  of  Modern  Europe, 
bk.  6,  ch.  8  (».  3). 

A.  D.  1801-1803. — Acquisition  of  territory 
under  the  Treaty  of  Luneville.  Sec  Geiuiam  y  : 
A.  D.  1801-1803. 


274 


BAVARIA. 


BBC. 


A.  D.  1805-1806.— Aggrandized  by  Napoleon. 
— Created  a  Kingdom. —  Joined  to  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine.  See  Gkumany:  A.  I). 
180r>-lH()«,  ,111(1  IHOO  (.lANDAiiY— August). 

A.  D.  ii09. — The  revolt  in  the  Tyrol.— 
Heroic  strue;gle  of  Hofer  and  his  countrymer. 
See  Gkumany:  A.  1).   1H09-1.S10  (Aimui^Fkh- 

BUAUY). 

A.  D.  1813. — Abandonment  of  Napoleon  and 
•the  Rhenish  Confederation. —  Union  with  the 
Allies.  Si'c  Gkumany:  A.  I).  181H(.Skptk.mhku 
— OcTonKU),  and  (Octdhku — Dkckmijku). 

A.  D.  1814-1815.— Restoration  of  the  Tyrol 
to  Austria. — Territorial  compensations.  See 
ViKNNA,  The  C0NOUE88  OF,  nnd  Pkance:  A.  D. 

1814  (ApUII,- .lUNK). 

A.  D.  1848  (March).— Revolutionary  out- 
break.— Expulsion  of  Lola  Montez. — Abdi- 
cation of  the  King.  See  Germany  :  A.  I).  1848 
{Makcii). 

A.  D.  1866.— The  Seven  Weeks  War.— 
Indemnity  and  territorial  cession  to  Prussia. 
SeeGEHMANY:  A.  I).  1860. 

A.  D.  1870-1871.- Treaty  of  Union  with  the 
Germanic  Confederation,  soon  transformed 
into  the  German  Empire.  See  Qekm^ny: 
A.  D.*  1870  (Septembeu— Decembek),  and  1 J71. 

BAVAY,  Origin  of.     See  Neuvii. 

BAXAR,  OR  BAKSAR,  OR  BUXAR, 

Battle  of  (1764).     See  Ii  jia:  A.  D.  1757-1773. 

BAYARD,  The  Chevalier:  His  knightly 
deeds  and  his  death.  See  It,\ly:  A.  D.  1501- 
1504,  aiKl  Fkanck:  A.  D.  ir.33-l.')25. 

BAYEUX  TAPESTRY.  — A  remarkable 
roll  of  mediiEvnl  tapestry,  314  feet  long  and 
20  inches  wide,  preserved  for  centuries  in  the 
cathedral  at  Hayeiix,  Normandy,  on  which  a 
pictorial  history  of  the  Noriniin  invasion  and 
conquest  of  England  is  represented,  with  more 
or  less  of  names  and  explanatory  inscriptions. 
Mr.  E.  A.  Freeman  (Norman  Conquent,  r.  3,  note 
A)  says:  "It  will  be  seen  that,  throughout  this 
volume,  I  accept  the  witness  of  the  Baycux 
Ttti)e8try  as  one  of  my  highest  authorities.  I  do 
not  hesitate  to  say  that  I  look  on  it  as  lioldiug 
the  first  place  among  the  authorities  on  the  Nor- 
man side.  That  it  is  a  contemporary  work  I 
e;.tertain  no  doubt  whatever,  and  I  entertain 
just  as  little  doubt  as  to  its  being  a  work  fully 
■entitled  to  our  general  confidence.  I  believe  the 
tapestry  to  have  been  made  for  Bishop  Odo,  and 
to  have  been  most  probably  designed  by  him 
as  an  ornament  for  liis  newly  rebuilt  cathedra! 
church  of  IJaycr.x."  The  precious  tapestrj'  is 
now  preserved  in  the  public  library  at  Bayeux, 
carefully  stretched  round  the  room  under  glass. 

BAYEUX,  The  Saxons  of.  See  Saxons  op 
Bayeux. 

BAYLEN,  Battle  of  (1808).  See  Spain: 
A.  D.  1808  (May— Septembeu). 

BAYOGOULAS,  The.  See  American 
Aborioines:  Muskiiogean  Family. 

BAYONNE  :  Conference  of  Catharine  de' 
Medici  and  the  Duke  of  Alva  (1565).  See 
France:  A,  D.  1503-1.570. 

BAZAINE'S  SURRENDER  AT  METZ. 
See  France:  A.  D.  1870  (July— August),  (Au- 
gust—  September),  and  (September — Octo- 
ber). 

BEACONSFIELD  (Disraeli)  Ministries. 
,8ee  England:  A.  D.  1851-1852;  1858-1859; 
1868-1870,  and  1873-1880. 


BEAR  FLAG,  The.  Sec  Califohnia: 
A.  I).  1840-1847. 

BfeARN:  The  rise  of  the  Counts.  See 
BuHGi'Nnv:  \.  1),  1033, 

A.  D.  1620.— Absorbed  and  incorporated  in 
the  Kingdom  of  France.  See  France:  A,  I), 
1030-1033, 

A,  D.  1685. — The  Dragonnade. — Revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  See  France:  A.  I). 
1081-1008. 

BEATOUN,  Cardinal,  The  assassination 
of.     See  Scotland:  A,  1),  1540, 

BEAUFORT,  N.  C,  Capture  of,  by  the 
National  forces  (1862).  See  United  States  op 
Am.:  a,  D.  1803  (January— April:  North 
Carolina),  , 

BEAUGE,  Battle  of.— The  English  com- 
mandt!d  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  defeated  in 
Anjou  by  an  army  of  French  and  Scots,  under 
the  Dauphin  of  Franco;  the  Duke  of  Clarence 
slain. 

BEAUMARCHAIS'S  TRANSACTIONS 
WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES.  See 
United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1770-1778. 

BEAUMONT,  Battle  of.  See  France: 
A.  D,  1870  (August — September). 

BEAUREGARD,  General  G.  T.— Bombard- 
ment of  Fort  Sumter.    See  United  States  op 

A.M. :   A.  I).  1801  (March- April) At  the 

first  Battle  of  Bull  Run.  See  United  States 
OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  1801  (July:  Virginia) Com- 
mand in  the  Potomac  district.  See  United 
St.\te9  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1801-1803  (December- 
April:  Virginia) Command  in  the  West. 

See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1803  (Febru- 
ary— April:    Tennessee),  and  (ApRii^ — May: 

Tennessee — Mississippi) The   Defence    of 

Charleston.  See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1803  (August— December:  South  Carolina). 

BEAUVAIS,  Origin  of.     See  Belo«. 

BEBRYKIANS,The.    See  Bithynians. 

BEC,  Abbey  of. — One  of  the  most  famous 
abbeys  and  ecclesiastical  schools  of  the  middle 
ages.  Its  name  was  derived  from  the  little  beck 
or  rivulet  of  a  valley  in  Normandy,  on  the  banks 
of  which  a  pious  knight,  Herlouin,  retiring  from 
the  world,  had  fixed  his  hermitage.  The  renown 
of  the  piety  of  Herlouin  drew  others  around 
him  and  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  religious 
coininunity  with  himself  at  its  head.  Among 
those  attracted  to  Herlouin's  retreat  were  a  noble 
Lombard  scholar,  Lapfiuncof  Pavia,  who  after- 
wards became  the  great  Norman  archbisliop  of 
Canterbury,  and  Anselm  of  Aosta,  another 
Italian,  who  succeeded  Lanfranc  at  Canterbury 
with  still  more  fame.  The  teaching  of  Lanfranc 
at  Bee  raised  it,  says  Mr.  Green  in  his  fyliort 
llidory  of  the  EnqUiih  People,  into  the  most 
famous  school  of  Christendom;  it  was,  'n  fact, 
the  first  wave  of  the  intellectual  movement 
which  was  spreading  from  Italy  to  the  ruder 
countries  of  the  West.  The  fabric  of  the  canon 
law  and  of  mediaeval  scholasticism,  with  the 
philo.sophical  skepticism  which  tirst  awoke  under 
its  influence,  all  trace  their  origin  to  Bee.  "The 
glory  of  Bee  would  have  been  as  transitory  as 
that  of  other  monastic  hou.ses,  but  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  one  illustrious  man  [Lanfranc]  who 
came  to  be  enrolled  as  a  private  member  of  the 
brotherhood,  and  who  gave  Bee  for  a  while  a 
special  and  honorable  character  with  which 
hardly  any  other  monastery  in  Christendom  could 


275 


BEC. 


DEOUINES. 


compare." — E.   A.   Frcpinan,  Norman  Conquest, 
e/i.  H. 

BECHUANAS,  The.  Scu  South  Afiuc.v; 
TllK   Aiioiliiii.NAi,   IN'IIAIIITANTB;    ami   Akhica: 

TlIK  INHAmTIMl  HACKS, 

BECKET,  Thomas,  and  King  Henry  II. 
See  ENdi.AM);  A.  1>.  IKW-UTO. 

BED-CHAMBER  QUESTION,  The.     See 

E.N(ii.ANi):  A.  1).  1h:(7-1h39. 

BED  OF  JUSTICE.— "The  ceremony  liy 
wliieli  tlie  KrciK  li  Uiiijis  eoiiiijelled  the  rejj;istrii- 
lion  of  their  edicts  hv  tlie  Parliament  was  called 
a  '  lit  de  justiee '  [bed  of  justice].  The  monarch 
]>roceeded  in  state  to  the  Grand  Chainbre,  and 
the  chancellor,  having  taken  his  plciisure,  an- 
nounced that  tlie  kin;;  re(iiiired  such  and  such  a 
decree  to  he  entered  on  their  records  in  his 
presence.  It  was  liehl  that  this  personal  inter- 
ference of  the  sovercifrn  suspended  for  the  time 
being  the  functions  of  all  inferior  magistrates, 
and  the  edict  was  accordingly  registered  without 
ft  word  of  objection.  The  form  of  registration 
was  ns  follows:  '  Le  roi  scant  en  son  lit  de  justice 
n  or(h)nn6  et  ordonnetiue  les  pre.sents  edits  seront 
cnrcgistres ;'  and  at  the  end  of  the  decree,  '  Fait 
en  Parlenient,  lo  roi  y  scant  on  son  lit  do  jus- 
tice.'"— StiidentK'  Jlist.  of  France,  note  to  ch.  19. 
— See,  also,  Paui.iament  of  Pauis.— "The 
origin  of  this  term  [' l)cd  cf  justice']  has  been 
much  discussed.  The  wits  complained  it  was  so 
styled  because  there  justice  was  put  to  sleep. 
Tiic  term  was  probably  derived  from  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  throne  on  which  the  king  sat.  The 
back  and  sides  were  made  of  bolsters  and  it  was 
called  a  i)cd." — J.  II.  Perkins,  Frnnee  tinder 
Mazitrin,  r.  1,  p.  388,  foot-note. — An  elaborate 
and  entertaining  account  of  a  notable  Bed  of 
Justice  held  under  the  Regency,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.,  will  bo  found  in 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  de  Saint  Simon, 
abridged  trauslaiion  of  St.  John,  v.  4,  ch.  5-7. 

BEDR,  Battle  of.  See  Mahometan  Con- 
quest: A.  1).  009-6;!3. 

BEDRIACUM,  Battles  of.  See  Rome: 
A.  D.  CO. 

BEECHY  HEAD,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1690). 
SeeENdi.ANi):  A.  1).  1690  (June). 

BEEF-EATERS,   The.      See   Yeomen  of 

THE  GUAllI). 

BEEF  STEAK  CLUB,  The.  Sco  Clubs: 
TuE  Beef  Steak. 

BEER-ZATH,  Battle  of.— The  field  on 
^vhich  the  groat  Jewish  soldier  and  patriot,  Judas 
Maecabicus,  having  but  800  men  with  him,  was 
beset  by  an  army  of  the  Syrians  and  slain,  B.  C 
161. — j'osephus,  Antiq.  o/the  Jeirs,  bk.  13,  ch.  11. 

Also  in  :  II.  Ewald,  Hist,  of  Israel,  bk.  5,  sect.  3. 

BEG. —  A  Turkish  title,  signifying  prince  or 
lord ;  whence,  also.  Boy.     See  Bey. 

BEGGARS  (Gueux)  of  the  Netherland  Re- 
volt.    See  Nktiieulani>s:  A.  D.  1562-1.')U0. 

BEGGARS  OF  THE  SEA.  See  Netiieu- 
LANDS:  A.  I).  1572. 

BEGUINES,  OR  BEGHINES.  —  BEG- 
HARDS.  —  Weaving  Brothers.—  Lollards.— 
Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit. — Fratricelli. — 
Bizochi. — Turlupins, — "In  the  year  1180  there 
lived  in  Liege  a  certain  kindly,  stammering 
priest,  known  from  his  infirmity  as  Lambert  le 
Biigue.  Tills  man  took  pity  on  the  destitute 
widows  of  the  town.  Despite  the  impedir 
in  hi  J  spoecli,  he  was,  as  often  happens,  a  maL  u 
A  cert.iiu  power  ana  eloquence  in  preaching.     .  . 


This  Lainl)ert  so  moved  the  hearts  of  his  hearers 
that  gold  and  silver  i)oured  in  on  him,  given  to 
relieve  such  of  the  destitute  women  of  Liege  as 
were  still  of  good  and  jiious  life.  Witli  the 
moneys  thus  collected,  Lambert  built  a  little 
square  of  cottages,  with  a  church  in  the  middle 
and  a  hospital,  and  at  the  side  a  cemetery,  ilere 
he  h()U.sed  these  homeless  widows,  one  or  two  in 
each  little  house,  and  then  he  drew  iqi  a  half 
moim.stic  rule  which  was  to  :;uiile  their  lives. 
The  rule  was  very  simi)Ie,  (]uile  informal;  no 
vows,  no  great  renunciation  bound  the  'Swes- 
t rones  Brod  durch  Got.'  A  certain  time  of  the 
day  was  set  apart  for  prayer  and  i)ioiis  medita- 
tion ;  the  other  hours  they  spent  in  spinning  or 
sewing,  in  keeping  their  liou.ses  clean,  or  they 
went  as  ntirses  in  time  of  sickness  into  the 
homes  of  the  townspeople.  .  .  .  Thus  these 
women,  though  pious  and  sequestered,  were  still 
in  the  world  and  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Soon  wo 
find  the  name  ' Swostrones  Brod  durch  Got'  sot 
aside  for  the  more  usual  title  of  Beguines  or 
Beghines.  Different  authorities  give  different 
origins  of  this  word.  .  .  .  Some  liave  thought  it 
was  tiikon  in  memory  of  the  founder,  the  chari- 
table Lambert  le  Biigut.  Others  think  that,  even 
as  the  Slystics  or  Mutterers,  the  Lollards  or 
Hummers,  the  Popelhards  or  Babblers,  so  the 
Beguines  or  Stammerers  were  thus  nicknamed 
from  their  continual  murmuring  in  prayer.  This 
is  plausible ;  but  not  so  i)lausiblo  as  the  sugges- 
tion of  Dr.  Moslieim  and  M.  Augusto  Jundt,  who 
derive  tlie  word  Beguine  from  tlio  Flemish 
word  'beggen,  'to  beg.  For  we  know  that 
those  pious  women  had  been  veritable  beggars ; 
and  beggars  should  they  again  become.  Witli 
surprising  swiftness  tiic  new  order  spread 
through  the  Netherlands  and  into  France  and 
Germany.  .  .  .  Lambert  may  have  lived  to  see 
a  beguiiiago  in  every  great  town  within  his  ken; 
but  we  hear  no  more  of  him.  The  Beguines  aro 
no  longer  for  Liege,  but  for  all  the  world.  Eacli 
city  possessed  its  quiet  congregation ;  and  at  any 
sick-bod  you  might  meet  a  woman  clad  in  a 
simple  smock  and  a  great  veil-like  mantle,  who 
lived  only  to  pray  and  do  deeds  of  mercy.  .  .  . 
The  success  of  the  Bogunes  had  made  them  an 
example.  .  .  .  Before  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominio 
instituted  the  mendicant  orders,  there  had  silently 
grown  up  in  every  town  of  the  Netherlands  a 
spirit  of  fraternity,  not  imposed  by  any  rule,  but 
the  natural  impulse  of  a  pooplo.  The  weavers 
seated  all  day  long  alone  at  their  rattling  looms, 
the  armourers  beating  out  their  tlioughts  in  iron, 
the  cro.ss-leggcd  tailors  and  busy  cobblers  think- 
ing and  stitching  together  —  these  men  silent, 
pious,  thoughtful,  joined  themselves  in  a  fra- 
ternity modelled  on  that  of  tho  Beguines.  They 
were  called  the  Weaving  Brothers.  Bound  by 
no  vows  and  fettered  by  no  rule,  they  still  lived 
the  worldly  life  and  plied  their  trade  for  hire. 
Only  in  their  leisure  they  met  together  and 
prayed  and  dreamed  and  thought.  .  .  .  Such 
were  the  founders  of  the  great  fraternity  of 
'  Fratres  Toxtores,"  or  Beghards  as  in  later  years 
the  people  more  generally  called  them." — A.  M. 
F.  Robinson,  T/ie  End  of  the  Middle  Ages,  1.— 
"  Tho  Lollards  differed  from  the  Beghards  less 
in  reality  than  in  name.  \Vo  aro  informed  re- 
specting them  that,  at  their  origin  in  Antwerp, 
shortly  after  1300,  they  associated  together  for 
'he  purpose  of  waiting  upon  patients  danger- 
ously sick,   and  burying  the  dead.  .  .  .  Very 


276 


BEQUINE8. 


BEHRINO  SEA  CONTROVEHSY. 


cnr.v,  liowcvtT,  nn  clement  of  a  rlilTcrcnt  kind 
In'gi.n  to  work  in  tliose  fellowships.  Even  ftbout 
the  close  of  the  liilh  century  irrejjuliiritiL's  and 
cxtniviigances  lire  laid  to  their  clmr/;e.  .  .  .  The 
charges  brought  against  the  later  Ik'ghards  and 
J/i>Ilards,  in  connection,  on  the  ()n(^  hand,  with 
the  fanatical  Franciscans,  who  were  violently 
contending  with  the  Church,  and  on  the  other, 
with  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit, 
relate  to  three  i)articulars,  viz.,  an  aversion  to 
all  useful  industry,  conjoined  with  a  ])ropensity 
to  niendlcancy  and  idleness,  an  inteini)erate 
spirit  of  op])osilion  to  the  Church,  and  a  .skepti- 
cal and  more  or  less  jiantheistical  mysticism.  .  .  . 
They  .  .  .  declare<l  that  tlie  time  of  Antichrist 
was  come,  and  on  all  hands  endeavoured  to  em- 
broil the  people  with  tlieir  spiritual  guides. 
Their  own  i)rofessed  object  was  to  restore  the 
pure  i)rimeval  state,  the  divine  life  of  freedom, 
innocence,  and  nature.  The  idea  they  formetl 
of  that  state  wa.i,  that  man,  being  in  and  of  him- 
self one  with  God,  requires  only  to  act  in  the 
consciousness  of  this  unity,  ffnd  to  follow  un- 
restrained the  divinely  implanted  impulses  and 
inclinations  of  his  nature,  in  order  to  be  good  and 
godly." — C.  UUnumn,  lieforiiters  before  the  lie- 
formntioii.  '•  2,  jip.  14-10. — "The  names  of  beg- 
Imrds'aiK'  guines  came  not  unnaturally  to  be 
used  for  u  itees  who,  without  being  members 
of  any  regular  nioniustic  society,  made  a  profes- 
sion of  religious  strictness;  and  thus  the  applica- 
tions of  the  names  to  some  kinds  of  sectaries  was 
easy  —  more  especially  as  manj'  of  these  found 
it  convenient  to  assuiue  the  outward  appearance 
of  beghards,  in  the  hojje  of  disguising  their  dif- 
ferences from  the  church.  But  on  tlie  other 
hand,  tliis  drew  on  the  orthodo.v  beghards  fre- 
quent persecution.s,  and  many  of  them,  for  the 
sake  of  safety,  were  glad  to  connect  themselves 
as  tertiaries  with  the  great  mendicant  orilers. 
...  In  the  14th  century,  the  popes  dealt  hardly 
with  the  beghards ;  yet  orthodox  societies  under 
this  name  still  remained  in  Germany;  and  in 
Belgium,  the  country  of  their  origin,  sisterhoods 
of  beguincs  flouri.sh  to  the  present  day.  .  .  . 
Matthias  of  Janow,  the  Bohemian  reformer,  in 
the  end  of  the  14th  century,  says  that  all  who 
act  dilTcrently  from  the  profane  vidgar  are 
called  beghardi  or  turlupini,  or  by  other  blas- 
l)hemous  names.  .  .  .  Among  those  who  were 
confounded  with  the  beghards  —  jiartly  because, 
like  tliem,  they  abounded  along  the  Rhine  — 
were  the  brethren  and  sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit. 
These  appear  in  various  places  under  various 
names.  They  wore  a  peculiarly'  simple  dress, 
professed  to  give  themselves  to  contemplation, 
and,  holding  that  labour  is  a  hindrance  to  con- 
templation and  to  the  elevation  of  the  soul  to 
God,  they  lived  by  beggary.  Tlieir  doctrines 
were  mystical  and  almost  ]iantheistic.  .  .  .  The 
brethren  and  sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit  were  much 
persecuted,  and  probably  formed  a  largo  pro- 
portion of  those  who  were  burnt  under  tlie  name 
of  beghards." — J.  C.  ]{obertsou,  JfM.  of  Chris- 
tian Church,  hk.  7,  ch.  7(i'.  0). — " Near  the  close 
of  this  century  [the  13tli]  originated  in  Italj'  the 
Fratricelli  and  Uizochi,  parties  that  in  Germany 
and  France  were  denominated  Beguards;  and 
which,  tlrst  Boniface  VIII.,  and  afterwards 
other  pontilTs  condemned,  and  wished  to  see 
persecuted  by  the  Inquisition  and  exterminated 
m  every  possible  way.  The  Fratricelli,  who 
also  called  themselves  in  Latin  '  Fratres  parvi ' 


(Ijittle  Brethren),  or  'Fraterculi  de  paupcre  vita'' 
(Little  Brothers  of  the  Poor  Life),  were  Francis- 
can monks,  but  detached  from  the  great  fantily 
of  Franciscans;  who  wished  to  ob.serve  the  regu- 
lations prescribed  by  their  founder  St.  Francis 
in(H-e  perfectly  than  the  others,  and  therefore 
jiossessed  no  itroperty,  either  individually  or 
collectively,  but  obtained  their  necessary  food 
from  day  to  day  by  begging.  .  .  .  They  pre- 
dicted a  reformatiim  and  ]uirilication  of  the 
church.  .  .  .  Tliey  extolled  Celestine  V.  as  the 
legal  founder  of  their  sect;  but  Boniface  and  the 
succeeding  pontilT.s  who  opposed  the  Fratricelli, 
they  denied  to  be  true  pontilTs.  As  the  great 
Franciscan  family  had  its  associates  and  depend- 
ents, who  observed  the  third  rule  prescribed  by 
St.  Francis  [which  retpiired  only  certain  pious- 
observances,  such  as  fasts,  jirayers,  continence, 
a  coarse,  cheap  dress,  gravity  of  manners,  ic., 
but  did  not  prohibit  private  property,  marriage, 
public  olllces,  ajid  worldly  occupations],  and  who 
were  usually  called  Tertiarii,  so  also  tlie  sect  of 
the  Fratricelli  .  .  .  hail  numerous  Tertiarii  of 
its  own.  These  were  called,  in  Italy,  Bi/.oelii 
and  ">iicasoti;  in  France  Begiiini;  and  in  Ger- 
mans Heghardi,  by  which  name  all  the  Tertiarii 
were  coinmoidy  designated.  Tliese  dillered  from 
the  Fratricelli  .  .  .  only  in  tlieir  nuMle  of  life. 
Tlie  Fratricelli  were  real  monks,  living  under 
the  rule  of  St.  Francis;  but  the  Bizochi  or  Be- 
guini  lived  in  tlie  manner  of  otlier  jieople.  .  .  . 
Totallv  different  from  these  austere  BeguinE 
and  Beguiiiie,  were  tlie  German  and  Belgic 
Beguina',  wlio  did  not  indeed  originate  in  this 
century,  but  now  first  came  into  notice.  .  .  . 
Concer  ling  the  Turlupins,  many  have  written;, 
but  none  accurately.  .  .  .  The  origin  of  the  name, 
I  know  not ;  but  I  lun  able  to  lu-ove  from  sub- 
stantial documents,  tliat  the  Turluiiins  who  were 
burned  at  Paris,  and  in  other  ,.arts  of  France 
were  no  other  than  the  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit  whom  ihe  pontiffs  and  councils  con- 
demned."— J.  li.  Von  Mo.sheim,  lust's  of  Eeele- 
siasticttl  IIist.,hk.  i,  century  13,  }U.  2,  ch.  2,  sect. 
30^1,  andch.  5,  sect.  Q,  foot-note. 

Also  in;  L.  JEariotti  (A.  Gallenga),  /'Va  Doleino- 
and  his  Times. — See,  also,  Pic.MiDS. 

BEGUMS  OF  OUDE,  Warren  Hasting* 
and  the.     See  Indi.v;  A.  1).  1773-1785. 

BEHISTUN,  Rock  of.— "This  remarkable 
spot,  lying  on  tlie  direct  route  between  Babylon 
and  Ecbatana,  and  presenting  the  unusual  com- 
bination of  a  copious  fountain,  a  rich  plain  and 
a  rock  suitable  for  sculjUure,  must  have  early 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  great  monarchy 
who  marched  their  armies  through  the  Zagros- 
range,  as  a  place  where  they  might  conveniently 
set  up  memorials  of  their  exploits.  .  .  .  The 
tablet  and  inscriptions  of  Darius,  which  have 
made  Behistun  famous  in  modern  times,  are  in  a 
recess  to  the  right  of  the  scari)ed  face  of  the 
rock,  and  at  a  considerable  elevation." — G.  Raw- 
linson,  Fire  Oreat  Monarchies:  Media,  ch.  1.-- 
Tho  mountain  or  rock  of  Behistun  fixes  the 
location  of  the  district  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
Bagistana.  "It  lies  southwest  of  Elvend, 
between  that  mountain  and  the  Zagriis  in  the 
valley  of  the  Choaspes,  and  is  the  district  now 
known  as  Kirmensliah."— M.  Duncker,  llist.  of 
Anlinuili),  hk.  8,  ch.  1. 

BEHRING  SEA  CONTROVERSY,  and 
Arbitration.  Sec  United  States  of  Am.  : 
A..  D.  1886-1803.  , 


277 


BEIRUT. 


BELGRADE. 


BEIRUT,  Origin  of.    Sci'  IJkuvtits. 

BELA  I.,    King   of   Hungary,  A.  I).   1000- 

1063 Bela   II.,  A.     1)     li:tl-1141 Bela 

III.,  A.  D.  U;:i-1190 Bela  IV.,  A.  I).  1205- 

1270. 

BELCHITE,  Battle  of.  Soc  Spain:  A.  I>. 
1801)  (FKiiiif.Mtv— -Jink). 

BELERION,  OR  BOLERIUM.  — The 
Koiimii   iiiimc   nf    [.unil's  P^iid,    Eiigliuul.      See 

BllIT.MN:    Cl'l.TIC  TlilllKS. 

BELF  )RT.— Siege  by  the  Germans  (1870- 
1871).     S<'c  FliANfE:  A.  I).  1H70-18T1. 

BELGiE,  The.— "This  Belgian  confeileni- 
lioii  inclmleil  the  people  of  all  the  country  north 
of  the  Seine  and  JIarne,  bounded  by  the  Atlantic 
on  the  west  and  the  Rhine  on  the  north  and  east, 
fxcept  the  Medioniatriei  and  Treviri.  .  .  .  The 
old  (livisions  of  France  before  the  great  revolu- 
tion of  1789  corresponded  in  some  degree  to  the 
divisions  of  the  country  in  the  time  of  Cii'sar, 
and  the  names  of  the  people  aiKj  still  retained 
with  little  alteration  in  the  names  of  the  chief 
towns  or  the  names  of  the  antorevolutionary 
divisions  of  France.  In  the  country  of  the  Remi 
between  the  JIarne  and  the  Aisno  there  is  the 
town  of  Reims.  In  the  territory  of  the  Suessiones 
between  the  Marne  and  the  Aisne  there  is  Soissons 
on  the  Aisne.  The  Rellovaci  were  west  of  the 
Oise  (Isara)  a  branch  of  the  Seine:  their  chief 
town,  which  at  some  time  received  the  name  of 
CiEsiiromngus,  is  now  Beauvais.  The  Nervii 
were  between  and  on  the  Sanibre  and  the  Schelde. 
The  Atrebates  were  north  of  the  Bellovuci  be- 
tween the  Somnie  and  the  upper  Schelde:  their 
chief  place  was  Nemetacum  or  Ncmetocenna, 
now  Ariiis  in  the  old  division  of  Artois.  The 
Ambiani  were  on  the  Sommc  (Samara):  their 
name  is  represented  by  Amiens  (Samarobriva). 
The  Jlorini,  or  sea-coast  men  extended  from 
Boulogne  towards  Duukertjue.  The  Menapii 
bordered  on  the  northern  Slorini  and  were  on 
both  sides  of  the  lower  Rhine  (B.  G.  iv.,  4).  The 
Caleti  were  north  of  the  lower  Seine  along  the 
coast  in  the  Pays  de  Caux.  The  Velocasses  were 
east  of  the  Caleti  on  the  north  side  of  the  Seine 
as  far  as  the  Oise ;  their  chief  town  was  Rotoma- 
gus  (Rouen)  and  their  country  was  afterwards 
Vexin  Norman  d  and  Vexin  Fran(,'ai9.  The  Vero- 
mandui  were  north  of  the  Suessiones:  their 
chief  town  under  the  Roman  dominion,  Augusta 
Veroinanduoruni,  is  now  St.  Quentin.  The  Adua- 
tvici  were  on  the  lower  Maas.  The  Condrusi  and 
the  others  included  under  the  name  of  Qermani 
were  on  the  Alaas,  or  between  the  ^Maas  and  the 
Rhine.  The  Eburones  had  the  country  about 
Tongorn  and  Spa,  and  were  the  immediate  neigh- 
bours of  the  Menapii  on  the  Rhine." — Q.  Long, 
Decline  of  tfie  Itoiium  liepublir,  r.  4,  ch.  S. — 
"Cajsar  .  .  .  informs  us  that,  in  their  own  esti- 
mation, they  [the  Belgiu]  were  principally  de- 
scended from  a  German  stock,  tlie  offspring  of 
some  early  migmtion  across  the  Rhine.  .  .  . 
Slrabo  ...  by  no  means  concurred  in  Cajsar's 
view  of  the  origin  of  this  .  .  .  race,  whicii  he 
believed  to  be  Gaulish  and  nou  German,  though 
differing  widely  from  the  Galli,  or  Gauls  of 
the  central  region." — C.  Merivale,  Hist,  of  the 
lioinaiui,  ch.  .5. 

Also  IN:  E.  Guest,  Orir/iiies  Celtinv,  r.  1,  ch.  12, 

B.  C.  57. — Cssar's  campaign  against  the 
confederacy. —  In  the  second  year  of  Ctusar's 
command  in  Gaul,  B.  C.  57,  he  led  his  legions 
against  the  Belgu;,  whom  he  characterized  in  his 


Commentaries  as  the  bravest  of  all  the  pcop'"  of 
Gaid.  The  many  tribes  of  the  Belgian  C(  ry 
had  joined  themselves  in  a  great  league  1  op- 
jiose  the  advancing  Roman  ])ower,  ancl  were  able 
to  bring  into  the  (ield  no  less  than  290,000  men. 
The  tribe  of  the  Rend  alone  refused  to  join  the 
confederacy  and  placed  themselves  on  the  Roman 
side.  Ciesar  who  had  ((Uartered  his  army  during 
the  winter  in  the  country  of  theSequaiu,  marched 
boldly,  with  eight  legions,  into  the  midst  of  these 
swanning  enemies.  In  his  tirst  encounter  with 
them  on  tlie  banks  of  the  Aisne,  the  Helgic  bar- 
barians were  terribly  cut  to  pieces  and  were  so 
disheartened  that  tribe  after  tribe  made  submis- 
sion to  the  ])roconsul  as  he  advanced.  But  the 
Xcrvii,  who  Ijoasted  a  Germanic  descent,  together 
with  the  Aduatuci,  the  Atrebates  and  the  Vero- 
mandui,  rallied  their  forces  for  a  struggle  to  the 
death.  The  Nervii  succeeded  in  surprising  the 
Romans,  while  the  latter  were  preparing  their 
cam])  on  the  banks  of  the  Sambre,  and  verv 
nearly  swept  CItesar  and  his  veterans  off  the  fleld, 
by  their  furious  an<l  tremendous  charge.  But 
tlie  energy  and  jiersonal  influence  of  the  one, 
with  the  steady  discipline  of  the  other,  prevailed 
in  the  end  over  the  untnuned  vahmr  of  the  Nervii, 
and  the  proud  nation  was  not  only  defeated  but 
annihilated.  "Their  eulogy  is  preserved  in  the 
written  testimony  of  their  con(i\ieror;  and  the 
Romans  long  remembered,  and  never  failed  to 
signalize  their  formidable  valour.  But  this 
recollection  of  their  ancient  prowess  became  from 
that  day  the  principiU  monument  of  tlieir  name 
and  history,  for  the  defeat  they  now  sustained 
well  nigh  annihilated  the  nation.  Their  combat- 
ants were  cut  off  almost  to  a  man.  _  The  ciders 
and  the  women,  who  liad  been  left  in  secure  re- 
treats, came  forth  of  their  own  accord  to  solicit 
the  conqueror's  clemency.  ...  'Of  600  sena- 
tors,' they  said,  'we  have  lost  nil  but  three;  of 
60,000  fighting  men  500  only  remain.'  Cajsar 
treated  tlie  survivors  with  compassion. " —  C. 
Jlerivalc,  Hist,  of  the  limruins,  ch.  7. 

Ai,80  IN :  Julius  Cresar,  Gallic  Wars,  bk.  2. — 
G.  Long,  Declini'  of  the  Roman  Republic,  v.  4,  ch. 
3. — Napoleon  III.,  Hist  of  Ofsar,  bk.  3,  eh.  5. 

BELGiE  OF  BRITAIN,  The.— Supposed 
to  be  a  colony  from  the  Belga;  of  the  continent. 
The  territory  which  they  occupied  is  now 
embraced  in  the  counties  of  Wiltshire  and 
Somerset.     SeeBniT.\iN:  Cei.tic  TmnKS. 

BELGIUM:  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  His- 
tory.    See  BKLOiK,  Nehvii,  Fiianks,  Louhaine, 

Fl.ANDEUS,  LlEOE,   NeTHEHI.ANDS. 

Modern  History.     See  Nistiieulands. 

BELGRADE  :  Origin.— During  the  attacks 
of  the  Avars  upon  the  territory  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  in  the  last  yeai-s  of  the  Otli  century,  the 
city  of  Singidunuin,  at  the  junction  of  the  Save 
with  the  Danube,  was  taken  and  totally 
destroyed.  The  advantageous  site  of  the  extinct 
town  soon  attracted  a  colony  of  Sclavonians, 
who  raised  out  of  the  ruins  a  new  and  strongly 
fortified  city  —  the  Belgrade,  or  the  White  City 
of  later  times.  "The  Sclavonic  name  of  Bel- 
grade is  mentioned  in  the  lOtli  century  by  Con- 
stantine  Porphyorgenitus:  tlie  Latin  appellation 
of  Alba  Qncca  is  used  by  the  Pranks  in  the 
beginning  of  the  9\\\."—K..  G'\h\nn\,  Decline a)\d 
Full  of  the  Roimin  Empire,  ch.  46,  note. 

A.  b.  1425.- Acquired  by  Hungary  and  forti- 
fied against  the  Turks.  SeelluNUAHY:  A.  D. 
1301-1442. 


278 


BELGRADE. 


BENEDICTINE  ORDERS. 


A.  D.  1442.— First  repulse  of  the  Turks. 
8tr  Ti'iiks(TiikOttom.\n8):  A.  1).  1402-14.'il. 

A.  D.  1456.— Second  repulse  of  the  Turks. 
Sec  lIuNdAUY:  A.  D.  144-,'-14r)8;  uud  Tl'HKS 
(TiiK  Ottomans):  A.  D.  I4.'il-14H1. 

A.  D.  1521. — Siege  and  capture  by  Solyman 
the  Magnificent.  Sec  IIi'.n(iauy:  A.  I),  IIHT- 
1526. 

A.  D.  1688-1690.— Taken  by  the  Austrians 
and  recovered  by  the  Turks.  Sec  IIunoahy: 
A.  11.  KiHIi-KiO!). 

A.  D.  1717. — Recovery  from  the  Turks.  ISco 
IIiNdAUY:  A.  1).  1099-lTlH. 

A.  D.  1739.— Restored  to  the  Turks.  See 
RtiHstA:  A.  I).  ir2,)-17:!<J. 

A.  D.  1789-1791.— Taken  by  the  Austrians 
and  restored  to  the  Turks.  SteTimKs:  A.  D. 
1770-1792. 

A.  D.  1806.— Surprised  and  taken  by  the 
Servians.  Si'e  Balkan  and  Danuhian  States: 
14th-19tii  Cknturiks  (Sk.uvia). 

A.  D.  1862.— Withdrawal  of  Turkish 
troops.  Sec  Balkan  and  Danuhian  States: 
14th-19tii  Centuiues  (Seuvia). 

BELGRADE,  The  Peace  of.  See  Russia: 
A.  D.  172.'>-1739. 

BELIK,  Battle  on  the  (Carrha- B.  C.  S3)- 
See  Rome:  B.  C.  57-53. 

BELISARIUS,  Campaigns  of.  See  Van- 
dals: A.  D.  53»-.534,  ami  Home:  A.  D.  535-553. 

BELIZE,  or  British  Honduras.  See  Nica- 
Kaoua:  a.  I).  18.50.  •    • 

BELL  ROLAND,  The  great.  See  Ghent: 
A.  D.  1,539-1540. 

BELLE  ALLIANCE,  Battle  of  La.— The 
bnttlc  of  Waterloo  —  sec  Fkance:  A.  D.  1815 
(June)  —  is  so  called  by  the  Prussians. 

BELLE  ISLE  PRISON-PEN,  The.  See 
PuisoNs  AND  Puison-Pens,  Confedekate. 

BELLOVACI,  The.     See  Belg*. 

BELLVILLE,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  OK  Am.  :  A.  D.  1803  (July:  Kentucky). 

BELMONT,  Battle  of.  See  United  States 
OK  Am.  :  A.  D.  1861  (Septemuer — November  : 
On  the  Mississippi). 

BEMA,  The.     See  Pnyx. 

BEMIS  HEIGHTS,  Battle  of.  SeeUyiTED 
States  of  A.m.  :  A.  D.  1777  (July — October). 

BENARES. — "  The  early  history  of  Benares 
is  involved  in  mnch  obscurity.  It  is,  indisputably, 
a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  may  even  date 
from  the  time  when  the  Aryan  mco  first  spread 
itself  over  Northern  India.  ...  It  is  certain 
that  the  city  is  regarded  by  all  Hindus  as  coeval 
with  the  birth  of  Hinduism,  a  notion  derived 
both  from  tradition  and  from  their  own  writings. 
Allusions  to  Benares  are  exceedingly  abundantin 
ancient  Sanskrit  literature ;  and  perhaps  there  is 
no  city  in  all  Hindustan  more  frequently  referred 
to.  By  reason  of  some  subtle  and  .lysterious 
charm,  it  has  linked  it.sclf  with  the  religious 
sympathies  of  the  Hindus  through  every  c-;:tury 
of  its  existence.  For  the  sanctity  of  it;  in- 
habitants —  of  its  temples  and  reservoir .  ,^  its 
wells  and  streams  —  of  tlie  very  soil  inat  is 
trodden  —  of  the  very  air  that  is  breathed  —  and 
of  everything  in  and  around  it,  Benares  has  been 
famed  for  thousands  of  years.  .  .  .  Previously 
to  the  introiluction  of  the  Buddhist  faith  into 
India,  she  was  already  the  sacred  city  of  the 
laud,— the  centre  of  Hmduism,  and  chief  seat  of 
its  authority.    Judging  from  the  strong  feelings  | 


of  veneration  and  afToction  with  which  the 
native  community  regard  her  in  the  present  day, 
and  bearing  in  iiinid  that  the  founder  of  Bull- 
(Ihisni  coMiinenced  his  ministry  at  tliis  spot,  it 
seems  indisputable  that,  in  those  early  times  ])re- 
ccding  the  Buddhist  reformation,  the  city  must 
have  exerted  a  powerful  and  wide-'spnwl 
religious  iiitluence  over  the  land.  Throughout 
the  IJuddlilst  ])eriod  in  India  —  a  [x'tiod  e.Mcnd- 
ing  from  700  to  1.000  yeara  — slie  gave  the  same 
support  to  Buddhism  which  slie  had  previously 
given  to  the  Hindu  faith.  Buddhist  works  of 
that  era  .  .  .  clearly  establisli  tlie  fact  lliat  the 
Buddhi.sts  of  those  'days  regarded  the  city  with 
much  tlie  same  kind  of  veneration  as  thi^  Iliiidu 
does  now." — M.  A.  Shcrring,  T/ie  i^Jirml  Citi/ of 
the  Hindus,  eh.  1. — For  an  account  of  the  Eng- 
lish annexation  of  Benares,  see  India:  A.  1). 
1773-178,5. 

BENEDICT  II.,  Pope,  A.  I).  084-08.5 

Benedict  III.,  Pope,  A.  I).  8,5,V8,58 Benedict 

IV.,    Pope,    A.     I).    900-903 Benedict   V., 

Pope,   A.   1).  964-90.5 Benedict  VI.,  Pope, 

A.  1).  972-974 Benedict  VII.,  Pope,  A.  D. 

97,5-984 Benedict  VIII.,  Pope,  A.  1).  1012- 

1024 Benedict  IX.,  Pope,  A.  I).  1033-1044, 

1047-1048 Benedict    X.,    Antipope,   A    D. 

10.58-10,59 Benedict  XI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1303- 

1304 Benedict  XII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1334-1342. 

...Benedict  XIII.,  Pope,  A.  I).  1394-1423  (at 

Avignon) Benedict  XIII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1724- 

1730 Benedict   XIV.,    Pope,  A.    D.    1740- 

1758. 

BENEDICTINE  ORDERS.— The  rule  of 
St.  Benedict. — "There  were  many  monasteries 
in  the  West  before  the  time  of  St.  Benedict  of 
Nursia  (A.  D.  480) ;  but  ho  has  been  rightly  con- 
sidered the  father  of  Western  monasticism ;  for 
he  not  only  founded  an  order  to  whicli  many 
religious  houses  became  attached,  but  he  estab- 
lished a  rule  for  their  government  which,  in  its 
main  features,  was  adopted  as  the  rule  of  mon- 
astic life  by  all  the  orders  for  more  than  five 
centuries,  or  until  the  time  of  St.  Dominic  and 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  Benedict  was  first  a 
hermit,  living  in  the  mountains  of  Southern 
Italy,  and  in  that  region  he  afterwards  estab- 
lished in  succession  twelve  monasteries,  each 
with  twelve  monks  and  a  superior.  In  the  year 
.520  he  foimded  the  great  monastery  of  Monte 
Casino  us  the  mother-house  of  his  order,  a  liou';o 
which  became  the  most  celebrated  and  powerful 
monastery,  according  to  Montalembert,  in  the 
Catholic  universe,  celebrated  especially  because 
there  Benedict  prepared  his  rule  and  formed  the 
type  wliich  was  to  serve  as  a  model  to  the 
innumerable  communities  sulunitting  to  that 
sovereign  code.  .  .  .  NeithcV  in  the  East  nor  in 
tlie  West  were  the  monks  originally  ecclesiastics; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  eighth  century  that  they 
became  priests,  called  regulars,  in  contrast  with 
the  ordinary  parish  clergy,  who  were  called 
seculars.  ...  As  missionaries,  they  proved  the 
most  powerful  instruments  in  extending  the 
authority  and  the  boundaries  of  the  church. 
The  monk  had  no  individual  property:  even 
his  dress  belonged  to  the  monastery.  ...  To 
enable  him  to  work  eflleiently,  it  was  necessary 
to  feed  him  well;  and  such  was  the  injuneti<m 
of  Benedict,  as  opposed  to  the  former  practice  of 
strict  asceticism." — C.  J.  Stille,  Sttidies  in 
Mcdimml  Hist.,  ck.  12. — "Benedict  would  fiot 
have  the  monks  limit  themselves  to  spiritual 


279 


BENEDICTINE  ORDERS. 


BENEVOLENCES. 


labour,  to  the  notion  of  the  soul  \ipon  itself;  he 
nuulc  external  laboui-,  nianuiil  or  literary,  a  strict 
oliliKatiori  of  liis  ruli'.  .  .  .  lu  order  "to  banisii 
indolence,  wliicli  lie  called  tlie  enemy  of  the  soul, 
lie  regulated  minutely  the  employment  of  every 
hour  of  the  day  according  to  tlie  seasons,  and 
ordained  that,  after  having  celebrated  the 
praises  of  God  seven  times  u-day,  seven  hours 
a-day  should  be  given  to  manual  lalioiir,  and  two 
hours  to  HMiding.  .  .  .  Tliose  wlio  are  sliilled  in 
tlie  priK'tice  of  an  art  or  trade,  could  only  exer- 
cise it  by  the  permission  of  the  abbot,  in  all 
humility;  and  if  any  one  pri<led  himself  on  his 
talent,  or  the  prollt  which  resulted  from  it  to 
the  house,  he  was  toliave  his  occupation  dianged 
until  lie  liad  humbled  himself.  .  .  .  Obedience 
is  also  to  his  ej'es  a  work,  obedieiitiae  laborem, 
the  most  meritorious  and  essential  of  all.  A 
monk  entered  into  monastic  life  only  to  make 
the  sacrillcc  of  self.  This  saeriliee  implied 
especially  that  of  the  will.  .  .  .  Thus  the  rule 
pursued  pride  into  its  most  secret  hiding-place. 
Submission  had  to  be  prompt,  perfect,  and 
absolute.  The  monk  must  obey  always,  with- 
out reserve,  and  witliout  murmur,  even  in  those 
things  which  seemed  impossible  and  above  his 
strength,  trusting  in  the  succour  of  God,  if  a 
Innnblc  and  seasonable  remonstrance,  the  only 
thing  permitted  to  him,  was  not  accepted  by  his 
superiors." — The  Count  dc  Slontalembcrt,  The 
Monks  of  tlm  West,  bk.  4,  sect.  3  (v.  2). 

Also  in;  E.  L.  Cutts,  Scenes  and  Chnracters  of 
the  Middle  Af/es,ch.  2.— S.  R.  Maitlnnd,  The  Dark 
Ayes,  No.  10. — J.  H.  Newman,  Mission  of  St. 
Benedict  (Hist.  Sketches,  v.  3).— P.  Schaff,  Ilist. 
of  tJie  Christian  Church,  v.  3,  ch.  4,  sect.  43-45. 
— E.  F.  Henderson,  Select  Hist.  Docs,  of  the 
Middle  Af/es,  bk.  3,  no.  1. — See,  also.  Capuchins. 

BENEFICIUM.  — COMMENDATION,— 
Fcuilalism  "had  grown  up  from  two  great 
sources — the  beneficium,  and  the  practice  of 
commendation,  and  had  been  spcvlaliy  fostered 
on  Gallic  soil  by  the  existence  of  a  subject  popu- 
lation which  admitted  of  any  amount  of  exten- 
sion in  the  methods  of  dependence.  The 
beneficiary  system  originated  partly  in  gifts  of 
laud  made  by  the  kings  out  of  their  own  estates 
to  their  kinsmen  and  servants,  with  a  special 
undertaking  to  be  faithful;  partly  in  the  sur- 
render by  landownere  of  their  estJitcs  to  churches 
or  powerful  men,  to  be  rccr-'vcd  back  again  and 
held  by  them  as  tenants  for  rent  or  service.  By 
the  latter  arrangement  the  weaker  man  obtained 
the  protection  of  the  stronger,  and  he  who  felt 
himself  insecure  placed  his  title  under  the  de- 
fence of  the  Churcli.  By  the  practice  of  com- 
mendation, on  the  other  hand,  the  inferior  put 
himself  under  the  personal  care  of  a  lord,  but 
without  altering  his  title  or  divesting  himself  of 
his  riglit  to  his  estate ;  he  became  a  vassal  and 
did  homage.  The  placing  of  his  hands  between 
those  of  his  lord  was  the  typical  act  by  which 
the  connexion  was  formed." — W.  Stubbs,  Const. 
Hist.  ofEng.,  ch.  9,  sect.  03. 

Also  in  :  II.  Hallam,  The  Middle  Ages,  ch.  2, 
pt.  1. — See,  also,  Scotland:  IOtii-Hth  Cen- 
turies. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.— "  Among  the 
most  important  and  dearly-prized  privileges  of 
the  church  was  that  which  conferred  on  its 
members  immunity  from  the  operation  of  secu- 
lar law,  and  relieved  them  from  the  jurisdic- 
tloa   of  secular  tribunals.  ...  So  priceless  a 


prerogative  was  not  obtained  without  a  long  and 
resolute  struggle.  .  .  .  To  ask  that  a  monk  or 
l)riest  guilty  of  crime  should  not  be  siibiect  to 
the  ordinary  tribunals,  and  that  civil  suits  be- 
tween liiymen  and  ecclesiastics  sliould  ',)e  referred 
exclusively  to  courts  composed  of  the  latter, 
was  a  claim  too  repugnant  to  the  common  sense 
of  mankind  to  be  lightly  accorded.  .  .  .  The 
persistence  of  the  ■••luireh,  backed  up  by  the 
unfailing  resource  of  excomniunication,  tinally 
triumphed,  and  the  sacred  immunity  of  tlie 
priesthood  was  aeknowltidged,  sooner  or  later, 
in  the  laws  of  every  r-t:)n  of  Europe."  In 
England,  when  Henry  II,  in  1164,  "endeavored, 
in  the  Constitutions  of  Ciarendon,  to  set  bounds 
to  the  privileges  of  the  church,  he  therefore 
especially  attacked  the  benefit  of  clergy.  .  .  . 
The  disastrous  result  of  the  quarrel  between 
the  King  and  the  archbishop  [Becket]  rendered 
it  necessary  to  abandon  all  such  schemes  of  re- 
form. ...  As  time  passed  on,  the  benefit  of 
clergy  gradually  extended  itself.  That  the 
laity  were  illiterate  and  the  clergy  educated  was 
taken  for  granted,  and  the  test  of  churchman 
ship  came  to  be  tlie  ability  to  read,  so  that  the 
privilege  became  in  fact  a  free  pardon  on  a  first 
offence  for  all  who  knew  their  letters.  .  .  . 
Under  Elizabeth,  certain  heinous  offences  were 
declared  felonies  without  benefit  of  clergy. 
.  .  .  Much  legislation  ensued  from  time  to  time, 
effecting  the  limitation  of  the  privilege  in  vari- 
ous offences.  .  .  .  Early  in  the  reign  of  Anne 
the  benefit  of  clergy  was  extended  to  all  male- 
factors by  abrogatmg  the  reading  test,  tlius 
placing  the  unlettered  felon  on  a  par  with  his 
better  educated  fellows,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
present  century  wos  well  advanced  that  this 
remnant  of  mediajvnl  ecclesiastical  prerogative 
was  abolished  by  7  and  8  Geo.  Iv.  c.  28." — 
H.  C.  Lea,  Studies  in  Church  Hist.,  pt.  2. 

Also  in  :  W.  Stubbs,  Coiut.  Hist,  of  Eng. , 
sect.  722-735  {ch.  19,  v.  3).— See,  also,  England: 
A.  D.  1162-1170. 

BENEVENTO,  OR  GRANDELLA,  Bat- 
tle of  (1266).  See  Italy  (Soutiiehs):  A.  D. 
1350-1268. 

BENEVENTUM:  The  Lombard  Duchy. 
— The  Duchy  of  Beneventum  was  a  Lombard 
fief  of  the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  in  southern 
Italy,  which  survived  the  fall  of  the  Lombard 
kingdom  in  northern  Italy.  It  covered  nearly 
the  territory  of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Naples. 
Charlemagne  reduced  the  Duchy  to  submission 
witii  considerable  dilflculty,  after  he  had  extin- 
guished the  Lombard  kingdom.  It  was  after- 
wards divided  into  the  minor  principalities  of 
Benevento,  Salerno  and  Capua,  and  became 
part  of  the  Norman  conquest. — See  Italy  (South- 
EUN):  A.  D.  800-1016;  and  1000-1090;  also, 
Lombards:  A.  D.  573-774,  and  Amalfi. 

BENEVENTUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.27S).  See 
Rome:  B.  C.  282-275. 

BENEVOLENCES.  — "The  collection  of 
benevolences,  regarded  even  at  the  time  [Eng- 
land, reign  of  Edward  IV.]  as  an  innovation,  was 
perhaps  a  resuscitated  form  of  some  of  the  worst 
measures  of  Edward  II.  and  Richard  II.,  but  the 
attention  which  it  aroused  under  Edward  IV. 
shows  how  strange  it  had  become  under  the 
intervening  kings.  .  .  .  Such  evidence  as 
exists  shows  us  Edward  IV.  canvassing  by 
word  of  mouth  or  by  letter  for  direct  gifts  of 
money  from  his  subjects.    Henry  III.  had  thus 


280 


BENEVOLENCES. 


BERSERKER. 


begRcd  for  new  ycnr'.s  gifts.  Edwdrd  IV. 
roiiiu'stod  and  fxtort<,'d  '  free-will  offerings ' :  rom 
every  one  wlio  could  not  say  no  to  the  pie  id- 
ings  of  such  a  king.  He  had  a  wonderful  mem- 
ory, too,  and  knew  the  name  ami  the  purtioidar 
property  of  every  man  in  the  country  who  was 
worth  ta.xing  in  this  way.  He  liad  no  e.xeu.so 
for  such  meanness;  for  the  estates  had  shown 
themselv(!s  libend."— W.  Stubbs,  Const.  Hist,  of 
Eiuf.,  ch,  18,  sect.  606. —  Sec,  also,  England: 
A.  D.  1471-1485. 

BENGAL,  The  English  acquisition  of.  Sec 
India;  A.  I).  17.-M-1757;  17r)7;  and  1757-1773. 

BENGAL:  "  Permanent  Settlement."  See 
India:  A.  I).  1 78.5-1 7i):i. 

BENNINGTON,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  ok  Am:  A.  I).  1777  (.Iui-y— (JcTonEii). 

BENTINCK,  Lord  William,  The  Indian 
Administration  of.  See  India:  A.  D.  1823- 
1833. 

BENTONSVILLE,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  OP  Am.  :  A.  D.  18G5(FEiinu.\nY— M.uicii: 
The  Cauolinas). 

BEOTHUK,  The.  Sec  Ameuican  Abouig- 
INES:  Beothukan  Family. 

BERBERS,  The.  Sec  LinYA:;s;  Numid- 
IAN8;  Egypt,  Ouigin  op  the  Ancient  people ; 
and  Maiiocco. 

BERENICE,  Cities  of.— Ptolemy  Phila- 
dolphus,  the  second  of  the  Ptolemies,  founded  a 
city  on  the  Egyptian  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  to 
whicli  he  gave  the  name  of  his  mother,  Berenice. 
It  became  an  important  i)ort  of  trade.  Subse- 
quently two  other  cities  of  the  same  name  were 
founded  at  points  further  south  on  the  same 
coast,  while  a  fourth  Berenice  came  into  existence 
on  the  border  of  the  Great  Syrtis,  in  Cyrenaica. 
— E.  11.  Bunbury,  Hist,  of  Ancient  Oeog.,  ch.  15, 
sect.  1. 

BERESINA,  Passage  of  the.  See  Russla: 
A.  D.  1813  (OcTODEH— Decembeu). 

BERESTECZKO,  Battle  of  (1651).  See 
Poland:  A.  D.  1648-1654. 

BERGEN,  Battles  of  (1759  and  1799).  See 
Germany:  A.  1).  1759  (Apuii. — AtJOUST);  and 
PiiANCE :  A.  D.  1799  (Septembek— October). 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  A.  D.  1588.— The 
siege  raised.  See  Netherlands:  A.  D.  1588- 
1593.  • 

A.  D.  1622, — Unsuccessful  siege  by  the 
Spaniards.  See  Netherlands:  A.  D.  1631- 
1633. 

A.  D.  1747-1748.— Taken  by  the  French  and 
restored  to  Holland, 


1746-1747 
gress. 


See  Netherlands  :  A.  J), 
and    Aix-la-Cuapelle,   The  Con- 


BERGER.     See  Biroer. 

BERGERAC,  Peace  of.  See  France  :  A.  D. 
1577-1578. 

BERING  SEA  CONTROVERSY  AND 
ARBITRATION.  See  United  States  op 
Am.  :  A.  1).  1886-1893. 

BERKELEY,  Lord,  The  Jersey  Grant  to. 
See  New  .Jersey:  A.  D.  1664-1667,  to  1688-1738. 

BERKELEY,  Sir  William,  Government  of 
Virginia.  See  Virginia:  A.  D.  1643-1649,  to 
1660-1677. 

BERLIN  :  A.  D.  1631.— Forcible  entry  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  See  Germany:  A.  D. 
1631. 

A.  D.  1675. — Threatened  by  the  Swedes. 
Bee  Brandenburg:  A.  D.  1640-1688. 


A.  D.  1757.— Dashing  Austrian  attack.  See 
Germany:  A.  1).  1757  (Ji'i.v— Decemhkr). 

A.  D.  1760. — Taken  and  plundered  by  the 
Austrians  and  Russians.  See  Germany:  A.I). 
1  '10. 

A.  D.  1806. — Napoleon  in  possession.  Sec 
Germany:  A.  I).  1806  (Octoheu). 

A.  D.  1848.— Mistaken  battle  of  soldiers 
and  citizens.— Continued  disorder.— State  of 
siege.  See  Germany  :  A.  I).  1848  (March),  and 
1848-1850. 


BERLIN  CONFERENCE  (1884-5),  The. 
See  Akimca:  A.  1).  1884-1889;  and  Congo  Free 
State. 

BERLIN,  Congress  and  Treaty  of.  See 
Turks:  A.  I).  1878. 

BERLIN  DECREE,  The.  See  France: 
A.  D.  1806-1810;  and  United  States  op  Am.  : 
A.  D.  18(it-1809. 

BERMUDA  HUNDRED.  See  Hundred, 
The. 

BERMUDA  HUN)JRED,  Butler's  Army 
at.  See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864 
(May:  Viu(iiMA),  The  Army  ok  the  .Ia.mes. 

BERMUDAS,  The.— English  Discovery  of 
the  islands  (1609).  See  Virginia:  A.  D.  1609- 
1616. 

BERMUDO,  Kingof  Leon  and  the  Asturias, 

or    Oviedo,   A.  D.    788-791 Bermudo    II., 

A.  D.  983-909 Bermudo   III.,  A.  D.   1037- 

1037. 

BERN,  Dietrich  of.  See  Verona:  A.  D. 
493-535. 

BERNADOTTE,  Career  of.  See  France: 
A.  I).  1798-1799  (Au(!U8T— April);  1799  (No- 
vember); 1806  (.January  —  October);  1814 
(January- — March);  1806- '.807;  Scandinavian 
States  (Sweden):  A.  D.  1810;  Germany:  A.  D. 
1812-1813;  1818  (August),  (September— Octo- 
ber), (October — December). 

BERNARD,  St.,  and  the  Second  Crusade. 
See  Crusades:  A.  D.  1147-1149. 

BERNE,  A.  D.  1353.— Joined  to  the  original 
Swiss  Confederation,  or  Old  League  of  High 
Germany.    See  Switzerland:  A.  D.  1333-1460. 

A.  D.  1798. — Occupation  by  the  French. — 
The  plundering  of  the  Treasury.  See  Switz- 
erland: A.  D.  1793-1798. 


BERNICIA,  The  Kingdom  of.  See  Eng- 
land :  A.  I).  547-633 ;  and  Scotland  :  7th  Cen- 
tury. 

BERSERKER.  —  BiERSiERK.  —  "The 
word  Itersrerk  is  variously  spelt,  and  stated  to 
be  derived  from  'bar'  and  'sicrk,'  or  'bareshirt.' 
The  men  to  whom  the  title  was  applied  [among 
the  Northmen]  .  .  .  were  stated  to  be  iu  the 
habit  of  fighting  without  armour,  and  wearing 
only  a  shirt  of  skins,  or  at  times  naked.  In 
Iceland  they  were  sometimes  called  Ulfrhedin, 
i.  e.,  wolfskin.  The  derivation  of  Biersairk  has 
been  questioned,  as  in  philology  is  not  uncom- 
mon. The  habit  of  their  wearing  bear  (bjOrn) 
skins,  is  said  to  afford  the  meaning  of  the  word. 
In  pinlology,  to  agree  to  differ  is  best.  The 
Biersierks,  according  to  the  sagas,  appear  to  Iiave 
been  men  of  unusual  physical  development  and 
savagery.  They  were,  moreover,  liable  to  what 
was  called  Bairstcrkegang,  or  a  state  of  excite- 
ment in  which  they  exhibited  superhuman 
strength,  and  then  spared  neither  friend  nor  foe. 
.  .  .  After  an  attack  of  BcBrsoerk  frenzy,  it  was 


281 


DERSERKEIl. 


BEY. 


liellevwl  tlmt  the  siipcrhiinmn  influonce  or  Bpirit 
l(;ft  tilt!  Hu'rsicrk'H  Ixxly  its  ii  'Iiain,'  nr  ciist olT 
Blinpe  or  form,  witli  llic  njHult  tlmt  the  MiiT- 
siurk  .siilTrri'd  (jrciit  cxlmUHtion,  his  imturiil  forces 
beiii)^  used  up." — J.  V.  Vii'iiry,  Saga  Tiiiw,  c/i.  3. 

Ai.sr)iN:  I'.  «.  1)11  Clmillu,  The  Vikiny  Age, 
V.  2.  rh.  20. 

BERWICK-UPON-TWEED  :  A.  D.  1293- 
1333. — Conquest  by  the  Eng^Hsh. — At  the  Iwifiii- 
nfiiji;,  in  ViVA,  of  the  striitgle  of  tlio  Hrottish  nation 
to  cast  off  the  fcudiil  yoKt!  w  hich  Edward  I.  had 
laid  upon  it,  tlic  EiiKiish  Icini?,  marcliinR  angrily 
nortlnvurds,  inadi-  his  lirst  assault  upon  Berwick. 
The  citizens,  whose  only  rampart  was  a  wtxMlen 
stockade,  foolishly  aKgravatc<I  his  wrath  by 
gibes  and  taunts.  "Tlie  stockiule  was  stormed 
witli  the  loss  of  a  single  knight,  and  nearly 
8,000  of  the  citizens  were  mown  down  in  a  ruth- 
less carnage,  while  a  handful  of  Flemish  traders 
who  held  the  town-hall  stoutly  against  all  as.sail- 
aiits  were  burned  alive  in  it.  .  .  .  The  town  was 
ruined  forever,  and  the  great  merchant  city  of 
the  North  sank  from  that  time  into  a  petty  sea- 

Eort."  Subsequently  recovered  by  the  Scotch, 
lerwick  was  held  by  them  in  13!i3  when  Edward 
III.  attempted  to  seat  Edward  Balliol,  as  his 
vassal,  on  the  Scottish  throne.  The  English  laid 
siege  to  the  place,  and  an  army  under  the  regent 
Douglas  came  to  its  relief.  The  battle  of  lluli- 
don  Hill,  in  which  the  Scotch  were  utterly 
routed,  decided  the  fate  of  Berwick.  "From 
that  time  the  town  remained  the  one  part  of 
Edward's  conquests  which  was  preserved  by  the 
English  crown.  Fragment  as  it  was,  it  was 
viewed  as  legally  representing  the  realm  of 
wluch  it  had  once  formed  a  part.  As  Scotland, 
it  had  its  tcliancellor,  chiimberlain,  and  other 
oftlcers  of  state ;  and  the  peculiar  heading  of  acts 
of  Parliament  enacted  for  England  '  and  the 
town  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed '  still  preserves 
the  memory  of  its  peculiar  jiosition." — J.  R. 
Green,  Short  Jlist.  of  the  English  People,  eh.  4, 
sect.  3  and  6. 

A1.80  IN :  J.  II.  Burton,  Hut.  of  Scotland,  ch. 
17.— See  Scotland:  A.  1).  1390-1305. 

BERWICK,  Pacification  of.  See  Scotland: 
A.  1).  1038-lti40. 

BERWICK,  Treaty  of.  SccScotlakd:  A.  D. 
1558-1560. 

BERYTUS.— The  colony  of  Berytus(inodern 
Beirut)  was  founded  by  Agrippa,  B.  C.  15,  and 
made  n  st   1  ion  fr  r  two  legions. 

A.  D.  i5i. — l„s  Schools. — Its  Destruction 
by  Earthquake. —  The  city  of  Berytus,  modern 
Beirut,  was  destroyed  by  earthquake  on  the  9th 
of  July,  A.  D.  551.  "That  city,  on  the  coast  of 
Phoenicia,  was  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the 
civil  law,  which  opened  the  surest  road  to  wealth 
and  dignity :  the  schools  of  Berytus  were  filled 
with  the  rising  spirits  of  the  age,  and  many  a 
youth  was  lost  in  the  earthquake  who  might  have 
lived  to  be  the  scourge  or  the  guardian  of  his 
country." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  eh.  43. 

A.  D.  nil. — Taken  by  the  Crusaders.  See 
Cuusadeb:  a.  D.  1104-1111. 

BESANCON  :  Origin.    See  Vebontio. 

A.  D.  1152-1648.— A  Free  City  of  the  Em- 
pire.    See  FuANcnE  Comte. 

A.  D.  1674.— Siege  and  capture  by  Vauban. 
See  Netiikklands  (Hollaud):  A.  D.  1674- 
1678. 


BESSI,  The.— The  BessI  were  an  ancient 
Thraeiau  tribe  who  occupied  the  mountain  range 
of  iliemus  (the  Balkan)  and  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Ilebrns.  They  were  subdued  by  Lucullus, 
brother  of  the  con(iueror  of  Mithridates. — E.  II. 
Bunburv,  Hist,  of  Ancient  Oeog.,ch.  18,  sect.  6. 

BESfeiN,  The.— The  district  of  Bayeux.  Seo 
Saxons  ok  Bayki'x. 

BETH-HORON,  Battles  of.— The  victory  of 
■lo.shua  over  "the  tlvo  kings  of  the  Amoritcs" 
who  laid  siege  to  Gibeon;  the  decisive  battle  of 
the  Jewish  con(iucstof  Canaan.  "The  battle  of 
Beth-horon  or  Oibcon  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  the  history  of  the  worhl;  and  yet  so  profound 
has  been  the  indiflFerenco,  first  of  the  religious 
world,  and  then  (through  their  cxomple  or  in- 
fluence) of  the  common  world,  to  the  historical 
study ^of  the  Hebrew  annals,  that  the  very  name 
of  thiiJ  great  battle  is  far  less  known  to  most  of 
us  than  that  of  Alarathon  or  Cannir." — Dean 
Stanley,  Lccls.  on  the  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Church, 
led.  11.  —  In  the  Maccabean  war,  Beth-horon  was 
the  scene  of  two  of  the  brilliant  victories  of 
Judas  llaci;abens,  in  B.  C.  167  and  162. — 
Joscphus,  Antiq.  of  the\Teu>s,  bk,  12. —  Later,  at 
the  time  of  the  Jewish  rc'volt  against  the  Romans, 
it  witnessed  the  disastrous  retreat  of  the  Roman 
general  Cestius. 

BETHSHEMESH,  Battle  of.— Fought  by 
Jousli,  king  of  Israel,  with  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah,  defeating  the  latter  and  causing  part  of 
the  walls  of  Jeru.salem  to  be  thrown  down. — 3 
Chroniclis,  ,!•./•». 

BETH-ZACHARIAH,  Battle  of.— A  defeat 
suffered  (B.  V.  163)  by  the  Jewish  patriot,  Judas 
Muccabojus,  at  the  hands  of  the  Syrian  monarch 
Antiochus  Eupator;  the  youngest  of  the  Macca- 
bees being  slain. — Josephus,  Antiq.  of  the  Jews, 
bk.  13,  ch.  9. 

BETHZUR,  Battle  of.— Defeat  of  an  army 
sent  by  Antiochus,  against  Judas  JIaccabicus, 
the  Jewish  patriot,  B.  C.  165,  Josephus,  Antiq. 
of  the  Jews,  bk.  13,  ch.  7. 

BEVERHOLT,  Battle  of  (1381).  See 
Flandeks:  a.  D.  1379-1381. 

BEY.— BE  YLERBEY.— PACHA.— PAD- 
ISCHAH.—"  The  administration  of  the  [Turk- 
ish] provinces  was  in  the  time  of  JIahomet  II. 
[the  Sultan,  A.  D.  1451-1481,  whos(?  legislation 
organized  the  Ottoman  government]  principally 
intrusted  to  the  Beys  and  Beylerbeys.  These 
were  the  natural  chiefs  of  the  class  of  feuda- 
tories [Spahis],  whom  their  tenure  of  office  obliged 
to  serve  on  horseback  in  time  of  war.  They 
mustered  under  the  Sanjak,  the  banner  of  the 
chief  of  their  district,  and  the  districts  them- 
selves were  thence  called  Sonjaks,  and  their 
rulers  Sanjak-beys.  The  title  of  Pacha, 
so  familiar  to  us  when  speaking  of  a  Turkish 
provincial  ruler,  is  not  strictly  a  term  imply- 
ing territorial  jurisdiction,  or  even  military 
authority.  It  is  a  title  of  honour,  meaning 
literally  the  Shah's  or  sovereign's  foot,  and 
implying  that  the  person  to  whom  that  title  was 
given  was  one  whom  the  sovereign  employed. 
.  .  .  The  title  of  Pacha  was  not  at  first  applied 
among  the  Ottomans  exclusively  to  those  otticers 
who  commanded  armies  or  ruled  provinces  or 
cities.  Of  the  five  first  Pachas,  that  arc 
mentioned  by  Ottoman  writers,  three  were  liter- 
ary men.  By  degrees  this  honorary  title  was 
appropriated  to  those  whom  the  Sultan  employed 
in  war  and    set   over   districts  and   important 


282 


BEY. 


BLACK  DKATII. 


towns;  go  thut  tlif  word  Piicliu  iH'camc  nlmoRt 
nyiioiiymoim  with  the  won!  f^ovcnior.  Tlir 
titl(;  Pa(lis<'lmli,  wliicli  tlic  Siiltiui  liiriiscif  bciirN, 
and  wliirli  tlio  TiirkiHli  diploiimti.stH  liiivi^  been 
v^ry  JL'ulou.s  in  allowing  to  L'liristian  Sovenjigim, 
U  an  I'ntiruly  diiTfrent  woni,  and  moanH  tlx: 
great,  the  iniperial  Scliah  or  Sovereign.  In  the 
time  of  Mahomet  II.  the  Ottoman  Kmpire  con- 
tained in  Kuro|ie  alone  tli!rty-si.\  Sanjaks,  or 
banners,  around  eaeli  of  which  asHcnihled  about 
4()0  cavaliers." — Sir  E.  S.  Creasy,  llUt.  of  the 
Ottoman  Turkit,  rli.  0. 
BEYLAN,    Battle  of  (183  .).    Sco  Tuhkb: 

A.   1).    lH;il-IH40. 

BEYROUT,  Origin  of.     Sec  Hekytub. 

BEZANT,  The. — The  bezant  was  a  Byzan- 
tine gold  coin  (whence  its  name),  worth  a  little 
less  than.ten  English  shillings  — 1.2.50. 

BEZIERES,  The  Massacre  at.  See  Ai.bi- 
OENSKs:  A.  I).  1200. 

BHARADhRS.    See  India:  A.  I).  1805-1810. 

BHONSLA  RAJA,  The.  See  India:  A.  I). 
17i»8- 18(15. 

BHURTPORE,  Siege  of  (1805).  See  India: 
A.  I).  1798-1805. 

BIANCHI  AND  NERI  (The  Whites  and 
Blacks).  See  Flokknck;  A.  1).  1295-WOO,  and 
1301-iai3. 

BIANCHI,  or  White  Penitents.  See  Wiiitk 
Penitknts. 

BIBERACH,  Battles  of  (1796  and  1800). 
Sec  FuANCi:;  A.  1>.  1700  (Apiiii.— Uctoiieu)  ;  and 
A.  I).  1800-1801  (May— Peukuaky). 

BIBRACTE.     Sec  Gauls. 

BIBROCI,  The.— A  tribe  of  ancient  Britons 
who  dwelt  near  the  Thames.  It  is  suspected, 
but  not  known,  that  they  gave  their  name  to 
Berks  County. 

BICAMERAL  SYSTEM,  The.— This  term 
was  applied  by  .leremy  Bentham  to  the  division 
of  a  legislative  body  into  two  chambers  —  such 
us  the  Hou.se  of  Lords  and  House  of  Commons  in 
England,  and  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  the  United  States  of  America. 

BICOQUE  OR  BICOCCA,  La,  Battle  of 
(1522).     SeeFuANCE:  A.  D.  1520-1523. 

BIG  BETHEL,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  OF  Am.  :  A.  D.   1801  (.Iune:  Viuoinia). 

BIG  BLACK,  Battle  of  the.  See  United 
States  ov  A.m.:  A.  D.  1803  (Aprii,— JnLV:  On 
the  Mississippi). 

BIGERRIONES,  The.  See  AQurrAiuE, 
The  Ancient  Tuuies. 

BIGI,  OR  GREYS,  The.— One  of  the  three 
factions  which  divided  Florence  in  the  time  of 
Savonarola,  and  after.  The  Bigi,  or  Greys, 
were  the  partisans  of  the  Medici ;  their  opponents 
■were  the  Piagnoui,  or  Weepers,  and  the  Arra- 
biati,  or  Madmen.  See  Floiience:  A.  D.  1490- 
1498. 

BIl  T^  OF  RIGHTS.  See  England:  A.  I). 
1089  (Octoiieu). 

BILLAUD-VARENNES  and  the  French 
Revolutionary  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 
See  Fuance:  A.  I).  1793  (.June- Octobeu), 
(Septembek— Decembeu),  to  1794-1795  (July— 
Apuil).  I 

BILOXIS,The.  See  Ameuican  ABonioiNEs: 
SiouAN  Family. 

BIMINI,  The  island  of.  See  America: 
A.  D.  1512. 

BIRAPARACH,   Fortress  of.    See  Junoi- 

PACH. 

19 

2 


BIRGER,   King  of  Sweden,    A.    I).    1200- 

1319 Birger,  or  Berger  Jarl,    Regent    of 

Sweden,  A.  1).  1250-1200. 

BISHOPS'  WAR,  The  First  and  Second. 
See  Scotland:  A.  1).  1038-1040;  and  Eno LAND; 
A.  I).    1040. 

BISMARCK'S  MINISTRY.  See  Ger- 
many:   A.  I).  1801-lHOO,  to  1888;   and  FRANCE: 

A.  I).  1870  (.June— July);  1870-1871;  and  1871 
(.Ianuauv — May). 

BISSEXTILE    YEAR.      See    Calendar. 

BITHYNIANS,  THYNIANS.-"  Along  the 

coast  of  the  Euxinc,  from  the  Thnician  Hosphorus 
eastward  to  the  river  llalys,  dwelt  Bithynians  or 
Thynians,  Mariandynians  and  Papldagonians, — 
all  recognized  branches  of  the  widely  extended 
Thracian  race.  The  Hithynians  especially,  in 
the  northwestern  portion  of  this  territory,  ami 
nNU'hing  from  tlie  Eu.xine  to  tlx^  I'ropontis,  are 
often  spoken  of  as  Asiatic  'rhraciaiis,—  while  on 
the  other  hand  various  tribes  among  tlu^  Thru- 
cians  of  Europe  are  denominated  Thyni  or 
Thynians, — so  little  difference  was  there  in  tlie 
population  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Bosphorus, 
alike  brave,  predatory,  and  sanguinary.  The 
Hithynians  ot  Asia  are  also  sometimes  called 
Hebrykians,  under  which  denomination  they  ex- 
tend as  far  southward  as  the  gulf  of  Kios  in  the 
Propontis." — G.  Orote,  Hint,  of  (irrerc,  pt.  2,  cli. 
10. — The  Hithynians  were  among  the  people  in 
Asia  Minor  subjugated  by  Cro'sus,  kingof  Lydia, 
and  fell,  with  his  fall,  under  the  Persian  rule. 
Hut,  in  s(mie  way  not  clearly  understood,  an  in- 
dependent kingdom  of  Hitliynia  was  formed, 
about  the  middle  of  the  5th  century  H.  C.  which 
resisted  th(!  Persians,  successfully  resisted  Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  his  successors  in  Asia  Minor, 
resisted  Mithridates  of  Pontus,  and  existed  until 

B.  C.  74,  when  its  last  king  Nimmedes  III. 
beciueathed  his  kingdom  to  Home  and  it  was 
made  a  l{oman  itrovi::"". 

BITONTO,  Battle  of  (1734).  See  France: 
A.  1).  1733-1735. 

BITURIGES,  The.  See  ^dui;  also 
Bouuges,  Ouioin  ok. 

BIZOCHI,  The.    See  Beguines,  etc. 

BIZYE.     See  Thracians. 

BLACK  ACTS,  The.  See  Scotland:  A.  D. 
1584. 

BLACK  DEATH,  The.— "The  Black  Death 
api)ears  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  centre  of 
China,  in  or  about  the  year  1333.  It  is  said  that 
it  was  accompanied  at  its  outbreak  by  various 
terrestrial  and  atmosplierie  pha-nomena  of  a 
novel  and  most  destructive  character,  pha;- 
noniena  similar  to  those  wliich  characterized  the 
tirst  appearance  of  the  Asiatic  Cholera,  of  the 
Intluenza,  and  even  in  more  remote  times  of  the 
Athenian  Plague.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  all 
epidemics  ot  an  unusually  destructive  character 
have  had  their  homes  in  the  farthest  East,  and 
have  travelled  slo\vly  from  those  regions  towards 
Eurupe.  It  appears,  too,  that  the  disease  ex- 
hausted its<'lt  iu  the  place  of  its  origin  at  about 
the  same  time  in  which  it  made  its  appearance 
in  Europe.  .  .  .  The  disease  still  exists  under 
the  name  of  the  Levant  or  Oriental  Plagiie.  and 
is  endemic  in  Asia  Minor,  in  parts  of  Turkey, 
and  in  Egypt.  It  is  specitically  a  disease  in 
which  the  "blood  is  poisoned,  in  which  the  system 
seeks  to  relieve  itself  by  suppuration  of  the 
glands,  and  in  which,  the  tissues  becoming  dis- 


83 


HLACK  DEATH. 


BLOCKADE. 


or(?iuii/''<l,  mi'l  tho  l)l(xxl  tlicrfiipon  Ix'liii?  In- 
tlllratcil  iiitii  llii'iii.  <liirk  lilotrlicM  iippcar  i>n  tho 
xkiii.  Ilciicit  the  I'urlivHt  iiikiiii-  liy  wliicli  tin; 
l'liiK«<'  "UH  (IcHcrilMMl.  TIk^  Htorm  l)urKt  on  tlic 
IhIum(I  i>f  CypriiH  iit  tlui  cnil  of  the  yciir  1;147, 
iind  WHS  iiccoinpiinird.  we  iiri>  told,  liy  remark' 
hIiIc  physical  plni'iionicnu,  an  coiivulHions  of  tliu 
ciirlli,  and  a  total  ('liatii(o  In  tho  atniosphcrc. 
Many  ixthoiis  alTi'ilcd  died  instantly.  Tlie  Black 
Death  si'eined,  not  otdy  to  the  frightened  ini- 
iiKix'ttion  of  thi^  people,  hut  even  to  the  more 
Hoher  oliservation  of  the  few  men  of  science  of 
the  litne,  to  move  forward  with  measuied  steps 
from  the  desolated  East,  under  the  form  of  a 
dark  and  fetid  mist.  It  Is  very  likely  that  con- 
«'i|iient  upon  tho  great  physical  convulsions 
which  had  renf  tho  eartli  and  preceded  the  dis- 
<'a.se,  foreiijn  substances  of  a  deleterious  chara(-ter 
had  been  proji'Cted  into  tlie  almoHphere.  .  .  . 
The  Black  Death  appeared  at  Avignon  in  Jan- 
uary i;;»H,  vislt<'d  Florence  by  tlii!  middle  of 
April,  and  had  thorouj;hly  penetrated  Franco 
and  (ienuany  by  Auj;ust.  It  entered  I'oland  in 
l;)41t,  reacheil  Sweden  in  the  winter  of  that  year, 
and  Norway  by  infection  from  Enj^land  at  about 
tho  H«mc  time.  It  spread  even  to  Iceland  and 
Oruenlaiul.  ...  It  made  its  appearance  in  Uu.s- 
sla  in  i;!.')l, after  it  liad  well-nijfh  exhausted  itself 
in  Europe.  It  tlius  lo<ik  the  circuit  of  tho  Medi- 
terranean, and  unlike  most  plagues  which  have 
penetrated  from  tho  Eastern  to  tho  Westoni 
world,  was  chocked,  it  would  seem,  by  the 
barrier  of  th(!  Caucasus.  .  .  .  Ilccker  calculates 
the  loss  to  Europe  as  amounting  to  2.'),(KK),000. " 
—J.  E.  T.  Rogers,  JIiKt.  of  Ayricultiire  ami 
PriciK,  r.  1,  ell.  1.5. 

Al-w)  in:  J.  F.  C.  Ilockcr,  KtndemicH  of  the 
Middle  Agfs. — See.  also,  Enoi.anu:  A.  I).  1348- 
1340;  Fkanck:  A.  I).  1347-1348;  Flohence: 
A.  I).  1348;  .Ikws:  A.  D.  1348-1349. 

BLACK  EAGLE,  Order  of  the.— A  Prus- 
sian order  of  kiiightliowl  inslitutod  by  Frederick 
III.,  elector  of  Brandenburg,  in  1701. 

BLACK  FLAGS,  The.  SooFiiance:  A.  D. 
187.5-1889. 

BLACK  FRIARS.   See  Mendicant  Oiideiis. 

BLACK  GUELFS^NERI).  SooFlouenck: 
A.  I).  I'Ji).-)- 131)0,  and  1301-1313. 

BLACK  HAWK  WAR,  The.  See  Illi- 
nois: A.  I).  1832. 

BLACK  HOLE  OF  CALCUTTA,  The. 
Sco  India:  A.  D.  17.")5- 17.57. 

BLACK  PRINCE,  The  wars  of  the.  Seo 
PoiTiEiis;  FiiANci::  A.  D.  1300-1380;  and  Spain 
(Castile):  A,  D.  130G-1309. 

BLACK  ROBE,  Counsellors  of  the.  See 
Venice:  A.  I).  1033-1319. 

BLACK  ROD.— "The  gentleman  whoso  duty 
it  is  to  ])reservo  decorum  in  tho  IIuusc  of 
Lords,  just  as  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Sergeaut-at- 
Arms  to  maintain  order  in  tho  IIouso  of  Ccmi- 
mons.  These  olllcials  are  bound  to  execute  the 
commands  of  their  respective  chambers,  even 
though  the  task  involves  th(f  forcible  ejection  of 
an  ob.streperous  mcniber.  .  .  .  His  [Black  Uod'sJ 
most  disturbing  occupation,  now-a-days,  is  when 
ho  conveys  a  message  from  the  Lords  to  tho 
Commons.  .  .  .  No  sooner  do  the  policemen 
l>crald  his  approach  from  the  lobbies  than  tho 
doors  of  the  Lower  Chamber  are  closed  against 
him,  and  he  is  compelled  to  ask  for  admission 
with  becoming  humility  and  humbleness.  After 
this  has  been  granted,  he  advances  to  the  bar, 


bows  to  tho  clmlr,  nnd  then  —  with  ri-pented  nets 
of  olM'iKaiii'e — walks  slowly  to  the  table,  wlieni 
his  re<|Uest  is  madi;  for  the  Speaker's  attendance 
in  the  t'pper  House.  The  object  may  b<' to  lUteu 
to  the  (Queen's  speech,  or  it  may  simply  bo  to 
hear  tho  Itoyal  itssent  given  to  various  bills.  .  .  . 
The  conMe(iuence  is  nearly  always  the  snmo. 
The  Sergeant-at-Arins  shoulders  the  mace,  tho 
Speaker  Joins  Black  KckI,  the  members  fall  in 
behind,  and  a  more  or  h'.ss  orderly  procession  then 
.starts  on  its  way  to  the  Peer's  (Jnimber.  .  .  . 
No  matter  what  the  subject  under  cimsideratlon. 
Black  Hod's  appeanuice  necessitates  a  check  .  .  . 
till  the  journey  to  tho  Lords  has  iM'CiX'ompleted, 
The  annoyance  thus  caus<'d  has  often  fouial  e.x- 
l)ression  during  recent  sessions.  So  great  was 
the  grumbling  last  year  [1890],  indeed,  that  thu 
Speaker  undertook  to  devlsc!  a  belter  system." — 
liijniliir  .Uc't  of  I'liiliiiiiuiitiin/  Procedure,  p.  11. 

BLACK  RbOD,  of  Scotland.  Seo  lloi.v 
UooD  OK  .Scotland. 

BLACKBURN'S  FORD,  Engagement  at. 
See  United  St.vtes  ok  Am.:  A.  I).  1801  (.Iuly: 

V'lll(lINIA). 

BLACKFEET.  Seo  A.meuican  Aborioines: 

Bl.AlKKEKr. 

BLADENSBURG,  Battle  of.    Sec  United 

States  OK  A.M. :  A.  1).   1814  (Auoust— Septe.m- 

IIEIt). 

BLAIR,  Francis  P.,  Sr.,  in  the  "Kitchen 
Cabinet"  of  President  Jackson.  Seo  United 
States  OK  Am.:  A.  I).  18-.29. 

BLAIR,  General  FrancisP.,  Jr.— Difficulties 
with  General  Fremont.  Seo  United  States 
OF"  A.M. :   A.  D.   18(il  (Auoust— Octobeu:  Mis- 

SOUlll). 

BLANCHE,  Queen  of  Aragon,  A.  D.  142.5- 
1441. 

BLANCO,  General  Guzman,  The  dictator- 
ship of.     See  Venezuela:  A.  D.  1809-1802. 

BLAND  SILVER  BILL,  The.  See  United 
States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1878. 

BLANII,  The.  See  Iheland,  Tiiibes  op 
EAiiLY  Celtic  Inhabitants. 

BLANKETEERS,  The.  Seo  England: 
A.  I).  1810-1820. 

BLENEAU,  Battle  of  (1653).  See  Fbanck: 
A.  1).  10.51-10.53. 

BLENHEIM,  Battle  of.  Sec  Germany: 
A.  1).  1704. 

BLENNERHASSET,  Harman,  and  Aaron 
Burr.  See  United  States  OK  A.M. :  A.  D.  1800- 
1807. 

BLENNERHASSETT'S  ISLAND.— An 
island  in  tho  Ohio,  near  Marietta,  on  which  Har- 
man Blennerlmssctt,  a  gentleman  from  Ireland, 
had  created  a  charming  home,  at  the  begimiing 
of  tho  present  century.  He  was  drawn  into 
Aaron  Burr's  mysterious  scheme  (seo  United 
St.vtes  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1800-1807);  his  island  bo- 
came  tho  rendezvous  of  the  expedition,  and  ho 
was  involvoii  iu  the  ruin  of  the  treasonable  pro- 
ject. 

BLOCK  BOOKS.  See  Printing:  A.  D. 
1430-1450. 

BLOCK  ISLAND,  The  name.  See  New- 
York:  A.  D.  1010-1614. 

BLOCKADE,  Paper.— This  term  has  been 
applied  to  the  assumption  by  a  belligerent  power, 
in  war,  of  the  right  to  declare  a  given  coast  or 
certain  enumerated  ports,  to  be  in  the  state  of 
blockade,  without  actual  presence  of  blockading 
squadrons  to  enfore  the  declaration;  us  by  tho 


284 


BLOCKADi:. 


B(KOTIA. 


Ilritlsli  "Onlcnt  in  roiinrll,"  mid  the  "  llcrlln  " 
mill  "  Miliiii  DciriTs"  of  NhpoIimmi,  in  IMIMI-IHOT. 
Hcc  CmtkdHivtkhok  Am.  ;  A.  1).  1H01-I«im. 

BLOIS,  Treaties  of.  8co  Italt:  A.  D.  1804- 
15(M1. 

BLOOD  COUNCIL,  The.  Sto  Netiikh- 
I.AMw:    A.  I).    I. Mir. 

BLOOD,  or  Kenai  Indians.  Sim^  Aimkuican 
Aiu>uiiiim:s:   I(i.A(  Ki'i:i;r. 

BLOODY  ANGLE,  The.  S.r  Initki) 
Staii'.mdk  .\m.  :  A.  I».  IH(lt  (.May:  Viii(iiM.\). 

BLOODY    ASSIZE,    The.     Sec    Kn.ii.anh: 

A.    I).    l(IH."l  (Sr.PTKMIlKn). 

BLOODY  BRIDGE,  Ambuscade  at   (A.  D. 

I763I.      Sic   I'nN'IIAc's  \V\U. 

BLOODY  BROOK,  Battle  of.  Sou  Nkw 
En(ii.aM):   a.  I).   !•!;.■>. 

BLOODY  MARSH,  The  Battle  of  the. 
StM'dKimuiA:  A.  1).  17;tH-174;t. 

BLOREHEATH,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1459). 
—  FouKlit  on  a  pliiiii  cuIUmI  Hlorcliciitli,  iiciir 
Dniyloii,  in  HUilTordsliirc,  En),'liWi(l,  Sept.  'S,i. 
14r)(),  iM'iwi'cii  10,000  Liinciistrians,  coniniiindiMl 
bv  Lord  Auillcy,  luid  about  half  that  niiniber  of 
\orkists  under  tlie  Earl  of  Halisbury.  The  lat- 
ter won  a  victory  by  superior  strategy.  The 
battle  was  the  Hocond  that  oeeurred  in  the  Wars 
of  the  Uo.ses.    See  Enoi.and:  A.  I).  liS.'i-UTl. 

BLOCKER'S  CAMPAIGNS.  .See  Oku- 
MANv:  A.  D.  1H0«  (OcToiiKH);  1813-1813;  1813 
<AiMiii.  —  May)  to  ^Octohkh  —  I)kce.\ihku); 
FiiANCE:  A.  D.  1814  Manuauv— .Mahch),  and 
181.5. 

BLUE,  Boys  in.     Bee  Boys  in  Bi.uk. 

BLUE  LICKS,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1782). 
See  Kkntucky:  A.  D.   17~r.-178t. 

BLUE-LIGHT  FEDERALISTS. —  "  An 
ineident,  real  or  inuiKinary,  which  had  lately  [in 
1813]  occurred  at  New  Loudon  [(JonnecticutJ 
was  seized  upon  as  additional  proof  of  collusion 
between  the  Fedemlists  and  the  enemy.  [See 
Unitki)  Status  ov  Am.:  A.  I).  ISIS.]"  As  the 
winter  approached,  Decatur  had  expected  to  cet 
to  sea  with  his  two  frigates.  V'e.xcd  to  find  him- 
self thwarted  in  every  attempt  by  the  watchful- 
ness of  the  enemy,  he  wrote  to  the  Navy 
Deimrtment  in  a  tit  of  disgust,  that,  beyond  ail 
•doubt,  the  British  had,  by  signals  or  otherwise, 
instantaneous  information  of  till  his  movements; 
and  as  i)roof  of  it,  he  stated  that,  after  several 
niglits  of  favorable  weather,  the  report  circulat- 
ing in  the  town  that  an  attempt  was  to  be  made 
to  get  out,  '  in  the  course  of  the  evening  two 
blue  lights  were  burned  on  both  points  of  the 
harbor's  mouth.'  These  'signals  to  the  enemy,' 
for  such  he  unhesitatingly  pronounced  them,  had 
been  repeated,  so  he  wrote,  and  had  been  seen 
by  twenty  persons  at  least  of  the  K(jua<lron, 
though  it  does  not  appear  that  Decatur  him.self 
was  one  of  the  number.  .  .  .  Such  a  clamor  was 
raised  about  it,  that  one  of  the  Connecticut 
members  of  Congress  moved  for  a  committee 
of  investigatiou.  .  .  .  The  inquiry  was  .  .  . 
quashed;  but  the  story  spread  and  grew,  and 
the  more  vehement  opponents  of  the  war  began 
to  be  stigmatized  as  'blue-light  Federalists.'  — 
K.  Ilildreth,  Jlist.  nfthe.  U.  S.,  r.  0,  ;).  407. 

BLUE  PARTY  (of  Venezuela),  The.  See 
Ve.ne7.uela:  a.  D.  1839-188U. 

BLUE  RIBBON,  The  Order  of  the.    See 

SBHAPIIt.M. 

BLUES,  Roman  Faction  of  the.  Sec  Ciil- 
cus,  Factions  of  the  Ko.m.vn. 


BOABDIL,   The    last    Moorish    King    in 

Spain.     SeeSl'AIN:    \.  U.  l(7flllir,'. 

BOADICE A,  Revolt  of.  See  Biutain :  A.  O. 
01. 

bOAIRE,     The.— A     "Cow-lord,"    hiiving 

certain  wiidlli  iniatllr.  among  the- ancient  Irish. 

BOARIAN  TRIBUTE,  The.— Also  caUed 
the  Boriiwa,  or  Cow  tribute.  .\u  hujiiiliating 
exaction  said  to  have  been  levied  on  tlio 
province  if  LciiiHlir  by  a  King  Tuathal  of  ICrlii, 
in  the  second  cenlnrv,  and  wliich  was  maiii- 
laine(l  for  live  hnndrcil  years. 

BOCAGE.  The.  Sec  Fkance:  A.  I).  1708 
(.Mahcii     .Vi'iiii.). 

BOCASOTI,  The.     See  Hkoiines,  &c. 

BOCLAND.— BOOKLAND.     See  Al.oi). 

BCEOTARCHS.     S.c  Hdc.  tian  I.kaoik. 

BCEOTIA.  —  BCEOTIANS.  —  ■lielween 
Pholiis  iinil  I.dkris  on  line  side,  and  .Vtliia  (from 
which  it  is  divided  by  the  mountains  KitliaToii 
and  Panics)  on  Iheoliier,  we  llnd  the  important 
territory  called  Bceotia,  with  its  ten  or  twelve 
autononioiiy  ''Ities,  forming  a  sort  of  confederacy 
under  the  presidency  of  Tliebes,  tlu!  most  power- 
ful among  them.  Even  of  this  territory, 
destined  dining  tln^  second  peri(Hl  of  this  hi.story 
to  play  a  purt  so  conspicuous  and  elTective,  wo 
know  nothing  during  tiie  first  two  centuries  after 
770  B.  C.  We  first  aciiuire  some  insight  into  it 
on  occasion  of  the  disputes  between  Thebes 
and  Platica,  alKJUt  the  year  H'H)  B.  C. "— O.  Orote, 
Jfitt.  of  Ureeee,  pt.  3,  eh.  3. — In  the  Greek 
legcnihiry  period  one  part  of  this  territory,  siib- 
sciiiiently  Bteotian  —  the  Copaic  valley  in  the 
north —  was  occupied  by  the  enterprising  people 
called  the  Minyi,  whose  chief  city  wiis  Orclio- 
menus.  Their  neighbors  were  the  Cadmeians  o£ 
Tliebes,  who  are  "rich,"  as  Orotc  expresses  it, 
"in  legendary  antiiiiiities."  The  reputed 
founder  of  Thclies  was  Cadmus,  bringerof  letters 
to  Hellas,  from  PlKcnicia  or  from  Egypt,  accord- 
ing to  different  rei)resontations.  Dionysus 
(Bacchus)  and  IWraklOs  were  both  supposed  to 
recognize  the  Cadmeian  city  as  their  birth-place. 
The  terrible  legends  of  (Edipiis  and  his  un- 
happy family  connc'ct  them.selves  with  the  same 
place,  and  the  incident  wars  between  Thebes 
and  Argos  —  the  assaults  of  the  seven  Argivo 
chiefs  and  of  their  sons,  the  Epigoni  —  were, 
perhaps,  real  causes  of  a  real  destruction  of  the 
power  of  some  race  for  whom  the  Cadmeians 
stand.  They  and  their  neighbors,  the  Minyi  of 
Orchomenus,  appear  to  have  given  way  before 
another  i)eople,  from  Thessaly,  who  gave  the 
name  Bd'otia  to  the  country  of  both  and  who 
were  the  inhabitants  of  the  Thebes  of  historic 
times.— O.  Grote,  IUkI.  "f  On-ect;  j>t.  1,  eh.  14.— 
E.  Curtiiis,  Hint,  of  (h  r,  bk.  1,  ch.  4.— "That 
the  Ba'olia  of  history  should  never  have  attained 
to  a  signirtcancc  corresponding  to  the  natural 
advantages  of  the  locality,  and  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  district  in  the  prc-Homeric  age,  is  due 
above  all  to  one  principal  cause.  The  imniigra- 
tioa  of  the  Tlijssiilian  15(coti.ins,  from  which  the 
country  derived  its  name  and  the  licginnings  of 
its  connected  history,  destroyed  the  earlier 
civiliz^ition  of  the  land,  without  succeeding  in 
establishing  a  new  civiiization  capable  of  eon- 
ducting  the  entire  district  to  a  prosperous  and 
harmonious  development.  It  cannot  be  said  that 
the  ancient  germs  of  culture  were  suijpressed,  or 
that  barbarous  times  supervened.  The  ancient 
scats  of  the  gods  aud  orucles  continued  to  be 


285 


U(K()TIA. 


HOIIKMIA,  laSS. 


koiuiiircil  itiiil  tliii  Hnrii-iil  fciitlvalu  of  tlio  Muhch 
on  Miiiint  lli'licon,  mid  of  llic  Cliiirllrx  iil 
Orc'liiiiiiciiiiM,  til  III'  rcUiliriitcil.  In  liifntiii  tiHi 
till-  liciK'lli'i'iit  Intliit'nciMif  Di'liilil  wiiH  lit  Viirk. 
unil  the  piH'llr  hcIiikiI  iif  IIchIihI,  ciinnccti'il  an  it 
'WiiM  with  Di'lplii,  liiiiK  iiiiiiiitairKHl  itwlf  lirrr. 
Anil  II  yet  Mtroi:;trr  incliniition  wiih  iliH|iliiyi'(l  by 
till!  /Koliaii  iiniiiiKrants  lowarilx  niiniir  uiiil  Ivric 
piK'try.  Tlieciiltlvatliinof  tlii'  niUHiiMir  tlii'  t)iitr 
waH  i'ncimra(?i'<l  l>y  Hii^  cxccUuut  n'odn  of  tlir 
Copiiii:  nioriiHHC'H.  TIiIh  was  tliu  gvnitinoly 
national  HprrirH  of  mimic  In  Ha-otia.  .  .  .  Anil 
yi't  till!  Ito'otianH  liicltiMl  tlic  capacity  for  attract- 
UifC  to  tlicnisclvcH  the  earlier  elementH  of  popula- 
tion in  Hui'li  a  way  iim  to  liring  alioiit  a  iiiippy 
nnial)(aniation.  .  .  .  The  Hieut Ian  loniM  were  not 
much  jireferable  to  the  ThcHsnIlan;  nor  was 
tiicre  any  region  far  or  near,  inhabiteil  by  Greek 
tribes,  which  presented  u  harsher  contrast  in 
'Millure  or  manners,  than  the  district  where  the 
road  led  from  tho  Attic  side  of  Mount  I'arnes 
t  cross  to  the  Birotlan." — E.  Curtlus,  Jliit.  of 
Viwi;  bk.  6,  ch.   1.— See,  also,  Qiikkck:   Tiik 

JlldUATIONS. 

BCEOTIAN  LEAGUE.— "The  old  Itootian 
Lriiifiie,  as  far  as  its  outward  forms  went,  seems 
to  Imvc  been  fairly  entitled  to  the  name  of  a 
Federal  Government,  but  In  its  whole  history  we 
tnico  little  more  than  tho  gradual  advance  of 
Th  ibes  to  a  practical  supremacy  over  the  other 
clti's.  .  .  .  The  common  covernmcnt  was  carried 
on  iti  the  name  of  tho  whole  Uieotian  nation.  Its 
most  important  magistrates  bore  the  tilU;  of  Boco- 
tarc.'is;  their  exact  number,  whether  eleven  or 
thirteen,  is  a  disputed  pointof  Greek  archieology, 
or  I'ther,  of  Uieotian  geography.  .  .  .  Thebes 
chose  two  BiBotarchs  and  each  of  the  other  cities 
one."— E.  A.  Freeman,  Ilitt.  of  Federal  Govt.,  eh. 
4,  leet.  2. 

BOERS,  Boer  War.  See  SouTii  Africa: 
A.  I).  18(M1-1HH1. 

BOIjDANIA.  Sec  lUi,KAX  AND  Danubian 
St.^tei,  Uxir-triTH  Cf,nti;hies(Uou.mania,  etc.) 

BOOESUND,  Batile  of  (1520).  Sec  .Scan- 
dinavian States:  A.  1).  1307-1537. 

BOGOMILIANS,  The.— A  religious  sect 
which  arose  among  the  Sclavonians  of  Thrace 
and  Bulgaria,  in  the  eleventli  century,  and 
suffered  persecution  from  tho  orthodox  of  the 
Greek  church.  They  symDathized  with  the 
Iconoclasis  of  former  times,  were  hostile  to  the 
adoratiOE  of  the  Virgin  and  saints,  ami  took 
more  or  1  !8S  from  the  heretical  doctrines  of  the 
Pauliciaii! .  Their  name  is  derived  by  some  from 
the  two  !''clavoniun  words,  "Bog,"  signifying 
God,  and  ''milui,"  "have  mercy."  Others  say 
that  "  Bo  'imil,"meuniug  "one beloved  by  God," 
was  the  cuiiect  designation.  Basilios,  the  leader 
of  the  Bogomilians,  was  burned  by  the  Emperor 
Alexius  Comnenos,  in  the  hippixirome,  at  Con- 
stantinople, A.  D.  1118. — G.  Finliiy,  Hiitt.  of  the 
Byzantine  and  Qrcek  Eiipires,  710-1453,  bk.  3, 
di.  2,  seH.  1. — Sec  Ba/.kan  and  Danuuian 
States:  i)Tii-l(iTii  Centi'uies  (Bosnia,  etc.) 

BOGOTA,  The  founding  of  the  city  (1538). 
See  Coi.oMiiiAN  States:  i\.  I>.  1536-1731. 

BOHEMIA,  Derivation  of  the  name.  Sec 
Boianh. 

Its  people  and  their  early  history. — "  'What- 
ever may  be  the  inferences  from  the  fact  of 
Bohemia  having  been  politically  connected  with 
the  empire  of  the  Germanic  Marcomunni, 
whatever  may  be  those  from  the  element  Boio-, 


IIS  ronncrtlng  Uk  population  with  the  Boli  of 
Gaul  mill  Bavaria  (Bulovi.rii),  tho  doctrine  that 
the  present  SlavonI';  population  of  that  king 
dniii  — Tshekhs  |or  C/.ekliH|  as  they  call  Ihem- 
Ki'lves  —  Is  eitliir  recent  in  origin  or  Keeondary  to 
liny  German  or  Keltic  aborigiiie.H,  is  wholly 
unsupported  by  history.  In  ollnr  words,  at  the 
beginning  of  tlii^  lilstorical  periinl  Bohemia  was 
as  Slavonic  as  it  is  now.  From  A.  I).  WH\  to 
A.  I).  550,  Bohemia  belonged  to  the  great  Thiir- 
ingian  Empire.  The  notion  that  it  was  then 
Germanic  (except  In  its  political  relations)  Is 
gratuitous.  Xeverthelcss,  SchaiTiirik's  account 
is,  that  tho  ancestors  of  the  present  Tshekhs 
came,  probably,  from  White  Croatia:  which 
was  eitlier  north  of  the  Carpathians,  or  each  side 
of  them.  According  to  other  writers,  how<!Vcr, 
the  parts  above  the  river  Kulpa  In  Croatia  sent 
tliet:i  forth.  In  Bohemian  the  verb  'ceti'='to 
begin,'  from  which  Dobrowsky  derives  the  name 
Czekhs  =  the  beginners,  tlie  foremost,  i.  e.,  the 
first  Slavonians  who  passed  westwards.  The 
powerful  Saino,  the  Just  Krok,  and  his  daughter, 
the  wise  liibussu,  the  founder  of  Prague,  begin 
the  uncertain  list  of  Bohemian  kings,  A.  I).  024- 
700.  About  A.  I).  723,  a  number  of  netty  chiefB 
become  united  under  F'remysl  the  husband  of 
LIbusstt.  Under  his  son  Nezumysl  occurs  the  first 
Constitutional  Assembly  at  Wysegrad ;  and  In 
A.  I).  845,  Christianity  was  introduced.  But  it 
took  no  sure  footing  till  about  A.  I).  006.  Till 
A.  I).  1471  tho  names  of  the  Bohemian  kings 
and  heroes  are  Tshckh  —  Wenccslaus,  Ottokar, 
Ziska,  Potliebrad.  In  A.  I).  1504,  tlic  Austrian 
connexion  atd  tlio  process  of  Germanizing  began. 
.  .  .  The  history  and  ethnology  of  Moravia  is 
nearly  that  of  Bohemia,  except  tliat  the  Mar- 
comanuic  Germans,  the  Turks,  Iluns,  Avars, 
and  other  less  important  populations  may  have 
effected  a  greater  amount  of  intermixture. 
Both  poiiulations  are  Tshekli,  speaking  the 
Tshckh  language  —  the  language,  probably,  of 
the  ancient  (Juudi." — H.  G.  LiUlham,  Ethnology 
of  Europe,  eh.  11. 

7th  Century.— The  Yoke  of  the  Avars 
broken.— The  Kingdom  of  Samo.  See  Avars: 
7tii  Century. 

oth  Century.— Subject  to  the  Moravian 
Kingdom  of  Svatopluk.  See  Moravia:  9th 
Century. 

13th  Century.— The  King  made  a  Germanic 
Elector.     See  Germany:  A.  I).  1135-11.52. 

A.  D.  1276. — War  of  King  Ottocar  with 
the  Emperor  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg. — His  de- 
feat and  death.  See  Austria:  A.  D.  1240- 
1382. 

A.  D.  1310. — Acquisition  of  the  crown  by 
John  of  Luxembourg.  See  Germany:  A.  D. 
1308-1313. 

A.  D.  1347.— Charles  IV.  elected  to  the  im- 
perial throne.  See  Germany:  A.  D.  1347- 
1493. 

A.  D.  1355. — The  succession  fixed  in  the 
Luxemburg  dynasty. — Incorporation  of  Mo- 
ravia, Silesia,  &c. — The  diet  of  the  nobles,  in 
1355,  joined  Charles  IV.  in  "fixing  the  ortler  of 
succession  in  the  dynasty  of  Luxemburg,  and  in 
definitely  establLsliing  that  principle  of  primo- 
geniture which  had  already  been  the  custom  in 
the  Premyslide  dynasty.  Moravia,  Silesia, 
Upper  Lusatia,  Brandenburg,  which  had  been 
acquired  from  the  margrave  Otto,  and  the 
county  of  Glatz  (Kladsko),  with  the  consent  of 


286 


nouEMiA,  laso. 


John  ffiM. 


HOilKMIA,   t40ft-141S. 


the  iltctR  nf  thcM  proviiitTK,  wctc  <lcclari'd  In- 
ti'^rnil  iiiul  Inalienable  portiDim  of  tli«  kitiK<l<)iii 
iif  Miilii'iiilii." — L.  IjegcT,  lliit.  of  Auttru-llun- 
gttiii,  i-li.  11. 

A.  D.  1364,— Reyeriton  of  the  crown  g^uar- 
anteed  to  the  Home  of  Austria.  Hce  Ai'h- 
TKiv:  A,  l>,  i:i;io-i;m». 

A.  D.  1378-1400.— Imperial  election  and 
deposition  of  Wenceilaut.  Svi;  Okumany: 
A.  I).  1!M7-I41»:i. 

A.  D.  140^141$. —  John  Hut,  and  the 
movement  of  ReligiouaKefoimation. — "  Honiu 
■jiiirkK  (pf  llio  lire  Wiich  Wlflif  hml  llfjliti'cl  [nco 
Enui.ani);  a.  I).  lll(i«-14141,  blown  ovi  r  liillf 
Europe,  iiM  fitr  UH  rcmoti!  Hohi'inia,  (iiiickciii'il  into 
atriMiKiT  activity  11  tluniu  wliicU  for  lonK  yourit 
biirni'ii  unil  scorclicil  iinil  <M)nHiiin<'(t,  dofyiii);  nil 
elTortH  to  cxtinKuiHli  it.  Hut  for  itll  tlilx,  it  wiui 
not  Wirlif  who  kiniilcd  tlii'  Uolicniiiin  tires. 
IIIr  writiiig  did  much  to  fan  and  feed  tlicm; 
while  the  aHsuniud  and  in  pari  erroneously 
aasuincd,  identity  of  hiit  teaching  with  that  of 
Hu8  contributed  not  a  little  to  Hliape  the  tragic 
iMues  of  the  Uolieniiun  refonner'8  life.  Hut  the 
Boheniiau  muvemeut  wait  an  indepent'.ent  uud 
eminently  a  uutionnl  one.  If  wo  l(M)k  for  the 
proper  foreruunerg  of  IIus,  hia  true  spiritual 
ancestor!),  we  shall  tlnd  them  in  his  own  laud,  In 
a  succcssiim  of  earnest  and  faithful  preachers. 
.  .  .  John  IIus  (b.  1!)80,  d.  1415),  tlie  central 
figure  of  the  Uoheniian  lieforniation,  took  In 
the  year  1394  his  degree  us  Bachelor  of  Theo- 
logy in  that  University  of  Prague,  upon  the 
fortune.s  of  which  he  was  destined  to  exercise  so 
lasting  un  Influence ;  and  four  years  later,  In 
1098,  he  begun  to  deliver  lectures  there.  .  .  . 
He  soon  signalized  himself  by  his  diligence  in 
breaking  the  bread  of  life  to  hungering  sotds,  and 
his  boldness  In  rebuking  vice  in  high  places  as  In 
low.  80  long  as  ho  conllned  himself  to  reproving 
the  sins  of  the  laity,  leaving  those  of  the  (Hergy 
and  monks  unassuiled,  he  found  little  opposition, 
nay,  rather  support  and  applause  from  these. 
Biit  when  [1405]  ho  brought  them  also 'within  the 
circle  of  his  condemnation,  and  begun  to  u])braid 
them  for  their  covetousness,  their  ambition,  their 
luxury,  tlieir  sloth,  and  for  other  vices,  they 
turned  angrily  upon  him,  and  sought  to  under- 
mine his  authority,  every  wliere  spreading  reports 
of  the  unsoundness  of  his  teaching.  .  .  .  While 
matters  were  in  this  strained  condition,  events 
took  place  at  Prague  which  are  too  closely  con- 
nected with  the  story  that  wo  are  telling,  exer- 
cised too  great  uu  Intluenco  in  liringing  al)out 
the  issues  that  Ho  before  us,  to  allow  us  to  pass 
them  by.  .  .  .  The  University  of  Prague, 
though  recently  founded — it  only  duteil  back  to 
the  year  lil48 — was  now,  next  after  those  of 
Paris  and  Oxford,  the  most  illustrious  in  Europe. 
.  .  .  This  University,  like  tliat  of  Paris,  on  the 
pattern  of  which  it  Inid  been  modelled,  was 
divided  into  four '  nations ' —  four  groups,  that  is, 
or  families  of  scholars —  each  of  these  having  in 
academical  affairs  a  single  collective  vote. 
These  nations  were  the  Bavarian,  the  Suxon,  the 
Polish,  and  tlie  Bohemian.  This  does  not  appear 
at  first  an  unfair  division  —  two  Gorman  and 
two  Slavonic ;  but  in  practical  working  the  Polish 
was  so  largely  recruited  rom  Silesia,  and  other 
German  or  half-German  Ian<ls,  that  its  vote  was 
in  fact  German  also.  The  Teutonic  votes  were 
thus  as  three  to  one,  and  the  Bohemians  in  their 
own  land  and    their  own  University  on  every 


Important  matti-r  hoiwlewtly  outvoted.  When, 
by  aid  of  thix  preponilerance,  th(!  Unlver»ltv  wan 
motin  to  conilenui  the  teaching  of  Wicllf  .  ,  . 
mutttTH  came  to  a  criitlH.  Urged  by  IIus,  who 
as  a  stout  patriot,  and  an  earnest  lover  of  the 
llohemljin  language  and  lileralure,  had  more  than 
a  Iheologieal  in'.erest  in  the  nmlt<'r, —  by  .IiTciino 
(of  Praguel,--by  u  large  number  of  the  llohe- 
mian  nobility, —  King  Wen/.el  pubiiHlird  an 
edict  whereby  the  relations  of  natives  and 
foreigners  were  completely  revers<>d.  There 
should  1m!  henceforth  three  votes  for  the  Hohc- 
mian  nation,  and  only  one  for  the  three  others. 
•Such  a  shifting  of  the  weights  certainly  a|)pearg 
as  a  re<lressing  of  one  iue(|iuility  by  creating 
unotlier.  At  all  events  It  was  so  earnestly  reNenteu 
by  tliu  Germans,  by  professors  uiki  student* 
alike,  that  they  <]uitted  the  University  li;  a  iKMiy, 
sfjinesuvof  five,  -Mid  some  of  thirty  thousand,  and 
founded  the  rival  University  of  Leipsic,  leaving 
no  more  than  two  thousanci  students  at  Prague. 
Full  of  indignation  against  IIus,  whom  tliey 
regarded  as  the  prim(!  autlior  of  this  ulTrimt  and 
wrong,  they  spread  tliroughout  all  Germany  the 
most  unfavourable  reportsof  him  and  of  his  teach- 
ing. ThisextHlus  of  the  foreigners  hud  left  IIus, 
who  was  now  Hector  of  the  University,  with  a 
freer  field  than  before.  But  Church  nuitters  at 
Prague  did  not  mend;  they  became  more  con- 
fused and  threatening  every  day ;  intil  presently 
tho  shamef  id  outrage  against  all  Chri.stian  morality 
which  a  century  later  did  a  still  more  elTectual 
work,  served  to  put  IIus  into  open  opposition  to 
the  corrupt  hierarchy  of  his  time.  Pone  John 
XXIII.,  having  a  quarrel  with  the  King  of 
Naples,  proclaimed  a  crusiide  against  Jdm,  with 
what  had  become  a  constant  acconipaidment  of 
this, —  Indidgences  to  matcli.  But  to  denounce 
Indulgences,  as  IIus  with  fierce  and  righteous 
indignation  did  now,  was  to  wound  Home  in  her 
most  sensitive  part,  lie  was  excommunicated  at 
once,  and  every  place  which  should  harbour  him 
stricken  with  an  Interdict.  While  matters  wore 
In  this  frame  the  Council  of  Consttiuce  [see 
Papacy:  A.  D.  1414-1418]  was  opened,  which 
should  appease  all  the  troubles  of  Ciiristendom, 
and  correct  whatever  was  nndss.  The  Bohcndan 
difiictdty  could  not  be  omitted,  and  IIus  was 
siuiimonc<l  to  make  answer  at  Constance  for 
himself.  He  had  not  been  tliero  four  weeks 
when  be  was  required  to  appear  before  the  Pope 
and  Cardinals  (Nov.  18,  1414).  After  a  Itrief  infor- 
mal hearing  bo  was  committed  to  harsh  durance 
from  wlndi  ho  never  issued  as  a  free  man  again. 
Sigismund,  the  German  King  and  Emporor 
Elect,  who  had  furiushed  IIus  with  a  safe-con- 
duct which  should  protect  him,  '  going  to  the 
Council,  tjirrying  at  the  Council,  returning  from 
the  Council,'  was  absent  from  Constjince  at  the 
time,  and  lioard  with  real  displeasure  how  lightly 
reganlod  this  promise  and  pledge  of  his  liad 
been.  Some  big  words  too  he  spoke,  threatening 
to  come  himself  and  release  tho  prisoner  by 
force;  but,  being  waited  on  by  a  deputation 
from  the  Council,  who  represented  to  liim  that 
he,  as  a  layman,  In  giving  such  a  sjifc-conducl 
had  exceeded  his  powers,  and  intrudeil  into  a 
region  which  was  not  his,  Sigismund  was  ccn- 
vincod,  or  affected  to  bo  convinced.  .  .  .  More 
than  -ii'ven  months  elapsed  before  Hus  could 
obtidn  <\  hearing  before  tlie  Council.  This  was 
granted  to  him  at  last.  Thrice  heard  (June  5,  7, 
8,  1416),— if  indeed  such  tumultuary  sittings, 


28' 


BOHEMIA,  1405-1415. 


Victnriet  of  the 
llusaiies. 


BOHEMIA.  1419-1434. 


where  the  man  siiciiking  for  liis  life,  and  for 
inueli  more  than  his  life,  was  continually  inter- 
rupted and  overborne  by  hostile  voices,  by  loud 
cries  of  '  Itecant,'  '  Hecant,'  may  be  reckoned  as 
hearings  at  all, —  lie  bore  himself,  by  the  con- 
fession of  all,  with  courage,  meekness  and 
dignity."  He  refused  to  recant.  Some  of  tlio 
articles  brought  against  him,  he  said,  "charged 
him  witli  teaching  tilings  which  he  had  never 
taught,  and  he  could  not,  by  this  formal  act  of 
retraction,  admit  that  he  had  Uiuglit  them."  He 
was  comicmned,  sentenced  to  the  stake,  and 
burned,  on  the  (5th  of  .Inly,  1415.  His  friend, 
Jerome,  <if  Prague,  suffered  the  same  fate  in  the 
following  May. —R.  C.  Trench,  fyedn.  on  Medineml 
Church  IliHtonj.  leH.  22. 

Also  in:  E.'H.  Gillctt,  Life  and  timfs  of  John 
IIus.—K.  H.  Wratislaw,  Johnllus.-  -A.  Neiuider, 
Ocneral  Hist,  of  Chrhtian  lieiigion,  v.  1),  pt.  2. 

A.  D.  1410. — Election  of  King  Sig^ismund  to 
the  imperial  throne.  See  Gehmanv:  A.  U. 
1347-149:5. 

A.  D.  1419-143/!.— The  Hussite  Wars.— 
The  Reformation  checked.— "The fate  of  Iluss 
and  Jerome  created  an  instant  and  fierce  excite- 
ment among  the  Bohemians.  An  address, 
defending  them  against  the  charge  of  heresy  and 
protesting  against  the  injustice  and  barbarity  of 
the  Council,  was  signed  by  400  or  500  nobles  and 
forwarded  to  Constance.  The  only  result  was 
that  the  Council  decreed  that  no  safe-conduct 
could  be  allowed  to  protect  a  heretic,  that  the 
University  of  Prague  must  be  reorganized,  and 
the  strongest  measures  applied  to  suppress  the 
Hussite  doctrines  in  Bohemia.  This  was  a 
defiance  which  the  Bohemians  courageously 
accepted.  Men  of  all  classes  united  in  proclaim- 
ing that  the  doctrines  of  Huss  should  be  freely 
taught,  and  tliat  no  Interdict  of  the  Church 
should  be  enforced:  the  University,  and  even 
Wennel's  queen,  Sophia,  favored  this  movement, 
which  soon  became  so  powerful  that  all  priests 
who  refused  to  administer  the  sacrament  '  in  both 
forms'  were  driven  from  the  churches.  .  .  . 
When  the  Council  of  Constance  was  dissolved 
[1418],  Sigismund  [the  Emperor]  hastened  to 
Hungary  to  carry  on  a  new  war  with  the  Turks, 
who  were  already  extending  their  conquests 
along  the  Danube.  Tlie  Hussites  in  Bohemia 
employed  this  opportunity  to  organize  tliem- 
aelvcs  for  resistance;  40,000  of  them,  in  July, 
1419,  assembled  on  a  njounti'ia  to  which  they 
gave  the  name  of  Tabor,  and  chose  as  their 
leader  a  nobleman  who  i/as  surnamed  Ziska, 
'the  one-eyed.'  The  excitement  soon  rose  to 
such  a  pitch  that  several  monasteries  were 
stor;.ied  and  plundered.  King  Wenzel  arrested 
some  of  the  ringleaders,  but  this  only  inflamed 
the  si)irit  of  the  people.  They  formed  a  jiro- 
cession  in  Prague,  marched  through  the  city, 
carrying  the  sacramental  cup  at  their  head,  and 
took  forcible  possession  of  several  churches. 
AVhen  they  lialted  before  the  city-hall,  to  demand 
the  release  of  their  imprisoneil  brethren,  stones 
were  thrown  at  them  from  the  windows,  wliere- 
upon  they  broke  into  the  building  and  hurled 
the  Burgomaster  and  six  other  olilcials  upon  tlie 
upheld  spears  of  those  below.  .  .  .  The  Huss- 
ites were  already  divided  into  two  parties,  one 
moderate  in  its  "demands,  called  the  Calixtines, 
from  the  Latin  '  calix,'  a  chalice,  which  was  their 
symbol  [preferring  to  their  demand  for  the  ad- 
miuislratiuu  of  the  eucharistic  cup  to  the  laity, 


or  communion  '  sub  utraque  specie  ' —  whcuce 
they  were  also  called  '  Utraquists '] ;  the  other 
radical  aiid  fanatic,  called  the  'Taborites,'  who 
proclaimed  their  separation  from  the  Church  of 
Home  and  a  new  system  of  brotherly  eciuality 
through  which  they  expected  to  establish  the 
Millenium  upon  earth.  The  exigencies  of  their 
situation  obliged  these  two  parlies  10  unite  in 
common  defence  against  the  forces  of  the  Church 
and  the  Empire,  during  the  .sixteen  years  of  war 
which  followed;  but  they  always  remained 
separated  in  their  religious  views,  and  mutually 
intolerant.  Ziska,  who  called  himself  '  John 
Ziska  of  the  Chalice,  commandc'r  in  the  hope  of 
God  of  the  Taborites,'  had  been  a  friend  and 
was  an  ardent  follower  of  Huss.  He  was  an  old 
man,  hahi-headed,  short,  broad-shouldered,  with 
a  deep  furrow  across  his  brow,  an  enormous 
afjuiline  nose,  and  a  short  red  moustache.  In 
his  genius  for  military  operations,  he  ranks 
among  the  great  commanders  of  the  world ;  his 
quickness,  energy  ard  inventive  talent  were 
marvellous,  but  at  ihe  same  time  he  knew 
neither  tolerance  nor  mercy.  .  .  .  Sigismund 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  aware  of  tlie  formid- 
able character  of  the  movement,  until  the  end  of 
his  war  with  the  Turks,  some  months  afterwards, 
and  he  then  persuaded  the  Pope  to  summon  all 
Christendom  to  a  crusade  against  Bohemia. 
During  the  year  1420  a  force  of  100,000  soldiers 
was  collected,  and  Sigismund  marched  at  their 
head  to  Prague.  The  Hussites  met  him  with  the 
demand  for  the  accepts':  ce  of  the  following 
articles:  1. —  The  word  of  God  to  be  freely 
preached ;  2.  —  The  sacrament  to  be  administered 
in  both  forms;  3. —  The  clergy  to  possess  no 
property  or  temporal  authority;  4. —  All  sins  to 
'vC  punished  by  the  proper  authorities.  Sigis- 
mund was  ready  to  accept  these  articles  as  the 
price  of  their  submission,  but  the  Papal  Legate 
forbade  the  agreement,  and  war  followed.  On 
the  1st  of  November,  1420,  the  Crusaders  were 
totally  defeated  by  Ziska,  and  all  Bohemia  was 
soon  relieved  of  their  presence.  The  dispute 
between  the  moderates  and  the  radicals  broke 
out  again ;  the  idea  of  a  community  of  property 
began  to  prevail  among  the  Taborites,  and  most 
of  the  Bohemian  nobles  refused  to  act  with  them. 
Ziska  left  Prague  with  his  troops  and  for  a  tipio 
devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  suppressing  all 
opposition  through  the  country,  with  fire  and 
sword.  He  burned  no  less  than  550  convents 
and  monasteries,  slaying  the  priests  and  monks 
who  refused  to  accept  the  new  doctrines.  .  .  . 
While  besieging  the  town  of  Raby,  an  arrow 
destroyed  his  remaining  eye,  yet  he  continued  to 
plan  battles  and  sieges  as  before.  The  very 
name  of  the  blind  warrior  became  a  terror 
throughout  Germany.  Li  September,  1421,  a 
second  Crusade  of  200,000  men,  commanded  by 
five  German  Electors,  entered  Bohemia  from  the 
west.  .  .  .  But  the  blind  Ziska,  nothing  daunted, 
led  his  wagons,  his  flail-men,  and  mace-wielders 
against  the  Electors,  whose  troops  began  to  fly 
before  them.  No  battle  was  fought ;  the  200,000 
Crusaders  were  scattered  in  all  directions,  and 
lost  heavily  during  their  retreat.  Then  Ziska 
wheeled  about  and  marched  against  Sigismund, 
who  was  late  in  making  his  appearance.  The 
two  armies  met  on  the  8th  of  January,  1422  [at 
Deutschbrod],  and  the  Hussite  victory  was  so 
complete  that  the  Emperor  narrowly  escaped 
falling  into  their  hands.  ...  A  third  Crusade 


288 


BOHEMIA,  1419-1434. 


Tk»  Brformntion 
Checked, 


BOHEMIA,  1434-1457. 


was  arranged  and  Frcdi'rirk  of  Brandcnbiirfi 
(tlie  Ilolien/.ollern)  selected  to  comnmnd  it,  but 
the  plan  failed  from  laek  of  support.  Tiie  dis- 
sensions among  the  Hussites  became  licreer  than 
ever;  Ziska  was  at  one  time  on  the  point  of 
attacking  Prague,  but  tlie  leaders  of  the  moder- 
ate party  succeeded  in  coming  1o  an  under- 
standing with  him,  and  he  entered  the  city  in 
triumph.  In  October,  1424,  while  marching 
against  Duke  Albert  of  Au.stria,  who  had  iuva<lcil 
Moravia,  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague.  Even 
after  death  ho  continued  to  terrify  the  German 
soldiers,  who  believed  that  his  skin  had  been 
made  into  a  drum,  and  still  called  the  Hussites 
to  battle.  A  majority  of  the  Taborites  eh'cted  a 
priest,  called  Procopius  the  Great,  as  their  com- 
mander in  Zi.ska's  stead;  the  others  who  thence- 
forth styled  themselves  '  Orphans,'  anitcd  under 
another  priest,  Procopius  the  Little.  The 
approach  of  another  Imperial  army,  in  1420, 
compelled  them  to  forget  their  dilTerences,  and 
the  result  was  a  splendid  victory  over  their 
enemies.  Procopius  the  Great  then  invaded 
Austria  and  Silesia,  which  he  laid  waste  witliout 
mercy.  The  Pope  called  a  fourth  CJrusade, 
which  met  the  same  fate  as  the  former  ones:  the 
united  armies  of  the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  the 
Elector  Frederick  of  Brandenburg  and  the  Duke 
of  Saxony,  200,000'strong,  were  utterly  defeated, 
and  lied  in  di.sorder,  leaving  an  enormous  quan- 
tity of  stores  and  munitions  of  war  in  the  hands 
of  the  Bohcnuans.  Procopius,  who  was  almost 
the  equal  of  Ziska  as  a  military  leader,  made 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  unite  the 
Hussites  in  one  religious  boil}'.  In  order  to 
prevent  ilieir  dis.seusions  from  becoming  danger- 
ous to  the  common  cause,  he  kept  the  soldiers  of 
all  sects  under  his  command,  and  undertook 
fierce  invasions  into  Baviirja,  Saxony  and  Bran- 
denburg, which  made  the  Hussite  name  a  terror 
to  all  Germany.  During  these  expeditions  one 
hundred  towns  were  destroyed,  more  than  1,500 
villages  burned,  tens  of  thousands  of  the  inhabi- 
tants slain,  and  such  quantities  of  plunder  col- 
lected that  it  was  impossible  to  transport  the 
whole  of  it  to  Bohemia.  Freilerick  of  Branden- 
burg and  several  other  princes  were  compelled 
to  pay  heavy  tributes  to  the  Hussites:  the 
Empire  was  thoroughly  humiliated,  the  people 
weary  of  slaughter,  yet  the  Pope  refused  even  to 
call  a  Council  for  the  discussion  of  tlie  diflic\ilty. 
.  .  .  The  German  princes  made  a  last  and  des- 
perate effort:  an  army  of  130,000  men,  40,000  of 
whom  were  cavalry,  was  brought  together, 
under  the  conuiiand  of  Frederick  of  Branden- 
burg, while  Albert  of  Austria  was  to  support  it 
by  invading  Bohemia  from  the  south.  Proco- 
pius and  his  dauntless  Hussites  met  the  Crusaders 
on  the  14tli  of  August,  1431,  at  a  place  called 
Thauss,  and  won  another  of  thei''  marvellous 
victories.  The  Imperial  army  was  literally  cut 
to  pieces,  8,000  wagons,  tilled  with  provisions 
and  mimitions  of  war,  and  150  cannons,  were 
left  upon  the  lield.  The  Hussites  marched 
northward  to  the  Baltic,  and  eastward  into  Hun- 
gary, burning,  slaying,  anil  i)lundering  as  they 
went.  Even  the  Pope  now  yielded,  and  the 
Hussites  were  invited  to  attend  the  Council 
at  Basel,  with  the  most  solemn  stipulations  in 
regard  to  personal  siifety  and  a  lair  discussion  of 
their  demands.  .  .  .  lu  1433,  finally  ;i00  Hussites, 
headed  by  Procopius,  appeared  in  Basel.  They 
demanded  nothing  more  than  the  acceptance  of 


the  four  articles  upon  which  they  had  united  in 
1420;  but  after  seven  weeks  of  talk,  during 
which  the  Council  agreed  ujion  nothing  and 
])romised  nothing,  they  marched  away,  after 
stating  that  any  further  negotiation  must  he 
carried  on  in  Prague.  This  course  compelled 
the  C'ouncil  to  act;  an  embassy  was  appointed, 
which  proceeded  to  Prague,  and  <m  the  30th  of 
November,  the  same  year,  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Hussites.  Tlie  four  demands  were 
granted,  but  each  with  a  condition  attached 
which  gave  the  Church  a  chance  to  regain  its 
lost  i)owcr.  For  this  reason,  the  Taborites  and 
'  Orphans '  refused  to  accept  the  compact ;  the 
moderate  party  united  with  the  nobles  and 
undertook  to  suppress  the  former  by  force.  A 
fierce  internal  war  followed,  but  it  was  of  short 
duration.  In  1434,  the  Taborites  were  defeated 
[at  Lipan,  May  30],  their  fortified  mountain 
taken,  Procopius  the  Great  and  the  Little  were 
both  slain,  and  the  members  of  the  se^  dispersed. 
The  Bohemian  Hefonnalion  was  never  again 
dangerous  to  the  Church  of  Home." — B.  Taylor, 
JIi«t.  (if  Germany,  ch.  23. 

Also  in:  C.  A.  Peschek,  Reformation  and 
Ant i-Ueformation  in  Ihheniia,  iiitroductori/  ck. 
— E.  H.  Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Iliis,  v. 
3,  eh.  13-18.— E.  de  Schweinitz,  'lliat.  of  the  Ch. 
kuoirn  as  the   Unitas  Fratriim,  eh.  9. 

A.  D.  1434-1457.— Organization  of  the  Utra- 
quist  National  Church. — Minority  of  Ladis- 
laus  Posthumus. — Regency  of  George  Podie- 
brad. — Origin  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum. —  "The 
battle  of  Lipaii  was  a  turning  point  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Hussites.  It  put  Bohemia  and  Jlora- 
via  into  the  hands  of  the  Utraquists,  and  enabled 
them  to  carry  out  their  plans  unhindered.  The 
man  who  was  foremost  in  shaping  events  and 
who  became  more  and  more  prominent,  until  he 
exerci-scd  a  commanding  influence,  was  John  of 
Bokycana.  ...  At  tlie  diet  of  1435  he  was 
unanimously  elected  archbishop.  .  .  .  Meantime 
Sigismund  endeavored  to  regain  his  kingdom. 
The  Diet  made  demands  which  were  stringent 
airtl  humiliating;  but  he  pledged  l.'mself  to  fulfill 
them,  and  on  the  5th  of  July,  1436,  at  a  meeting 
held  with  great  pomp  ancl  solemnity,  in  the 
market-place  of  Iglau,  wno  iormally  acknowl- 
edged as  Ki  ig  of  Bohemia.  Oi^  the  same  occasion, 
the  Conpactata  were  anew  ratified  and  the 
Bohemia '.^  readmitted  to  the  fellowship  of  the 
mother  church.  But  scarcely  had  Sigismund 
reached  his  capital  when  he  begun  so  serious  a 
reaction  in  favor  of  Rome  that  iiokycana 
secretly  left  the  city  and  retired  to  a  castle 
near  Pardubic  (1437).  The  king's  treachery 
was,  however,  cut  short  by  the  hand  of  death, 
on  the  0th  of  December,  of  the  .same  year,  at 
Znaim,  while  on  his  way  to  Hungary;  and  his 
successor  and  son-in-law,  Albert  of  Austria,  fol- 
lowed him  to  the  grave  in  1439,  in  the  midst  of 
a  campaign  against  the  Turks.  Bohemia  was 
left  without  a  ruler,  for  Albert  had  no  children 
except  a  posthumous  son  [Ladislaus  Posthumus. 
-See  Hungary :  A.  D.  1301-1443,  and  1443- 
1458].  A  time  of  auarithy  began  and  various 
leagues  arose,  the  most  powerful  of  which  stocxl 
under  Baron  Ptacek.  .  .  .  He  .  .  .  called  an 
ecclesiastical  convention  at  Kuttenberg  (Oc:tober 
4tli).  This  convention  brought  about  far-reach- 
ing results.  .  .  .  Uokycana  was  acknowledged 
as  Archbishop  elect,  the  supreme  direction  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs  was  committed  into  his  huads, 


289 


BOHEMIA,  1434-1457. 


Tlie  Unilfu 
t'ratrum. 


nOIIEMIA,  1458-1471. 


tlio  pripst.i?  prnmisod  him  obedience,  and  24  doc- 
triiiul  iiiid  coiistitutioiiiil  articles  were  adopted 
wliicli  laid  tlie  fouiidutioii  of  the  Utraquist 
Cliurcli  as  tlic  National  Church  of  Bohemia. 
But  the  Taborites  stood  aloof.  ...  At  last  a  <lis- 
putntion  was  agreed  upon,"  as  the  resultof  which 
the  Taborit(!S  were  condemned  by  the  Diet. 
"They  lost  all  prestige;  their  '^owns,  with  the 
exception  of  Tabor,  passed  oit  of  their  hands; 
their  membership  was  scattered  and  a  largt  part 
of  it  joined  tlie  National  Chi;rch.  In  the  follow- 
ing summer  I'tacelf  died  and  George  Podiebrad 
succeeded  him  as  the  head  of  the  league. 
Although  a  young  man  of  only  34  years,  he  dis- 
played the  sagacity  of  an  exp  '•'"need  statesman 
and  was  distinguished  bytlie  virtues  of  a  patriot. 
In  1448  abohl  stroke  made  him  master  of  Prague 
and  constituted  him  pr.ictically  Regent  of  all 
Bohemia ;  four  years  later  his  regency  was  form- 
ally acknowledged.  lie  was  a,  warm  friend  of 
Uokycana,  whose  consecration  he  endeavored  to 
bring  about."  When  it  was  found  that  Home 
could  not  be  reconciled,  there  were  thoughts  of 
cutting  loose  altogether  from  the  Koman  Catholic 
and  uniting  with  the  Greek  Church.  "Negotia- 
tions were  actually  begim  in  14.')3,  but  came  to 
an  abrupt  close  in  the  following  year,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  fall  of  Constantinople.  About  the 
same  time  Ladislaus  Posthuinus,  Albert's  son, 
assumed  the  crown,  Podiebrad  remaining  Ue- 
gent.  The  latter  continued  the  friend  of  Uoky- 
cana; the  former,  who  was  a  Catholic,  conceived 
a  strong  dislike  to  him.  iVs  soon  as  Kokycana 
had  given  up  the  hope  of  conciliating  Rome,  he 
began  to  preach,  with  great  power  and  clocjuence, 
against  its  corruptions."  It  was  at  this  time  that 
a  movement  arose  among  certain  of  his  followers 
which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  tlio  remark- 
able religious  body  which  called  itself  Unitas 
Fratrum.  The  leading  spirit  in  ■  >  movement 
was  Rokycana's  nephew,  commc  called  Gre- 
gory the  Patriarch.  The  teaching  and  influence 
which  shaped  it  was  that  of  Peter  Chelcicky. 
Gregory  and  his  coinpanious,  wishing  to  dwell 
together,  in  the  Christian  unity  of  winch  they 
had  formed  an  ideal  in  their  muids,  found  a  re- 
treat at  the  secluded  village  of  Kunwald,  on  tlie 
estate  of  George  Podiebrad.  "  The  name  which 
they  chose  was  '  Brethren  of  the  Law  of  Christ' 
— 'Fnitres  Legis  Cliristi';  inasmuch,  however, 
as  this  name  gave  rise  to  the  idea  that  they  were 
a  new  order  of  Monks,  they  changed  it  simply 
into  '  Brethren.'  Wlicn  the  organization  of  their 
Church  had  been  completed,  they  assumed 
the  additional  title  of  'Jednotii  Bratrska,'  or 
Unitas  Pratrum,  that  is,  the  Unity  of  the 
Brethren,  which  has  rem.iined  the  otBcial  and 
signiticant  appellation  of  the  Cliurch  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  ...  It  was  often  abbreviated  into  '  Tlie 
Unity.'  Another  name  by  which  the  Church 
called  itself  was  'The  Bohemian  Brethren.'  It 
related  to  all  the  Brethren,  whether  they  belonged 
to  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Prussia  or  Poland.  To  call 
them  The  Bohemian-Moravian  Brethren,  or  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  is  historically  incorrect.  The 
^  name  Jloravian  arose  in  the  time  of  the  Rene^tred 
Brethren's  Church,  because  the  men  by  whom 
it  was  reneweil  came  from  Moravia.  .  .  .  The 
organization  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum  took  place  in 
the  year  1457." — E.  Dc  Schweinitz,  Hist,  of  Vie 
Ohureh  known  as  Unitas  Fratrum,  ch.  10-12. 

A.  D.  1458.— Election  of  Georg^e  Podiebrad 
to  the  throne.    SgcHunoaby:  A.  D.  1443-1458. 


A.  D.  1458-1471.— Papal  excommunication 
and  deposition  of  the  king,  George  Podie- 
brad.— A  crusade. — War  with  the  Emperor 
and  Matthias  of  Hungary.— Death  of  Podie- 
brad and  election  of  Ladislaus  of  Poland. — 
"(iciirgc  Podiebrad  Imd  scarcely  ascended  the 
throne  before  the  ('alliolics,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  pope,  required  hiin  to  fulfil  his  coronation 
oath,  bv  expelling  all  heretics  from  the  king- 
dom, lie  complied  with  their  request,  banished 
the  Taborites,  Picards,  Adamites,  and  all  other 
religious  sects  who  did  not  profess  the  Catholic 
doctrines,  and  i.ssued  a  decree  that  all  his  sub- 
jects should  become  members  of  the  Catholic 
church,  as  communicants  under  one  or  both 
kinds.  The  Catholics,  howc  n-.v,  were  not  satis- 
fied; considering  the  Calixtins  as  heretics,  they 
entreated  him  to  annul  the  compacts,  or  to  ob- 
tain a  new  ratification  of  them  from  the  new 
pope.  To  gratify  their  wishes  ho  sent  an  em- 
ba.ssy  to  Rome,  requesting  a  confirmation  of  the 
compacts;  but  Pius,  under  the  pretence  that  the 
compacts  gave  occasion  to  licresy,  refused  his 
ratification,  and  sent  Fantino  della  Valle,  as 
legate,  to  Prague,  for  the  purpose  of  persuading 
the  king  to  prohibit  the  administration  of  the 
communion  under  both  kinds.  In  consequence 
of  this  legation  the  king  called  a  diet,  at  which 
the  legate  and  the  bishops  of  Olmutz  and  Bres- 
lau  were  present.  The  ill  success  of  the  embassy 
to  Rome  having  been  announced,  he  said,  '  I  am 
astonished,  and  cannot  divine  the  intentions  of 
the  pope.  The  compacts  were  the  only  means 
of  terminating  the  dreadful  commotions  in 
Bohemia,  and  if  they  are  annulled,  the  king- 
dom will  again  relapse  into  the  former  disorders. 
The  council  of  Basle,  which  was  comp(\sed  of 
the  most  learned  men  in  Europe,  approved  and 
granted  them  to  the  Bohemians,  and  pope 
Eugenius  confirmed  them.  They  contain  no 
heresy,  and  are  in  all  respects  conformable  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  holy  church.  I  and  my  wife 
hove  followed  tluMU  from  our  childhood,  and  I 
am  determined  to  maintain  them  till  my  d(!ath.' 
.  .  .  Fantino  replying  in  a  long  <ind  virulent 
invective,  the  king  ordered  him  to  quit  the 
assembly,  and  Imprisoned  him  in  the  castle  of 
Podiebrad,  allowing  him  no  other  sustenance 
except  bread  and  water.  The  pope,  irritated  by 
this  insult,  annulled  the  compacts,  in  1403,  and 
fulminated  a  sentence  of  excommunication 
against  the  king,  uuli.ss  he  appeared  at  Rome 
within  a  certain  time  to  justify  his  conduct. 
This  btdl  iccasioncd  li  great  ferment  among  the 
Catholics;  Podiebrad  was  induced  to  liberate 
the  legate,  and  made  an  apology  to  the  offended 
pontiff;  while  Frederic,  grateful  for  the  assist- 
ance which  he  had  recently  received  from  the 
king  of  Bohemia,  when  brsieged  by  his  brother 
Albert,  interposed  his  mediation  with  the  pope, 
and  procured  the  suspension  of  the  sentence  of 
excommunication.  Pius  dj'ing  on  the  14th  of 
August,  1464,  the  new  pope,  Paul  II.,  perse- 
cuted the  king  of  Bohemia  with  increasing  acri- 
mony. He  sent  his  legate  to  Breslau  to  excite 
commotions  among  the  Catholics,  endeavoured 
without  effect  to  gain  Casimir,  king  of  Poland, 
by  the  offer  of  the  Bohemian  crown,  and  applied 
with  the  same  ill  success  to  the  states  of  Ger- 
many. He  at  length  overctiir^e  the  gratitude  of 
tlie  emperor  by  threats  and  promises,  and  at  the 
diet  of  Nuremberg  in  1467,  ti'.e  proposal  of  his 
legate  Fantino,  to  form  a  crusade  against  the 


290 


BOHEMIA,   1458-1471. 


Strufffftp  for  the 
Crown, 


BOHEMIA,  isTe-ioai. 


licrotic  king  of  Bnlipmiii,  wa.s  supported  hr  tlio 
imperial  lunbiissudors.  Aitlioui^li  this  jiroposiil 
was  rejected  by  tlie  diet,  tlie  i)ope  publislicd  a 
sentence  of  depLiiii.,n  against  I'odiebrad.  and 
his  emissaries  were  allowed  to  preacli  tlie  cru- 
sade tlirougliDiit  Geriniiny.  and  in  every  part  of 
the  Austrian  territories.  The  conduct  of  Fred- 
eric drew  from  the  king  of  Bohemia,  in  1408,  a 
violent  invective  against  his  ingratitude,  and  a 
formal  declaration  of  war;  li(^  followed  this 
declaration  by  an  irruption  into  Austria,  spread- 
ing (hiViustation  as  far  as  the  Danube.  Frederic 
in  vain  applied  to  the  princes  of  the  empire  for 
ussistimce:  and  at  length  excited  Mattliias  king 
of  Hungary  against  his  father-in-law,  by  olfer- 
ing  to  invest  him  with  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 
Matthias,  forgettii.j  his  obligations  to  Podie- 
brad,  to  whom  he  owed  his  life  and  crown,  was 
dazzled  by  the  otter,  and  being  assisted  by 
bodies  of  German  marauders,  who  had  assumed 
the  cross,  invaded  Bohemia.  At  the  same  time 
the  intrigues  of  the  jjope  exciting  the  Catholics 
to  insurrection,  tlie  country  again  became  a  prey 
to  the  dreadful  evils  of  a  civil  and  religious  war. 
The  vigour  and  activity  of  George  Fodiebrad 
8uppres.seil  the  internal  commotions,  and  repelled 
the  invasion  of  the  Hungarians;  an  armistice 
was  concluded,  and  the  two  kings,  on  tlie  4th  of 
April,  1469,  Iicld  an  amicable  conference  at 
Sternberg,  in  Moravia,  where  they  entered  into 
a  treaty  of  peace.  But  Matthias,  intluenced  by 
the  perfidious  maxim,  that  no  compact  should  be 
kept  with  heretics,  was  persuaded  by  the  papal 
legate  to  restniK!  hostilities.  After  overrunning 
Moravia  and  Silesia,  he  held  a  mock  diet  at 
Olniutz  with  some  of  the  Catholic  party,  where 
he  was  clio.sen  king  of  Bohemia,  and  .solemnly 
crowned  by  the  legate.  .  .  .  Podiebrad,  in  order 
to  baffle  the  designs  both  of  the  emperor  and 
Matthias,  summoned  a  diet  at  Prague,  and  pro- 
posed to  the  states  as  his  successor,  Ladislaus, 
eldest  son  of  Casimir,  king  of  Poland,  by  Eliza- 
beth, second  daughter  of  the  emperor  Albert. 
The  proposal  was  warmly  approved  .by  the 
nation,  »  .  .  as  tlie  Catholics  were  desirous  of 
living  under  a  prince  of  their  own  communion, 
and  tlie  Calixtins  anxious  to  prevent  the  acces- 
sion of  Frederic  or  Matthias,  both  of  whom  were 
hostile  to  their  doctrines.  Tlie  states  accordingly 
assented  without  hecitatiou,  and  Ladislaus  was 
unanimously  nominated  successor  to  the  throne. 
The  indignation  of  JIattliias  was  inflamed  by  his 
disappointment,  and  hostilities  were  continued 
with  increasing  fury.  The  two  armies,  con- 
ducted by  their  respective  sovereigns,  the  ablest 
generals  of  the  age,  for  some  time  kept  each 
other  in  check;  till  at  length  both  parties, 
wearied  by  tlie  devastation  of  their  respective 
countries,  concluded  a  kina  >;f  armistice,  on  the 
22nd  of  July,  1470,  whicli  put  a  period  to  hos- 
tilities. On  the  death  of  Podiebrad,  in  the 
ensuing  year,  Frederic  again  presenting  himself 
as  a  candidate,  was  suiiported  by  still  fewer  ad- 
herents than  on  the  former  occasion;  n  more 
numerous  party  osi)oused  tlie  interests  of  Mat- 
thias ;  but  the  majority  declaring  for  Ladislaus, 
he  was  re-elected,  and  proclaimed  king.  Fred- 
eric supported  Ladislaus  in  preference  to 
Matthias,  and  by  fomenting  the  troubles  in 
Hungary,  as  well  as  by  his  intrigues  with  the 
Ling  of  Poland,  endeavoured  not  only  to  disap- 
point Matthias  of  the  throne  of  Bohemia,  b-,jt 
even  to  drive  him  from  that  of  Hungary. "— W. 


Coxe,  ITist.  of  the  Iloune  of  AusMd,  eh.  18 
(".  1). 

A.  D.  1471-1479.— War  with  Matthias  of 
Hungary. — Surrender  of  Moravia  and  Silesia. 
See  llr.No.utv:  A.  1).  1471-1487. 

A.  D.  1490.— King  Ladislaus  elected  to  the 
throne  of  Hungary.  See  Hungary:  A.  D.  1487- 
ir)2«. 

A.  D.  1516-1576.— Accession  of  the  House 
of  Austria.— The  Reformation  and  its  strength. 
—Alternating  toleration  and  persecution.— 
In  1489  Vladislav  "  was  61ected  to  the  throne  of 
llunijary  after  the  death  of  Mathias  Corvinus. 
He  ilied  in  1510,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne 
of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  by  his  minor  .son. 
Louis,  who  perished  in  1520  at  the  battle  of 
Mohacz  against  the  Turks  [see  Hunqaky:  A.  D. 
1487-1 520J.  An  equality  of  rights  was  main- 
tained between  tlie  Hussites  and  the  Uoman 
Catholics  during  these  two  reigns.  Louis  left 
no  children,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  tnrone  of 
Hungary  and  Boliemia  by  I>\'r(liiiund  of  Austria 
[see,  also,  AusTUi.v;  A.  D.  1490-1520],  brother 
of  the  Emperor  Charles  V..  and  married  to  the 
sisterof  Louis,  a  prince  of  a  bigoted  and  despotic 
character.  Tlie  doctrines  of  Luther  had  already 
found  a  speedy  eclio  among.st  the  Calixtines  under 
the  preceding  reign;  and  Protestantism  gained 
so  much  ground  under  that  of  Ferdinand,  that 
the  Bohemians  refused  to  take  part  in  tlie  war 
against  the  Protestant  league  of  Smalkalden,  and 
formed  a  union  for  tlie  defence  of  the  national 
and  religious  liberties,  which  were  menaced  by 
Ferdinand.  The  defeat  of  the  Protestants  at  the 
battle  of  Muhlberg,  in  1.547,  by  Charles  V.,  which 
laid  prostrate  tlieir  cause  in  Germany,  produced 
a  seviire  reaction  in  Bohemia.  Several  leaders 
of  tho  union  were  executed,  others  imprisoned 
or  banished ;  the  property  of  many  nobles  was 
confiscated,  the  towns  were  heavily  lined,  de- 
prived of  sevend  privileges,  and  subjected  to 
new  taxes.  These  measures  were  carried  into 
execution  with  tlie  assistance  of  German.  Spanish, 
and  Hungarian  soldiers,  and  legalized  by  an  as- 
sembly known  under  the  name  of  the  Bloody 
Diet.  .  .  .  The  .Jesuits  were  also  introduced  dur- 
ing that  reign  into  Bohemia.  The  privileges  of 
the  Calixtiiie,  or,  as  it  was  offlcially  called,  the 
Utraiiuist  Cliurch,  were  not  abolished;  and 
Ferdinand,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  imperial 
crown  after  the  abdication  of  his  brother  Charles 
v.,  softened,  during  the  latter  j-earsof  his  reign, 
his  harsh  and  despotic  character.  ...  He  died 
ii  1504,  sincerely  regretting,  it  is  said,  the  acts 
of  oppression  which  ho  hail  committed  against 
his  Bohemian  subjects.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II.,  a  man  of 
noble  character  and  tolerant  disposition,  which 
led  to  the  belief  that  he  himself  inclined  towards 
the  'doctrines  of  the  Iteformation.  He  died  in 
1570,  leaving  a  name  venerated  by  all  parties. 
.  .  .  Maximilian's  son,  the  Emperor  Uudolpli, 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  his  cou.sin,  Philip 
II.  of  Spain,  and  could  not  be  but  adverse  to 
Protestantism,  which  liad,  however,  become  loo 
strong,  not  only  in  Bohemia,  but  also  in  Austria 
proper,  to  be  easily  supjiressed;  but  several  in- 
direct means  were  adopted,  in  order  gradually  to 
effect  this  object." — V.  Krasinski,  Lectx.  on  the 
liclif/ioua  Hint,  of  the  Slnconic  Nations,  led.  2. 

A.  D.  1576-1604.— Persecution  of  Protestants 
by  Rudolph.  See  UuNaAiiv:  A.  D.  1507- 
1604. 


291 


BOIIKiMIA.  1011-1618. 


V7k«  Letter  of 
Majetty. 


BOHEMIA,  1011-1618. 


A.  D.  1611-1618.— The  Letter  of  Majesty, 
or  Royal  Charter,  and  Matthias's  violation  of 
it. — Ferdinand  of  Styria  forced  upon  the 
nation  as  king  by  hereditary  right.— The 
throwing  of  the  Royal  Counsellors  from  the 
window. — Beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years 
War.— Ill  1011,  tlu:  Emperor  HcHlolpli  was 
forced  to  surrender  the  crown  of  IJoliemiii  to  his 
brotlier  Miitthiiis.  The  next  year  he  died,  and 
Mnttliiiw  succeeded  liitn  as  Emperor  also.  "  Tlio 
traii(|uillity  wliicli  Undolph  II. 's  Letterot  Majesty 
fsee  Gkhmany:  A.  D.  1008-1018J  had  cstablislieJl 
in  Bohemia  lasted  for  some  time,  under  the 
ndministmtion  of  Matthias,  till  the  nomination 
of  a  new  heir  to  this  kingdom  in  the  person  of 
Ferdinand  of  Gratz  [Styria].  This  prince,  whom 
we  shall  afterwards  liccoinc  better  acquaiMtcd 
with  under  the  title  of  Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  had,  by  the  violent  extirpation  of 
the  Protestant  rolisioii  within  his  hereditary 
dominions,  announced  himself  as  an  inexorable 
zealot  for  popery,  and  was  consequently  looked 
upon  by  the  Koman  Catholic  part  of  Bohemia 
as  the  future  pillar  of  their  church.  The  declin- 
ing health  of  the  Emperor  brought  on  this  hour 
rapidly;  and,  relying  on  so  powerful  a  sup- 
porter, the  Bohemian  Papists  began  to  treat  the 
Protestants  with  little  moderation.  The  Protes- 
tant vassals  of  Uoman  (,'atliolic  nobles,  in  par- 
ticular, experienced  the  harshest  treatment.  At 
length  several  of  the  former  were  incautious 
enough  to  speak  .somewhat  loudly  of  their  hopes, 
and  by  threatening  hints  to  awaken  among  the 
Protestants  a  suspicion  of  their  future  sovereign. 
But  this  mistrust  would  never  have  broken  out 
into  actual  violence,  had  the  Roman  Catholics 
conlined  themselves  to  general  expressions,  and 
not  by  attacks  on  individuals  furnished  the  dis- 
content of  the  people  with  enterprising  leaders. 
Henry  Matthias,  Count  Tliurn,  not  a  native  of 
Bohemia,  but  proprietor  of  some  estates  in  that 
kingdom,  had,  by  his  zeal  for  the  Protestant 
cause,  and  an  enthusiastic  attachment  to  Ids 
newly  adopted  country,  gained  the  entire  con- 
fl<ience  of  the  Utraquists,  which  opened  him  the 
way  to  the  most  important  posts.  .  .  Of  a  hot 
and  impetuous  disposition,  which  loved  tumult 
becau.se  his  talents  shone  in  it  —  rash  anil 
thoughtless  enough  to  undertake  things  which 
cold  prudence  and  a  calmer  temper  would  not 
have  ventured  upon-^un.scrupulous  enough, 
where  the  gratification  of  his  pa.ssions  was  con- 
cerned, to  sport  with  the  fate  of  thousands,  and 
ftt  the  siimo  time  politic  enougli  to  hold  in  lead- 
ing-strings such  a  people  os  the  Bohemians  then 
were.  lie  had  already  taken  an  active  part  in 
the  troubles  under  Itotlolph's  administration; 
and  the  Letter  of  jMajesty  which  the  States  hail 
extorted  from  that  Emperor,  was  chiefly  to  be 
laid  to  his  merit.  The  court  had  intrusted  to 
him,  as  burgrave  or  castellan  of  Calstein,  the 
custoily  of  the  Bohemian  crown,  and  of  the 
national  charter.  But  the  nation  had  placed  in 
his  hands  something  far  more  important —  itself 
—  with  the  oliu*  of  defender  or  iirotoetor  of  the 
faith.  Tlic  aristocracy  by  whicli  the  Emperor 
was  ruled,  imprudently  deprived  him  of  this 
harmless  guardianship  of  the  dead,  to  leave  him 
his  full  influence  over  the  living.  They  took 
from  him  his  ollice  of  burgrave,  or  constable  of 
the  castle,  which  had  rendered  him  dependent  on 
the  court,  thereby  opening  his  eyes  to  the  im- 
portauce    of    the    other    which    remained,    and 


wounded  his  vanity,  which  yet  was  the  thing 
that  made  his  ambition  harmless.  From  tills 
moment  he  was  actuated  solely  by  a  desire  of 
revenge;  and  the  oppor  inity  of  gratifying  it 
was  not  long  wanting.  In  the  Koyal  Letter 
which  the  Bohemians  had  extorted  from  Rodolph 
II.,  as  well  as  in  the  German  religious  treaty, 
one  material  article  remained  undetennined. 
All  the  i)rivileges  granted  by  the  latter  to  the 
Protestants,  were  conceived  in  favour  of  the 
Estates  or  governing  bodies,  not  of  the  subjects; 
for  only  to  those  of  ecclesiastical  states  had  a 
toleration,  and  that  precarious,  been  conceded. 
The  Bohemian  Letter  of  JIajesty,  in  the  same 
manner,  spoke  only  of  the  Estates  and  the  im- 
perial towns,  the  magistrates  of  which  had  con- 
trived to  obtain  equal  privileges  with  the  former. 
These  alone  were  free  to  erect  churches  and 
schools,  and  openly  to  celebrate  their  Protestant 
worship:  in  all  other  towns,  it  was  left  entirely 
to  the  government  to  which  they  belonged,  to 
determine  the  religion  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
Estates  of  the  Empire  had  availed  themselves  of 
this  privilege  in  its  fullest  extent;  the  secular 
indeed  without  opposition;  while  the  ecclesias- 
tical, in  whose  case  the  declaration  of  Ferdinand 
had  limited  this  privilege,  disputed,  not  without 
reason,  the  validity  of  that  limitation.  What 
was  a  disputed  point  in  the  religious  treaty,  was 
loft  still  more  doubtful  in  the  Letter  of  Majesty. 
...  In  the  little  town  of  Klostergrab,  subject 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Prague ;  and  in  Braunau, 
which  belonged  to  the  abbot  of  that  monastery, 
churches  were  founded  by  the  Protestants,  and 
completed  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of 
their  superiors,  and  the  (lisapprobation  of  the 
Emperor.  ...  By  the  Emperor's  orders,  the 
church  at  Klostergrab  was  pulled  down ;  that  at 
Braunau  forcibly  shut  up,  and  the  most  turbulent 
of  the  citizens  thrown  into  prison.  A  general 
commotion  among  the  Protestants  was  the  con- 
sequence of  this  niea.ure;  a  loud  outcry  was 
everywhere  raised  at  tl  is  violation  of  the  Letter 
of  Majesty;  and  Couit  Tliurn.  animated  by 
revenge,  and  particula!)y  called  ui)oii  by  his 
oftlce  of  defender,  showed  himself  not  a  little 
busy  in  inllaniing  the  minds  of  the  people.  At 
his  instigation  deputies  were  summoned  to 
Prague  from  every  circle  in  the  empire,  to  con- 
cert the  necessary  measures  against  the  common 
danger.  It  was  resolved  to  petition  the  Emperor 
to  press  for  the  liberation  of  the  prisoners.  The 
answer  of  the  Emperor,  already  offensive  to  the 
states,  from  its  being  aildressed,  not  to  them,  but 
to  his  viceroy,  denounced  their  conduct  as  illegal 
and  rebellious,  justified  what  had  been  done  at 
Klostergrab  and  Braunau  as  the  result  of  an  im- 
perial mandate,  and  contained  some  passages 
that  might  bo  construed  into  threats.  Count 
Thurn  did  not  fail  to  augment  the  unfavourable 
impression  which  this  imperial  edict  made  upon 
the  as.sembled  Estates.  ...  He  held  it  .  .  . 
advisable  first  to  direct  their  indignation  against 
the  Emperor's  counsellors;  and  for  that  purpose 
circulated  a  report,  that  the  imii(!rial  proclama- 
'•■)n  had  been  drawn  up  by  tl'  government  at 
^rague  and  only  signed  in  Vi'  Among  the 

imperial    delegat<?s,    the    cl  jects    of    the 

popular  hatred,  were  the  Pi  of  the  Cham- 

ber, Slawata,  and  Baron  Marti  who  had  been 

elected  in  place  of  Count  Tliuiii,  Burgrave  of 
Calstein.  .  .  .  Against  two  characters  so  un- 
popular the  public  indignation  was  easily  ex- 


292 


BOHEMIA,  161t-l(318. 


Tliirtu  Yrnr» 
War. 


nOIIEMIA,   1742. 


cited,  find  tlicy  were  marked  out  for  a  sacrifice 
to  tlie  gencruliiulignatioii.  On  the  33rd  of  May. 
1618,  the  deputies  appeared  armed,  and  in  great 
numbers,  at  tlie  royal  palace,  and  forced  tlieir 
way  into  tlie  hull  where  the  Commisioners  Stern- 
berg, Martinitz,  Lobkowitz,  and  Slawata  were 
assembled.  In  a  threatening  tone  they  demanded 
to  know  from  each  of  them,  wlictlier  he  had 
taken  any  part,  or  had  consented  to,  the  imperial 
proclamation.  Sternberg  received  them  with 
composure,  Martinitz  and  Slawata  with  deimnce. 
Tills  decided  their  fate;  Sternberg  and  Lob- 
knwitz,  loss  hated,  and  more  feared,  were  led  by 
the  arm  out  of  the  room ;  JIartinitz  and  Slawata 
were  seized,  dragged  to  a  window,  and  pre- 
cipitated from  ft  height  of  80  feet,  into  the  castle 
trench.  Their  creature,  the  secretary  Fubricius. 
was  thrown  after  them.  This  singular  mode  of 
execution  naturally  e.xcited  the  surprise  of 
civilized  nations.  The  Hohemians  justitied  it  as 
a  national  custom,  and  saw  notiiing  remarkable 
in  the  whole  affair,  excepting  that  any  one  should 
have  got  up  again  safe  and  sound  'after  such  a 
fall.  A  dunghill,  on  which  the  imperial  com- 
missioners chanced  to  be  deposited,  had  saved 
them  from  injury.  [The  incident  of  the  flinging 
of  the  obnoxious  ministers  from  the  window  is 
often  referred  to  as  '  the  defenestration  at 
Prague. ']  .  .  .  By  this  brutal  act  of  self-redress, 
no  room  was  left  for  irresolution  or  repentance, 
and  it  seemed  as  if  a  single  crime  could  be 
absolved  only  by  a  series  of  violences.  As  tlie 
deed  itself  could  not  be  undone,  nothing  was  left 
but  to  disarm  the  hand  of  punishment.  Thirty 
directors  were  appointed  to  organize  a  regular 
insurrection.  They  seized  upon  all  the  otlices  of 
state,  and  all  the  imperial  revenues,  took  into 
their  own  service  the  royal  functionaries  and  tlie 
soldiers,  and  summoned  the  wliole  Boliemian 
nation  to  avenge  the  common  cause." — F.  Schiller, 
Hist,  of  the  Thirty  Yam'  War.  bk.  1,  ]i\i.  51-5.). 

Also  in:  S.  R.  Gardiner,  Tim  Tliirtii  Ycava' 
War,  ch.  3.— A.  Giudely,  Hist,  of  the  Thirty 
Fears'  War,  ch.  1. — F.  Kohlrausch,  Hist,  of 
Germany,  eh.  32. 

A.  D.  1618-1620. — Conciliatory  measures  de- 
feated by  Ferdinand. — His  election  to  the  Im- 
perial throne,  and  his  deposition  in  Bohemia. 
— Acceptance  of  the  crown  by  Frederick  the 
Palatine  Elector. — His  unsupported  situation. 
See  Germany:  A.  D.  1018-1030. 

A.  D.  1620. — Disappointment  in  the  newly 
elected  King. — His  aggressive  Calvinism, — 
Battle  of  the  White  Mountain  before  Prague. 
— Frederick's  flight. — Annulling  of  the  Royal 
charter. — Loss  of  Bohemian  Liberties.  See 
Gekmany:  a.  D.  1030,  and  IIunoauy:  A.  D. 
1000-1060. 

A.  D.  1621-1648. — The  Reign  of  Terror. — 
Death,  banishment,  confiscation,  dragoon- 
ades. — The  country  a  desert. — Protestantism 
crushed,  but  not  slain. — "In  June,  1031,  a  fear- 
ful reign  of  terror  began  in  Bohemia,  with  the 
execution  of  37  of  the  most  distinguished  here- 
tics. For  years  the  unhappy  people  bled  under 
it;  thousands  were  banished,  and  yet  Protestant- 
ism was  not  fully  exterminated.  The  charter 
was  cut  into  shreds  by  the  Emperor  himself; 
there  couKl  be  no  forbearance  towards  'such 
acknowledged  rebels.'  As  a  matter  of  course, 
the  Lutheran  preaching  was  forbidden  under  the 
heaviest  penalties;  heretical  works,  Bibles  es- 
pecially,   were  taken   away   in  heaps.       Jesuit 


colleges,  churches,  and  .schools  came  into  power  j 
but  this  was  not  all.  A  large  number  of  dis- 
tinguished Protestant  families  were  deprived  of 
their  property,  and,  as  if  that  were  not  enough, 
it  was  decreed  that  no  non-Catholic  could  be  a 
citizen,  nor  carry  on  a  trade,  enter  into  a  mar- 
riage, nor  make  a  will;  tiny  one  who  harboured 
a  Protestant  preacher  forfeited  his  property; 
whoever  permitted  Protestant  instruction  to  bo 
given  was  to  be  lined,  and  whipped  out  of  town; 
tlie  Proti'Stant  poor  who  were  not  converted 
were  to  be  driven  out  of  the  hospitals,  and  to  bo 
replaced  by  Catholic  poor;  he  who  gave  free  ex- 
pression to  his  opinions  about  religion  was  to  be 
executed.  In  1031  an  order  was  issued  to  all 
preachers  and  teachers  to  leave  the  country 
within  eight  days  under  pain  of  death;  and 
finally,  it  was  ordained  that  whoever  had  not 
become  Catholic  by  Easter,  1636,  must  emigrate. 
.  .  .  But  the  real  convei-sions  were  few ;  thousands 
fpiietly  remained  true  to  the  faith;  otlier  thou- 
.sands  wandered  as  beggars  into  foreign  lands, 
more  than  30,000  Bohemian  families,  and  among 
them  500  belonging  to  the  aristocracy,  went  into 
banishment.  Exiled  Bohemians  were  to  be 
found  in  every  country  of  Europe,  and  were  not 
wanting  in  any  of  the  armies  that  fought  against 
Austria.  Those  who  could  not  or  would  not 
emigrate,  held  to  their  faith  in  secret.  Against 
them  dragoonades  were  employed.  Detachmenta 
of  soldiers  were  sen„  into  the  various  districts  to 
torment  the  hei'etics  till  they  were  converted. 
The  '  Converters '  (Seligmacher)  went  thus 
throughout  all  Bohemia,  plundering  and  murder- 
ing. .  .  .  No  succour  reached  the  unfortunate 
people ;  but  neither  did  the  victors  attain  their 
end.  Protestantism  and  the  Hussite  memories 
could  not  be  slain,  and  only  outward  submission 
was  extorted.  ...  A  respectable  Protestant 
party  exists  to  this  day  in  Bohemia  and  Jloravia. 
But  a  de.sert  was  created ;  the  land  was  crushed 
for  a  generation.  Before  the  war  Bohemia  hiul 
4,000,000  inhabitants,  and  in  1648  there  were  but 
700,000  or  800,000.  These  figures  appear  pre- 
posterous, but  they  are  certified  by  Bohemian 
historians.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the 
population  has  not  attained  the  standard  of  1620 
to  this  day." — L.  Hilusser,  The  Period  of  the  lie- 
formation,  ch.  33. 

Also  in:  C.  A.  Peschek,  litformation  and 
Anti-Iteformatinn  in  Bolie.nia,  v.  2. — E.  de 
Sehweinitz,  Hist,  of  tlie  Church  known  as  tlie 
Unita^  Fratrum,  ch.  47-51. 

A.  D.  1631-1632. — Temporary  occupation  by 
the  Saxons. — Their  expulsion  by  Wallenstein. 
Sec  Germany:  A.  1).  1031-1633. 

A.  D.  1640-1645, —  Campaigns  of  Baner 
and  Torstenson.  See  Germany :  A.  D.  1640- 
1615. 

A.  D.  1646-1648.— Last  campaigns  of  the 
Thirty  Years  War. — Surprise  and  capture  of 
part  of  Prague  by  the  Swedes.— Siege  of  the 
old  city. — Peace.  See  Geumany:  A.  D.  1040- 
1648. 

A.  D.  1740.— The  question  of  the  Austrian 
Succession. —  The  Pragmatic  Sanction.  See 
Austria:  A.  D.  1718-1738,  and  1740. 

A.  D.  1741. — Brief  conquest  by  the  French, 
Bavarians  and  Saxons.  See  Austria:  A.  D. 
1741  (August— November),  and  (Octoheb). 

A.  D.  1742  (January -May).— Prussian  inva- 
sion.—Battle    of    Chotusitz.     See    Austria: 
■  A.  i).  1742  (January— May). 


293 


HOJIEMIA,  1743 


BOKHARA,  1210. 


A.  D.  i742(June— December).— Expulsion  of 
the  French.— Belleisle's  retreat.— Maria  The- 
resa crowned  at  Prague.  Si;e  At;sTUlA;  A.  I). 
1743  (.Il'.NK— Dkokmiiku). 

A.  D.  1757.- The  Seven  Years  War. — 
Frederick's  invasion  and  defeat. — Battles  of 
Prague  and  Kolin.  Seo  Gkumany:  A.  D.  n'u 
(Aruii,— .Jink). 

- — -♦ 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  The.  Sen 
Boiikmia:    a.     1).     14:14-1457,    and    Oeumany: 

A.  I).  1030. 

BOHEMIANS  (Gypsies).     Bue  Gyphies. 

BOI ANS,  OR  BOII.—  Some  passages  in  the 
curlier  history  ami  movements  of  the  powerful 
Qallic  tribe  known  as  the  Boil  will  be  found 
touched  upon  under  KoMu::  B.  C.  390-347,  and 

B.  C.  29.')-li)l,  in  aeeotmts  given  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  and  of  the  subse- 
quent wars  of  the  Uoinans  with  the  Cisalpine 
Gauls.  After  the  linal  con(iuest  of  the  Boians  in 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  early  in  the  second  century, 
B.  C,  the  Romans  seem  to  have  c.xpcdled  them, 
wholly  or  partly,  from  that  country,  forcing 
them  "to  cross  the  Alps.  They  afterwards  occu- 
piiid  a  region  embraced  in  modern  Bavaria  and 
Bohemia,  both  of  whidi  countries  are  thought 
to  have  derived  their  names  from  these  Boian 
people.  Some  part  of  the  nation,  however,  as- 
.sociated  itself  with  the  Ilelvelii  and  joined  in  the 
migration  which  C'lesar  arrested.  He  settled 
these  Boians  in  Gaul,  within  the  ^Eduan  terri- 
tory, between  the  Loire  and  the  Allier.  Their 
capital  city  was  G(!rgovia,  which  was  also  the 
name  of  a  city  of  the  Arverni.  The  Gergovia  of 
the  Boians  is  conjectured  to  have  been  modern 
Monlins.  Their  territory  was  the  modern  Bour- 
bonnais,  which  probably  derived  its  name  from 
them.  Three  important  names,'  therefore,  in 
European  geography  and  history,  viz. —  Bour- 
bon, Bavaria  and  Bohemia,  are  traced  to  the 
Gallic  nation  of  the  J$oii. —  Tacitus,  Oermany, 
traiui.  by  C hutch  and  linxlribh,  notes. 

AiiSO  IN:  C.  Merivale,  Hint,  of  Vie  Itoimuui,  ch. 
13,  note. 

BOIS-LE-DUC— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Dutch  (1629).  Sec  Netiieulands:  A.  D.  1031- 
1033. 

BOKHARA  (Ancient  Transoxania).— 
"Taken  literally,  the  name  [Transo.xania]  is  a 
translation  of  the  Arabic  >Iavera-ini-nehr  (that 
which  lies  beyond  or  across  the  river),  and  it 
might  therefore  be  supposed  that  Transoxania 
meant  the  country  lying  beyond  or  on  the  right 
shore  of  the  0.\us.  But  this  is  not  stricUy 
speaking  the  case.  .  .  .  From  the  period  of  the 
Samanidcs  down  to  modern  times,  the  districts 
of  Talkan,  Tokharistan  and  Zcm,  although 
lying  partly  or  entirely  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
O.vus,  have  been  looked  on  as  integral  portions 
of  Bokhara.  Our  historical  researclies  seem  to 
prove  that  this  arrangement  dates  from  the 
Samanidcs,  who  were  themselves  originally 
natives  of  that  part  of  Khorassan.  ...  It  is 
almost  impossible  in  dealing  geographically  with 
Transoxania  to  assign  delinitely  an  accurate 
frontier.  We  can  and  will  therefore  compre- 
hend in  our  definition  of  Transoxania  solely  Bok- 
hara, or  the  khanate  of  Bokhara;  for  althougli 
it  has  only  been  known  by  the  latter  name  since 
the  time  of  ShcVbani  and  of  the  Ozbcgs  [A.  I). 
1500],  the  shores  of  the  Zcrofshan  and  the  tract 
of  country  stretching  southwards  to   the  Oxus 


and  northwards  to  the  desert  of  Kizil  Kum, 
n  present  the  only  i)arts  of  the  territory  which 
have  remaim^d  uninterruptedly  portions  of  the 
original  undivided  state  of  Transf)xania  from  the 
earliest  hi.storical  times.  .  .  .  Bokhara,  the  capi- 
tal from  the  time  of  the  Samanidcs,  and  at  the 
date  of  the  very  earliest  geogniphical  reports 
concerning  Transoxania,  issai(l,  during  its  pros- 
perity, to  have  been  the  largest  city  of  the 
Islamite  world.  .  .  .  Bokhara  was  not,  however, 
merely  a  luxurious  city,  distinguished  by  great 
natural  advantages;  it  was  also  the  princijial 
emporium  for  the  tra<le  between  China  and 
Western  Asia;  in  addition  to  the  vast  ware- 
houses for  silks,  brocades,  and  cotton  stulTs,  for 
the  finest  carpets,'  and  all  kinds  of  gold  and 
silversnuths'  work,  it  boasted  of  a  great  moncy- 
nnirket,  being  in  fact  the  Exchange  of  all  the 
I)opulation  of  Eastern  and  Western  Asia.  .  .  . 
Sogd  .  .  .  comprised  the  mountainous  part  of 
Transoxania  (which  may  lie  described  as  the 
extreme  western  spurs  ot  the  Tliien-Shan).  .  .  . 
The  capital  was  Samarkand,  undoubtedly  the 
.■Nlaraeanda  of  the  Greeks,  which  they  specify  as 
tlie  capital  of  Sogdia.  The  city  Inis,  throughout 
the  history  of  Transoxania  been  tlie  rival  of 
Bokhara.  Before  the  time  of  tlie  Samanidcs, 
Samarkand  was  the  largest  city  iKjyond  the 
Oxus,  and  only  began  to  decline  from  its  former 
importance  when  Ismail  chose  Bokhara  for  his 
own  residence.  Under  the  Khahrczmians  it  is 
said  to  have  raised  itself  again,  and  become 
much  larger  than  its  rival,  ami  under  Timour  to 
have  reached  the  culminating  point  of  its  pros- 
perity." — A.  Vambery,  llint.  of  liokhara,  introd. 

Ai.soin;  J.  Ilutton,  Centnil  Aniit,  ch.  3-3. 

B.  C.  329-327. — Conquest  by  Alexander  the 
Great.     See  AIackdonia:  B.  C.  330-333. 

6th  Century.— Conquest  from  the  White 
Huns  by  the  Turks.    See  Turks:  Otii  Ckn- 

TUKY. 

A.   D.   710.— The   Moslem    Conquest.    See 
Mahometan  CoNtjUEST :  A.  I).  710. 
A.  D.  991-998. — Under  the  Samanides.    See 

Samanides. 

A.  D.  1004-1193. — The  Seldjuk  Turks.  Sec 
TuuKs(TiiB  Sei,djuk8):  a.  D.  1004-1003,  and 
after. 

A.  D.  1209-1220. — Under  the  Khuarezmians. 
Sec  Khuakezm:  13tii  Century. 

A,  D.  1219. — Destruction  of  the  city  by 
Jingis  Khan. — Bokhara  was  taken  by  Jingis 
Khan  in  the  summer  of  1319.  "It  was  then  a 
very  large?  and  magnificent  city.  Its  name, 
according  to  the  historian  Alai-ud-din,  is  de- 
rived from  Bokliar,  which  in  the  Magian  lan- 
guage means  the  Centre  of  Science."  File  city 
surrendered  after  a  siege  of  a  few  days.  Jingis 
Khan,  on  entering  the  town,  saw  the  great 
mos(iue  and  asked  if  it  was  the  Sultan's  palace. 
"Being  told  it  was  the  house  of  Ottnl,  he  dis- 
mounted, climbed  the  steps,  and  said  in  a  loud 
voice  to  his  followers,  'The  hay  is  cut,  give 
your  horses  fodder. '  They  easily  understood  this 
cynical  invitation  to  idunder.  .  .  .  The  inhabit- 
ants were  ordered  to  leave  the  town  in  a  body,  witli 
only  their  clothes,  so  that  it  might  be  more  easily 
pillaged,  after  which  the  spoil  was  divided 
among  the  victors.  '  It  was  a  fearful  day,'  says 
Ibn  al  Ithir;  'one  only  heard  the  sobs  and  weep- 
ing of  men,  women  and  children,  who  were 
separated  forever;  women  were  ravished,  while 
men  died  rather  than  survive  the  dishonour  of 


294 


BOKHARA,  1310. 


BOLOGNA. 


their  wivps  and  diiughtcrs.'  The  Monpola  ended 
l)y  setting  lire  to  nil  the  wooden  portion  of  the 
town,  and  only  the  great  inos(|ue  and  eerlain 
palaces  wliieli  were  built  of  bri('k  remained 
standing."— II.  H.  Howorth,  UUt.  of  the  Mnii- 
gols,  V.  1,  c/i.  3,_"The  nourishing  city  on  the 
Zercfslian  had  heeonie  a  heap  of  rubbish,  but 
tlie  garrison  in  the  citadel,  commanded  by  Kok 
Khan,  continued  to  hold  out  with  a  bravery 
which  deserves  our  admiration.  The  Mongols 
used  every  imaginable  effort  to  reduce  this  last 
refuge  of  the  enemy;  the  Bokhariots  them.selves 
were  forced  on  to  the  scaling-ladders:  but  all  in 
vain,  and  it  was  not  until  the  moat  had  been  liter- 
ally choked  with  corpsesof  men  and  animals  that 
the  stronghold  was  taken  and  its  brave  defenders 
put  to  (leath.  The  peacealde  portion  of  the 
population  was  also  made  to  suffer  for  this  heroic 
resistance.  More  than  30,000  men  were  executed, 
and  the  remainder  were,  with  the  exception  of 
the  very  old  people  among  them,  redviced  to 
slavery,  without  any  distiniition  of  rank  what- 
ever ;  and  thus  the  inhabitants  of  Bokhara,  lately 
so  celebrated  for  their  learning,  their'Iove  of  art, 
and  their  general  refinement,  were  brought 
down  to  a  dead  level  of  misery  and  degradation 
and  scattered  to  all  quarters." — A.  Vambery, 
Hist,  of  Bukhara,  eh.  8. — See  JIonools:  A.  D. 
1153-1237. 

A.  D.  i868.— Subjection  to  Russia.  See 
RnssFA:  A.  D.  1839-1870. 

BOLERIUM.     See  Hki.kuion. 

BOLESLAUS   I.,  King  of  Poland,  A.    D. 

1000-1025 Boleslaus  11.,  King  of  Poland, 

A.  D.  1058-1083 Boleslaus   III.,    Duke   of 

Poland,   A.    D.    1103-1138 Boleslaus    IV., 

Duke  of  Poland,  A.  D.  114G-117;J Boles- 
laus v.,  King  of  Poland,  A.  I).  1227-1279. 

BOLEYN,  Anne. — Marriage,  trial  and  exe- 
cution. See  England:  A.  1).  1527-1534;  and, 
1536-1.143. 

BOLGARI.    See  Buloauia:  OniGiN  op. 

BOLIVAR'S  LIBERATION  OF  THE 
SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES.  See  Co- 
LOMUiAN  States:  A.  D.  1810-1819,  1810-1830; 
and  Peuu:  A.  D.  1820-1820,  1835-1820,  and 
1826-1876. 

BOLIVIA:  The  aboriginal  inhabitants. — 
"With  the  Toromonos  tribe,  who  occupied,  as 
Orbigny  tells  us,  a  district  of  from  11°  to  13°  of 
South  lat'tude,  it  was  an  established  rule  for 
every  man  to  build  his  house,  with  liis  own 
hands  alone,  and  if  he  did  otherwise  he  lost  the 
title  of  man,  as  well  as  became  the  laughing- 
stock of  his  fellow  citizens.  The  only  clothing 
worn  by  these  people  was  a  turban  on  the  head, 
composed  of  feathers,  the  rest  of  the  body  being 
perfectly  naked ;  whilst  the  women  used  a  gar- 
ment, manufactured  out  of  cotton,  that  only 
partially  covered  their  persons.  .  .  .  The  orna- 
ment in  which  the  soft  sex  took  most  pride  was 
a  necklace  made  of  the  teeth  of  enemies,  killed 
by  tlieir  husbands  in  battle.  Amongst  the  Moxos 
polygamy  was  tolerated,  and  woman's  infidelity 
severely  pimished.  .  .  .  The  Moxos  cultivated 
the  land  with  ploughs,  and  other  implements  of 
agriculture,  made  of  wood.  They  fabricated 
canoes,  fought  and  fished  with  bows  and  arrows. 
In  the  provmce  of  the  Moxos  lived  also  a  tribe 
called  Itonomos,  who,  besides  these  last  named 
instruments  of  war,  used  two-edged  wooden 
scimitars.     The  immorality  of  these  Itonomos 


was  something  like  that  of  the  Mormons  of  our 
tim(^  .  .  .  The  (,'anichanas,  who  lived  near 
.Maehupo,  between  13="  and  14°  S.  lat.  and  07°  to 
08°  W.  long.,  are  reputed  by  M.  d'Orbigny  as 
the  bravest  of  the  Bolivian  Indians.  They  are 
accredited  to  have  been  cannibals.  .  .  .  Where 
Jujuy  —  the  mo.st  northern  ])rovinco  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  —  ioins  Bolivia,  we  have  in 
the  pres<>n  day  the  Alatagmiya  and  Cambas 
Indians.  \  'c  latter  are  represented  to  me  by  Dr. 
JIatien/,0,  '  Ito.sario,  as  intelligent  and  devoted 
to  agrieultiiral  labor.  They  hiive  fixed  tdlderias 
[villages],  the  houses  of  whiCh  are  clean  and  neat. 
Each  town  is  commanded  by  a  capitan,  whose 
sovereignty  is  liereditary  to  his  male  descendants 
only." — T.  J.  Hutchinson,  The  I'arana,  ch.  4. — 
Se(;,  also,  Amkuican  Abouigines:  Anuesians, 
and  Tui>i. 

In  the  Empire  of  the  Incas.  See  Pehi;:  Tife 
EMi'iuii  OK  THE  Incas. 

A.  D.  1559. — Establishment  of  the  Audiencia 
ofCharcas.     Sec  Audikncias. 

A.  D.  1825-1826.— The  independent  Repub- 
lic founded  and  named  in  Upper  Peru.— The 
Bolivian  Constitution. — "  Ui)()er  I'eru  [or  Las 
Chareas,  as  it  was  more  specifically  known]  .  .  . 
had  been  detached  [in  1776  —  see  Akoentinb 
UiuTiii.ic:  A.  1).  l.'580-1777]  from  the  govern- 
ment of  Lima  ...  to  form  part  of  the  newly 
constituted  Vicoroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The 
fifteen  years'  struggle  for  independence  was  here 
a  sanguinary  one  indeeil.  There  is  scarcely  a. 
town,  village,  or  noticeable  place  in  this  vast 
region  where  bl(Mxi  is  not  recorded  to  have  been 
shed  in  this  terrible  struggle.  .  .  .  T'lc  Spanish 
army  afterwards  succumbed  to  that  of  the  inde- 
pendents of  Peru ;  and  thus  Upper  Peru  gained, 
not  indeed  liberty,  but  independence  tinder  the 
rule  of  a  republican  aimy.  This  vast  province 
was  incaiiable  of  governing  itself.  The  Argen- 
tines laid  claim  to  it  as  a  province  of  the  con- 
federation ;  but  they  already  exercised  too  great 
a  preponderance  in  the  South  American  system, 
and  the  Colombian  generals  obtained  the  relin- 
(luishnient  of  these  pretensions.  Sucre  [Bolivar's 
Chief  of  Staff]  assu-ned  the  government  until  a 
congress  could  be  assembled:  and  under  the 
iutiuence  of  the  Colombian  soldiery  Upper  Peru 
was  erected  into  au  independent  state  by  the 
name  of  Hie  Republic  of  Bolivar,  or  Bolivia." — 
E.  J.  Pa^  ne,  lliKt.  of  EavojKaii  Colonies,  p.  290. 
—  For  an  account  of  the  Peruvian  war  of  liber- 
ation—  the  results  of  wliieh  embraced  Upper 
Peru  —  and  the  adoption  of  the  Bolivian  consti- 
tution by  the  latter,  see  Peuu:  A.  D.  1820- 
1830,  anil  1825-1830. 

A.  D.  1834-1839. — Confederation  with  Peru. 
—War  with  Chile.  See  Peru:  A.  D.  1826- 
1870. 

A.  D.  1879-1884.— The  war  with  Chile.  See 
Chile:  A.  D.  1833-1884. 

BOLIVIAN  ^CONSTITUTION,  or  Code 
Bolivar.  See  Peuu:  A.  D.  1825-1826,  and  1826- 
1876. 

BOLOGNA :  Origin  of  the  city.—  On  the 
final  conquest  of  the  Boian  Gauls  in  5forth  Italy, 
a  new  lioman  colony  and  frontier  fortress  were 
established,  B.  C.  189,  called  first  Felsina  and 
then  Bononia,  which  is  the  Bologna  of  motlern 
Italy.— H.  G.  Liddell,  Hist,  of  Home,  bk.  5,  eh. 
41. 

Origin  of  the  name.    See  Boians. 


295 


nOLOONA. 


noOK  OF  THE  DEAD. 


B.  C.  43. — Conference  of  the  Triumvirs. 
Sec  ItosiK;   15.  ('.  U-ii. 

nth  Century.— School  of  Law.— The  Glos- 
sators.— ".Just  at  this  time  [piuI  of  tlu;  lltli  ccn- 
ttiry]  w(!  lliulii  fiiinous  scliool  of  liiw  pstjiblislied 
in  Bologna,  (viid  frcfiucMtod  bv  multitudes  of 
piipilB,  not  only  from  ail  parts  of  Italy,  but  from 
Oermany,  Franee,  and  oilier  coiintrie.s.  Tlio  basis 
of  all  its  instructions  was  tlie  Corpus  .IvirisCivilis. 
Its  teaehers,  who  ronstituto  11  scries  of  dis- 
tiiiK'iislicd  jurists  extending  over  a  eeiitury  and 
a  half,  flevoted  themselves  to  the  work  of  ex- 
pounding the  text  and  elucidating  the  prineiples 
of  the  Cortius  .luris,  and  especially  the  Digest. 
From  tlie  form  in  which  tliey  recorded  and 
handed  down  tlu!  results  of  their  studies,  tlicy 
have  obtaiited  the  name  of  glossators,  (^n  their 
copies  of  the  Corpus  .Juris  tliey  were  accustonicd 
to  write  glosses.  1.  e.,  brief  marginal  explanations 
and  remarlis.  These  glosses  came  at  length  to 
b«!  an  immense  literature." — .1.  lladley,  Iiitrml. 
to  Itniwm  Law,  Urt.  3. 

iith-i2th  Centuries.— Rise  and  Acquisition 
of  Republican  Independence.  See  Italy:  A.  D. 
1050-1  l.W. 

A.  D.  1275. — Sovereignty  of  the  Pope  con- 
firmed by  Rodolphof  Hapsburg.  SecOKUMANv: 
A.  I).  1373-1308. 

A.  D.  1350-1447.- Under  the  tyranny  of  the 
Visconti.  See  .N1ii,\.n:  A.  D.  1377-1447;  and 
Floukncr:  a.  D.  i:i90-1403. 

A.  D.  1512. — Acquisition  by  Pope  Julius  II. 
Sec  Italy:  A.  1).   15 10-1,-)  11!. 

A.  D.  1796-1707. — Joined  to  the  Cispadane 
Republic.  See  PiiancI':;  A.  D.  1790  (Apuii, — 
OcTouKU);  1790-1797  (Octoheh- .Vpuii,). 

A.  D.  1831. — Revolt  suppressed  by  Austrian 
troops.    See  Italy;  A.  D.  1830-1833. 

BOMBAY.— Cession  to  England  (1661).  See 
India:  A.  D.  1600-17')3 

BON  HOIVIME  RICHARD  AND  THE 
SER APIS.— Sea-fight.  See  Unitki)  Statks 
OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  1779  (SurTKMiiEU). 

BONAPARTE,  Jerome,  and  his  Kingdom 
of  Westphalia.  See  Oicuma .v:  A.  D.  1807 
(.luNK— .July);  1813  (SKPTE.MnEn — October), 
and  {()cTom:n— Drx'EMHEU). 

BONAPARTE,  Joseph,  King  of  Naples  and 
Xing  of  Spain.  See  Fiiance  :  A.  D.  180r)-180« 
(Decembeii— 'jEPTE.MnEii);  Spain:  A.  D.  1808 
(May— Septembeii),  to  1812-1814. 

BONAPARTE,  Louis,  and  the  Kingdom  of 
Holland.     See  Xetiieulands:  A.  D.  1800-1810. 

BONAPARTE,  Louis  Napoleon.  Sec  Napo- 
leon III. 

BONAPARTE,  NAPOLEON,  The  career 
of.  See  Fkance:  A.  D.  1703  (July — December), 
and  179o  (October— December),  to  1815. 

BONAPARTE  FAMILY,  The  origin  of  the. 
— "About  four  miles  to  the  south  of  Florence,  on 
an  eminence  overlooking  tlie  valley  of  the  little 
river  Qrevc,  ?n'l  tl>"3  tlien  bridle-path  leading 
towards  Siena  and  Rome,  there  was  a  very  strong 
castle,  called  Monte  Uoni,  Mons  Boni,  as  it  is 
styled  in  sundry  deeds  of  gift  executed  within 
it,s  walls  in  the  years  1041,  1085,  and  1100,  by 
whicli  its  lords  made  their  peace  with  the  Church, 
in  the  usual  way,  by  sharing  with  churchmen 
the  proceeds  of  a  course  of  life  such  as  needed  a 
whitewashing  stroke  of  the  Church's  olUce.  A 
strong  castle  on  the  road  to  F  -me,  and  just  at  a 
point  where  the  path  ascended  a  steep  hill,  offered 


advantages  and  temptations  not  to  he  resisted; 
and  the  lords  of  M<)nt(^  lloni  'took  toll'  of  pas.sen- 
gcrs.  But,  as  Villaiii  very  naively  says,  'tho 
Florentines  could  not  endure  that  another  should 
do  what  they  abstained  from  doing. '  So  as  usual 
they  sallied  forth  from  their  gates  oik^  line  morn- 
ing, attacked  the  strong  fortress,  and  rii/.ed  it  to 
the  ground.  All  this  was,  as  we  have  seen,  an 
ordinary  occurrence  enough  in  the  history  of  young 
Florence.  This  was  a  way  the  burghers  had. 
They  were  clearing  their  land  of  these  vestiges 
of  feudalism,  miicli  as  an  American  settler  clears 
his  ground  of  the  stumps  remaining  from  tho 
primeval  forest.  But  a  special  interest  will  bo 
admitted  to  belong  to  this  instance  of  the  clearing 
process,  when  we  discover  who  those  noble  old 
freebooters  of  Monle  Bcmi  were.  The  lords  of 
Mouto  Boni  were  called,  by  an  easy,  but  it  might 
be  fancied  ironical,  derivation  from  the  name  of 
their  castle  '  Buoni  del  Monte,' — the  Good  Men 
of  the  Mountain ; —  and  by  abbreviation,  Buondcl- 
monto,  a  name  which  we  shall  hear  more  of  anon 
in  tho  pages  of  this  history.  But  when,  after  tho 
destruction  of  their  fortress,  these  Good  Men  of 
tho  Mountain  became  Florentine  citizens,  they 
increa.sed  and  multiplied;  and  in  tho  next  genera- 
tion, dividing  off  into  two  brunches,  they  as- 
sumed, as  was  the  frequent  practice,  two  distinc- 
tive appellations;  the  one  branch  remaining 
Buondelmonti,  and  the  other  calling  themselves 
Buonaparte.  This  latter  branch  shortly  after- 
wards again  divided  itself  into  two,  of  which  ono 
settled  at  San  Miniato  al  Tedesco,  and  became 
extinct  there  in  the  person  of  an  aged  canon 
of  the  name  within  this  century;  while  tho 
other  first  established  itself  at  Sarzana,  a  littlo 
town  on  the  coast  about  half-way  between 
Florence  and  Genoa,  and  from  thence  at  a  later 
period  transplanted  itself  to  Corsica ;  and  has  since 
been  heard  of." — T.  A.  Trollope,  Hint,  oftlw  Com- 
monirn  ilt/i  of  Florence,  11  1,  ;)/).  50-51. 

BONIFACE,  ST.,  The  Mission  of.  See 
CiiuisTL\NrTv:  A.  1).  400-800. 

BONIFACE,  COUNT,  and  the  Vandals. 
See  Vandals:  A.  D.  439-439. 

BONIFACE  III.,  Pope,  A.  D.  007,  Februaky 
to  Nove.mber.  . . .  Boniface  IV.,  Pope,  A.  1>. 

608-015 Boniface  V.,  Pope,  A.  I).  'J19-635. 

Boniface  VI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  890 Boniface 

VII.,   Pope,  A.    I).   974,    984-985 Boniface 

VIII.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1294-1303 Boniface  IX., 

Pone,  A.  D.  1389-1404. 

BONN,  Siege  and  Capture  by  Marlborough 
(1703).     See  Xetiieklands:  A.  1).  1703-1704. 

BONNET  ROUGE,  The.  See  Liberty 
Cap. 

BONONIA  IN  GAUL.    See  Gesoriacum. 

BONONIA  IN  ITALY.    See  Bologna. 

200K  OF  THE  DEAD.— "A  collection 
(ancient  Egyptian)  of  prayers  and  exorcisms  com- 
posed at  various  periods  for  the  benctit  of  the 
pilgrim  soul  in  his  journey  through  Ameuti  (tho 
Egyptian  Hades) ;  and  it  was  in  order  to  provide 
him  witli  a  safe  conduct  through  tho  perils  of 
that  terrible  valley  that  copies  of  this  work,  or 
portions  of  it,  were  buried  with  tho  mummy  in 
his  tomb.  Of  the  many  thousands  of  papyri 
which  have  been  preserved  to  this  day,  it  is  per- 
haps scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  one  half,  if 
not  two  thirds,  are  copies  more  or  less  complete 
of  the  Book  of  the  Dead." — A.  B.  Edwards, 
Academy,  Sept.  10,  1887.  M.  Naville  published 
in   1887  a  collatioa  of  tho  numerous  differing 


296 


BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD. 


noROUOII. 


texts  of  tlic  Hook  (  f  tlm  Dciid,  on  tlic  propnrullon 
of  wliicli  lie  had  been  enpiijcMl  for  ten  V'lirs. 

BOONE,  Daniel,  and  the  settlement  of 
Kentucky.  Sec  Kentucky:  A.  D.  1705-1778, 
mill  1775-1;hI. 

BOONVILLE,  Battle  of.  Sco  MiBsoiiiti: 
A.  I).  ISC.l  (Kkiiiuaiiy — Iri.Y). 

BOONSBORO,  or  South  Mountain,  Battle 
of.  .Sf(.  I'mti:!)  Htaths  kk  Am.:  A.  1).  IHO'i 
(.Ski'tkmdku:  Makyi.am)). 

BOOTH,  John  Wilkes.— Assassination  of 
President  Lincoln.  Sec  I'mtko  Statics  oi' 
Am.:  a.  1),  1H(1.-)  (AiMiii.  14tii). 

BOR-RUSSIA.   SlcPiu-ksia:  TiieObiotnai, 

Cot'.NTltY  AM)  IT.sNAME. 

BORDARII.      See    Slaveuv,    Medieval: 

En(ii.ani):  iilso  Manoiis. 

BORDEAUX  :  Origin.     Sue  Hiudioala. 

A.  D.  732.— Stormed  and  sacked  by  the 
Moslems.  See  Mahometan  Conquest:  A.  D. 
71.-5-732. 

A.  D.  1650.— Revolt  of  the  Frondeurs.— 
Siege  of  the  city.— Treaty  of  Peace.  Seo 
Fkance:  a.  I).  l(i.j()-10.-)l. 

A.  D.  1652-1653.— The  last  phase  of  the 
Fronde.— Rebellion  of  the  Society  of  the 
Ormie. — Cromwell's  help  invoked. — Siege 
and  submission  of  the  city. — "  Tlio  peace  of 
Bordeaux  in  October,  10.50,  had  left  the  city  tran- 
quil, but  not  intimidated,  and  its  citizens  were 
neither  attached  to  tlie  government  nor  nfniid  of 
it._  .  .  .  There,  as  at  Paris,  a  violent  element  ob- 
tained control,  ready  for  disturbance,  and  not 
alarmed  by  the  possibility  of  radical  changes  in  the 
governtnoiit.  .  .  .  During  the  popular  emotion 
against  Epernon,  meetings,  mostly  of  the  lower 
classes,  had  been  held  under  some  great  elms 
near  the  city,  and  from  this  circumstance  a  party 
had  taken  the  name  of  the  Ormee.  It  now  as- 
sumed a  more  definite  form,  and  began  to  pro- 
test against  the  slackness  of  the  otHcers  and 
magistrates,  who  it  was  charged,  were  ready  to 
abandon  the  popular  cause.  The  Parliament 
was  itself  divided  into  two  factions,"  known  as 
the  Little  Fronde  and  the  Great  Fronde  —  the 
latter  of  which  was  devoted  to  the  Prince  of 
Conde.  "The  Ormee  was  a  society  composed 
originally  of  a  small  number  of  active  and  vio- 
lent men,  and  in  its  organization  not  wholly 
unlike  the  society  of  the  Jacobins.  .  .  .  Troubles 
increased  between  this  society  and  the  parlia- 
ment, and  on  June  3d  [1052]  it  held  a  meeting 
attended  by  3,000  armed  men,  and  decided  on 
the  e.xilo  of  fourteen  of  the  judges  who  were  re- 
garded as  traitors  to  tli"  cause.  .  .  .  The  offend- 
ing judges  were  obliged  to  leave  the  city,  but  in 
a  few  days  the  Parliament  again  obtained  con- 
trol, and  the  exiles  were  recalled  and  received 
with  great  solemnity.  But  the  Ormee  was  not 
thus  to  be  overcome.  On  June  25th  these  con- 
tests resulted  in  0  battle  in  the  streets,  in  which 
the  society  had  the  advantage.  Many  of  the 
judges  abandoned  the  conflict  and  left  the  city. 
The  Onneo  established  itself  at  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  and  succeeded  in  controlling  for  the  most 
part  the  affairs  of  the  city.  .  .  .  Conde  decided 
that  he  would  recognize  the  Ormee  as  a  political 
organization,  and  strengthen  it  by  his  approval. 
.  .  .  The  restoration  of  the  King's  authority  at 
Paris  [see  Fka>-ce:  A.  D.  1651-1 653J  strength- 
ened the  party  at  Bordeaux  that  desired  peace, 
and  increased  the  violence  of  the  party  that  was 
opposed  to  it.     Plots  were  laid  for  the   over- 


throw of  the  local  autborllles,  but  they  were 
wholly  unsuccessful.  .  .  .  The  desire  of  the 
lieople,  the  nobility,  and  the  clergy  was  for 
peace.  Only  by  sj^'cdy  aid  from  Spain  could 
the  city  be  kept  in  hostility  to  its  King  and  in 
allegiance  to  Conde.  Spun  was  asked  to  send 
asHistanc(^  and  prevent  this  important  loss,  but 
tlie  Spanish  delayed  any  vigorous  action,  partly 
from  remissness  and  pu'lly  from  lack  of  troops 
and  money.  The  mo.st  ■  1  he  province  of  Uuienno 
was  gmdiially  lost  to  th.  insurgents.  .  .  .  Condo 
.seems  to  have  left  Guienno  to  itself.  ...  In 
Ibis  condition,  the  people  of  Bordeaux  turned  to 
Cromwell  as  the  only  person  who  had  the  iMiwer 
to  help  them.  .  .  .  The  envoys  were  received 
by  Cromwell,  but  be  took  no  steps  to  send  aid  to 
Bordeaux.  Hopes  were  held  out  which  en- 
couraged the  city  and  alarmed  the  French  minis- 
ter, but  no  ships  were  sent."  Meantime,  the 
King's  for<:es  in  Guienne  advanced  with  steady 
success,  and  early  in  the  summer  of  1053  they 
began  the  si(^ge  of  the  city.  The  peace  party 
within,  thus  encouraged,  soon  overthrew  the 
Ormee,  and  arranged  terms  for  the  8ubniis.sion 
of  the  town.  '"The  government  proceeded  at 
once  to  erect  the  castles  of  Trompette  and  lid, 
and  they  were  made  i)owerful  enough  to  check 
any  future  turbuli^nce." — J.  B.  Perkins,  Frcnce 
under  Mazarin,  eh.  15  (r.  2). 

A.  D.  1791. — The  Girondists  in  the  National 
Legislative  Assembly.  See  France:  A.  D. 
1791  (Octobeh). 

A.  D.  1793. — Revolt  against  the  Revolu- 
tionary Government  of  Paris. — Fearful  ven- 
geance of  the  Terrorists.  See  Fuance  ;  A.  D. 
1793(June);  (July— Decembeu);  and  1703-1794 

(OCTOIIEII — APUIL). 

A.  D.  1814.— Occupied  by  the  English.  See 
Spain:  A.  D.  1812-1814. 


BORDER-RUFFIANS.  See  Kansas  :  A.  D. 
1854-1859. 

BORGHETTO,  Battle  of.  See  Fkance;  A.D. 
1700  (AruiJ. — Octobek). 

BORGIAS,  The.  See  Papacy:  A.  D.  1471- 
1513. 

BORIS,  Czar  of  Russia.    A.  D.  1598-1005. 

BORLA,  The.     See  Peku;  A.  D.  1533-1548. 

BORNHOVED,  Battle  of  (1227).  See 
Scandinavi.vn  St.\tes:  A.  D.  1018-1397. 

BORNY,  OR  COLOMBEY-NOUIL!,Y, 
Battle  of.     See  Fr.vxce:    A.  D.   1870  (July— 

AUOUST). 

BORODINO,  OR  THE  MOSKOWA, 
Battle  of.  See  Russia:  A.  D.  1813  (June— 
Septembeu). 

BOROUGH.— CITY— TOWN— VILLE. 

— "'file  butJi  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  was 
simply  a  more  strictly  organized  form  of  the 
township.  It  was  probably  in  a  more  defensible 
position;  had  a  ditch  and  mound  instead  of  the 
quickset  hedge  or  '  tun  '  from  which  the  town- 
ship took  its  name ;  and  as  the  '  tun '  originally 
was  \he  fenced  homestead  of  the  cultivator,  the 
burli  was  the  fortified  house  and  court-yard  of 
the  7-.iigbty  man  —  the  king,  the  magistrate,  or 
the  noble. '^'—W.  Stubbs,  Omst.  IIM.  of  Emj., 
eh.  5. — "I  must  freely  confess  that  I  do  not 
know  what  difference,  e:;cept  a  difference  in  rank, 
there  is  in  England  between  a  city  and  a 
liorough.  ...  A  city  does  not  seem  to  have  any 
rights  or  powers  as  a  city  wliich  are  not  equally 
shared  by  every  other  corporate  town.    The  only 


297 


HOItOUGH. 


B08PII0nU8. 


corpomte  towns  which  have  any  Hpt-olal  powers 
hIhivc  itthcrs  arc  lliosc  whicli  ari!  couiitit'st  of 
thciiiHclvi'M;  and  a'l  citicH  aru  not  coiintii'.s  of 
tlicniiU'lvt'H,  while  Honu*  townx  which  aru  not 
cilicM  aro.  The  city  in  KnKland  is  not  ho  eiutily 
duitncd  an  tlie  city  in  tiio  United  StatcH.  Tlier(\ 
every  corponit(!  town  is  a  vity.  Tlds  nialicH  ii 
Kn-nt  many  citii'H,  and  it  ieads  to  an  use  of  tin; 
word  city  in  common  talit  wiiicii  Keems  a  little 
BtmnKc  in  iSritisli  ears.  In  Kn^land,  even  in 
BpeaiiinK  of  a  real  city,  tin!  word  city  is  seldom 
used,  except  in  languaj^o  a  little  formal  or 
rliotorical ;  in  Amerh'a  it  is  used  wluMiever  a 
city  is  mentioned.  Hut  the  American  rule  has 
tlie  advanlaite  of  lieinj;  perfectly  clear  and  avoid- 
Inj?  all  doulil.  And  it  ai;rees  very  well  with  tlie 
origin  of  the  word:  a  corpoiate  town  is  a 
'  civit4is,' a  commonwealth;  any  lesser  collection 
of  men  hanily  is  a  conunonwealth,  or  is  sucli 
only  in  a  nuich  less  perfect  (Uigrce.  Tills  brings 
us  to  the  historical  use  of  tlie  word.  It  is  clear 
at  starting  tliat  the  word  is  not  Knglisli.  It  has 
no  Uld-Knglish  equivalent;  burh,  burgli, 
borough,  in  its  various  spc^Uings  and  various 
shades  of  meaning,  is  our  native  word  for  urbes 
of  every  kind  from  Rome  downward.  It  is 
curious  that  this  word  should  in  ordinary 
speech  have  been  so  largely  displaced  by  the 
vaguer  word  tun,  town,  which  means  an  enclos- 
ure of  any  kind,  and  in  some  English  dialects  is 
still  applied  to  a  single  house  and  its  surround- 
ings. ...  In  common  talk  we  use  the  word 
borough  hardly  oftener  than  the  word  city ;  when 
the  word  is  used,  it  has  commonly  some  direct 
reference  to  the  parliaiiK.'ntary  or  munici|)al 
characters  of  the  town.  Many  people,  I  suspect, 
would  define  a  borough  as  a  town  which  sends 
members  to  Parliament,  and  such  a  definition, 
though  still  not  accurate,  has,  by  late  changes, 
been  brought  nearer  to  accuracy  than  it  used  to 
be.  City  and  borough,  then,  are  both  rather  for- 
mal words;  town  is  the  word  which  comes  most 
naturally  to  the  lips  when  there  is  no  special 
reason  for  using  one  of  the  others.  Of  the  two 
formal  words,  borough  is  English ;  city  is  Latin ; 
it  comes  to  us  from  Gaul  and  Italy  by  some  road 
or  other.  It  is  in  Domesday  that  we  tlnd,  by 
no  means  its  first  use  in  England,  but  its  first 
clearly  formal  use,  tlic  fli-st  use  of  it  to  dis- 
tinguish a  certain  class  of  towns,  to  mark  those 
towns  whicli  are  'civitates'  as  well  as  burgi 
from  tliose  which  arc  burgi  only.  Now  in 
Gaul  the  '  civitas '  in  fonnal  Itonian  language 
was  the  tribe  nnd  its  territory,  the  whole  land 
of  the  Arverni,  Parisii,  or  anyOther  tribe.  In  a 
secondary  sense  it  meant  the  head  town  of  the 
tribe.  .  .  .  When  Cliristianity  was  established, 
the  'civitas'  in  the  wider  sense  marked  the 
extent  of  tiio  bishop's  diocese;  the  'civitas' 
in  the  narrower  sense  became  tlie  immediate 
seat  of  his  bisliopstool.  Thus  we  cannot 
say  that  in  Gaul  a  town  became  a  city 
because  it  was  a  bisliop's  see ;  but  we  may  say 
that  a  certain  class  of  towns  became  bishops' 
sees  because  tlicy  were  already  cities.  But  in 
modern  French  use  no  distinction  is  made 
between  these  ancient  capitals  which  became 
bishoprics  and  other  towns  of  less  temijoral  and 
spiritual  honour.  The  seat  of  the  bishopric,  the 
head  of  the  ancient  province,  tlie  head  of  the 
modern  department,  the  smaller  town  whicli  has 
never  ri-seu  to  any  of  tlui^c  dignities,  are  all 
alike  villu.   Lyons,  liheims,  I'aris,  are  in  no  way 


distinguished  from  meaner  places.  The  word 
citC  is  common  laiough,  but  it  has  a  purely  Iim'uI 
meaning.  It  often  distinguishes  the  old  part  of 
a  town,  the  ancient  'civitas,'  from  later  add!- 
llon.s.  In  Italy  on  the  other  hand,  citti\  is  both 
the  familiar  and  tiii^  formal  muw.  for  towns 
great  and  small.  It  is  used  Just  like  ville  ia 
French." — K.  A.  Freeman,  Vtty  mid  liuwiiyh 
(}f(icmill<iii'ii  M,!)/..  Mail.  IMHO). 

BOROUGH-ENGLISH.     See  Fkudai,  Tkn- 

I'UKS. 

BOROUGHBRIDGE,  Battle  of.^— Fought 
March  16,  VM'i,  in  tlie  civil  war  which  arose  in 
England  during  tlie  reign  of  Edward  II  on  ac- 
count of  the  King's  favorites,  the  Despenscrs. 
Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster,  the  leader  of  opposi- 
tion, was  defeated,  captured,  summarily  tried 
and  beheaded. 

BOROUGHS,  Rotten  and  Pocket.  See 
Enoi.and:  a.  I).  IWIO,  and  18;t()-t8;K. 

BORROMEAN,  OR  GOLDEN  LEAGUE, 
The.  See  SwiTZKUi.ANi):  A.  I).  ir)79-10;iO. 

BORYSTHENES,  The.— The  name  which 
the  Greeks  gave  anciently  to  the  river  now 
known  as  the  Dnieper.  It  also  became  the 
name  of  a  town  near  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
which  was  originally  called  Olbia', — a  very  early 
trading  settlement  of  the  Milesians. 

BOSCOBEL,  The  Royal  Oak  of.  See  Scot- 
land: A.  I).  1051. 

BOSNIA.  See  Balkan-  and  Danudian 
Statks. 

BOSPHORUS,  OR  BOSPORUS,  The.— 
The  word  means  literally  an  'ox-ford,'  and  the 
Greeks  derive<l  it  as  a  name  from  tliu  legend  of 
lo,  who,  driv(m  by  a  gad-fly,  swam  across  the 
straits  from  Europe  into  Asia.  Tliey  gave  the 
name  particularly  to  tliat  channel,  on  which 
Constantinople  lies,  but  applied  it  also  to  other 
similar  straits,  such  as  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus, 
opening  the  Sea  of  Azov. 

The  city  and  kingdom. — "Uespectiug  Bos- 
porus, or  I'antikapiciini  (for  botli  names  denote 
tlie  same  city,  tliough  tlie  former  name  often 
comprehends  the  whole  annexed  domini(m) 
founded  by  Alilesian  settlers  ou  the  European 
side  of  the  Kimmerian  Bosporus  (near  ICertsch) 
wo  first  hear,  about  the  pericwl  when  Xer.xes 
was  repuLsed  from  Greece  (480-479  B.  C.)  It 
was  the  centre  of  a  dominion  including  Pliana- 
goria,  Kepi,  IIermonas.sa,  and  otlier  Greek  cities 
on  the  Asiatic  side  of  tlio  strait;  and  it  is  said  ti» 
have  been  governed  by  what  seems  to  have  been 
an  oligarchy  —  called  the  Archieanaktidie  —  for 
forty!  wo  years  (480-438  B.  C.)  After  them  we 
have  u  scries  of  princes  standing  out  individu- 
ally bv  name,  and  succeeding  each  other  in  the 
same  family,  [438-284  B.  C.].  .  .  .  During  the 
reigns  of  these  princes,  a  connexion  of  some 
intimacy  subsisteel  between  Athens  and  Bosporus ; 
a  connexion  not  political,  since  tlie  Bosporanic 
princes  had  little  interest  in  tlie  contentions  about 
llellenic  lugemony  —  but  of  private  intercourse, 
commercial  exchange  lind  reciprocal  good  olllces. 
The  eastern  corner  of  the  Tauric  Chersonesus, 
between  Pantikapoeum  and  Theodosia,  was  well 
suited  for  the  production  of  corn;  while  plenty 
of  fish,  as  well  as  salt,  was  to  be  had  in  or  near 
tlie  Palus  Mieotis.  Corn,  salted  tisli  and  meat, 
hides  and  barbaric  slaves  in  considerable  num- 
bers, were  in  demand  among  all  Greeks  round 
the  ^gean,  and  not  least  at  Athens,  where 
Scythian  slaves  were  numerous;  while  oil  and 


298 


IJOHPIKHIUS. 


nOSTOX.   1680. 


See  Q0TII8,   Ac- 

by  the  Turks. — 

FA.  D.  50,5-574]  tlin 
hud  bei'ii  citpturcil 


wliic,  (iml  othor  prodiictH  of  more  southprn 
n'KioiiH.  wi'H!  lU'ci^ptiibli'  hi  llosporiiH  and  the 
other  Poiitli-  portH.  This  iiiiporliiiit  trullli' 
HcriiiH  t»  hiivi'  Ik'CII  iniiitily  "iirricd  on  in  Mliips 
and  hy  capital  lu'lon^in^  Atlicns  and  otlicr 
/KKcaii  niaritinic  townH  and  must  havo  Ih'cii 
Kri'ntiy  under  tlii'  prolcctiDi)  anil  rcjridation  of 
till'  Athenians,  ho  lon^  as  tlieir  luaritiine  empire 
8ill)sisled.  Knterprisiiij?  citizens  of  Athens  went 
to  Hosporus  (as  to  Tlirace  and  tlie  Tlinician 
C'liersonesus),  to  pusli  tiieir  fortunes.  .  .  .  We 
have  no  means  of  followiiuf  [tlie  fortunes  of  the 
Kosporanie  princes]  in  detail-,  l)Ut  we  know  tliat, 
al)out  II  century  H.  ('.,  tlie  tlicii  reigninjf  prince, 
I'arisades  IV.  found  himself  so  pressed  and 
Buuee/.ed  hy  tlie  Scythians,  that  he  wa.s  forced 
{Ukv  Oihia  and  tlie  I'entapolis)  to  forego  Ills 
Independence,  and  to  call  in,  as  auxiliary  or 
muster,  tlio  formidablt!  .Mithridales  Kupator  of 
Pontiis;  from  whom  a  new  dynasty  of  Rospor- 
nnlc  kings  began  —  subject,  Iiowever,  after  no 
long  interval,  to  the  dominion  and  interference 
of  I{ome."— O.  Qrotc,  Ilint.  of  (Irci-ee,  pt.  2, 
eh.  08. 

A1.8O  IN:  T.  MomniiM'n,  /fist,  nf  llmiit',  hk.  8, 
eh.  7. — SeeMiTiiitiDATic  Waiis,  and  Ko.mk:  U.  C. 
47-40. 

Acquisition  by  the  Goths. 

QUISITION  (IF  HoSI'lIMIirS. 

A.  D.  565-574.— Capture 
"  During  the  reign  of  .Justin  ' 
city  of  Bosporus,  in  Tauris, 
by  the  Turks,  who  then  occupied  a  considerable 
portion  of  tlie  Tauric  (Jliersonesus.  The  city  of 
Cherson  alone  continued  to  maintain  its  inde- 
pendence in  the  northern  regions  of  the  Black 
Sea." — Q.  Finlttv,  Greece  uiukr  the  Romaiui,  ch. 
4,  sect.  8. — See  I'uuKs;  Sixth  Centuky. 

BOSSISM.— The  "Spoils  System  "In  Ameri- 
can politics  [see  .Spoil  ■,  System]  (levelo|ied  enor- 
mously the  influenc  and  power  of  certain  leaders 
and  managers  of  party  organizations,  in  the 
great  cities  and  some  of  the  states,  who  acquired 
the  names  of  "  Bosses,"  while  the  system  of  poli- 
tics which  they  represented  was  called  "Boss- 
ism."  The  notorious  William  M.  Tweed,  of  the 
New  York  "  Tainmanv  Ring"  [see  New  Youk: 
A.  D.  1803-1871]  scenis  to  have  been  the  Hrst  of 
the  species  to  be  dubbed  "Boss  Tweed"  by  his 
"  heelers,"  or  followers,  and  the  title  passed  from 
him  to  others  of  like  kind. 

BOSTON:  A.  D.  1628-1630.— The  first 
white  inhabitant. — The  founding  and  naming^ 
of  the  city.  See  Mass.vciiusetts:  A.  1).  1022- 
1028,  and  1030. 

A.  D.  1631-1651. — The  Puritan  Theocracy.— 
Troubles  with  Roger  Williams,  Anne  Hutch- 
inson and  the  Presbyterians.  Sen  Massachu- 
setts: A.  n.  1031-1030,  to  1040-1051. 

A.  D.  1656-1661. — The  persecution  of  Qua- 
kers.    See  .Massachusetts:  A.  D.  1050-1001. 

A.  D.  1657-1669.— The  Halfway  Covenant 
and  the  founding  of  the  Old  South  Church.— 
"  In  Massachusetts  after  1050  the  opinion  rapidly 
gained  ground  that  all  bapti.sed  persons  of  up- 
right and  decorous  lives  ought  to  be  considered, 
for  pmctical  purjioses,  as  members  of  the  church, 
and  therefore  entitled  to  the  exercise  of  political 
rights,  even  though  unqualifled  for  participation 
in  the  Lord's  Supper.  Tills  theory  of  church- 
membership,  based  on  what  was  at  that  time 
stigmatized  as  the  Halfway  Covenant,  aroused 
20 


tntonM  opposition.  It  was  the  grpttt  fiiiestlon  of 
the  day.  In  1057  a  couniil  was  held  In  itostoii. 
which  Jipproved  the  |irincipl<'  of  the  Halfway 
Covenant;  and  as  this  decision  was  far  from 
satisfvlng  the  churches,  a  hvikkI  of  all  the  clergy- 
men fn  .Massachusetts  was  lield  live  years  later, 
to  reconsider  the  great  i|Ueslion.  'I  he  dei  Isioii 
of  the  synod  substantially  eonllrnied  the  decision 
of  the  couiK'il,  but  thelis  we.,  some  <lissentlng 
voices.  Koreniost  among  the  dissenters,  who 
wished  to  retain  the  old  theocratic  regime  in  all 
its  strictness,  was  Charles  Cliauncey,  the  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College,  and  ltiercas(!  Alather 
agreed  with  him  at  the  time,  though  he  after- 
ward saw  reason  to  change  his  opinion  and  pub- 
lished two  tracts  in  favour  of  the  Halfway  Cov- 
enant. .Most  bitter  of  all  toward  the  new  theory 
of  church-memlK'rslilp  was,  naturally  enough, 
Mr.  Davenport  of  New  Haven.  Tbis  burning 
(luestion  was  the  source  of  angry  contentions  In 
the  First  Church  of  Boston.  Its  teachiT,  the 
learned  and  melancholy  Norton,  died  in  1003, 
and  four  years  later  th<^  aged  pastor,  .lohn  Wil- 
son, followed  him.  In  clioosing  a  successor  to 
Wilson  th(^  church  decided  to  declare  itself  in  op- 
position to  the  liberal  decision  of  the  syninl,  and 
in  token  thereof  invited  Davenport  to  come  from 
New  Haven  to  take  cliarge  of  it.  Davenport, 
who  was  then  seventy  years  old,  was  disgusted 
at  the  recent  annexation  of  his  colony  to  Connec- 
ticut. He  accepted  the  Invitation  and  came  ti> 
Boston,  against  the  wLslies  of  nearly  half  of  the 
Boston  congregation,  wlio  did  not  like  the  illib- 
eral principle  which  he  represented.  In  little 
more  than  a  year  his  ministry  at  Boston  was 
ended  by  death;  but  the  opposition  to  his  call 
had  already  proceeded  so  far  that  a  secession 
from  the  old  church  had  become  inevitable.  In 
1001)  the  advocates  of  the  Halfway  Covenant  or- 
ganized themselves  into  a  new  society  under  tin? 
title  of  the  '  Third  Church  in  Boston.  A  wooden 
meeting-liou.se  was  built  on  a  lot  which  had  once 
belonged  to  the  hite  governor  Winthrop,  in  what 
was  then  tlie  south  part  of  the  town,  so  that  the 
society  and  its  mec^ting-house  became  known  a.i 
the  South  Church ;  and  after  a  new  church 
founded  in  Summer  Street  in  1717  took  tlie  name 
of  the  New  South,  the  church  of  1000  came  to 
bo  further  distinguished  as  the  Old  South.  As 
this  church  represented  a  liberal  idea  which  was 
growing  in  favour  with  the  people,  it  soon  be- 
came the  most  flourishing  church  in  America. 
After  sixty  years  its  nuiiibers  had  increased  so 
tliat  the  ol(l  lueeting-house  could  not  c<>ntain 
tlicin;  and  in  1739  the  famous  building  which 
still  stands  was  erected  on  the  same  spot, —  u 
building  \vitli  a  grander  history  tliau  any  other 
on  the  American  continent,  unless  it  be  that 
other  plain  brick  building  in  Pliiladclphia  where 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  \vas  adopted 
and  the  Federal  Constitution  framed." — J.  Fiske, 
Tlie  Ikginnings  of  New  Entj.,  ch.  0. 

Also  in  :  H.  M.  Dexter,  The  Con/jregationaliKin, 
of  the  Inxt  300  yean,  led.  0.— B.  B.  AVisncr,  Hint, 
of  the  Old  South  Church,  sermon  1. — W.  Emer- 
son, Hist.  Sketch  of  the  First  Ch.  in  Boston,  sect. 


-King  Philip's  War.    See 
D.    1074-1075;  1075;  1070- 


A.  D.  1674-1678.- 
New  England:  A. 
1078. 

A.  D.  1689.— The  rising  for  William  and 
Mary  and  the  downfall  of  Andros.  Sec  Massa- 
chusetts: A.  D.  1080-1089. 


299 


nOSTOV,   1607. 


BOSTON,   176H. 


A.  D.  1697.— Tbrektened  attack  by  the 
French,  rtrc  ('.\NaUA  (Nkw  Kiianck):  A.  I). 
KHf.'   ItlKT. 

A.  D.  1704. — The  first  newspaper,  Si-r 
riiiNTlNa,  Ac:  A    1).   I7l»l-17',MI 

A.  D.  1740-1743.— The  origin  of  Faneuil 
Hall.     Sci>  KvNKi  II,  IIai.i.. 

A.  D.  1761,— The  queition  of.  the  Writ*  of 
assistance  and  Tames  Otis's  speech.  Hi-i- 
.MA»«\<iiiM-:Trs:  .\.  I).  l7tU. 

A.  D.  1764-1767.— Patriotic  self-denials.— 
Non-importation  ag;reement».  Sec  Cnitki) 
StaiksokAm,  :  A.  I).  I7(ll-I7tl7, 

A.  D.  1765-1767.— The  doings  under  the  Lib- 
erty Tree.     Scr  l.iiir.HTV  'riiKi;. 

A,  D.  1768.  —The  seizure  of  the  sloop  "  Lib- 
erty. "  —  Riotous  patriotism, — "  For  hoiiiu  yi'urs 
tlif'ti'  oIllctTs  [of  th(^  <iistc)iiiH|  liiiil  liccii  rc'sistcd  in 
miikiiiK  sclziiri's  of  iiiiciistomccl  floods,  which 
wero  frciiiicntly  ivsi'iii'd  from  their  iHisscHslon  by 
Intcrcstcil  imilirH,  iind  tliu  dctcrmiimtion  of  the 
coinmissioncrs  of  ciistonts  to  bri'iik  up  thin  prac- 
tice freoucntly  led  to  colli  ms;  hut  110  tluifriuit 
outbrc'iik  occurred  until  tiie  Hclzure  of  .fohii 
Hancock's  Hloop  '  Mberty  '  (.Ii'ie  10,  1708),  liiden 
with  It  ciirgo  of  Madi'ira  wine.  The  olllccr  in 
charge,  refusiiijj;  a  bribe,  was  forclldy  locked  up 
In  the  cabin,  tlic  K''t'"l<''"  P'""'  "f  t''"  TOrgo  was 
removed,  and  the  reinaiiKler  entered  at  the  cus- 
tom-house as  the  whole  cargo.  This  led  to  seiz- 
ure of  the  vessel,  .said  to  have  been  the  first  made 
by  the  commissioners,  and  for  security  she  was 
placed  under  the  guns  of  the  '  Honniey,'  a  man- 
of-war  ill  the  harbor.  For  this  the  revenue  olfl- 
cers  were  roughly  handled  l)y  the  mob.  Their 
boat  was  burned,  their  houses  threatened,  and 
they,  with  their  alarmed  families,  t(M)k  refuge  on 
board  the  '  Uomney,' and  lliially  in  the  Castle. 
The.se  proceeiliiigs  undoubtedly  led  to  the  send- 
ing additional  military  forces  to  Boston  in  Sep- 
tember. Tlie  (leneriil  Court  was  in  session  at 
the  time,  but  noellcctual  proceedings  were  taken 
iigain.st  the  rioters.  l'ul)llc  svinpathy  was  with 
them  in  their  purpo.ses  it  not  In  their  inea.sures. " 
— M.  Chamberlain,  Tho  liewlution  Inijxndinr/ 
(Narratitcand  Critical  Hint,  of  Am.,  v.  6,  c/i.  ij. 

A.  D.  1768.— The  quartering  of  British 
troops. — "Before  news  bad  reached  England  of 
the  late  riot  in  Boston,  two  regiments  from  Hali- 
fax had  been  ordereil  thither.  When  news  of 
that  riot  arrived,  two  additional  regiments  were 
ordered  from  Ireland.  Tlie  arrival  of  an  olHcer, 
sent  by  Cage  from  New  York,  to  provide 
<iuartfrs  for  these  troops,  occasioned  a  town 
nieetiag  in  Boston,  by  which  the  governor  was 
reciuested  to  summon  a  new  General  Court,  which 
he  peremptorily  refused  to  do.  The  meeting 
then  recommended  a  convention  of  delegates 
from  all  the  towns  in  the  province  to  assemble  at 
Boston  in  ten  days;  'in  conse(iuence  of  prevail- 
ing apprehensions  of  a  war  with  France' — such 
was  tile  pretence  —  they  advised  all  persons  not 
already  provided  witli  tire-arms  to  procure  them 
at  (mcc;  they  also  appointed  a  day  of  fasting  and 
prayer,  to  be  ob.served  by  all  the  Congregational 
societies.  Delegates  from  more  than  a  liundred 
towns  met  accordingly   at   the  day  appointed 

{Sept.  23],  chose  Ciishing,  speaker  of  the  late 
louse,  as  their  chairman,  and  petitioned  Bernard 
to  summon  a  General  CJourt.  The  governor  not 
only  refused  tc!*  receive  their  petition,  but  de- 
nounced the  meeting  as  treasonable.  In  view  of 
this  charge,  the  pi-oceediags  were  exceedingly 


caiitioiH    and    mixlemte.       All    pretcnslnns    to 

rdlitical  authority  were  expressly  disclaimed. 
n  the  course  of  a  four  days'  session  a  pelitinn  to 
the  King  was  agreed  to,  and  a  letter  to  llie 
agent,  l*e  llerdt,  of  wliii'h  tlie  chief  burden  was 
to  defend  the  provliit  '  against  the  charge  of  a 
rebellious  spirit  Sueli  was  the  llrsi  of  llioso 
popular  conventions,  (h'slined  within  a  few  yi'irs 
to  assume  the  whole  political  aiilhority  of  lliii 
I'ol'inles.  The  day  after  llii'  adjouminent  llui 
troops  from  Halifax  arrive<l.  There  was  room 
in  the  barracks  at  the  citstle,  but  Gage,  alariiii'd 
at  the  accounts  from  .Massachusetts,  had  sent 
onlers  from  New  York  to  have  the  two  regiments 
i|iiartered  In  th(.'  town.  Tlw.  council  were  called 
upon  to  Ibid  (|uarters,  but.  by  the  verv  terms  of 
the  {Quartering  .\ct,  as  they  alleged,  till  the 
barracks  were  full  there  was  no  necessity  to  pro- 
vide (iiiarters  elsewhere.  Bernard  insisted  that  the 
barrai^ks  hail  been  reserved  forthe  two  regimenta 
expected  from  Ireland,  and  must,  therefore,  Iw 
considered  as  already  full.  The  council  replied, 
that,  even  allowing  that  to  be  the  case,  by  tho 
terms  of  the  act,  the  provision  of  iiiiarleni 
belonged  not  to  them,  hut  to  the  local  magis- 
trates. There  was  a  large  building  in  Boston 
belonging  to  the  province,  known  as  the  '  Manu- 
factory House,'  and  occupied  by  a  number  of 
poor  families.  Bernard  pressed  the  council  to 
advise  that  this  bivlding  be  cleared  and  pre|)ared 
for  tho  rocei)tion  of  the  troops;  but  they  utterly 
refused.  The  governor  then  undertook  to  do  ft 
on  his  own  authority.  The  troops  had  already 
landed,  undi'r  cover  of  the  ships  of  war,  to  thu 
number  of  a  thousand  men.  Some  of  them  ap- 
peared to  demand  an  entrance  into  the  Manu- 
factory House;  but  the  tenants  were  encouraged 
to  keep  jiossession ;  nor  did  the  governor  venture 
to  use  force.  One  of  the  rt^giments  encamped 
on  the  common  ;  for  a  partof  the  other  regiment, 
which  had  no  tents,  the  temporary  use  of  Faneuil 
Hall  was  reluctantly  yielded;  to  the  rest  of  it, 
the  Town  House,  useil  also  as  a  Slate  House,  all 
except  the  council  chamber,  was  thrown  open 
by  the  governor's  oriler.  It  was  Sunday.  Tho 
'Town  House  was  directly  opposite  tho  nieeting- 
hoiise  of  the  First  Church.  Cannon  were  planted 
in  front  of  it;  sentinels  were  stationed  in  the 
streets;  the  inhabitants  were  challenged  as  they 
passed.  The  devout  wero  greatly  aggravated 
and  annoyed  by  the  beating  of  drums  and  tho 
marching  of  tlie  troops.  Presently  Gage  camo 
t(  yoston  to  urge  the  provision  of  quarters. 
Tile  council  directed  Ills  attention  to  the  terms  of 
the  act,  and  referred  him  to  the  selectmc'ii.  As 
the  act  spoke  only  of  justices  of  the  peace,  tho 
selectmen  declined  to  take  any  steps  in  tho 
matter.  Bernard  then  constituted,  wliat  ho  called 
a  Board  of  .lusticos,  and  retpdred  them  to  Iind 
quarters ;  but  they  did  not  choose  to  exerci.se  a 
(loubtful  and  unpopular  authority.  Gage  was 
linally  obliged  to  quarter  the  troops  in  liouses 
which  he  liired  for  the  ptirpose,  and  to  procure 
out  of  his  own  military  chest  the  flring,  bedding, 
and  other  articles  mentioned  in  the  Quartering 
Act,  the  council  having  declined  to  order  any  ex- 
penditure for  tliose  puriioses,  on  the  ground 
that  the  appropriation  of  money  belonged  ex- 
clusively to  llie  General  Court.  —U.  Ilildreth, 
Jligt.  of  the  U.  S.,  eh.  29  (n.  3). 

A1.80IN:  U.  Prothingham,  Life  and  Tiinen  of 
Joseph  Warren,  r,h.  0. — T.  Hutchinson,  lUM.  of 
the  Praei nee  0/  Mats.  Bay,  1749-1774,  fip.  202-217. 


300 


nrsTox,  1760. 


BOSTON,   1770. 


A.  D.  1769.— The  patriot!  threatened  and 
Virginia  ipeaking  out.  Si-c  Unitkd  Ht.mkh  ok 
Am.;  \    1).   ITtH), 

A.  D.  1770,  —  Soldier*  and  citizens  in  col- 
lision,—Tne  "  Massacre."— Removal  of  the 
troops,— "  A.s  till'  Hpriri);  oi'  llir  year  1770  iii)- 

tx'iiri'cl,  till'  I  till  anil  :2U(li  ri';;lin<'iils  had  hi'rii  in 
ioHtoii  uliDiit.  M'Vrnli'i'ii  iiiorithH.  The  I  Itli  waH 
in  harruckH  near  llii'  Uralllr  Sircil  Chiirrh;  the 
■Jllth  was  <|inirli'rri|  junt  sinilh  nf  Kiiijf  Hlrcct; 
about  iniilway  lictwi'cii  Ihi'iii,  in  Kin^  HtriTt, 
ami  cliMi'  at  lianil  tu  the  town-hmiNi',  wan  tlio 
inahi  K'Hiril,  whose  niarnrss  to  the  puhlie  biiilii- 
Inj^s  liail  hrrn  a  subject  of  fjreat  annoyance  I.) 
tile  people.   .  .  .  One  is  forceil  toailnill  .  ,   .   'hat 

11  Hixxl  ilej;ri f  (li."clpUne  was  inalnlahieil ;  110 

lilooil  hail  as  yet  been  shell  by  the  soliliers, 
iilthouuli  provoeatlons  were  eonslant,  llie  ruili! 
oloiuenl  hi  the  town  xr'^^inj,'  >?railually  inori?  at?- 
(ifresslvu  as  Ilii!  soldiers  were  never  allowed  to  use 
their  arms.  Insults  and  blows  with  lists  were 
freijuently  taken  and  K'ven,  uniieudifelsidsitcanif 
into  fa.shion  in  thi-  brawls.  Whatever  awe  the 
regiments  hai'  insiiired  at  their  llrst  coming  had 
lonj(  worn  oil'.  In  particular  Ihi^  workmen  of  the 
rope-walks  and  siiip-yards  alloweil  their  lon>{Ues 
the  l:u')j[est  license  and  were  foremost  in  the  en- 
coiniters.  About  the  1st  of  .March  lights  of  un- 
usual bitterne.s.': .  had  occurretl  near  tjirey's  rope- 
walk,  not  far  from  the  (piarters  of  the  20th, 
between  the  Ininils  of  the  lope-walk  and  soldu^rs 
<)t  that  ref^imcnt,  which  had  a  particularly  bad 
reputation.  'I'lie  soldiers  had  got  the  worst  of  it, 
and  were  much  irritated.  Threats  of  revenge 
had  been  made,  which  had  called  out  arrogant 
replies,  and  signs  abounded  that  serious  trouble 
was  not  far  olf.  From  an  early  hour  on  the 
evening  of  the  5th  of  March  the  symptoms  were 
very  ominous.  .  ,  ,  At  length  nn  altercation  be- 
gan in  Iviiig  Street  betwen  a  company  of  lawles.s 
boys  and  a  few  older  brawlers  on  the  one  side, 
und  the  sentinel,  who  paced  his  beat  before  the 
custom-liouse,  on  the  other.  .  .  ,  The  soldier  re- 
treated up  the  steps  of  tlie  custom-house  and 
called  out  for  help.  A  tile  of  soldiers  was  at  once 
despatched  from  the  main  guard,  ucro.ss  the  street, 
by  Captain  Preston,  olllcer  of  the  guard,  who  him- 
self soon  followed  to  the  scene  of  trouble.  A  coat- 
ing of  ice  covered  the  ground,  upon  wliich  shortly 
before  had  fallen  a  light  snow.  A  young  moon 
was  shining;  the  whole  transaction,  therefore,  was 
plainly  visible.  The  soldiers,  witli  the  sentinel, 
nine  in  number,  drew  up  in  line  before  the  people, 
who  greatly  outnumbered  them.  The  pieces 
were  loaded  and  held  ready,  but  the  mob,  believ- 
ing that  the  troops  would  not  us(!  their  arms  ex- 
cept upon  requisition  of  a  civil  magistrate, 
shouted  coarse  insults,  iircssed  upon  the  very 
muzzles  of  the  pieces,  struck  them  with  stick.s, 
and  assaulted  the  soldiers  with  balls  of  ice.  In 
the  tumult  precisely  wliat  was  said  aud  done 
cannot  be  known.  JIany  nllidavits  were  taken 
in  the  investigation  that  followed,  and,  asalwa^-s 
at  such  times,  the  testimony  was  most  contnidic- 
tory.  Henry  Kno.x,  afterwards  the  artillery 
gencnd,  at  this  time  a  bookseller,  was  on  the 
spot  and  used  his  influence  with  Preston  to  pre- 
vent a  command  to  tire.  Preston  declared  that 
he  never  gavi;  the  command.  The  air,  however, 
was  full  of  shouts,  daring  the  soldiers  to  Are, 
some  of  which  may  have  been  easily  understood 
as  conunands,  and  at  last  the  discharge  came.  If 
it  had  failed  to  come,  iuueed,  the  forbearance 


Would  have  been  (|uile  mImrulniiH.  Three  wen» 
killed  (lutrlght,  and  eight  were  woiin<lei|,  only 
one  of  whom,  Crispus  Attucks,  a  tall  niulallo 
who  faced  the  soldiers,  leaning  on  a  stick  of  conl- 
wiukI,  had  really  taken  aiiv  part  in  the  dis- 
turbance. The  rest  Were  liystaiiderM  or  were 
hurrying  into  the  street,  not  linowing  the  causo 
of  the  tumult.  ...  A  wild  confusion  .  .  .  tiM>lc 
possession  of  the  town.  The  iilarnibellM  rang 
frantically  ;  on  the  other  hand  the  drums  of  Iho 
regliiu'nts  thundered  to  arms.  .  .  .  What  averted 
a  fearful  battle  in  the  streets  was  tii(>  excellent 
conduct  of  Hutchinson" — thelleiitenantgovernor, 
who  miule  his  way  promptly  to  the  seeiu',  caused 
the  tr(K)ps  to  be  sent  hack  to  their  barriwks, 
ordered  the  arrest  of  Cuptain  Preston  and  tlio 
nine  soldiers  who  had  done  the  tiring,  and  began 
an  investigation  of  thealTair  the  .same  night.  Tlio 
next  day  a  great  town  meeting  was  held,  aud,  as 
crowds  from  the  surroimdlng  towns  pres.sed  in, 
it  was  adjourned  from  Fancull  Hall  to  the  (Md 
.South  Church,  and  overllowed  in  the  neighborhig 
streets.  A  formal  ilemand  for  the  removal  of  the 
troops  was  .sent  to  the  governor  and  council  by  a 
coinmiltee  which  had  Sanuu'l  Adams  at  its  head. 
(Jovernor  Hutchinson  disclaimed  authority  over 
the  troops;  but  their  commanding  olllcer.  Colonel 
l)alrympli>,  proposed  to  compromise  by  seiidin{{ 
away  the  2l)th  regiment  and  retaiinng  the  14th. 
As  the  committee!  returiuMl  to  the  meeting  with 
this  proposal,  through  the  crowd,  Adams  dropped 
right  and  1  ft  the  words,  "Both  regiments  or 
none. "—"  He (h  regiments  or  none. "  80  he  put 
into  the  mi)uJis  of  the  people  their  reply,  which 
they  shouteit  as  with  one  voice  when  the  report 
of  the  committee  was  made  to  them.  There  was 
a  determination  in  the  cry  which  overcame  even 
the  obstinacy  of  Oovernor  llutchin.son,  and  the 
departure  of  both  regiments  was  ordered  that 
same  day.  "  In  Kngland  the  allair  was  regarded 
as  a  '  successful  bully '  of  the  whole  power  of 
the  government  by  the  li:''o  town,  and  when 
Lord  North  received  details  >)f  these  events  ho 
always  referred  to  the  Mthand  29th  as  the  '  Ham 
Adams  regiments.'" — J.  K.  Ilosmer,  Samuel 
Adtiinn,  eh.  11. 

Also  in:  U.  Frothingliam,  Life  <tud  Times  of 
JoKCjih  Warren,  eh.  (t. — The  same.  The  Sam. 
Adniii*  Ili'f/imeii/i  < .Ulaiilic  Afonthli/,  r.  9,  10,  ami 
13;  1863-63).— J.  l  Adams,  Life  of  John  AdamH, 
eh.  3  (('.  1). — T.  Hutchinson,  IIi»t.  of  the  Promnee 


of  Maui,  nan,  1749-1774,  /)/*.  270-380.— H.  Niles, 

Prin 

editii 

Mattacre 


ineiples  and  Acts  of  the  Kecolution  (Centennial 
edition),  pp.  15-79. — F.  Kedder,  Hint,  of  the  ISoston 


A.  D.  1770. — The  fair  trial  of  the  soldiers. — 

"The  episode  [of  tiie  alTray  of  March  5thJ  had 
...  a  seejuel  which  is  extremely  creditable  to 
tiie  American  people.  It  was  determined  to  try 
the  soldiers  for  their  lives,  and  public  feeling 
ran  so  fiercely  against  them  that  it  seemed  as  it 
tlieir  fate  was  sealed.  The  trial,  iiowever,  was 
delayed  for  seven  months,  till  the  excitement  liiul 
in  some  degree  subsided.  Captain  Preston  very 
judiciously  appealed  to  John  Adams,  who  was 
rapidly  rising  to  the  first  place  both  among  the 
lawyers  and  the  popular  patriots  of  Boston,  to 
undertake  liis  defence.  Adams  knew  well 
how  much  lie  was  risking  by  espousing  so  un- 
popular a  cause,  but  he  knew  al.so  iiis  pro- 
fessional duty,  and,  though  violently  opposed  to 
the  British  "government,  lie  was  an  eminently 
honest,  brave,  and  Uuraane  man.    In  coujunc- 


301 


BOSTON,   1770. 


BOSTON,  1773. 


tioii  with  Josiuli  Quincy,  a  young  lawyer  who 
w«»  also  of  the  ])atii()tic  party,  he  undertook  the 
invidious  t^isk,  and  he  diselmrged  it  witli  con- 
sununate  ability.  .  .  .  There  was  abundant 
evidence  that  t!ie  soldiers  had  iMidured  gross 
provocation  and  some  violence.  If  the  trial  had 
been  the  prosecution  of  a  smuggler  or  a  seditious 
•writer,  the  jury  would  probably  have  decided 
against  evidence,  but  they  had  no  disposition  to 
shed  innocent  blood.  Judges,  counsel,  and 
jurymen  acted  bravely  and  honourably.  All 
the  soldiers  were  acquitted,  except  two,  who 
were  found  guilty  of  manslaughter,  and  who 
escaped  with  very  slight  jiunishmcnt.  It  is  very 
remarkable  that  after  Adams  had  accepted  the 
task  of  defending  the  incriminated  soldiers,  he 
was  elected  by  the  people  of  Boston  as  their 
representative  in  the  Assembly,  and  the  public 
opinion  of  the  province  appears  to  have  .fully 
acquiesced  in  the  verdict.  In  truth,  altliough 
no  people  have  indulged  more  largely  tlian  the 
Americans  in  violent,  reckless,  and  unscrupulous 
language,  no  people  have  at  every  period  of 
their  history  been  more  signally  free  from  tlie 
thirst  for  blood,  which  in  moments  of  great 
political  excitement  has  been  often  shown  both 
in  England  and  France." — W.  E.  II.  Lecky, 
UM.  of  Eitg.  ill  the  Vith  Century,  ch.  13  (».  3). 

Also  in;  J.  Adams,  Autohionraphy  (Works,  v. 
2,  ;).  230). — Lord  JIahon  (Eurl  Stanhope),  Ui»t. 
ofKiig.,  1713-1783,  r.  5,  p.  209. 

A,  D  1773.— The  Tea  Party.  — "News 
reached  Boston  in  the  spring  of  this  year  [1773] 
that  the  East  India  Company,  which  was  em- 
barrassed by  the  accumulation  of  tea  in  England, 
owing  to  the  refusal  of  the  Americans  to  buy  it, 
had  induced  parliament  to  permit  its  exportation 
to  America  witliout  the  payment  of  the  usual 
duty  [see  United  States  of  Av.:  A.  D.  1772- 
1773].  This  was  intended  to  bribe  the  colonists 
to  buy ;  for  there  had  been  a  duty  both  in  Eng- 
land and  in  America.  That  in  England  was  six 
pence  a  pound,  that  in  AiiKnica  three  pence. 
Ships  were  laden  and  sent  to  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Charleston,  and  they  were 
now  expected  to  arrive  in  a  short  time.  ...  On 
the  28th  of  November,  1773,  which  was  Sunday, 
tlie  first  tea-siiip  (the  '  Dartmoutli ')  entered  the 
harbor  [of  Boston].  The  following  morning  the 
citizens  were  informed  by  placard  that  the 
'  worst  o '  "^'agues,  the  iletested  ten, '  had  actually 
arrived,  a  that  a  meeting  was  to  be  held  at 
nine  in  iie  morning,  at  Faneuil  Hall,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  'a  united  and  successful 
resistance  to  this  last,  woret,  and  most  destruc- 
tive measure  of  administration.'  Tlie  Cradle  of 
Liberty  was  not  large  enough  to  contain  the 
crowd  that  was  called  together.  Adams  rose 
and  made  n  stirring  motion  expressing  doter- 
minntion  that  the  tea  should  not  be  landed,  and 
it  was  unanimously  agreed  to.  The  meeting 
then  adjourned  to  the  Old  South  meeting-house, 
where  the  motion  was  repeated,  and  again 
adopted  without  an  opposing  voice.  The  owner 
of  the  sliip  protested  in  vain  that  the  proceed- 
ings were  illegal ;  a  watch  of  tweuty-flve  pei-sons 
was  set,  to  sec  that  the  intentions  of  the  citizens 
were  not  evaded,  and  the  meeting  adjourned  to 
the  following  morning.  The  throng  at  that 
time  was  as  great  as  usual,  and  while  the  deliber- 
ations were  going  on,  a  message  was  received 
from  the  governor,  through  the  sheriff,  ordering 
them  to  cease  their  proceedings.    It  was  voted 


not  to  follow  the  advice,  ant'  the  sherilT  wa» 
hissed  and  obliged  to  retreat  discomfited.  It 
was  formally  resolved  that  any  person  importing 
tea  from  Enghind  should  be  deemed  an  enemy 
t  1  his  eountrv,  and  it  was  declared  that  at  the 
risk  of  their  lives  ind  properties  the  landing  of 
the  tea  should  be  prevented,  and  its  return 
effected.  It  was  necessary  that  some  positive 
action  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  tlie  tea  within 
twenty  days  from  its  arrival,  or  the  collector  of 
customs  would  confiscate  ships  and  cargoes.  .  .  . 
Tlie  twenty  days  would  expire  on  the  lOtli  of 
December.  On  the  fourteenth  a  crowded  meet-  ' 
ing  was  held  at  the  Old  South,  and  the  importer 
was  enjoined  to  apply  for  a  clearance  to  allow 
his  vessel  to  return  with  its  cargo.  He  applied, 
but  the  collector  refused  to  give  an  answer 
until  the  following  day.  Tlie  meeting  therefore- 
adjourned  to  the  ICtli,  the  last  day  before  confis- 
cation would  be  legal,  and  before  the  tea  would 
be  placed  under  protection  of  the  ships  of 
war  in  the  harbor.  There  was  another  early 
morning  meeting,  and  7,000  people  thronged 
uliout  the  meeting-house,  all  filled  with  a  sense 
of  the  fact  that  something  notable  was  to  occur. 
The  importer  appearetl  and  reported  that  the- 
collector  refused  a  clearance.  He  was  then 
directed  to  ask  the  governor  for  a  pass  to  enable 
him  to  sail  by  tlie  Castle.  Hutchinson  had 
retieated  to  his  mansion  at  Milton,  and  it  would 
take  some  time  to  make  the  demand.  The 
importer  started  out  in  the  cold  of  a  New  Eng- 
land winter,  apologized  to  his  Excellency  for  his 
visit,  but  assured  him  that  it  was  involuntary. 
He  received  a  reply  that  no  pass  could  be  given 
him.  ...  It  was  six  o'clock  before  the  importer 
returned,  and  a  few  candles  wore  brought  in  to 
relieve  the  fast-increasing  darkness.  He  reported 
the  governor's  reply,  and  Samuel  Adams  rose 
and  exclaimed:  'This  meeting  can  do  nothing 
more  to  save  the  country ! '  In  an  instant  there 
was  a  shout  on  the  ixjrch;  there  was  a  war-whoop 
in  response,  and  forty  or  fifty  of  the  men  disguised 
as  Indians  rushed  out  of  the  doors,  down  Milk 
Street  towards  Griffin's  (afterwards  Liverpool) 
Wharf,  where  tiie  vessels  lay.  The  meeting  was 
declared  dissolved,  and  the  throng  followed  their 
leaders,  forming  a  determined  giuinl  about  the 
wharf.  The  'Mohawks'  entered  the  vessel; 
there  was  tugging  at  the  ropes;  tliere  was  break- 
ing of  light  boxes;  there  was  pouringof  precious 
tea  into  the  watere  of  the  harbor.  For  two  or 
three  hours  the  work  went  on,  and  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-two  chests  were  emptied.  Then, 
under  the  light  of  the  moon,  the  Indians  marched 
to  the  sound  of  fife  and  drum  to  their  homes,  and 
the  vast  throng  melted  away,  until  not  a  man 
remained  to  tell  of  the  deed.  The  committee  of 
corresixmdence  held  a  meeting  next  day,  and 
Samuel  Adams  and  four  others  were  appointed 
to  propare  an  account  of  the  affair  to  be  posted 
to  other  places.  Paul  Revere,  who  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  '  Mohawks, '  was  sent  express 
to  Philadelphia  with  the  news,  which  was 
received  at  that  place  on  the  26tli.  It  was 
announced  by  ringing  of  bells,  and  there  was 
every  sign  of  joy.  .  .  .  The  continent  was  uni- 
vei-sidly  stirred  at  last  "—A.  Gilman,  27/«  Story 
of  Boston,  oil.  23. 

Also  in  :  E.  G.  Porter,  The  Beginning  of  the 
Bcmlution  (Memorial  Hist,  of  Boston,  v.  3,  ^i.  1). 
— B.  J.  Lossing,  FVeld  Book  of  tlis  Revolution,  v.  1, 
ch.  21,— T.  Ilutchiason,  Hist,  of  tlie  Provitice  of 


302 


BOSTON,  1773. 


BOSTON,  1774. 


MdM.  lirt!/,  1740-1774,  pp.  429-440.— Same,  Dinn/ 
and  letters,  p.  138.— O.  Bancroft,  JIi«t.  of  the 
U.  S.  (Author  HlaHtrennion),  c.  3,  ch.  34. — J.  Kim- 
ball The  l()0</t  Aiinirvrmtry  of  the  Destruction,  of 
Tea  (Km'.r  Lint.  Ilixt.  Coll. ,  v.  12,  w>.  8). 

A.  D.  1774.— The  Port  Bill  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts Act.— Commerce  interdicted. — Town 
Meetings  forbidden.  Sou  Uniteo  States  of 
A.M. :  A.  D.  1774  (.M.vucii— AriiiL). 

A.  n.  1774.— The  enforcement  of  the  Port 
Bill  and  its  effects.- -Military  occupation  of  the 
city  ty  General  Gage. — "The  execution  of  tliis 
nu'iisure[tlie  Port  Bill)  devolved  on  Tliomas  Gage, 
wlio  arrived  at  Boston  May  13,  1774,  as  Captain 
General  and  Governor  of  Jlassachiisetts.  Ho 
was  not  u  stranger  in  tlic  colonies.  He  had  ex- 
hibited gallantry  in  Braddock's  defeat.  .  .  .  He 
liad  married  in  one  of  the  most  respectable  fami- 
lies in  New  York,  and  liad  partaken  of  tlio  lios- 
pitalities  of  tlie  people  of  Boston.  His  manners 
were  pleasing.  Hence  ho  entered  upon  his  pub- 
lic duties  with  a  large  measure  ot  pojiularity. 
But  he  took  a  narrow  view  of  men  and  things 
about  liim.  .  .  .  General  Gage,  on  the  17th  of 
May,  landed  at  the  Long  Wharf  and  was  received 
with  much  parade.  ...  On  the  first  day  of  June 
the  act  went  into  effect.  It  met  with  no  opposi- 
tion from  the  people,  and  hence,  there  was  no 
dilHculty  in  carrying  it  into  rigorous  execution. 
'Ihear  from  many,'tlie  governor  writes,  'that 
the  act  has  staggered  the  most  presumptuous;  the 
violent  party  men  seem  to  break,  an<l  people  to 
fall  off  from  them.'  Hence  he  looked  for  sub- 
mission ;  Jjut  Boston  asked  assistanf-e  from  other 
colonies,  and  the  General  Court  requested  him  to 
appoint  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer.  The  loyal- 
ists felt  uneasy  at  the  ab.sencc  of  the  army.  .  .  . 
Hence  a  respectable  force  was  soon  concentrated 
in  Boston.  On  the  4tli  of  June,  the  4th  or  king's 
own  regiment,  and  on  the  l.'ith  the43tl  regiment, 
landed  at  the  Long  Wharf  and  enciimped  on  the 
common."  The  5th  and  38th  regiments  arrived 
on  the  4th  and  5tli  of  July ;  th'>  59th  regiment 
was  landed  at  Salem  August  6,  and  additional 
troops  were  ordered  from  New  York,  the  Jerseys 
and  Quebec.  ' '  The  Boston  Port  Bill  went  into 
operation  amid  tlie  tolling  of  bells,  fasting  and 
prayer.  ...  It  bore  severely  upon  t^so  towns, 
Boston  ami  Charlestown,  which  had  been  long 
connected  by  a  common  iiatriotism.  Tlieir  laborera 
were  thrown  out  of  employment,  their  poor 
were  deprived  of  bread,  and  gloom  pervaded 
their  streets.  But  they  were  clieered  and 
ST.  stained  by  the  large  contributions  sent  froni 
every  quarter  for  their  relief,  and  by  the  noble 
words  that  accompanied  them The  ex- 
citement of  the  public  mind  was  intense;  and 
the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  were 
characterized  by  varied  political  activity.  Mul- 
titudes signed  a  solemn  league  and  covenant 
against  the  use  of  British  goods.  The  breach 
between  the  whigs  and  loyalists  daily  became 
wider.  Patriotic  donations  from  every  colony 
were  on  their  way  tc  the  suffering  towns. 
Supplies  for  the  British  troops  were  refused. 
...  It  was  while  llie  public  inind  was  in  this 
state  of  excitement  tliat  other  acts  arrived  which 
General  Gage  was  instructed  to  cayry  into  effect. " 
These  were  the  acts  which  virtually  annulled 
the  Massachusetts  charter,  wliich  forbade  town 
meetings,  and  which  provided  for  the  sending  of 
accused  persons  to  England  or  to  other  colonies 
for  trial.     "  Should  Massachusetts  submit  to  the 


new  acts  ?  Wo\ild  the  other  colonies  see,  with- 
out increaseil  alarm,  the  humiliation  of  Jlassa- 
chusetts  V  Tliis  wus  the  turning-point  of  the 
Revolution.  It  did  not  find  the  patriots  iinjire- 
pared.  They  had  an  organization  beyond  tho 
reach  alike  of  proclamations  from  the  governors, 
or  of  circulars  from  tlie  mini.s'ry.  This  was  the 
Conunittees  of  Corres|)ondence,  chosen  in  most  of 
the  towns  in  legal  town-meetings,  or  by  he  vari- 
ous colonial  assemblies,  and  extending  through- 
out the  colonies.  .  .  .  The  crisis  called  for  '.il 
the  wisdom  of  these  committees.  A  remarkable 
circular  from  Boston  addressed  to  the  towns(July, 
1774),  dwelt  upon  the  duty  of  opposing  tlie  new 
laws;  the  towns,  in  their  answei's,  were  bold, 
spirited,  and  tirm  and  echoed  the  necc  '  v  of 
resistance.  Norwastliisall.  Tlie  people pnm.,;tly 
thwarted  the  first  attempts  to  exercise  authority 
tinder  them.  Such  councillors  as  accepted  their 
appointments  were  compelled  to  resign,  or,  to 
avoid  compulsion,  retired  into  Boston.'  General 
Gage  now  began  (in  September)  inovemeiits  to 
secure  the  cannon  and  powder  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Some  250  barrels  of  powder  belonging  to 
the  province  were  stealthily  removed  by  his 
orders  from  a  magazine  at  Charlestown  and  two 
field-pieces  were  carried  away  from  Cambridge. 
"  The  report  of  this  affair,  spreading  ra])idlj',  ex- 
cited great  indignation.  The  people  collected  in 
large  numbers,  and  many  were  in  favor  of  at- 
tempting to  ivcai)tiire  the  powder  and  cannon. 
Inlluential  patriots,  however,  succeeded  in  turning 
their  attention  in  another  direction.  .  .  .  Mean- 
time the  fact  of  the  removal  of  the  powder  be- 
came magnified  into  a  report  that  the  British  had 
cannonaded  Boston,  wlien  the  bells  rang,  beacon- 
fires  blazed  on  tho  hills,  the  neighbor  colonics 
were  alarmed,  and  the  roads  were  filled  with 
armed  men  hastening  to  the  point  of  supposed 
danger.  Tlieso  demonstrations  opened  the  eyes 
of  the  governor  to  tlie  extent  of  tlio  popular 
movement.  .  .  .  General  Gage  saw  no  hope  of 
])rocuring  obedience  but  by  the  power  of  arms; 
and  the  patriot  party  saw  no  safety  in  anything 
short  of  military  preparation.  Resistance  to  the 
a(;ts  continued  to  be  manifested  in  every  form. 
On  the  9th  of  September  the  memorable  Suffolk 
resolves  [drawn  by  Joseph  Warren]  were  adopted 
[by  a  con'.  ^  ition  of  Suffolk  county,  which  em- 
braced Boston]  .  .  .  and  these  were  succeeded 
by  others  in  other  counties  equally  bold  and 
spirited.  These  resolves  were  approve('  by  the 
Continental  Congress,  then  in  session.  Every- 
wlioro  the  people  either  compelled  the  unconsti- 
tutional ofHcers  to  resign,  or  opposed  every  at- 
tempt to  exercise  authority,  whether  by  tho 
governor  or  constable.  They  also  made  every 
effort  to  transport  ammunition  and  stores  to  places 
of  security.  Cannon  and  muskets  we-o  carried 
secretly  out  of  Boston.  The  guns  were  taken 
from  an  old  battery  at  Charlestown,  where  tho 
navy  yard  is,  .  .  .  silently,  at  night.  .  .  .  Gen- 
eral Gage  immediately  began  to  fortify  Boston 
Neck.  This  added  intensity  to  the  excitement. 
The  inhabitants  became  alarmed  at  so  ominous 
a  movement;  and,  on  the  5th  of  September,  the 
selectmen  waited  on  the  general,  represented  the 
public  feeling,  and  requested  him  to  explain  his 
object.  The  governor  stated  in  reply  that  his 
object  was  to  protect  his  majesty's  troops  and 
his  majesty's  subjects;  and  tliat  he  had  no  inten- 
tion to  stop  up  tlie  avenue,  or  to  obstruct  the 
free  passage  over  it,  or  to  do  anything  hostile 


303 


BOSTON,  1774. 


B0URGE8. 


iigninst  the  inliabitnnta.  He  went  on  with  the 
works  mill  soim  mounted  on  them  two  twenty- 
four  pounders  luid  eiglit  nine  jjouuders." — K. 
Frotliingluun,  Hint,   of  the  Sk'jc  of  liontun,  eh.  1. 

Al.fM)  in:  The  siinie.  Life  and  I'imeit  of  Joneph 
Wm-ivii,  cJi.  11,  aiul  app.  1  (rjimiig  tcH  of  the  Suf- 
folk lUsolr<cK).—\\ .  V.  AVu'ls,  Life  of  Sdiiuwl 
'Aitamit.  V.  3,  pp.  104-282.— W.  Tudor,  Life  of 
JamfH  OtiH.  ch.  37-29. 

A.  D.  1775.— The  beginning  of  war.— Lex- 
ington.— Concord. —  The  British  troops  be- 
leaguered in  the  city.— Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
See  L'.MTKl)  Statks  ok  Am.  ;  A.  O.  \TiTt. 

A.  D.  1775-1776.— The  siege  directed  by 
Washingfton.— Evacuation  of  the  city  by  the 
British.  See  United  States  of  A.m.  :  A.  U. 
1775-1776. 


BOSWORTH,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1485),  Sec 
ENdLANP:  A.  I).  148a-liar). 

B01ANY  BAY.  See  AusTiiALlA:  A.  D. 
lOOl-lHOO. 

BOTHWELL  BRIDGE,  Battle  of.  See 
Scotland:  A.  1).  107!)  (.June). 

BOTOCUDOS,  The.  See  American  Auohi- 
GINE8:  Tui'i. 

BOUCHAIIf,  Marlborough's  capture  of 
(1711).     Sec  Netiieulands:  A.  I).  1710-1713. 

BOUIDES,  The.  See  JIaiio.metan  Con- 
quest and  E.mimue:  A.  I).  815-045;  also,  Tuuks 
(Tub  Seuiuks):  A.  D.  1004-1063;  also,   Saman- 

IDES. 

BOULANGER,  General,  The  intrigues  of. 
See  Fuance:  A.  D.  1875-1889. 

BOULE,  The.— The  Council  of  Chiefs  in 
Homeric  Greece. — Q.  Grote,  Hint  of  Greece,  ch. 
20. — See,  also.  Aueopagus. 

BOULOGNE  :  Origin.    See  Gesouiacum. 

A.  D.  1801. — Bonaparte's  preparations  for 
the  invasion  of  England. — Nelson's  attack. 
See  Fuance:  A.  D.  1801-1802. 

BOULON,  Battle  of.  See  France:  A.  D. 
179:$  (.July— Oece.mueh). 

BOUQUET'S  EXPEDITION.  See  Pon- 
tiac's  WTmi. 

BOURBON,  The  Constable:  His  treason 
and  his  attack  on  Rome.  See  France  :  A.  D. 
1530-1.53;!,  152:5-1535,  1525-1526;  and  Italy: 
A.  D.  1.523-1527,  1527. 

BOURBON :  Origin  of  the  name.  See 
BoiANs;  also  Udme:  B.  C.  390-347. 

BOURBON,  The  House  of:  Its  origin.— 
From  King  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis),  of  France, 
"tlirough  his  last  male  ehild,  Robert  de  France, 
Comtc  (ie  Clermont,  sprang  the  House  of  Bour- 
bon. An  ancient  barouy,  the  inheritance  of 
Beatrix,  wife  of  this  prince,  was  erected  into  a 
dukedom  in  favour  of  Louis,  his  son,  and  gave 
to  his  descendants  the  name  which  they  have  re- 
tained, tliat  of  France  being  reserved  for  the 
Uoyal  branch.  .  .  .  The  House  which  had  the 
honour  of  siipplying  sovereigns  to  our  country 
was  called  '  I  ranee. '  But  our  Icings,  jealous  of 
that  great  name,  reserved  it  for  their  own  sons 
and  grandsons.  Hence  the  designation  '  Ills '  and 
'  petit-lite  dc  France. '  The  posterity  of  eacli 
'  tils  de  France '  formed  a  cadet  branch  which  took 
it.s  name  from  the  title  borne  by  its  lioatl,  Valois, 
Artois,  Bourbon,  &c.  At  the  time  of  tlie  acces- 
sion of  Henry  IV.  the  name  of  Bourbon  remained 
with  those  younger  branches  of  Conde  and  Mont- 
pcnsicr,  wliich  had  sprung  from  the  main  branch 
before  the  death  of  Henry  III.    But  Henry  IV,  's 


children,  those  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  those  of  vlieir 
succe-s-soi-s  in  the  throne,  were  surnamed  '  do 
France';  whilst  in  conformity  with  the  law  the 
descendants  of  Louis  XIII. 's  second  sou  recitived 
XW  surname  d'  Orleans,  from  the  tille  borne  by 
their  grandfather.  .  .  .  Possessora  of  vast  terri- 
tories wliich  tliey  [the  Bourbons]  owed  more  to 
family  alliances  than  to  the  generosity  of  kings, 
llii^j'  had  known  how  to  win  the  alTectiou  of 
their  vassals.  Their  maguiflccnt  hospitality  drew 
around  them  a  numerous  and  brilliant  nobility. 
Tims  the  '  hotel '  of  those  brave  ami  august 
princes,  the  "gracieux  dues  de  Bourbon,' as  our 
ancient  poet  called  them,  was  considered  the  best 
school  in  wliieli  a  young  nobleman  could  learn 
the  profession  of  arms.  The  order  of  the  Ecu, 
instituted  by  one  of  them,  had  been  coveted  aiul 
worn  by  the  bravest  warriors  of  France.  Suf- 
ticicntly  powerful  to  outshine  the  rank  and  tile  of 
the  nobility,  they  had  at  the  same  time  neither 
the  liii'ge  estates  nor  the  iniinense  power  which 
enabled  the  Dukes  of  Bourgogne,  of  Bretagne, 
and  other  great  vassals,  to  become  the  rivals  or 
the  enemies  of  the  royal  authority."  The  ex- 
ample of  the  treason  of  tlie  Constable  Bourbon 
[seeFuANCE:  A.  I).  1520-1533]  "  was  not  followed 
by  any  of  the  princes  of  his  House.  .  .  .  Tho 
property  of  the  Conuetjible  was  definitely  alien- 
ated from  his  House,  ami  Vendonie  [his  brother] 
did  not  receive  the  hereditary  possessions  of  the 
Dukes  d'  Alen(;on,  to  which  his  wife  was  entitled. 
He  died  on  the  25th  of  Slarch,  1538,  leaving  but 
a  scanty  patrimony  to  his  numerous  descendants. 
.  .  .  Five  only  of  his  sous  obtained  tlieir  majority. 
.  .  .  Two  of  the.se  princes  founded  families: 
Antoino  [Due  de  Vendomc  and  afterwards  King 
of  Navarre  through  his  marriage  with  Jeanne  d' 
Albret,  see  Navauue:  A.  D.  1528-1.503],  father 
of  Henry  IV.,  who  was  the  ancestor  of  all  the 
Bourbons  now  living,  and  Louis  [Prince  dc  Conde, 
born  15301,  who  was  the  root  of  tlie  House  of 
Conde  and  all  its  branches." — Due  d'  Auinale, 
Hist,  of  tlie  Princes  of  the  House  of  Conde,  bk.  1,  ch. 
1,  and  foot-note.— '^QC,  also,  Fuance:  A.  D.  1327. 

BOURBON:  The  Spanish  House.  Seo 
Spain:  A.  D.  1098-1700,  and  1701-1702. 

BOURBON    FAMILY    COMPACT,   The 

First.      See    Fuance:    A.    D.     1733 The 

Second.  See  France:  A.  D.  1743  (October). 
....The  Third.  See  France:  A.  D.  1761 
(Auoust). 

BOURGEOIS.— BOURG.— In  France,  "tlio 
word  Bourg  originally  meant  any  aggregation  of 
houses,  from  the  greatest  city  to  the  smallest 
liamlet.  But  .  .  .  tlie  word  shifted  its  meaning, 
and  came  to  signiiy  an  assemblage  of  housed 
surrounded'  with  walls.  Secondlj',  the  word 
Bourgeois  also  was  at  (ii-st  used  as  synonymous 
with  the  inhabitant  of  a  bourg.  Afterward, 
when  corporate  franchises  were  bestowed  on  par- 
ticular bourgs,  the  word  acquired  a  sense  corre- 
sponding with  that  of  the  English  designation 
Burgess;  that  is  a  person  entitled  to  the  privi- 
leges of  a  municipal  corporation.  Finally,  tho 
word  Bourgeoisie,  in  its  primitive  sense,  was  tho 
description  of  the  burgesses  when  spoken  of 
collectively.  But,  in  its  later  use,  the  word 
would  be  best  rendered  into  English  by  our  term 
citizensliip ;  tliat  is,  the  privilege  or  franchise  of 
Ixiing  a  burgess. " — Sir  J.  Stephen,  Lects.  on  tlie 
Hist,  of  France,  lect.  5. 

BOURGES,  Origin  of.— The  city  of  Bourges, 
France,  was  originally  the  capital  city  of  the 


304 


B0URGE8. 


BOYS  IN  BLUE. 


QnlHo  tribe  of  tlio  Tlitungca,  find  was  called 
Avarictiiin.  "As  with  many  other  Gaulish 
towns,  the  original  name  heeanit  exelianged  for 
that  of  the  pcoijlo,  i.  e. ,  Uituriges,  and  thence  the 
modern  Hourges  and  the  name  of  the  province, 
Berri." — C.  Jlerivale,  Hixt.  of  the  Jltiiiiinin,  ch. 
13,— See,  also,  .EDtir,  and  G.ui,:  H.  C.  58-r.l. 

BOUVINES,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1214).— The 
battle  of  Hoiivines,  fought  at  Boiivincs,  in  Flan- 
ders, not  far  from  Tournay,  on  the  27th  of  August, 
A.  I).  1314,  was  one  of  the  important  battles  of 
Euroi)eaii  history.  On  one  side  were  the  French, 
led  by  tlieir  king  Philip  Augustus,  and  lighting 
ostensibly  as  the  champions  of  the  Pope  and  the 
church.  '  On  the  other  side  was  an  allied  army  of 
English,  under  king  John,  of  Germans,  under 
Otho,  the  Gu(;lf  —  one  of  two  rival  claimants  of 
the  imperial  crown  —  and  of  Flemings  and 
Lotharingians,  le<l  by  their  several  lords.  Philip 
Augustus  had  exiielled  the  English  king  from 
Ills  Norman  didiedom  and  causeil  a  court  of  the 
peers  of  France  to  declare  the  title  forfeit.  From 
that  success  his  ambition  rose  so  high  that  ho 
Inid  aspired  to  the  conquest  of  the  English 
crown.  A  terrible  pope  —  Innocent  III. —  had 
approved  his  ambition  and  encouraged  it;  for 
John,  the  miserable  English  king,  had  given  pro- 
vocations to  the  church  which  had  brought  the 
thunders  of  the  Vatican  upon  his  head.  Excom- 
municated, himself,  his  kingdom  wider  interdict, 
—  the  latter  offered  itself  a  tempting  prey  to  the 
vigorous  French  king,  who  posed  as  the  champion 
of  the  pope.  lie  had  prepared  a  strong  army  and  a 
fleet  for  the  invasion  of  England ;  but  fate  and 
papal  diplomacy  had  battled  his  schemes.  At  the 
last  moment,  John  had  made  a  base  submission, 
had  meekly  surrendered  his  kingdom  to  the 
pope  and  had  received  it  back  as  a  papal  flcf. 
Whereupon  the  victorious  pope  commanded  his 
French  champion  to  forego  his  intended  attack. 
Philip,  under  these  circumstances,  determined  to 
use  the  army  he  had  assembled  against  a  trouble- 
some and  contumacious  vassal,  the  count  of 
Flanders.  The  pope  approved,  and  Flanders 
was  overrun.  King  Jolui  led  an  English  force 
across  the  channel  to  the  help  of  the  Flemish 
count,  and  Otho,  the  Gcimnn  king  or  emperor, 
who  was  king  Jolm's  nephew,  joined  the  coali- 
tion, to  antagonize  France  and  the  pope.  The 
battle  of  Bouviues  was  tlie  decisive  conflict  of  the 
war.  It  luunbled,  for  the  time,  the  independent 
spirit  of  Flander.s,  and  several  remoter  conse- 
quences can  be  traced  to  it.  It  was  "tbelirst 
real  French  victory.  It  roused  the  national  spirit 
as  nothing  else  could  have  roused  it ;  it  was  the 
nation's  lii'st  taste  of  glory,  dear  above  all  things 
to  the  French  heart.  .  .  .  The  battle  si  newhat 
broke  the  high  spirit  of  the  barons:  the  lesser 
barons  and  churches  grouped  themselves  round 
the  king;  the  greater  lords  came  to  feel  their 
weakness  in  the  presence  of  royalty.  Among 
the  incidental  consequences  of  the  day  of 
Bouvines  was  the  ruin  of  Otho's  ambition.  Ho 
fled  from  the  field  into  utter  obscurity.  He 
retired  to  the  Ilartz  moimtains,  and  there  spent 
the  remaining,  years  of  his  life  in  private.  King 
John,  too,  was  utterly  discredited  by  his  share  in 
the  year's  campaign.  To  it  may  partly  be  traced 
liis  humiliation  before  his  barons,  and  the  signing 
of  the  Great  Charter  in  the  following  year  at 
RuiHiymede." — G.  W.  Kltchin,  Hul.  of  France, 
bk.  'A,  ch.  7,  sect.  4. — "The  battle  of  Bouviues  was 
not  the  victory  of  Philip  Augustus  aloue,  over  a 


coalition  of  foreign  princes;  the  victory  was  the 
work  of  king  and  people,  barons,  burghers,  and 
peasants,  of  lie  <le  Fiiince,  of  Orleanness,  of 
Picardy,  of  Normandy,  of  Champagne,  and  of 
Burginidy.  .  .  .  The  victory  of  Houvinesmarked 
the  commencement  of  the  time  at  which  men 
ndght  speak,  and  indeed  did  speak,  by  one 
single  name,  of  'the  French.'  The  nation  in 
France  and  the  kingship  in  France  on  that  day 
rose  out  of  and  abwo  the  fctidal  system." — F.  P. 
Gui/.ot,  I'opuliir  likt.  of  France,  ch.  18. — See, 
also,  Iialy:  A.  I).  1183-13.j(),  and  England: 
A.  1).  130.5-1313,  and  131.5. 

BOVATE,  OR  OXGANG.— "Originally  as 
much  as  an  ox-teain  cotdd  plough  in  a  year. 
Eight  Boviites  are  usually  .said  to  have  made  a 
Carucate,  but  the  number  of  acres  which  made 
a  Bovate  are  vaiiously  slated  in  different  records 
from  8  to  34." — N.  H.  Nicolas,  Nutitm  llintorica, 
V.  134. 

BOVIANUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  88).  Sec 
Ro.mk:  H.  C.  90-88. 

BOWIDES,  The.  See  JLuiometan  Con- 
QUKST  AND  E-MPiuu:  A.  D.  815-945;  also,  Sa- 
MANIDES;  also,  TuiiKS  (Seijuks):  A.  D.  1004- 
1003. 

BCVACA,  Battle  of  (1819).  See  Colombian 
States:  A.  U.  1810-1819. 

BOYARS. — "In  the  old  times,  when  Russia 
was  merely  a  collection  of  independent  prin- 
cipalities, each  reigning  prince  was  surrounded 
by  a  group  of  armed  men,  composed  partly  of 
Boyars,  or  large  landed  proprietors,  and  partly  of 
knights,  or  soltliers  of  fortune.  These  men,  who 
formed  the  Noblesse  of  the  time,  were  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  under  the  authority  of  the  Prince, 
but  they  were  by  no  means  mere  obedient,  silent 
executors  of  his  will.  The  Boyars  might  refuse 
to  take  part  in  his  military  expeditions.  .  .  . 
Under  the  Tartar  domination  this  political  equi- 
librium was  destroyed.  When  the  country  had 
been  conquered,  the  jirinces  became  servile  vas- 
sals of  the  Khan,  and  arbitrary  rulers  towards 
their  own  subjects.  The  politi".d  significance  of 
the  nobles  was  thereby  greatly  diminished." — 
D.  M.  Wallace,  Ibmia,  ch.  17. 

BOYNE,  Battle  of  the  (1690).  See  Ireland: 
A.  D.  1089-1 091. 

BOYS  IN  BLUE.— BOYS  IN  GRAY.— 
Soldier  nicknames  of  the  American  Civil  War. 
— "During  the  first  year  of  the  war  [of  the  Rebel- 
lion, in  the  United  States]  the  Union  sokliers 
commonly  called  their  opponents  '  Rebs '  and 
'Secesh';  in  1863,  'Confeils';  in  1803,  '  Gray- 
backs' and 'Butternuts';  and  in  1864,  'Johnnies.' 
The  nickname  'Butternuts'  was  given  the  C(m- 
federates  on  account  of  their  homespun  clothes, 
dyed  reddish-brown  with  a  dye  made  of  butternut 
bark.  The  last  name,  'Johnnies,'  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  a  quarrel  between  two  ])ickets, 
which  began  by  the  Union  man's  saying  that  the 
Confederates  depended  on  England  to  get  them 
out  of  their  scrape.  .  .  .  The  Union  man  .  .  . 
said  that  a  'Reb'  was  no  better  than  a  Johnny 
Bull,  anyhow.  .  .  .  The  name  stuck,  ami  in  the 
last  part  of  the  war  the  Confederate  soldiers 
were  almost  univei-sally  called  'Johnnies.' 
Throughout  the  war  the  Confederates  dubbed 
all  the  Union  soldiei-s  'Yankees'  and  'Yanks,' 
without  any  reference  to  the  part  of  the  country 
they  came  from.  .  .  .  Other  nicknames  for 
Union  soldiers,  occasionally  use<l,  were  'Feds,' 
'  Blue  Birds '  and  '  Blue  Bellies. '    Since  the  war 


305 


nOYS  IN  BLUE. 


BRANDENBURG,  1142-1153. 


the  opponents  have  been  commonly  cftUed  '  Boys 
in  Bhi(! '  and  '  Boys  in  Gray.'" — .1.  1).  Cliump- 
llu,  Jr.,  You ii'j  Folks'  IliHtury  of  tlie  War  for  tlie 
Union,  p.  137. 

BOZRA.     See  Gautiiaoe  :  Divisions,  &c. 

BOZZARIS,  Marco,  The  death  of.  See 
GuKKCi::  A.  D.  1821-1829. 

BRABANT  :  Mythical  Explanation  of  the 
name.     Sue  Antwkiu'. 

4th  centunr. — First  settlement  of  the 
Franks.     See  Toxanduia. 

9th  century. — Known  as  Basse  Lorraine, 
See  LouuAt.Ni::   A.  1).  84;i-HT0. 

A.  D.  1096-1099.— Duke  Godfrey  de  Bouillon 
in  the  First  Crusade,  and  his  king^dom  of 
Jerusalem.  See  Ciiusadks:  A.  D.  10<J0-1099; 
and  Jkuusalkm:  A.  I).  1099-1144. 

12th  to  15th  centuries. — The  county  and 
duchy.  —  From  tlie  beginning  of  the  12th  century, 
the  county,  afterwards  the  ducliy,  of  Brabant, 
existed  under  its  own  counts  and  dulces,  until 
the  beginning  of  the  loth  century,  wlien  it 
drifted  under  the  influences  which  at  tliat  time 
were  drawing  all  the  Netherland  States  within 
the  sphere  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  Burguudian 
dukes. 

A.  D.  1430. — Acquisition  by  the  House  of 
Burgundy.  See  Netiieklands:  A.  D.  1428- 
1430. 

* 

BRACCATI,  The.     See  Rome:  B.  C.  27.5. 
BRACHYCEPHALIC  MEN.     See  Doli- 

CnOCEPIIAI.IC. 

BRADDOCK'S  DEFEAT.  See  Ohio 
(Valley):  A.  D.  175,5. 

BRADFORD,  Governor,  and  the  Plymouth 
Colony.  See  JIassaciiusetts:  A.  D.  1621,  and 
after. 

BRADFORD'S  PRESS.  See  Puintino, 
&c. :  A.  D.  1535-1709,  1704-1729,  and  Pennsyl- 
vania: A.  D.  1692-1096. 

BRAGANZA,  The  House  of:  A.  D.  1640.— 
Accession  to  the  throne  of  Portugal.  See 
Poutugal:  a.  1).  1637-1608. 

BRAGG,  General  Braxton. — Invasion  of 
Kentucky.  See  United  States  of  A.m.  :  A.  D. 
1862  (.Tune  —  Octoueii:  Tennessee  —  Ken- 
tucky)  The  Battle  of  Stone  River.    See 

United    States   of   Am.:    A.    D.    1862-1863 

(Decemher  —  Janjauy:     Tennessee) The 

Tullahoma  Campaign.  See  United  States  of 
Am.:  a.  D.  1863  (June— July:  Tennessee). 
Chickamauga. — The  Chattanooga  Cam- 
paign. See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1863 
(Atjoust — SEPTE.MBE11,  and  Octobeu — Novem- 
bek:  Tennessee). 

BRAHMANISM.   See  India:  The  immigua- 

TION  AND  CONQUESTS  OP  THE  AuYAS. 

BRAHMANS.  See  Caste  system  of  India. 
— Also,  India:  The  Abouiginal  inhaiht.\nts. 

BRANCHIDiE,  The.  See  Oii.\cles  op  the 
Greeks. 

BRANDENBURG:  A.  D.  928-1142.— Be- 

f;innings  of  the  Margravatr. — "A.  D.  928, 
Icinr}'  the  Fowler,  marcliing  iic'ss  the  frozen 
bogs,  took  Brannibor,  a  cliieL  fortress  of  the 
Wends;  first  mention  in  human  siieech  of  the 
place  now  called  Brandenburg;  Bor  or  'Burg  of 
the  Brenns '  (if  there  ever  was  any  Tribe  of 
Brenns, —  Brennus,  there  as  elsewhere,  being 
name  for  King  or  Leader) ;  '  Burg  of  the  SVoods,' 
say  others,  — wlio  as  little  know.  Probably,  at  that 
time,  tt  town  of  clay  huts,  with  ditch  and  palisaded 


swl-wall  round  it ;  certainly  '  a  chief  fortress  of 
tlie  Wends,' — who  must  have  been  a  good  deal 
surprised  at  siglit  of  Henry  on  the  rimy  winter 
morning  near  a  tliousand  years  ago.  .  .  .  That 
Henry  ajipointed  due  Wardensliip  in  Brannibor 
was  in  the  common  coui-se.  Sure  enougli,  some 
Markgiiif  must  take  charge  of  Brannibor, — he  of 
the  Lausitz  eastward,  lor  e.\ami)le,  or  he  of 
Salzvvedel  westward; — that  Brannibor,  in  time, 
will  itself  be  found  tlie  fit  place,  and  have  its 
own  Markgraf  of  Brandenburg ;  this,  and  what 
in  Mie  ue.xt  nluo  centuries  Brandenburg  will 
grow  to,  Henry  is  far  from  surmising.  ...  In 
old  books  are  lists  of  the  primitive  Markgraves 
of  Brandenburg,  from  Henry's  time  downward; 
two  sets,  'Jlarkgraves  of  the  Witekind  race,' 
and  of  another:  but  they  are  altogether  uncer- 
tain, a  shadowy  intermittent  set  of  Markgraves, 
both  the  Witekind  set  and  the  Non- Witekind; 
and  truly,  for  a  couple  of  centuries,  seem  none 
of  t'.iem  to  have  been  other  than  subaltern  Depu- 
ties, belonging  mostly  to  Lausitz  or  Salzwedel; 
of  whom  therefore  we  can  say  nothing  here,  but 
must  leave  the  first  two  himdrcd  years  in  their 
natural  gray  state, —  pchaps  sufHeiently  con- 
ceivable by  the  reader.  .  .  .  The  Ditmarsch- 
Stade  kindred,  much  slain  in  battle  witli  the 
Heathen,  and  otherwise  beaten  upon,  died  out, 
about  the  year  1130  (earlier  psrliaps,  perhaps 
later,  for  all  is  shadowy  still) ;  and  were  succeeded 
in  tlio  Salzwedel  part  of  their  function  by  a  kin- 
dred called  'of  Ascanien  and  BallenstiUlt';  the 
Aseaiiier  or  Anlialt  Jlargraves;  whose  History, 
and  that  of  Brandenburg,  becomes  henceforth 
articulate  to  us.  .  .  .  This  i^scanien,  happily, 
has  nothing  to  do  with  Brute  of  Troy  or  the 
I)ious  JSneas's  son;  it  is  simply  the  name  of  a 
most  ancient  Castle  (etymology  unknown  to  me, 
ruins  still  dimly  traceable)  on  the  north  slope  of 
the  Hartz  Mountains;  sliort  way  from  Aschere- 
ieben,-the  Castle  and  Town  of  Aschersleben 
are,  so  tc>  speak,  a  second  edition  of  Ascanien. 
.  .  .  Tilt  kindred,  called  Grafs  and  ultimately 
Ilerzogs  (Dukes)  of  'Ascanien  and  Ballcnstildt,' 
are  very  famous  in  old  German  History,  espe- 
cially down  from  this  date.  Some  reckon  that 
they  had  intermittently  been  Markgrafs,  in 
their  regi<m,  long  before  this ;  which  is  conceiv- 
able enough ;  at  all  events  it  is  very  plain  they 
did  now  attain  the  Office  in  Salzwedel  (straight- 
way shifting  it  to  Brandenburg);  and  held  it 
continuously,  it  and  much  else  that  lay  adjacent, 
for  centuries,  in  a  highly  conspicuous  manner. 
In  Brandenburg  they  lasted  for  about  two- 
hundred  years." — T.  Carlyle,  Frederick  tlie 
Oreat,  bk.  3,  ch.  Z-i. 

A.  D.  1142-1152.— The  Electorate.— "He 
they  call  'Albert  the  Bear  (Albrccht  der  Bilr),' 
first  of  the  Ascanien  ]\I-irkgnives  of  Branden- 
burg ;  —  first  wholly  definite  JIarkgravo  of  Bran- 
denburg tliat  there  is ;  once  a  very  shining  figure 
in  the  world,  though  now  fallen  dim  enough 
again,  .  .  .  got  the  Northern  jiart  of  what  is 
still  called  Saxony,  and  kept  it  in  his  family; 
got  the  Brandenburg  Countries  withal,  got  the 
Lausitz ;  was  the  shining  figure  and  great  man 
of  the  North  in  liis  d.ay.  'fhc  Mfvrkgrafdom  of 
Salzwedel  (which  soon  became  of  Brandenburg) 
lie  very  naturally  acijuired  (A.  D.  1142  or  earlier); 
very  naturally,  considering  what  Saxon  and 
other  honours  and  po.ssessious  he  had  already  got 
hold  of.  We  can  only  say,  it  was  the  luckiest  of 
events  for  Bmudcnburg,  and  the  beginning  of  all 


306 


BRANDENDURO,  1143-1152. 


IJUANDEXBURQ,  1108-1417. 


the  better  dcstiules  it  has  hud.  A  oonspicuous 
Country  ever  since  in  tlie  world,  and  whieh  grows 
ever  more  so  in  our  late  times.  .  .  .  He  trans- 
ferred the  Markgrafdoni  to  Rrandenlmrg,  proba- 
bly as  more  central  in  his  wide  lan<ls;  Salzwedel 
is  henceforth  the  led  Markgrafdom  or  ^larck, 
and  soon  falls  out  of  notice  in  the  world.  Salz- 
wedel  i.s  called  henceforth  ever  since  the  'Old 
Marck  (Alte  Marck,  Altmarck)';  the  Branden- 
burg countries  getting  the  name  of  '  New  Marck.' 
.  .  .  Under  Albert  tin;  Markgrafd(jni  had  risen 
to  be  an  Electorate  withal.  The  Jfarkgraf  of 
Brandenburg  was  now  furthermore  the  Ivurf  llrst 
of  Brandenburg;  oflicially  '  Arch-treasurer  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire':  and  one  of  the  Seven 
who  have  a  right  (which  became  about  this  time 
an  exclusive  (me  for  those  Seven)  to  choose,  to 
'kicren'  the  Romish  Kai-ser;  and  wlio  are  there- 
fore called  •  Kur-Princes,'  Kurfllrste  or  Electors, 
as  the  highest  dignity  except  the  Kaiser's  own.  " 
— T.  C'arlylc,  Frederick  the  Great,  bk.  2,  eh.  4.— 
See,  also,  Geum.vny:  A.  I).  1125-1152. 

A.  D.  1168-1417. — Under  the  Ascanian,  the 
Bavarian  and  the  Luxemburg  lines,  to  the 
first  of  the  Hohenzollern. —  Albert  the  Hear  was 
succeeded  in  1108  by  his  son  Otlio.  "In  1170, 
as  it  would  appear,  the  name  of  Brandenburg 
was  substituted  for  that  of  North  Mark,  whicli 
iiad  cciised  to  describe  more  thiUi  the  original 
nucleus  of  the  colony,  now  one  of  the  several 
districts  into  which  it  was  divided.  The  city 
and  territory  of  Brandenburg  were  not  probably 
included  in  the  imperial  grant,  but  were  in- 
herited from  the  AVeudish  i>rince,  Pribislaw, 
whom  Albert  had  converted  to  Christianity.  .  .  . 
Under  (^tlio  II.,  brother  of  the  preceding,  the 
family  inheritance  was  sorely  mismanaged.  The 
Margrave  becoming  involved  in  .some  (piarrel 
with  the  See  of  Magdeburg,  the  Arehbishoi) 
placed  him  under  the  ban;  and  as  the  price  of 
release  Otho  was  required  to  accept  the 
Suzerainty  of  the  prelate  for  the  older  ami  better 
part  of  his  doiuinious.  His  brother  and  suc- 
cessor, Albert  II.,  was  also  unfortunate  in  the 
beginning  of  his  career;  but  recovered  the  favor 
of  the  Eiuiieror,  and  restored  the  prestige  of  his 
house  before  his  death.  .  .  .  Very  important 
accpusitions  were  made  during  the  reign  of  these 
two  princes.  The  preoccupations  of  the  King 
of  Denmark  gave  them  a  secure  foothold  in 
Pomerauia,  wliich  the  native  nobility  acknowl- 
edged; the  frontiers  were  pushed  eastward  to 
the  Oder,  where  the  New  jfark  was  organized, 
and  the  town  of  Frankfort  was  laid  out;  pur- 
chase put  them  in  possession  of  the  district  of 
Lebus;  and  the  l)ride  of  Otho  III.,  a  Bohemian 
jirincess,  brought  him  as  her  dowry  an  extensive 
region  on  the  L'pper  Spree  with  several  thriving 
villages  —  all  this  in  spite  of  the  <livision  of 
power  and  authority.  .  .  .  Otho  III.  died  in 
1207,  .lohn  one  year  later;  and  a  new  partition 
of  tlio  estate  was  made  between  their  several 
sons,  the  oldest,  Otho  IV.,  receiving,  however, 
the  title  and  prerogatives  of  head  of  the  house." 
The  last  margnive  of  the  A.scanian  lino,  Walde- 
mar,  died  in  iiiiO.  "His  cousin  and  only  heir, 
Henry,  was  a  minor,  and  survived  him  but  a 
year."  Then  "a  host  of  claimants  arose  for  the 
whole  or  parts  of  the  JIark.  Tlie  estates  showeil 
at  lirst  a  gallant  devotion  to  tlie  widow,  and  in- 
trusted the  reins  of  authority  to  her;  but  she 
repaid  this  tidelity  i)y  hastily  espousing  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  transferring  her  rights 


to  him.  The  transiiction  was  not,  however, 
ratitied  by  the  estates,  and  the  Duke  failed  to 
enforce  it  by  arms,  Pomerauia  threw  olf  the 
yoke  which  it  had  once  unwillingly  accepted; 
Bohemia  reclaimed  the  wedding  portion  of 
Otho's  bride ;  the  Duke  of  Lleguitz  sought  to  re- 
cover Lebus,  although  it  had  once  been  regtilarly 
sold;  and  in  the  general  scramble  the  Church, 
through  its  local  representatives,  fought  with  all 
the  energy  of  mere  worldly  robbers.  But  in 
this  crisis  the  Emperor  forgot  neither  the  duties 
of  his  station  nor  the  interests  of  his  house. 
Louis  II.  of  Bavaria  tlien  wore  the  purple.  By 
feudal  law  a  vacant  lief  reverted  to  its  suzerain. 
.  .  .  It  was  not  therefore  contrary  to  law,  n<n'(Hd 
it  shock  the  moral  sense  of  the  age,  when  Louis 
drew  the  JIark  practically  into  his  own  pos.ses- 
siou  I)y  conferring  it  nomnially  upon  his  nnnor 
son.  .  .  .  During  the  minority  of  Louis  the  Mar- 
grave, the  province  was  administered  by  Louis 
the  Emperor,  and  with  some  show  of  vigor." 
But  troubles  .so  thickened  about  the  Emperor,  in 
his  conrtict  witli  the  House  of  Austria,  on  the 
one  hand,  andwitli  the  Pope  on  the  other  [see 
GiiiiMANY:  A.  D.  1314-13471,  that  lie  could  not 
continue  the  protccticm  of  his  son.  The  Mark 
of  Brandenburg  was  invaded  by  the  King  of 
Poland,  and  its  Alargrave  "  watched  the  devasta- 
tion in  helpless  dismay."  The  people  defended 
themselves.  "The  young  city  of  Frankfort  was 
the  leader  in  the  tardy  but  successful  uprising. 
The  Poles  were  expelled;  the  citizens  had  for 
the  time  saved  tlie  Mark.  .  .  .  The  Margrave 
linally  wearied  even  of  the  forms  of  authority, 
and  sold  his  unhappy  dominions  to  his  two 
brotliers,  another  Louis  and  Otho.  In  the  mean- 
time his  father  had  died.  The  Electors  —  or  live 
of  them  —  had  alreiuly  deposed  him  and  chosen 
in  his  place  Charles  of  Moravia,  a  prince  of  the 
house  of  Luxemburg,  as  his  successor.  He  be- 
came respectably  au(l  even  creditably  known  in 
history  as  Charles  IV.  .  .  .  Although  he  failed 
in  the  attempt  to  subdue  by  arms  the  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg,  who  had  naturally  espoused 
his  father's  cause,  he  was  persistent  and  in- 
genious ir.  diplomatic  schemes  for  overthrowing 
the  House  of  Bavaria  and  bringing  the  Mark 
under  liis  own  sceptre.  .  .  .  From  Louis  he  pro- 
cured ...  a  treaty  of  succession,  by  whicli  he 
should  acquire  Brandenburg  in  case  of  the  deatli 
of  that  JIargrave  and  his  brother  Otho  without 
hell's.  His  intrigues  were  finally  crowned  with 
''onipleto  success.  Louis  died  suddenly  in  1305. 
Otho,  thenceforth  alone  in  the  charge,  vacillated 
between  weak  submission  to  the  Emperor's  will, 
and  spurts  of  petulant  but  feeble  resistance; 
until  Charles  put  an  end  to  the  farce  by  invading 
the  JIark,  crushing  the  army  of  the  Margrave, 
and  forcing  him  to  an  aliject  capitulation.  In 
1371,  after  a  nominal  rule  of  half  a  century,  and 
for  the  price  of  a  meagre  annuity,  the  Bavarian 
line  transferred  all  its  rights  to  the  family  of 
Charles  IV."  Charles  died  in  1378.  His  s<m 
Wenzel,  "  for  whom  the  JIark  had  been  destined 
in  the  plans  of  Charles,  aciiuired,  meanwhile, 
the  crown  of  Bohemia  a  richer  prize,  and 
Brandeuburg  passed  to  t  le  next  son,  Siglsmond. 
The  change  was  a  disastrous  one."  Sigismond 
pawned  tlie  Mark  to  his  kinsman,  Jobst,  of 
Moravia,  and  it  fell  into  great  ilisorder.  "Im- 
lierial  altairs  during  this  period  were  in  scarcely 
less  confusion.  AVenzel  of  Bohemia  had  been 
chosen  emperor,  and  then  deposed  for  obvious 


307 


BUANDENBUHQ,  1168-1417. 


BRANDENBUUQ,  1640-1688. 


unfltnp.s.s.  Kupcrt,  Count  Palatini',  lind  next 
lii'cii  elected,  anil  liail  died.  ARiiin  llie  post  was 
vacant,  and  Sigisniond,  still  the  real  Elector  of 
Hrandenburj;,  .  .  .  Issued  successfully  from  the 
<'ontest.  His  jroo<l  fortune  was  due' in  a  con- 
spicuous degree  to  the  influence  and  the  money 
of  Frederic,  Bur),'grave  of  Nuremberg  [see 
HoiiiCNZoi.i.KKN,  liisK  OF  THE  IIoiisK  OFJ;  and 
It  Is  to  the  credit  of  Slglsmond  tliat  lie  did  not 
add  ingratitude  to  his  otiier  vices,  but  on  his 
election  as  emperor  hastened  [1411]  to  make  his 
l)atron  statlhalter,  or  viceroy  of  the  Mark."  Si.x 
years  later,  In  1417,  Frederic  was  formally  In- 
vested with  the  sovereignty  of  tbe  .Mark,  as 
Margrave  and  Elector. — II.  Ti-t.'e,  JIM.  of 
PruHniic  til  thf  Afnunioii  of  Frcdei:':  the  Great, 
eh.  1  and  'A. 

A.  D.  1355. — Declared  an  integral  part  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia.  See  BoiiI':.mia: 
A.  D.  IIh^.X 

A.  D.  1417-16AO. — Rising  importance  of  the 
HoheuzoUetn  family. — Acquisition  of  the 
Duchy  of  Prussia.— On  being  inj-ested  with  the 
Electorate  of  lirandenburg,  Frederick  of  Xurem- 
berg  sold  the  odice  of  Burggrave  to  the  Nurem- 
bergers  lind  devoted  himself  to  his  new  provl'ice. 
"Temperate,  just,  and  tirm  in  his  dealings,  he 
succeeded  in  reducing  Brandenburg  from  anarchy 
to  order.  Already  as  deputy  for  SIgismund  he 
had  begim  the  task.  .  .  .  During  tlie  reign  of 
his  son  and  successor,  characteristically  knowa 
as  Frederick  Ironteeth  [1440-1472],  the  strong 
Hand  was  not  rela.xed ;  and  Brandenburg  became 
thenceforward  tamed  to  law  and  order.  The 
Electorate,  which  during  the  preceding  century 
had  been  curtailed  by  losses  In  war  and  by  sales, 
began  again  to  enlarge  Its  borders.  The  New 
March,  which  had  been  sold  in  the  days  of  SIgis- 
mund to  tlic  Teutonic  Knights,  was  now  [1455] 
bought  back  from  them  in  their  need.  .  .  . 
Albert  Achilles,  the  brother  and  successor  of 
Frederick  II.,  was  a  man  as  powerful  and  as 
able  as  his  predecessor.  By  his  accession  the 
principalities  of  Balreuth  and  Anspach,  which 
had  been  separated  from  the  Electorate  for  tlie 
younger  sons  of  Frederick  I. ,  were  reunited  to 
It;  and  by  a  scheme  of  cross-remainders  new 
plans  were  laid  for  the  acquisition  of  territory. 
...  It  was  already  understood  that  the  Elector- 
ate was  to  descend  according  to  the  law  of 
primogeniture ;  but  Auspach  and  Balreuth  were 
still  reserved  as  appanages  for  younger  sous; 
and  upon  the  death  of  Albert  Achilles,  In  1484, 
his  territories  were  again  divided,  and  romaineil 
so  for  more  tlian  a  hundred  years.  The  result 
of  the  division,  however,  was  to  multiply  and 
wot  to  weaktm  the  strength  of  the  House.  The 
earlier  years  of  the  16th  century  saw  the  Ilolien- 
zollerns  rising  everywhere  to  power.  Albert 
Achilles  had  been  succeeded  [148i  l)y  John,  of 
\vh(mi  little  is  Isuown  except  his  eloquence,  and 
by  .loaehlm  [1409],  who  was  preparing  to  bear 
his  part  against  the  Ileformation.  A  brother  of 
Joachim  hiul  become.  In  1514,  Elector  of  Meutz; 
and  the  double  vote  of  the  family  at  the  election 
of  Cliarles  V.  had  increased  their  importance. 
The  younger  branch  was  rising  also  to  eminence. 
George  of  Brandenburg,  JIargrave  of  Anspach, 
and  grandson  of  Albert  Achilles,  was  able  in 
1.534  to  |)urcliase  tlie  Duchy  of  Jagerndorf  in 
Silesia,  and  with  it  the  reversions  to  the  princi- 
palities of  ()p|)elu  and  Kjvtibor,  which  eventually 
fell  to  him.     Ills  younger  brother,  Albert,  had 


been  chosen  in  1511  Grand  Master  of  the  Teu- 
tonic Order,  and  was  already  C(ravertlng  his 
olllce  into  the  hereditary  Dukedom  of  Prussia," 
which  it  became  in  1.525  (see  Pol.vnm):  .V.  D. 
13;3;)-1572).  "Tlie  Elector  Joachim  I.  of  Bran- 
denburg Is  perhaps  the  least  prominent,  but  was" 
not  the  least  prudent,  of  his  family.  Through- 
out his  life  he  adhered  to  the  old  faith,  and  pre- 
served his  dominions  In  tran<|uility.  His  son 
and  successor,  Joachim  II.,  to  the  joy  of  his 
people,  adopted  the  new  religi(m  [15:")9];  and 
found  In  the  seculariz(nl  bishoprics  of  Branden- 
burg, Ilavelburg.  and  Lebus,  solium  compensation 
for  the  ecclesiastical  Electorate  wliicli  was  about 
to  pass,  upon  the  death  of  Albert  of  Mentz, 
from  his  family.  But  he  also  was  able  to  secure 
the  continuance  of  peace.  Di.strustful  of  the 
success  of  the  League  of  SmalkakI  he  refused  to 
join  ill  It,  and  became  chletly  known  as  a  media- 
tor ill  the  struggles  of  the  time.  The  Electors 
John  George  [1571-1.508]  and  Joachim  Frederick 
[1598-1608]  followed  the  same  policy  of  peace. 
.  .  .  Peace  and  internal  progress  had  charac- 
terized the  lOtli  century;  war  and  external 
acquisitions  were  to  mark  the  17th.  The  failure 
of  the  younger  line  in  1603  caused  Bayreuth, 
Anspacli,  and  Jagerndorf  to  fall  to  the  Elector 
Joachim  Frederick ;  but  as  they  were  re-granted 
almost  at  once  to  younger  sons,  and  never  again 
reverted  to  the  Electorate,  their  acquisition 
became  of  little  importance.  TIk;  JIargrave, 
George  Frederick,  however,  had  held.  In  addition 
to  his  own  territories,  the  olHce  of  administrator 
for  Albert  Frederick,  second  Duke  of  Prussia, 
who  had  become  imbecile;  and,  by  his  death, 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  became  next  of  kin, 
and  claimed  to  succeed  to  the  ofHce.  The  ad- 
mission of  this  claim  placed  the  Electors  in 
virtual  jjossession  of  the  Duchy.  By  a  deed  of 
co-infeolfinent,  which  Joacliim  II.  had  obtained 
In  1508  from  his  father-in-law  the  King  of  Poland, 
they  were  heirs  to  the  Duchy  upon  failure 
of  the  younger  line.  .  .  .  Duke  Albert  died  in 
1618;  and  Brandenburg  and  Prussia  were  then 
united  under  the  Elector  John  SIgismund.  It 
was  well  that  the  Duchy  had  been  secured  be- 
fore the  storm  which  was  already  gathering  over 
the  Empire  had  burst.  .  .  .  fturing  the  long 
struggle  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  history 
of  Brandenburg  Is  that  of  a  sufferer  rather  than 
an  actor.  .  .  .  George  William,  who  died  in 
1640,  bequeathed  a  desert  to  his  successor.  That 
successor  was  Frederick  William,  to  be  known 
in  history  as  the  Great  Elector." — C.  F.  John- 
stone, Ilistorieal  Ahstracta,  eh.  5. 

Also  in:  T.  Carlyle,  Hist,  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  bk.  3  (p.  1). 

A.  D.  1609.— The  JUlich-Cleve  contest.  See 
Giiu.MANY:  A.  D.  1008-1018. 

A.  D.  1627. — Occupied  by  Wallenstein  and 
the  Imperial  army.     See  Gkumanv:  1027-1629. 

A.  D.  1630-1631. — Compulsory  alliance  of 
the  Elector  with  Gustavus  Adotphus  of 
Sweden.  Sec  Geu.many:  A.  D.  1030-1031,  and 
1031. 

A.  D.  1632.— Refusal  to  enter  the  Union  of 
Heilbronn.     See  Germany:    A.   D.   1032-1634. 

A.  D.  1634.— Desertion  °^  ^^^  Protestant 
cause. — Alliance^ith  the  Emperor.  See  Ger- 
many: A.  D.  10.34-1039. 

A.  D.  1640-1688.— The  Great  Elector.— His 
development  of  the  strength  of  the  Electorate. 
— His  successful  wars.— His  acquisition  of  the 


308 


BUANDENDUnG,  1040-1688. 


BRANDEffnUUO,  164i>-l(W8. 


complete  sovereignty  of  Prussia. — Fehrbellin. 

— "  l'V('(l('ri(^  William,  known  in  liLstory  as  tlio 
Great  Elector,  was  only  twenty  years  old  when 
he  sureeeded  liis  father.  He  found  everything 
in  disorder:  his  country  desolate,  his  fortresses 
garrisoned  by  troops  under  a  solemn  order  to 
obey  ordy  the  mandates  of  the  Emperor,  his  army 
to  be  counted  almost  on  the  lingers.  Ills  first 
care  was  to  conclude  a  truce  with  the  Swedes; 
his  second  to  .secure  his  western  borders  by  an 
alliance  with  Holland;  his  third  —  not  in  order 
of  action,  for  in  that  respect  it  tooli  first  place  — 
to  raise  the  nucleus  of  an  army;  his  fourth,  to 
cause  the  evacuation  of  his  fortresses.  .  .  .  To 
allay  the  wrath  of  the  Emperor,  he  temporised 
uutd  his  armed  force  had  attained  the  n\imberof 
8,000.  That  force  once  under  arms,  he  boldly  as- 
serted his  position,  and  with  .so  much  elfect  that 
in  the  discussions  preceding  the  I'eace  of  West- 
phalia he  could  e.\ercise  a  considerable  influence. 
By  the  terms  of  that  treaty,  the  part  of  Pomerania 
linown  as  Hinter  I^)mmern,  the  principalities  of 
Magdeburg  an<l  Ilalberstadt,  and  the  bishoprics 
of  Slindcn  and  Ivanunin  were  ceded  to  Branden- 
burg. .  .  .  The  Peace  once  signed,  Frederic 
William  set  diligently  to  work  to  IumI  the  dis- 
orders and  to  repair  the  mischief  which  the  long 
-war  had  caused  in  his  dominions.  .  .  .  He  speci- 
ally cherished  his  army.  We  have  seen  its  small 
beginning  in  1040-43.  Fifteen  years  later,  in 
lO.'i.'),  or  seven  years  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
Peace  of  W^estphalia,  it  amounted  to  2.'),000men, 
■well  drilled  and  well  disciplined,  disposing  ol 
seventy-two  pieces  of  cannon.  In  the  times  in 
which  he  lived  he  had  need  of  such  an  armj'. 
In  10.')4,  (,'hristina,  the  wayward  and  gifted 
daugliterof  Oustavus  Adolphus,  had  abdicated. 
Her  successor  on  tlie  throne  of  Sweden  was  her 
co\'.sin,  Charles  Gustavus,  Duke  of  Zweibrlicken. 
.  .  .  Tlic  right  of  Charles  Gustavus  to  the  suc- 
cession was,  however,  contested  by  .lolm  Casimir, 
King  of  Poland.  .  .  .  War  ensued.  In  that  war 
the  star  of  Charles  Gustavus  was  in  the  ascend- 
ant, and  the  unfortunate  John  Casimir  was  forced 
to  !d)andon  his  own  dominions  and  to  flee  into 
Silesia.  The  vicinity  of  the  two  rivals  to  his  own 
outlying  territories  was,  however,  too  near  not  to 
renderanxiousFrederic  William  of  Brandenburg. 
To  protect  Prussia,  then  held  in  fief  from  the  King 
of  Poland,  he  marched  with  8,000  men  to  its  bor- 
ders. But  even  with  such  a  force  he  was  tniable, 
or  perhaps,  more  correctly,  he  was  prudenth' 
unwilling,  to  resist  the  insisfjince  put  upon  him 
at  IConigsberg  by  the  victorious  King  of  Sweden 
(1650)  to  transfer  to  him  the  feudal  overlordsliip 
of  that  province.  Great  results  followed  from 
this  compliance.  Hardly  had  the  treaty  been 
signed,  whenjohn  Casimir,  returningfrom  Silesia 
■with  an  Imperial  army  at  Iiis  back,  drove  the 
Swedes  from  Poland,  and  recovered  his  domin- 
ions. He  did  not  evidently  intend  to  stop  there. 
Then  it  was  that  tlie  opportunity  arrived  to  the 
Great  Elector.  Earnestly  solicited  by  tlic  King 
of  Sweden  to  aid  him  in  a  contest  which  had  as- 
turned  dimensions  .so  formidable,  Frederic  Wil- 
liam consented,  but  oalv  on  the  condition  that 
he  should  receive  the  Polish  palatinates  (Woiwml- 
shaften)  of  Posen  and  Kalisch  as  the  price  of  a 
victorious  campaign.  He  then  joined  the  King 
with  his  army,  met  thecnemy  at  Warsaw,  fought 
with  him  close  to  that  city  a  great  battle,  whicli 
lasted  three  days  (38th  to  JWth  July  1600),  and 
which  teriuiuutcd  tlicu,   thanks  mainly  to  the 


pertinacity  of  the  Brandeuburgers  —  in  the  com- 
plete defeat  of  I  he  Poles.  The  victory  ginned, 
Frederic  William  withdrew  his  tnN>|)H.  .  .  . 
Again  did  John  Casimir  recover  from  his  defeat; 
again,  aided  by  the  Im|K>rialists,  did  lie  nmnli 
to  the  front,  reoccupy  Warsaw,  and  take  up  ii 
tlireatening  position  (.|iposite  to  the  Swedish 
camp.  The  Kim;  of  Sw'  den  l)eheld  in  this  action 
on  the  part  of  his  enemy  ilie  prelude  to  his  own 
certain  destruction,  unless  by  any  means  he  could 
induce  tlie  Elector  of  Hmndt  iilmrg  once  more  to 
save  him.  H(!  sent,  then,  urgent  nies.sengcr8 
after  him  to  beg  him  to  return.  The  messengers 
found  Frederic  William  at  Labian.  Tliere  the 
Elector  halted  and  tliere,  joincil  the  nc.vt  day, 
20th  November  10.">(),  by  King  Charles  Gustavii.s, 
he  signed  a  treaty,  by  which,  im  condition  of  his 
material  aid  in  tlie  war,  the  latter  renounced  lii.s 
feudal  overlordsliip  over  Prus.sia,  and  agreed  to 
acknowledge  the  Elector  and  his  male  descend- 
ants as  sovereign  dukes  of  that  province.  In  tho 
war  which  followed,  the  enemies  of  Sweden  and 
Brandenburg  multiplied  on  every  side.  Tho 
Danes  and  Lithuanians  espoused  the  cause  of 
John  Casimir.  Its  issue  seemed  to  Frederic  Wil- 
liam more  tlian  doubtful.  He  asked  himself, 
then,  whether  —  the  new  enemies  who  had  arisen 
being  the  enemies  of  Sweden  and  not  of  himself 
—  he  had  not  more  to  gain  by  sharing  in  tho 
victories  of  the  Poles  than  in  the  defeats  of  the 
Swedes.  Replying  to  himself  alllrmatively,  he 
concluded,  29th  September  10.57,  through  the  in- 
termediation of  the  Emperor,  witli  the  Poles,  at 
Wehlau,  a  treaty  whcR-by  the  dukedom  of  Prus- 
sia \vi\c  ceded  "in  absolute  sovereignty  to  the 
Elect  )r  of  Brandenburg  and  his  male  issue,  with 
reversion  to  Poland  in  case  of  the  extinction  of 
the  family  of  the  Franeonian  HolienzollernB;  in 
return,  Frederic  William  engaged  himself  to  sup- 
port the  Poles  in  their  war  against  Sweden  with 
a  corps  of  4,000  men.  But  before  this  ctmven- 
tion  could  be  acted  upon,  fortune  Inul  again 
smiled  upon  Charles  Gustavus.  Turning  in  the 
heiglit  of  winter  against  the  Danes,  the  King  of 
Sweden  had  defeated  them  in  the  open  field,  p\ir- 
sued  them  across  the  frozen  waters  of  the  Belt  to 
Filnen  and  Seeland,  and  had  imposed  ui)on  their 
king  the  humiliating  peace  of  l{oeskilde  (Ifi.W). 
He  seemed  inclined  to  proceed  .still  further  in  tho 
destruction  of  the  ancient  rival  of  Ids  countrj', 
wlien  a  combined  army  of  Poll's  and  Brandeu- 
burgers suddenly  poured  through  Mecklen- 
burg into  Hnlstein  drove  thence  the  Swedes, 
and  gave  them  i-.>  rest  till  they  had  evacuated 
likewise  Sc^hleswig  and  Jutland  (16159).  In  a 
battle  which  took  i)lace  shortly  afterwards  on 
tlie  island  of  Fl'uien,  at  Nyborg,  the  Swedes  .s»if- 
fc'red  a  defeat.  This  defeat  made  Charles  Giis- 
tavusdespairof  success,  and  he  had  already  begun 
to  treat  for  peace,  when  deatli  snatched  liim  from 
the  scene  (January  1600).  Tlie  uegotiations  which 
had  begun,  however,  continued,  and  finally  iK'ace 
was  signetl  on  tlie  1st  May  1000,  in  the  nioniistery 
of  Oliva,  close  to  Danzig.  This  peace  confirmed 
to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  his  sovereign  rights 
over  the  duchy  of  Prussia.  From  this  e]XHh 
dates  the  complete  union  of  Brandenburg  and 
Prussia  —  a  union  upon  which  a  great  man  was 
able  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  powerful  North 
German  Kingdom!"  Duriug  the  next  dozen 
years,  tlic  Great  Elector  was  chiefly  busied  in  es- 
tablishing his  Authority  in  his  doniinicms  and 
curbing  the  ixiwer  of  the  nobles,  particularly  in 


309 


BIUNDENBURO,  1040-1088. 


UKAZIL,  1510-lOei. 


PrusHiii.  Ill  10T4,  wlini  Louis  XIV.  of  Fmnce 
provoki'tl  war  witli  the  (Jcrmim  princes  by  liis 
attiu'li  on  till'  Diitcli,  Ficilcric  Willlimi  led  2(),0(K) 
men  into  AIhiui'  to  join  tlii'  Inipcri!!!  forces. 
Louis  tlicn  culled  upon  his  iillies,  the  Swedes,  to 
inviide  Uranderd)urj(,  which  they  did,  under  (}en- 
crul  Wnuigel,  in  Jiinuiiry,  1075.  "  I'lundering 
and  burning  us  they  adviiueed,  they  cntereil 
llavcUaiid,  lh<!  granary  of  Herlhi,  and  carried 
their  devastations  up  to  the  very  jrates  of  that 
cajiital."  Tile  Elector  was  retn'utinj;  from  Alsace 
before  Tureniu;  when  lu^  heard  of  tlie  invasion. 
II(!  paused  for  sonic  v.eel<s,  to  put  his  army  in 
good  (H)iidition,  and  then  he  Iiurried  northwards, 
liy  forced  marclie.,.  Tho  enemy  was  taken  by 
surprise,  and  attacked  while  attemjiting  to  re- 
treat, near  Fehrliellin,  on  tli<'  18tli  of  .Iimc.  After 
two  liotirs  of  a  tremendous  liand-to-liand  contliet, 
"the  right  wing  (>f  the  Swedes  was  crushed  and 
broken;  the  centn.  and  left  wing  were  in  full  re- 
treat towards  Felirbellin.  The  victors,  utterlv 
exhausted  —  they  liad  scarcely  (luitted  their  sad- 
dles for  eleven  days —  were  too  worn  out  to  pur- 
sue. It  wa"  not  till  tho  following  iii'irning  tliat, 
refreshed  and  recovered,  they  followed  tlio  re- 
treatiii,'^  foe  to  the  borders  of  Mecklenliurg.  .  .  . 
The  Great  Elector  promptly  followed  up  his  vic- 
tory till  he  had  compelled  tho  Swedes  to  evacuate 
all  Pomerania.  Three  years  later,  when  they 
once  more  crossed  the  border  from  Livonia,  he 
forced  tlicni  again  to  retreat ;  andaithoiigh  in  tlie 
treaty  signed  at  St.  Germain  in  1079  he  was 
forced  to  renounce  his  Pomeranian  concjuests,  he 
<lid  not  the  less  estalilisli  tlie  ultimate  right  of 
the  State  of  which  ho  was  the  real  founder  to 
those  lauds  on  the  Baltic  for  wliidi  he  had  so 
hardly  struggled  at  the  negotiations  whicli  iire- 
ceded  the  Peace  of  AVestplialia.  When  he  died 
(i)tL  Jlay  1088)  he  left  the  Kingdom  already  made 
iu  a  [losition  of  prosperity  sutlicieiit  to  justify  his 
son  and  successor  in  assuming,  tliirteen  vears 
lator,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  victory  of  t\'hr- 
bellin,  the  title  of  King."— G.  B.  Malleson,  The 
Buttle  Ficlth  of  Germany,  ch.  8. — Sec,  also,  Sc.^vn- 
DiNAViAN  States  (Sweden):  A.  I).  1044-1007. 

A.  D.  1648.— The  Peace  of  Westphalia.— 
Loss  of  part  of  Pomerania. — Compensating 
acquisitions.     See  Geu.many:  A.  1).  1048. 

A.  D.  1672-1679.— In  the  Coalition  against 
Louis  XIV.  See  Nethkulands  (IIoli..\m)): 
A.  D.  1073-1074,  and  1074-1078 ;  also  Nimeguen, 
Peace  of. 

A.  D.  1689-1696.— The  war  of  the  Grand 
Alliance  against  Louis  XIV.  See  Fuance: 
A.  D.  1089-101)0,  to  1095-1090. 

A.  D.  1697.— The  Treaty  of  Ryswick.— 
Restitutions  by  France.  See  Fiu^'ce:  A.  D. 
1007. 

A.  D.  1700.— The  Elector  made  King  of 
Prussia.     See  Pkussia  :  A.  D.  1700. 

BRANDY  STATION,  OR  FLEET- 
WOOD, Battle  of.  Sec  United  States  of 
A.M.  :  A.  D.  1803  (.IiNE;  Vikoinia). 

BRANDYWINE,  Battle  of  the  (A.  D. 
1777).  See  I'nited  States  of  Am.  :  A.  1).  1777 
<.Iani:auv — Decembeh). 

BRANKIRKA,  Battle  of  (1518).  See  Scan- 
dinavian ST.vths:  A.  I).  1397-1.527. 

BRANT,  CP  lEF,  and  the  Indian  warfare  of 
the  American  F  evolution.  Sec  United  States 
OF  Am.:  a.  D.  1778  (June— Novemueu),  and 
(July). 


BRASIDAS     IN     CHALKIDIKE.      See 

Gukkck:  H.  C.  421-121: 

BRAZIL  :  Origin  of  the  name. — "  Asthemost 
valuable  part  of  tlie  cargo  which  Aliieri<us  Vcs- 
pucius  carried  back  to  Eurojje  was  tlie  well- 
known  <lye-wooil,  'Ciesalpina  Bni/iliensis, ' — 
called  in  the  Portuguese  language  'pan  brazil,' 
on  account  of  its  resemblance  to  '  bra/as,'  '  coals 
of  fire,' —  the  land  whence  it  came  was  termed  the 
'  land  of  tlie  brazil-wood  ';  and  liiially  this  appel- 
lation was  shortened  to  Brazil,  an(I  completely 
usurped  the  names  Vera  Cruz,  or  Santa  Cruz." — 
J.  C.  Fietcher  and  1).  P.  Kidder,  llnizil  and  the 
llraziliann,  ch.  3. — See,  also,  Ameuica:  A.  D. 
1500-1514. 

The  aboriginal  inhabitants.  Sec  Ameuican 
AiiouioiNEs:  Ti'i'i. — Guauani. — Tupuyas;  also 
OucK  or  Coco  Gkodp. 

A.  D.  1500-1S04. — Discovery,  exploration  of 
the  coast  and  nrst  settlement.  See  Amkhica: 
A.  I).  1499-1.")00,  l.")()()-1514,  and  1.5();!-1.5t)4. 

A.  D.  1510-1661. — Portuguese  colonization 
and  agriculture. — Introduction  of  Slavery. — 
The  coming  of  the  Jesuits. — Conquests  of 
the  Dutch,  and  the  Portuguese  recovery  of 
them. — "Brazil,  on  which  tho  Portuguese  ships 
had  been  cast  by  accident,  had  been  found  to 
unite  iu  itself  tlie  capabilities  of  every  part  of 
the  world  in  which  Europeans  have  settled, 
though  happily  gold  and  .silver  had  not  yet  been 
discovered,  anil  the  colonists  betook  themselves 
from  the  first  to  agriculture.  The  first  perma- 
nent settlements  on  this  coast  were  made  by 
Jews,  e.xiled  by  the  persecution  of  the  Imiuisl- 
tion;  and  the  government  supplemented  those 
by  sending  out  criminals  of  all  kinds.  But 
gradually  the  consequence  of  Bnizil  became 
recognized,  and,  as  afterwards  happened  in  New 
England,  the  nobility  at  home  asked  to  sliare  the 
land  among  themselves.  Emmanuel  would  not 
countenance  such  a  claim,  but  this  great  prince 
died  in  1531,  and  his  successor,  John  III.,  ex- 
tended to  Brazil  the  same  system  which  had  licen 
adopted  iu  Madeira  and  the  Azores.  The  whole 
sea-coast  of  Brazil  was  parcelled  out  by  feudal 
grants.  It  was  divided  into  captaincies,  each  50 
leagues  in  length,  with  no  limits  In  the  interior; 
and  these  were  granted  out  as  male  fiefs,  witli 
atisolute  power  over  the  natives,  such  as  at  that 
time  existed  over  the  serfs  who  tilled  tlie  soil  in 
Europe.  But  tlie  native  Brazilians  were  neither 
so  easy  a  conquest  as  the  Peruvians,  nor  so  easily 
induced  to  labour;  and  the  Portuguese  now  be- 
gan to  bring  uogros  from  the  Guinea  coast. 
This  tratlic  in  human  flesh  had  long  been  vigor- 
ously pursued  in  various  parts  of  Europe ;  the 
Portuguese  now  introduced  it  to  America.  The 
.settlors  of  Brazil  were,  jiroperly  speaking,  tho 
first  European  colonists.  For  they  sold  tlieirowu 
Iiossessions  at  home,  and  brouglit  their  house- 
holds with  them  to  tlio  new  country.  Thus  they 
gradually  formed  the  heart  of  a  now  nation, 
whereas  the  chief  Spaniards  always  returned 
home  after  a  certain  tenure  of  their  oflices,  and 
tliose  who  remained  in  the  colony  descended  to 
tho  rank  of  the  concpiored  natives.  JIany  of 
those  who  came  to  Brazil  had  already  served  in 
the  expeditious  to  tho  East;  and  they  naturally 
perceived  that  the  coast  of  America  might  raise 
tlie  productions  of  India.  Ilonco  Brazil  early 
became  a  plantation  colony,  and  its  prosperity  is 
very  mucli  due  to  the  culture  of  the  sugar  cane. 
The  Portuguese  were  greatly  assisted,  both  in 


310 


BRAZIL,  1510-1661. 


BRAZIL,  1581-1841. 


the  East  and  tlie  West,  by  the  efforts  of  the 
newly  fouiiiled  onler  of  the  Jesuits.  .  .  .  John 
III.  in  [1549|  sent  out  six  of  tlie  order  with  the 
first  governor  of  Bnizil.  .  .  .  Tlie  Dutch,  iniule 
bold  by  their  great  successes  in  i  ■  P^ast,  now- 
sought  to  win  the  trade  of  Brazil  by  force  of 
amis,  and  tlic  success  of  the  I'^ist  India  Company 
encouraged  tlic  adventurers  wliot subscribed  tlie 
funds  for  tliat  of  the  West  Indies,  incorporated  in 
1621.  Tlic  Dutch  Admiral,  Jacob  Willeliens,  suc- 
cessfully assaulted  San  Salvador  [Bahia]  in  1624, 
uiid  thougli  the  capital  was  afterwards  retaken  by 
the  Intrepid  Archbishop  Te.xeira,  one  lialf  of  the 
coast  of  Brazil  submitted  to  the  Dutch.  Here, 
as  in  the  Eiust,  the  proUt  of  the  company  was  the 
whole  aim  of  the  Dutch,  and  the  spirit  in  whicli 
they  executed  their  design  was  a  main  cause  of 
its  failure.  .  .  .  But  .  .  .  the  profits  of  tlie 
company  .  .  .  rose  at  one  time  to  cent  i)er  cent. 
The  visions  of  the  speculators  of  Amsterdam  be- 
came greater;  and  they  resolved  to  become 
masters  of  all  Brazil.  .  .  .  The  man  whom  they 
despatched  [1037]  to  execute  this  design  was 
Prince  John  JIaurice  of  Nassau.  ...  In  a  short 
time  he  had  greatly  extended  the  Dutch  posses- 
sions. But  the  Stad-houder  was  subject,  not  to 
the  wise  and  learned  men  wlio  sat  in  tlie  States- 
General,  but  to  the  merchants  who  composed  the 
courts  of  the  company.  They  tliouglit  of  nothing 
but  their  dividends ;  they  considered  that  Maurice 
kept  up  more  trooi)s  and  built  more  fortresses 
than  were  necessary  for  ii  mercantile  c(mimunity, 
and  that  he  lived  in  too  princely  a  fasliion  for 
one  in  tlieir  service.  Perhaps  they  suspected  him 
of  an  intention  of  slipping  into  tliat  royal  dig- 
nity wliich  tlie  feudal  frame  of  Brazilian  society 
seemed  to  offer  him.  At  any  rate,  in  1643,  tliey 
forced  him  to  resign.  A  recent  revolution  had 
terminated  tlie  subjection  of  Portugal  to  Spain, 
and  tlio  new  liing  of  Portugal  concluded  a  truce 
for  ten  years  with  Holland.  War  was  therefore 
supposed  to  be  out  of  the  question.  .  .  .  But  the 
recall  of  Maurice  was  the  signal  for  an  independ- 
ent revolt  in  Brazil.  Though  the  motiier  coun- 
tries were  at  peace,  war  brolte  out  between  the 
Dutch  and  the  Portuguese  of  Brazil  in  1045. 
Tlie  Jesuits  had  long  preached  a  crusade  against 
the  heretic  Dutch.  .  .  .  Jolin  Ferdinand  de 
Vieyra,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  Pernamlnico,  led 
a  general  uprising  of  the  Brazilians,  and  althougli 
the  Dulcli  made  a  stubborn  resistance,  they  re- 
ceived no  assistance  from  liome ;  tiiey  were  driven 
from  one  post  after  another,  until,  in  1054,  the 
liist  of  the  company's  servants  quitted  Brazil. 
The  Dutch  declared  war  against  Portugal ;  but 
in  1601  peace  was  made,  aad  the  Dutch  sold  their 
claims  for  SfOOO,  000  florins,  the  right  of  trading 
being  secured  to  tlieni.  But  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Dutch,  the  trade  of  Brazil  came  more  and 
more  into  tlie  hands  of  the  English." — E.  J. 
Payne,  Hist,  of  Europmn  Cuhiiies,  ch.  3-3. 

Also  in:  K.  G.  Watson,  HjMimh  and  Portu- 
guese South  Ainenca,  v.  1,  ch.  Oaiul  15/  v.  2,ch. 
1-4.— R.  Soutliey,  Jlint.  of  Bnizil,  ».  1-2. 

A.  D,  1524.— Conceded  to  Portugal.  See 
America:  A.  I).  1519-1524. 

A.  D.  1531-1641.— The  Republic  of  St.  Paul. 
— The  Paulistas  or  Mamelukes. — "Tlie  cele- 
brated reiniblic  of  St.  Paul,  as  it  is  usually 
denominated,  had  its  rise  about  the  year  1531, 
from  a  very  inconsiderable  beginning.  A  mariner 
of  the  name  of  Ramalho,  having  been  sliip- 
wreckcd  on  this  part  of  the  coast,  was  received 


among  a  small  Indian  tribe  called  the  Pirallninga, 
after  the  name  of  their  <'liief.  Here  he  was 
found  liy  De  Housa  some  years  afterwards,  and, 
contrary  to  the  establislied  policy  of  permitting 
no  settlement  excepting  immediately  on  tin,'  sea- 
coast,  he  allowed  this  man  to  reiiiaiii,  on  account 
of  his  having  intermarried  and  having  11  family. 
The  advantages  of  this  establisliment  were  such, 
that  permission  was  soon  after  given  to  otiiers  to 
settle  here,  and  as  the  adventurers  intermarried 
with  the  natives,  their  numbers  increa.sed  rapidly. 
...  A  mixed  race  was  formed.  ])ossessing  a 
compound  of  civilized  and  uncivilized  iiainners 
and  customs.  The  Jesuits  soon  after  establLsheil 
them.selves  witli  a  number  of  Indians  lliej  had 
reclaimed,  and  exerted  a  salutary  influence  in 
softening  and  harmonizing  tlie  growing  colony. 
In  1581,  the  seat  of  government  was  removed 
from  St.  Vincent  on  tlie  coast  to  St.  Pauls;  but 
its  subjection  to  Portugal  was  little  more  than 
nominal.  .  .  .  The  mi.\,ture  produced  an  im- 
proved race,  'tlie  European  spirit  of  enterprise,' 
.says  Soutliey,  'develo])e<l  itself  in  constitutions 
adapted  to  the  country.'  But  it  is  much  more 
likely  that  the  free  and  popular  government 
whicli  they  enjoyed  produced  the  same  fruits 
here  as  in  every  other  country.  .  .  .  Tliey  soon 
quarreled  with  tlie  Jesuits  [1581],  on  account  of 
the  Indians  whom  they  had  reduced  to  slavery. 
The  Jesuits  declaimed  against  tlie  practice ;  but 
as  there  were  now  many  wealthy  families  among 
the  Paulistas,  the  greater  part  of  whose  fortunes 
consisted  in  their  Indian.s,  it  was  not  heard  with 
patience.  The  Paulistas  first  engaged  in  war 
against  the  enemies  of  their  allies,  ami  afterwards 
on  their  own  account,  on  finding  it  advantageous. 
They  established  a  regular  trade  witli  the  otlier 
provinces  whom  they  supplied  with  Indian 
slaves.  They  by  this  time  acquired  tlie  name  of 
Mamelukes,  from  the  peculiar  military  discipline 
they  adopted,  bearing  some  resemlilance  to  the 
Mamelukes  of  Egypt.  The  revolution  in  Portu- 
gal, when  Philip  II.  of  Spain  jdaced  himself  on 
its  throne,cast  the  Paulistas  in  a  statu  of  iiide])cnd- 
ence,  as  tliey  were  tlic  only  settlers  in  Brazil 
wliich  did  not  acknowledge  tlie  new  dynasty. 
From  the  year  1580  until  the  middle  of  the  follow- 
ing century,  they  may  be  regarded  as  a  republic, 
and  it  was  during  tliis  period  they  displayed  that 
active  and  enterprising  character  for  Avhieli  they 
were  so  much  celebrated.  .  .  .  While  a  Spani-sh 
king  occupied  the  throne  of  Portugal,  tliey 
attacked  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  Para- 
guay, alleging  that  the  Spaniards  were  encroach- 
ing on  tlieir  territory.  .  .  .  They  attjicked  tlio 
Jesuit  missions  [1629].  ...  As  tliey  had  fixed 
themselves  east  of  the  Parana,  the  Paulistas  laid 
hold  of  this  as  a  pretext.  Tliey  carried  away 
upwards  of  2,000  of  tlieir  Indians  into  captivity, 
the  greater  i)art  of  whom  were  sold  and  dis- 
tributed as  slaves.  The  Jesuits  complained  to 
the  king  of  Spain  and  to  the  pope;  the  latter 
fulminated  his  excommunication.  The  Paulistas 
attacked  the  Jesuits  in  their  college,  and  ])ut 
their  principal  to  death,  expelled  tiie  leiiialiider, 
and  set  up  a  religion  of  tlieir  own ;  at  least  no 
longer  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  jiope. 
Inconsequence  of  the  interruption  of  the  African 
trade  during  the  Dutch  war,  the  demand  for 
Indian  slaves  was  very  mucli  increased.  Tiic 
Paulistas  redoubled  their  exertions,  and  traversed 
every  part  of  the  Brazils  in  armed  troops.  .  .  . 
The  foundation  was  laid  of  enmity  to  the  Portu- 

1    • 


BRAZIL,  1581-1641. 


BRAZIL,  1808-1823. 


ji;u('H(',  wlilcli  ('(intinui'.t  to  tliin  <liiy.  uIIUoukIi  a 
L'lmiplotc  nt()|>  was  put  to  the  iiifainoiis  practicn 
In  tlio  year  1750.  .  .  .  When  llm  liousu  of  Hra- 
Unma,  in  1040,  ascciulcd  thr>  throne,  tlut  I'aiilis- 
tns,  iiiHt<'a(l  of  ackiiowlcdKinj;  liiiii,  conceived 
the  idea  of  electing  a  liing  for  tlieniselves.  Tliey 
actually  elected  a  distlnj;iiislied  citizen  of  llu' 
name  of  Hueno,  who  persisted  in  refusini;  to 
accept,  upon  winch  thev  were  induced  to  ac 
knowle(l),'i;  Joani  IV.  [I<i41].  It  was  not  tintil 
Jong  afterwards  that  they  came  under  thu  Portu- 
guese government." — II.  M.  Hrackenridgo,  Voy- 
wji'  to  ti/nt/t  Ain/rira,  v.  1,  <•//.  2. 

Also  i.n  :  K.  Soutliey,  Jliiit.  of  Brazil,  ch.  311 

(''.  3). 

A.  D.  1540-1541.— Orellana's  voyag^e  down 
the  Amazons.     See  Ama/.onh  Kivku. 

A.  D.  1555-1560. — Attempted  Huguenot 
colony  on  the  Bay  of  Rio  Janeiro.  Sec 
Fmiuid.v:  A.  !).» l.Wi-t'iOa 

A.  D.  1654-1777. — The  Portugfese  policy  of 
exclusion  and  restriction. — B'undary  dis- 
putes with  Spain. — "The  period  of  peace  which 
followed  thesi'  victories  [over  the  Dutch]  .  .  . 
was  used  by  the  Portuguese  government  only  to 
get  up  a  kind  of  old  .Japanese  system  of  isolation, 
by  which  it  was  intended  to  keep  the  colony  in 
perpetual  tutelage.  In  consequence  of  this  even 
now,  after  the  lapse  of  half  a  century  since  it 
violently  separated  itself,  Brazilians  generally 
cntcriaiu  a  bitter  grudge  against  the  mother 
country.  All  the  trade  to  and  from  Brazil  was 
engrossed  by  Portugal ;  every  functionary,  down 
to  the  last  clerk,  was  Portuguese.  Any  other 
European  of  scientitic  education  was  looked  at 
with  suspicion ;  and  particularly  they  sought  to 
prevent  by  nil  means  the  exploration  of  the 
interior,  as  they  feared  not  only  that  the  eyes  of 
the  natives  might  be  opened  to  their  mode  of 
administration,  but  also  that  such  traveller:! 
might  side  with  the  Spaniards  in  their  long  dis- 
pute regarding  the  boundaries  of  the  two 
nations,  as  the  French  astronomer.  La  Conda- 
mine,  liad  done.  This  ({uestion,  which  arose 
shortly  after  the  discovery,  and  was  hushed  up 
only  during  the  sliort  union  of  both  crowns 
(from  1581-1640),  broke  out  with  renewed  vigor 
now  and  then,  maugre  the  Treaty  of  Tordesilhas 
in  1494  [see  Amkuic.x.:  A.  D.  1494].  ...  By 
the  Treaty  of  Silo  Ildefouso,  in  1777,  botli  parties 
having  long  felt  how  impracticable  thu  old 
arrangements  were  —  at  least,  for  their  American 
colonies  —  the  boundaries  were  fl.xed  upon  the 
principle  of  the  'uti  possidetis,'  at  any  rate  so 
far  as  the  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  interior 
allowed ;  but  this  effort  also  jjioved  to  be  vain. 
.  .  .  The  unsolved  question  descended  as  an  evil 
heritage  to  their  respective  heirs,  Brazil  and  the 
South  American  Kepublics.  A  few  years  ago  it 
gave  rise  to  the  terrible  war  with  Paraguay ;  and 
It  will  lead  to  fresh  conflicts  between  Brazil  and 
the  Argentine  Republic." — F.  Keller,  Ttie 
Amnzon  and  }fa(kira  liicera,  pp.  33-34. 

Also  in  :  R.  Soutliey,  History  of  Brazil,  v.  3. 

A.  D.  1713. — The  Portuguese  title  con- 
firmed.    See  Utueciit:  A.  D.  1712-1714. 

A.  D.  1759.— Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  See 
Jksuits:  A.  D.  1757-1773. 

A.  D.  1808-1822.— Becomes  the  asylum  of 
Portuguese  royalty. — The  founding  of  tne  in- 
dependent Empire. — "While  anarchy  and  ruin 
.  .  .  oversprca(l  the  greater  part  of  the  beautiful 
continent  of  South  America,  the  Empire  of  Bra- 


zil won  an  Independent  existence  without  blood- 
shed, and  kept  It  with  credit.  The  Dutch 
con(|uest  of  Brazil,  and  its  rccon(|Ucst  by  tlio 
Portuguese,  has  been  mentioned  in  a  former 
chapter.  The  country  long  remained  iiniler  the 
close  anil  oppressiv(.'  monopoly  imposed  upon  it 
by  the  Portuguese;  but,  in  1808  [\HOl:\  when  Na- 
polecm  invadciU  Portus^al,  the  regent  embarked 
[see  Poutiioal:  A.  I).  1807],  with  the  royal  in- 
signia, for  Brazil,  which  at  once  assumed  the 
dignity  of  an  integral  part  of  the  kingdom.  The 
jiorts  were  opened  to  tlii!  commerce  of  the  world ; 
the  printing-press  was  introduc('d ;  learning  was 
encouraged;  the  enormous  resources  of  the 
country  were  explored;  foreign  settlers  were  in- 
vited to  establish  themselves;  embassies  were 
sent  to  Euroiiean  powers  of  the  first  rank,  and 
diplomatic  agents  rt'ceivcd.  New  towns  and 
harbours  were  planned;  new  life  was  breathed 
into  every  department  of  the  state.  After  a  few 
years,  the  state  of  affairs  in  Europe  compelled 
king  John  VI.  to  return  to  Eurofie,  as  the  only 
chance  of  preserving  the  integrity  of  the  mon- 
archy. The  Cortes  of  Lisbon  invited  their  sover- 
eign to  revisit  his  ancient  capital,  and  deputies 
from  Brazil  were  summoned  to  attend  the  sit- 
tings of  the  National  Assembly.  But  before  tho 
deputies  could  arrive,  the  Cortes  had  resolved 
that  Brazil  should  be  again  reduced  to  absolute 
dependence  on  Portugal.  A  resolution  more 
senseless  or  more  impracticable  can  hardly  be 
imagined.  Tho  territory  of  Brazil  was  as  large 
as  all  Europe  put  together;  Portugal  was  a 
little  kingdom,  isolated  and  without  influiaico 
among  the  monarchies  of  the  Old  World ;  yet  it 
was  deliberately  decreed  that  all  the  monopolies 
of  the  exploded  colonial  system  should  be  re- 
vived, and  that  England  should  be  deprived  of 
her  free  trade  to  Brazil.  The  king  ai)poiuted 
his  eldest  son,  Uom  Pedro,  Regent  of  the  new 
kingdom,  and  soon  after  took  h's  departure  for 
Lisbon,  with  many  of  tlio  emigrant  nobility. 
Doin  Pedro  assumed  tho  government  under  the 
perplexing  circumstances  of  an  empty  treasury, 
a  heavy  public  debt,  and  the  provinces  almost  in 
revolt.  Bahia  disavowed  his  authority,  and  the 
Cortes  withheld  their  support  from  him.  The 
regent  reduced  his  expenditure  to  the  monthly 
sum  allowed  to  his  princess  for  pin  money ;  he 
retired  to  a  country  house,  and  observed  the 
most  rigid  economy.  By  great  exertions  he  re- 
duced the  public  expenditure  from  S50,00l),000 
to  $15,000,000;  but  tho  northern  and  internal 
provinces  still  withheld  their  ta.xcs;  the  army 
iiecame  mutinous,  and  the  ministers  of  his 
father,  who  still  remained  in  power,  were  un- 
popular; the  regent  in  despair  drtnauded  his 
recall.  But  the  Bra".ilians  were  at  length  dis- 
armed by  his  noble  conduct;  they  recognized  his 
activity,  his  beneficence,  his  assiduity  in  the 
affairs  of  government,  aud  the  habitual  feelings 
of  affection  and  respect  for  tlie  House  of  Bra- 
ganza,  which  had  for  a  moment  been  laid  asleep 
by  distrust,  were  reawakened  with  renewed 
strength.  It  was  fortunate  that  the  quarrels 
which  disturbed  Brazil  wore  accommodated  before 
the  arrival  of  intelligence  from  Portugal.  Hardly 
had  the  king  arrived  in  Lisbon  when  he  found 
himself  obliged  to  assent  to  a  constitution  which 
treated  his  Brazilian  subjects  as  mere  colonists; 
succeeding  mails  brought  orders  more  and  more 
humiliating  to  the  Brazilians.  The  design  of 
declaring  Brazil  an  independent  kingdom,  grew 


312 


BRAZIL,  1809-1883. 


BRAZIL,  1871-1888. 


more  nnd  more  In  imbllc  favour;  but,  the  prince 
wiiH  luiwillin;;  to  plarc  liiinsclf  in  direct  rrlx'llioii 
to  till' crown  III'  I'ortii^iil,  ami  Hicaillly  aillu'ri'il  to 
hie  (Ictcnnination  to  Icavo  Aniiriia.  At  Icn^jtli, 
it  is  rdatcil,  a  licMnatch  was  dcliviTcii  to  tlir 
recent,  wliiili  111'  declined  to  show  to  any  of  Ids 
ministers,  Iml  which  (evidently  excited  in  Ids 
mind  no  ordinary  emotions  of  un^er:  he  crushed 
the  paper  in  his  hand,  and  moved  away  to  a 
window,  where  he  stood  for  a  few  moments  in 
thought;  at  length  he  turned  to  his  council  with 
the  words  '  Independencia  ou  morte': — the  ex- 
clamation was  received  with  tinnultuous  cheers, 
nud  was  ailii|iteil  as  the  watrliword  of  the  IJevo- 
lution.  The  I'orluguese  troops  wen;  sent  liack 
to  Kurojie.  The  Cortes  of  Llslmn  were  now 
anxious  to  recall  their  obnoxious  decrees;  to 
adnnt  the  deputies  from  llra/.il;  to  make  any 
cuucession  tliat  ndght  lie  demanded,  lint  it  was 
too  late:  the  Independence  of  Bra/.il  was  for- 
mally proclaimed  in  August,  182'J,  and  in  De- 
cember of  the  .same  year,  l>om  I'edro  was 
crowned  Kmperor  of  Unizil  i'his  is  tlie  lirst, 
and  as  yet  the  only  instance  .i  a  modern  colony 
nchicving  its  iiideiiendeni'e,  and  separating  itself 
complett'ly  from  its  metropolis  without  blixxl- 
shcd." — Viscount  Hury,  h'j.vilua  of  the  Waitern 
Nations,  i:  2,  r/i.  11. 

Also  in:  J.  Armitage,  Hint,  of  Brazil,  eh.  1-7. 
—See,  idso,  PointdAL:  A.  1).  1820-182-1. 

A.  D.  1825-1865.— Wars  with  the  Argen- 
tines.— Abdication  of  Dom  Pedro  I.— The 
GuerradosCabanos. — "In  182."),  cliietly  through 
the  mediation  of  England,  iJrazil  was  acknowl- 
edged as  un  independent  empire.  Hut  tlie  inner 
commotions  contiinied,  and  were  not  even  soothed 
by  a  new  Constitution,  drawn  up  in  1823,  and 
sworn  to  by  the  Emperor  in  1824.  New  revolts 
in  Pernambuco,  and  some  of  the  other  Northern 
provinces,  and  a  war  of  three  years  with  the 
Argentine  Republic,  which  ended  in  1828  by 
Brazil  giving  up  Banda  Oriental,  annexed  onlj 
eleven  years  before,  disturbed  and  weakened  the 
land.  The  foreign  soldiers,  enlisted  for  this  wir, 
and  retained  after  its  conclusion  to  keep  do  ivn 
the  Opposition,  and  the  extravagant  private  life 
of  the  Emperor,  who  recklessly  trampled  down 
the  honour  of  respectable  families,  i)rovokoil 
dissatisfaction  and  murmurs,  which  rose  to  the 
highest  pitch  wlien  he  insisted  upon  carrying  on 
a  most  mipopular  war  in  Portugal  to  defend  the 
rights  of  his  daughter.  Dona  Maria  da  Gloria  (in 
■whose  favour  he  had  abdicated  the  Portuguese 
Crown),  against  his  brother,  Don  Miguel  [see 
Poutuoal:  a.  D.  1824-188«j.  In  April,  1831, 
Dom  Pedro  I.,  so  enthusiastically  raised  to  the 
Brazilian  throne  only  nine  years  before,  was 
forced  to  abdicate  it,  deserted  and  betrayed  by 
every  one,  in  behalf  of  his  younger  son,  Pedro. 
The  next  period  was  tlic  most  ilisturbed  one  that 
the  young  Empire  had  yet  witnes.sed.  Slave 
revolts  at  Bahia,  a  civil  war  in  the  South,  which 
almost  cost  it  tlie  province  of  Hio  Grande  do  8ul, 
and  the  bloody  rebellion  known  as  the  Querra 
dos  Cabanos,  in  Pani  and  Amazon,  from  183.5  to 
1837,  followed  each  other  qinckly.  In  this  last 
revolt,  the  Brazilians  had  stirred  up  the  Indians 
and  mestizoes  against  the  abhorred  Portuguese, 
without  coiLsidering  that  they  should  not  be 
able  to  quench  the  fire  they  had  themselves 
kindled.  In  a  short  time,  the  fury  of  the  whole 
colored  population  turned  against  all  whites, 
Brazilians  and  Portuguese  alike,  without  any 


distinction.  More  than  10, 000  persons  are  sidd 
to  have  perished  in  this  (iiierra  dos  Cabanos; 
and,  to  the  present  day.  those  terrible  times  anil 
the  barbarous  iriii'lties  conunitled  by  the  In- 
diaiiH,  half-castes,  and  mulattoes,  continue  to  bo 
talked  of  with  awe  in  the  two  priivinces.  A 
ri'Volulliin  in  .Minas,  got  ui)  by  the  personal 
ambitions  of  :i  few  political  leaders,  rather  than 
I'manating  from  tl'e  spirit  of  the  people,  and  the 
war  against  Uosas,  the  Dictator  of  the  Argiiitinu 
Uepubllc,  pa,ssed  over  Brazil  without  leiving 
deep  traces,  at  least  when  comiiared  with  the 
last  war  against  Paraguay;  which,  besides  the 
stimulus  of  the  old  diirerences  about  boundaries, 
was  occasioned  liy  the  endless  vexations  and  re- 
strictions with  which  the  Dictator  Lopez  strove 
to  ruin  the  Brazilian  Iniile  on  the  Paraguay,  and 
to  prejudice  the  provlnre  of  .Mato  Gros.sol" — V. 
Keller,  Tlu:  Amnion  and  ^f(Ulcir<^  Jticeri,  pp. 
2.5-20. 

Also  in  :  J.  Armitage,  Jlial.  of  nrinil,  1808- 
18:U.— See,  also,  AltOKNTlNIi  lUil'iiiiLic:  A.  D. 
1811(-I87I. 

A.  D.  1865-1870.— The  virar  with  Paraguay. 
See  pAiiAiifAv:  A,  1).  1(!08-1.ST:!. 

A.  D.  1871-1888.— Emaucipation  of  Slaves. 
— The  Brazilian  act  of  emancipation,  known  as 
the  Law  of  Bio  Branco  (taking  that  name  from 
the  Jlinlster  who  carried  it  through)  was  pii-sseJ 
on  the  28th  of  September,  1871,  "and  from  that 
date  it  was  enacted  'that  children  henceforth 
born  of  slave  women  shall  be  considered  of  free 
condition.'.  .  .  Such  children  are  not  to  be 
actually  free,  but  are  bound  to  serve  the  owners 
of  their  mothers  for  a  term  of  21  years,  under  the 
name  of  'apprentices.'  These  must  work,  under 
severe  penalties,  for  their  liereditary  masters; 
but  if  the  latter  inflict  on  them  excessivo  bodily 
punishment,  tliey  are  allowed  tr,  bring  suit  in  a 
criminal  court,  which  :\m\  duclare  their  freedom.. 
A  [irovision  was  also  made  for  the  emancipation 
of  government  slaves;  and  there  was  a  clause 
which  insured  u  certain  sum,  to  be  annually  set 
aside  from  fines,  which  was  to  aid  each  province 
in  emancipating  by  purchase  a  certain  number 
of  slaves.  .  .  .  The  passage  of  this  law  did  not 
prove  merely  prospective  In  its  elTects.  In  a 
very  short  time  the  sums  placed  aside  for  emanci- 
pating slaves  by  purchase  resulted  in  tlie  freedom 
of  many  bondmen.  And  more  than  this,  there 
seemed  to  be  a  generous  private  rivalry  in  the 
good  work,  from  motives  of  benevolence  and 
from  religious  inlliience.  Many  persons  in  various 
parts  of  Brazil  liberated  their  slaves  without  com- 
pensation. ...  I  am  liajipy  to  say  that  the 
number  liberated,  either  by  the  provisions  of  the 
.State  or  by  private  individuals,  is  always  in  an 
increasing  ratio.  When  the  writer  fli-st  went  to 
Brazil  [1852]  ...  it  was  estimated  that  there 
were  3,000,000  in  slavery.  .  .  .  There  were  at 
the  beginning  of  1875,  when  the  law  of  emanci- 
pation had  been  but  a  little  more  than  three 
years  in  operation,  1,470,567  slaves." — J.  C. 
Fletcher  ond  I).  P.  Kidder,  Brazil  and  the  Bra- 
ziliam,  eh.  28.— "On  the  25th  of  March,  1884, 
slavery  was  abolished  in  the  province  of  Cearii. 
The  liio  News  says,  '  Tlie  movement  began  only 
15  months  ago,  tlie  first  municipality  liberating 
its  slaves  on  tlie  Ist  of  January,  1883.  The  new 
tax  law  of  last  November  greatly  accelerated 
this  progress,  because  it  made  slave-holding  im- 
possible, the  value  of  the  slave  being  less  than 
the  tax.'  "    On  the  28th  of  September,  1885,  the 


313 


mixziu  i87i-iN«t). 


lUtAZIL,  1880-tHOl. 


Impfttloncc  of  tlin  nriizllliins  to  rid  thcmfU'lvcA  of 
(tliivcry  t'xprcHHcil  iucir  in  n  ni;w  Kiniim'l|iiilion 
A('t,  Known  UH  till-  Hiirulvii  liiw.  It  (irovidod 
for  fucilitiitin;^  ami  liastcninK  tlin  ('Xlt'iiMion  of 
freedom,  by  iniTcitNin);  tin;  piililic  fund  iijipnipri- 
atcd  to  it,  liy  dt'tlninK  tliu  vnluution  of  HlavoH, 
nnd  l)y  other  efleetivti  provisions,  so  timt 
"  within  ten  yeiini  [from  its  tiatoj  it  is  NiippoMcd 
tliat  Nliivery  will  liiivc  ceiuwd  to  exist  in  Itrii/il." 
—II.  ('.  Dent,  A  Yrar  ill,  Ifrnzii,  pp.  Wl-'Um.— 
"On  .Miirch  !1(),  1H87,  tlie  olllcliil  n'tiirn  ^iive  the 
niinil)er  of  hIuvcm  in  iira/il  as  7'':l,410,  of  the 
legal  value  of  i>.W5,23.'),aia.  On  May  lU,  lftH«, 
the  Crown  Princess,  'is  recent,  gave  tlu!  royal 
assent  to  a  short  nieasuro  or  two  clauses,  the  (Irst 
dcclarinfi;  that  slavery  was  ulxilisheil  In  Ura/.ll 
from  the  (..ly  of  the  promulgation  of  the  law,  and 
the  second  repealing  all  former  Acts  on  the  sub- 
ject. Both  Chambers  ref.ised  tr)  consider  the 
claim  for  compeiisatioii  made  by  Ihe  slave  own- 
ers."— StiitiniiKiii'n  Ymr-lliHik,  WW),  p.  'M){. 

A,  D,  1889-1801. — Revolution. — Overthrow 
of  the  Empire, — Establishment  of  the  Republic 
of  the  United  States  of  Brazil.—  Religious 
freedom  declared. — "The  sudden  collapse  of  the 
Imperial  Clovernmcnt  in  November  j  ISHKj, 
residtlng  in  the  downfall  of  Dom  Pedro  and  Ins 
banishment,  caused  universal  surprise.  For 
some  time  tlu^  (iovernmeiit  had  l)een  credited  by 
the  Kepubllcan  journals  with  the  wish  and 
intention  to  disperse  the  army  throughout  the 
provinces  nnd  along  the  frontier,  so  that,  witli 
the  assistance  of  tlie  newly-organised  National 
Guard,  the  succession  of  the  Princess  Imperial  to 
the  throne  might  be  secured  in  tlie  event  of  the 
death  or  incapacity  through  old  age  of  the 
Emperor  Dom  Pedro.  An  Infantry  l)attallon, 
onlered  to  embark  for  a  distant  province, 
mutinied  nnd  refused  to  go.  The  AVar  Depart- 
ment resolved  to  compel  them  by  force  to 
depart."  The  result  was  a  general  mutiny 
(November  15,  1889),  which  soon  becnme  n 
revolution.  "  Tlie  organl.ser  of  the  mutiny  was 
Colonel  Benjamin  Constant  Uotellio  de  Magal- 
hucs,  an  otlicer  ul'  exceptional  ability  and  Pro- 
fessor in  the  Military  Academy.  The'  movement 
seemed  directed  at  first  only  ngninst  the 
obnoxious  Ouro  Prcto  Ministry ;  but  the  enthusi- 
asm of  the  Ucpublicnns,  under  the  leadership  of 
a  popular  agitator,  Jose  de  Patrocinlo,  was  so 
very  pronounced,  that  nt  a  meeting  held  in  the 
cky  hall,  in  the  afternoon  of  Nov.  15,  a  resolu' 
tion  proclaiming  the  Uepublic  was  passed  by 
acclamation.  About  the  same  hour,  a  self-con- 
stituted committee,  consisting  of  General  Deo- 
doro  [da  Fonscca],  Benjamin  Constant,  and 
Quintino  Bocnyuva,  met  and  organised  n  Pro- 
visional Government,"  with  Jlarshnl  Dcodoro  da 
Fonseca  for  its  Chief,  Colonel  Botelho  de  Magal- 
hacs  for  Minister  of  War.  ' '  A  formal  decree 
was  issued  declaring  a  federal  Republic,  the 
several  provinces  of  the  late  Empire  constituting 
the  States  and  eacli  State  arranging  its  own  con- 
stitution and  electing  its  deliberative  bodies  and 
local  governments.  On  the  morning  of  the  lOth 
the  deposed  Emperor  received  intimation  that  he 
and  his  family  must  leave  the  country  within 
twenty-four  hours :  —  '  Between  3  and  3  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  the  17tli  an  olHcer  appeared  at 
the  palace  and  informed  the  Emperor  that  he 
must  at  once  embark,  with  all  the  members  of 
his  family.  The  wn^tched  old  mnn#  protested 
that  he  was  not  a  fugitive,  and  that  he  preferred 


to  embark  by  day;  but  after  llstenir.  -  to  tho 
olllccr's  explimatlon  that  a  contliit  might  iNcur 
and  bliMMl  might  Iw  shed,  he  finally  yielded, 
protesting  that  in  such  n  crisis  Ills  old  grey  head 
was  the  only  one  that  was  c(k>1.  And  so  at  tho 
dead  hour  of  night,  with  no  one  to  say  a  fare- 
well and  bid  him  G(Kl-speed,  the  aged  Kmperor, 
witli  his  devoted  wife  and  children,  went  down 
to  the  Caes  Phanmx,  where  a  launch  was  wait- 
ing to  v.wvey  them  out  to  the  sniull  gunboat 
Parnahvba.  About  10  oVlo(!k  the  gunboat 
hteameil  out  of  the  harbour  nnd  went  down  to 
Illia  Grande  to  wait  for  the  merchant  steamer 
Alngoas,  which  had  been  <:hartered  tocimvey  tho 
exiles  to  Europe'.  ...  It  wils  said  tlint  tho 
Imperial  Mlnl.stry,  principally  through  tho 
instrumentality  of  Ouro  Preko,  had  arranged 
with  Dom  Pedro  to  nlxilcate  at  the  end  of 
January,  1800,  In  favour  of  his  daughter,  tho 
Countess  d'Eu.  But  the  Countess,  with  her 
husband,  was  extremely  unpopuhir  with  tho 
army  nnd  navy,  nnd  from  these  the  feeling  of 
dlsloj-alty  spread  rapidly  among  i\w  people.  By 
decree  of  the  Provisional  Government,  tho 
provinces  of  Brazil,  united  by  the  tie  of  feder- 
ation, were  to  be  styled  tlie  '  United  States  of 
Brazil,'  and  general  elections  were  to  take  placo 
in  August,  1800,  to  coullrm  tiie  establishment  of 
the  Hepublic.  A  counter-revolution  broke  out 
in  Uio  on  Dec.  18.  A  numljcr  of  soldiers,  sailors, 
and  civilians  took  part  in  it,  and  troops  had  to  bo 
ordered  out  to  disperse  them.  It  wns  not  until 
the  20th  that  the  disturbance  was  finally  (luelled. " 
—  Aniiiiid  ItiniHtei;  1880,  pt.  1,  pp.  444-448.— 
"Tlie  revolution  was  the  work  of  leaders  who 
were  not  only  conscious  of  tlielr  jiower,  but  also 
confident  that  the  nation  would  Inevitably  con- 
done their  teini)orary  acts  of  usurpation.  There 
were  no  signs  of  weakness,  vneillalion  or  uncer- 
tainty in  their  action.  ...  A  coalition  of  tho 
anny  otiicers  and  the  constitution-makers  nnd 
political  dreamers  of  the  League  would  havo 
lx>en  imprncticablo  if  the  leaders  had  not  known 
that  the  20  ))rovliicc8  of  the  Empire  were  pro- 
foundly disaffected  nnd  would  readily  acquiesce 
in  a  radical  cliango  of  government.  .  .  .  The 
Emperor  of  Brazil  has  enjoyed  tlic  reputation  of 
being  one  of  tho  most  enlightened  nnd  pro- 
gressive sovereigns  of  his  time.  .  .  .  lie  wns  a 
ruler  with  many  fascinating  and  estimable  traits, 
who  endeared  himself  to  his  people.  This  nnd 
much  more  may  be  said  in  praise  of  the  deposed 
and  banished  Emperor;  but  when  the  record  of 
his  public  services  and  of  his  private  virtues  is 
complete,  tho  fact  remains  that  he  stocKl  for  a 
system  oif  centralization  that  pmcticnlly  deprived 
the  great  series  of  federated  provinces  of  their 
nutouoniy  nnd  his  subjects  of  the  privileges  of 
self-government.  Dom  Pedro  IT.  wns  not  a  con- 
stitutionnl  reformer.  The  charter  whlcli  he  had 
received  from  his  fnthcr  was  not  modified  in  nny 
essential  respect  during  his  long  reign. " — N.  T. 
Tribune  Extra,  v.  1,  no.  13  (1880).- "A  new 
Constitution  .  .  .  was  ratified  by  the  first 
National  Congress,  convened  on  Nov.  15,  1890. 
By  this  instrument  tho  Brnzilinn  nation  consti- 
tuted itself  into  a  federal  republic,  under  the 
name  of  the  United  States  of  Brazil.  Ench  of 
the  old  provinces  wns  declared  a  self-governing 
state,  to  be  administered  under  a  repuJ)llcan  form 
of  government,  with  i)ower  to  impose  taxes,  and 
subject  to  no  interference  from  the  Central 
Government,  except  for  purposes  of   national 


3U 


BRAZIL,  1880-1801. 


BREITENFELD. 


(lofpiiw-  or  tho  prpsorvnflon  of  intornnl  order  or 
for  tlir  cxcciitidii  of  Kt'ilcnil  Iiiwh.  l/*'f(iHliktion 
rcliititi){  to  cuHtonis,  [..ipor  ciirrciicy,  iiml  postal 
foininuiiiciitionH  Is  nwrvcil  to  tliv  Fi'doriil 
Oovcriiinent.  Tlio  right  of  HiifTraKe  im«'ciin'<l  to 
all  iniilo  citizpiiN  over  31  yearH  old,  with  tlu; 
C'xcoption  of  U'ggnn,  poraoiis  if^noraiit  of  tho 
alplialipt,  KoldiurH  in  actual  Horvico,  and  pcrson.s 
iitKltT  iiioiiatttic  vowH,  reditu  ration  hcinK  the; 
only  nrcriMiulsitc.  The  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  the  President  .  .  .  elected  by  tlii, 
people  directlv  for  the  term  of  8ix  years,  and 
.  .  .  not  eligihlo  for  the  succeeding  term.  .  .  . 
Bcnators  are  elected  by  the  Lcgislatvires  of  the 
States  for  nine  yi'urs,  three  from  each  Htate,  one 
retiring  and  his  nucccssor  being  cliosen  every 
three  years.  .  .  .  'I'lii^  (;haml)er  of  Deputies  has 
the  initiative  in  nil  laws  relating  to  taxation. 
Deputies  arc  elected  for  three  years  by  direct 
popular  vote  in  tlio  proporliim  of  one  to  every 
iO,(K)()  Inliabitanls.  .  ,  .  It  is  declared  that  no 
sect  or  church  sliall  receive  aid  from  the  National 
or  State  governments."  In  1801,  differences 
arose  between  tlie  President  and  Congress,  at 
flrst  over  llnaneial  measures  passed  by  the 
Chambers  and  vetoed  by  tho  President  and 
schemes  recommended  by  tho  President  that 
were  voted  down  by  Congress.  In  November 
the  President  publislied  a  decree  dissolving 
Congress,  clos<'<l  the  Chamliers  by  force,  pro- 
claimed himself  Dictator  on  the  invitation  of 
ofllcers  of  tlie  amiy,  and  convoked  a  new  Con- 
gress, to  be  charged  with  the  revision  of  tlio 
constitution.  Tlie  State  of  Uio  Grande  do  Sul 
led  olT  in  a  revolt  against  this  usurpation,  and  on 
tlie  2;Jd  of  November,  after  some  shots  had  been 
tired  into  tlie  city  of  Kio  de  ilaneiro  by  a  naval 
scjuadrou  acting  against  him,  President  Fonseca 
resigned.  "  Fmriano  Pei.\oto  was  immediately 
instjilied  by  the  revolutionary  committee  as 
President  in  his  8t«ad  .  .  .  and  the  country  soon 
settled  down  under  tlie  new  government." — 
Appleton's  AiuiiitU  Cjichixtdia  1891,  pp.  01-96. — 
"When  Deodoro,  after  struggling  for  twelve 
months  witli  tlie  factions  in  Congress,  closed  the 
doors  of  Sao  Christovao  Palace  and  proclaimed  a 
dictatorship,  ho  had  recourse  to  a  familiar 
expedient  of  Latin-American  civilization.  The 
speedy  collapse  of  his  administration,  when  it 
was  wholly  (lepcndcnt  upon  military  force,  was 
a  good  augury  for  the  future  of  Brazil.  ...  la 
the  early  days  of  the  Ucpublic,  the  Provisional 
Ministry  were  unable  to  agree  upon  tho  radical 
policy  of  disestablishing  the  Church.  .  .  . 
Forti'nately  for  Unizil  tliere  was  no  compromise 
of  tlio  disestablishment  question.  .  .  .  Under 
the  Constitution  no  religious  denomination  was 
permitted  to  liold  relations  of  dependence  upon, 
or  alliance  witli,  the  fedenil  or  State  governments. 
.  .  .  Every  church  was  made  free  in  the  free 
State.  Civil  marriage  was  recognized  as  essen- 
tial. .  .  .  Perhaps  tlio  most  hopeful  sign  for  the 
cause  of  progress  and  religion  is  tho  adoption  of 
educational  sulTrage. "— I.  N.  Ford,  Trofneal 
America,  c/i.  4.— See  Constitution  of  Bkazil. 
» 

BREAD  AND  CHEESE  WAR.  See 
Netiikklands:  a.  D.  143'3-Uy3. 

BRECKINRIDGE,  John  C— Defeat  in 
Presidential  election.  See  United  States  ok 
A.M. :  A.  D.  1800  (Apuii.— Nove.mbek). 

BREDA:  A.  D.  1575.— Spanish-Dutch  Con- 
gress.   See  NETiiEKiiANus:  A.  D.  1575-1577. 
21 


A.  D.  1590.— Cftpture  by  Prince  Maurice  of 
Nassau-Orange.      Sp('   Netheiii.anuh:    A.    I). 

l.-iMH-i,',!);!. 

A.  O.  1634-1635.— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Spaniards.  See  NCTHKiti.ANim;  .V.  I).  1(121- 
l(ia:t. 

A.  D.  1637.— Taken  by  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
See  Netiikhi.andh:  A.  f>.   ltl;«-ltKtH. 

A.  D.  1793.— Taken  and  lost  by  the  French. 
See  FuANCE:  A.  1).  17y;MFKimiiAUY— APiiir.). 


B'^EDA,  Declaration  from.  Sco  Enui,aj«d: 
A.  D.  KiriH- 1(1(10. 

BREDA,  Treaty  of  (1666).  See  Nether- 
l,ANi)s(IIi)i,i,ANl)):  A.  1).  inOS-lflfld. 

BREED'S  HILL  (Bunker  Hill),  Battle  of. 
See  I'.MTEi)  Statics «)K  A.M. :  A.  D.  1775  (.Iine). 

BREHON  LAWS— "The  portion  of  tho 
Irisli  tribe  Hystem  which  has  attracted  most 
attention  is  the  mode  in  which  the  Judici,,! 
authority  was  withdrawn  from  the  chief  and  n))- 
pronriated  by  the  hereditary  caste  of  the 
lireiions,  and  also  tho  siiiiposed  anomaloim 
principles  which  they  applieil  to  the  decision  of 
tho  cases  whicrh  eanie  before  them.  The  earlier 
Englisli  writers  found  no  terms  too  strong  to  ex- 
press tlieir  abhorrence  and  contempt  of  these 
native  judges,  and  their  contempt  for  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  they  proceeded.  On  the  other 
hand,  Irish  writers  attributed  to  these  profes- 
sional arbitrators  advanced  principles  of  e(iuity 
wholly  foreign  to  an  early  community.  .  .  .  The 
translation  of  the  existing  va.st  ma.ss  of  Brehon 
law  books,  and  the  translation  [publication?]  of 
tlio  most  important  of  them  by  the  order  of  tlie 
government,  have  dispo.sed  of  the  arguments 
and  a.ssertions  on  both  sides..  It  is  now  ad- 
mitted, that  the  system  and  princijiles  of  the 
Brehon  jurisprudence  jiresent  no  characteristies 
of  any  special  cliaracter,  although  in  them 
primitive  ideas  of  law  were  elaborated  in  a 
manner  not  found  elsewhere;  .  .  .  the  laws 
which  existed  among  tho  native  Irish  were  in 
substance  those  which  are  found  to  have  pro- 
vailed  among  other  Aryan  tribes  in  a  similar 
stage  of  social  progress;  as  the  social  develop- 
ment of  the  nation  was  prematurely  arrested,  so 
also  were  the  legal  ideas  of  the  same  stage  of 
existence  retained  after  tliey  had  disappeared  in 
all  other  nations  of  Europe.  This  legal  survival 
continued  for  centuries  the  property  of  an 
hereditary  caste,  who  had  acquired  the  knowl- 
edge of  writing,  and  some  tincture  of  scholastic 
philosophy  and  civil  law.  .  .  .  The  learning  of 
the  Brelions  consisted  (1)  in  an  acquaintance 
with  tho  minute  ceremonies,  intelligible  now 
onl^  to  an  archa'ologist,  and  not  alwaj's  to  him, 
by  which  tlie  action  could  be  instituted,  and 
without  wliich  no  Brehon  could  assume  the  role 
of  arbitrator;  and  (3)  in  a  knowledge  of  the 
traditions,  customs  and  precedents  of  the  tribe, 
in  accordance  with  which  the  dispute  should  be- 
decided." — A.  G.  Riclicy,  Short  llint.  of  the  IrUh 
People,  eh.  3. 

Also  in:  Sir  II.  Maine,  Early  Hist,  of  Iii- 
ttitutions.  lect.  3. 

BREISACH:  A.  D.  1638.— Siege  and  cap- 
ture by  Duke  Bernhard.  See  Geu.manv:  A.  D. 
1034-1(139. 

A.  D.  1648.— Cession  to  France.  See  Ger- 
many: A.  I).  1G4H. 

BREITENFELD,  Battle  of  (or  first  battle 
of  Leipsic).      See   Gek-hany:  A.  D.    1031 


315 


nUEITENFELD. 


BRETWALDA. 


The  second  battle  of  (1642).  Sl'o  Gehmany: 
A.  I).  Hiio-uur). 

BREMEN:  I3th-I5th  Centuries.— In  the 
Hanscatic  League.     Sec  IIansa  Towns. 

A.  D.  1525  — Formal  establishment  of  the 
Reformed  Religion.  .Sec;  Pai-acv:  A.  1).  {■>'ii- 
1525. 

A.  D.  1648. — Cession  of  the  Bishoprick  to 
Sweden.     Sec  (jKU.many:  A.  1).  1048. 

A.  D.  1720.— The  Duchy  ceded  to  the  Elec- 
tor of  Hanover.  Seo  Scandinavian  States 
(SwKUi-.N):  A.  1).  1710-1721. 

A.  D.  1801-1803.— One  of  six  free  cities 
which  survive  the  Peace  of  Luneville.  >5ee 
Geum.vny:  a.  1).  1H01-18(W. 

A.  D.  1810. — Annexed  to  France.  See 
France:  A.  I).  1810  (Feiiuuauy — Dkce.mhku). 

A.  D.  1810-1815.— Loss  and  recovery  of 
autonomy  as  a   "free   city."    See   Cities,  Im- 

i'EUIAI,  AND  FllEE,  OK  GeU.MANY. 

A.  D.  i8r^. — Once  more  a  Free  City  and  a 
member  of  the  Germanic  Confederation.  See 
Vienna,  The  Congkess  oe. 

A.  D.  1888. — Surrender  of  free  privileges. — 
Absorption  in  the  ZoUverein  and  Empire.  See 
GEI1.M.VNY:  A.  D.  1888. 


BREMI :  A.  D.  1635-1638.— Taken  by  the 
French. — Recovered  by  the  Spaniards,  See 
Italy;  A.  I).  lOao-KioO. 

BRfiMULE,  Battle  of  (1119).  Sec  Eng- 
land: A.  I).  1087-113.'). 

BRENHIN,  The  Cymric  title.  See  Rome: 
B   V.  ;i9()-347. 

BRENNI,  The.     See  Rii.stians. 

BRENTFORD,  Battle  of.— Fought  and 
won  by  E;!::;',;;;d  Ir^iiside.s  in  his  contest  with 
Cuut,  or  Ciinute,  for  the  English  throne  A.  D. 
1016. 

BRESCIA:  A.  D.  1512.— Capture  and  pil- 
lage by  the  F.-ench.  See  Italy:  A.  D.  1510- 
15i:!. 

A.  D.  1849. —  Bombardment,  capture  and 
brutal  treatment  by  the  Austrian  Haynau.  See 
Italy:  A.  D.  1848-1849. 


BRESLAU  :  A.  D.  1741-1760.— In  the  wars 
of  Frederick  the  Great.  See  Austuia:  A.  I). 
1741  (May— .June);  1743  (Januauy— May);  1743 
(June);  Gekmany:  A.  D.  1757  (July— Decem- 
DEU),  and  1760. 

BREST:  A.  D.  1694.— R  'se  of  the 
English  fleet.     See  France:  A.  „      J94. 

BRETAGN.E.     See  Britt.vny. 

BRETHREN  OF  THE  COMMON  LOT 
OR  COMMON  LIFE.— "  The  Societies  of  the 
Beguines,  Beghiuds,  and  Lollards  [see  Bequines], 
wliieh  from  the  flrst  laboured  under  various  de- 
fects and  imperfections,  had  in  course  of  lime 
degenerated,  and  by  their  own  fault,  either  fallen 
to  pieces  of  themselves,  or  been  sappressed. 
The  two  things,  however,  still  existed,  viz.,  the 
prop.'iisity  to  religious  association,  .  .  .  and, 
likewise,  th  ■  outward  condition,  which  required 
and  rendered  i,racticable  the  efforts  of  benevo- 
lence and  charity,  strengthened  by  cooperation. 
The  asv  was  particularly  the  case  lu  the  Nether- 
lands, and  most  in  the  northern  provinces.  .  .  . 
Heie,  then,  the  In.stitutc  of  the  Common  Lot 
takcS  its  rise.  .  .  .  The  first  author  of  this  new 
series  of  evolutions  was  Gerhard  Groot  (Geert 
Groete  or  do  Groot,  Gerhardus  Magnus),  a  man 
of  glowing  piety,  and  great  zeal  in  doing  good,  a 


powerful  popular  orator  and  an  affectionate 
friend  of  youth  [1340-1384].  .  .  .  His  affection 
for  Holy  Scripture  and  the  ancient  Fathers  kin- 
dled in  Gerhard's  bo.soin  the  liveliest  zeal  for  col- 
lecting the  records  of  Christian  antiquity.  .  .  . 
Hence,  he  had  long  before  employed  young  men, 
under  his  oversight,  as  copyists,  theretjy  ac- 
complishing the  threefold  end  of  inulliplyiug 
these  good  theological  works,  giving  protilablo 
employment  to  the  youths,  and  obtaining  an  op- 
])()rtunity  of  influencing  their  iniuils.  This  he 
continued  more  and  more  to  do.  The  circle  of 
his  youthful  friends,  scholars,  and  transcriliers, 
became  from  day  to  day  larger,  and  grew  at 
length  into  a  regular  society.  Having  thus  in 
part  owed  its  origin  to  the  copying  of  tlio  Scrip- 
tures and  devotional  books,  the  Society  from  the 
outset,  and  through  its  whole  continuance,  made 
the  Holy  Scripture  and  its  projiagation,  the 
copying,  collecting,  preserving,  and  utilizing  of 
gooil  theological  and  ascetical  books,  one  of  its 
main  objects.  .  .  .  The  members  were  called 
'  Brethren  of  the  Common  Lot,'  [or  of  the  Com- 
mon Life]  or  'Brethren  of  Good  Will,'  'Fratrcs 
Collationarii,'  '  Jeronymians,'  and  '  Gregorians.' 
.  .  .  Imitating  the  Church  at  Jerusalem,  and 
prompted  by  brotherly  affection,  they  mutually 
shared  with  each  other  their  earnings  and  prop- 
erty, or  consecrated  also  their  fortune,  if  they 
Ijossessed  any,  to  the  service  of  the  community. 
From  this  source,  and  from  donations  and  lega- 
cies made  to  them,  arose  the  '  Brother-houses,'  'u 
each  of  which  a  certain  number  of  members  lived 
together,  subjected,  it  is  true,  in  dress,  diet,  and 
general  way  of  life,  to  an  appointed  rule,  but 
yet  not  conventually  sequestered  from  the  world, 
with  which  they  maintained  constant  intercourse, 
and  in  such  a  way  as,  in  opposition  to  Monach- 
ism,  to  preserve  the  principle  of  individual 
liberty." — C.  UUmann,  lief ormcrk  before  the  lit  for- 
mation, V.  8,  pt.  3,  ch.  1. — "Through  the  won- 
derful activity  of  that  fraternity  of  teachers, 
begun  about  1300,  called  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life,  the  Netherlands  had  the  first  sys- 
tem of  common  schools  in  Europe.  These 
schools  flourished  in  every  large  town  and  almost 
in  every  village,  so  that  popular  education  was 
the  rule." — W.  E.  Gritlls,  T/ie  Influence  of  t/ie 
jS'etherlandi,  p.  8. 

Also  in:  S.  Kettlcwell,  Thomas  d  Keinpis 
and  the  Brothers  of  Common  Life,  ch.  5-0  (v.  1). 

BRETHREN  OF  THE  FREE  SPIRIT. 
See  Beouines. 

BRETIGNY,  Treaty  of.— The  treaty,  called 
at  the  time  "  the  great  peace,"  concluded  Jlay  8, 
1360,  between  Edward  III.  of  England  and  John 
II.  of  France,  in  which  Edward  renounced  his 
pretensions  to  the  French  crown,  released  for  a 
ransom  King  Jolni,  then  a  prisoner  in  his  hands, 
and  received  the  full  sovereignty  of  Guicnne, 
Poitou  and  Ponthieu  in  France,  besides  retaiu'ug 
Calais  and  Guisnes. — See  France:  A.  D.  1337- 
1300. 

BRETWALDA.— A  title  given  to  some  of 
the  early  English  kings.  "  Opinions  differ  a?  to 
the  meaning  of  the  word  Bretwalda.  Palgri.ve 
and  Lappenberg  take  it  as  equivalent  to  '  ruler 
of  Britain':  Kemble  construes  it  'broad-ruling,' 
and  sees  in  it  a  dignity  without  duty,  hardly 
more  than  an  '  accidental  predominance.  (Saxons 
in  England,  ii.,  18.)  'The  list  of  those  who 
obtained.. this  '  "atus'  includes  Ethelbert  of 
Kent,  who  broke  .ao  power  of  the  potty  kiuga 


316 


BHETWALDA. 


BniSTOL. 


as  far  as  the  Humber,  Rodlmld  of  East  Ani?lia, 
who  obtained  it  bj-  soino  nicaiis  even  in  tlie  life- 
tiini!  of  Etlii'lbcrt,  and  tlio  tliroe  pretxt  Nortli- 
umbrian  l<ings,  Edwin,  Oswold  and  Oswv,  wlioso 
supremacy  liowcver  did  not  exlcnil  to  kcnt." — 
C.  Eltou,   Ofi'iiiis  rif  EiuiUsh  Hixt.,  p.  31)3,  note. 

Also  in:  E.  A.  Freeman,  Jliit.  of  the  Xuriiuin 
Com/,  of  /•Jiir/.,  V.  1,  npp,  li. — SSee,  also,  Enolani): 
A.  1).  477-537,  aii<l  Enoland:  7tii  ('i;ntii!V. 

BREWSTER,  William,  and  the  Plymouth 
Pilgrims.  See  Ini)i-;i'i:m)i;nts:  A.  1).  10(U-1G17, 
anil  .MAssAciiusinTs:  A.  1).  1020,  and  after. 

BREYZAD.— The  i)eople  and  the  languafrc 
of  Ibittanv,  or  Hretagne.  See  BitlTTANY:  A.  1). 
81H-0r2. 

BRIAN  BORU,  The  reign  in  Ireland  of. 
See  Iui:i,a\d:  A.  1).  1011. 

BRIDGE,  Battle  of  the.— A  serious  reverse 
sulfered  by  the  Arab  followers  of  Jlahomet  in 
their  early  movements  against  the  Persians, 
A.  D.  034.  A  force  of  'J^OOO  or  10,000  having 
crossed  the  Euphrates  by  a  bridge  of  boats  were 
beaten  back,  their  bridge  destroyed  and  half  of 
them  slain  or  drowned. — G.  J{awlinsoii,  t^icciith 
Great  Orientitl  Miinnrehu,  ch.  20. — See  Maiio.nie- 
TAN  Conquest:  A.  O.  6;i2-6r)l. 

BRIDGE  WATER,  OR  LUNDY'SLANE, 
Battle  of.  See  UNiri;D  Statics  ok  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1814  (July — SEi-TUMniiu). 

BRIDGEWATER,  Storming  of.  See  Eno- 
iiANo;   A.  1).  1045  (,Il"ly— Sei'tkmuku). 

BRIENNE,  Battle  of.  See  Fhance  :  A.  D. 
1814  (.Januauy— Mauuh). 

BRIGANTES,  The.— One  of  the  strongest 
and  fiercest  of  the  tribes  of  ancient  Britain,  be- 
lieved by  some  historians  to  have  been  the  origi- 
nal prc-Celtic  inhabitants  of  the  Island.  At  the 
time  of  the  Koman  conquest  they  held  the  whole 
interior  northward  from  the  Humber  uud  Mersey 
to  the  Forth  and  Clyde.  Vhey  wore  subdued 
by  Agricola. — E,  Guest,  Oni/iiifn  Cclticm,  v.  1,  cli. 
1. — See,  also,  Britain,  Celtic  Tuibes,  and  A.  I). 
43-53;  also,  Iuelanu,  Tuides  of  Eauly  Celtic 

lNllAniT.\NTS. 

BRIGANTINE.— BERGANTIN.      See 

Cauavei.s. 

BRIHUEGA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1710).  Sec 
Si'AJ.v  ;  A.  D.  1707-1710. 

BRILL,  The  capture  of.  See  Netueulands: 
A.  D.  1572. 

BRISBANE.  See  Australia  :  A.  D.  1800- 
1840,  and  1859. 

BRISSOT  DE  WARVILLE  AND  THE 
GIRONDISTS.  See  Fuance  :  A.  D.  1791 
(OcTonKU),  to  1703  (Septemueh — Decembeu). 

BRISSOTINS.— The  party  of  the  Giron- 
dists, in  the  French  I^cvoliition,  was  sometimes 
so  called,  after  Brissot  de  Warville,  one  of  its 
leaders. 

BRISTOE  STATION,  Battle  of.  See 
United  States  ov  Am.  :  A.  D.  1803  (July— No- 
VE.MiiKit:  Viuuinia). 

BRISTOL  :  12th  Centurj;.— Its  slave  trade 
and  other  commerce. — "Within  its  compara- 
tively narrow  limits  Bristol  must  have  been  in 
general  character  and  aspect  not  unlike  what  it 
is  to-day  —  a  bu-sy,  bu.stling,  closely-packed  city, 
full  of  the  eager,  active,  surging  life  of  com- 
mercinl  enterprise.  Ostmen  from  Watcrford 
and  liublin,  Northmen  from  the  Western  Isles 
and  the  more  ilistant  Drkneys,  and  even  from 
Norway  itself,  had  long  iigo  learnt  to  avoid  the 
shuck  of  the  '  Uigru, '  the  mighty  uurruut  which 


still  kept  its  heathen  name  derived  from  the  scii- 
god  of  their  forefathers,  and  make  it  serve  to 
float  thi'm  into  the  safe  and  conmuxlious  har- 
bour of  Bristol,  where  a  thousand  ships  could 
ride  at  aiieli(a\  As  the  great  trading  centric  of 
till!  west  Bristol  riudced  as  the  third  city  in  tho 
kingdom,  surpassed  in  importance  only  "by  AVin- 
cliestcr  and  London.  The  most  lucrative  branch 
of  its  trade,  however,  retleets  no  credit  on  its 
burghers.  All  the  elo(|iience  of  S.  Wulfstan 
and  all  the  .sternness  of  the  ('on([ueror  had  barely 
availed  to  check  for  a  while  their  practice  of 
kidnapping  men  for  tiie  Irisli  slave-market;  and 
that  the  tnidle  was  in  lull  Ciireer  in  the  latter 
years  of  Henry  I.  we  learn  from  Hu!  experiences 
of  the  canons  of  Laon." — K.  Xorgato,  EuyUtiul 
under  t/ie  Aui/iriii  Kiiii/n.  r.  1,  c!i.  1. 

A.  D.  1497. — Cabot's  voyage  of  discovery. 
See  Ami:iit<a:  A.  1).  1197. 

A.  D.  1645. — The  storming  of  the  city  by 
Fairfax.      See  E.soi.ani):  A.    1).    1015  (.1i:i,y— 

SlCl'TEMnEll). 

A.  D.  1685. — The  commerce  and  wealth  of 
the  city. — "  Xext  to  the  capital,  but  next  at  an 
immense  distance,  stood  Bristol,  then  the  first 
English  seaport.  .  .  .  Pepys,  who  visited  Bris- 
tol eight  j-ears  after  the  lU'storation,  was  struck 
by  the  splendour  of  the  city.  But  nis  standard 
was  not  high ;  for  he  notctl  down  as  a  wonder  tho 
circumstance  that,  in  Bristol,  a  man  might  look 
round  him  and  see  nothi'ig  but  houses.  ...  A 
few  churches  of  eminent  beauty  rose  out  of  a 
labyrinth  of  narrow  lanes  built  upon  vaults  of  no 
great  solidity.  If  a  coach  or  cart  entered  those 
alleys,  there  was  danger  tnat  it  would  be  wedged 
between  the  housc-j,  and  daugcir  also  that  it 
would  break  in  the  cellars.  Goods  were  thcreforo 
conveyed  about  the  town  almost  exclusively  in 
trucks  drawn  by  dogs;  and  the  richest  inhabit- 
ants exhibited  their  wealth,  not  by  ridiig  in 
carriages,  but  by  walking  the  streets  with  trains 
of  servants  in  rich  liveries  and  by  keeping  tables 
loaded  with  good  cheer.  The  hospitality  of  the 
city  was  widely  renowned,  and  especially  tho 
collations  with  wiiich  the  sugar  retiuers  regaled 
their  visitors.  .  .  .  This  luxury  was  supported 
by  a  thriving  trade  with  the  North  American 
Plantations  and  with  the  West  Indies.  The  pas- 
sion for  coUmial  trallic  was  so  strong  tlrat  there 
was  scarcely  a  small  shopkeeper  in  Bristol  who 
had  not  a  venture  on  board  of  some  ship  bound 
for  Virginia  or  the  Antilles.  Some  of  these  ven- 
turers indeed  were  not  of  the  most  honourablo 
kind.  There  was,  in  the  Transatlantic  posses- 
sions of  the  crown,  a  great  demand  for  labour; 
and  this  demand  was  i)artly  supplied  by  a  .system 
of  crimping  and  kidnapping  at  the  ,  •incipal 
English  seaports.  Nowhere  was  this  system  in 
such  active  and  extensive  operation  as  at  Bristol. 
.  .  .  The  number  of  houses  ai)pear.s,  from  the 
returns  of  the  hearth-money,  to  have  been,  in  the 
year  168.5,  just  5,300.  .  .  .  The  population  of 
Bri.stol  must  therefore  have  been  about  29,000. " — 
Lord  Macaulav,  I/ist.  of  Kii'j.,  ch.  3  {i\  1). 

A.  D.  1831.— The  lieform  Bill  Riots.— Tho 
l)opular  excitement  produced  in  lOngland  in  1831 
by  the  action  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  rejecting 
the  Ueform  Bill,  led  to  riots  in  several  places,  but 
most  seriously  at  Bristol.  "The  Bristol  moba 
have  always  been  noted  for  their  brntidity;  and 
the  outbreak  now  svas  such  as  to  amaze  and  con- 
found the  the  whole  kingdom.  .  .  .  The  lower 
parts  of  the  city  wcio  the  harbourage  of  probably 


317 


BRISTOL. 


BRITAIN. 


ft  worse  seaport  populncc  than  any  other  place  in 
Enghind,  wliile  the  police  was  ineffective  ami  de- 
moralised. There  was  no  city  In  which  a  greater 
amount  of  savagery  lay  bcneatli  a  society  proud, 
exclusive,  and  mutually  repellent,  ratlier  tliaii 
enlightened  and  accustomed  to  social  co-opera- 
tion. These  are  circumstimces  which  go  far  to 
account  for  the  Bristol  riots  being  so  fearfully 
bad  as  they  were.  Of  this  city,  Sir  Cliarle's 
AVctherell  —  tlien  at  the  height  of  his  unpopularity 
as  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  Iteform  Bill  —  was 
recorder ;  and  there  he  had  to  go,  in  the  last  days 
of  October,  in  his  judicial  capacity.  .  .  .  The 
symptoms  of  discontent  were  such  as  to  induce 
the  mayor,  Jfr.  Pinuey,  to  apply  to  the  honie- 
oftlco  for  military  aid.  Lord  Melbourne  sent 
down  some  troops  of  horae,  which  were  quartered 
within  reach,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  tlie  city. 
.  .  .  Kir  Charles  Wethcrell  could  not  be  induced 
to  relinquish  his  public  entry,  though  warned  of 
the  danger  by  the  magistrates  themselves.  .  .  . 
On  Saturday,  October  20,  Sir  Charles  Wethcrell 
entered  Bristol  in  pomp ;  and  before  he  reached 
the  Mi>i8ion  House  at  noon,  he  must  have  been 
pretty  well  convinced,  by  the  hootings  and 
tnrowing  of  stones,  that  he  had  better  have  fore- 
gone the  procession.  For  some  hours  the  snecial 
constables  and  the  noisy  mob  In  front  of  the  Man 
sion  House  exchanged  discourtesies  of  an  em 
phatic  character,  but  there  was  no  actual  violence 
|till  night.  At  night,  the  Mansion  House  was 
attacked,  and  the  Riot  Act  was  read;  but  the 
military  were  not  brought  down,  as  they  ought 
to  have  been,  to  clear  the  streets.  The  mayor 
had  '  religious  scruples,'  and  was  '  humane ' ;  and 
his  Indecision  was  not  overborne  by  any  aid 
fror/x  his  brother-magistrates.  When  the  mili- 
tary were  brought  in,  it  was  after  violence  had 
been  committed,  and  when  the  passions  of  the 
mob  were  much  excited.  Sir  Charles  Wethcrell 
escaped  from  the  city  that  night.  During  the 
dark  hours,  sounds  were  heard  provocative  of 
further  riot;  shouts  in  the  streets,  and  the  ham- 
mering of  workmen  who  we?  i  boarding  up  the 
lower  windows  of  the  Mansion  House  and  the 
neighbouring  dwellings.  On  the  Sunday  morn- 
ing, the  rioters  broke  into  the  Mansion  House 
without  opposition ;  and  from  the  time  they  got 
into  the  cellars,  all  went  wrong.  Hungry 
wretches  and  boys  broke  the  necks  of  the  bottles, 
and  Queen  Stiuare  was  strewed  with  the  bodies 
of  the  dead-drunk.  Tlie  soldiers  were  left  with- 
out orders,  and  their  ofHcera  without  tliat  Siuic- 
tion  of  tlic  magistracy  in  the  ab.sence  of  wliich 
they  coidd  not  act,  but  only  iiaradc;  and  in  this 
parading,  some  of  the  soldiers  naturally  lost 
their  tempers,  and  spoke  and  made  gestures  .)n 
their  own  account,  which  did  not  tend  to  the 
soothing  of  the  mob.  This  mob  never  consisted 
of  more  than  five  or  six  hundred.  .  .  .  The  mob 
declared  openly  what  they  were  going  to  do ;  and 
they  went  to  work  unchecked  —  armed  witli 
staves  and  bludgeons  from  the  quayp,  and  with 
iron  palisades  from  the  Mansion  House  —  to  break 
open  and  burn  the  bridewell,  the  jail,  the  bishop's 
])alace,  the  custom-house,  and  Queen  Square. 
They  gave  half  an  hoar's  notice  to  the  inhabitants 
of  each  house  in  the  square,  wliieh  they  tlien  .set 
tire  to  in  regular  succession,  till  two  sides,  each 
measuring  n.lO  feet,  lay  in  smoking  ruins.  Tlie 
bodies  of  the  drunken  were  seen  roasting  in  the 
Are.  The  greater  number  of  the  rioters  were  be- 
lieved to  bo  uuder  twenty  years  of  age,  and  some 


were  mere  children;  some  Sunday  scholars, 
hitherto  well  conducted,  and  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  one  in  ten  knew  anything  ■  t  the 
Reform  Bill,  or  the  offences  of  Sir  Charles  Weth- 
crell. On  the  Monday  morning,  after  all  actual 
riot  seemed  to  be  over,  the  soldiery  at  last  made 
two  slaughterous  charges.  More  horse  arrived, 
and  a  considerable  bixly  of  foot  soldiers;  and  the 
constabulary  became  active;  and  from  that  time 
the  city  was  in  a  more  orderly  state  than  the  resi- 
dents were  accustomed  to  see  it.  .  .  .  The  magis- 
trates were  brought  to  trial,  and  so  was  Colonel 
Brereton,  who  was  understood  to  be  in  command 
of  the  whole  of  the  military.  The  result  of  that 
court-martial  caused  more  emotion  throughout 
the  kingdom  than  all  the  slaughtering  and  burn- 
ing, ancl  the  subsequent  executions  which  marked 
that  fearful  season.  It  was  a  year  before  the 
trial  of  the  magistrates  was  entered  \ipon.  The 
result  was  the  acquittal  of  the  mayor,  and  the 
consequent  relinquishment  of  the  prosecution  of 
his  brother-magistrates." — H.  Martineau,  A  His- 
tory of  tlie  Tliirty  Years'  Peace,  bk.  4,  ch.  i  (v.  2). 
» 

BRIT  AIN,Count  and  Duke  of.— The  military 
commanders  of  Roman  Britain.  Sec  Bhitain  : 
A.  I).  iJ'->l!-;i;i7,  also  Arthur,  Kino. 

BRITAIN,  The  name.    See  Britannia. 

Celtic  Tribes. — "It  appears  that  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  island,  or  the  district  now  oc- 
cupied by  the  county  of  Kent,  was  occupied  by 
the  Cantii,  a  large  and  influential  tribe,  which  in 
Cresar's  time,  was  divided  among  four  chiefs  or 
kings.  To  the  west,  the  Regni  held  the  modern 
counties  of  Sussex  and  Surrey,  from  the  sea-coast 
to  the  Thames.  Still  farther  west,  the  Belgaj  oc- 
cupied tlie  country  from  the  southern  coast  to 
the  Bristol  Channel,  including  nearly  the  whole 
of  Hampshire,  Wiltshire  and  Somersetshire.  The 
whole  of  the  extensive  district  extending  from 
the  Bclgaj  to  the  extreme  western  point  of  the 
island,  tliencalled  AntivestsBumorBoleriuin  (now 
the  Land's  End)  including  Devonshire  and  Corn- 
wall, was  occupied  by  the  Dumnonii,  or  Dam- 
nonii.  On  the  coast  between  the  Dumnonii  and 
the  Belgie  the  smaller  tribe  of  the  Durotriges 
held  the  modern  county  of  Dorset.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  Thames,  extending  northwards  to  the 
Stour,  and  including  the  greater  part  of  Middle- 
sex as  well  as  Essex,  lay  the  Trinobantes.  To  the 
north  of  the  Stour  dwelt  the  Iceiii,  extending 
over  the  counties  of  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge 
and  Huntingdon.  Tlio  Coritavi  possessed  the 
present  counties  of  Northampton,  Leicester,  Rut- 
land, Dcrl)y,  Nottingham  and  Lincoln;  and  the 
S(;uth-easteru  part  of  Yorkshire  was  held  by  the 
Parisi.  Between  the  tribes  la.st  enumerated,  in 
the  counties  of  Buckingham,  Bedford  and  Hert- 
ford, lay  the  tribe  called  by  Ptolemy  the  Cat- 
yeuchlaiii,  and  by  others  Catuvellani.  Another 
name,  apparently,  for  this  tribe,  or  for  a  ilivision 
of  it,  was  the  Cassii.  West  of  these  were  the 
Atrebates,  in  Berkshire;  and  still  further  west 
were  the  Dobuni,  in  the  counties  of  Oxford  and 
Gloucestc.  .  .  '''lie  interior  of  the  island  north- 
ward was  occupied  by  the  Brigantes,  who  held 
the  exten.sive  districts,  ditiicult  of  approach  ou 
aceount  of  their  mountains  and  woods,  extend- 
ing from  the  Ituniber  and  the  Jlersey  to  the 
present  borders  of  Scotland.  This  extensive 
tribe  apjiears  to  have  included  several  smaller 
ones  [tlie  Voluntii,  the  Sestuntii,  the  Jugantes 
and  the  Cangi].     The  Brigantes  are  believed  to 


318 


BRITAIN. 


BRITAIN,  A.  D.  43-58. 


have  been  the  originftl  inhabitants  of  tlie  inland, 
wlio  liad  been  driven  nortliward  by  successive  in- 
vasions. .  .  .  Wales,  also,  was  inliabitcd  by  a 
primitive  population.  Tlie  nortliern  counties 
.  .  .  was  the  territory  of  the  Ordovices.  The  south- 
eastern counties  .  .  .  were  held  by  the  Demetae. 
Tlic  still  more  celebrated  tribe  of  the  Silures  in- 
habited the  modern  counties  of  Hereford,  Riulnor, 
Brecknock,  Monmouth  and  Glamorgan.  Between 
these  and  the  Brigantes  lay  the  Cornabii  or  Carn- 
abii.  The  wilder  parts  of  the  island  of  Britain, 
to  the  north  of  the  Brigantes,  were  inhabited  by 
a  great  number  of  smaller  tribes,  some  of  whom 
seem  to  have  l)een  raised  in  the  scale  of  civiliza- 
tion little  above  savages.  Of  these  we  have  the 
names  of  no  less  than  twenty-one.  Bordering 
on  the  Bri;tantes  were  the  Otadcni,  inhabiting 
the  coast  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
.  .  .  Next  to  them  were  tb"  Qadeni.  .  .  .  The 
Selgovoe  inhabited  Annandale,  Nitlisdale  and 
Eskdule,  in  Dumfriesshire,  with  tlie  East  of  Gallo- 
way The  Novantes  inhabited  the  remainder  of 
Galloway.  The  Daiuuii,  a  larger  tribe,  held  the 
country  from  the  chain  of  hills  separating  Gal- 
loway from  Carrick,  northward  to  the  river  Em. 
These  tribes  lay  to  the  south  of  the  Forth  and 
Clyde.  Beyond  the  narrow  boundary  formed  by 
these  rivers  lay  [the  Horestii,  the  Venricones  or 
Vernicomes,  the  Taixali  or  Taexali,  the  Vaco- 
magi,  the  .S">ani,  the  Cantte,  the  Logi,  the 
Carnabii,  the  Catini,  the  Mertaj,  the  Carnonaca;, 
the  Creones,  the  Cerones,  and  the  Epidii].  The 
ferocious  tribe  of  the  Attacotti  inhabited  part  of 
Argyleshire,  and  the  greater  part  of  Bumbarton- 
shire.  The  wild  forest  country  of  the  interior, 
known  as  the  Caledonia  Sylva  (or  Forest  of  Cel- 
yddon),  extended  from  the  ridge  of  mountains 
between  Inverness  and  Perth,  northward  to  the 
forest  of  Balnagowan,  including  the  middle  parts 
of  Inverness  and  Ross,  was  held  by  the  Caledonii, 
wliici;  appears  to  have  been  at  this  time  [of  the 
conquests  of  Agricola]  the  most  important  and 
powerful  of  all  the  tribes  north  of  the  Brigantes." 
— T.  Wright,  The  Celt,  the  Roman  and  the  Saxon, 
cli.  2. 

Also  in:  J.  Rhys,  Celtic  Britain. — J.  F.  Skene, 
Celtic  Scotlaml,  bk.  1,  eh.  3. 

B.  C.  55-54.  -Csesar's  invasions. — Having 
extended  hi.s  conquests  in  Gaul  to  the  British 
Channid  and  the  Strait  of  Dover  (see  Gaul: 
B.  C.  158-51),  CiBsar  crossed  the  latter.  In  August, 
B.  C.  iiS,  and  made  his  tirst  landing  in  Britain, 
with  two  legions,  numl)ering8,000tol0,000mcn. 
Portus  Ilius,  from  which  he  sailed,  was  probably 
either  Wissant  or  Boulogne,  a.ul  his  landing 
place  on  the  British  coast  is  believed  to  liave 
been  nei  r  Deal.  The  Britons  disputed  his  land- 
ing with  great  obstinacy,  but  were  driven  back, 
and  olfered  to  submit;  but  when  a  few  days 
afterwards,  Ca'sar's  fleet  suffered  greatly  from  a 
Btorm,  tliey  reconsidered  their  submission  and 
opened  hostilities  again.  Rcjuted  in  a  second 
battle,  tliey  once  more  sued  for  peace,  and  gave 
hostages;  whereupon  Cicsar  reembarked  his 
troops  and  returned  to  the  continent,  having 
remained  in  Britain  not  more  tlian  three  weeks 
and  penetrated  the  island  a  short  distance  only. 
The  following  summer  he  crossed  to  Britain 
again,  determined  on  making  a  thorougli  con- 
quest of  the  country.  This  time  he  bad  live 
legions  at  his  back,  with  two  th' usaml  hoi-se, 
and  the  expedition  was  embarkcl  on  more  than 
eight  hundred  ships.    He  sailed  i'lom  and  landed 


at  the  same  points  as  before.  Having  established 
and  garri.soned  a  fortified  camp,  he  advance<l 
into  the  country,  encountering  and  defeating  the 
Britons,  tirst,  at  a  river,  supposed  to  be  the 
Sfour  which  flows  past  Canterbury.  A  storm 
which  damaged  his  fleet  then  interrupted  his 
advance,  compelling  him  to  return  to  the  coast. 
When  tlie  disaster  had  been  repaired  he  marched 
again,  and  again  found  the  cr.;nny  on  the  Stour, 
nfekSembled  under  the  command  „f"Cassivelaunu8, 
whose  kingdom  was  north  of  the  Thames.  He 
dispersed  them,  after  much  lighting,  with  great 
slaughter,  and  crossed  the  Thames,  at  a  point,  it 
is  supposed,  near  the  junction  of  the  Wey. 
Thence  he  pushed  on  until  he  reached  the  "  oppi- 
(lum  "  or  stronghold  of  Cassivelaunus,  which  is 
believed  by  some  to  have  been  on  the  site  of  the 
imxlerntown  of  St.  Albans, —  but  ihc  point  is  a 
disputed  one.  On  receiving  the  sibmission  of 
CassivelaMnus,  and  of  other  chiefi,  or  kings, 
fixing  the  tribute  they  should  pay  ami  tiiking 
hostages,  Coesar  returned  to  the  coast,  reem- 
barked his  army  and  withdrew.  His  stay  in 
Britain  on  this  occasion  was  about  sixty  days. — 
Cojsar,  Qallie  War,  bk.  4,  ch.  20-3(>,  and  bk.  7, 
ch.  7-33. 

Also  in:  H.  M.  Scarth,  lioman  Britain  'ch.  2. — 
G.  Long,  Decline  of  tfie  Roman  Republic,  c.  4,  ch. 
9  and  11-12. — T.  Lewin,  Invasion  of  Britain  by 
C(tsar. — F.  T.  Vine,  Ceesar  in  Kent. — E.  Guest, 
Origines  CfUicm,  v.  2. 

A.  D.  ■  3-53.  —  Conquests  of  Claudius. — 
Nearly  a  '  undred  years  passed  after  Cajsar's 
hasty  invasion  of  Britain  before  the  Romans 
reappeared  on  the  island,  to  enforce  their  claim 
of  tribute.  It  was  under  the  fourth  of  the  im- 
jicrial  successors  of  Julius  Cajsar,  the  feeble 
Claudius,  that  the  work  of  Roman  conquest  in 
Britain  •.  -as  really  begun.  Aulus  Plautius,  who 
commanded  in  Gaul,  was  sent  over  with  four 
legions,  A.  D.  43,  to  obtain  a  footing  and  to 
smooth  the  way  for  the  Eniiieror's  personal  cam- 
paign. With  him  went  one,  Vesjiasian,  who 
began  in  Britain  to  win  the  fame  which  pusiicd 
him  into  the  imperial  seat  and  to  a  great  place 
in  Roman  history.  Plautius  and  Vespasian 
made  good  their  occupation  of  the  country  as 
far  as  the  Tliames,  and  planted  their  forces 
strongly  on  the  northern  bank  of  that  river,  be- 
fore th-^y  summoned  the  Emperor  to  their  aid. 
Claudius  came  before  the  clo'  e  of  the  military 
season,  and  his  vanity  was  gia'itled  liy  the  nomi- 
nal leading  of  an  advance  on  the  chief  oppiduia, 
or  stronghold  of  the  Britons,  called  Camulo- 
dunum,  which  occupied  the  site  of  the  modern 
city  of  Colchester.  The  Trinobantes,  whose 
capital  it  was,  were  beater,  and  the  place  sur- 
rendered. Satisfied  with  this  easy  victory,  tht 
Emperor  returned  to  Rome,  to  enjoy  the  honors 
of  a  triumph  ;  while  Vespasian,  in  command  of 
the  second  legion,  fought  his  way.  foot  by  foot, 
into  the  .southwest  of  the  island,  and  subjugated 
the  obstinate  tribes  of  that  region.  During  the 
next  ten  years,  under  the  command  of  Ostorius 
Scapula,  who  sueceeaed  Plautius,  and  Avitiis 
Didius  Gallus,  who  succeeded  Ostorius,  the 
Ilomiiii  power  was  firmly  settled  in  southern  Bri- 
tain, from  the  Stour,  at  the  East,  to  the  Exe  and  the 
Severn  at  the  West.  The  Silures,  of  South 
Wales,  who  had  resisted  most  stubbornly,  under 
Caractacus,  the  fugitive  Trinobantine  prince, 
were  subduc;d  and  Caractacus  made  captive. 
The  Iceui  (in  Suffolk,  Norfolk  and  Cambridge- 


319 


BRITAIN,  A.  D.  43-53. 


BRITAIN,  A.  I).  78-84. 


shire)  werr  reduced  from  allies  Id  s\illcn  dciicnd- 
eirts.  The  lJrij;iuit('S,  i  lost  powerful  of  all  the 
tribes,  and  who  held  the  ;,'reiiter  part  of  the 
whole  north  of  modern  Knjrlanrl,  were  still  in- 
dependent, hut  distnicted  hy  internal  dissen-sions 
which  Roman  inlluenee  was  active  in  keejiinj^ 
iilive.  Thi.s,  stated  brietly,  was  the  extent  to 
which  the  conquest  of  Britain  wius  carried  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Claudius, —  between  A.  L  43 
and  54. — C.  Merivale,  Uist.  of  the  llomans,  ch. 
51. 

Also  in  :  E.  Quest,  Orif/ines  Celticcp,  v.  3,  pt. 
2,  ch.  13. — II.  51.  Scarth,  Roman  Bntain.  eh. 
4. — See,  also,  ('oi.cnKSTKlt,  OuKii.v  of. 

A.  D.  6i.--Campaigns  of  Suetonius  Pauli- 
nus. — From  \.  D.  50  to  01,  while  Didius  Oallus 
and  his  siu-cessor  Veranius  commanded  in 
Britain,  nothing  was  done  to  extend  the  Roman 
acquisitioug.  In  the  latter  year,  Suetonius 
Paulinus  en  me  to  the  command,  and  a  stormy 
period  o{  war  ensued.  His  firet  movement  was 
to  attpck  the  Druids  in  the  isle  of  Mona,  or 
Anglesey,  into  which  they  ha<l  retreated  from 
(iaul  and  Britain,  in  successive  flights,  before 
the  implacable  hostility  of  Rome.  "In  this 
gloomy  lair,  secure  ai)pareutly,  though  shorn  of 
might  and  dignity,  they  stiil  persisted  in  the 
practice  of  their  unholy  superstition.  .  .  .  Here 
they  retained  their  assemblies,  their  .schools,  and 
their  oracles ;  here  was  the  asylum  of  the  fugi- 
tives; here  was  the  sacred  grove,  the  abode  of 
the  awful  deity,  whieli  in  tlie  stillest  noon  of 
night  or  day  the  priest  liimself  scarce  ventured 
to  enter  lest  ho  should  rush  unwittingly  into  the 
presence  of  its  lord. "  From  Segontium  (modern 
Uaernarvon)  Suetonius  crossed  the  Menai  Strait 
on  rafts  and  boats  with  one  of  his  legions,  the 
Bataviau  cavalry  swinnning  their  horses.  The 
landing  was  liercely  disputed  by  women  and 
men,  priesl.s  and  worshippers;  but  Roman  valor 
bore  down  all  resistance.  "From  this  moment 
tlie  Druids  disappear  from  the  page  of  history; 
they  were  exterminated,  we  may  believe,  upon 
their  own  altars;  for  Suetonius  took  no  half 
measures."  This  accomplished,  tlie  Roman 
conunandcr  was  quickly  called  upon  to  meet  a 
terrific  outburst  of  patriotic  rage  on  the  part  of 
the  i)owerfid  nation  of  the  Iceni,  who  oc(-ui)ied 
the  region  now  forming  the  counties  of  SutTolk, 
Norfolk,  Cambridge,  and  llun'iugdon.  They 
had  been  allies  of  the  Romans,  ijrst;  then  tribu- 
taries, under  their  own  kirg,  and  finally  sul)- 
jects,  much  oppressed.  Tlieir  last  king,  Prasu- 
tagus,  had  vaiidy  hoped  to  v;in  favor  for  his 
wife  and  childien,  when  he  died,  by  bequeath- 
ing his  kingdom  to  the  Roman  State.  But  the 
widowed  queen,  Boudicea,  or  Boadicea,  and  her 
daughters,  were  only  exposed  with  more  help- 
lessness to  the  insolence  and  the  outrages  of  a 
brutal  Roman  ollicer.  They  appealed  to  their 
people  and  maddened  them  by  the  cxposi;re  of 
indescribable  wrongs.  T(  ■  rising  which  ensued 
was  tierce  and  general  beyond  precedent.  "The 
Roniari  cflicials  Hod,  or,  if  arrested,  were  slaugh- 
tered ;  aiid  a  vast  multitude,  armed  and  unarmed, 
rolled  southward  to  overwhelm  and  extirpate 
the  intidders.  To  the  Colne,  to  the  Thames,  to 
the  sea,  the  coimtry  lay  entirely  open."  The 
colony  at  Camidodunum  (Colchester),  was  de- 
stroyed; Veridamium  (St.  Albans),  and  Lon- 
dini'um  (London),  were  sacked  and  burned ;  not 
less  than  70,000  of  the  Remans  in  Britain  were 
slaughtered  without    mercy.    Suetonius   made 


haste  to  (put  Anglesey  when  the  dreadful  news 
reached  him,  and  pressed,  with  all  speed,  along 
the  great  highway  of  Watling  Street  —  gathering 
\ip  his  forces  in  hand  as  he  went  —  to  reach  the 
awful  scene  of  rage  and  terror.  He  had  col- 
lected but  10,000  men  when  he  confronted,  at 
last,  the  vast  swarm  of  the  insurgents,  on  a 
favorable  piece  of  ground  that  he  had  secured,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Camulodunum.  But,  once 
more,  the  valor  of  undisciplined  serai-barliarism 
wrecked  itself  on  the  iirni  shields  of  the  Roman 
cohorts,  and  80,000  Britons  are  said  to  have 
fallen  in  the  merciless  light.  The  insurrection 
was  crushed  and  Roman  authority  in  Britain  re- 
allirmed.  But  the  grim  Suetonius  dealt  S3 
harshly  with  the  broken  people  that  even  Romo 
remonstrated,  and  he  was,  |)resently,  recalled,  to 
give  place  to  a  more  pacilic  commander. — C. 
Merivale,  lUitt.  of  the  Romans,  ch.  51. 

Also  in:  II.  JI.  Scarth,  llonvm  Bntain,  eh.  5. 
— T.  Mommsen,  J[ist.  of  Rome,  hk.  8,  ch.  5. 

A.  D.  78-84. — Campaigns  of  Agricola.  —  For 
seventeen  years  after  the  recall  of  Suetonius 
Paulinus  (A.  D.  61)  there  was  a  suspension  of 
Roman  conquest  in  Britain.  The  military  power 
in  the  island  suffered  great  demoralization, 
residting  naturally  from  the  chaos  of  affairs  at 
Rome,  between  Nerd  and  Vespasian.  Theso 
conditions  ceased  soon  after  the  accession  of  the 
Flavian  Emperor,  and  he,  who  had  attained  first 
in  Britain  the  footing  from  which  he  climbed  to 
the  throne.  Interested  himself  in  the  spreading  of 
his  soverignty  over  tlie  whole  of  tlie  British 
island.  C.  Julius  Agricola  was  the  soldier  and 
statesman  —  a  great  man  in  each  character  — 
whom  he  selected  for  the  work.  Agricola  was 
made  prefect  or  Governor  of  Britain,  A.  D.  78. 
"Even  in  his  first  summer,  when  he  had  beea 
but  a  few  months  in  the  island,  and  when  none 
even  of  his  own  olUcers  expected  active  service, 
Agricola  led  his  forces  into  the  country  of  the 
Ordovices,  in  whose  mountain  passes  the  war  of 
independence  still  lingered,  <lrove  the  Britains 
across  the  SIcnai  Straits  and  pursued  them  into 
Anglesey,  as  Suetonius  had  done  before  him,  by 
boldly  crossing  the  boiling  current  in  the  face  of 
the  enemy.  Another  summer  saw  him  advance 
northward  into  tlic  territory  of  the  Brigantes, 
and  complete  the  organization  of  the  district, 
lately  reduced,  between  the  llumber  and  Tyne. 
Struck  perhaps  with  the  natural  defences  of  the 
line  from  tlie  Tyne  to  the  Solway,  where  tlm 
island  seems  to  have  broken,  as  it  were,  in  tlio 
middle  and  soldered  unevenly  together,  he  drew 
a  chain  of  forts  from  sea  to  sea.  ...  In  the 
third  year  of  his  command,  Agricola  pushed 
forward  along  the  eastern  coast,  and,  making 
good  w  ith  roads  and  fortresses  every  inch  of  his 
progress,  reached,  as  I  imagine,  the  Firtli  of  Forth. 
.  .  .  Here  lie  repeated  the  operations  of  the 
preceding  winter,  planting  his  camps  and  stations 
from  hiil  to  hill,  and  securing  a  new  belt  of 
territory,  ninety  miles  acro.ss,  for  Roman  occupa- 
tion." The  next  two  years  were  spent  in 
strengthening  his  position  and  organizing  his 
con((uest.  In  A.  D.  83  and  84  lie  advanced 
beyond  the  Forth,  in  two  campaigns  of  hard 
fighting,  the  latter  of  which  was  made  memor- 
able by  the  famous  battle  of  the  Grampians,  or 
Graupius,  fought  with  the  Caledonian  hero  Gal- 
gacus.  At  the  close  of  this  campi'ign  he  sent 
his  fleet  northward  to  explore  the  unknown 
coast  and  to  awo  the  remoter  tribes,  and  it  is 


320 


BRITAIN,  A.  D.  78-84. 


BRITAIN.  A.  D.  888-888. 


clnimcd  that  tho  vessels  of  Aprioola  clrcnmnavi- 
giitcd  the  island  of  Uritiiui,  for  the  lirst  time,  iiiid 
saw  the  Orkneys  and  Shctlands.  The  further 
plans  of  the  sueeessfid  prefect  were  internipteil 
by  his  sudden  recall.  Vespasian,  lirst,  then 
Titus,  had  died  while  he  pursued  his  victorious 
course  iu  Caledonia,  and  the  mean  Doinitiau  was 
envious  and  afraid  of  his  renown. — C.  Morivale, 
Hint,  of  the  Romaiin,  eh.  61. 

Ai.soiN:  Tacitus,  Agrieola. — Mommscn,  IIM. 
of  Home,  Ilk.  8,  ch.  5. 

2d-3d  Centuries. — Introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity.    See  ('nuisriAMTY:  A.  I).  lOiMU'-i. 

A.  D.  208-211. — Campaigns  of  Severus. — 
A  fresh  inroad  of  the  wild  Caledoniims  of  the 
north  upon  Uoinan  Hrilain,  in  the  year  208, 
caused  the  Emperor  Severus  to  visit  the  distant 
island  iu  person,  with  his  two  worthless  scms, 
Caracall  and  Geta.  lie  desired,  it  is  said,  to  re- 
move t'  30  troublesome  youths  from  Rome  and 
to  subject  them  to  the  wholesome  discipline  of 
military  life.  Tho  only  result,  so  far  as  they 
were  concerned,  was  to  give  Caracalla  opportuni- 
ties for  exciting  mutiny  among  the  troops  and 
for  making  .several  attempts  against  his  father's 
life.  But  Severus  persisted  in  his  residence  in 
Britain  during  more  than  two  years,  and  till  his 
death,  which  occurred  at  Eboracum  (York)  on 
the  4th  of  February,  A.  D.  211.  During  that 
time  he  ])rosecuted  tho  war  against  tlie  Cale- 
donians with  great  vigor,  penetrating  to  the 
northern  extremity  of  tho  island,  and  losing,  it 
is  said,  above  ."50,000  men,  more  by  tho  hardships 
of  the  climate  and  the  march  than  by  the  attacks 
of  the  skidking  enemy.  The  Caledonians  made 
a  pretence  of  submission,  at  last,  but  wore  soon 
in  arms  again,  lieverus  was  then  preparing  to 
pursue  them  to  extermination,  when  he  died. — 
E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Full  of  the  Eoman  Em- 
pire, ch.  6. 

Also  IN:  T.  Jlommsen,  Ilist.  <f  Home,  bk.  8, 
eh.  a. 

A.  D.  288-297. — Rebellion  of  Carausius.— 
"  During  tlie  reign  of  Gallienus  [A.  D.  200-208] 
.  .  .  the  pirate  Hoots  of  the  Franks  infested  the 
British  seas,  and  it  became  needful  to  have  a 
fleet  to  protect  the  coast.  The  command  of  tins 
fleet  had  been  conferred  on  Carausius,  a  Alenapiau 
by  birth;  but  he  was  suspected  of  conniving  at 
piracy,  in  order  that  he  might  enrich  himself  by 
becoming  a  sharer  iu  their  booty,  when  they  re- 
turned laden  with  i)lunder.  To  save  himself, 
therefore,  from  iiunishment,  ho  UF:irped  the  im- 
periid  power,  A.  D.  288,  and  reigned  over  Britain 
for  seven  years.  A  vast  number  of  his  coins 
struck  in  Britain  have  been  pres(!rvcd,  so  many 
that  the  history  of  Carausius  has  been  written 
from  his  medals.  lie  was  slain  at  length  by  his 
minister  AUectus,  who  usurped  his  power.  The 
Franks  Tas  allies  of  AUectus]  had  wcll-nigli 
establishtd  their  power  over  the  south  portion  of 
Britain  when  it  was  broken  by  Coiistnntius,  the 
father  of  Constantino  the  Great,  who  defeated 
AUectus  in  a  decisive  battle,  in  which  that 
usurper  was  slain.  .  .  .  AUectus  held  the  govern- 
ment of  Britjiiii  for  three  years.  Many  of  his 
coins  arc  found." — II.  M.  Scarth,  Ro,  in  Britain, 
eh.  10. 

Af.so  in:  T.  AVright,  Celt,  Raman  and  Saxon, 
ch.  4. 

A.  D.  323-337. — Constantine's  Organization. 
—  Under  tho  scheme  of  government  designed  by 
Diocletian  audumeuded  by  Coustantine,  "  Briiaiu 


formed  part  of  a  vast  pro-consulate,  extending 
from  .Mount  -Vtlas  to  the  Caledonian  deserts,  and 
was  grn'crned  by  the  Gallic  prefect,  through  a 
'  vicar '  or  deputy  at  York.  The  island  was 
divided  into  live  lu'w  provinces.  .  .  .  Hritain 
was  imder  the  orders  of  the  Count  of  Hritain, 
assisted  by  the  subordinate  ollUers.  The  Duke 
of  Britain  cimimanded  in  the  north.  The  Count 
of  the  Saxon  Shore,  governed  the  '.Maritime 
Tract'  and  provided  for  the  defence  of  the  south- 
eastern coast.  The  Saxon  Shore  on  the  coast  of 
liritain  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  Saxon 
Shore  on  the  ojiposite  coast  of  France,  the  head- 
(|uarlcrsof  which  were  the  harbourof  Boulogne. 
The  names  of  the  several  provinces  into  which 
Britain  was  divided  are  given  in  the  'Notitia,' 
vi/: — 1.  Britamna  Prima,  which  included  all  the 
south  and  west  of  England,  from  tho  estuary  of 
the  Thames  to  that  of  the  Severn.  2.  Britaimia 
Secunda,  which  included  tho  Principality  of 
Wales,  bounded  by  the  .Severn  on  the  east  and 
the  Irish  Channel  on  the  west.  3.  Flavia 
Ca'saricnsis, —  all  tho  middle  portion  of  Britain, 
from  the  Thames  to  the  Iltunber  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Dee.  4.  Maxima  Ca'sariensis, — 
tho  Brigantian  territory,  lying  between  the- 
estuaries  of  the  Ilumber  and  Dee,  and  the  Barrier 
of  the  Lower  Isthmus.  5.  Valentin, —  the  most 
northern  portion,  lying  between  the  barrier  of 
Hadrian  and  that  of  Antoninus." — II.  JI.  Scarth, 
Iloinan  Britain,  cJi.  10. 

A.  D.  367-370.— Deliverance  by  Theodosius. 
— The  distracted  conditicm  of  affairs  in  the  Ro- 
man Empire  that  soon  followed  the  death  of 
Coustantine,  which  was  relieved  by  Julian  for  a 
brief  term,  and  which  becaiue  worse  at  his 
death,  proved  especially  ruinous  to  Roman  Bri- 
tain. The  .savage  tribes  of  t'aledonia — the  I'icts, 
now  beginning  to  bo  associated  with  the  Scots 
from  Ireland  —  became  bolder  from  year  to  yiiar 
in  their  incursions,  imf  il  they  marched  across  the 
whole  extent  of  Britain.  "Their  path  was 
marked  by  cruelties  so  atrocious,  that  it  was  be- 
lieved at  the  time  and  recorded  by  St.  Jerome 
that  they  lived  on  human  flesh.  London,  even, 
was  threatened  by  them,  and  the  whole  island, 
which,  like  all  the  other  provinces  of  the  Empire, 
had  lost  every  spark  of  military  virtue,  was  in- 
capable of  opposing  any  resistance  to  them. 
Theodosius,  a  Spanish  olticer,  and  father  of  the 
great  man  of  the  same  name  who  was  afterwards 
associated  in  the  Empire,  was  charged  by  Valen- 
tinian  with  the  defence  of  Britain.  II('  forced 
tho  Scots  to  fall  back  (A.  I).  367-370),  but  with- 
out having  been  able  to  bring  them  to  an  en- 
gagement."—J.  C.  L.  do  Sismondi,  Fall  of  the 
ll'iinaii  Empire,  eh.  5. — "The  splendour  of  the 
cities  and  the  security  of  the  fortifications  were 
diligently  restored  by  tho  paternal  euro  of  Theo- 
dosiu.s,  who  with  a  strong  hand  coidincd  tho 
trembling  Caledonians  to  the  northern  angle  of 
the  island,  and  perpetuated,  by  the  name  and 
settlement  of  the  new  province  of  Valentia,  tho 
glories  of  the  reign  of  Valontinian.  " — E.  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  S."). 

A.  D.  383-388.-^Revoltof  Maximus.— In38.'), 
four  years  after  Theodosius  the  Great  hud  been 
associated  in  the  Roman  sovereignty  by  the 
young  Emperor  Gratian,  and  placed  on  the  throne 
of  the  Bast,  the  generous  Gralian  lost  his  own 
throne,  and  his  life,  through  a  revolt  that  was 
organized  iu  Britain.  "One  Maximus,  a  Span- 
iard by  birth,  occupying  u  high  olBcial  position 


321 


BRITAIN,  A.  D.  383-388. 


BRITAIN.  A.  D.  446. 


in  that  province,  forced  on  step  !>>'  step  into  in- 
surrection, by  a  soldiery  and  ii  people  of  whom 
ho  appears  to  hiive  been  the  idol,  raised  the 
stiindardof  revolt  in  the  island,  and  piis.sed  over 
into  (laid,  attended  by  a  larjrci  multitude, — 
130,000  men  and  70,000  women,  says  Zositnua, 
the  Byzantine  historian.  This  colony,  settiinj; 
in  the  Armorican  peninsula,  gave  it  the  name  of 
Brittany,  wliicli  it  has  since  retained.  The  rel)el 
forces  were  soon  victorious  over  the  two  Km- 
perors  who  had  agreed  to  share  the  Roman 
throne  [Gratian  and  his  l)oy-1jrother  Valentinian 
who  divided  the  sovereignty  of  the  West  between 
them,  while  Tlieo<losius  ruled  tlie  East].  Gra- 
tian they  slew  at  Lyons;  Valentinian  they 
speedily  expelled  from  Italy.  .  .  .  Theodosius 
adopted  the  cause  of  his  brother  Emperor  "  and 
overtlirew  Maximus  (see  Rome:  A.  I).  370-395). 
—J.  G.  Hhcp])ard,  Fall  of  Home,  led.  (5. 

Also  in:   E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  ch.  27. 

A.  D.  407. — The  Usurpation  of  Constantine. 
— "  Tlie  Roman  soldiers  in  Britain,  seeing  tlmt 
the  Empire  was  falling  to  pieces  under  tlie  feeble 
sway  of  llonorius,  and  fearing  lest  tliey,  too, 
should  soon  lie  ousted  from  their  dominion  iu  tlie 
island  (part  of  which  was  already  known  as  the 
Saxon  Shore)  clotlied  three  usurpers  successively 
with  tlie  imperial  purple  [A.  D.  407],  falling,  as 
far  as  social  position  was  concerned,  lower  and 
lower  in  their  clioice  cadi  time.  The  last  and 
least  ephemeral  of  tliese  rulers  was  a  private 
soldier  named  Constantine,  and  chosen  for  no 
other  reason  l)ut  his  name,  wliich  was  accounted 
lucliy,  as  having  been  already  borne  by  a  general 
who  liad  been  carried  by  a  Britisli  army  to 
supreme  dominion." — T.  \lijAgk\n,\Italy  ami  Her 
Invaders,  bk.  1,  ch.  5. — The  usurper  Constantino 
soon  led  his  legions  across  the  channel  into  Gaul, 
then  ravaged  by  the  Vandals,  Sueves,  Alans  and 
Burgundians  who  passed  tlie  Rhine  in  406.  lie 
was  welcomed  with  joy  by  tlie  unhappy  people 
who  found  theinsclves  abandoned  to  the  bar- 
barians. Some  successes  which  the  new  Con- 
stantine had,  in  prudent  encounters  with  de- 
tached parties  of  tlie  German  invadera,  wore 
greatly  magnified,  and  gave  prestige  to  his  cause, 
[e  was  still  more  successful,  for  a  time,  in  buying 
the  iirecarious  friendship  of  some  tribes  of  the 
enemy,  and  made,  on  tlie  whole,  a  considerable 
show  of  dominion  in  Gaul  during  two  or  three 
years.  Tlie  seat  of  his  government  was  estab- 
lished at  Aries,  to  which  city  the  olHces  and 
court  of  the  Roman  Pncfect  of  Gaul  had 
retreated  from  Treves  in  403.  With  the  help  of 
a  considerable  army  of  barbarian  auxiliaries  (a 
curious  mixture  of  Scots,  Moors  and  Marcoin- 
anni)  he  extended  his  sovereignty  over  Spain. 
He  even  extorted  from  the  pusillanimous  court  at 
Ravenna  a  recognition  of  his  usurped  royalty, 
and  promised  assistiinco  to  llonorius  against  the 
Goths.  But  the  tide  of  fortune  presently  turned. 
The  lieutenant  of  Constantine  in  Spain,  Count 
Gorontius,  became  for  some  reason  disalTected 
and  crowned  a  new  usurper,  named  JIaximus. 
In  supiwrt  of  the  latter  he  attacked  Constantino 
and  aliut  him  up  in  Aries.  At  the  sanif!  time, 
the  Emperor  Honorius,  at  Ravenna,  having  made 
peace  with  the  Goths,  sent  his  general  Constantius 
against  the  Gallo-British  usurper.  Constantius, 
approaching  Aries,  found  it  already  besieged  by 
Gerontius.  The  latter  was  abandoned  by  his 
troops,  and  fled,   to  be  slain  soon  afterwards. 


Aries  capitulated  to  the  representative  of  the 
great  name  which  llonorius  still  bore,  as  titular 
Imperator  of  Rome.  ConsUintine  was  sent  to 
Ravenna,  and  put  to  death  on  the  way  (A.  D. 
411). — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  lionian 
Empire,  ch.  31. 

Also  in  :  P.  Godwin,  Iliitt.  of  France :  Ancient 
Gaul,  hk.  3,  cA.lO, 

A.  D.  410. — Abandoned  by  the  Romans. — 
"  Up  to  the  moment  .  .  .  when  the  Impi^rial 
troops  ([uitted  Britain,  we  see  them  able  easily 
to  repel  the  attacks  of  its  barbarous  assailants. 
When  a  renewal  of  their  inroads  left  Britain 
weak  and  exhausted  at  the  accession  of  the  Em- 
peror llonorius,  tlie  Koman  general  Stilicho  re- 
newed the  triumphs  which  Theo<losiu8  had  won. 
The  Piet  was  driven  back  afresh,  the  Saxou 
boats  chased  by  his  galleys  as  far  as  the  Orkneys, 
and  the  Saxon  Shore  probably  strengtliened  with 
fresli  fortresses.  But  the  campaign  of  Stilicho 
was  the  last  triumph  of  the  Empire  in  its  western 
waters.  Tlie  struggle  Rome  had  waged  so  long 
drew  in  fact  to  its  end;  at  the  opening  of  tne 
fifth  century  her  resistance  suddenly  broke  down; 
and  the  savage  mass  of  barbarism  witli  which 
she  had  battled  broke  in  upon  the  Empire.  .  .  . 
The  strength  of  the  Empire,  broken  everywhere 
by  military  revolts,  was  nowhere  more  broken 
than  in  Britain,  where  tlic  two  legions  wliieli  re- 
mained quartered  at  Richborough  and  York  set 
up  more  than  once  their  cliiefs  as  Emperors  and 
followed  them  across  the  channel  in  a  march  upon 
Rome.  The  last  of  these  pretendere,  Constantine, 
crossed  over  to  Gaul  in  407  with  the  bulk  of  the 
soldiers  quartered  in  Britain,  and  the  province 
seems  to  have  been  left  to  its  own  defence ;  for  it 
was  no  longer  the  legionaries,  but  '  the  people  of 
Britain '  wlio,  '  taking  up  arms,'  repulsed  a  now 
onset  of  the  barbarians.  .  .  .  Tliey  appealed  to 
llonorius  to  accept  their  obedience,  and  replace 
the  troops.  But  the  legions  of  the  Empire  were 
needed  to  guard  Rome  Itself:  and  iu  410  a  letter 
of  the  Emperor  bade  Britain  provide  for  its  own 
government  and  its  own  defence.  Few  state- 
ments are  more  false  than  those  which  picture 
the  British  provincials  as  cowards,  or  their 
struggle  against  the  barbarian  as  a  weak  and  un- 
worthy one.  Nowhere,  in  fact,  through  the 
whole  circuit  of  the  Roman  world,  was  so  long 
and  so  desperate  a  resistance  offered  to  the  as- 
sailants of  the  Empire.  .  .  .  For  some  thirty 
years  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  legions  the  free 
province  maintained  an  equal  struggle  against 
her  foes.  Of  these  she  probably  counted  the 
Saxons  as  still  the  least  formidable.  ...  It  was 
with  this  view  that  Britain  turned  to  what 
seemed  the  weakest  of  her  assailants,  and  strove 
to  find  .  .  .  troops  whom  she  could  use  as  mer- 
cenaries against  tlie  Pict." — J.  R.  Green,  The 
Making  of  England,  int. 

Also  in:  J.  M.  Lappenberg,  Iliat.  of  Eng. 
vnder  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kings,  v.  1,  jip.  574)6. 

A.  D.  446. — The  last  appeail  to  Rome. — 
"  Yet  once  again  a  supplicating  embassy  was 
sent  to  the  Roman  general  ^tius,  during  his 
til  '  consulship,  in  the  year  446.  .  .  .  JEtiiis 
wa,~  unable  to  help  them." — J.  JI.  Lappenberg, 
Hist,  of  Eng.  uruler  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kings,  p. 
63. — "The  date  of  the  letters  of  appeal  is  fixed 
by  t '  form  of  their  address :  '  The  groans  of 
the  tons  to  Aetius  for  the  third  time  Consul. 
The.  huvages  drive  us  to  the  sea  and  the  sea  casts 
us  back  upon  the  savages :  so  arise  two  kinds  of 


322 


BRITAIX,  A.  n.  4W. 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 


dpfitli,  nnd  wonre  either  drowned  or  slnnglitcrod.' 
TIk!  third  C'onsuiiiti!  of  Aetius  fell  in  A.  I).  44ti, 
a  yeiir  mcmonihlc  in  tlie  West  as  tlu-  l)eKinniiii; 
of  a  ])r()f()iind  eahn  whicli  preeede<l  tiu^  on- 
sliuiglit  of  Attilii.  The  eompliiintof  Britain  Ims 
left  MO  tniee  in  tlie  poems  wliieh  eelehrated  Uh- 
j'ear  of  repose;  and  onr  Chronicles  are  at  any 
rate  wrong  wlien  lliey  attritmte  its  rejection  to. 
the  stress  of  a  war  with  the  Iluns.  Jt  is  possible, 
indeed,  tliat  tlie  appeal  was  never  made,  and  that 
the  whole  story  represents  nothing  hnt  a  rumour 
current  in  the  days  of  Oildas  among  the  British 
exiles  in  Armorica." — C.  Klton,  Urir/iiiK  of 
Enylinh  Hist.,  rli.  13. 

A.    D.    449-633.— The    Anglo-Saxon    Con- 
quest.   See  Kmii.and:  A.  D.  44!)-47;i,  t o .■)4T-<i;}:t. 

6th  Century.— The  unsubdued  Britons. — 
"Tlie  Britons  were  soon  restricted  to  tlio 
■western  parts  of  the  island,  where  they  main- 
taiueil  themselves  in  several  small  states,  of 
which  those  lying  to  the  east  yielded  more  and 
more  to  Germanic  influence;  the othei-s protected 
by  their  mountains,  preserved  for  a  considerable 
time  a  gradually  decreasing  independence.  .  .  . 
In  the  south-west  we  meet  witli  the  powerful 
territory  of  Danniouia,  the  Iviugdoui  oL  Arthur, 
■which  bore  also  the  name  of  West  Wales. 
Damnonia,  at  a  later  period,  was  limited  to 
Dyvnaint,  or  Devonshire,  by  the  separatiim  of 
Cernau,  or  Cornwall.  Tlie  districts  called  by  the 
Sa.xons  those  of  the  Siimorsietas,  of  the  Thorn- 
sa'tas  (Dorsetshire),  and  tlie  Wilt'^ietas  were  lost 
to  the  kings  of  Dyvnaint  at  an  early  period; 
though  for  centuries  afterwards  a  large  British 
jjopulatiou  maintained  itself  in  those  i)arts  among 
the  Haxon  settlers,  as  well  as  among  the 
Defusietas,  long  after  the  Saxon  conquest  of 
Dyvnaint,  who  for  a  considerable  time  preserv(Hl 
to  the  natives  of  that  shire  the  appellation  of  the 
'Welsii  kind.'  Cambria  (Cymru),  the  country 
■which  at  the  present  day  we  call  Wales,  Wiis 
divided  into  several  states."  The  chief  of  these 
early  states  was  Venedotia  (Gwynedd),  the  king 
of  which  was  supreme  over  the  other  states. 
Among  those  latter  were  Dimetia  (Dyved),  or 
West  Wales ;  Powys,  which  was  east  of  Gwynedd 
and  Snowdon  mountain;  Gwent  (Monmouth- 
shire) or  South-east  Wales,  the  country  of  the 
Silures.  "The  usages  and  laws  of  the  Cam- 
brians were  in  all  these  states  essentially  the 
same.  An  invaluable  and  venerable  monument 
of  them,  although  of  an  age  in  which  the  Welsh 
had  long  been  subject  to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
liad  adopted  many  of  their  institutions  and 
customs,  are  tlie  laws  of  the  king  Howel  Dda, 
■who  reigned  in  the  early  part  of  the  10th  century. 
.  .  .  Tlie  partition  of  Cambria  into  several  small 
states  is  not,  as  has  often  been  s\ii)posed,  the 
consequence  of  a  division  made  by  kiujj  Kodri 
Mawr,  or  Koderic  tlie  Great,  among  ins  sons. 
...  Of  Dyfed,  during  the  firet  centuries  after 
the  coming  of  tlie  Siixon.s,  v.'o  know  very  little; 
but  with  regard  to  Gwynedd,  which  was  in  jon- 
stant  warfare  with  Northumbria  and  Mercia,  our 
information  is  less  scanty:  of  Gwent,  also,  as 
the  bulwark  of  Dimetia,  frequent  mention  occurs. 
On  tlie  whole  we  are  less  in  want  of  a  mass  of 
inforniatiou  respecting  the  Welsh,  than  of 
accuracy  and  [irecision  in  that  which  we  possess. 
.  .  .  An  obscurity  still  more  dense  than  that 
■over  Wales  involves  the  district  lying  to  tlie 
north  of  hat  country,  comprised  under  the 
name  of  Cumbria  [see  Cumv.uia  and  Strath- 


ri.Ynp.]."— .T.  M.  Lappenberg,  ///*/.  nf  Eng.  vnder 
the  Aiii/lo-Si.riiH  h'iiii/x,  r.  I,  /).  119-123. 

A.  D.  635.— Defeat  of  the  Wllsh  by  the 
English  of  Bernicia.  See  Hkvk.nkiklu,  Baiti.k 
OK  Tin;. 

BRITAIN,  Great:  Adoption  of  the  name 
for  the  United  Kingdoms  of  England  and 
Scotland.     See  Scotland:  A.  1).  1707. 

BRITAIN,  Roman  Walls  in.  See  Ro.man 
Walls  in  Ukitain. 

BRITANNIA,  The  Origin  of  the  name.- 
"  -Many  are  the  speculations  which  have  been 
stjiiteil  as  to  tlie  etymology  of  the  word  Britan- 
nia, an<l  among  the  later  ones  have  iR'cn  some  of 
the  most  extraordinary.  Yet  surely  it  is  not  one 
of  those  philological  ililliculties  wiiith  we  need 
despair  of  solving.  Few  persons  will  question 
tliat  the  na.ue  Britannia  is  connected  with 
the  name  B  ilaniii,  in  the  same  way  ao  Ger- 
mania  Galliii,  Graecia,  &c.,  w'thGermani,  Galli, 
Graeci,  ikc. ,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  as- 
sume that  Britanni  was  originally  nothing 
more  than  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Welsh  word 
Brython,  a  name  which  we  lind  given  in  the 
Triads  to  one  of  the  three  tribes  ^wlio  first  colo- 
ni/.ed  Britain.  .  .  .  From  the  Welsh 'brith' and 
Irish  'brit,'  parti-coloured,  may  have  come  Bry- 
thon, which  on  this  hypothesis  would  signify  the 
painted  men.  ...  As  far  then  as  i)hilology  is 
concerned,  there  seems  to  be  no  objection  to  our 
assuming  Brytiion,  and  therefore  also  Britanni, 
to  signify  the  painted  mcu.  How  this  Celtic 
name  tirst  came  to  denote  the  inhabitants  of 
these  islands  is  a  question,  tlie  proper  answer  to 
which  lies  deeper  than  is  generally  supposed. 
.  .  .  The  '  Britannic  Isles '  is  the  oldest  name 
we  find  given  to  tliese  islands  in  the  classical 
writers.  Under  this  title  Polybius  (3.  57)  refers 
to  them  in  connection  with  the  tin-trade,  and 
the  well-known  work  on  the  Kosmos  (c.  3)  men- 
tions 'The  Britannic  Isles,  Albiou  and  lerne.' 
.  .  .  But  in  trutli  neither  the  authorship  nor  the 
age  of  this  last-named  work  has  been  satisfac- 
torily settled,  and  therefore  ■wo  cannot  assert 
that  the  phrase  '  The  Britannic  Isles '  came  into 
use  before  the  second  century  B.  C.  The  name 
Britannia  first  occurs  in  the  works  of  Cicsar  and 
was  not  improbably  invented  by  him." — E. 
Guest,  Origiiies  ('Mica,  v.  2,  ch.  1.— ^Tho  etymol- 
ogy contended  for  by  Dr.  Guest  is  scouted  by 
Jlr.  Kliy  s,  on  principles  of  Celtic  plionology.  He, 
on  the  contrary,  trivces  relations  between  the 
name  Brython  and  "the  Welsh  vocables 
'brethyn,'  cloth,  and  its  congeners,"  and  con- 
cludes that  it  signified  "a  clothed  or  cloth-t'ad 
people." — .1.  Rhys,  Celtic  liritain,  ch.  6. 

BRITANNIA  PRIMA  AND  SECUNDA. 
See  BuiTALV:  A.  1).  :J3;i-3;i7. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA:  Aboriginal  in- 
habitants. See  Ameuican  Abokioines:  Atilv- 
I'AscAN  Family. 

A.  E  1858-1871.— Establishment  of  provin- 
cial government. — Union  -with  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  -"British  Columbia,  the  largest  of 
the  Canadi.in  provinces,  cannot  be  .said  to 
have  had  any  existence  as  a  colony  until  18.")8. 
Previous  to  that  year  provision  liad  been  made 
liy  a  series  of  Acts  for  extending  the  Civil  and 
Criminal  Laws  of  the  Courts  of  Lower  and  Upper 
Canada  over  territories  not  within  any  province, 
but  otherwise  the  territory  was  used  as  a  hunting 
ground  of  the  Hudson's  Bay   Company.     The 


323 


DIUTISII  COLUMniA. 


DIUTTANY. 


disputes  (ind  (lifTlcMiUics  that  arose  from  the  In- 
flux of  millers  owing  to  the  polil  discoveries  in 
IH.W.  resulti'd  in  tlic  revocation  of  tlio  lieenee  of 
till!  Hudson's  Buy  Comimnv,  and  tlio  passing  of 
the  Imperial  ActSl  &  i'i  Vic.,  c.  90,  to  provide 
for  the  government  of  Britisli  CJolumhia.  .  .  . 
Sir  James  Douglas  was  appointed  Governor 
and  by  his  commission  ho  was  authorised  to 
make  laws,  institutions  and  ordinances  for  tlio 
peace,  order  and  good  government  of  llrilisli 
Columbia,  by  proclamation  issued  under  tlie 
public  seal  of  the  colony.  .  .  .  Tlic  Governor 
continued  to  legislate  by  proclamation  until 
18G4,  when  his  proclamations  gave  way  to  Ordi 
nances  passed  by  the  Governor  with  the  advice 
and  con.sent  of  the  Legislative  Council.  .  .  . 
Up  to  this  tinu!  the  Governor  of  British  Colum- 
bia was  also  Governor  of  the  neighliouring  island 
of  Vancouver.  Vancouver's  Island  is  histori- 
cally an  older  colony  than  British  Coliimliia. 
Though  discovered  in  1502  it  remained  practically 
unknown  to  Europeans  for  two  centuries,  and  it 
was  not  until  1840,  when  the  island  was  granted 
to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  that  a  Governor 
was  appointed.  ...  In  lHli5  the  legislature  of 
the  island  adopted  a  series  of  resnlutions  in 
favour  of  union  with  British  Columbia,  and  bv 
the  Imperial  Act  30  &  30  Vic.  (i),  e.  07,  llie  two 
colonies  were  united.  .  .  .  Bv  an  Order  in 
Council  dated  the  Kith  day  of  May,  1871,  Britisli 
Columbia  was  declared  to  be  a  iirovinoe  of  the 
Dominion  [see  Can.mi.v:  A.  D.  1807,  and  1800- 
1873]  from  the  20th  of  July,  1871."— J.  E.  C. 
Munro,  T/te  Coiiiititutitin  of  Citiinda,  eh.  3. 

Ai.so  in:  II.  H.  Bancroft,  Jlist.  of  the  Pitcifc 
Statin,  r.  37  .•  lirilinh  Culumliia. 

A.  D.  1872.— Settlement  of  the  San  Juan 
Water  Boundary  Disi-ute.     Hee  B.vn  Ju,»n  ok 

NOKTIIWKSTKUN    WaTKII   Bol'NDAKV   QUKSTION. 

♦ 

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA  AND  SOUTH 
AFRICA  COMPANIES.    See  Africa:  A.  D. 

1881-1889. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS.  See  Centual 
Ameiuca:  a.  D.  1821-1871. 

BRITONS,  OR  BRITHONS.  See  Cklts; 
al.so,   BuiTA.wi.v;  and  Bhitain':  Otii  Centuiiy. 

BRITONS  OF  CUMBRIA  AND 
STRATHCLYDE.     Sic  Ciimiiiiia. 

BRITTANY,  OR  BRITANNY :  lu  the 
Roman  period.  See  Aii.mohica;  also,  Veneti 
OK  Wksteun  Gaul 

A.  D.  383.— Alleged  origin  of  the  British 
settlement  and  name.  See  Huitain:  A.  1). 
383-888. 

A.  D.  409.— Independence  asserted. — At  the 
time  that  the  Britisli  isliiiul  iiractically  severed 
its  connection  witli  the  expiring  Uomaii  Empire 
(iihout  400)  the  Britons  of  the  continent, —  of  the 
Arniorican  province,  or  modern  Brittany,— 
followed  the  example.  "Tliey  expelled  the' 
Roman  magistrates,  who  acted  under  the  au- 
thority of  the  usurper  Constantine;  and  a  free 
government  was  established  among  a  people  who 
had  so  long  been  subject  to  the  arbitrary  will  of 
a  master." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  <f  the, 
Roimin  Umpire,  ch.  31. — "From  tliis  time,  per- 
haps, we  ought  to  date  iliat  isolation  of  Brittany 
from  the  politic!  of  the  rest  of  Prance  which 
has  not  entirely  disappeared  even  at  the 
present  day." — T.  llodgkin,  Italy  and  Her 
Invaders,  bk.  2,  ch.  3. — The  Armoricans,  however, 
were  found  fighting  by  the  side  of  the  Romans 


and  the  Goths,  against  the  Iluns,  on  the  great 
day  at  (Ihalcns.     See  IIuns:  A.  I).  4r)l. 

A.  D.  818-912.— The  Breyzad  Kingdom.— 
Subjection  to  the  Norman  Dukes. — •'Charle- 
magne's supremacy  over  the  \rmoricans  may  be 
compared  to  the  dominion  exercised  by  Imperial 
Russia  amongst  the  Caucasian  tribes  —  periods 
during  which  the  vassals  dare  not  claim  the 
rights  of  independence,  intercalated  amongst  the 
converse  periods  when  the  Emperor  cannot  assert 
the  rights  of  authority ;  yet  the  Frank  would  not 
abaiulon  the  prerogative  of  the  Caesars,  whilst 
the  mutual  aniipatliy  between  the  races  inflamed 
the  desire  of  dominion  on  the  one  part,  and  the 
determination  of  resistance  on  the  other.  Britanny 
is  divided  into  Brctagne  Brctonnante  and  Brc- 
tagno  Gallicante,  according  to  the  predominance 
of  the  Breyzad  and  the  Romane  languages 
respectively.  The  latter  constituted  the  march- 
lands,  and  here  the  Counts-marchers  were  placed 
by  Charlemagne  and  his  successors,  Franks 
mostly  by  lineage;  yet  one  Breyzad,  NominotJ, 
was  tru.sted  by  l.ouis-le-dehonnaire  [A.  D.  8181 
with  a  delegated  authority.  NominoO  deserved 
his  power;  he  was  one  of  the  new  men  of  the 
era,  literally  taken  from  the  plough.  .  .  .  The 
dis.sen.sions  among  the  Franks  enabled  NominoO  to 
increase  his  authority.  Could  there  bo  any 
adversary  of  the  Empire  so  stupid  as  not  to 
profit  by  the  battle  of  Fontcnay.  .  .  .  XominoO 
assumed  the  royal  title,  vindicated  the  indepen- 
dence of  his  antient  people,  and  enabled  them,  in 
the  time  of  Rollo,  to  assert  with  incorrect  gran- 
diloquence, pardonable  in  political  argument,  that 
the  Frank  had  never  reigned  within  the  proper 
Arniorican  boundaries."  NominoO  transmitted 
his  crown  to  his  son  IlerispoO;  but  tlie  latter 
reigned  briefly,  succumbing  to  a  conspiracy 
which  raised  his  neiihew,  Solomon,  to  the  throne. 
Solomon  was  a  vigorous  warrior,  sometimes 
fighting  the  Pranks,  and  sometimes  struggling 
with  the  No.iiians,  who  pressed  hard  upon  his 
small  kingdom.  He  extended  his  dominions 
considerably,  in  Elaine,  Anjou,  and  the  future 
Normandy,  and  his  royal  title  was  sanctioned  by 
Charles  the  Bald.  But  he,  too,  was  conspired 
against,  blinded  and  dethroned,  dying  in  prison; 
and,  about  013,  the  second  duke  of  Normandy 
established  his  lordship  over  the  distracted 
country.  "  Historical  Britanny  settled  into  four 
great  counties,  which  also  absorbed  the  Car- 
lovingian  march-lands,  Rennes,  Nantes,  Vannea 
and  Cornouaille.s,  rivalling  and  jealousing,  snarl- 
ing and  warring  against  each  other  for  the  royal 
or  ducal  dignity,  until  the  supremacy  was  per- 
7uanently  established  in  Alan  Fergant's  line,  the 
ally,  the  opponent,  the  son-in-law  of  William  the 
BiLstard.  But  the  suzerainty  or  superiority  of  I'.ll 
Britanny  was  vested  in  the  Con(iucror's  and  the 
Plantagenet's  lineage,  till  the  forfeiture  incurred 
by  King  John  —  an  unjustexerciseof  justice." — 
Sir  P.  Palirravc,  Hist,  ef  Kormaiidy  and  Eiujlntid, 
bk.  \.ch.  3'.' 

A.  D.  992-1237. — The  First  Dukes. — "After 
the  dealh  of  Solomon  .  .  .  all  these  districts  or 
territories  merged  in  the  three  dominations  of 
Nantes,  Rennes,  and  Cornouaille.  Amongst  the 
Celts  concord  was  impo.ssible.  In  early  times 
Nomenoe,  the  Ruler  of  Cornouaille,  had  assumed, 
by  Papal  authority,  the  royal  style,  but  the 
Counts  of  Rennes  acquired  the  pre-eminence  over 
the  other  chieftains.  Regality  vanished.  Geof- 
frey, sou  of  Couau  [A.  D,  003-1008]  .  .  .  must 


324 


nniTTANT. 


BRIXnAM  CAVE. 


bo  (ligtinp;uisho(l  ns  tlip  first  Duko  of  Britlany. 
He  conslitutiMl  himself  Duko  Hiiiiply  by  tiikiiiK 
the  title.  This  nsHumption  miiy  nossihly  have 
boon  sanctioned  by  the  successor  of  Haint  Peter; 
find,  by  dejirces,  his  rank  in  llie  civil  hierareliy 
became  ultimately  recognized.  .  .  .  The  t'ounts 
of  Hriltimy,  and  tlie  Dukes  in  lik(!  manner,  in 
later  times,  rendered  liomage  '  en  parajie  '  to 
iNormaudy  in  tlie  llrst  instance,  and  that  same 
Jiomage  wa.s  afterwards  demanded  bv  th('  crown 
of  Franc(!.  But  the  (.'apetian  monan'iis  refused  to 
ncknowledge  tlio  '  Duko,'  until  the  time  of  Peter 
Ma\iclerc,  son  of  Hobert,  fount  of  Dreux,  Earl  of 
Richmond  [A.  D.  ]2i:i-12:t7]."— Sir  F.  Palgrave, 
Hint,  of  Nnriimnd)!  and  Kii'i.,  r.  !t,  ;).  lOo. 

A.  b.  1341-1365.— The  long  Civil  War.— 
Montfort  against  Blois. — .Vlmost  simultane- 
ously witli  the  beginning  of  tlie  Hundred  Years 
AViir  of  the  Kngli.sli  kings  in  France,  there  brok(! 
out  a  malignant  and  destructive  civil  war  in 
Brittany,  wliich  French  and  English  took  part 
in,  on  the  opposing  sides.  "John  III.  duke  of 
tliat  province,  had  died  without  issue,  and  two 
rivals  disputed  liis  inheritance.  The  one  was 
Charles  de  Blois,  husband  of  one  of  his  nieces 
and  nephew  of  the  King  of  Fr;i""'';  tlie  other, 
Montfort,  .  .  .  younger  brothei  ol  ilie  last  duke 
and  .  .  .  disinherited  by  him.  The  Court  of 
Peers,  d-jvotcd  to  the  king,  adjudged  the  duchy 
to  Charles  de  Blois,  his  nephew.  Jlontfort  im- 
mediately made  himself  master  of  the  .strongest 
places,  and  rendered  liomage  for  Brittany  to 
king  Edward  [III.  of  England],  whose  assistance 
he  implored.  This  war,  in  which  Charles  de 
Blois  was  supported  by  Franco  and  Montfort  by 
England,  lasted  twenty-four  yeara  without  inter- 
ruption, and  presented,  in  the  midst  of  heroic 
actions,  a  long  course  of  treacheries  and  atrocious 
robberies."  The  war  was  ended  in  l!iG.5  by  tlie 
battle  of  Auray,  in  wliieli  Charles  de  Blois  was 
slain,  and  Bertraiid  Du  Gue.sclin,  the  famous 
Breton  warrior,  was  taken  prisoner.  This  was 
soon  follo-.ved  by  the  treaty  of  Quorande,  which 
o.stablifhe.l  Montfort  in  Uio  duchy. — E.  De  Bon- 
necliose.  Hist,  of  France,  v.  1,  bk.  3,  ch.  2  and  4. 

Also  /n  :  Froissart  (Johnes),  Ohronicles,  bk.  1, 
c/i.  04-227. 

A.  D.  1491. — Joined  by  marriage  to  the 
French  crown. —  I'lie  family  of  Montfort,  hav- 
ing been  established  in  the  duchy  of  Brittany  by 
the  arms  of  tlie  English,  were  naturally  inclined 
to  English  connections;  "  but  the  Bretons  would 
seldom  permit  tliem  to  be  cfTLCtual.  Two  car- 
dinal feelings  guided  the  conduct  of  this  bravo 
and  faithful  people;  the  one  an  attachment  to 
the  French  nation  and  monarchy  in  opposition  to 
foreign  enemies;  the  other,  a  zeal  for  their  own 
privileges,  and  the  family  of  Montfort,  in  opposi- 
tion to  tlie  encroachments  of  the  crown.  In 
Francis  II.,  the  present  duko  [at  the  time  of  the 
accession  of  Cliarles  VIII.  of  France,  A.  D.  1483], 
the  male  line  of  that  family  was  about  to  be  ex- 
tinguished. Ilis  daugliter  Anne  was  naturally 
the  objc^ct  of  many  suitors,  among  whom  were 
particularly  distinguished  the  duko  of  Orleans, 
who  se(^ins  to  have  been  preferred  by  herself; 
the  lord  of  Albrot,  a  member  of  the  Gascon 
family  of  Foix,  favoured  by  the  Breton  nobility, 
as  miist  likely  to  preserve  the  peace  and  liberties 
of  their  country,  but  whose  age  rendered  him 
not  very  accoi)t4ible  to  a  youthful  princess ;  and 
Maximilian,  king  of  the  Romans  [whose  first 
wife,  Mary  of  Burgundy,  died  in  1483].   Britany 


was  rent  by  factions  anil  overrun  by  the  armies 
of  the  regent  of  France,  who  did  not  lose  this 
opportunity  of  interfering  with  its  domestic 
troubles,  and  of  persecuting  her  private  enemy, 
the  duke  of  Orleans.  Anne  f>f  Britany,  upon  her 
father's  death,  llnding  no  other  means  of  escap- 
ing the  a<l(lresses  of  Albret,  was  married  by 
proxy  to  .Maximilian.  This,  however,  aggra- 
vated the  evils  of  tlu^  country,  since  Franco  was 
resolved  at  all  events  to  break  otT  so  dangerous  a 
connexion.  And  as  Maximilian  liimself  was  un- 
able, or  00k  not  sulUcient  pains  to  relievo  his 
iM'trothed  wife  from  her  embarra-ssments,  she  was 
ultimately  compelled  to  accept  lli(^  hand  of 
Charles  VIII.  He  had  long  been  engaged  by 
the  treaty  of  Arras  to  marry  the  daugliter  of 
Maximilian,  and  tliat  princess  was  educated  at 
the  Freiii  h  court.  But  this  engagement  had  not 
prevented  several  years  of  hostilities,  and  con- 
tinual intrigues  with  tlic  towns  of  Flanders 
against  Maximilian.  The  double  injury  which 
tlie  latter  sustained  in  the  marriage  o,"  Charles 
with  the  heiress  of  Britany  .seemed  likely  to  ox- 
cite  a  jirotracted  contest;  but  the  king  of  France, 
who  had  other  objects  in  view,  and  ))erliaps  was 
conscious  that  he  hud  not  acted  a  fair  part,  soon 
came  loan  accommodation,  b^'  which  ho  restored 
Artois  and  Franchc-cointo.  .  .  .  France  was 
now  consolidated  into  a  great  kingdom;  the  feu- 
dal system  was  at  an  end." — H.  Hallam,  The 
^fithUe  Ages,  ch.  1,  pt.  3. — In  thi^  contract  of 
marriage  between  Charles  VIII.  and  Anne  of 
Brittany,  "each  party  surrowlered  all  separate 
])rcten.s"ions  upan  the  bucliy,  and  0110  stipulation 
alone  was  considered  roiiuisite  to  secure  the  per- 
jietnal  tniion  of  Bretany  with  France,  namely, 
that  in  case  the  <iucen  .should  survive  lier  con- 
.sort,  she  should  not  remarry  unless  either  with 
tlie  future  king,  or,  if  that  were  not  possible, 
with  the  i)rcsumptive  heir  of  the  crown.' — E. 
Smedley,  Hint,  of  France,  pi.  1,  ch.  18. 

Also  in:  F.  P.  Guizot,  Popular  .'fist.  ofFh-ance, 
ch.  26. 

A.  D.  1532. — Final  reunion  with  the  crown 
of  France. — "  Dupnit  [chancellor  of  Francis  I. 
of  France],  wlioso  administration  was  .  .  . 
shameful,  promoted  one  measure  of  high  ntility. 
Francis  I.  until  then  had  governed  Brittany  only 
in  the  (imdity  of  duke  of  that  province;  Duprat 
counselled  him  to  unite  this  duchy  in  an  indis- 
soluble manner  with  the  crown,  and  he  prevailed 
upon  the  States  of  Brittany  them.selvcs  to  rotiuest 
this  reunion,  whicli  alone  was  capable  of  pre- 
venting tlie  breaking  out  of  civil  wars  at  tho 
death  of  the  king.  It  was  irrovociibly  voted  by 
the  States  assembled  at  Vannes  in  1.132.  The 
king  swore  to  respect  the  rights  of  Brittany,  and 
not  to  raise  any  subsidy  therein  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  States  Provincial." — E.  de  Ronne- 
ehoso,  Iliiit.  of  France,  bk.  1,  ch.  3. 

A.  D.  1793.— Resistance  to  the  French 
Revolution.— The  Vendean  War.  Sv.o  Fiia.vce  : 
A.  D.  17U3  (Maucii— -Vpuil);  (.Ju.Nii);  (.lui.v— 
Decemheu). 

A.  D.  1 794- 1 796.— The  Chouans.  See 
''h.vnck:  a.  D.  1794-17fl(i. 


XHAMCAVE.— A  cavern  near  Brixham, 
De\'  ire,  England,  in  which  noted  evidences 
of  a  viiy  early  race  of  men,  contemporaneous 
with  certain  extinct  animals,  have  been  found. — 
J.  Geikio,  Prehistoric  Kurope. 
Also  in  :  W.  B.  Dawkins,  Cave  Hunting. 


325 


BnOAD-DOTTOMEn  ADMINISTRATION. 


BUUN8WICK. 


BROAD-BOTTOMED      ADMINISTRA- 
TION, The.     Sec  Kn(H..\ni>:  A.   I).   IT I'.'-lTt*). 
BROAn  CHURCH,  The.    Stu  Oxkouii  ok 

TllACIAIllAN    .".SlVKMKNT. 

BROCK,  General   Isaac,  and   the  War  of 

1812.     Sec  I'mtKI)  StaTKH  OK  Am,  :   A.    I).   IMia 
(Jl'NK— ••crollKIl),  (SkI'TKMIIKU— NoVE.MUKU). 

BROMSEBRO,  Peace  of  (1645).  800  Okii- 
M.\ny;   .\.  I).  lfl|()-llU5. 

BRONKHORST  SPRUIT,  Battle  of  (1880). 
SccSoiTii  Akiika;  a.  I).   1H(»((-1HH0. 

BRONZE  AGE.     Sec  Sto.nk  A<h;. 

BROOKLYN,  N.  Y.:  A.  D.  i634.-The  first 
settlers.  — "A  IVw  fimiilics  of  NViillodiiH,  in  UVU, 
tiuilt  tlicir  ('(itliiKcsou  Loiiff  IhIiukI,  and  l)i'.i;au 
tho  cultivation  of  tlie  lands  they  had  Hcciircd, 
the  women  working  in  tlio  liekls,"  whiles  the  men 
were  engaged  in  tho  service  of  tho  ''ompiiny  [llie 
l>utch  West  India  C!ompany,  controlling  the 
colony  of  New  Netherlandl.  These  were  the 
first  settlers  of  Brooklyn.  They  were  joined  in 
time  by  11  few  others,  until  there  were  enough  to 
be  incorporated  as  a  village'.  TheiiiiniberH  were 
not  large,  for  Brooklyn,  nearly  forty  years  after- 
ward, contained  only  'HI  households  and  134 
souls.'"— O.  W.  Schuyler,  Colonial  New  York,  v. 


i,^._.r 


D.  1646. — The  town  named  and  org^an- 
ized. —  "The  oceupalionof  land  wllliin  the  limits 
of  the  present  city  of  Brooklyn  .  .  .  had  steadily 
progressed,  until  now  (104ti)  nearly  the  whole 
water-front,  from  Newtown  Creek  to  the  southerly 
side  of  Gowanus  Bay,  was  in  the  possession  of 
individuals  who  were  engaged  in  its  actual  culti- 
vation. .  .  .  The  village  .  .  .  which  was  located 
on  the  present  Fulton  Aventie,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  junction  of  lloyt  and  Smith  streets  with  said 
avenue,  and  soiilheast  of  tho  present  City  Ilall, 
was  called  Breuckclen,  after  the  ancient  village 
of  the  same  name  in  Holland,  some  18  miles 
from  Amsterdam. "  The  town  of  Breuckelen  was 
organized  under  a  commission  from  the  Colonial 
Ci)uncil  in  1046,  and  two  schepens  appointed. 
Tho  following  winter  Jan  Teunissen  was  com- 
missioned ns  sellout.  — 11.  R.  Stiles,  Hint,  of 
Brooklj/ii,  eh.  1. 

A.  b.  1776.— The  Battle  of  Long  Island 
and  defeat  of  the  Americans.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1770  (August). 

BROTHERS.— BROTHERHOODS.      See 

Brktiihic.n. 

BROTHERS'  CLUB,  The.     See  Clubs. 

BROWN,  George,  and  the  Canadian  "Clear 
Grits."     SeeCANAiM:  A.  I).  1840-1807. 

BROWN,  General  Jacob,  and  the  War  of 
1812.     See  Uniteu  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1813 

(SEPTEMBEU  —  NOVEMBEH);     1813     (OCTOBEU  — 

NovEMiiEii);  1814  (July— Septembeh). 

BROWN,  John.  — Attack  on  Harper's 
Ferry. —  Trial  and  execution.  See  United 
Statks  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1850. 

BROWNISTS.    See  Independents. 

BROWNLOW,  Parson,  and  the  recon- 
struction of  Tennessee.  See  Tennessee:  A.  D. 
1865-1 8(Hi. 

BRUCE,  Robert,  King  of  Scotland,  A.  D. 
130(5-1329. 

BRUCHIUM,  The.  See  Alexandiua: 
B.  C.  28','-246,  and  A.  D.  273. 

BRUCTERI,  The.—"  After  the  Tencteri  [on 
the  Rhine]  came,  in  former  days,  the  Bructeri; 
but  the  general  account  now  is,  that  the  Cham- 


nvl  and  Angrivarii  entered  their  settlementu, 
drove  them  out  and  utterly  e.vterminatcd  tlii'm 
with  the  common  help  of  the  neighbouring  tribes, 
either  from  hatred  of  their  tyranny,  or  from  tho 
attractions  of  pluiuh'r.  or  from  heaven's  favour- 
able regard  for  us.  It  did  not  even  gruilgi'  ns 
the  spt'ctacic  of  (he  contlict.  .More  than  60,000 
fell,  not  beneath  the  Roman  arms  and  weapons, 
but,  grander  far,  before  our  delighted  eyes." — 
"The  original  settlements  of  tin!  Bructeri,  from 
which  they  were  driven  by  the  (/'hainavl  anu 
Angrivarii,  seem  to  hav(!  been  between  tho 
Rhine  and  the  I'hns,  on  either  side  of  the  Iiip|ie. 
Their  destruction  could  hardly  have  been  so 
complete  as  Tacitus  represents,  as  they  are  sid)- 
se(|uently  mentioned  by  Claudlan." — Tacitus, 
Miiwr  workii,  traim.  by  Chureh  and  Urodrihh: 
Th'    Qcrmanij,     irith  gcog.    iiotcH.  —  See,    idso, 

FllANKH. 

BRUGES :  13th  Century.- The  Great  Fair. 
See  Ki.andehs:   13tii  ('knti:iiv. 

A.  D.  i;jth-i5th  Centuries. — Commercial  im- 
portance in  the  Hanseatic  League.  Sec  II  ansa 
Towns. 

A.  D.  1303. — Mass.irreof  theFrench.— "The 
Bruges  Matins."  See  Flandbus:  A.  D.  1200- 
1304. 

A.  D.  1341. — Made  the  Staple  for  English 
trade.     See  Staple. 

A.  D.  1379-1381.— Hostilities  with  Ghent. 
Se(!  Fi..vNi)i;iis:  A.  1).  1379-1381. 

A.  D.  1382.— Talten  and  plundered  by  the 
people  of  Ghent.     See  Fi.axdichs:  A.  I).  1382. 

A.  D.  1482-1488. — At  war  with  Maximilian. 
See  Netheklands:  A.  I).  1482-1493. 

A.  D.  1584. — Submission  to  Philip  of  Spain, 
See  Netiiehlands:  j\.  1).  1584-158.1. 

A.  D.  1745-17A8.-  Taken  by  the  French,  and 
restored.  See  .NkTiIeulands  (Aubtiuan  I'nov- 
iNCEs):  A.  U.  1745;  and  Ai.\-la-Chapelle:  Tub 

CONOIIESS,  &C. 

BRULE,  The.    See  Amebican  Abokioines: 

SioiAN  Family. 

BRUMAIRE,  The  month.  See  Fkanck: 
A.  1).  1793  (OcTOBEii). 

BRUMAIRE,  The  Eighteenth  of.  See 
Fkanck:  A.  1).  1799  (Nov embeii). 

BRUNDISIUM:  Origin.  See  Rome:  B.  C. 
282-275. 

B.  C.49,— Flight  of  Pompeius  before  Czsar. 
See  Rome:  B.  C.  50-49. 

B.  C.  40. — The  peace  of  Antony  and  Octa- 
vius. —  The  peace  which  Antony  and  Octavius 
were  forced  by  tlicir  own  soldiers  to  make  at 
Biundisium,  B.  C.  40,  postponed  for  ten  years 
tho  linal  struggle  between  the  two  chief  Trium- 
virs. For  a  much  longer  time  it  "did  at  least 
secure  the  repose  of  Italy.  For  a  period  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  excopt  one  day's  fight- 
ing in  the  streets  of  Rome,  from  Rlicgium  to  the 
Kubieon  no  swords  were  again  crossed  in  war." 
—  C.  Merivalc,  Jlist.  of  t/ie  Jiomans,  ch.  27. — Sec, 
also,  Rome:  B.  C.  31. 

BRUNKEBURG,  Battle  of  the  (1471).  See 
Scandinavian  St.vtes:  A.  D.  1397-1527. 

BRUNNABURGH,  OR  BRUNANBURH, 
Battle  of.     See  England:  A.  D.  038. 

BRUNSWICK,  The  city  of.-Origin  and 
name. — In  the  ti.'ntli  century,  a  prince  named 
Bruno,  younger  son  of  the  reigning  duke  of  Ba- 
varia, and  grandson  of  the  Emperor  Henry  the 


326 


BRUNSWICK. 


BUDGKT. 


Fowler,  received  an  liis  piilriinoiiy  \\w  cimnlry 
about  tile  Oi'ker.  "  lluviii);  llxecl  lilx  resideiieo 
at  II  villiiKe  estalill.Hlied  by  ('biirleniuf?ne  on  tliu 
bnnkH  of  timt  river,  it  beeiime  Itiiowu  us  tlie 
'  VioiiH  Uninonis,'  niiii,  wlien  eiiliirf;e<l  and 
formed  into  ii  city,  afterwards  i^nw  its  name  to 
tile  iirincipalitv  of  wliicli  it  formeii  llie  ea|iital." 
—  Kir  A.  Ilalllday,  Aiiiiiiln  of  tliv  Jloime  of 
lldiionr,  ('.  1.  Ilk.   I, 

In    the     Hanseatic     League.      Heu    IIansa. 

BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG,  OR  HAN- 
OVER.    See  llANovKlt. 

BRUNSWICK-WOLFENBUTTEL,  OR 
BRUNSWICK  :  Origin  of  tiie  iiouse  and  duke- 
dom. Se(^  Saxo.nv:  Thk  Oi,i>  Duchy,  and  A.  1). 
117M-1183. 

The  Guelf  connection.  See  Oi'elk  ani> 
GiiiiiKi. LINK,  ami  lOsTi:,  llorsK  ok. 

A.  D.  1543. — Expulsion  of  Duke  Henry  by 
the  League  of  Smalcald.  Sue  Gekmany:  A.  1). 
153:1-1. MO. 

A.  D.  1546. — Final  separation  from  the 
Liineburg  or  Hanoverian  branch  of  the  house. 
See  llA.NovKii:  A.  I).  I.TIH. 

A.  D.  1806. — The  Duke's  dominions  confis- 
cated by  Napoleon.  See  Uicuma.nv:  A.  I).  IHIH) 
(UtTonKK — I)k(km;;kii). 

A.  D.  1807. — Absorbed  in  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia.  ScuGeumany:  A.  I).  1S07(Ji'ne 
— Jui.v). 

A.  D.  1830.— Dtposition  of  the  Duke.  Scu 
GEKM.VNY:  A.  I).  1819-1847. 

BRUSSELS:  A.  D.  1577.— The  Union  of 
the  patriots.  See  Xktiieiii.anus:  A.  I).  l.')7.')- 
1577. 

A.  D.  1585. — Surrender  to  the  Spaniards. 
See  -Netiieui.ands:  A.  I).  l.W-l-l.Wr). 

A.  D.  1695. — Bombardment  by  the  French, 
SeeFiiANCE:  A.  I).  lOO.^i-imtO. 

A.  D.  1706. — Taken  by  Marlborough  and  the 
Allies.     See  Xetiikui.aniw:  A.  1).  170(!-1707. 

A.  D.  1746-1748. — Taken  by  the  French  and 
restored  to  Austria.  Sec  Nktheulands:  A.  D. 
1746-1747,  and  Aix-la-Ciiapelle  :  The  Con- 
ukebs,  &c. 

A.  D.  1815.— The  Battle  of  Waterloo.  Seo 
FiL^vNCE:  A.  I).  1815  (June). 

A.  D.  1830.— Riot  and  Revolution.— Dutch 
attack  on  the  city  repelled.  See  Netiieu- 
lamuh:  a.  D.  1830-18:i-'. 


BRUTTII,  The.     See  Samnites. 

BRUTUM  FULMEN.— A  phrase,  signify- 
ing a  Idind  thrust,  or  a  stupid  and  ineffectual 
blow,  whiuli  was  specially  applied  in  a  contem- 
porary pamphlet  by  Francis  Ilotmau  to  the  Bull 
of  excommunication  issued  by  Pope  Sixtns  V. 
against  Henry  of  Navarre,  in  1585. — II.  M.  Baird, 
The  Hiioucnotn  and  Ileiiry  of  Namrrc,  v.  l,p.  3(59. 
—SeeFiiANCE:  A.  I).  1584-1589. 

BRUTUS,  Lucius  Junius,  and  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Tarquins.     See  Home:  B.  C.  510. 

BRUTUS,  Marcus  Junius,  and  the  assassi- 
nation of  Caesar.     See  Uome:  B.  C.  44  to  44-42. 

BRYTHONS,  The.    Sec  Celts,  The. 

BUBASTIS.— "On  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Delta  [of  th<?  Nile],  more  than  half-way  from 
Memphis  to  Zoan,  lay  the  great  city  of  Pi-beseth, 
or  Bubastis.  Vast  mounds  now  mark  the  site 
and  preserve  the  name ;  deep  in  their  midst  lie 
the  shattered  fragments  of  the  beautiful  temple 


wliieli  Ilerixlolus  saw,  and  to  which  in  liis  days 
the  Kgypiiaim  came  annually  in  vast  iiumlH'rs  to 
keep  the  greatest  festival  of  the  yi'ar,  the  Assem- 
bly of  Hast,  the  gcsldessof  the  place.  Here,  after 
the  Kmpire  had  fallen,  Slilsliak  [Slicslionkl  set 
up  his  tiironi',  and  for  a  short  spaet;  revived  Iho 
imperial  iiiagiiillci'iiee  of  Thebes. "-It.  H.  Pisile, 
Ciliinol'  Hiiinil.  eh.  10. 

BUCcANEERS,  The.  See  Ameuiua:  A.  I). 
10:iit  1700. 

BUCENTAUR,    The.    See    Venice:  I4tii 

('K.NTntV. 

BUCHANAN.  JAMES.-Presidential  elec- 
tion and  administration.  See  United  States 
OF  Am.:  A.  I).  lf<5(l  lo  tH((l. 

BUCHAREST,  Treaty  of  (iSia).  See 
Tuuks:  A.  D.  1789-lHfJ;  also  Balkan  and 
Daniiuan  States:  Utii-1!»tii  t'ENTUUiES 
(Seiivia). 

BUCKINGHAM,  Assassination  of.  Seo 
Enoland:  a.  I).  III'.'H. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE.  Sec  St.  .Iames, 
Tiir.  Palace  and  Court  ok. 

BUCKTAILS.  SeeNEwYoKK:  A.  D.  1817- 
1819. 

BUDA  :  A.  D.  1526.— Taken  and  plundered 
by  the  Turks.     Sec  Hinoakv:  A.  1).  MHT-l.V.'d. 

A.  D.  1529-1567.— Taken  by  the  Turks.— 
Besieged  by  the  Austrians.— Occupied  by  the 
Sultan. — Becomes  the  seat  of  a  Pasha.    See 

HiNdAuv:  A.  1).  \n-i{\-\rm. 

A.  D.  i686.— Recovery  from  the  Turks.  See 
IIuNoAiiv:  A.  I).  1(183-1087. 

A.  D.  1849.— Siege  and  capture  by  the  Hun- 
garians.    S'cAustuia:  a.  1).  1848-1819. 
♦- 

BUDA-PESTH:    A.   D.    1872.— Union    of 
the   cities. — IJiidii,   on   the   right   bank   of  tho 
Danube,  and  Pestli,  on  the  left,  were  incorporated 
1  187'i  into  one  city  —  Buda-Pesth. 

BUDDHISM.    See   India:    B.    C.    312 ; 

also   liAMAs. — Lamaism;  and  China:   The  ue- 

LKIIONS. 

BUDGET,  The.— "The  annual  financial 
statement  which  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
makes  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  a  C'ommitteo 
of  ways  and  means.  In  making  this  statement 
the  minister  gives  a  view  of  the  general  tiuancial 
])olicy  of  the  government,  and  at  the  same  timo 
presents  an  estimate  of  the  probable  income  and 
expenditure  for  tlie  following  twelve  months, 
and  a  statement  of  what  taxes  it  is  intended  to 
reduce  or  abolish,  or  what  new  ones  it  may  be 
necessary  to  impose. — To  open  the  budget,  to 
lay  before  the  legislative  botly  the  finaiieial  es- 
timates and  plans  of  the  executive  gov't." — Imp. 
Did. — Mr.  Dowcll  in  his  lIMury  of  Taj^atioii  (e.  1, 
ch.  5)  states  that  the  plirast? '  opening  the  Budget ' 
came  into  use  in  England  during  tho  reign  of 
George  III.,  and  that  it  bore  a  reference  to  tho 
bougette,  or  little  bag,  in  which  the  chancellor 
of  the  exche(iucr  kept  his  papers.  Tlic  French, 
ho  adds,  adopted  the  term  in  tlie  present  century, 
about  1814.  The  following,  however,  is  in  dis- 
agreement with  Mr.  Dowell's  explanation:  "In 
the  reign  of  George  II.  the  word  was  u.sed  with 
conscious  allusion  to  the  celebrated  pamphlet 
which  ridiculed  Sir  R.  AValpole  as  a  conjuror 
opening  his  budget  or  'bag  of  tricks.'  After- 
wards, it  must,  for  a  time,  have  been  current  as 
slang;  but,  as  it  supplied  a  want,  it  was  soon 
taken  up  into  the  ordinary  vocabulary." — Athen 
<eum,  Mb.  14,  1891,  p.  313. 


327 


BUDINI. 


nUUUUNDIANS. 


BUDINI, The.— A  noinudlc  trila- which  Hero. 
(lotus  (IcHcrilK'H  iiH  itncii'iitly  liihitliitinx  ii  rcuioii 
tH'twrtii  till!  I'ral  MoiiiitiiiiiH  HMil  the  CiiHpiiui 
Hen,— (}.  (Initc,  IUhI.  <if  (In-fd;  pt.  'i,  rh.  17. 

BUELL,  General  Don  Carlos,  Campaigns 
of.  Sec  Unitkii  Statks  <)!•■  Am.:  A.  I).  li^HI 
(July— NovKMiiKK);  1H«3  (Januahy— Fkiiiu.'- 
auy:  Kkntucky  —  Tknnkuhkk);  (Febhuauy — 
AiMiii.:   'I'knnkiwkk);    (Junk— Octohkk:    Tkn- 

NKMWF.E — KkNTL'<'KV). 

BUENA  VISTA,  Battle  of.    Sco  >U;xKn; 

A.    I).    IHltl-lHlT. 

BUENOS  AYRES,  Viceroyalty  and  Repub- 
lic of.     Sec  .\ii<ii:.NTi.NK  Ukithlic. 

BUENOS  AYRES,  The  City  of:  A.  D. 
1534.— First  and  unsuccessful  founding  of  the 
City.     Sec  I'AliAdlAY:  A.  I).  i:il5-ir,r)7. 

BUFFALO,  N.  Y.:   The  aboriginal   occu- 

fants  of  the  site.     Set'  Ammik  an  .Vhoukiini-.m; 
IlllONS,  Ac. 

A.  D.  1764.— Cession  of  the  Four  Mile  Strip 
by  the  Senecas.     Sec  I'(>ntia(;'h  Wak. 

A.  D.  1779. — The  site  occupied  by  the 
Senecas  after  Sullivan's  Expedition.  Sec 
Unitioi)  States  ok  Am.:  A.  D.  1770  (August — 
Ski'tkmiikh). 

A.  D.  1799.— The  founding  and  naming  of 
the  city.     See  Ni;w  YoiiK:  A.  1).  178(t-l7U0. 

A.  D.  1812.— At  the  opening  of  the  war. 
See  Unitku  States  of  A.m.  :  .\.  1).  18ia  (Sei'- 

TEMIIEII — NoVEMIlEll). 

A.  D.  1813.—  Destruction  by  British  and  In- 
dians. See  United  States  ok  A.m.  :  A.  I). 
18i:j  (Decemiikii). 

A.  D.  1825.— Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal. 
See  New  Y«. UK:  A.  1).  1H17-I82r.. 

A.  D.  1848.— The  National  Free-Soil  Con- 
vention. See  United  Siates  of  Am.  :  A.  1). 
18-18. 

A.  D.  1866.— The  Fenian  invasion'of  Can- 
ada.   See  Canada:  A   I).  iJU(|-1871. 

BUFFALO  HILL,  Battles  cf.  See  United 
States  of  A.m.:  A.  1).  1801  (AtousT- Decem- 
ueu:  West  Viuc.inia). 

BUFFINGTON  FORD,  Battle  of.  See 
United  States  of  A.m.  :  A.  1).  180;)  (July:  Ke.n- 
tucky). 

BUGIA,  Conquest  by  the  Spaniards  (1510), 
See  Hakiiauy  St.vtes:  A.  I).  1.505-1510. 

BULGARIA.  See  Balkan  and  Danuuian 
States. 

BULGARIANS,  The  religious  Sectaries  so 
called.     See  Paiimcians. 

BULL  "  Apostolicum,"  The.  Seo  Jesuits: 
A.  I).   1701-1709. 

BULL  "  Ausculta  fill,"  The.  Sco  Papacy: 
A.  D.  12»l-i;!48. 

BULL  "Clericis  Laicos."— Published  by 
Pope  Uoiiifiiee  VIII.  Feb.  24,  1290,  forbidding 
"the  clergy  to  pay  and  the  sccuhir  powers  to 
exact,  under  penalty  of  cxcoiiimunicalton,  con- 
tributions or  tuxes,  tenths,  twentieths,  hun- 
dredths, o^  the  like,  from  the  revenues  or  tlio 
goods  of  the  churches  01  their  ministers." — AV. 
Stubbs,  Conxt.  Hist,  of  Eiuj.,  eh.  14. 

Also  in:  E.  F.  Henderson,  Select  Iliat.  Doc's  of 
the  Mi(Me  Ages,  bk.  4,  no.  6. — See,  also,  Papacy: 
A.  I).  129.t-l;U8. 

BULL  "  Dominus  Redemptor  noster."  See 
Jesuits:  A.  1).  1709-1871. 

BULL  "Exurge  Doraine."  See  Papacy: 
A.  D.  ■517-1021. 


BULL,  Golden.  Seo  Golden  IJill,  Btzak- 
tine;  also  Uekmany:  A.  IX  1347-140.'!,  and 
IIinoauy:  a.  1).  1114-11101. 

BULL,  "  Laudabiliter,"  The.— A  papal  bull 
pniniulgaled  in  lb'!."!  by  Pope  Adrian  IV.  (the 
one  Kngil.slunuii  who  ever  attained  lo  St.  Peter's 
Heat)  a.sKUlidiig  to  liestow  the  kiiigdoui  of  Ireland 
on  the  Knglisli  King  Henry  II.  See  Iueland: 
A.  1).  1100-1175. 

BULL,"  Salvatorraundi,"  The.  See  Papacy: 
A.  I).  l'201-i;i|8. 

BULL  "  Unigenitus,"  The.  See  PonT  IJoval 
a.vd  THE  Jansenists:  X.  I).  1702-1715. 

BULL  RUN,  OR  MANASSAS,  First 
Battle  of.  Sec  United  States  of  .Vm.  ;  A.  1). 
1801  (July:  Vikoinia).  ...  .Second  Battle  of. 
See  United  States  ok  A.m.  :  A.  I).  1802  (August 
— Sei-temheu:  Viik'Inia). 

BULLA,  The.     See  Tooa. 

BUMMERS,  Sherman's.  SeeUNiTKoSTATKB 
OF  A.M. :  .\..  1).  1804  (XovEMiiEii — Dece.miieu: 
(Ieouoia). 

BUND,  BUNDESRATH,  BUNDESPRE- 
SIDENT,  BUNDESGERICHT,  The  Swiss. 
See  Swit/.euland:  A.  1).  184H-1800. 

BUNDES-STAAT.  See  Oeilmany:  A.  D. 
18I4-1H20. 

BUNDSCHUH  INSURRECTIONS.  See 
Oeumany:  a.  1).  149-2-1514. 

BUNKER  HILL,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  1).  1775  (June). 

BURDIGALA.— The  original  name  of  tlio 
modern  city  of  Uonleaux,  which  was  a  town  of 
the  Oallic  tribe  called  the  IJituriges-VivIsci.— T. 
Jlommseii,  IHst.  of  Home,  bk.  5,  c/i.  7. 

BURGAGE   "f  ENURE.    Sec  Feudai.  Ten- 

UllES. 

BURGESS.     Sec  liouuoEOis. 

BURGH,   OR    BURGI,   OR   BURH.    See 

Boiioroii. 

BURGOS,  Battle  of.  See  Spain;  A.  D.  1808 
(Sei'temueh — Decemheu). 

BURGOYNE,  General  John,  and  the  War 
of  the  American  Revolution.  .See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1775  (Apiiil — .May);  1777 
(July— OcToiiEii), 

BURGRAVES.    See  Palatine,  Counts. 

BURGUNDIANS:  Origin  and  early  history. 
— "About  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  the 
countries,  perhaps  of  Lusaco  and  Thuringia,  on 
eithersidoof  the  Elbe,  were  occupied  by  the  vague 
dominion  of  the  Uurgundians  —  a  warlike  and 
numerous  people  of  the  Vand.il  nice,  whose  ob- 
scure name  ins(msil)ly  swelled  into  a  powerful 
kingdom,  and  has  finally  settled  on  a  nourishing 
province.  .  .  .  The  disputed  possession  of  some 
salt-pits  engaged  the  Alemanui  and  the  Burgun- 
(lians  in  frequent  contests.  Tlie  latter  wero 
easily  t<;mpted  by  the  secret  solicitations  and 
liberal  offers  of  the  emperor  [Valcntiuian.  A.  D. 
371] ;  and  their  fabulous  descent  from  the  Roman 
soldiers  who  had  formerly  been  left  to  garrison 
the  fortresses  of  Drusus  was  admitted  with 
mutual  credulity,  ns  it  was  conducive  to  mutual 
interest.  An  army  of  fourscore  thousand  Bur- 
gundians  soon  appeared  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ilhiue,  and  impatiently  required  the  support  and 
subsidies  whicli  Valentinian  had  promised  ;  but 
they  were  amused  wi  a  excuses  and  delays,  till  at 
length,'  after  a  fruitless  expectjition,  they  were 
compelled  to  retire.  The  arms  and  fortifications 
of  the  Gallic  frontier  checked  the  fury  of  their 
just  resentment. " — E.   Gibbon,  Decline  and  FaU, 


328 


nunauNDiANS. 


DUROUNDY.  A.  D.  848-0:13. 


'if  the  lliininn  Rinin'rc,  eh.  i.V  — "  \Vi'  llrsi  liciir  (if 
tiii'iu  [llic  HurKXiiillium]  im  ii  trilic  of  Teutonic. 
Hto<'k,  lociilcil  Ix'twct'ii  till' ()<l('r  and  tin- ViMtiilu, 
on  I'itliir  Ipiink  of  llif  river  Wiirlu.  When  tlie 
Gi'|iiilu'  (leseeliileil  HolltilWiU'ii  witll  llie  (iotlis, 
till'  Hnr>;iiii(iians  were  eoniiielled  to  riioil  liefore 
the  iiilviinee  of  tiie  former  trilie:  one  portion  of 
tliein  liHili  refii^'e  in  liorniioiin,  iiii  isliind  of  \\w. 
llallie;  llie  reiiiainiier  turned  weslwani,  and 
made  an  allempt  to  enter  (iiiul.  'I'liey  were  re- 
pul.seil  liy  I'rolms,  Iiut  iierniilled  to  wltle  near 
tile  HoureeM  of  tile  Main.  .Jovian  slioweii  tliem 
fiiviiur,  and  ^ave  tliem  iands  in  tlie  (iernianiik 
Heeunda.  Tiiix  was  in  tlie  l.,.ier  part,  o'  tiie 
fourlli  cenlurv.  •Inst  at  its  close,  tliey  iidi>iiled 
('liri.sliaiiily,  i)ut  under  iin  .Vrian  forin.  Ammi- 
an'is  tells  n»  lliat  they  were  a  most  warliiic 
riic<'. " — .1.  (i.  Shcppard,  The  Full  of  limiie, 
leet.  H. — "The  other  Teutxmic  people  had  very 
little  regard  for  tlic  IJnrgundians;  lliey  aeetist'd 
them  of  having  degenerated  from  tiii!  valor  of 
their  unceston,  liy  taking  in  i)etty  town.s  (liour- 
giules),  wlience  their  name  Ilurguiulii  Kpiang; 
and  tliey  looke(l  upon  them  us  lieing  more  Buit- 
ahle  for  tlie  professions  of  mechanics,  smitlis,  and 
carpenters,  tlian  for  a  military  life." — .1.  {'..  I;, 
do  Sismondi,  'J'hc  Finieh  iiiider  the  .]feriiriii- 
ffiaiw,  eh.  H.  —  "A  document  of  A.  i).  7H0,  in 
noticing  the  liigli  tract  of  lands  helween  Kll- 
wangen  and  Anspach,  ha.s  the  following  ex- 
pression,— 'in  Waldo,  (pd  vocatur  Virgunuia.' 
Orimm  l(«)k»  for  the  derivatiim  of  tliis  word  in 
the  M<i'so-(Jotliic  word  'fairguni,'  Old  High 
Ocrnian  '  fergunud  '=  woody  liillrangt-.  ...  I 
have  little  doulit  Init  that  this  is  the  name  of  the 
tract  of  land  from  wliidi  the  name  Hurgundi 
aro.se;  and  tliat  it  is  tin;  one  wliieli  il.xes  their 
locality.  If  so,  hetween  the  Uurgundiau  and 
Suevio  Germans,  tlie  dilTerence,  sueli  as  it  was, 
was  proliahly  almost  wlioUy  i)olitical." — U.  O. 
Latham,  'J'he  Oermania  of  lacilun;  EpUeyoincna, 
sect.  12. 

A.  D.  406-409.—  Invasion  of  Gaul.  Sec 
Gaii.  :  A.  1).  4(Mi-40!». 

A.  D.  443-451. — Their  Savoyan  kingdom. 
— "In  the  soullieast  of  Gaul,  the  IJurgundians 
had,  after  many  wars  and  some  reverses,  estab- 
lished themselves  (443)  witli  the  consent  of  the 
Romans  in  the  district  then  called  Sii))audia  and 
now  tSavoy.  Their  territory  was  somewhat 
more  extensive  tliiin  the  province  which  was  the 
cradle  of  the  present  roval  hous(!  of  Italy,  since 
It  stretched  northwards  beyond  the  lake  of 
Ncufchatel  and  southwards  as  far  as  Grenoble. 
Here  the  IJurgundian  immigrants  under  their 
king  Gundiok,  were  busy  settling  themselves  in 
their  new  possession,  cultivating  the  lands 
which  they  had  divided  by  lot,  each  one  receiv- 
ing half  the  estate  of  a  Honiau  host  or  'hospes' 
(for  under  such  gentle  names  the  spoliation  was 
veiled),  when  the  news  came  that  tlie  terrible 
Ilun  had  crossed  the  Uhine  [A.  I).  451],  and  that 
all  hosts  and  guests  in  Gaul  must  unite  for  its 
defence  " — T.  Ilodgkin,  Itdly  and  Her  Invaders, 
b/c  3,  ch.  3. 

A.  D.  4Si.— At  the  battle  of  Chalons.  See 
Huns:  A.  D.  451. 

A.  D.  500. — Extension  of  their  kingdom. — 
"Their  [tlie  Uurgtindians]  domain,  considerably 
more  extensive  than  when  we  last  viewed  it  011 
the  eve  of  Attila's  invasion,  now  included  the 
later  provinces  of  Burgundy,  Franche-Comte 
and  Dauphiue,  besides  Savoy  uud  the  greater 


part  of  Swil/erliind  — In  fact  the  whole  of  tlin 
valleys  of  the  Sai  ae  and  the  Hhoiie,  save  that 
for  the  In.'^l  hundred  miles  of  its  conrse  the  Visi- 
goths barnd  tliem  frnm  the  right  bank  and  from 
the  iiioullis  of  the  latter  river."  M  the  tlinu 
now  spoken  of  (.V.  1).  50(1),  the  MiirgiiiHlian 
kingdom  wiiHilivlded  between  two  brollierkings, 
Gnndobad,  reigning  at  Lyons  and  Vicnne,  aiul 
GiMleglsej  at  Geneva.  GiMlegisel,  the  younger, 
had  conspired  willi  Clovis,  tlic^  king  of  the 
Franks,  against  Giniilobad,  and  in  lliis  year  5(M) 
tlietwoconfedi  rates  defeated  llie  latter,  at  Dijon, 
driving  him  from  tlie  most  part  of  his  kingdom. 
Hut  Gundobad  preseiilly  recovered  his  fiKiling, 
besieged  and  captiiri'd  his  treacherous  brother  at 
Vicnne  and  promptly  put  him  to  death  —  lliire- 
by  reuniting  IIk;  kingdom.  —  T.  Ilodgkin,  lluli/ 
Kill!  J/i  r  liiniili  f.i,  hk.  4,  rh.  0, 

A.  D.  534. — Final  conquest  by  the  Franks.— 
"  I  iim  iniialient  lo  pursue  the  tiiiiil  ruin  of  that 
kingdom  |tlie  Ilurgundiaiil  wliieli  was  accoin- 
plislied  under  the  reign  of  Sigisniond,  the  son  of 
Gundobald  [or  Gundobad].  'I'lie  Catholic  Higis- 
mond  has  ai'i|iiired  the  honours  of  a  saint  ami 
martyr;  but  the  hands  of  the  royal  saint  were 
stained  with  tlie  blood  of  his  innocent  son.  .  .  . 
It  was  his  liumble  prayer  that  Heaven  would 
inflict  in  this  worhl  tlie  ])unislinient  of  his  sins. 
His  jirayer  was  heard;  the  avengers  were  at 
hand;  and  the  provinces  of  Burgundy  were  over- 
whelmed by  anarmy  of  victorious  Franks.  After 
the  event  of  an  unsuccessful  battle,  Sigismoiul 
.  .  .  with  his  wife  and  two  children,  was  trans- 
])orted  to  Orleans  and  buried  alive  in  a  (h'ep 
well  by  the  stern  command  of  the  sons  of  (Jlovi.s, 
whose  cruelty  miglit  derive  some  excuse  from 
tlie  ma.xims  and  examples  of  their  barbarous 
age.  .  .  .  The  rebellious  Biirgundians,  for  tliey 
iittemi)te(l  to  break  their  chains,  were  still  per- 
mitted to  enjoy  their  national  laws  under  tlio 
obligation  of  tribute  and  military  service;  and 
tlie  Merovingian  princes  peaceably  n^igned  over 
a  kingdom  wliose  gloi'y  and  greatness  had  been 
first  overthrown  liy  the  arms  of  Clovis." — E. 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Jlonuiii  Empiee, 
ch.  38. 

Also  in:  W.  C.  Perry,  The  Franks,  ch.  3. 

BURGUNDY:  A.  D.  S34-752.-The  Me.o- 
vingian  kingdom. — After  tlie  overthrow  oi  the 
Burgundian  mouarcliy  by  the  sons  of  Clovis,  tliu 
territory  of  the  Burguudians,  witli  jmrt  of  the 
neighboring  Frank  territory  adihd  to  it,  became, 
under  tlie  name  of  Burguudia  or  Burgundy,  one 
of  the  three  Frank  kingdoms  (Austrasia  and  Neus- 
tria  being  the  other  two),  into  wliiclithe  Merovin- 
gian princes  divided  their  dominion.  It  occu- 
j)ied  "the cast  of  the  country,  between  the  Loire 
and  the  Aliw,  from  Provence  on  the  south  to  the 
hill-ranges  of  tlie  Vosges  on  the  north." — P. 
Godwin,  Hist,  of  France:  Ancient  Gnat,  eh.  13. 

A.  D.  843-933. — Divisions  of  the  early  king- 
dom.— The  later  kingdoms  of  the  south  and 
the  French  dukedom  of  the  northwest.— By 
the  treaty  of  Verdun,  A.  D.  843,  which  formally 
divided  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  between  his 
three  grandsons,  a  part  of  Burgundy  was  taken 
to  form,  with  Italy  and  Lorniiiie,  the  kingdom 
of  the  Emperor  Lotliar,  or  Lothaire.  In  tho 
further  dis.solutions  which  followed,  a  kingdom 
of  Burgundy  or  Provence  was  founded  iu  877  by 
one  Boso,  a  prince  who  hat'  "ied  Irmingard, 
daughter   of    the   Emper      »     iis    XL,  son  of 


329 


BURGUNDY,  A.  D.  843-933. 


BURGUNDY,  1032. 


liOthiiirc.  It  "inchidod  Provence,  Daupliinfi, 
the  southern  pnrt  of  Snvoy,  ami  the  country 
between  the  Siioue  and  the  Jura,"  (ind  is  some- 
times called  the  kingdom  of  ('is-.Jurane  Bur- 
gundy. "The  kingdom  of  Trans-Jurane  Bur- 
gundy, .  .  .  founded  by  Rudolf  in  A.  D.  888, 
re"ognized  in  the  same  year  by  the  Emperor 
Arnulf,  ineludcd  the  nortliern  part  of  Savoy, 
and  all  Kwit7,erland  between  the  Rcuss  and  the 
Jura." — J.  Brycc,  Hie  IMy  Roman  Empir",  ch. 
6,  nnd  (ipp.,  note  A. — "The  kingdoms  of  Pro- 
vence and  T-'Hsjuran  Burgundy  wore  \mited, 
In  033,  by  Raoul  II.,  King  of  Transjuran  Bur- 
gundy, and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Aries, 
governed,  from  037  to  903,  by  Conrad  le 
Patiticiue." — F.  Guizot,  ITist.  of  Civilization, 
led.  24. — Sir  P.  Palgrave,  Jlist.  of  I^oiinandy 
and  Enplaiid,  hk.  1,  ch.  4. — "Several  of  the 
greater  and  more  commercial  towns  of  France, 
such  as  Lyons,  Vienne,  Geneva,  Besan(;on, 
Avign.in,  Aries,  Marseille  and  Grenoble  were 
situated  within  the  bounds  of  his  [Conrad  the 
Pacific's]  states." — J  C.  L.  do  Sismondi,  France 
under  the  Feudal  System,  ch.  2. — "Of  tlie  older 
Burgundian  kingdom,  the  northwestern  part, 
fonning  the  land  best  known  as  the  Duchy  of  Bur- 
gundy, was,  ir  the  divisions  of  the  ninth  century, 
n  flcf  of  Knrolingia  or  the  Western  Kingdom. 
This  is  the  Burgundy  which  has  Dijon  for  its 
capital,  and  which  was  held  by  more  than  one 
dynasty  of  dukes  as  vassals  of  the  AVostern  kings, 
first  atLaon,  and  then  at  Paris.  This  Burgundy, 
which,  as  the  name  of  France  came  to  bear  its 
motleni  sense  may  be  distinguished  as  the  French 
Duchv,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
Royal  Burgundy  "  of  the  Cis-Junme  and  Trans- 
Jurane  kingdoms  mentioned  above. — E.  A.  Free- 
man, Ilintoricul  Geog.  of  Europe,  ch.  0,  Kcct.  1. 

A.  D.  888-IOJ2.— The  French  Dukedom.— 
The  founding^  of  the  First  Capetian  House. — 
Of  the  earliest  princes  of  this  northwestern  frag- 
ment of  the  old  kingdom  of  Burgundy  little  seems 
to  have  been  discoverable.  The  lief  and  its  title 
do  not  seem  to  have  become  heredit'  ry  until  they 
fell  into  the  grasping  hands  of  the  Capetian 
family,  vhich  happened  just  at  the  time  when 
the  aspiring  counts  of  Paris  wore  rising  to  royal 
rank.  In  the  early  years  of  the  tenth  century 
the  reigning  count  or  duke  was  I{ichard-le-Jus- 
ticior,  whose  distinguishing  pruiecly  virtue  is 
recorded  in  his  name.  This  Itichard-le-Justicier 
was  a  brother  of  that  Boso,  or  Boson,  son-in-law 
of  the  Emperoi  Loui.s  II.,  who  took  advantage 
ot  tlie  confusions  of  the  time  to  fashion  for  him- 
self a  kingdom  of  Burgundy  in  the  Souti.  (Cis- 
Juraijc  Burgundj-,  or  Provence, —  see  above). 
Richard's  son  Raoul,  or  Rudolph,  married  Emma, 
the  daughter  of  Uobert,  Count  of  Paris  and 
Duke  of  France,  who  was  soon  afterwards  elKisen 
king,  by  the  nobles  who  tired  of  Carlovingian 
misrule.  King  Robert's  reign  was  short;  he  fell 
in  battle  with  the  Carlovingians,  at  Soissons,  the 
next  year  (A.  D.  923).  His  son  llugn,  called  Le 
Griind,  or  The  Great,  found  it  more  to  his  taste 
to  tie  king-njaker  tlian  to  be  king.  He  decli;-."! 
the  prolTered  crown,  and  brought  about  the  coro- 
nation of  his  brother-in-law,  the  IJurgundian 
Rudolph,  who  reigned  for  eleven  years.  When  he 
died,  in  934,  Hugh  tl'.c  Great  still  held  the  crown 
at  his  disposal  and  still  refused  to  wear  It  liim- 
seh  It  now  pleased  this  king-mak(  to  set  a 
Carlo. ingian  prncc  on  the  throne,  in  the  pereon 
of  Louis  d'Outre  Mer,  a  young  sou  of  Charles 


the  Simple,  who  had  been  reared  in  England  by 
his  English  mother.  But,  if  Duko  Hugh  cared 
nothing  for  the  name,  he  cared  mi'jh  for  the  sub- 
stance, of  power.  He  gmsped  dominion  whero- 
everit  fell  within  his  reach,  and  the  Burgundian 
duchy  was  among  the  states  which  he  clutched. 
King  Rudolph  left  no  son  to  inherit  either  his 
duKedom  or  his  kingdom.  He  had  a  lirother, 
Hugh,  who  claimed  the  Duchy ;  but  the  greater 
Hugh  was  too  strong  for  him  and  secured,  with 
the  authority  of  the  young  king,  his  protege,  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  larger  part  of 
the  domain.  "In  the  Duchy  of  France  or  the 
County  of  Paris  Hugh-le-Grand  had  nothing  lie- 
yond  the  regalities  to  desire,  and  both  in  Burgundy 
and  the  Duchy  he  now  became  an  irremovable 
Viceroy.  But  the  privileges  so  obtained  l»y  Hugh- 
le-Grand  produced  very  important  political  re- 
sults both  present  and  future.  Hugh  assumed 
even  a  loftier  bearing  than  before ;  Burgundy  was 
annexed  to  the  Duchy  of  France,  and  passecl  with 
the  Duchy ;  and  the  grant  thereof  niiide  liy  Hugh 
Capet  to  his  son  [brother?]  IIenri-1  and,  sever- 
ing the  same  from  the  crown,  (  ,ud  the  pre- 
mier Duchy  of  Christendom,  tin  nost  splendid 
appanage  which  a  prince  of  the  third  race  [the 
Capetiaus]  could  enjoy — the  rival  of  the  throne." 

—  Sir  F.  Palgrave,  Jlist.  of  Kormandy  and  Eng., 
bk.  1,  pt.  2,  ch.  l-i. —  Hugh-le-Qrand  died  in 
956.  "His  power,  which,  more  than  his  talents 
or  exploits,  had  given  liim  the  name  of  Great, 
was  divided  between  his  children,  who  were  yet 
very  young.  .  .  .  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  their 
number  and  the  order  of  their  birth.  It  appears, 
howcvi .,  that  Otho  was  the  eldest  of  his  vlireo 
sons.  He  had  given  him  his  part  of  the  duchy 
of  Burgundy,  and  liad  made  him  marry  the 
daughter  and  heir  of  Gislebert,  duke  of  another 
part  of  Burgundy,  to  which  Otho  succeeded  the 
same  year.  The  latter  dyi.ig  in  963  or  905,  the 
duchy  of  Burgundy  passed  to  his  third  brother, 
sometimes  named  Henry,  sometimes  Eudes. 
Ilugues  [Hugh],  sumamed  Capet,  who  succeeded 
to  the  county  of  Paris  and  the  duchy  of  France, 
was  but  the  second  son." — J.  C.  li.  de  Sismondi, 
Tlie  French  utvlcr  the  Ctirloringians,  ch.  15. —  In 
987  Hugh  Capet  became  king  of  France  and 
founded  the  lasting  dynasty  which  bears  his 
name.  His  elder  brother  Henry  remained  Duke 
of  Burgundy  until  his  death,  in  1002,  when  his 
royal  nephew,  Robert,  son  and  successor  of 
Hugh,  annexed  the  Duchy  to  the  Crown.  It  so 
remained  until.  1032.  Then  King  Henry  I.,  son 
of  Robert,  granted  it  as  an  appanage  to  his 
brother  Robert,  who  founded  the  fiv.-,t  Capetian 
House  of  Burgundy. — E.  de  Bonn.""'  ose.  Hist, 
of  France,  hk.  1,  ch   2. 

A.  D.  1032. — T  he  last  kingdom. — Its  union 
with  Germany,  and  its  dissolution. — The  last 
kingdom  which  bore  the  name  of  Burgundy  — 
though  more  often  cidled  the  kingdom  of  Aries 

—  formed,  as  stated  above,  by  the  union  of  the 
shortlived  kingdoms  of  Provence  and  Trans,;  .1- 
rane  Burgundy,  became  in  1082  nominally  united 
to  the  dominions  of  the  Emperor-King  of  Ger- 
many. Its  last  indeiiendent  king  was  Rudolf 
HI.,  son  of  Conriid  the  Pacific,  who  was  undo 
to  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  Being  childless  ho 
named  Henry  his  heir.  The  latter,  however, 
died  first,  in  1024,  and  Rudolf  attomiited  to 
cancel  his  bequest,  claiming  that  it  Avas  made  to 
Henry  personally,  not  as  King  of  the  G(!rman8. 
When,  however,  the  Burgundian  king  died,  in 


380 


BURGUNDY,  1032. 


BURGUNDY,  1127-1378. 


1032,  the  then  reigning  Emperor,  Conrad  the 
Salie,  or  tlie  Franconian,  formally  proclaimed  the 
union  of  Burgundy  with  Germany.  "But  since 
•  Burgundy  was  ruled  almost  exclusively  by  the 
great  nobility,  tlie  sovereignty  of  the  German 
Ei.ipcrors  there  was  never  much  more  than 
nominal.  Besides,  the  country,  from  the  Bernese 
Oberland  to  the  Mediterranean,  except  that  part 
of  AUcmannia  which  is  now  German  Switzer- 
land, was  inhabited  by  a  Romance  people,  too 
distinct  in  language,  cuscoms  and  laws  from  the 
German  empire  ever  really  to  form  a  part  of  it. 
.  .  .  Yet  Switzerland  was  thenceforth  connected 
forever  with  the  development  ^of  Germany,  and 
for  500  years  remained  a  part  of  the  empire." — 
C.  T.  Lewis,  Hist,  of  Germany,  bk.  3,  ch.  6-7.— 
"  The  weakness  of  Kodolph-le-Faineant[Kodol])h 
III.,  who  made  Henry  II.  of  Germany  his  heir, 
as  stated  above],  gave  the  great  lords  of  the 
kingdom  of  Aries  an  opportunity  of  consolidat- 
ing their  independence.  Among  these  one  begins 
to  remark  Berehtold  and  his  son,  Ilumbert-aux- 
Blanches-Mains  (the  White-handed)  Counts  of 
Maurienne,  and  founders  of  the  House  of  Savoy ; 
Otto  William,  who  it  is  pretended  was  the  son  of 
Adalbert,  King  of  Italy,  and  heir  by  right  of 
his  mother  to  the  county  of  Burgundy,  was  the 
founder  of  the  sovereign  house  of  Franche- 
Comte  [County  Palatine  of  Burgundy] ;  Guigue, 
Count  of  Albon,  tounder  of  the  sovereign  house 
of  ihe  dauphins  of  Viennois;  and  William,  who 
it  is  pretended  was  the  issue  of  a  brotlier  of 
Bodolph  of  Burgundy,  King  of  France,  and 
who  was  sovereign  count  of  Provence.  These 
four  lords  had,  throughout  the  reign  of  Uodolpli, 
mucu  more  power  than  he  in  the  king'om  of 
iVrlcs;  and  when  at  his  death  Ivis  crown  was 
u\ited  to  that  of  the  Empire,  Ihe  feudatories  v.  ho 
had  grown  great  at  his  expense  be  onie  ah.'ost 
absolutely  independent.  On  the  other  hund, 
their  vassals  began  on  their  side  to  acquire 
importance  under  them ;  and  in  Provence  can  be 
traced  at  this  period  the  succession  of  the  counts 
of  Forcakiuier  and  of  Venaissin,  of  the  princes 
of  Orange,  of  tlie  viscounts  of  ^Marseille,  of  the 
barons  of  Baux,  of  Sault,  ot  Qrignau,  and  of 
Castellane.  We  can  still  follow  the  formation  of 
a  great  number  of  other  feudatory  or  rather 
sovereigr.  Iiouses.  Thus  the  counts  of  Toulouse, 
those  of  Rouergue,  the  dukes  of  Gascouy,  the 
counts  of  Foix,  of  Beam,  and  of  Carcassone, 
date  at  le.:st  from  this  epoch;  but  their  existence 
is  announced  to  us  only  by  their  diplomas  and 
their  wills." — J.  C.  L.  de  Sismondi,  France  under 
the  Feudal  Si/stein,  c/t.  3. — See,  also,  Pkovence: 
A.  D.  043-1093,  and  Fu.\NCiiE  Comte. 

A.  D.  1 127-1378. — The  Franco-Gei  manic 
contest  for  the  valley  of  the  Rhone. — End 
of  the  kingdom  of  Aries, — "As  soon  as  the 
Capetiau  iiionaiclis  had  ac(iuiied  enough  strength 
lit  lioine  to  be  able  to  look  with  safety  abroad, 
they  began  to  n'.ake  aggressions  on  the  tempting 
and  wealthy  At'in  idencies  ot  the  distant  em- 
perors. But  the  Rhone  valley  was  too  i m porta  t 
iij  itself  and  of  too  great  strategical  value  as 
Fccurini;  an  easy  road  to  Italy,  to  make  it  pos- 
sible for  the  emperors  to  actiuiesce  easily  in  its 
loss.  Hence  a  long  conllict,  which  soon  became 
a  national  eonlliet  of  French  and  Germans,  to 
maintain  the  Imperial  position  in  the  '  middle 
kingdom'  of  the  Hhoiie  valky.  51.  Fourniei's 
book  ['Le  RoyauMie  d'  Aries  et  de  Vienne  (IIHS- 
1178)';  par  Paul  Fournier]  aims  at  giving  an 
23 


adequate  account  of  this  struggle.  .  .  .  From 
the  times  of  the  mighty  Barbarossa  to  the  times 
of  the  pretentio'-.s  and  cunning  Charles  of 
Luxemburg  [see  Germany:  A.  D.  1138-1268,  and 
A.  1).  1347-1403],  nearly  every  emperor  sought 
by  constant  acts  of  sovereignty  to  uphold  Ills 
preearious  powers  in  the  Arelatc.  Unable  to 
elT"ct  much  with  their  own  resources,  the  em- 
perors exhausted  their  ingenuity  in  finding  allies 
and  inventing  brilliant  schemes  for  reviving  the 
Arelate,  which  invariably  came  to  nothing. 
Barlwi'ossa  won  the  hand  of  the  heiress  of  the 
county  of  Burgundy,  and  sought  to  put  in  place 
of  the  local  dyna.sties  princes  on  whom  he  ccmld 
rely,  like  Berlholdof  Zilringen,  whose  father  had 
received  in  1137  from  Conrad  III.  the  high- 
sounding  but  meaningless  title  of  Rector  of  the 
Burgundies.  Bu*  his  quarrel  with  the  church 
soon  set  the  clergy  against  Frederick,  and,  led 
by  the  Carthusian  and  Cistercian  orders,  the 
Churchmen  of  the  Arelate  began  to  look  upon 
the  orthodox  king  of  the  French  as  tlieir  truest 
protector  from  a  schismatic  emperor.  I'.ut  the 
Frer :  1.  kings  of  the  p jrioil  saw  in  the  power  of 
Henry  of  Anjou  [Henry  II.,  of  England — see 
England:  A.  D.  1154-1180]  a  more  real  and 
pressing  danger  than  the  Empire  of  the  Ilohen- 
staufen.  The  result  was  an  alliance  between 
Philip  Augustus  and  his  succes.sors  and  the 
Swabian  emperors,  which  gave  Frederick  and 
his  successors  a  new  term  in  which  they  r  'ild 
strive  to  win  back  a  real  hold  over  Burgi—dy. 
Fred'.;'.;.,  li.  never  lost  sight  of  this  object. 
nU  investiture  of  the  great  feudal  lord  William 
of  Baux  with  the  kingdom  of  Aries  in  1315;  his 
long  struggle  with  tne  wealthy  merchant  city  of 
J[an.oiiles;  his  alliance  with  Raymond  of 
Toulouse  and  the  heretical  elements  in  Provence 
against  the  Pope  and  the  French ;  his  efforts  to 
lead  an  army  against  Innocent  IV.  at  Lyons, 
were  among  the  chief  phases  of  his  constant 
efforts  to  make  the  Imperial  influence  really  felt 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rhone.  But  he  had  so  little 
success  that  the  French  crusaders  against  the 
Albigenses  waged  open  war  within  its  limits, 
and  ilestroyed  the  heretic  city  of  Avignon  [see 
Albioenses:  A.  D.  1317-1239],  while  Innocent 
in  his  exile  could  find  no  surer  protection  against 
the  emperor  than  in  the  Imperial  ^it;'  of  Lvous. 
After  Fr.derick's  death  the  policy  of  St.  Louis 
of  France  was  a  complete  triumph.  His  Ijrother, 
Charles  of  Anjou,  established  himself  in  Prov- 
ence, though  in  later  times  the  Angevin  lords  of 
Provence  and  Naples  became  so  strong  tliat  their 
local  interests  made  them  enemies  latlier  than 
friends  of  the  ex'.ension  of  French  i)ower  on  their 
borders.  The  subsequent  efforts  of  the  emperorn 
were  the  merest  shams  and  unrealities.  Rudolf 
of  Ha|)sburg  aciiuiesced  without  a  murmur  in 
tie  progress  ot  Phili])  the  Fair,  wlio  ni"  le  him- 
si if  master  of  Lyons,  and  secured  tlie  Free 
County  of  Burgundy  for  his  sini  [see  Fuanciie- 
Comte].  .  .  .  The  residence  of  the  Popes  at 
Avignon  was  a  further  help  to  the  French 
advance.  .  .  .  Weak  as  were  the  early  Valois 
kings,  they  were  strong  eiiougli  to  push  still 
further  tlie  adviintage  won  by  their  greater  jtre- 
deeessors.v  The  rivalry  of  the  leading  slates  of 
the  RhonoValley,  Savoy  and  Dauphiny,  facili- 
tated tlieir  task".  Pliilip  VI.  aspired  to  take 
Vienne  as  Pliilii)  IV.  had  obtained  Lyons  The 
Dauphin,  HumlWrt  II.,  struggled  in  vain  •  :ain.st 
him,    and   at  lasb.,  accepted    the    iuevit  ;  le    by 


331 


\ 


BURGUNDY,  1127-1378. 


BUUOUXDY,  1167. 


CPflitiR  to  tlio  French  kiiiR  the  succession  to  all  his 
riglils  in  Diiuphinj',  liciiccfortli  to  l)eronic  llie 
U|)|mim;;o  of  the  eldest  soiih  of  the  French  liinirs. 
At  lust,  Charles  of  liii.\iinl)ur;c,  in  lliTH,  ftiive 
the  Freiieh  iii;f;reHsions  ii  le;?iil  Imsis  by  coii- 
ferrinu;  the  Vieariiit  of  Arli  s  on  tlie  Dauphin 
Charles,  suhse(iueiuly  the  mad  Charles  VI.  of 
Fnuice.  From  this  ;rrant  Savoy  only  was  ex- 
<'epte(l.  llenceforlh  the  power  of  France  in  I  lie 
Ulione  valley  lieeaine  ko  great  that  it  soon  lie- 
C'.ine  tlie  fashion  to  despise  and  ignore  tlie 
theoretical  claims  of  the  Kmpire." — The  Athin- 
teiiiii,  Oct,  ;!.  l.S'Jl  (nriiiriiir/  "  f,e  I{i>;/iiiiiiie 
d'^lrlix  ct  lie  \'ii  iiiu,"  luir  J'liil  /•'mniii'i: 

A.  D.  1207-1401. — Advance  of  the  dominions 
cf  the  house  of  Sr  'oy  beyond  Lalce  Geneva. 
See  Savoy:  I  Irii-l.lrii  Ckntiiuks. 

A.  D.  1364. — The  French  Dukedom. — The 
Planting  of  the  Burgundian  branch  of  the 
house  of  Valois.— The  last  Duke  of  liiirgundy 
of  the  Capetiaii  Iiouso  which  descended  from 
Itohert,  son  of  King  Kobert,  died  in  December, 
1361.  He  was  called  Philip  de  Houvre,  localise 
the  ChflteiUi  de  Houvre,  near  Dijon,  had  been 
his  birth-idaee,  and  his  residence.  He  was  still 
in  his  youth  when  lie  died,  althougli  he  had 
borne  the  ducal  title  for  twelve  years.  It  fell  to 
him  at  the  age  of  four,  when  his  father  died. 
From  his  mother  and  his  grandmother  he  in- 
herited, additionally,  tl.e  county,  of  Burgundy 
(Fnmclie  Comte)  and  tli'  eo\intics  of  Boulogne, 
Auvergne  and  Arlois.  His  tc  nder  years  had  not 
prevented  the  ma'riage  of  the  young  duke  to 
j\Iargaret,  daughter  and  heiiess  of  the  Count  of 
Flanders.  John  H.  King  of  France,  whose 
mother  was  a  Burgundian  princess,  claimed  to 
be  the  nearest  relalivi.'  of  the  young  duke,  when 
the  hitter  died,  in  1361.  and,  although  his  claim 
was  disputed  by  the  King  of  Xavarrc,  Charles 
the  Bad,  Kirg  John  took  jiosse.ssion  of  the  dnke- 
dom.  lie  took  it  by  right  of  succession,  and  not 
as  a  flef  which  had  lapsed,  the  original  grant 
of  King  Robert  having  contained  no  reversionary 
provision.  Franche  Comte,  or  the  county  of 
Burgundy,  together  with  Artois,  remained  to  the 
young  widow,  Margaret  of  Flanders,  while  the 
counties  of  Boulogne  and  Auvrgne  passed  to 
John  of  Boulogne,  Count  de  Mont  fort.  A  grent 
opportunity  for  strengthening  the  crown  01 
France,  by  annexing  to  it  the  powerful  Burgun- 
<liaudukedoin,  wasnowolTered  to  King  Jolm;  but 
he  lacked  the  wisdom  to  !mi)rove  it.  lie  preferred 
to  grant  it  away  as  a  splendid  appanage  for  his 
favorite  son  —  the  fourth  —  t  he  si)iriled  lail  Philip, 
called  the  Fearless,  who  had  stood  by  his  father's 
side  in  the  disiustrous  batib  of  Poitiers,  and  who 
had  shared  his  captivity  in  England.  B)'  a  deed 
which  took  elTect  on  Kmg  John's  death,  in  13C4, 
the  great  duchy  of  Burgundy  was  conferred  on 
Philip  the  Fearless  and  on  his  heirs.  Soon  after- 
wards, Philip's  marriage  with  the  young  widow 
of  his  predecessor,  Philip  de  Rotivre,  was  i)ronght 
alMiut,  which  restored  to  their  former  union  with 
the  duk<,'iloin  the  Burgundian  County  (Franche 
ConU.e)  and  the  county  of  Artois,  while  it  gave 
to  the  new  duke  prospectively  the  rich  county 
of  Fhmders,  to  which  Margaret  was  the  heiress. 
Tlius  was  raised  up  anew  the  most  formidable 
rival  which  the  royal  power  in  France  had  ever 
to  contend  with,  and  themagnitudeof  the  blunder 
of  King  .lohn  was  revealed  before  lialf  a  century 
had  passed. — P^roissart  (Johnes)  Chvoniden.  bk.  1, 
ch.  210. 


Ai.soix;  F.  P.  Ouizot,  Popular  IIi»t.  of  France, 
eh.  22. 

A.  D.  1383. — Flanders  added  to  the  ducal 
dominions.     Sec  !•  i,.\.\i)i;ns:  \.  I).  13H3. 

A.  D.  1405-1453.— Civil  war  with  the  Ar- 
magnacs. — Alliance  with  the  English.  See 
Fii.\.NCi::  A.  D.  1380-141.-);  141.5-1411);  1417- 
1-122;  1420-1431;  1431-14.53. 

A.  D.  1430. — Holland,  Hainault  and  Fries- 
land   absorbed  by  the   dukes.     Sei^    .Vkimku- 

I.A.NDS  (IIoLT.A.NI)  AM)    HaI.NAUI.T)  :    A.   D.    1117- 

1430. 

A.  D.  1467.— Charles  the  Bold.— His  posi- 
tion, between  Germany  and  France. — His  an- 
tagonism to  Loiiis  XI. — The  "  Middle  King- 
dom" of  his  aims. — Charles,  known  conini'iiily  in 
history  as  Charles  the  Bold,  became  Dnke  of  Bur- 
gundy in  1467,  succeeding  his  father  Philip,  mis- 
named "Thevjiood."  "His  position  was  a  vry 
])eeuliar  one;  it  rccpiires  a  successful  shakingoil 
of  modern  noti.ins  fully  to  take  in  what  it  was. 
('harles  held  the  rank  of  one  of  the  first  princes 
in  Europe  without  being  a  King,  and  without 
possessing  an  inch  of  ground  for  which  he  did 
not  owe  service  to  .some  superior  h)rd.  And, 
more  tlinu  this,  ho  did  not  owe  service  to  one 
hn'd  only.  The  phrase  of  '  Great  Powers' had 
not  been  invented  in  the  15th  century ;  but 
there  can  be  no  dotibt  that,  if  it  ha<l  beep,  the 
Duke  of  Burgun<ly  would  have  ranked  among 
the  foremost  of  them.  He  was,  in  actual 
strength,  the  equal  of  his  royal  neighbour  to  the 
west,  and  far  more  than  thee(iual  of  his  Imperial 
neighbour  to  the  east.  Yet  for  crery  inch  of  his 
territories  he  owed  a  vassid's  duty  to  one  or 
other  of  tlunn.  Placed  on  the  borders  of  Franco 
and  the  Kini)ire,  some  jf  histenitorics  were  held 
of  the  Empire  and  .some  of  the  French  Crown. 
Charles,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  Count  of  Flanders 
and  Artois,  was  a  vassal  of  France;  but  Charles, 
Dulie  of  Brabant,  Count  of  Burgundy,  Holland, 
and  a  dozen  other  duchies  and  counties,  held  his 
<lominions  as  a  vas.sal  of  Ciesar.  His  dominions 
were  largo  in  positive  extent,  and  they  were 
valuable  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  extent. 
Xo  other  prince  in  Europe  was  the  direct 
.sovereign  of  so  many  ri(  h  and  flinu-ishing  cities, 
rendered  still  more  rich  and  tlouri.sliing  tlirough 
the  long  and,  in  the  main,  ])eaceful  admin'  .tra- 
ti(m  of  ids  lather.  Thecilies  of  the  Xetherlands 
were  incomparably  greater  and  more  prosperous 
than  those  of  France  or  England;  and,  though 
they  enjoyed  large  nuinicipal  jirivileges,  they 
were  not,  like  those  of  Germany,  independent 
commonwealths,  acknowh'dging  only  an  external 
su/.er.iin  in  their  nominal  lord.  Other  parts  of 
his  dominions,  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy  especi- 
ally, were  as  rich  in  men  as  Flanders  was  rich  in 
money.  So  far  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  had  some 
great  advantages  over  every  other  (irince  of  bis 
ticie.  But,  on  the  other  liiuid,  his  dominions 
weic  further  removed  than  those  of  any  prince 
in  Eui  >pe  troni  forming  a  compact  whole.  Ho 
was  not  King  of  one  kingdom,  but  Duke,  Count, 
and  Lord  of  inimmerable  duchies,  counties,  and 
lordships,  ac(iiure(l  by  dilVerent  meins,  held  by 
dilTer.'nt  titles  and  of  dilVerent  overiords,  speak- 
ing dillerent  languages,  subject  to  dilTerent  laws, 
transmitted  acconlmg  to  dilTerent  ndcs  of  s\ic- 
cesssion.  .  .  .  They  lay  in  two  large  nnisses,  the 
two  Burgimdies  fonning  one  and  the  Low 
Countries  forming  the  other,  so  that  theirconmion 
master  could  not  go  from  one  capital  to  anotlier 


332 


IJIUGUNDY,   1167. 


BURGUNDY,   I4tir-1408. 


without  piissiiij;  throiiKli  it  foreign  territory. 
And,  even  williin  llicso  two  urcat  iimsscs,  tlnTc 
wire  porlions  of  t(  rritory  intVrscctiii!;  tliu  diictil 
(loiniiiions  wliicl,  llicro  was  no  hope  of  iimicxliii; 
by  fair  incaiiH.  .  .  .  The  career  of  Charles  the 
Bold  .  .  .  divides  itself  into  a  French  ami  a 
fJeriiian  jjorlioii.  In  both  alil^e  he  is  exposed  to 
the  restless  rivalry  of  Lewis  of  France;  but  in 
the  one  jieriod  liiat  rivalry  is  carried  on  openly 
within  the  French  territory,  while  in  tlie  second 
I)eriod  the  crafty  kinir  Ihids  the  means  to  deal 
far  more  clTcetnal  blows  throuirh  Iheaiiency  of 
Teutonic  hands.  ...  As  a  French  prince,  he 
joined  with  other  French  i)rinces  to  put  linnts 
on  the  power  of  the  Crown,  and  to  divide  llie 
kingdom  into  great,  fendal  holdings,  as  nearly 
independent  as  inij;lit  be  of  the  connnou  over- 
lord. As  a  French  prince,  he  jilavcd  Ins  part  in 
the  War  of  ihe  Pnblic  Weal  [see  Fit.vNci;:  A.  1). 
1401-1408],  and  insisted,  as  ii  main  object  of 
his  policy,  on  the  establislinient  of  the  Kinjr's 
brother  as  an  all  but  independent  DnUe  of  Nor- 
mandy. The  ol)ject  of  Lewis  was  to  nuike 
France  a  compact  monarchy;  the  object  of 
Charles  and  his  fellows  was  to  keep  Franco  as 
nearly  as  niif;lit  lie  in  the  same  state  as  Germany. 
But,  when  the  otlicr  French  princes  had  li 'cn 
gradually  coni|uercd,  won  over,  or  got  rid  of  in 
some  waj'  or  other  by  the  crafty  polic'yof  I,ewis, 
CharU's  remained  no  longer  the  cliief  of  a 
coalition  of  French  princes,  but  the  jicrsonal 
rival,  the  deadly  enemy,  of  the  Frencli  King. 
.  .  .  C'hronok)gically  and  geographically  alike, 
Charles  and  his  Duchy  form  the  great  barrier,  or 
the  great  connecting  link,  whichever  we  choos(^ 
to  call  it,  between  the  main  divisions  of  Kuro- 
pean  history  and  European  geograjihy.  The 
Dukes  of  Burgundy  of  the  House  of  Valois  form 
a  .sort  of  bridge  between  the  later  Middle  Ag<! 
and  the  period  of  the  Renais.sance  ami  tlie 
Reformation.  They  coimect  those  two  periods 
by  forming  the  kerne'  of  the  vast  dondnion  of 
that  Austrian  House  which  ;)ecanie  their  heir,  and 
which,  mainly  by  virtue  of  that  heirship  tills 
such  a  space  in  the  history  of  the  101  h  and  17th 
centuries.  IJut  the  dominic'isof  thcHurgundian 
Dukes  hold  i.  still  higher  historical  i)osition. 
They  may  be  said  to  bind  together  the  wdiolc  of 
Eurlipcan  history  for  the  last  thou.sand  years. 
From  the  9th  century  to  the  lUlli,  the  politics  of 
lOurope  have  largely  gathered  round  the  rivalry 
between  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Kingdoms 
—  in  jnodern  language,  between  Gernnuiy  and 
France.  From  the  ilth  century  to  the  liltb,  a 
sncces.sion  of  elforts  have  been  made  to  establish, 
in  one  shape  or  another,  a  middle  state  between 
the  two.  Over  and  over  again  during  that  long 
period  have  men  .striven  to  make  tlie  whole  or 
.some  portion  of  the  frontier  lands  stretching 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Uhonc  into  an  independent  barrier  state.  .  .  . 
That  object  was  never  more  distinctly  aimed  at, 
and  it  neverseemed  nearerioits  ac^complishnient, 
than  when  Charles  the  Hold  actually  reigned  from 
the  Zuyder  Zee  to  the  Lake  of  Nenfchatel,  and 
was  not  without  I'.opes  of  extending  his  frontier 
to  the  Gulf  of  Lyons.  .  .  .  Holding,  as  he  did, 
parts  of  old  Lotharingia  and  parts  of  old  Bur- 
gundy, tnerecan  bemxloubt  that  he  aimed  at  the 
re-establishinent  of  a  great  .Middle  Kingdom, 
which  should  tiike  in  all  that  had  ever  been  Bnr- 
gundian  or  Lotharingian  ground.  He  aimed,  in 
short,   as  others  have  aimed  before  and  since,  at 


the  fonnalionofa  state  which  should  liold  aceii- 
tral  iHisiticai  bi  tween  France,  Germany  aial  Italy 
—  a  slate  which  should  discharge,  wilh  iidinitely 
greater  strength,  all  the  duties  which  our  own 
age  has  endeavoured  to  throw  on  .Switzerland, 
Belgium  and  Savoy.  .  .  .  I'ndoubledly  it  wouUi 
have  been  for  the  permaia'Ut  interest  of  Europo 
if  he  had  succee(led  in  his  attempt." — K.  A. 
Freeman,  Chitiirs  tlir  ]iiilil  (Ilixtoiirnl  Ekikijik^  1st 
.•tiriis,  no,  11). 

A.  D.  1467-1468.— The  war  of  Chailes  the 
Bold  with  the  Liegeois  and  his  troubles  with 
Louis  XI. — "Soon  after  the  pacilication  of  the 
troubles  of  France  [.see  Fuancio:  A.  D.  1401- 
140M|,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  began  a  war 
against  tlie  I  icgeois,  which  lasted  for  several 
years;  and  wiieiiever  thi;  king  of  l-'niiice  [Louis 
XI.  I  had  a  mind  to  interru|it  him,  he  attempted 
.sonii'  new  acli(ai  against  the  Bretons,  and,  in  the 
meantime,  supported  the  Liegeois  underhand; 
upon  which  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  turned 
against  him  to  succour  his  allies,  or  else  they 
came  to  .some  treaty  or  truce  among  themselves. 
.  .  .  During  these  wars,  and  ever  .sii'  .'e,  secret 
and  fresli  intrigues  were  carried  on  by  tlic 
princes.  The  king  was  so  exceedingly  exasper- 
ated against  Ww  Dukes  of  Bretagne  and  Bur- 
gundy that  it  was  wonderful.  .  .  .  The  king  of 
France's  aim,  in  the  meantime,  was  chietly  to 
carry  his  design  against  tli<!  ])rovince  of  Bretagne, 
and  he  looked  upon  it  as  a  /nore  feasible  attempt, 
and  likelier  to  give  him  less  resistance  than  the 
house  of  Burgundy.  Besides,  the  Bretons  were 
the  people  who  protected  and  enterlained  all  his 
malcontents;  as  his  brother,  and  others,  whose 
interest  and  intelligence  were  great  in  his  king- 
ilom ;  for  this  cause  he  endeavoured  very  earnestly 
with  Charles,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  by  several 
advantiifgeous  offers  and  proposals,  to  prevail 
with  him  to  desert  them,  promising  that  upon 
tliose  terms  he  also  would  abandon  the  Liegeois, 
and  give  no  further  ])rotection  to  his  mal  ■ontent.s. 
The  Duke  of  Burgundy  would  by  no  means 
coiLscnt  to  it,  but  again  made  iircparalions  for 
war  against  th(!  Liegeois,  who  had  broken  the 
lieacc. "  This  was  in  October,  1407.  The  Duke 
(Charles  the  Bold)  atlackcd  St.  Tron,  which  was 
held  by  a  garri.s(m  of  8,(«)()  of  the  men  of  Liege. 
The  Liegeois,  30.000  strong,  came  to  the  relief  of 
th(!  besieged  town,  and  were  routed,  leaving 
0,000  slain  on  the  held.  St.  Tron  and  Tongres 
were  both  surrendered,  and  Liege,  itself,  after 
considerable  strife  among  its  citizens,  opened  its 
gates  to  the  Duke,  who  entered  in  triuni])!!  (Nov. 
17,  1407)  and  hanged  half-a-dozen  for  his  moder- 
ate satisfaction.  In  the  cimr.se  of  the  next  sum- 
mer the  French  king  opencil  war  afresh  upon 
the  Duke  of  Brelagno  and  forced  him  into  a 
treaty,  before  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  his  ally, 
could  take  the  field.  The  king,  then  being 
extremely  anxious  to  pacify  tJie  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, t<x)k  the  extraordinary  ste])  of  visiting 
the  latter  at  Pcror.ne,  without  any  guard,  trusting 
himself  wholly  to  the  honor  of  his  enemy.  But 
it  happened  u:\fortunately,  during  the  king's 
stay  at  Feronne,  that  a  fcnx'ious  revolt  occurred 
at  Liege,  which  was  traceil  beyond  denial  to  the 
intrigues  of  two  agents  whom  king  Louis  had 
sent  thither  not  long  before,  for  mischief  making 
purposes.  Thi'  Duk(!,  in  his  wrath,  was  not 
easily  restrained  frian  doing  some  violence  to  the 
king;  but  the  royal  trickster  escaped  from  his 
gnive  predicament  by  giving  up  the  unhappy 


333 


BUHOUNDY,   1407-1408. 


nUHOUXDY,  147&-1477. 


Llof^cnis  to  the  vengeance  of  Duko  Charles  nnd 

pcrsoiiiiHy  assisting  the  latter  to  inflict  it. 
"After  the  eonelu.sion  of  the  peare  [dictated  by 
Cliarles  at  I'eroiiiie  and  sitrned  snhinissively  by 
Louis]  the  Kinj?  and  the  Duke  of  lluri^inidy  set 
out  the  iie.\t  morning  [Oct.  IT),  1408]  for  Cani- 
hray,  and  from  thence  towards  tlie  country  of 
Liege:  it  was  the  beginning  of  winter  and  llie 
weather  was  very  bad.  TIk!  I<ing  had  with  him 
only  his  Hootch  guards  and  a  small  body  of  liis 
standing  forces;  but  he  ordered  liOO  of  his  men 
lU-arms  to  join  him."  Liege  was  invested,  and, 
notwithstanding  its  walls  had  been  thrown  dow-.i 
the  previous  year,  it  made  a  stubborn  defe'se. 
During  a  siege  of  a  fortnight,  several  <lespei.ile 
sallies  were  made,  by  the  last  oiw!  of  wbicli  both 
the  Duke  and  the  King  were  brought  to  great 
personal  jjeril.  K.\hausted  by  this  lih  il  ell'ort, 
the  Liegeois  were  unpre|)ared  to  repel  a  grand 
assault  which  the  besieging  forces  made  upon  the 
town  the  ne.\t  morning  —  Sunday,  Oct.  30. 
Liege  was  taken  that  day  almost  without  resist- 
nnc(s  tlie  mi.serable  inlial)itants  Hying  across  the 
Maes  into  the  forest  of  Anh.'imes.  abandoning 
their  homes  to  ])illage.  The  Duke  of  JJurgundy 
now  permitted  King  Louis  to  return  home,  while 
he  remained  a  few  days  longer  in  desolate  Liege, 
which  his  tierce  hatred  had  doomed.  "  Ik'fore 
the  Duke  left  the  city,  a  great  numl)er  of  tliose 
poor  creatures  who  had  hid  tliemselves  in  tlie 
Louses  when  the  town  was  taken,  and  were  after- 
wards made  prisoners,  were  drowned.  He  also 
resolved  to  burn  the  city,  which  had  always  been 
very  populous;  and  orders  were  given  for  tiring 
it  in  three  different  places,  and  ii.OOO  vir  4,000  fool 
of  the  country  of  T.imbourg  (who  were  their 
neighbours,  and  used  the  same  habit  and  lan- 
guage), were  conmianded  to  effect  this  desolation, 
Init  to  secure  the  churches.  .  .  .  Ail  things  being 
thus  ordered,  the  Duke  began  his  march  into  the 
country  of  Franchemont:  lie  was  no  .sooner  out 
of  town,  but  immediately  we  saw  a  great  number 
of  liouses  Oil  tire  beyond  the  river;  the  duke  lay 
that  night  four  leagues  from  the  city,  yet  we 
could  hear  the  noise  as  distinctly  as  if  we  had 
been  upon  the  sjiot-  but  whether  it  was  the  wind 
which  lay  that  way,  or  our  quartering  uiion  the 
river,  tluu  was  the  cause  of  it,  I  luiow  not.  The 
ne.xl  day  the  Duk.;  marched  on.  and  those  who 
were  left  in  Llie  town  continued  the  coiillagratiou 
according  to  his  orders;  but  all  the  cliurelies 
(except  some  few)  were  preserved,  and  above 
300  houses  belonging  to  the  priests  and  otllcers  of 
the  churches,  which  was  the  reason  it  was  so  soon 
teinhabited,  for  many  Hocked  tliither  to  live  with 
th.e priests." — Philip  de  Coinmines,  Meiiwirs,  bk. !;. 

Also  in:  J.  F.  Kirk,  Hist,  nf  (Hiarku  the  Hold, 
hk.  1,  ch  7-9;  4^•.  3.— P.  F.  Willert,  The  Ueiyn  -/ 
Jaiiuh  XL — Sir.  W.  Scott,  Queidiii  Durwanl.— 
See,  also,  Din.vnt. 

A.  D.  1476-1477.  -Charles  the  Bold  and  the 
Swiss. — His  defeats  and  his  death. — The 
effects  of  his  fall. — "Sovereign  of  the  duchy  of 
Burgundy,  of  tlie  Free  County,  of  Hainaut,  of 
Flanders,  of  Holland,  and  of  Gueldre,  Charles 
wished,  by  joining  to  it  Lorraine,  a  portion  of 
Switzerland,  and  the  inheritance  of  old  King 
licne,  Count  of  Proven<e,  to  recompose  tlie  an- 
cient kingdom  of  Lorraine,  such  as  it  had  existed 
nnder  the  Carlovingian  dynasty;  and  Haltered 
himself  that  by  offering  his  daughter  to  Maxi- 
milian, sou  of  ij'rederick  IIL ,  he  would  olitain  the 
title  of  king.     Deceived  iu  his  hopes,  the  Duke 


of  Burgundy  tried  means  to  take  away  Lorraine 
from  the  young  Uene.  That  province  was  neces- 
sary to  him,  ill  order  to  join  his  northern  states 
with  those  in  the  south.  The  conquest  was 
rapid,  and  \ancy  opened  its  gates  to  Charles  the 
Hash;  but  it  was  ri-served  for  a  small  people, 
already  celebrated  for  their  heroic  valour  and  by 
tlieir  love  of  liberty,  to  beat  this  powerful  man. 
Irritated  against  the  Swiss,  who  had  braved  him, 
Charles  crossed  over  the  Jura,  besieged  the  little 
town  of  Gr.inson,  and,  in  despite  of  a  capitula- 
tion, caused  all  the  defenders  to  be  hanged  or 
drowned.  At  this  news  the  eight  cantons  which 
then  composed  the  Helvetian  republic  arose,  and 
under  the  very  walls  of  th  iiwn  which  had  been 
tile  llieaire  of  his  cnudty  i.i.'y attacked  tlu^  Duke 
and  dispersed  his  troops  [.March  3,  1470].  Some 
months  later  [.June  'Jl],  supported  by  young 
Keiie  of  jjorraine,  dcspoihMi  of  his  inheritance, 
they  exterminated  a  second  Hurgiindian  army 
before  Moral.  Charles,  vaniiuished,  reassem- 
bled a  third  army,  and  marched  in  the  midst  of 
winter  against  Nancy,  which  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Swiss  and  Lorrainer.s.  It  was  there 
that  he  perished  [Jan.  5,  1477]  bi^trayed  by  his 
mercenary  .soldiers,  and  overpowered  by  num- 
bers."— L.  de  Bonnechose,  lliKt.  of  Franct;,  v.  1, 
bk.  3,  ch.  3. — "And  what  was  the  cause  of  this 
war  ?  A  miserable  cart-load  of  sheep  skins  that 
the  Count  of  liomont  had  taken  from  the  Swiss, 
in  his  passage  through  his  estates.  If  Uod 
Almighty  had  not  forsaken  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
it  is  scarce  conceivable  he  would  have  exposed 
himself  to  such  great  dangers  upon  so  small  and 
trivial  an  occasion;  especially  considering  the 
offers  the  Swiss  had  made  him,  and  that  his  con- 
(piest  of  such  enemies  would  yield  him  neither 
profit  nor  honour;  for  at  that  time  the  Swiss  were 
not  ill  sui'li  esteem  as  now,  and  no  people  in  the 
world  could  be  poorer."  At  Gran.son,  "  the  pcwr 
Swiss  were  miglitily  enriched  by  the'  plunder  of 
his  [the  Duke  of  Burgundy's]  camp.  At  lirst 
they  did  not  understand  the  value  of  the  treasure 
they  were  masters  of,  especially  the  common 
.soldiers.  One  of  llie  richest  and  most  inagniti- 
cent  tents  in  the  world  was  cut  into  pieces. 
There  were  .some  of  them  that  sold  (luantities  of 
dishes  and  plates  of  silver  for  about  two  sous  of 
our  moiiev,  supposing  they  liiid  lieen  pewter. 
His  great  diamond,  .  .  .  witli  a  large  pearl  li.xed 
to  it.  was  taken  u|)  by  a  Swi.ss,  put  up  again 
into  the  case,  thrown  under  a  wagon,  taken  up 
again  by  the  same  foldicr,  and  after  all  offered  to 
a  i)riest  for  a  llorlii,  who  bought  it,  and  sent  il 
to  the  magistrati's  of  that  country,  who  returned 
him  three  francs  as  a  sullicient  reward.  [Tliis 
was  long  suppo.sed  to  be  the  famous  Sancy 
diamond;  but  Mr.  Streeter  thinks  that  the  tradi- 
tion which  .so  connects  it  is  totally  disproved.] 
Til  \-  also  took  three  very  rich  jewels  called  the 
Tliice  Brothers  another  large  ruby  culled  La 
Halle,  and  another  called  the  Ballot  Flanders, 
which  'Vere  the  fairest  and  richest  in  the  'vorld; 
besides  a  prodigious  (luaiitity  of  other  goods." 
Li  his  last  liattle,  near  Nancy,  the  1  )uke  had  less 
than  4,000  men,  "  and  of  that  number  not  above 
1,300  were  in  a  condition  to  light."  He  cncoun- 
tercul  on  this  occasion  a  powerful  army  of  Swiss 
and  Germans,  which  the  Duke  of  I..orraino  had 
been  able  to  collect,  with  the  help  of  the  kingof 
France  and  others.  It  was  against  the  advice  of 
all  his  counsellors  that  the  headstrong,  half-mad 
Duke  Charles  dashed  his  little  army  upon  this 


334 


BURGUNDY,  1470-1477. 


nURGUNDY,  1477. 


neater  one,  and  ho  paid  the  prnnlty.  It  was 
broken  at  tlio  first  shock,  and  the  Duke  was  killed 
in  the  confused  rout  'vithout  beiiifj  known.  Ills 
body,  St  ripped  naked  by  the  iiillajcers  and  niiumled 
by  wolves  or  dogs,  was  found  frozen  fust  \n  a 
ditch.  "  I  cannot  easily  determine  towards  wlioin 
God  Alinif];hly  showed  his  anj!;er  most,  whether 
towards  him  who  died  suddenly,  without  pain 
or  sickness  in  the  field  of  battle,  or  towards  his 
subjects,  who  never  enjoyed  peace  after  his  death, 
but  were  continually  involved  in  wars  aijaiust 
wlii(!h  they  were  not  able  to  maintain  themselves, 
upon  ac(U)unt  ot  the  civil  dissensions  and  cruel 
animosities  that  arose  among  them.  ...  As  I 
had  seen  these  princes  puissant,  rich  and  lionour- 
abl(!,  so  it  fared  with  their  subjects :  for  I  think 
I  have  seen  and  known  tlio  greatest  part  of 
Europe,  yet  I  never  knew  any  province  or  country, 
though  of  a  larger  extent,  so  abounding  in  money, 
80  extravagantly  tine  in  their  furniture,  so  sump- 
tuous in  tiieir  buildings,  so  profuse  in  tlieir 
expenses,  so  luxurioiri  in  their  feasts  and  enter- 
tainments, and  so  prodigal  in  all  respects,  as  the 
subjects  of  tliese  princes  in  my  time;  and  if  any 
think  I  have  exaggerated,  others  who  lived  in 
my  time  will  bo  of  opinion  that  I  have  rather 
said  too  little.  ...  In  short,  I  have  seen  this 
fandly  in  all  respects  the  most  flourishing  and 
celebrated  of  any  in  Christendom:  and  then,  in 
a  short  space  of  time,  it  was  quite  ruined  and 
turned  upside  down,  and  left  the  most  desolate 
and  miserable  of  any  house  in  Europe,  as  regards 
bp*h  prince  and  subjects." — Philip  de  Commines, 
Memoirs,  bk.  5,  eh.  1-9. — "The  popular  concep- 
tion of  tills  war  [between  Charles  the  Bold  and 
the  Swiss]  is  simply  that  Charles,  a  powerful 
and  encroaching  prince,  was  overthrown  in  three 
great  battles  by  the  petty  commonwealths  which 
he  had  expected  easily  to  attach  to  his  dominion. 
Grandson  and  !Morat  are  placed  side  by  side  with 
Morgarten  and  Sempach.  Such  a  view  as  this; 
implies  complete  ignorance  of  the  history ;  it  im- 
plies ignonince  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the  Swiss 
who  made  war  upon  Charles,  and  not  Charles 
■who  made  war  upon  the  Swiss;  it  implies  ignor- 
ance of  the  fact  that  Cliar:es's  army  never  set 
foot  on  proper  Swiss  territory  at  all,  that  Grand- 
son and  Jlorat  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  wa)' 
no  part  of  Mie  possessions  of  the  Confederation. 
.  .  .  The  mere  political  accident  that  the  country 
•which  formed  tlie  cliief  seat  of  war  now  forms 
part  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  lias  been  with 
many  people  encmgh  to  determine  their  estimate 
of  the  quarrel.  Grandson  and  Morat  are  in  Switz- 
erland; Burgundian  troops  appeared  and  were 
defeated  at  Grandson  and  Morat;  therefore  Oiiarlcs 
must  have  been  an  invader  of  Switzerlar  d,  and 
the  warfare  on  the  Swiss  side  must  hav<.  been  a 
warfare  of  purely  defensive  heroism,  'ihc  sim- 
ple fact  that  it  was  only  through  the  result  of 
the  Burgundian  war  that  Grandson  and  Morat 
ever  became  Swiss  territory  at  once  disposes  of 
this  line  of  argument.  .  .  .  Tlie  plain  facts  of 
the  ease  are  that  the  Burgundian  war  was  a  war 
declared  by  Switzerland  against  Burgundy  .  .  . 
and  that  in  the  campaigns  of  Grand.son  and  Morat 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  simply  repelling  and 
avenging  Swiss  invasions  of  his  own  territory 
and  the  territory  of  his  allies. " — E.  A.  Freeman, 
Historical  Essays,  i\  1,  iw.  11. 

Also  in  :  J,  P.  Kirk,  Hist,  of  Cluirles  the  Bold, 
bk.  5. — L.  8  Costello,  Memoirs  of  Mary  of  Bur- 
gundy, ch.  14-37. 


A.  D.  1477.— Permanently  restored  to  the 
French  crown. — Louis  XI.  of  France,  wlio  had 
been  eagerly  watching  while  (.Charles  tlu^  Bold 
shatteri'd  his  armies  and  exhausted  liis  strength 
in  Switzerland,  received  eariy  news  of  the  death 
of  the  self-willed  Duke.  U'hile  the  panic  and 
confusion  which  it  caused  still  prevailed,  the 
king  lost  no  time  in  taking  ])osse.ssion  of  the 
duchy  of  Burgumly,  as  an  appanage  which  had 
reverted  to  the  crown,  througli  default  of  male 
heirs.  The  U  gality  of  his  claim  has  been  much 
in  dispute.  "Charles  left  an  only  daughter,  un- 
doubted heiress  of  Flanders  and  Artois,  as  well 
as  of  his  dominions  out  of  France,  but  whose 
right  of  sui;i;es.sion  to  the  duchy  of  Burgundy 
was  more  questionable.  Originally  the  great 
flefs  of  the  crown  descended  to  females,  and  this 
was  the  case  with  respect  to  the  two  first  men- 
tioned. But  John  had  granted  Burgundy  to  his 
son  Philip  liy  way  of  appanage ;  and  it  was  eon- 
tended  that  the  appanages  reverted  to  the  crown 
in  default  of  male  heirs.  In  the  form  of  Philip's 
investiture,  the  duchy  was  granted  to  him  and 
liis  lawful  lieirs,  without  designation  of  sex. 
1  he  construction,  therefore,  must  be  left  to  the 
established  course  of  law.  This,  however,  was 
by  no  means  acknowledged  by  Mary,  Charles's 
daughter,  who  maintained  both  that  no  general 
law  restricted  appanages  to  male  heirs,  and  that 
Burgundy  had  always  been  considered  as  a 
feminine  fief,  John  himself  liaving  possessed  it, 
not  by  reversion  as  king  (for  descenclants  of  the 
first  dukes  were  then  living),  but  by  inheritance 
derived  through  females.  Such  was  this  ques- 
tion of  succession  between  Louis  XI.  and  Mary 
of  Burgundy,  upon  the  merits  of  whose  preten- 
sions I  will  not  pretend  altogether  to  decide,  but 
sliall  only  observe  that,  if  Charles  had  conceived 
his  daughter  to  be  excluded  from  this  part  of 
liis  inheritance,  he  would  probably,  at  Conflans 
or  Peronne,  where  he  treated  upon  the  vantage 
ground,  have  attempted  at  least  to  obtain  a  re- 
nunciation of  Louis's  claim.  There  was  one 
obvious  mode  of  preventing  all  further  contest, 
and  of  iggrandizing  the  French  monarchy  far 
more  than  liy  the  reunion  of  Burgundy.  This 
was  the  marriage  of  JIary  with  the  dauphin, 
which  was  ardently  wished  in  Prance."  Tht 
dau])liin  was  a  child  of  seven  years;  Mary  of 
Burgundy  a  masculine-minded  young  woman  of 
twenty.  Probably  Louis  despaired  of  reconcil- 
ing the  latter  to  such  a  marriage.  At  all  events, 
while  he  talked  of  it  occasionally,  he  proceeded 
actively  in  despoiling  the  young  duchess,  seizing 
Artois  and  Franche  Comte,  and  laying  hands 
upon  the  frontier  towns  which  were  exposed  to 
his  arms.  He  embittered  her  natural  enmity  to 
him  by  various  acts  of  meanness  and  treachery. 
"  Thus  the  French  alliance  becoming  odious  in 
Flanders,  this  princess  married  Maximilian  of 
Austria,  son  of  the  Emperor  Frederic — a  con- 
nexion which  Louis  strove  to  prevent,  tliougli  it 
was  impossible  then  to  foresee  that  it  was  or- 
dained to  retJird  the  growth  and  to  bias  the  fato 
of  Europe  during  tlirce  hundred  years.  This 
war  lasted  till  after  the  death  of  .Mary,  who  lett 
one  son  Philip  and  one  daughter  iIargaret."--H. 
Hallam,  The  Middle  Ages,  ch.  1,  pt.  3.—"  The 
king  [Louis  XL]  had  reason  to  be  n»ore  than 
ordinarily  pleased  at  the  death  of  tliat  duke  [of 
Burgundy],  and  he  triumphed  more  in  liis  ruin 
than  in  that  of  all  the  rest  of  his  enemies,  as  ho 
thought  that  nobody,  for  the  future,   either  of 


335 


DUROUNnV,  1477. 


nUTLER. 


his  own  Hiil)j('rt.s.  or  liis  noighlxMirs,  would  Im' 
nhlo  to  o|)|)oso  liiiii,  or  disturl)  llic  traii(|uillity  of 
his  rcigii.  .  .  .  AltlioiiKli  Oixi  Almiclity  liiis 
bIiowii,  ;iii(I  doi'S  still  show,  that,  his  (Ictcrminii' 
tloii  is  to  piinishth('faiiiil3-ofnurj;uii(ly severely, 
not  only  in  tlic  person  of  the  diiki',  hut  in  their 
suhjccts  and  estates;  yet  I  tlnnk  the  kin;;  our 
master  did  not  tal<e  rijiht  nieasures  to  that  <'iid. 
For,  if  he  had  acted  prudently,  instead  of  ])re- 
teiKliuf;  to  e<in(iuer  Iheui,  Ik;  should  rather  have 
endeavoured  to  annex  all  those  larfre  territories, 
to  which  he  had  no  just  title,  to  the  crown  of 
France  by  some  treaty  of  marriage;  or  to  have 
gained  tlu;  hearts  and  afTo^:tions  of  the  i  .'ople, 
and  so  have  brought  them  over  to  his  interest, 
which  he  ndght,  without  any  great  ditllcidty, 
have  eir<'cted,  considering  how  tlieir  late  atllic- 
tions  lii'd  impoverished  and  dejected  them.  If 
he  had  acted  after  that  manner,  h('  would  not 
only  have  i)revented  their  ruin  and  destruction, 
but  e.xtendcil  and  strengthened  his  own  kingdom, 
and  ustabli.jhed  them  all  in  a  firm  and  lasting 
peace." — I'lnlip  de  Conunines  Mi  iimirK,  hk.  5,  cli. 
13. — "He  [Louis  XI.  |  reassured,  caressed,  com- 
forted the  duchy  of  JJurgundy,  gave  it  a  parlia- 
ment, visited  his  good  city  of  Dijon,  swore  in 
St.  B(augnus'  church  to  respect  all  the  old 
privileges  and  customs  that  co\d(l  be  sworn  to, 
and  ho\uid  his  successors  to  do  the  same  on  their 
acccs.sion.  Burgundy  was  a  land  of  nobles ;  and 
the  king  raised  u  bridge  of  gold  for  all  the  great 
lonls  to  come  over  to  him.  — J.  Jliclielet,  JliKt. 
of  Fviinrv,  hk.  17,  eh.  !t-l. 

A.  D.  1477-1482. — Reign  of  the  Burgundian 
heiress  in  the  Netherlands. — Her  marriage 
with  Maximilian  of  Austria.  See  Netiieu- 
LANUS;   A.  1).  1477. 

A.  D.  1512. — Formation  of  the  Circle.  See 
Geh.m.\ny:  A.  I).  14i):!-l.-)l!}. 

A.  D.  1544. — Renunciation  of  the  Claims  of 
Charles  V.     See  Fk.vnck:  A.  1).  I.i;i2-ir)47. 

BURH,  The.     See  Bououoir. 

BURI,  The. — A  Suevio  clan  of  Germans 
whose  settlements  were  aneien'ly  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  modern  Cracow. — Tacitus,  Gffiiiani/, 
traiix.  Iiji  CliHtrli  II  nd  Itrnilrilili.     ^•I'l'j.  not  en. 

BURKE,  Edmund,  and  the  American  Revo- 
lution.    See  United  States  of  Am.  :    A.   1). 

177.5  (.Ianuauy — Mahcii) And  the  French 

Revolution.     See  KN(ii.AM)-  A.  I).  17i):!-170(). 

BURLEIGH,  Lord,  and  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.     See  Knoi.aM):  A.  D.  1  Twrt- ; -.!I8. 

BURLINGAME  CHINESE  EMBAoSY 
AND  TREATIES.  See  China:  A.  1).  1857- 
1808. 

BURMA:  Rise  of  the  kingdom.— First  war 
with  the  English  (1824-1826).— Cersion  of  As- 
sam and  Aracan.     See  India:  A.  I).  182;!-I8;i;i. 

A.  D.  1852.— Second  war  with  the  English. 
— Loss  of  Pegu.     See  India:  A.  1).  If't'i. 

BURNED  CANDLEMAS.  See  Scotland: 
A.  I).  i:i;i;i-i;i7o. 

BURNSIDE,  General  Ambrose  E.— Expe- 
dition to  Roanoke.  See  United  States  ok 
Am.  :  A.  I).  18(i'2  (.January— Aruii,:  jSTohtiiCau- 
OLiNA) Command  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac. See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  1).  1803 
(Octoheu— Novemheu  :  Vihoinia) Retire- 
ment from  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac.    See  Uniti;!)  States  of  Am.  :  A.  I).  180;i 

(.Ianuauy — Ai-uii, :    V'ikoinia) Deliverance 

of    East    Tennessee.     See    United    States 


336 


of    Am.:    a.    D.   1803    Auorsr — SEfTEMnEu: 

Tennessee) Defense    of   Knoxville.     S<m) 

I'n iTED  States  OF- Am.  :  A.  1>.  lH(i;t  (Octoiieu — 

Decemiieu:    Tennessee) At  the  siege   of 

Petersburg.  See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.I). 
18(14  (.Iunk:  VimilNiA).  (.liri.v:  Vihoinia). 

BURR,  Aaron.—  Duel  with  Hamilton.— 
Conspiracy.  —  Arrest.  —  Trial.  See  United 
States  OF  A..r  :  A.  D.  18(1(1-1807. 

BURSCHENSCHAFT,  The.  See  Ger- 
many: A.  I).  1817-18-.2(). 

BUSACO,    Battle  of   (i8io).    See    Spain: 

A.  I).  i8i()-i8r.>. 

BUSHMEN,  The.    Sco  Africa:    The  in- 

IIAHITINO  HACES. 

BUSHY  RUN,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  1763).     Seo 

PONTIAC'S  WaII. 

BUSHWHACKERS.— A  name  eommrmly 
given  to  the  rebel  guerrillas  or  half-biuidits  of 
the  southwest  in  the  American  Civil  War. —  .1.  O. 
Nicolay  and  J.  Hay,  Ahniham  Lincvlii,  r.  6,  p. 
371. 

BUSIRIS.— Destroyed  by  Diocletian.  Sco 
Ai.Ex.vNniuA:  A.  I).  2U((. 

BUSSORAH  AND  KUFA,  The  rise  and 
importance  of. — In  the  first  years  of  their  con- 
(|uest  and  occ\ipatt(m  of  Mesopotamia  luid  the 
Delta  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  —  as  early  as 
A.  I).  638  —  the  Moslems  founded  two  citii's 
which  ncquired  importance  in  JIahometan  his- 
tory. In  both  cases,  these  cities  appear  to  have 
ari.sen  out  of  the  need  felt  by  the  Arabs  for  more 
.salubrious  sites  of  residence  than  their  predeces- 
sors in  the  ancient  country  had  been  contented 
with.  Of  Hus.sorab,  or  Hassorah,  the  city 
founded  in  the  Delta,  the  site  is  said  to  have  been 
changed  three  tiuK'S.  Kufa  was  built  on  a  plain 
very  near  to  the  neglected  city  of  Ilira,  on  the 
Euphrates.  "  Kufa  and  Bus.sorah  .  .  .  had  a 
singular  influence  on  the  destinies  of  the  Caliph- 
ate and  of  Islam  it.4elf.  The  vast  majority  of 
the  population  came  from  the  Peninsula  and 
were  of  pure  Arabian  blood.  The  tribes  which, 
with  .heir  families,  scenting  from  afar  llie  pr(>y 
of  Persia,  kept  streaming  into  Chiddiea  from 
every  corner  of  Arabia,  .settled  chietiv  in  ibese 
two  cities.  At  Kiifa,  the  races  from  Veinen  and 
the  south  predominated;  at  Bussorah,  from  the 
north.  Rapidly  they  grew  into  two  great  and 
luxurious  capitals,  with  an  Arab  poi)ulationeach 
of  from  150,000  to  200,000  souls.  On  the  litera- 
ture, theology,  luid  polities  of  Islam,  these  cities 
had  a  greater  influence  than  the  whole  Moslem 
world  besides.  .  .  .  The  people  became  petulant 
and  factious,  and  boih  cities  grew  into  hotbeds 
of  turbulence  and  sedition.  The  Bedouin  ele- 
ment, conscious  of  its  strength,  was  jealous  of 
the  Coreish,  and  impatient  of  whatever  checked 
its  capricious  humour.  Thus  factions  sprang 
up  which,  controlled  by  the  strong  and  wise  arm 
of  Omar,  broke  loose  under  the  weaker  Caliphs, 
eventually  rent  the  unity  of  Islam,  and  brought 
on  disastrous  days." — Sir  W.  !Muir,  Aiiiutls  of 
the  Early  CalipluOc,  ch.  18. —  See,  also,  Mahome- 
tan Conquest:  A.  D.  C33-051. 

PUTADiE,  The.    See  V\\y\.m. 

BUTE'S  ADMINISTRATION.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  I).  17(iO-17!)3. 

BUTLE^t,  General  Benjamin  F. — In  com- 
mand  at   Baltimore.     See   United  States  op 

Am.  :  A.  1).  1801  (Ai'itiL— May:  Mauyland) 

In  command  at  Fortress  Monroe.  See  United 
States  ok  Am:  A.  U.  1801  (JIay) The  Hat- 


nUTLER. 


BYZANTIKE  EMPIRE,  A.  D.  717. 


teras  .Expedition.    Sec  United  Statf.s  of  Am.  ; 

A.    I).    IHtU   (Ai-(H'rt:    Noiitii  Caiiomn.v) 

Command    at    New    Orleans.    ."•'I'l!    U.nitkd 
St.viics  OK  A.M. :  A.  1).  1H0:J  (M.vy— Dw'KMiiku: 

LofiHt.\N.\) Command  of  the  Army  of  the 

James,     t-iuc   rMTKi)  Htatks  ov  A.h.  :  A.   I>. 
1S(W(.Hay:  Viii(ii.ni.\). 

BUTLER,  Walter,  and  the  Tory  and  In- 
dian partisans  of  the  American  Revolution. 
Sec  liNiTKi)  Stati:s  ok  Am.:  A.  1).  1778  (.Jink 

NoVKMllKll),  mill  v.JlLY). 

BUTTERNUTS.  Sue  Hoys  in  Di,Uf;;  nl.so 
Unitki)  Siatkh  ok  Am.  :  A.  I).  1H04  (OcTonru). 

BUXAR,  OR  BAXAR,  OR  BAKSAR,  Bat- 
tle 01(1764).     See  India:  A.  I).  175,-1773. 

BYRON,  Lord,  in  Greece.  Sec  Okefxe: 
A.  1).  1H21-182i». 

BYRSA.— The  citadel  of    Carthage.    See 

CAinilA<IK.  TlIK  DoMI.MON  OK. 

BYTOWN.— The  original  mime  of  Ottawa, 
the  capital  of  tlie  Doiniiiiou  of  Canada.  See 
Ottawa. 

BYZACIUM.  See  Cabthage,  The  Domin- 
ion OK. 

BYZANTINE  EMPIRE. —  The  Eastern 
Roman  Empire,  havinj;  its  capital  at  Uyzantiuni 
(modern  Con.stantinople),  the  earlier  liistory  of 
which  will  be  found  sketched  tinder  the  caption 
Rome:  A.  I).  394-39,'5,  to  717-800,  has  been 
given,  in  its  later  years,  the  name  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire.  The  propriety  of  this  designation 
is  questioned  by  some  historians,  and  the  time 
when  it  begins  to  be  appropriate  is  likewise  a 
subject  of  debate.  For  some  discussion  of  these 
questions,  see  Romh:  A.  D.  717-800. 

Its  part  in  history. — Its  defence  of  Europe. 
— Its  civilizing  influence. — ^"The  later  Hoinan 
Empire  was  tlie  l)nl\varlv  of  Europe  against  tlie 
oriental  danger;  Maurice  and  lleraclius,  C"on- 
stantine  IV.  and  Leo  the  Isaurian  were  the  suc- 
cessors of  Tliemistocles  and  Africanus.  .  .  . 
Until  the  daj-s  of  tlie  crusades,  the  German 
nations  did  not  combine  \vith  the  Empire  against 
the  common  foe.  Nor  did  the  Teutons,  by 
tlicmselves,  acliieve any  succcssof  ecumenical  im- 
jiortance  against  non-Aryan  races.  I  may  be 
reminded  tliat  Charles  the  Great  exterminated 
the  Avars;  but  that  was  after  they  had  ceased  to 
be  really  dangerous.  When  there  existed  a 
truly  formidable  Avar  monarchy  it  was  the 
Roman  Empire  th;t  imn-  the  brunt;  and  yet 
while  most  people  w  mi  1  ■  mI  history  know  of  "the 
Avar  war  of  Charles,  how  few  tlierc  are  who 
have  ever  heard  of  Priscus,  the  general  who  so 
'1)ravely  warred  against  the  Avars  in  the  reign  of 
Maurice.  I  may  l)e  reminded  that  Charles  Martel 
won  a  great  name  by  victories  in  southern  Gaul 
over  the  Saracens ;  yet  tho.se  successes  sink  into 
insignitieanee  by  the;  side  of  the  achievement  of 
his  contemporary,  the  third  Leo,  who  held  the 
gate  of  eastern  Europe  agai.  t  all  the  forces 
which  the  Saracen  power,  thci  at  its  height, 
coidd  muster.  Every  one  knows  about  the  ex- 
ploits of  the  Frank;  it  is  almost  incredible  how 
litiie  is  known  of  the  Roman  Emperor's  defence 
of  the  greatest  city  of  Christian  Europe,  in  the 
quarter  where  the  real  danger  lay.  .  .  .  The  Em- 
pire was  much  more  than  the  military  guard  of 
the  Asiatic  frontier;  it  not  only  defended  but 
also  kept  alive  the  traditions  of  Greek  and 
Roman  culture.  We  cannot  over-estimate  tlie 
importance  of  the  presence  of  a  higlily  civilised 
state  for  a  system  of  nations  which  were  as  yet 


only  beginning  to  he  civilised.  The  constant 
intercourse  of  the  Kmpire  with  Italy,  which 
until  the  eleventh  century  was  parllv  imperial, 
and  with  southern  (iaiil  and  Spain,  had  an  in- 
calculable influence  on  the  development  of 
the  West.  Venice,  which  contributed  .so  much 
to  the  growth  of  western  culture,  was  for  n  long 
lime  actually,  and  for  a  much  hinger  time  nomi- 
nally, a  city  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  learned 
what  it  taught  from  Hy/.antiuni.  The  Ilyzan- 
tine  was  the  mother  of  the  Italian  school  of 
painting,  as  Greece  in  the  old  days  had  been  the 
mistress  c  Rome  in  the  line  arts ;  and  the  Hyzan- 
tiiK'  styl ;  of  architecture  has  had  perhaps  n 
wider  irduence  than  any  other.  It  was  to  New 
Rome  hat  the  Teutonic  kings  applied  when 
they  n  'cded  men  of  learning,  and  thither  stu- 
dents trom  western  countries,  who  desired  a 
university  education,  repaired.  ...  It  was, 
moreover,  in  the  lands  ruled  by  New  Rome  that 
old  Hellenic  culture  and  tin!  inonuments  of  Hel- 
lenic literature  were  preserved,  as  in  a  secure 
storehouse,  to  be  given  at  length  to  the  '  wilil 
nations '  when  they  had  been  sulliciently  tamed. 
And  in  their  taming  Now  Rome  played  an  in- 
dispensable part.  The  Justinian  law,  which 
still  interpenetrates  European  civilisation,  was  a 
product  of  New  Rome.  In  the  third  place  the 
Roman  Empire  for  many  centuries  entirely 
maintained  European  commerce.  This  was  a 
circumstance  of  the  greatest  importance;  but 
unfortunately  it  is  one  of  those  facts  concerning 
which  contemporary  historians  did  not  tliink  of 
leaving  records  to  jjosterity.  The  fact  that  the 
coins  of  the  Roman  Emperors  were  u.sed  through- 
out Europe  in  tlu^  >Iiddle  Ages  speaks  for  itself. 
...  In  the  fourth  place,  the  Riyiuan  Emiiiro 
preserved  a  great  idea  wliicli  iiilluenced  tho 
whole  course  of  western  European  history  down 
to  the  present  Jay  —  the  idea  of  tlie  Roman  Em- 
pire itself.  If  we  look  at  the  ecumenical  event 
of  800  A.  I),  from  a  wide  point  of  view,  it  really 
resolves  itself  into  this:  New  Rome  bestowed 
upon  the  western  nations  a  great  idea,  which 
moulded  and  ordered  their  future  history;  she 
gave  back  to  Old  Rome  the  idea  which  Old 
Rome  bestowed  upon  her  five  centuries  before. 
...  If  Constantinople  and  the  Empire  had 
fallen,  the  imperial  idea  would  have  been  lost  in 
the  whirl  of  the  'wild  nations.'  It  is  to  New 
liome  that  Europeans  really  owe  thanks  for  tlio 
cstablisliment  of  the  principle  and  the  sy.stein 
whicli  brought  law  iind  order  into  the  political 
relations  of  the  West."— .1.  R.  I?ur.\ ,  Jlintory  of 
the  Lfitir  Roiiutn  Kinpiir,  hk.  (i,  ch.  14  {i\  2). 

A.  D.  717. — Its  organization  by  Leo  the 
Isaurian. — "  The  accession  of  Leo  the  Lsaurian 
to  tne  throne  of  Constantinople  suddenly  opened 
a  new  era  in  tlie  history  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 
.  .  .  When  Leo  .II.  "was  proclaimed  emperor 
[A.  I).  717],  it  seemed  as  if  no  human  power 
could  save  Constantinople  from  falling  as  Komo 
had  fallen.  The  Saracens  considered  the  sov- 
ereignty of  every  land,  in  whicli  any  remains  of 
Roman  civilizaticm  survived,  as  within  their 
grasp.  Leo,  an  Isaurian.  and  an  Iconoclast,  con- 
sequently a  foreigner  and  a  heretic,  ascended  the 
tlironeof  (.'onstantine  and  arrested  the  victorious 
career  of  the  Mohammeilans.  He  then  reorgan- 
ized the  whole  administration  so  completely  in 
accordance  witli  the  new  exigencies  of  Eastern 
society  tliat  the  reformed  empire  outlived  for 
many  centuries  every  government  contemporary 


337 


BYZANTINE  EMPIUK,  A.  I).  717. 


HYZANTINK  EMPIUK,  10.17-1081. 


Willi  iu  cKtAhliHhinont.  The  KiiHtcni  Uiniiun 
Empirr,  llitix  rcforincd,  U  Ciillrd  liy  miihIitii  liis- 
t(iriari4  th(!  liy/itiititic  Ein|)lri';  mid  tlic  trriii  is 
wi'll  dcvixcd  to  murk  tlu.'  cIiiiiiki'h  circitcd  in  the 
govcriiiiu'iil,  lifter  tliu  cxtiiK'tinii  of  tlic  lust 
trui'csof  till'  niililary  niiiimrcliy  of  iinclciit  Uoiiic. 
.  .  .  Tlir  jirovimial  divisiniH  of  tliu  Itoiiiari 
Einpiri'  had  fallen  into  ohlivion.  A  new 
KCoKraphieal  arrmiKenient  into  Tlieines  appears 
to  liuvi.'  been  estalilislied  by  Ilenu^lids,  when  he 
riK^ovoml  tlie  AHiatic  provinces  fri.iii  the  IVr- 
sluns;  it  was  reori?ani/.ed  liy  Leo,  and  endured 
ns  lonjf  IIS  tlu!  Byzantine  governiiient.  The 
DUinlHT  of  themes  varied  at  dilTerent  periods. 
Tho  Emperor  C'onstiintini^  I'orpliyrotfenitus, 
writin)^  aixiiit  tho  middle  of  the  tenih  century, 
counts  si.xteen  in  the  Asiatic  jiortion  of  the 
Empire  and  twelve  in  the  European.  .  .  .  The 
European  iirovinces  were  divideil  into  eight  con- 
tinental and  live  insular  or  transmarine  themes, 
until  the  loss  of  the  exarcliato  of  Kavennii  re- 
duced the  number  to  twelvi;.  Venice  and 
Naples,  thoui^h  they  ac'tiiowledged  tlie  suzer- 
ninty  r)f  the  Eastern  Empire,  acted  jtcnerally  as 
Independent  cities.  .  .  .  When  J,eowiis  raised  to 
the  throne  the  Empire  was  threatened  with  im- 
mediate ruin.  .  .  .  Every  army  n.ssembled  tc 
encounter  tlio  Saracens  broke  out  into  rebellion. 
The  Bulgarians  and  Sclavoniuns  wasted  Europe 
up  to  the  walls  of  Constantinople ;  the  Saracens 
ravnced  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  shores 
of  the  Bosphorus." — G.  Finlay,  Hist,  of  the 
Bjizdiitine  Empire,  bk.  1,  ch.  1. 

Also  in:  E.  W.  Brooks,  The  KmjKror  Zenon 
andtlw  Isininiim(f!ii(iUiih  IHhI,  liei;.,  April,  1803). 

A.  D.  7i7-7g7.--TheIsaurian  dynasty. — The 
dynasty  founded  by  Leo  the  Isaurian  held  the 
throne  until  tlie  dethronement  of  Constantine  VL 
by  his  mother,  Irene,  A.  D.  797,  and  lier  de- 
thronement, in  turn  by  Nicephorus  L,  A.  1).  802. 
It  embraced  the  following  reigns:  Constantine 
v.,  called  Copronymus,  A.  D.  741-775;  Leo  IV., 
775-780;  Constantine  VL,  780-707;  Irene,  707- 
802. 

A.  D.  726-751. — The  Iconoclastic  Contro- 
versy.— Rupture  with  the  West. — Fall  of  the 
Exarchate  of  Ravenna. — End  of  authority  in 
Italy.  See  Iconoclastic  Contiioviousy,  and 
Pai'.\cy:  a.  I).  728-774. 

A.  D.  802-820. — Emperors :  Nicephorus  I., 
A.  D.  802-811;  Stauracius,  A.  D.  811;  Michael 
I.,  A.  D.  811-813;  Leo  V.,  A.  I).  813-820. 

A.  D.  803. — Treaty  with  Charlemagne,  fix- 
ing boundaries.     See  Vemik:   A.  1).  (197-810. 

A.  D.  820-1057. — The  Amorinn  and  Basilian 
or  Macedon:ian  dynasties. —  Michael,  the 
Amori'M  (82(Mi29)  .so  named  from  liis  birth-place, 
Amorium,  in  Phrygia,  was  a  soldier,  raised  to  the 
throne  by  a  revolution  which  deposed  and 
assassinated  his  friend  and  patron,  tlie  Emperor 
Leo  V.  Michael  transmitted  tlic  crown  to  his 
son  (Tlieophiliis,  829-843)  and  grandson.  The 
latter,  called  Jlicliael  the  Drunkard,  was  con- 
spired against  and  killed  by  one  of  the  companions 
of  his  drunken  orgies  (807)"  Basil  tlie  ^laeedonian, 
who  had  been  in  early  life  a  groom.  Basil 
founded  a  dynasty  which  reigned,  with  several 
interruptions,  from  A.  I).  867  to  1057  —  a  period 
covering  the  following  reigns:  Basil  I.,  A.  D. 
867-880;  Leo  VI. ,  A.  I).  886-911;  Constantine 
VII.  (Porphyrogenitus),  A.  D.  911-9.10;  Ucmianus 
I.  (Colleague),  A.  D.  919-944;  Constantine  VIll. 
(Colleague).   A.   D.   944;   Roimiaus  II.,  A.   D. 


0.'5n-0«3;  Nlceplioriis  II.,  A.  I).  IKilt-IMlO;  .lolm 
ZimiseiH,  A.  1).  tMlil-970;  Basil  II.,  A.  I).  0(13- 
1025;  Constantine  I.\.,  A.  I>.  903-102H;  Komaniis 
III.,  A.  1).  1028-1034;  .Michael  IV.,  A.  I).  1034- 
1041;  Michiiel  V.,  A.  I).  1041-1042;  Zoe  and 
Theodnra,  A.  D.  1042-1056;  Constanliiie  X., 
A.  1).  1042-10.54;  .Michael  VI. ,  A.  I).  10.50-I0,-.7. 

A.  D.  865-10^3.—  Wars,  commerce  and 
Church  Connection  with  the  Russians.  Keo 
ItiKsiA.Ns:  \.  I>.  Htri-OOO;  alsoCo.NsTANTiNofl.K: 
V  I).  805  and  907-1043. 

A.  D.  8^0-1016. — Fresh  acquisitions  in  South* 
ern  Italy.  See  Italy  (Soutiikkn):  A.  D.  800- 
1016. 

A.  D.  963-103^.— Recovery  of  prestige  and 
territory. — " -Vinidsl  all  the  crimes  and  revolu- 
tions ol  the  Byzantine  government  —  and  its 
history  is  but  it  series  of  crimes  a'ld  revolutions 
—  it  was  never  dismembered  by  intestine  war. 
A  sedition  in  the  army,  u  tumult  in  the  theatre, 
a  conspiracy  in  the  iialace,  precipitated  a  mon- 
arch from  till'  lliromt;  but  tho  allegiance  of  Con- 
stantinople was  instantly  transferred  to  his  suc- 
cessor, and  tho  provinces  Implicitly  obeyed  the 
voice  of  tlie  capital.  The  custom,  too,  of  parti- 
tion, so  baneful  to  the  Latin  kingdoms,  and 
which  was  not  altogether  unknown  to  the  Sara- 
cens, never  prevailed  in  tlie  Greek  Empire.  It 
stood  in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  us 
vicious  indeed  and  cowardly,  but  more  wealthy, 
more  enlightened,  and  far  more  secure  from  its 
enemies  than  under  the  first  successors  of  Ilerac- 
lius.  For  about  one  hundred  years  preceding 
there  had  been  only  partial  wars  with  the  Mo- 
hammedan potentates;  and  in  these  the  emperors 
seem  gradually  to  have  gained  the  advantage, 
and  to  liave  become  more  freciueiitly  the  aggres- 
sors. But  the  increasing  distractions  of  the  East 
encouraged  two  brave  usurpers,  Nicephorus 
Phocas  and  John  Zimisces,  to  attempt  tho 
actual  recovery  of  the  lost  provinces.  They 
carried  the  Uoman  arms  (one  may  use  the  term 
with  less  relih  tance  tlian  usual)  over  Syria; 
Antioch  and  Aleppo  were  taken  by  storm; 
Damascus  submitted ;  even  the  cities  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, beyond  the  ancient  boundary  of  the 
Euphrates,  were  added  to  the  trophies  of  Zim- 
isces, who  unwillii'.gly  spared  the  capital  of  tho 
Khalifate.  i'roin  sueli  distant  conquests  it  was 
expedient,  and  indeed  necessary  to  withdraw; 
l)ut  Cilicia  and  Antioch  were  permanently  re- 
stored to  the  Kiniiire.  At  tlie  close  of  the  tenth 
century  the  emperors  of  Constantinople  pos- 
sessed the  best  and  greatest  portion  of  the 
modern  kingdom  of  Naples,  a  part  of  Sicily,  the 
whole  [present]  European  dominions  of  the 
Ottomans,  the  province  of  Anatolia  or  Asia 
Jlinor,  with  some  part  of  Syria  and  Armenia." — 
II.  Ilallam,   The  Middle  Agat,  ch.  6. 

A,  D.  970-1014. — Recovery  of  Bulgaria.  See 
CoNSTANTiNol'i.i-:  A.  1).  907-1043;  also  BuL- 
OAUiA.  and  AfiiuiDA. 

A.  D.  1054. — Ecclesiastical  division  of  the 
Eastern  from  the  Roman   Church.     See  Fii.i- 

OCJUE  CoNTUOVKItSY,  Ulld  OUTHOUOX  ClILKCII. 

A.  D.  1057-1081.— becween  the  Basilian  and 
the  Comnenian  dynasties. — A  dark   period. — 

"The  moment  that  the  last  of  the  ^lacedonian 
dytiiisty  was  g".;o,  the  elements  of  discord 
seemed  unchained,  and  the  double  scourge  of 
civil  war  and  foreign  invasion  began  to  atllict 
the  empire.  In  the  twenty-four  years  between 
1057  and  1081  wei:e  pressed  more  disasters  than 


338 


BYZANTINE  P:MPIUE,  1057-1081. 


HYZANTINE  EMPinE.  1146. 


hiul  bopii  fU'cn  in  niiy  other  pcrindnf  EiihI  Uoiimn 
hlHtnrv.  Hiivi'  iicrliiips  tlic  rclRii  of  Hcriicliun. 
.  I'lic  »iivi\  'rii((Mloni  liiiil  imincti  iih  Iut  kuc- 
Cfiiwor  on  tin;  tlironi-  Miclmcl  St  nil  locus,  li  cori- 
temporiiry  of  her  own  wlio  had  liccii  iiii  nh\v 
soldier  'ih  yeiirx  buck.  Mill  iMichiu'l  VI.  wax 
);ro\vii  a^'i'd  and  in<'<iin|)etent,  and  the  empire 
wiiM  full  of  andiitloiis  ftrnerals,  who  would  not 
tolerati^  a  dotard  on  tlii'  throne,  liefore  a  year 
had  passed  a  liiind  of  j;ri'at  Asiatic  noliles  en- 
tered into  a  conspiracy  lo  overturn  .Mi<hael.  and 
replace  him  hy  Isaac  Comnenus,  the  chief  of  one 
of  the  ancient  Cappiidocian  houses,  and  the  most 
popular  >;i'neral  of  the  East.  Isaiu^  Conineniis 
and  his  friends  took  arms,  and  dispossessed  the 
n^ed  .Michael  of  his  throne  with  little  dilllciilty. 
lint  a  curse  seemed  to  rest  upon  the  usurpation; 
Isaac  was  slrieken  down  liy  disease  when  he  had 
been  little  more  than  a  year  on  the  throne,  and 
retireii  to  a  monastery  "to  dii'.  Ills  crown  was 
transferred  to  Conslantine  Ducas,  another  Cap- 
pa(h)ciau  nol)le,"  who  reiKne<l  for  seven  troubled 

J  ears.  His  three  immediate  successors  were 
{omaniiH  IV.,  A.  1).  1(M)7-1071:  Michael  VII., 
A.  n.  1071-1078;  Nieephonis  III.,  A.  D.  107»- 
1081.— C.  W.  C.  Oman,  7'/(c  Story  of  the  Hymn- 
tine  Emjtirc,  eh.  20. 

A.  D.  1063-1092.— Disasters  in  Asia  Minor. 
Bee  Ti'iiKs  (Hkljl'ks):  A.  I).  l(m;t-107;t;  and 
A.  D.  107!J-10«a. 

A.  D.  1064. — Great  revival  of  pilgrimages 
from  Western  Europe  to  the  Holy  Land.  Hue 
Ckl'sades:  C.miskh,  ktc. 

A.  D.  1081. —  The  enthronement  of  the 
Comnentan  Dynasty,  See  C'o.NsTAN'riNoi'i.i;: 
A.  1).  lOHl. 

A.  D.  1081-1085.— Attempted  Norman  con- 
quest from  Southern  Italy. —  Itobert  (iuiseard, 
Uie  Norman  adventurer  who  had  carved  forhim- 
gelf  u  ])rinelpality  in  Southern  Italy  and  ac(,uireil 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Apidia, —  his  duchy  coincid- 
ing with  the  subsequent  Norman  kingdom  of 
Naples  —  conceived  the  ambitious  design  of  add- 
ing the  Uy/.antine  Empire  to  his  estate.  His 
coiKiuests  in  Italy  had  been  mostly  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Uy/.antine  dominions,  and  he  be- 
lieved that  he  had  mea.sured  the  strength  of  the 
degenerate  Ilonum-Greeks.  He  was  encouraged, 
tuoreover,  by  the  successive  revolutions  which 
tossed  the  imperial  crown  from  hand  to  hand, 
and  which  hud  just  given  it  to  the  ('omnenian, 
Alexius  I.  Ueyond  all,  he  had  a  claim  of  right 
to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  Empire;  for  his 
young  daughter  was  betrothed  to  the  heir-ex- 
pectant ^l■hose  expectations  were  now  vanishing, 
nnd  had  actually  been  sent  to  Constantinople  to 
receive  her  education  for  the  throne.  To  pro- 
mote his  bold  undertaking,  Uobert  obtained  the 
approval  of  the  pope,  and  an  absolution  for  all 
who  would  join  his  ranks.  Thus  spiritually 
equipped,  the  Norman  duke  invadeil  Greece,  in 
the  summer  of  1081,  with  l.")0  ships  and  ;!0,000 
men.  Making  himself  master,  on  the  way,  of 
the  island  of  Corcyra  (Corfu),  and  taking  .several 
ports  on  the  mainland,  he  laid  siege  to  Dyrra- 
chium,  and  found  it  a  most  obstinate  fortification 
to  reduce.  Its  massive  ancient  walls  defied  the 
Norman  enginery,  and  it  was  not  until  February, 
1083,  that  Robert  Qinscard  gained  pcsscssion  of 
the  town,  by  the  treachery  of  one  of  its  defend- 
ers. Meantime  the  Normans  had  routed  and  scat- 
tered one  large  army,  which  the  Emperor  Alexius 
led  in  person  to  the  relief  of  Dyrracliium  ■  but 


Ued  towii.i  In  Illyrirt  nnd  Eplrus  deiityod 
nince  toward  ( Onstantlnople.      HolMTt 


the  fortille 

their  advance  toward  Constantlnopi 
was  called  home  lo  Italy  by  important  alTidrsaml 
left  his  sun  lloheiniind  (Ihe  subse<|Uent  CrUHiider 
and  I'riiKM'of  Aniioch),  In  command.  Holiemiiml 
defcaled  .Vlexliis  again  In  Hie  spring  of  1 1  (Mil,  and 
slill  a  third  time  the  following  auliimn.  All 
Epiriis  was  overrun  and  Macedonia  and  Thesmdy 
invaded;  but  Ihe  Normans,  while  iM'sieging 
I.arissa,  were  undone  by  a  stratagem,  lost  tlieir 
camp  and  found  it  necessary  to  rclreal.  Itobert 
was  then  just  reentering  tin"  Held,  in  persiin,  and 
had  w.iii  an  imporlant  naval  lialtle  at  Corfu, 
over  till'  combined  Oreeks  and  Venelians,  wlien 
he  died  (July,  lOH,")),  anil  his  project  of  ccmiiueHt 
in  Oreece  ended  with  him.  Twenty  years  after- 
wards, his  son  lloheniunil,  when  rrince  of  An- 
tioch,  and  i|iiarreling  wllli  the  ity/.anline8, 
gathered  a  crusading  army  in  France  and  Italy 
to  lead  it  against  Constanlinople ;  but  it  wag 
stopped  bysluliliorn  Dyfrachium,  am'  iiev<r  got 
beyond.  Alexius  hinl  recovered  that  strong 
coast  defence  shortly  after  Uobert  Uuiscard's 
death,  with  the  help  of  the  Venetians  and  Amal- 
llans.  Hy  way  of  reward,  those  merchant  allies 
received  import'int  commercial  privileges,  and 
the  title  of  Venice  to  llu^  sovereignty  of  Dalmu- 
tia  nml  Croatia  was  recognized.  "  From  this  lime 
th(^  dog(!  appears  to  have  styled  himself  lord  of 
the  kingdoms  of  Dalmalia  and  Croatia." — O. 
Fiiilay,  I/int.  of  the  liyzantineand  ilreek  ICiniiiret, 
bk.  3,  eh.  H.Kirl.  1. 

A.  D.  1081-1 185. — The  Comnenian  emperors. 
—  Alexius  I.,  A.  I).  1081-1118;  .John  II.,  A.  U. 
1118-1143;  Manuel  I.,  A.  I).  1113-1181;  Alexius 
II.,  A.  U.  1181-1183;  Andronicus  I.,  A.  I).  118M- 
1185. 

A.  D.  1096-1097. — The  passage  of  the  first 
Crusaders.     .See  Curs.\i)i;s;  A.  I).  lOiMl-lOllO. 

A.  D.  1 146.— Destructive  invasion  of  Roger, 
Icing  of  Sicily. — Sack  of  Thebes  and  Corinth. 
— When  Uoger,  king  of  Sicilv,  united  Ihe  Nor- 
man possessions  in  Southern  Italy  to  his  Sicilian 
realm  he  became  ambitious,  iii  his  turn,  to 
aciiuiro  some  part  of  the  Uyzantino  |)ossessions. 
His  single  attack,  however,  made  simultaneously 
with  tiie  second  cru.sading  movement  (A.  U. 
1140),  amounted  to  no  more  than  a  g'eat  and 
destructive  ])lundering  raid  in  Greece.  An 
insurrection  in  Corfu  gave  that  island  to  him, 
after  which  his  tieet  ravaged  the  coastsof  Eubueu 
an(l  Attica,  Acarnania  and  ..'Etolia.  "It  then 
entered  the  gulf  of  Corinth,  and  debarked  a  body 
of  troops  at  Cris.sa.  This  force  marched  Ihnmgh 
the  country  to  Thebes,  plundering  every  town 
and  village  on  the  way.  Thebes  olTered  no 
resistance,  and  was  plundered  in  the  most  deliber- 
ate and  barbarous  manner.  The  inhabitiints 
were  numerous  and  wealthy.  The  soil  of 
IJieotia  is  extremely  productive,  and  numennis 
manufactures  established  in  the  city  of  Thebes 
gave  additional  value  to  the  abundant  pnxluce 
of  agricultural  industry.  .  .  .  All  military  s))irit 
was  now  dead,  and  hw  Thebans  had  so  long 
lived  without  any  fear  of  invasion  that  they  hud 
not  even  adopted  any  effectual  measures  to 
secure  or  conceal  their  movable  iiroiierty.  _  The 
conquerors,  secure  against  all  (finger  of  inter- 
ruption, i)lundered  Tllebes  at  their  leisure.  .  .  . 
When  all  ordinary  means  of  colUcting  booty 
were  exhausted,  the  citizens  were  compelled  to 
take  an  oath  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  that  they 
had  uot  concealed  uuy  portion  of  their  property 


339 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE,  1140. 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE,  1203-1304 


yet  many  of  the  wealthiest  were  dragged  away 
ciiptivf.  ill  order  to  jiroflt  by  tlieir  ratisom;  and 
iiKiiiyof  tlie  most  skiltul  worliinen  in  tlic  silk- 
nianufac  loriL'S,  for  wliicli  Tliebes  had  long  been 
famous,  were  pressed  on  boanl  tlie  fleet  to  labour 
at  the  our.  .  .  .  IJenjaniinofTudela,  who  visited 
Thebes  about  to'enty  yeare  later,  or  perhaps  in 
1161,  speaks  of  it  as  then  a  large  eity,  with  two 
lliousaiid  .Jewish  inliabitants,  wlio  were  the  most 
eminent  manufaiturers  of  silk  and  purple  cloth 
in  all  Ureeee.  The  silks  of  Thebes  continued  to 
be  eelehruled  as  of  superior  ([Uality  after  this 
invasion.  .  .  .  From  Bieotia  the  army  passed  to 
<'orintli.  .  .  .  Corinth  was  sacked  as  cruelly  as 
Thelirs;  men  of  rank,  beautiful  women,  and 
skilful  artisans,  witli  tlicir  wives  and  families, 
were  eari'ied  awcy  into  captivity.  .  .  .  This 
invasion  of  Greece  was  conducted  entirely  as  a 
plundering  expedition.  .  .  .  Corfu  was  the  only 
cou(jue.<t  of  which  Roger  retained  po.ssession; 
yet  this  jMissing  invasion  istho  period  from  which 
the  decline  of  Byzantine  Greece  is  to  be  dated. 
The  cent\iry-and-a-lialf  which  preceded  this  dis- 
aster had  pas.sed  in  uninterrupted  tranquillity, 
and  the  Greek  peoi>le  had  increased  rapidly  in 
numbers  and  wealtlL.  The  power  of  the  Sela- 
vonian  pojiulation  $ank  with  the  ruin  of  the 
kingdom  of  Aeln-idii ;  and  the  Sclavonians  who 
now  dwelt  in  Greece  were  peaceable  cultivators 
of  the  soil,  or  graziers.  T!ie  Greek  population, 
on  tlie  other  hand,  was  in  possession  of  an 
extensive  coiniaerco  and  many  flourishing  manu- 
factures. The  ruin  of  this  commerce  and  of 
these  manufactures  lias  been  ascribed  to  the 
transference  of  tlie  silk  trade  from  Thebes  and 
Corinth  to  Palermo,  under  the  judicious  pro- 
tection it  received  fron.\  Roger;  but  it  would  be 
more  correct  to  .say  that  the  injudicious  and 
oppressive  Jin.aneial  administration  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Emperors  destroyed  the  commercial  pros- 
perity and  manufaeturmg  industry  of  the  Greeks ; 
while  the  wise  liberality  and  intelligent  pro- 
tection of  the  Norman  kings  extended  the  com- 
merce and  increased  the  indutry  of  the  Sicilians. 
When  the  Sicilian  fleet  returned  to  Palermo, 
Roger  determined  to  employ  all  the  silk-manu- 
facturers in  their  original  occupations.  lie  eon- 
seiiuently  collected  all  their  families  together, 
and  settled  them  at  Palermo,  supplying  tliem 
with  the  means  of  exercising  their  industry  witli 
profit  to  themselves,  and  inducing  them  to  teach 
his  own  subjects  to  manufacture  the  richest 
brocades,  and  to  rival  the  rarest  productions  of 
the  East.  ...  It  is  not  remarkable  that  the 
commerce  and  manufactures  of  Greece  were 
transferred  in  the  course  of  another  century  to 
Sicily  and  Italy." — G.  Finlay,  Hist,  of  Bi/iniitine 
itml  Greek  Empires,  from  710  to  1453,  bk.  3,  ch.  3, 
sect.  3. 

A.  D.  1 147-1 148.— Trouble  with  the  German 
and  French  Crusaders.  SeeCucsADEs:  A.  D. 
1147-1140. 

A.  D.  1185-1204.— The  Angeli.— Isaac  II., 
A.  D.  11H,V11«.5;  Alexius  III.,  A.  I).  1195- 
1203;  Alexius  IV.,  A.  1).  120:i-l20t. 

A.  D.  1203-1204.-113  overthrow  by  the 
Venetians  and  Crusaders. — Sack  of  Constan- 
tinople.— The  last  of  the  Comnenian  Emperors 
in  the  male  line  —  the  brutal  Audronicus  I. — 
jierished  horribly  in  a  wild  insurrection  at  Con- 
stantinople which  his  tyranny  provoked,  A.  D. 
1185.  His  successor,  Isaac  Augelus,  collater- 
ally related  to  the  imperial  house,  had  been  a 


contemptible  creature  licforc  his  coronation,  and 
received  no  tincture  of  manliness  or  virtue  from 
that  ceremony.  In  the  second  year  of  his  reign, 
the  Empire  was  shorn  of  its  Bulgarian  and 
Wallaehian  provinces  by  a  successful  revolt. 
In  the  tenth  year  (A.  D.  1105),  Isaac  was  pushed 
from  his  throne,  deprived  of  sight  and  sliut  up 
in  a  dungeon,  by  a  brother  of  equal  worthless- 
ness,  who  styled  himself  Alexius  III.  The 
latter  neglected,  however,  to  secure  the  person 
of  Isaac's  son,  Alexius,  who  es<;aped  from  Con- 
stantinople and  niade  Lis  way  to  his  sister,  wife 
of  Philip,  tlie  German  King  and  claimant  of 
the  western  imperial  crown.  Philip  thereujion 
plotted  with  the  Venetians  to  divert  tlie  great 
crusading  expedition,  then  assembling  to  take 
ship  at  Venice,  and  to  employ  it  for  the  restora- 
tion of  young  Alexius  and  his  father  Isaac  to 
the  Byzantine  throne.  The  cunning  and  per- 
fidious means  by  which  that  diversion  was 
brought  about  are  related  in  another  place  (see 
CuusADES  :  A.  D.  1301-1303),  The  great  fleet 
of  the  crusading  filibusters  arrived  in  the  Bos- 
phorus  near  the  end  of  June,  1203.  The  army 
which  it  bore  was  landed  first  on  the  Asiatic 
side  of  the  strait,  opposite  the  imperial  city. 
After  ten  days  of  parley  and  preparation  it  was 
conveyed  across  the  water  and  began  its  attack. 
The  towers  guarding  the  entrance  to  the  Golden 
Horn  —  the  harbor  of  Constantinople  —  were 
captured,  the  chain  removed,  the  harlior  occu- 
pied, and  the  imperial  fleet  seized  or  destroyed. 
On  the  17th  of  July  a  combined  assault  by  limd 
and  water  was  made  on  the  walls  of  the  city,  at 
theii  northwest  corner,  near  the  Blachern  palace, 
where  they  presented  one  face  to  the  Horn  anil 
another  to  the  land.  The  laLdattack  failed. 
The  Venetians,  from  their  ships,  stormed  twenty- 
five  towers,  gained  possession  of  a  long  stretch 
of  the  wall,  and  pushed  into  the  city  far  enough 
to  start  a  conflagration  which  spread  ruin  over 
an  extensive  district.  They  could  not  hold  their 
ground,  and  witlidrew  ;  but  the  result  was  a 
victory.  The  cowardly  Emperor,  Alexius  III., 
fled  from  the  city  that  night,  and  blind  old  Isaac 
Angelus  was  restored  to  the  throne.  He  was 
reaiiy  to  associate  his  son  in  the  sovereignty,  and 
to  fulfill,  if  he  could,  the  contracts  which  the 
latter  had  made  with  Venetians  and  Crusiiders. 
These  invadcra  had  now  no  present  excuse  for 
making  war  on  Constantinople  any  further.  But 
the  excuse  was  soon  found.  Jloney  to  pay  their 
heavy  claims  could  not  be  raised,  and  their  hato- 
fulness  to  the  Greeks  was  increased  by  the  in- 
solence of  their  demeanor.  A  serious  collision 
occurred  at  length,  jirovoked  by  the  ])lunderiiig 
of  a  Jlahonietan  mosque  wliieli  the  Byzantines 
had  tolerated  in  their  capital.  Once  more,  on 
this  occasion,  the  splendid  city  was  fired  by  the 
ruthless  invaders,  and  an  immense  district  in  tlie 
richest  and  most  pojiulous  jiart  was  destroyed, 
while  many  of  the  inhabitants  perished.  The 
Are  lasted  two  days  and  nights,  sweeping  a 
wide  belt  from  the  harbor  to  the  Marmora.  The 
suburbs  of  Constantinople  were  ])ilhiged  and 
ruined  by  the  Latin  soldiery,  and  more  and 
more  it  became  impossible  for  the  two  restored 
emperoi-s  to  raise  money  for  iiaying  tlie  claims  of 
the  Crusaders  who  had  ehampioned  them.  Their 
subjects  hated  tliem  and  were  desperate.  At 
last,  in  January,  1204,  the  public  feeling  of 
Constantinople  flamed  out  in  a  revolution  which 
crowned  a  new  emperor, — one    Alexis  Duciis, 


840 


BVZAIsTINE  EMPIRE,  1203-1204. 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE,  1204-1205. 


nicknaiufd  Mmirtzophlos,  on  account  of  liis  eye- 
brows, wliicli  met.  A  few  days  aftcrwanis,  with 
Buppicious  opiortiineness,  I  .lac  and  Alexius 
died.  Then  botli  sides  entered  upon  active  pre- 
parations for  serious  war;  but  it  was  not  until 
April  Oth  tliat  tlie  Crusaders  and  Venetians  were 
ready  to  assail  the  walls  once  more.  The  tirst 
assault  was  repelled,  with  heavy  loss  to  tnc  be- 
siegers. Tliey  rested  two  <lays  and  repeated  the 
attack  on  the  12tli  witli  irresistible  resolution 
and  fury.  Tlie  towers  were  taken,  llie  gates 
were  broken  down,  knights  and  soldiers  poured 
into  the  fated  city,  killing  without  mercy,  burning 
without  scruple — starting  a  third  appalling  contla- 
gration  which  laid  another  wide  district  in  ruins. 
The  new  emperor  lied,  the  tnxiiis  laid  down 
their  arms, — (Jonstantinople  was  eon(piere<l  and 
prostrate.  "Then  began  the  plunder  of  the  city. 
The  imperial  treasun  and  the  arsenal  were 
placed  under  guard  ;  but  with  these  e.vceptions 
the  right  to  plunder  was  given  indiserimiuately 
to  the  troops  and  sailore.  Never  in  Europe  was 
a  work  of  pillage  more  systematically  and 
shamelessly  carried  out.  Never  by  the  army  of 
a  Christian  state  was  acre  a  more  barbarous 
sack  of  a  city  than  that  perpetrated  by  these 
soldici's  of  Christ,  sworn  to  chastity,  pledged  be- 
fore God  not  to  shed  Christian  blood,  and  bearing 
upon  them  the  emblem  of  the  Prince  of  Peace. 
.  .  .  'Never  since  the  world  was  created,' says 
the  Marshal  [Villehardouin]  '  was  there  so  much 
booty  gained  in  one  city.  Each  man  took  the 
house  which  pleased  him,  and  there  were  enough 
for  all.  Those  who  were  poor  found  themselves 
suddenly  rich.  There  was  captured  an  immense 
supply  of  gold  and  silver,  of  plate  and  of  jjrecious 
stones,  of  satins  and  of  silk,  of  furs  and  of  every 
kind  of  wealth  ever  found  upon  the  earth.'  .  .  . 
The  Greek  eye-witness  [Nicetas]  gives  the  com- 

fde;nent  of  the  picture  of  Villeliardouiu.  The 
ust  of  the  army  spared  neitlier  maiden  nor  tlie 
virgin  dedicated  to  God.  Violence  and  debauch- 
ery were  everywhere  present  ;  cries  and  lamen- 
tations and  the  groans  of  the  victims  were  heard 
throughout  the  city  ;  for  (.'verywhere  pillage 
was  unrestrained  and  lust  unbridled.  ...  A 
large  part  of  the  booty  had  been  collected  in  the 
three  churclies  designated  for  tliat  iHU'pose.  .  .  . 
The  disti'ibutiou  was  made  during  tlie  latter  cud 
of  April.  Many  works  of  art  in  bronze  were 
sent  to  the  melting-pot  to  be  coined.  JIany 
statues  were  broken  up  in  order  to  obtain  the 
metals  with  wln"ch  they  were  adoi-ned.  The 
conijuerors  knew  nothing  and  cared  nothing  for 
the  ai't  which  had  added  value  to  the  metal. " — 
E.  Pears,  TIte  Full  of  Constantinople,  ch.  1 4-15. 

Also  in:  G.  Fiulay,  llist.  of  the  Bjizaniine  and 
Orcek  Empires,  from  716  to  1453,  bk.  3,  ch.  3, 
teet.  3. 

A.  D.  1204.— Reig^n  of  Alexius  V. 

A.  D.  1204-1205. — The  partitioning  of  the 
Empire  by  the  Crusaders  and  the  Venetians. — 
•'  Before  the  crusaders  made  their  last  successful 
attack  on  Constantinople,  they  concluded  a  treaty 
jiartitioning  the  Byzantine  empire  and  dividing 
the  plunder  of  the  capital.  .  .  .  Tliis  treaty  was 
entered  into  by  the  Frank  crusaders  on  the  one 
part,  and  the  citizens  of  the  Venetian  republic 
on  the  otlier,  for  the  purpose  of  ijreventing  dis- 
putes and  jireserving  unity  in  the  e.xpeilition." 
The  treaty  further  i)rovided  for  the  creation  of 
an  Empire  of  Romania,  to  take  the  place  of  the 
Byzautiuu  Empire,  and  for  the  election  of  au 


Emperor  to  reign  over  it.  The  arrangements  of 
the  treaty  in  this  hitter  respect  were  carried  out, 
not  long  after  the  taking  of  the  city  by  the  elec- 
tion of  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  the  most 
esteemed  and  tlie  most  popular  among  tlio 
))rinces  of  the  crusade,  and  he  received  the 
imperial  crown  of  the  new  Empire  of  Romania 
at  the  hands  of  the  legate  of  the  pope.  "  Meas- 
ures were  immediately  taken  after  the  coronatioi, 
of  Baldwin  to  carry  into  execution  the  act  of 
partition  as  arranged  by  the  joint  consent  of  the 
Frank  and  Venetian  commissioners.  But  their 
ignorance  of  geograpliy,  and  the  resistance 
olfered  by  the  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor,  and  by  the 
Vallachians  and  Albanians  in  Europe,  threw 
innumerable  dilllculties  in  the  way  of  the  pro- 
posed distribution  of  tiefs.  The  quartir  of  the 
Empire  that  formed  the  portion  of  BiiMw")  con- 
sisted of  the  city  of  Con.stantinopl.-,  with  tho 
country  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  as  far  as  Ki/.ja 
and  Tzouroulos  in  Europe  and  Nicomedia  in 
Asia.  Beyond  the  tiTritory  around  Constanti- 
nople, Baldwin  po.s.sessed  districts  extending  as 
far  as  the  Strymon  in  Europe  and  the  Sangarius 
in  Asia;  but  his  possess  ans  w lto  intermingled 
with  those  of  the  Vcnetiacs  and  the  vassa'.s  of 
the  Empire.  Prokonneso'3,  Lesbos,  Chios,  Lem- 
iios,  Skyros,  and  several  smaller  islands,  also  fell 
to  his  share." — G.  Finlay,  Jlint.  of  Greece  from 
its  Conquest  by  the  Crusaders,  ch.  4,  sect.  1-2. — "In 
the  division  jf  the  Gr'"'k  provinces  the  share  of 
the  Veneti;.!.s  was  r  ire  ample  than  that  of  tho 
Latin  emperor.  No  more  than  one  fourth  was 
api)ropriated  to  his  domain ;  a  clear  moiety  of  the 
remainder  was  reserved  for  Venice  and  tlie  other 
moiety  was  distributed  among  the  adventurers 
of  France  and  Lombardy.  Tlio  venerable  Daii- 
ilolo  was  proclaimed  Despot  of  Romania,  and 
was  invested,  after  the  Greek  fashion,  witli  the 
])urple  buskins.  He  ended  at  Constantinople  his 
long  and  glorious  life;  and  if  the  prerogative 
was  personal,  the  title  was  used  by  his  successors 
till  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  with 
the  singular,  though  true,  addition  of  '  Lords  of 
one  fourth  and  a  half  of  the  Roman  Empire.' 
.  .  .  Tliey  possessed  three  of  the  eight  (piarters 
of  the  city.  .  .  .  Tliey  had  rashly  accepted  tho 
dominion  and  defence  of  Adrianople ;  but  it  was 
the  more  reasonable  aim  of  their  jiolicy  to  form 
a  chain  of  factories  and  cities  aiul  islands  along 
the  maritime  coast,  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Ragusa  to  the  Hellespont  and  the  Bosphorus. 
.  .  .  For  the  price  of  10,000  marks  the  republic 
l>ur<liase(l  of  tlie  marquis  of  Slontferrat  the 
fiu'lile  island  of  Crete  or  Caudia  with  the  ruins 
of  a  hundred  cities.  ...  In  the  moiety  of  tho 
ad  venturers  the  Marquis  Boniface  [of  Moiitferrat] 
might  claim  the  most  liberal  reward;  and, 
besides  tlie  isle  of  Crete,  his  exclusion  from  the, 
throne  [for  which  he  had  been  a  candidate 
against  Baldwin  of  Flanders]  was  compensated 
by  the  royal  title  and  the  provinces  beyond  tho 
itellespont.  But  he  prudently  exchanged  that 
distant  and  ditlicult  coiuiuest  for  the  kingdom 
of  Tliessalonica  or  Macedonia,  twelve  days' 
journey  from  the  capital,  where  he  might  be 
supported  by  the  neighbouring  powers  of  his 
brother-in-law,  the  king  of  Ilimgarj'.  .  .  The 
lots  of  the  Latin  pilgrims  were  rcgulated  by 
chance  or  choice  or  subsequent  exchange.  .  .  . 
At  tlie  head  of  his  knights  and  archers  each 
baron  mounted  on  horseback  to  secure  the  jios- 
session  of  his  share,  and  their  lirst  efforts  were 


341 


BYZANTINE  EMPIPF    1204-1305. 


BYZANTIUM. 


gcncmlly  successful.  But  the  public  force  was 
\v('iikene<l  by  their  (tispcrsion ;  iiml  a  thousiiiul 
(piiirrels  must  <.:  ise  under  n  law  niul  among  men 
whose  sole  umpire  was  the  sword." — E.  Gii)bon, 
Dirline  (iiitl  Full  of  the  lioni'tii  Empire,  c/i.  61. 

A.  D.  1204-1205. — The  political  shaping  of 
the  fraerments.  Bee  Ko.mania.  Thk  Emimuk; 
OiiKHK  E.Mi'inKoF  Nic/Ea;  Tkkiiizoni);  Eimhus; 
Na.xos,  Tub  Mkdi/KVAI.  Dukedom:  Aciiaia: 
A.  I).  1205-1387;  Athens:  A.  D.  120r>-14.")0; 
Sai.oniki. 

A.  D.  1261-1453. — The  Greek  restoration. — 
Last  struggle  with  the  Turks  and  final  over- 
throw.— '1  he  story  of  the  shadowy  restoration 
of  u  Oreek  Empii'c  at  Constantinople,  its  last 
struggle  with  the  Turks,  and  its  fall  is  told  else- 
where.— See  CoNSTANTtNOPi.E;  A.  I).  1201-14.')iJ, 
to  Hr>3. — "Frcmi  the  hour  of  her  foundation  t.. 
that  in  which  her  sun  Anally  sank  in  bk.id. 
Christian  Con^tjintinople  was  engaged  in  con- 
stant struggles  against  (.uccessive  hordes  of  bar- 
barians. Hlie  did  not  always  triumph  in  the 
strife,  but,  even  when  she  was  beaten  she  did 
not  succumb,  but  carried  on  the  contest  still; 
and  tlie  fact  that  she  was  able  to  do  so  is  alone  a 
sutlicing  ])roof  of  the  strengtli  and  vitality  of 
her  organization.  ...  Of  the  seventy-si.K  em- 
perors and  five  empresses  who  occupied  the 
Byzantine  throne,  15  were  put  to  death,  7  were 
blinded  or  otherwise  mutilated,  4  were  deposed 
and  Imprisoned  in  monasteries,  and  10  were 
compelled  to  abdicate.  This  list,  comprising 
nearly  half  of  the  whole  number,  is  sufficient  indi- 
cation of  the  horrore  by  which  the  history  of  the 
empire  is  only  too  often  marked,  and  it  ma;  be 
frankly  admitted  that  these  dark  stains,  'dis- 
figuring pages  which  but  for  them  would  be 
bright  witli  the  things  which  were  beautiful  and 
glorious,  go  some  way  to  excuse,  if  not  to  jus- 
tify, tlie  obloijuy  which  Western  writers  have 
been  so  prone  to  cast  upon  the  East.  But  it  is 
not  by  considering  the  evil  only,  any  more  than 
the  good  only,  that  it  is  possible  to  form  a  just 
judgment  upon  an  historic  epoch.  To  judge 
the  Byzantine  Empire  only  by  the  crimes  which 
defiled  the  palace  would  be  as  unjust  as  if  the 
French  people  were  to  be  estimate('.  by  nothing 
but  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  the  Reign 
of  Terror,  and  the  Commune  of  1871.  The 
dynastic  crimes  and  revolutions  of  New  Rome 
were  not  a  constant  feature  in  her  history.  On 
the  contniry,  the  times  of  trouble  and  aui',chy 
were  episodes  between  long  periods  of  peace. 
They  arose  either  from  quarrels  in  the  imperial 
family  itself,  which  degraded  the  dignity  of  the 
crown,  or  from  the  contentions  of  pretenders 
struggling  among  themselves  till  one  or  other 
had  woreted  his  rivals  and  was  able  to  become 
the  founder  of  a  long  dynasty.  .  .  .  The  most 
deplorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Byzantine 
Emi)ire,  the  period  in  which  assassination  and 
mutilation  most  I'lwunded,  was  that  in  which  it 
was  exposed  to  the  intluenee  of  the  Crusaders, 
and  thus  brought  into  contact  with  Western 
Europe.  .  .  .  The  Byzantine  peoi)Ic,  although 
in  every  respect  the  superiors  of  their  contem- 
poraries, were  unable  entirely  to  escape  the  in- 
lluence  of  their  ncighborhcHKl.  As  the  guardians 
of  class'.cal  civilization,  they  strove  to  keep  almve 
the  deluge  of  barbarism  by  which  the  rest  of  the 
world  was  then  inundatecl.  But  it  was  a  Hood 
whose  watere  prevailed  exceedingly  vipon  the 
earth,   uud  sometimes  all  the  high  hills  were 


covered,  even  where  might  have  « rested  tho 
ark  in  which  the  traditions  of  ancient  culture 
were  iK-ing  preserved.  .  .  .  The  Byzantine  Em- 
pire was  predestinated  to  perform  in  esi)ecial  one 
great  work  in  humim  history.  That  work  was 
to  preserve  civilization  during  the  perio<l  of 
barbarism  which  we  call  the  Jliddle  Ages.  .  .  . 
Constantinople  fell,  and  the  whole  Hellenic  world 
passed  into  Turkish  slavery.  Western  Europe 
looked  on  with  uneonix'rn  at  the  appalling  catas- 
troi)he.  It  was  in  vain  tliat  the  last  of  the 
I'alaiologoi  cried  to  them  for  lielp.  '  Christen- 
dom,' says  Gibb<m,  'beheld  with  indiflerence 
the  fall  of  Ccmstantinople.' .  .  .  Up  to  her  last 
hour  she  had  never  ceased,  for  more  than  a 
thousand  years,  to  fight.  In  the  fourth  century 
she  fought  the  Goths;  in  the  fifth,  the  Iluns  and 
Vandals;  in  the  sixt!;,  the  Slavs;  in  the  seventh, 
the  Persians,  the  Av.a's,  and  the  Arabs;  in  the 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth,  the  Bulgars,  the  Mag- 
yars, and  the  Russians;  in  the  eleventh,  tho 
Ivoumanoi,  the  Petzenegoi,  and  the  Seljoukian 
Turks;  in  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  fourteenth, 
and  fifteenth,  the  Ottomans,  the  Normans,  the 
Crusiiders,  the  Venetians,  and  the  Genoese.  No 
wonder  tluit  at  last  she  fell  exhausted.  The 
wonder  is,  how  she  could  keep  herself  alive  so 
long.  But  it  was  by  this  long  battle  that  she 
succeeded  in  saving  from  destruction,  amid  the 
universjil  cataclysm  which  overwhelmed  the 
classical  world,  the  civilization  of  the  ancients, 
modified  by  the  Christian  religion.  The  moral 
and  intellectual  development  of  modern  Europe 
are  owing  to  the  Byzantine  Empire,  if  it  be  true 
that  this  development  is  the  common  offspring 
of  antiquity  upon  the  one  hand  and  of  Chris- 
tianity upon  the  othei-. " — Demetrios  Bikehis, 
The  Byzantine  Empire  {Scottish  liev..  v.  8,  1880). 


BYZANTIUM,  Beginnings  of.— The  ancient 
Greek  city  of  Byzantium,  which  occupied  part 
of  the  site  of  the  motlern  city  of  Constantinople, 
was  fovmded,  accortling  to  tradition,  by  Mcga- 
rians,  in  tlie  seventh  century  B.  C.  Its  situation 
on  the  Bosphorus  enabled  the  possessors  of  the 
city  to  control  the  important  corn  supply  which 
came  from  the  Euxiiie,  while  its  tunny  fish- 
eries were  renowned  sources  of  wealth.  It  was 
to  the  latter  that  the  bay  called  the  Golden 
Ilorn  was  said  to  owe  its  name.  The  Persians, 
the  Laceducmonians,  the  Athenians  and  the 
Macedonians  were  successive  masters  of  Byzan- 
tium, before  the  Roman  day,  Athens  and  Spaita 
having  taken  and  retaken  the  city  from  one 
another  many  times  during  their  wars. 

B.  C.  478.— Taken  by  the  Greeks  from  the 
Persians.    See  Gheece:  B.  C.  478-477. 

B.  C.  440. — Unsuccessful  revolt  against 
Athens.    See  Athens:  B.  C.  440-437. 

B.  C.  408. — Revolt  and  reduction  by  the 
Athenians.     See  Gkeece:  B.  C.  411-407. 

B.  C.  340. — Unsuccessful  siege  by  Philip  of 
Macedon.     See  Giieece:  B.  C.  340. 

B.  C.  336. — Alliance  with  Alexander  the 
Great.    See  Queece:  B.  C.  330-33.5. 

A.  D.  194.— Siege  by  Severus.  See  Ro.me: 
A.  1).  192-284. 

A.  D.  267. — Capture  by  the  Goths.  See 
Goi'iis:  A.  D.  258-207. 

A.  P.  323. — Siege  by  Constantine.  See 
Rome:  A.  D.  SO.VSia. 

A.  D.  330. — Transformed  into  Constanti- 
nople.    See  CONblANTLNOl'iai. 


342 


(,'A  IIIA. 


CABIXKT. 


c. 


PA  IRA:  Theoriginofthecry  and  the  song. 

— "  When  the  news  of  the  (lisasliDiis  ivlreiit  [of 
Wiishiiijrioii,  in  ITTO]  throni^h  the  Jciseys  and 
the  miseries  of  Valley  Forjic  reiielieil  France, 
many  j^ood  friends  to  Anuiica  t)e!;an  to  tldnk 
that  now  indeed  all  was  lost.  15ut  the  stout 
heart  of  Franlclin  never  llinelied.  '  This  is  in- 
<leed  bad  news,'  said  lie,  'hut  <;a  ira,  t/a  ira 
[literally,  'this  will  ,u;o,  this  will  ;;o'],  it  will  all 
come  ri.^ht  in  the  end.'  Old  diplomats  and 
courtiers,  amazed  at  his  conlidenee,  i>assed  ahout 
his  elieerinji;  words.  They  were  taken  up  by 
the  newspapers;  they  were  remembered  by  the 
l)e()ple,  anil,  in  the  dark  days  of  the  French 
Hevolution,  were  reiieated  over  and  over  ajrain 
(m  every  side,  and  made  the  subject  of  a  slirrin:^ 
scmij  which,  till  thcMarseillaiie  Hymn  appeared, 
had  no  e(iual  in  France." — J.  ii.  !>t(Master.  llixt. 
of  the  People  of  the  U.  S..  v.  2,  p.  8'J.— L.  Itoscn- 
thai,  Americd  and  Fmiicc,  p.  20!!. — "The 
original  wcu'ds  (afterward  inucli  changed)  were 
by  Lad  re,  a  street  singer ;  and  the  nuisic  was  a 
popu'  ir  dance  tune  of  the  time  comjiused  by 
Becourt,  a  drummer  of  the  Grand  Opera." — 
Centuri/  DiclioiKin/. — "The  original  name  of  the 
tune  to  which  the  words  wcmc  written  is 
'Le  Carillon  J'^ational,'  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
circumstance  that  it  was  a  great  favourite  with 
the  uufortiunite  Marie  Antoinette,  who  u.sed  to 
play  it  on  the  liarpsiehord. " — J.  O.xcuford,  Jjuok 
of  hVcnch  iSon'/K  {notr  to  "  Va  irn"). 

CAABA  AT  MECCA,  The.— "An  Arab 
legend  asserts  that  this  famous  temple  was  erected 
by  Abraham  and  his  .son  Ishmael  with  the  aid  of 
the  angel  Gabriel.  Mahomet  lent  his  authority 
to  the  legend  and  devoted  to  it  fevoral  chapters 
in  the  Koran,  and  thus  it  became  one  of  the  JIus- 
sulman  articles  of  faith.  Even  before  the  intro- 
duction of  Ishinusm  this  story  was  current 
through  a  great  part  of  Arabia  and  spread  abroad 
in  i)roportiou  as  tlie  Ishmaelitish  tribes  gained 
ground.  .  .  .  This  temple,  whose  name 'siiuare 
house '  indicates  its  form,  is  still  ])rcserved.  It 
was  very  small  and  of  very  rude  construction. 
It  was  not  till  com])aratively  recent  times  that 
it  had  a  door  with  a  lock.  .  .  .  For  a  long  time 
the  sole  .sacred  object  it  contained  was  the  cele- 
brated black  stone  hadjarel-aswa'i,  an  aerolite, 
which  is  still  the  object  of  Mussubnan  venera- 
tion. .  .  .  We  have  already  mentioned  llobal, 
the  first  anthropomorphic  idol,  placed  in  the 
Caaba.  This  example  was  soon  copied.  .  .  . 
The  Caaba  thus  became  a  sort  of  Arabian  Pan- 
theon, and  even  the  Virgbi  JIary,  with  her  child 
on  her  knees,  eventually  tound  a  place  there." — 
F.  Lenormant,  Maiiiidl  of  Ancient  Hint,  of  the 
MiKt,  hk.  7,  ch.  3. 

Ai-boin:  Sir  W.  !Muir,  IJfc  of  Muhomet,  ch.  2. 

CABAL,  The.  (See  C.miinet,  The  English; 
also,  En(ii.ani):  A.  1).  IGTl. 

CABALA,  The.— "The  term  Cabala  is  usu- 
nlly  applied  to  that  wild  .system  of  Oriental  phi- 
losophy which  was  introduced,  it  is  uncertain  at 
what  period,  into  the  .Jewish  schools:  in  a  wider 
sense  it  comprehended  all  the  decisions  of  the 
Uabbinical  courts  or  schools,  whether  on  religious 
or  civil  points. " — II.  II.  Milman,  Hint,  of  the  Jeics, 
V.  2,  bk.  18. — "The  ])hilosophic  Cabala  aspired 
to  oe  a  more  sublime  and  transcendental  Habbin- 
ism.  It  was  a  mystery  not  ('xclusive  of,  but 
above  their  more  couunou  mysteries;  a  secret 


more  profmmd  than  their  profoundest  secrets. 
It  claimed  the  same  guaranty  of  anticpdty,  of 
revelation,  of  tradition;  it  was  the  triu',  occult, 
to  few  inlelligilile  seii.^e  of  the  sacred  writings 
and  of  the  sayings  of  the  most  r  ^n  iwned  Wise 
Jlen;  the  inward  interpretation  oc'  .he  geindne 
imerpretation  of  the  Law  and  i  le  I'rophets. 
.  'en  went  on ;  they  advanced,  they  rose  from  the 
most  full  and  i)effect  study  of  the  Talmuds  to 
the  higher  doctrines,  to  the  "more  divine  contem- 
plalious  of  the  Cabala.  And  the  Zohar  was  the 
liook  of  the  Cabala  which  soared  almost  above 
Ihecomprehensionof  the  wisest.  .  .  .  Initstradi- 
tioiial,  no  doidit  unwritten  form,  the  Cabala,  at 
li'ast  a  ('!'  lala,  ascends  to  a  very  early  date,  the 
('aptivity ;  in  its  proper  and  more  mature  form, 
it  belongs  to  the  lirst  century,  and  reaches  down 
to  the  end  of  the  .seventh  century  of  our  era. 
The  Sepher  Yetzira,  the  I$ook  of  Creation,  which 
l)oasts  itself  to  be  derived  from  Jloses,  from 
Abraham,  if  not  from  Adam,  or  even  aspires 
liigher,  belongs  to  the  earlier  ])eriod;  the  Zohar, 
the  Light,  to  the  later.  The  remote  origin  of  the 
(Cabala  belongs  vo  that  period  \\  hen  the  je\.  ish 
mind,  during  the  Captivity,  became  so  deeply 
impregnated  with  Oriental  notions,  those  of  the 
Persian  or  Zoroastrian  religion.  Some  of  the 
lirst  principles  of  the  Cabala,  as  veil  as  many 
of  the  tenets,  still  more  of  th(!  superstitions,  of 
the  Talmud,  coincide  so  exactly  with  the  Zen- 
davesta  .  .  .  as  to  leave  no  doiibt  of  their  kin 
dred  and  alliliatiou." — II.  II.  Milman,  Jliiit.  of 
the  Jcirs.  hk.  :\Q. 

CABILDO,   The.      See  Louisiana:    A.   D. 
170i). 

CABINET,  The  American.— " There  is  in 
the  government  of  the  United  States  no  such 
thing  as  a  Cabinet  in  the  English  sense  of  the 
term.  I5ut  I  use  the  term,  not  only  because  it  is 
c:rrent  in  America  to  describe  the  chief  mim's- 
ters  of  the  President,  but  also  because  it  calls 
attention  to  the  remarkable  dilTercnee  which  ex- 
ists between  the  great  ollicers  of  State  in  America 
and  the  similar  oHlcers  in  the  free  coiuitries  ot 
Europe.  Almost  the  cmly  reference  in  the  Con- 
stitution to  the  nnnisters  of  the  President  is  tliat 
contained  in  the  i)ower  given  him  to  '  reiiuire  the 
opinion  in  writing  of  the  principal  oflicer  in  each 
of  the  e.xeinitive  departments  ujion  any  subject 
relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  olllces.' 
All  these  dei)artments  have  been  created  by  Acts 
of  Ccmgrcss.  Washingtim  began  in  17^9  with 
four  only,  at  tlie  head  of  whom  were  the  follow- 
ing four  ollicials:  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney 
<!eneral.  In  17!t8  there  was  added  a  Secretary 
■.f  the  Navy,  in  1829  a  Postmaster  General,  anil 
ill  1849  a  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  .  .  .  Each 
receives  ii  salary  of  S8,000  (£1,000),  All  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  subject  to  the  con- 
.sent  of  the  Senate  (which  is  practically  never 
refused),  and  may  be  removed  by  the  President 
alime.  Nothing  marks  them  oil  from  aiiv  other 
ollicials  wlio  nnglit  be  placed  in  charge  of  a  de 
partment,  except  that  they  are  summoned  by 
the  President  to  his  lu'iva'te  council.  None  of 
them  can  vote  in  Congress,  Art.  XI..  §  0  of  the 
Constitution  provi<ling  that 'no  person  holding 
any  othce  \inder  the  United  States  shall  be  a 
memlicr  of  either  House  during  his  c<mtinuance 
inolUce.'" — J.  lirycc,  Z'/a' Jw,  Commouiceallh,ch. 


343 


CABINET. 


CiVniNET. 


0. — "III  1862  ft  separate  Department  of  ARricul- 
tiire  was  estnl)lislieil.  ...  In  1889  tlu^  head  iif 
the  Department  heeaiiK'  Secretary  '-t  the  Depiirt- 
ineiit  of  A;,'r:eultiire  and  a  ('a')met  oflle<'r.  A 
iiiireail  of  l,at)or  under  the  Inierior  Department 
wa.s  created  in  18HI.  In  '8S8  Con^iress  con- 
utituted  it,  a  separate  department.  Imt  did  not 
make  its  head  a  Seeretarv,  and  tln'refore  not  a 
<.  al'inet  ollleer."  There  "are  now  (1891)  ei^ht 
licnds  of  departments  who  eonstitute  tli(^  Presi- 
dent's ('al)init.  — W.  \V.  and  \V.  F.  \VilloU|,'ld>y, 
(Sort,  and  Aili/iiiiiiitriili<iu  ofllie  U.  S.  (Joliita  Ilnp- 
kin*  I'lii'    Slidh'i'.i,  gcrii'MlX.,  mm.  1-2),  f/i.   10. 

CABINET,  The  English.— "Few  tilings  in 
our  history  are  more  eurious  than  the  orij^in  ami 
f>rowlh  of  the  power  now  jiossessed  l)y  the 
Caliiiiei.  From  an  early  period  the  Kinfrs  of 
Kn^land  had  been  assisted  by  a  I'rivy  Coiineil  to 
which  tlie  law  assigned  many  important  functions 
and  duties  [see  I'liivy  CouNCii,].  During  several 
centuries  tliis  body  delilierated  on  tlie  gravest 
and  most  deiieate  alTair.s.  But  by  degrees  its 
character  changed.  It  became  too  large  for  des- 
patch and  secrecy.  The  rank  of  Privy  Councillor 
was  often  liestowed  as  an  honorary  distinction 
on  per.sons  to  whom  nothing  wa.s  C(mtided,  and 
whos(!  opinion  was  never  asked.  The  sovereign, 
on  the  most  important  occasions,  resorted  for 
advice  t«  a  small  knot  of  leading  ministers.  The 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  course  were 
early  pointed  out  by  Bacon,  with  hisusiud  judg- 
ment and  sagac-ity:  but  it  was  not  till  after  tlio 
Ilestoration  that  the  interioi'  council  began  to 
attract  general  notice.  During  many  years  old 
fashioned  ])oliticians  continued  to  regard  the 
Cabinet  as  an  imconstitutional  and  dangerous 
board.  Nevertheless,  it  constantly  became  more 
and  more  important.  It  at  length  drew  to  itself 
the  chief  executive  power,  and  has  now  been 
regarded,  during  several  generations,  us  an  essen- 
tial part  of  our  polity.  Yet,  strange  to  say,  it 
still  continues  to  be  altogether  imknown  to  the 
law.  The  names  of  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
who  compose  it  arc  never  ollicially  announced  to 
•  he  public.  No  record  is  kept  "of  its  meetings 
iind  resolutions;  nor  has  its  existence  ever  been  i 
recognized  by  any  Act  of  Parliament.  During 
some  years  the  word  Cabal  was  popularly  used 
as  synonymous  with  Cabinet.  But  it  happened 
by  a  whimsical  coincidence  that,  in  1071,  the 
Cftbinct  consisted  of  live  persons  the  initial  let- 
ters of  whoso  names  made  uptlie'.'ord  Cabal, 
Cliflord,  Arlington,  Buckingham,  Ashley,  and 
Lauderdale.  '1  he.se  ministers  were  therefore  em- 
phatically called  the  Cabal;  and  they  soon  made 
that  appellation  so  infamous  that  it  has  never 
since  their  time  been  used  except  as  a  term  of 
reproach." — Lord  Macaulay,  IJist.  of  End.,  f^'-  2.  I 
— "  Walpole'swork,  .  .  .  the  effect  of  his  policy,  ' 
vheu  it  was  tinally  carried  tlu'ough,  was  to  estab- 
lish the  Cabinet  on  a  delinite  footing,  as  the  seat 
and  centre  of  the  executive  government,  to  main- 
tain the  executive  in  the  closest  relation  with  the 
legislature,  to  govern  through  the  legislature, 
and  to  transfer  the  power  and  authority  of  the 
Crown  to  the  House  of  Commcns.  Some  writers 
have  held  that  the  first  Ministry  in  the  mo<leru 
sense  was  that  combination  of  Whigs  whom  Wil- 
liam called  to  aid  him  in  government  in  1695. 
Others  contend  that  the  second  administration 
of  Lonl  Bockingham,  which  came  into  power  in 
1783,  after  the  triumph  of  the  American  colon- 
ists, the  fall  of  Lord  North,  and  the  defeat  of 


George  III.,  was  tlie  earliest  Ministry  of  the  typo 
of  to-day.  At  whatcMT  <latc  we  choose  lirst  to 
see  all  the  decisive  marks  of  that  rennirkablo 
system  which  combines  unity,  steadfastness,  and 
initiative  in  the  executive,  with  the  i)os.session  of 
supreme  autliority  alike  over  men  and  measures 
by  the  House  of  Conunons,  it  is  certain  that  it 
was  imder  Walpole  that  its  ruling  principles 
were  first  fixed  in  i)arlianientary  govenunent, 
.and  that  the  Cabinet  system  received  the  impres- 
sion that  it  bears  in  our  own  time.  .  .  .  Perliaps 
the  most  important  of  all  the  distinctions  between 
the  Cabinet  in  its  rudimentary  stage  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century  and  its  later  practice, 
remains  to  be  noticed.  Queen  Anne  held  a 
Cabinet  every  Sumlay,  at  which  she  was  her-self 
liresent,  just  as  we  have  seen  that  she  was  pres- 
ent at  debates  in  the  House  of  Lords.  With  a 
doubtful  exception  in  the  time  of  George  III., 
no  sovereign  has  been  present  at  a  mce'  :ng  of  the 
Cabinet  since  Anne.  .  .  .  This  vital  change  was 
probably  due  to  the  accident  that  Anne's  suc- 
cessor did  not  understand  the  language  in  which 
its  deliberations  were  carried  on.  The  with- 
drawal of  the  sovereign  from  o'abinet  Countils 
was  essential  to  the  momentous  change  which 
has  transferred  the  whole  substance  of  authority 
and  power  from  the  Crown,  to  a  committee 
chosen  bj'  one  member  of  the  two  Houses  of 
Parliament,  from  among  other  members.  .  .  . 
The  Prime  Minister  is  the  keystone  of  the  Cidiinet 
arch.  Although  in  Cabinet  all  its  members  f  tind 
on  an  equal  footing,  speak  with  equal  voici  and, 
on  the  rare  occasions  when  a  division  is  taken, 
are  counted  on  the  fraternal  principle  of  one  man, 
one  vote,  yet  the  heail  of  the  Cabinet  is  '  prinms 
inter  pares,'  and  occupies  a  position  which,  so 
long  as  it  lasts,  is  one  of  exceptional  and  peculiar 
authority.  It  is  true  that  he  is  in  form  chosen 
by  the  Crown,  but  in  practice  tue  choice  of  the 
Crown  is  pretty  strictly  confined  to  the  man  who 
is  designated  by  the  acclamation  of  a  party  ma- 
jority. .  .  .  The  Prime  Minister,  o-ice  appointed, 
chooses  his  own  colleagues,  and  assigns  them  to 
their  respective  otlices.  .  .  .  The  flexibility  of 
the  Cabinet  system  allows  the  Prime  Jlinister 
in  an  emergency  to  take  upon  himself  a  power 
not  inferior  to  that  of  a  dictator,  provided  always 
tliat  the  House  of  Commons  will  stand  by  him. 
In  ordinary  circumstances,  he  leaves  the  heads 
of  departments  to  do  their  own  worl  in  their 
own  way.  .  .  .  Just  as  tliC  Cabinet  has  been 
described  as  being  the  regulator  of  relations  be- 
tween Queen,  Lords  and  Commons,  so  is  the 
Prime  Minister  the  regulator  of  relations  between 
the  Queen  and  her  servants.  .  .  .  Walpole  was 
in  practice  able  to  invest  hira.self  with  more  of 
tlie  functions  and  powers  of  a  Prime  Minister 
than  any  of  his  successors,  and  yet  was  com- 
pelled by  the  feeling  of  the  time  earnestly  and 
profusely  to  repudiate  both  the  name  and  title, 
and  every  one  of  the  pretensions  that  it  involves. 
The  earliest  instance  m  which  I  have  found  the 
head  of  the  government  designated  as  the  Premier 
is  in  ft  letter  to  tlie  Duke  of  Newcastle  from  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland  in  1746."— J.  Morley,  Wal- 
jwle,  ch.  7. — "In  theory  the  Cabinet  is  nothing 
but  a  committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  yet  with 
the  Council  it  has  in  reality  no  dealings;  and 
thus  the  extraordinary  result  has  taken  place, 
that  the  Government  of  England  is  in  the  hands 
of  men  whose  position  is  legally  undefined :  that 
while  the  Cabinet  is  a  ■»■,  ord  of  every-day  use,  no 


344 


CABINET. 


C.ESAH  AUGUSTA. 


lawyer  can  say  what  a  Cabinet  is:  that  while  no 
ordinary  Englishinun  knows  wlio  the  Lonl.s  uf 
the  Council  are,  tlie  Cliiircli  of  England  prays, 
Sunday  by  Sunday,  that  these  Lt)rds  may  bo 
'endued  with  wis>loni  and  understanding'!  that 
while  the  collective  responsibility  of  Ministers  is 
a  doctrine  appealed  to  by  inenibers  of  the  Gov- 
eminent,  no  less  than  by  their  opponents,  it  Is 
more  than  doubtful  whether  such  responsibility 
could  be  enforced  by  any  legal  penalties:  that, 
to  sum  up  this  catalogue  of  contradictions,  the 
Privy  Council  has  the  same  political  powers 
which  it  had  wlien  Henry  VIII.  ascended  the 
throne,  whilst  it  is  in  reality  composed  of  persons 
many  of  whom  never  have  taken  part  or  wished 
to  take  part  in  the  contests  of  political  life." — A. 
V.  Dicey,  The  Priri/  Council,  p.  143. 

CABINET,  The  Kitchen.  See  United 
St.\tes  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1820. 

CABOCHIENS,  The.  See  Fhance:  A.  D. 
1380-1415. 

CABOT,  John  and  Sebastian. — American 
Discoveries.    See  Ameuica  :  A.  D.  1407,  and  1408. 

CABUL:  A.  D.  1840-1841.— Occupation  by 
the  Brit'sh. — Successful  native  rising. — Re- 
treat and  destruction  of  the  British  army.  See 
Afghanistan:  A.  D.  18:58-1843. 

A.  D.  1878-1880.— Murder  of  Major  Cavag- 
nari.  the  British  Resident. — Second  occupation 
bv  '.he  English.  See  Afoii.vnistan:  A.  D.  1800- 
-.881. 

CACIQUE. — "Cacique,  lord  of  vas.sals,  was 
the  ivMvv  by  which  the  natives  of  Cuba,  (lesig- 
natod  tl  f  chiefs.  Learning  this,  the  conquerors 
appli'  "  ne  name  generally  to  the  rulers  of  wild 
tribes,  a  though  in  none  of  the  dialects  of  the 
contiuei.t  is  the  word  found." — II.  II.  Bancroft, 
Hist.  </  the  Piicifii;  Stiiti-i,  r.  1,  /*.  '»10,  foot-note. 

CADDOAN  FAMILY,  The.  See  Ameri- 
can AnouioiNEs:  P.vw.nee  (Caddoan)  Family; 
olso,  Texas:  The  Ahouigi.val  inhabitants. 

CADE'S  REBELLION.  See  England: 
A.  D.  14.')0. 

CADESIA  (KADISIYEH),  Battle  of.— 
This  WHS  the  first  of  the  decisive  series  of  battles 
in  which  the  Arab  followers  of  Mohammed 
elTected  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  Empire 
(the  Sassannian)  and  the  conquest  of  its  domin- 
ions. It  was  desperately  fought,  A.  D.  030, 
under  the  walls  of  the  fortified  town  of  Cadesia 
(Kadisiyeh  in  the  Arabic)  situated  near  the  Sea  of 
Nedjef,  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Arabian 
desert.  The  Persians  numbered  120,000  men, 
under  Rustam,  their  best  general.  "The  Arabs 
were  but  80,000  strong  at  first,  but  were  rein- 
forced the  second  day.  They  were  eoinmaiuled 
by  Sa'ad  and  led  by  the  redoubtable  Kaled.  The 
battle  was  obstinately  prolonged  through  four 
days,  but  ended  in  the  complete  rout  of  the  Per- 
sians and  the  death  of  Uustam,  with  40,000  of 
his  men. —  G.  Rawlinson,  Seventh  Great  Oriental 
Monarch)/,  ch.  20. —  See,  also,  ^Mahometan  Con- 
quest: A.  D.  033-051. 

CADIZ  :  Origin.    Sec  Utica,  and  Gades. 

A.  D.  1596. — Taken  and  sacked  by  the 
English  and  Dutch.    See  Spain:  A.  D.  1.590. 

A.  D.  1702. — Abortive  English  and  Dutch 
expedition  against.    See  Spain:  A.  D.  1703. 

A.  D.  1810-1811.— Siege  by  the  French. 
See  Spain:  A.  D.  1810-1813. 

A..D.  1823. — Siege,  bombardment  and  cap- 
ture by  the  French.    SccSpain:  A.  D.  1814r-1837. 


SB 


CADMEA(KADMEIA),The.  SeeGiiEECE: 
B.  C.  3H;i. 

CADMEANS,     OR    KADMEIANS.     See 

BlKOTIA. 

CADURCI,  The.— The  Cadurd  were  one  of 
the  tribes  of  ancient  Gaul  whose  chief  place  was 
Divona,  now  Cahora  on  the  Lot. — G.  Long,  In- 
cline of  the  lioman  Itrimhlic.  r.  4,  ch.  17. 

CADUSIANS,  The. — An  ancient  people  so- 
called  by  the  Greeks,  whose  territory  was  on 
the  sout'-  ,1  stern  Iwrder  of  the  Caspian  Sea, — 
the  district  of  modern  Persians  called  Ghilan  or 
Gliulan.  Their  native  name  was  "Gaels." — 
M.  Duncker,  Hint,  of  Aiitii/iiiti/.  bk.  8,  ch.  1. 

CADWALLON,  Death  of.  See  IIeven- 
FiEi.T),  Battle  of  the. 

CiELIAN  HILL,  The.    See  Seven  Hills 

OF  Ho.VIE. 

CAERLAVEROCK,  Siege  of.— A  famous 
siege  and  reduction  of  the  Scottish  castle  of 
Caerlaveroek,  in  Dumfriesshire,  by  Edward  I. 
A.  1).  1300. 

CAERLEON.— "Caer,"  like  the  "Oeaster" 
of  the  Saxons,  is  a  corruption  by  Celtic  tongues 
of  the  Roman  "Castrum.  '  "In  memory  of  tho 
second  legion,  which  had  been  so  long  established 
at  the  Silurian  Isca,  they  [the  Welsh]  gavo 
to  the  ruins  of  that  city  the  name  of  Caer- 
Legion,  the  city  of  flie  legion,  now  softened  to 
Caerleou." — T.  Wright,  Celt,  Roman  and  iSaxon, 
ch.  5. 

CiESAR,  JULIUS,  Career  and  death  of. 
See  Rome:  B.  C.  00-03,  to  44;  Gaul:  B.  C.  SB- 
SI;  and  BniTAiN:  B.  ('.  55-54. 

CiESAR,  The  title.— "  Octavius  was  the 
adopted  lieir  of  .Julius  Ciusiir;  from  the  moment 
of  his  adoption  the  surname  Cicsar  became  ap- 
propriated to  hiin,  and  it  was  l)y  this  n.inio 
accordingly  that  ho  was  most  famiiiarly  known 
to  his  own  contemponiries.  Modern  writers  for 
the  sake  of  distinction  have  agreed  for  the  most 
part  to  confine  this  illustrious  title  to  tlie  first  of 
the  Ciesarian  dynasty ;  but  wo  should  (l(mbtles.9 
gain  a  clearer  conception  of  the  gniilual  process 
by  which  tlie  idea  of  a  dynastiv;  succession  fixed 
itself  in  tho  minds  of  the  Romans,  if  we  followed 
their  own  i)raetice  in  this  particular,  and  applied 
the  name  of  Ca'sar,  not  to  Augustus  only,  but 
also  to  his  adopted  son  Tiberius,  to  the  scions  of 
the  same  lineage  who  succeeded  him,  and  even 
to  those  of  later  and  independent  dynasties.  As 
late  indeed  as  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  the  Roman 
nionarcli  was  still  eminently  the  Ciesar.  It  was 
not  till  llio  close  of  the  third  century  of  our  era 
that  that  illustrious  title  was  deposed  from  its 
preeminence,  and  restricted  to  a  secondary  and 
deputed  authority.  Its  older  use  was  however 
revived  and  perpetuated,  though  less  exclusively, 
through  the  declining  ages  of  the  empire,  and 
has  survived  witli  perhaps  unbroken  continuity 
even  to  our  own  days.  'The  Austrian  Kaiser  still 
retains  the  name,  though  he  has  renounced  tho 
succession,  of  the  Cicsars  of  Rome,  while  the  Czar 
of  Muscovy  pretends  to  derive  his  national  desig- 
nation by  direct  inheritance  from  tlie  Cicsars  of 
Byzantium." — C.  Jlerivale,  Hist,  of  the  liomana, 
ch.  31.— See,  also,  Rome:  B.  C.  31-A.  D.  14. 

CiESAR-AUGUSTA.- Onoof  the  fortified 
posts  established  in  Spain  bv  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  B.  C.  27,  aud  in  which  the  veterans 
of  the  legions  were  settled.  The  jilace  and  its 
name  (corrupted)  survive  in  modern  Saragossa. 
— C.  Merivale,  Uut.  of  the  Itomam,  ch.  34. 


345 


C.ESAUEA  IN  C..PPADOCIA. 


CALATRAVA  AND  SANTIAGO. 


CiESAREA   IN  CAPPADOCIA:    Origin. 

S<T    M..ZA.  A. 

A.  D.  260. — Capture,  massacre  and  pillaee 
by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia.  Sci'  I'i:hsia:  A.  1). 
2at(-<>'.'7. 

CiESAREA  IN  PALESTINE  :  Massacre 
of  Jews.     Sec  .Ikwh:  A.  D.  «(t-70. 

The  Church  in.    ht-o  Christianity:   A.   I). 

100-:!  r,'. 

C/ESAROMAGUS      IN      BRITAIN.— A 

Koman  lowii  iileiililii'd,  j^cncnilly,  willi  iiioilfrn 
Cht'hnsford. — T.  Wright,  Celt,  liomaiiandHaxon, 
eh.  5. 

CiESAROMAGUS  IN  GAUL.— Modorn 
Bt'iuiviiis.      Sec  l{i;i.(i.«. 

CiESARS,  The  Twelve.  See  Kome:  A.  D. 
68-iHI. 

CiESAR'S  TOWER.  Sec  Toweh  of 
London. 

CAFFA.     8d!  Oknoa:  A.  D.  1201-1399. 

CAHORS  :  Origin.     Stc  Caduiioi A.  D. 

1580.— Siege  and  capture  by  Henry  of 
Navarre.     Sec  Fuanck:  A.  D.  1578-1580. 

CAIRN.     Hcc  Bauhow. 

CAIRO  :  A.  D.  641.— Origin.  Sec  Maiiomk- 
TANC'oNiiiEsT:  A.  I).  0-40-«4(i. 

A.  D.  967-1171.— Capital  of  the  Fatimite 
Caliphs.  See  .Mahdmetan  Conquest  and 
Emi'IUK:  a.  1).  908-1171. 

A.  D.  1517. — Capture,  sack  and  massacre  by 
the  Ottoman  Turks.  See  Turks:  A.  D.  1481- 
1620. 

A.  D.  1798. — Occupied  by  the  French  under 
Bonaparte.     See  France :    A.  1).   1798  (May — 

AUOUOT). 

A.  D.  1800. — Revolt  suppressed  by  the 
French.  Bee  France:  A.  H.  1800  (January- 
June). 

A.  D.  1801-1802.— Surrender  to  the  English. 
— Restoration  to  Turkey.  Sec  Fr.\nce  :  A.  i). 
1801-1803. 

A.  D.  1805-1811.— Massacres  of  the  Mame- 
lukes.    See  Eoyit:  A.  D.  1803-1811. 

A.  D.  1879-1883.— Revolt  against  the  Khe- 
dive and  the  foreign  control. — Occupation  by 
the  British.  Sec  Egypt:  A.  D.  1875-1882,  and 
1883-1883. 

» 

CAIROAN.    See  Kairwan. 

CAIUS,  called  Caligula,  Roman  Emperor, 
A.  I).  37-41. 

CAKCHIQUELS,  The.  See  American  Abo- 
BiciiNEs:   Quiches,  aud  Mayas. 

CALABRIA :  Transfer  of  the  name.— "After 
the  loss  of  the  true  Calabria  [to  the  Lombards] 
the  vanity  of  the  Greeks  substituted  that  name 
instead  of  the  more  ignoble  appellation  of  Bnit- 
tium;  and  the  change  appears  to  have  taken 
place  before  the  time  of  Charlemagne." — E.  Gib- 
bon, Decline  and  Fall  nf  the  Homan,  Empire,  eh. 
45,  note. 

A.  D.  1080. — Norman  duchy.  See  Italy 
(Southern):  A.  D.  1000-1090. 


CALAIS  :  A.  D.  1346-1347.— Siege  and  cap- 
ture by  Edward  III. — Immediately  after  his 
great  victory  won  at  Creci,  the  English  king, 
Edward  III.  laid  siege  to  the  strong  city  of 
Calais.  Me  built  a  town  of  huts  round  the  city, 
"which  he  culled  'Newtown  the  Bold,'  and  laid 
it  out  with  a  market,  regular  streets  and  shops, 
and  all  the  cecessary  accommodation  for  an 
army,  aud  hither  were  carried  in  vast  stores  of 


vieluals  and  other  iie<'es.sarie.s,  obtained  by 
ravaging  the  country  round  and  liy  Hhipiiient 
from  Eiiglaiiil."  Calais  held  out  for  a  year,  and 
angered  the  king  so  by  its  obstinacy  tlmt  when,  in 
August,  1347,  starvation  forced  its  people  to  sur- 
render, lie  re(iuired  that  six  of  the  chief  burgesses 
should  be  given  up  to  him,  with  halters  round 
their  necks,  for  execution.  Kustaelie  St.  I'ierro 
and  flvi!  others  nobly  olTered  themselves  for  tlio 
saerillee,  and  It  was  only  by  the  weeping  inter- 
cession of  Queen  Philippa  that  Edward  was  In- 
duced to  spare  their  lives.  He  expelled  all  the 
inhabitants  who  refused  to  take;  an  oath  of  fealty 
to  him  and  repeopled  the  town  with  Englishmen. 
— W.  Warburtoi.,  rJilirard  Iff.,  SiroiiU  f)ecade,  ch. 
3.— See,  also,  France:  A.  I),  1337-1360. 

A.  D.  1348.— The  Staple  for  English  trade. 
See  Stai'LE. 

A.  D.  1558.— Recovery  from  the  English  by 
France.     See  France:  A.  1).  l'>-i'i-Vh>\>. 

A.  D.  1564.— Final  surrender  of  English 
claims.     See  France:  A.  1).  1563-15(14. 

A.  D.  1596-1598. — Surprise  and  capture  by 
the  Spaniards. — Restoration  to  France.  See 
Fr.\nce:  A.  1).  1593-1598. 

CALATRAVA  AND  SANTIAGO,  Knights 

of. — "It  was  to  repn'ss  the  never-ceasing  incur- 
sions of  the  Mohammedans,  us  well  as  to  return 
these  incursions  with  interest,  that,  in  the  time  of 
Fernando  [SVrnimdo  II.  of  the  early  Spanish 
kingdom  of  Leon],  two  military  orders,  those  of 
Calatruva  and  Santiago  [or  St.  Jago  —  or  St. 
James  of  Compostella],  were  instituted.  The 
origin  of  the  former  order  was  owing  to  tho 
devotion  of  two  Cistercian  monks;  St.  liaymond, 
abbot  of  Fitero,  and  his  companion,  the  friar 
Diego  Velasijuez.  These  intrepid  men,  who  had 
both  borne  arms  previous  to  their  monastic  pro- 
fession, indignant  at  the  cowardice  of  the  Temp- 
lars, who  resigned  into  the  king  of  Castile's 
hands  the  fortress  of  Calatruva,  which  had  been 
coutided  to  their  defense  by  the  emperor  Alfonso, 
proposed,  in  1158,  to  the  regency  of  that  king- 
dom, to  preserve  that  position  against  the  assail- 
ants. The  proposal  was  readily  accepted.  Tho 
preaching  of  the  warlike  abbot  was  so  efficacious, 
that  in  a  short  time  he  assembled  20,000  men, 
whom  he  conducted  to  Calatrava,  and  among 
whom  were  not  a  few  of  his  own  monks.  There 
he  drew  up  the  institutions  of  tl  e  order,  which 
took  its  name  from  the  place,  and  which  in  its 
religious  government  long  followed  the  Cistercian 
rule,  and  wore  tho  same  monastic  habit,  —  a 
white  robe  and  scapulary.  [By  pope  Benedict 
XIII.  the  habit  was  dispensed  with,  and  tho 
knights  allowed  to  marry  'once.'  —  Foot-note.] 
The  other  order  commenced  in  1161.  Some  rob- 
bers of  Leon,  touched  with  their  past  enormities, 
resolved  to  make  reparation  for  them,  by  defend- 
ing the  frontiers  against  the  incursions  of  tho 
Mohammedans.  Don  Pedro  Fernandez  —  if  the 
'don'  has  not  been  added  to  ive  something  like 
respectubility  to  the  origin  —  was  the  chief 
founder  of  the  order.  He  engaged  tho  brethren 
to  assume  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  in  addition 
to  the  ordinary  obligations  of  knighthood.  His 
military  and  monastic  fraternity  was  approved 
by  king  Fernando;  at  whose  suggestion  tho 
knights  chose  Santiago  as  their  patron,  whoso 
bloody  sword,  in  form  of  a  cross,  became  their 
professional  symbol.  These  two  orders  were 
richly  endowed  by  successive  kings  of  Leon  &n^ 


346 


CALATRAVA  AND  SANTIAGO. 


CALENDAR 


Castile,  until  tht-lr  possessions  becamo  Immense." 
— 8.  A.  Diiiiliam,  Hint,  of  S/xiin  itnd  Piirtm/nl,  M: 
8,  teel.  2,  ch.  1,  <lir.  2.  —In  litOO  the  Itiiiglits  of 
the  order  of  St.  Jiiines  of  Conipostellii  "  received 
p(^rmi».siou  to  marry.  In  140;t,  the  Grand  Muster- 
sidp  was  iiiiited  to  tli(!  erown  of  Hpaii'.."  In 
152!)  tlie  ri^ht  of  nomination  lo  tlie  Grand  Mas- 
tcrsliip  of  the  Order  of  Caiatrii  '.a  was  transferred 
from  the  Pope  to  tlie  crown  of  Spain,  "and 
since  that  time  the  order  has  gradually  merged 
into  a  court  In.stltutioii.  The  state  dress  is  a 
white  robe,  witli  a  red  cro.ss  on  the  left  breast. 
The  permis-sion  to  marry  has  been  enjoyed  since 
1540." — F.  C.  Woodhouse,  Military  Ileliffioun 
Ortlvrs,  pt.  A. 

CALAURIA,  Confederation  of.— A  naval 
confiMlcration,  formed  at  a  very  early  period  of 
Greek  history,  by  the  seven  maritime  cities  of 
Orchomi'nus,  Athens,  .lEgina,  Epidaiirus,  llcr- 
mionc,  Prasia;  and  Nauplia  against  tlie  liings 
of  Argos.  The  island  of  C'alauria,  oil  the 
eastern  point  of  Argolis,  was  the  center  of  the 
confeiieracy. — £.  Curtius,  Hist,  of  Greece,  v.  1, 
bh.  \,rh.  3. 

CALCINATO,  Battle  of  (1706).  See  Italy 
(Savoy  .UNI)  PiKUMONT):  A.  U.  1701-1713. 

CALCUTTA  :  A.  D.  1698.— The  founding 
of  the  city.     See  Indi.v:  A.  I).  1000-1702. 

A.  D.  1756.— Capture  by  Surajah  Dowlah.— 
The  tragedy  of  the  B!:ick  Hole.  See  India: 
A.  D.  1755-1757. 

♦ 

CALDERON,  Battle  of.    See  Mexico:  A.  D. 
1810-1819. 
CALEDONIA,  The  name.    See  Scotland, 

TIIK  Na.MK. 

Ancient  Tribes.  See  IJihtain,  Celtic  Tuibes. 
Wars  of  the  Romans.    See  Britain:  A.  I). 

78-«4. 


CALEDONIA  SYLVA.  See  Britain,  Cel- 
tic Tribes. 

CALEDONII,  The.— One  of  the  vald  tribes 
which  occupied  tlie  Highlands  of  Scotland  when 
the  liomans  held  Britain,  and  whose  name  they 
gave  linally  to  all  the  Highland  tribes  and  to  that 
part  of  the  island. — W.  F.  Sl^eiie,  Celtic  Scotland, 
T.  1. — See  Britain,  Celtic  Tribes. 

CALENDAR,  The  French  Republican.  See 
France  :  A.  D.  17!).J  (October). 

CALENDAR,  Gregorian.— Gregorian  Era. 
— "This  was  a  correction  and  improvement 
of  the  Julian  [see  Calendar,  Julian].  It  was 
discovered  at  length,  by  more  accurate  astronomi- 
cal observations,  tliat  the  true  solar  or  tropical 
year  was  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  and  57 
seconds;  whence  it  fell  short  of  the  Julian  or 
Egyptian  computation  of  365  days  and  0  hours  by 
an  interval  of  11  minutes,  3  seconds,  .  .  .which, 
in  the  course  of  130  years,  amounted  :o  a  whole 
day.  At  the  end  of  130  years,  therefore,  the 
tropical  year  began  a  day  earlier  than  the  civil, 
or  fell  back  a  day  behind  it.  .  .  .  In  the  time  of 
Pope  Gregory  XIII. ,  A.  D.  1582,  :  .  .  the  [ver- 
nal] cquino.K  was  found  to  be  on  tlic  lltli  of 
March,  having  fallen  back  ten  days.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  bring  it  forward  to  its  former  place 
of  the  21st,  he  left  out  ten  days  in  October,  call- 
ing the  5th  the  loth  day  of  that  niontli.  Whence 
in  that  year  of  confusion,  the  22d  day  of  Decem- 
ber became  the  flrst  of  January,  A.  I).  1583, 
which  was  the  flrst  year  of  the  Gregorian  Era. 


In  making  this  correction,  ho  was  prinrlpally 
a.ssislcd  by  llic^  cch'bratrd  matliemallciau  Clavlus. 
Hut  to  prevent  the  repi'tition  of  this  error  In 
future,  a  further  reformation  of  the  Julian  Calen- 
dar was  want  lug.  Because  the  vernal  eipilnox  fell 
backwards  three  days  in  the  course  of  31)0  years, 
Gregory,  chielly  l)y  the  assistance  of  Aloysius 
Llllius,  decreed  that  thn'e  days  should  be  omitted 
in  every  four  centuries:  namely,  that  every 
flrst,  seconil  and  third  centurial  year,  which 
would  otherwise  be  bisw.xtile,  should  be  a  com- 
mon year;  but  that  every  fourth  centurial  year 
should  remain  bi.s.sextile.  Thus,  llu!  years  A.  I). 
1700,  l.SOl),  1900,  and  2100,  22(h).  2300.  were  to  Ixj 
common  years;  but  A.  I).  1000,  2000,  2400,  to 
remain  leap  years.  By  this  ingenious  reform, 
the  Julian  Calendar  is  rendered  sulllciently  accu- 
rate for  all  tlu-  purposes  of  chronology,  and  even 
of  astronomy,  for  (IO(X)  years  to  come.  .  .  .  The 
Gregorian  or  reformed  Julian  year  was  not 
adopted  In  England  until  X.  1).  lt51,  when,  the 
deticiency  from  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Nice 
then  amounting  to  elev(^ii  days,  this  number  wa.s 
struck  out  of  the  month  of  Septen  ucr,  by  Act 
of  Parliament ;  and  the  3(1  day  was  counted  the 
14th,  in  that  year  of  confu.sion.  The  next  year 
A.  1).  1752,  was  the  flrst  of  the  new  style,  be- 
ginning January  1,  instead  of  Marcli"  25." — 
W.  Hales,  New  Aintlyiiiii  of  Vhronolof/y,  v.  1, 
l>Jc.  1. — The  change  from  Old  Style,  as  the  Julian 
Calendar,  and  dates  according  with  it,  now  came 
to  be  called  to  New  Style,  or  the  reformed,  Gre- 
gorian Calendar,  was  made  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
part  of  Italy,  part  of  the  Netherlands,  France, 
Denmark,  and  Lorraine,  in  A.  D.  1582;  in  Poland 
in  1586;  in  Hungary  in  1587;  in  Catholic  Switzer- 
land in  1583;  in  Catliolic  Germany  in  1584;  la 
nio.st  parts  of  Protestant  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land in  1700  and  1701,  and,  lastly,  in  England,  in 
1751.  In  Russia,  Greece,  and  the  East  generally, 
the  Old  Style  is  still  retained. — Sir  II.  Nicolas, 
C'hroiwlot/i/  of  History. 

CALENDAR,  Julian.— Julian  Era.— "The 
epoch  of  the  Julia'i  Era,  which  precedes  the  com- 
mon or  Christian  Era  by  forty-flve  yeai's,  is  the 
n^formatiou  of  tlie  Roman  calendar  by  Julius 
Ciesar,  who  ordained  that  the  Year  of  Rome  707 
should  consist '  if  15  months,  forming  altogether 
445  days;  that  the  ensuing  year,  708,  should  be 
composed  of  365  days;  and  that  every  fourth  year 
should  contiiin  306  days,  tlie  additional  day 
being  introduced  after  the  Otii  of  the  calends  of 
March,  i.  c.,  the  24th  of  February,  which  year 
lie  called  Bissextile,  because  the  0th  of  the  calends 
of  March  were  then  doubled.  Julius  Ca-sar  also 
divided  the  months  into  the  numbcrof  days  which 
they  at  present  contain.  The  Roman  calendar, 
which  was  diviiled  into  calends,  nones  and  ides, 
was  used  in  most  public  instruments  throughout 
Europe  for  many  centuries.  .  .  .  The  calend  is 
the  1st  day  of  each  month.  Tlie  ides  wfrc  eight 
days  in  each  month:  in  March,  Jlay,  July  and 
October  the  ides  commence  on  th<i  15tli,  and  in 
all  other  laonths  on  the  13th  day.  The  nones 
are  the  5tli  day  of  each  month,  excepting  in 
March,  May,  July  and  October,  when  tlie  iiones 
fall  on  tlie  7th  day  The  days  of  the  inontli 
were  reckoned  backwards  instead  of  forwards: 
thus,  the  3d  calends  of  February  is  the  30tli  of 
January ;  the  4th  calends  of  February  the  29th 
January.  .  .  .  Excepting  July  and  August,  which 
were  named  after  Julius  and  Augustus  Ca;sar, 
having  been  called  Quiutilis  and  Sextilis,  tho 


347 


CALENDAR 


CALIFORNIA,  154!)-1781. 


Ilomiin  months  boro  tliclr  prcHont  iiamcM.  An 
error  prcviiilcd  for  !17  years  iifl<'r  the  dciilli  of 
.luliiis  Cicsiir,  from  reckoning?  every  third  liisteiid 
of  every  fourth  year  ii  hiKKextlle,  or  leap  year, 
Rg  if  the  year  contained  !t(ir((iays,  8  liouin.  Wlien 
tliiH  miHtalte  wan  (ietecteci,  tliirteen  interealatloiis 
Jiad  occurred  instead  of  ten,  and  tlio  year  consc- 
(|Uently  l)ej{aii  tliree  days  too  lute:  tlie  calendar 
was,  therefore,  ajfuin  corrected,  and  it  was  or- 
dered tliat  eacli  of  tlie  cnsidnp  twelve  years 
should  contain  305  days  only,  and  that  there 
shoidd  not  be  any  leap  year  until  A.  U.  C.  700 
or  A.  D.  7.  From  that  time  the  years  have  been 
ealcidated  without  mistakes,  and  tlie  Uoman  year 
lias  been  u(h>pted  by  all  Christian  nations,  tlinuju;h 
about  the  sixth  century  they  began  to  date  from 
thebirtliof  oiirHaviour." — l^irll.  Nicolas,  Chron- 
ology of  JliKlon/,  p.  4. — "  It  nilKht  naturally  have 
been  cxp.^cted  that  Julius  Ciesar  would  have  so 
ordered  his  reformed  solar  year,  as  to  begin  on 
the  day  of  the  winter  solstice,  which.  In  the  '  Year 
of  Confusion  '  [i.  e.,  the  year  in  which  the  error 
of  the  calendar  was  corrected]  was  supposed  to 
fall  on  Dec.  2.5.  Rut  he  chose  to  begin  his  new 
year  on  the  first  of  January  following,  because 
on  that  day  the  n^oon  was  new,  or  in  conjunc- 
tion witli  the  sun,  at  7  hours,  0  minutes  and  !i5 
seconds  after  ncwn.  By  this  means  he  began  his 
year  on  a  most  high  or  holy  day  among  tlio  ar- 
dent Druids,  with  whoso  usages  ho  was  well  ac- 
(|uainted,  and  also  made  his  new  year  tlie  first 
of  u  lunar  cycle." — W.  Hales,  Kew  Analysis  of 
Chronology,  v.\,  bk.  \. 

At.so  in:  C.  '"lerivale,  Ilist.  of  the  Romans, 
eh.  '20. — For  on  account  of  the  subsequent  correc- 
tion of  tho  Julian  calendar,  see  CALEtroAR,  Que- 

OOItlAN. 

CALENDS.    See  Calendar,  Jclian. 

CALETI,  The.    See  Bei.o^,. 

CALHOUN,  John  C,  and  the  War  of  1812. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1810-1813. 
. . .  .And  the  Nullification  Movement.  See 
United  States  of  A.m.  :  A.  D.  1828-18.'i3. 

CALIFORNIA:  The  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants. See  American  Aborigines:  Shosiionean 
Family,  and  SIodocs  and  their  California 

NEIQllnORS. 

A.  D.  1543-1781.— Origin  of  the  name.— 
Early  Spanish  exploration  and  settlement. — 
The  founding  of  the  Franciscan  missions. — 

"The  settlements  of  the  Spanish  miasionaries 
within  the  present  limits  of  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia date  from  the  first  foundation  of  San  Diego 
in  1769.  The  mis-sions  that  were  later  founded 
north  of  San  Diego  were,  with  the  original 
establishment  itself,  for  a  time  known  merely  by 
some  collective  name,  such  as  the  Northern 
/  Missions.  But  later  the  name  California,  already 
/  long  since  applied  to  tho  country  of  the  peninsular 

missions  to  the  Southward,  was  extended  to  the 
new  land,  with  various  prefixes  or  qualifying 
phrases;  and  out  of  these  the  defluitive  name 
Alta  [or  Upper]  California  at  last  came,  being 
'  ■  applied  to  our  present  country  during  the  whole 
,  period  of  the  Jlexicau  Republican  ownership. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  name  California,  no 
serious  question  remains  that  this  name,  as  first 
applied,  between  1535  and  1539  to  a  portion  of 
Lower  California,  was  derived  from  an  old 
printed  romance,  tho  one  which  Mr.  Edward 
Everett  Hale  rediscovered  in  1862,  and  from 
which  he  drew  this  now  accepted  conclusion. 
For,  in  this  romance,  the  name  California  was 


already  before  1520  applied  to  n  fabulous  island, 
deseril)e<l  as  near  tlio  Indies  and  also  '  very  near 
the  Terrestrial  Paradise. '  Colonists  whom  Cortes 
brouglit  to  the  newly  discovered  peniiisida  in 
1535,  and  who  returned  the  ne:;t  year,  may  have 
been  the  first  to  apply  the  name  to  this  supposed 
island,  on  which  they  had  Iieen  for  a  time  resi- 
dent. The  coast  of  Upper  California  was  first 
visited  (iuring  the  voyage  of  the  explorer  Juan 
Cabrillo  in  1542-43.  Several  landings  were  then 
made  on  the  coast  and  on  the  islands,  in  tho 
Santa  Barbara  regicm.  ...  In  1579  Drake's 
famous  visit  took  place  [see  America:  A.  D. 
1573-15801.  .  .  .  It  '  is  .  .  .  almost  perfectly- 
sure  that  he  did  not  enter  or  observe  the  Golden 
Gate,  and  that  he  got  no  sort  of  idea  of  tho 
existence  of  the  Great  Day.  .  .  .  This  result  of 
the  examination  of  the  evidence  about  Drake's 
voyage  is  now  fairly  well  accepted,  although  some 
people  will  always  try  to  insist  that  Drake  dis- 
covered our  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  The  name 
San  Francisco  was  probably  applied  to  a  port  on 
this  coast  for  tho  first  time  by  Cermciloii,  who, 
in  a  voyage  from  tho  Philippines  in  1595  ran 
ashore,  while  exploring  tho  coast  near  Point 
Reyes.  It  is  now,  however,  perfectly  sure  that 
neither  ho  nor  any  other  Spanish  navigator  be- 
fore 1709  applied  this  name  to  our  present  bay, 
which  remained  utterly  unknown  to  Europeans 
during  all  this  periotl.  .  .  .  lu  1602-8,  Sebastian 
Vizouno  conducted  a  Spanish  exploring  expedi- 
tion along  tho  California  coast.  .  .  .  From  this 
voyage  a  little  more  knowledge  of  the  diaracter 
of  tlie  coast  was  gained;  and  thenceforth 
geographical  researches  in  the  region  of  Cali- 
fornia ceased  for  over  0.  century  and  a  holf. 
AVith  only  this  meagre  result  we  reach  the  era  of 
the  first  settlement  of  Upper  California.  Tho 
missions  of  tho  peninsula  of  Lower  California 
passed,  in  1767,  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits, 
into  the  hands  of  the  Franciscans;  and  tlie 
Spanish  government,  whoso  attention  was  at- 
tracted in  tills  direction  by  the  changed  con- 
ditions, ordered  the  immediate  prosecution  of  a 
long-cherished  plan  to  provide  the  Manilla  ships, 
on  their  return  voyage,  with  good  ports  of 
supply  and  repairs,  and  to  occupy  the  north- 
west land  as  a  safeguard  against  Russian  or 
other  aggressions.  .  .  .  Thus  began  the  career 
of  Spanish  discovery  and  settlement  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  early  yeors  show  a  generally  rapid 
progress,  only  one  great  disaster  occurring, —  the 
destruction  of  San  Diego  Mission  in  1775,  by 
assailing  Indians.  But  this  loss  was  quickly  re- 
paired. In  1770  tho  ^Mission  of  San  Carlos  was 
founded  at  !Monterey.  In  1772,  a  land  expedi- 
tion, under  Fages  and  Crespi,  first  explored  the 
eastern  shore  of  our  San  Francisco  Bay,  in  an 
effort  to  reach  by  land  the  old  Port  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. .  .  .  After  1775,  the  old  name  began  to 
bo  generally  applied  to  the  new  Bay,  and  so, 
thenceforth,  the  name  Port  of  San  Francisco 
means  what  we  now  mean  thereby.  In  1775, 
Lieutenant  Ayala  entered  the  new  harbor  by 
water.  In  the-following  year  tho  Mission  at  San 
Francisco  was  founded,  and  in  October  its  church 
was  dedicated.  Not  only  missions,  however,  but 
pueblos,  inhabited  by  Spanish  colonists,  lay  in 
the  ofllcial  plan  of  the  new  undertakings.  The 
first  of  these  to  be  established  was  San  Jose, 
founded  in  November,  1777.  The  next  was  Los 
Angeles,  founded  in  September,  1781." — J. 
Royce,  California,  eh.  1,  sect.  3. 


349 


CALIFORNIA,  1543-1781. 


CALIFORNIA,  184ft-1847. 


Also  in:  H.  IT.  Rnncroft,  Ilht.  of  the  PacijJc 
Sldtm,  r.  \;i(('iilif,inii(i,  t,  1).— F.  AV.  IJlackniur, 
SlKtiiinh  Iimtitiitiiiiiit  iifilie  Nmithirtut,  eh.  Tt-\Ti. 

A.  D.  1846-1847. — The  American  conquest 
and  its  unexplained  preludes.—  "  Knrly  in  1H4(I, 
the  AiiuTiiiiiiH  ill  Ciiliforniiuiumbcrcil  nlioiit  *{K), 
mostly  iiblc-bodicd  men,  mid  wlifi  in  llicir 
iictivity,  (MitcTiirisc,  mid  midacllv,  ((institulcd 
(initc  II  formidi'bic  I'lcmcnt  in  tliis  spiirscly  in- 
linbitcd  region.  Tlio  population  of  Ciilifornin  iit 
this  time  was  6,000  Mc.xican.s  mid  200,000  In- 
dians. Wc  nnr^v  come  to  a  period  in  the  history 
of  California  that  has  never  been  made  clear,  and 
respectinit  which  there  nroconllicting  statements 
ami  opinions.  The  following  facti  wr,!  ob- 
tained by  careful  inquiry  of  intelligent  parties 
who  lived  in  California  during  the  period  men- 
tioned, and  wlio  jiarti  ■ipated  in  the  scenes  nar- 
rated. The  native  Californians  appear  to  have 
entertained  no  very  strong  allection  for  their  own 
government,  or,  rather,  they  felt  that  under  the 
influences  at  work  they  would  inevitably,  and 
at  no  very  distant  period,  become  a  dismembered 
branch  o"f  the  Mexican  nation;  and  the  matter 
was  finally  nanowcd  down  to  this  contested 
point,  nar.ielv,  whether  this  state  surgery  sliould 
be  performed  by  Americans  or  English,  the  real 
struggle  beiug  between  tlioso  two  nationalities. 
In  tlie  northern  part  of  tlie  territory,  such  native 
Californians  as  the  Vallejos,  Castros,  etc.,  with 
the  old  American  settlers,  Leese,  Larkin,  and 
others,  sympathized  with  the  United  States,  and 
desired  annexation  to  tlie  American  republic. 
In  the  south,  Pio  Pico,  then  governor  of  the  ter- 
ritory, ancl  other  prominent  native  Califoniians, 
with  James  Alexander  Forbes,  the  English  con- 
sul, who  settled  in  Santa  Clara  in  1838,  wer'  ex- 
erting themselves  to  bring  the  country  under 
English  domination.  .  .  .  This  was  the  state  of 
affairs  for  two  or  three  years  previous  to  the 
Mexican  War.  For  some  months  before  the  news 
that  hostilities  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  had  commenced  [see  Mexico:  A.  D. 
1846-1847]  reached  California,  the  belief  that 
such  an  event  would  certainly  occur  was  uni- 
versal throughout  the  territory.  This  quickened 
the  impulses  of  all  parties,  and  stimulated  the 
two  .rivals  — the  American  and  English — in 
tlu'ir  efforts  to  be  the  first  to  obtain  a  permanent 
hold  of  the  country.  The  United  States  govern- 
ment had  sent  Colonel  Fremont  to  the  Pacific  on 
an  exploring  expedition.  Colonel  Fremont  had 
passed  through  California,  and  was  on  his  way 
to  Oregon,  when,  in  Jlarch,  1846,  Lieutenant 
Gillespie,  of  the  United  States  marine  service, 
was  sent  from  Washington  with  dispatches  to 
Colonel  Fremont.  Lieutenant  Gillespie  went 
across  Mexico  to  Mazatlan,  and  from  thence  by 
sea  to  California.  He  finally  overtook  Fremont 
early  in  June,  1846,  a  short  distance  on  the  road 
to  Oregon,  ond  communicated  to  hira  the  purport 
of  his  dispatches,  they  having  been  committed  to 
memory  and  the  papers  destroyed  before  he  en- 
tered Mexico.  Wliat  these  instructions  author- 
ized Colonel  Fremont  to  do  has  never  been  pro- 
mulgated, but  it  is  said  they  directed  him  to 
remain  in  California,  and  hold  himself  in  readi- 
ness to  cooperate  with  the  United  States  fleet,  in 
case  war  with  Mexico  should  occur.  Fremont 
immediately  returned  to  California,  and  camped 
a  short  time  on  Feather  River,  and  then  took  up 
his  headquarters  at  Sutter's  Fort.  A  few  days 
after,  on  Sunday,  June  14th,  1846,  a  party  of 


fourteen  Americans,  under  no  apparent  com- 
inancl,  appeared  in  Sonoma,  captured  the  place, 
raised  tlie  Bear  flag,  pronaimed  the  iiidependen'ee 
of  California,  and  carried  olT  to  Kremont's  hea<l- 
((uarters  four  prominent  citizens,  namely,  the 
two  Vallejos,  J.  P.  Leese,  .ii'il  Colonel  Priulhon. 
On  the  eoiisiimmationof  these  aeliievenients,  one 
Merritt  was  elei'ted  captain.  Tills  was  a  rough 
Iiarty  of  revolulioiiists,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  improvised  the  famous  Hear  flag  shows  upon 
what  slender  means  nations  I'.nd  kingiloms  are 
sometimes  started.  From  an  estimable  old  la<ly 
they  obtained  a  fragmentary  portion  of  her 
whfte  skirt,  on  which  tliey  painted  what  was  in- 
ten' "(I  to  represent  a  grizzly  bear,  but  not  beintf 
artistic  in  their  work  .  .  .  tlie  Mexicans,  with 
tl  jir  usual  happy  faculty  on  such  occasions, 
called  it  the  'Bandera  Colchis,' or  '  Ilog  Flag.' 
Ti.is  flag  now  ornaments  the  rooms  of  the  Pioneer 
Society  In  San  Francisco.  On  the  18th  of  June, 
1846,  William  B.  Ide,  a  native  of  New  England, 
who  had  emigrated  to  California  the  year  pre- 
vious, issued  a  proclamation  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  fortress  of  Sonoma.  This  proclama- 
tion declared  the  purpose  to  overthrow  the 
existing  government,  and  establish  in  its  place 
the  '■cpublican  form.  .  .  .  General  Castro  now 
proposed  to  attack  the  feebly  mantfed  post  at 
Sonoma,  but  he  was  frustrated  by  a  rapid  move- 
ment of  Fremont,  who,  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1846,  called  a  meeting  of  Americans  at  Sonoma; 
and  this  osscmbly,  acting  under  his  advice,  pro- 
claimed tlie  independence  of  the  country,  ap- 
pointed Fremont  Governor,  and  declared  war 
against  ]\'exico.  During  these  proceedings  at 
Sonoma,  a  flag  with  one  star  floated  over  the 
headquarters  of  Fremont  at  Sutter's  Fort.  The 
meaning  of  this  lone-star  flag  no  one  seems  to 

have  understood lust  as  Piemont,  with 

his  company,  had  started  for  tlie  coast  to  con- 
front Castro,  and  act  on  the  aggressive  gener.illy, 
he  was  suddenly  brought  to  a  stand  by  the  os- 
tounding  intelligence  that  Commodore  Sloat  had 
arrived  at  Monterey,  and  that,  on  the  7th  of 
July,  1846,  he  had  raised  the  American  flag  and 
taken  possession  of  the  place ;  also,  that,  by  com- 
mand of  Commodore  Sloat,  Con'mander  Mont- 
gomery, of  the  United  States  sloop-of-war  Ports- 
mouth, then  lying  in  San  Francisco  Bay,  had, 
on  the  8th  of  "July,  taken  possession  of  Yerba 
Buena  and  raised  the  American  flag  on  the  plaza. 
This  of  course  settled  the  business  for  all  par- 
ties. The  Mexican  flag  and  the  Bear  flag  were 
lowered,  and  in  due  time,  nolens  volena,  all  ac- 
quiesced in  the  flying  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 
.  .  .  Commodore  Sloat  .  .  .  had  heard  of  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
.  .  .  sailed  from  Mazatlan  for  California,  took 
possession  of  the  country  and  raised  the  Ameri- 
can flag  on  his  own  responsibility.  These  deci- 
sive steps  on  the  part  of  Commodore  Sloat  were 
not  taken  a  moment  too  soon,  as  on  the  14th  of 
July  the  British  man-of-war  Collingwood,  Sir 
George  Seymour  commanding,  arrived  at  Mon- 
terey," intending,  as  Sir  George  acknowledged, 
"  to  take  possession  of  that  portion  of  the  coun- 
try." In  August,  Commodore  Sloat  relinquished 
the  command  of  the  Pacific  squadron  to  Com- 
modore Stockton,  who  "immediately  instituted 
bold  and  vigorous  measures  for  the  subjugation 
of  the  territory.  All  his  available  force  for  land 
operations  was  350  men  — sailors  and  marines. 
But  so  rapid  and  skilful  were  Stockton's  move- 


849 


rALIFOUNIA,  1840-1847. 


CALIFORNIA,  1856. 


mfnln,  iiml  ho  rtllcli'nt  wiis  the  rcM'ipcriitInn  of 
KrriiiDiil  with  his  kiiiuII  troop,  timt  Culiforiiiik 
wiiH  I'lTri'tiinlly  coiiiiiii'rril  in  .litiiiiitry,  lN4i. 
DiiriiiK  all  this"  pfrlod  the  people  of  tlie  Unilcil 
Htiites  were  Ixiionmt  of  wliiil  was  tranHpiritiff  in 
('alifoniia  anil  vice  versa.  Hut  the  aetlon  of 
CoiinniMlore  HIcmt  .  .  .  anil  .  .  .  ConiniiKlore 
Htix'ktoii  .  .  .  iliil  hut  anticipate  the  wishes  of 
tlio  United  Slates  (Joverntneiit,  whieli  had,  in 
June,  IHIfl,  dispatched  Oeneral  Kearney  across 
tbii  country  from  Fort  Leavenworth  [see  Nkw 
Mkxico:  a.  1).  IHJtl),  at  the  liend  of  l.fXH)  men, 
witn  orders  to  conquer  California,  and  \vhen 
conquered  to  assume  the  K'>veniorsldp  of  the 
territory.  Oeneral  Kearney  arrived  In  California 
via  Han  Pasiiuxl  with  j^reatly  dindnished  forces, 
DecemlK^r,  18KI,  a  few  weeks  licfore  active  mili- 
tary openitioiiH  ill  that  rej?ion  ceased." — E.  K. 
Dunbar,  Th<'  Unmanee  of  the  Af/i;  pp.  21)-4'3. 

Also  in:  H.  11.  Bancroft,  Iliiit.  of  the  I'lififln 
matet,  V.  17  (OiUfoniiii,  v.  ,'5),  r/i.  'l-lB.— .1.  C. 
Fremont,  Mcintiimiifmi/  Life,  r.  1,  eh.  14-15. 

A.  D.  1848.— Cession  to  the  United  States. 
SeeMKXKO:  A.  I).  IHlrt. 

A.  D.  1848-1849.  -The  discovery  of  Gold 
and  the  immigration  of  the  Gold-hunters. — 
"  In  the  summer  of  IH  |7  the  American  residents 
of  California,  numbering  perhaps  2,0(X),  and 
mostly  established  near  San  Francisco  Bay, 
looked  forward  with  hope  and  copfiilenee  to  the 
future.  Their  government  held  secure  posses- 
sion of  the  whole  territory,  and  had  announced 
its  iiurpo.se  to  hold  it  pennanently.  ...  It  so 
hap|)ened  that  at  this  time  one  of  the  leading 
representJitives  of  American  interests  in  Califor- 
nia was  John  A.  Sutter,  a  Swiss  by  his  paren- 
tage; a  Qernmn  by  the  place  of  his  birth  in 
Baden ;  an  American  by  residence  and  natviraliza- 
tlou  in  Missouri;  and  a  Jlcxicnn  by  subsequent 
residence  and  naturalization  in  California.  In 
18IiO  he  had  settled  at  the  lunotion  of  the  Sacra- 
mento and  American  rivers,  near  the  site 
of  the  present  city  of  Sacromento."  Ills 
rancho  became  known  as  Sutter's  Fort. 
In  the  summer  of  1847  he  planned  the  build- 
ing of  a  Hour-mill,  and  "partly  to  get  lum- 
ber for  it,  he  determined  to  build  a  saw-mill  id.so. 
Since  there  was  no  good  timber  in  the  valley, 
the  saw-mill  must  be  in  the  mountains.  The 
site  for  it  was  selected  by  James  W.  Marshall,  a 
native  of  New  Jersey,  a  skilful  wheelwright  by 
occupation,  industrious,  honest,  generous,  but 
'cranky,'  full  of  wild  fancies,  and  defective  in 
some  kinds  of  business  sense.  .  .  .  The  place 
for  liis  mill  was  in  the  small  valley  of  Colonui, 
1,.500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  45 
miles  from  Slitter's  Fort,  from  which  it  was 
accessible  by  wagon  without  expense  for  road- 
making."  Early  in  1848  the  saw -mill  was  nearly 
completed;  "the  water  had  been  turned  into 
the  race  to  carry  away  some  of  the  loose  dirt 
and  gravel,  and  then  had  been  turned  oft  again. 
On  theafterncKjnof  Monday,  the24tliof  January, 
Marshall  wasnvalking  in  the  toil-race,  when  on 
its  rotten  granite  bcd-ro^k  he  saw  some  yellow 
particles  and  picked  up  several  of  them.  The 
largest  were  about  the  size  of  grains  of  wheat. 
.  .  .  He  thought  they  were  gold,  and  went  to 
the  mill,  where  he  told  the  men  that  he  had 
found  a  gold  mine.  At  the  time,  little  import- 
ance was  attached  to  his  statement.  It  was 
regarded  as  a  ijroper  subject  for  ridicule.  Mar- 
shall liummered  Ids  new  metal  and  found  it 


malleable;  he  put  it  Into  the  kitchen  fire,  nnd 
oliMS-ved  that  it  did  not  readily  melt  or  iH'come 
diseolored  ;  he  compared  Its  color  with  gold  coin; 
and  the  more  be  examined  it  the  more  he  was 
eonviiiced  that  it  was  gold."  lie  soon  found  an 
opportunity  to  sliow  his  discovery  to  Sutter, 
who  tested  the  metal  with  add  and  bv  careful 
weighing,  and  satistii'd  himself  that  MarshaH's 
conclusion  was  correct.  In  the  spring  of  1H4S 
San  Fninclsco,  a  vilhigo  of  al)out  700  inhabi- 
tants, had  two  newspapers,  the  'Californian' 
and  the  'California  Star,'  both  weeklies.  Tho 
llrst  printed  nu'iition  of  the  gold  discovery  was 
a  short  paragraph  In  the  former,  under  date  of 
the  t5th  of  March,  stating  that  a  gold  mine  had 
been  fouiiil  at  Sutter's  Mill,  and  tliat  a  jmckiigo 
of  the  metal  worth  ililO  had  been  received  at 
New  Helvetia.  .  .  .  Before  the  middle  of  Juno 
the  whole  territory  resounded  with  the  cry  of 
'  gold ' '  .  .  Nearly  all  the  men  hurried  oil  to 
the  minis.  Workshops,  stores,  dwellings, 
wives,  and  even  ripe  tlclds  of  grain,  were  left 
for  a  time  to  take  earo  of  themselves.  .  .  . 
The  reports  of  the  discovery,  which  began  to 
roach  the  Atlantic  Sttites  in  September,  1849, 
commanded  little  criHlence  there  before  January; 
but  the  news  of  the  arrival  of  large  amounts  of 
gold  ut  Mazatlan,  Valparaiso,  Panama,  and  New 
York,  in  the  latter  part  of  tho  winter,  put  an 
end  to  all  doubt,  and  in  the  . ,  .ing  there  was 
sucli  a  rush  of  peaceful  migration  as  the  world 
had  never  seen.  In  1840,  25,000  — according  to 
one  authority  .50,000  —  imndgrants  went  by 
land,  nnd  23,000  by  sea  from  the  region  east  of 
tliB  Rocky  Mountains,  and  by  sea  perhaps 
40,000  from  other  parts  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Tho 
gold  yield  of  1848  was  estimated  at  |5,000,000; 
that  of  1840  at  $2;),0(M),000;  that  of  IS.W  at 
.150,000,000;  that  of  18.53  at  |05,000,()00;  and 
tlu'n  came  tlie  decline  which  has  continued  until 
the  present  time  [1800]  when  the  yield  is  about 
112,000,000."— J.  8.  Ilittell,  The  DiacoKrn  of 
Gold  in  California  (Century  Magazine,  February, 
1891). 

Also  in;  E.  E.  Dunbar,  Tlie  Itmnanee  irf  the 
Ai/e,  or  the  Diseotery  of  Gold  in  Cat. — II.  H. 
Bi'incroft,  Iliitt.  of  tlie  Pucifie  States,  ».  18  (Cali- 
fornia, V.  6)  eh.  2-4. 

A.  D.  1850. — Admission  to  the  Union  as  a 
free  state. — The  Compromise.  See  United 
St.\te8  op  Am.  :  A.  I).  1850. 

A.  D.  1856. — The  San  Francisco  Vigilance 
Committee. — " The  association  of  cilizensknown 
a;  the  vigilance  conmiittec,  which  was  organized 
ii  Ban  Francisco  on  the  15th  of  May,  1856,  has 
li  ui  such  an  iuHuence  on  tho  growth  and  pros- 
pi  vity  of  tliat  city  that  now  [1877],  at  tho  end  of 
21  -ears,  a  true  account  of  tho  origin  nnd  subse- 
qiiei.*.  u'jtionof  that  association  will  bo  read  with 
interest.  For  some  time  the  corruption  in  the 
courts  of  law,  the  insecurity  of  the  ballot-box 
at  elections,  and  the  infamous  character  of  many 
of  the  public  oflicials,  had  been  the  subject  of 
coir  plaint,  not  only  in  San  Francisco,  but 
throughout  the  State  of  California.  It  was  evi- 
dent to  the  honest  and  respectable  citizens  of 
San  Francisco  that  ...  it  would  become  the 
duty  of  the  people  to  protect  themselves  by 
reforming  the  courts  of  law,  and  by  taking  tho 
ballot-box  from  the  hands  of  greedy  and 
unprincipled  politicians."  The  latter  were  repre- 
sented by  a  newspaper  called  the  Sunday  Times, 
edited  by  one  James  P.  Casey.    The  opinion  of 


350 


CALIFORNIA.  1856. 


CALIFORNIA,  ISM. 


thp  hfitter  cliw«'s  of  rltizonii  was  volcrd  by  tho 
Evcninji  niillctin,  wliow  I'ditor  wiis.Iiiiiich  KIii);. 
On  till-  Mill  rif  Miiy,  IMi],  lUuii  wan  Hlmt  l>y 
Ciiwy,  In  till?  public  Hircct,  receiving  ii  wouiitl 
from  which  he  (litvl  nix  diiys  Inter,  luid  Intense 
excitement  (if  foelinf?  In  the  city  was  iinHluccd. 
Cnsey  Hiirrendercd  liiiii.Helf  and  wa.s  lodKed  in 
jnil.  DurliiK  the  cvcniiiK  i)f  till)  Utli  sonic  of 
the  nicnibcrs  of  ii  vlttllnncc  coiiiniittec  which 
had  been  formed  in  IHUl,  and  which  hud  then 
checked  ii  free  riot  of  crime  in  the  suddenly 
populated  and  unorganized  city,  by  tryirif?  and 
exccutlnjf  a  few  desperadoes,  came  to/;ethcr  and 
determined  theorfranizatlon  of  another  conimlttce 
for  the  same  purpose.  "  The  next  day  (the  15tli) 
a  set  of  rules  and  regulations  wero  drawn  up 
which  each  member  was  obliged  to  sljrn.  The 
coniniittce  took  spacious  nMiins,  and  all  citizens 
of  8iin  Francisco  having?  the  welfiiro  of  the  city 
at  heart  were  Invited  to  Join  the  association. 
Several  thousands  enrolled  themselves  in  ii  few 
days.  .  .  .  The  members  of  the  vi>;llaiice  com- 
mittee were  divided  Into  companies  of  ItH), 
each  company  Imvlm;  a  captain.  Early  on  Sun- 
day (the  18th)  orders  were  sent  to  the  dilTcrcnt 
Crtptuins  to  appear  with  their  companies  ready 
for  duty  at  the  headquarters  of  the  coninilttee. 
In  Sacramento  Street,  at  nine  o'clock.  When  all 
the  ccmipanics  had  arrived,  they  were  formed 
Into  one  bodv,  in  all  a'l.'mt  2,000  men.  Sixty 
picked  men  >'ero  ,electei;  as  ii  guard  frr  the 
cxecutivo  conimiUce.  At  half-past  eleven  the 
whole  force  moved  in  the  directum  of  the  jail. 
A  Inrgj  number  of  spectators  had  collected,  but 
there  was  no  ccmfusion,  no  noi.se.  They  marched 
through  tho  city  to  Broadway,  and  there  formed 
in  the  open  space  bef.ire  the  jail.  .  .  .  The 
houses  opposite  tho  Jail  were  searched  for  men 
and  arms  secreted  there,  the  committee  wishing 
to  prevent  any  chance  of  u  collision  which  might 
lend  to  bloodshed.  A  camion  was  then  brought 
forward  and  idiiccd  in  front  of  the  jail,  the 
muzzle  pointed  at  llic  door."  The  jai'er  was 
now  called  upon  to  deliver  Casey  io  tlio  com 
mittce,  and  complied,  being  unable  to  resist. 
One  Charles  Cora,  who  had  killi-d  a  United  States 
marshal  the.  November  previous,  was  taken 
from  the  jail  at  the  same  time.  The  two  prisoii- 
.■V8  were  escort  "d  to  the  quarters  of  the  vigilance 
committee  and  there  conlined  under  guard. 
Two  days  afterwards  (>Ioy  20th)  Mr.  King  died. 
Casey  and  Cora  'vero  put  on  trial  before  a  tribu- 
nal which  tho  committee  had  organized,  were 
condemned  to  death,  and  were  hanged,  with 
Bolemnity,  on  the  22d,  from  a  platform  erected  in 
front  of  the  building  on  Sacramenio  Street. 
"The  executive  commitce,  Hnding  that  tho 
power  they  held  was  perfectly  under  coutrol, 
and  that  there  was  no  danger  of  any  popui.;r 
excesses,  determined  to  continue  their  work  and 
rid  the  country  of  the  gang  of  ruffians  which  had 
for  so  long  a  time  managed  elections  in  Sun  Fran- 
cisco ond  its  vicinity.  These  men  were  all  well 
known,  and  were  ordered  to  leave  San  Francisco. 
Many  went  away.  Those  who  refused  to  go 
were  arrested  and  taken  to  the  rooms  of  the 
committee,  where  they  were  contlned  until 
opportunities  offered  for  shipping  them  out  of 
'..he  country.  .  .  .  The  governor  of  California  at 
this  time  was  Mr.  .1.  Jscely  Johnson.  .  .  .  The 
major-general  of  tho  second  divifion  of  state 
militia  (which  included  the  city  and  county  of 
Son  Francisco)  was  Jlr.   William  T.   Sherman 


[aftcrwartls  well  known  In  tho  world  m  Oonoml 
Sherman]  who  had  ri'»lgiied  his  commlHsloii  in 
the  rnlteil  Slates  army  and  had  iM'coine  a  part- 
ner in  the  banking  house  of  I^ucim,  Turner  & 
Co.,  In  San  Francisco.  .  .  .  Toward  the  end  of 
May,  Oovenior  .loliiison  .  .  .  appealed  to  (Jen- 
cral  Slierman  for  advice  uiiil  assistance  in  putting 
a  stop  to  the  vigilance  committee.  At  this  tinin 
(lenenil  Wool  was  In  command  of  the  United 
States  troops,  and  ('omnuHlore  Karragut  had 
charge  of  the  navy  yard."  Oeneral  Wool  was 
applied  to  for  amis,  and  Commodore  Furragut 
was  asked  to  si  at  Inn  a  vessel  of  war  at  anchor  off 
San  Francisci).  Holh  olllccrs  i!  ■clliied  to  act  as 
re(iuested,  having  no  authority  to  do  so.  "  When 
(lovcrnor  Johnson  returned  to  Sacnimi'iito,  a 
writ  was  issued,  at  his  rc(iucst,  by  Judge  Terry 
of  the  supremo  court,  conimandin)^  the  slierlil 
of  San  Francisco  to  bring  before  him  due  William 
.Mulligan,  who  was  then  in  the  hands  of  tho 
vigilance  committee."  The  vigilance  conimitteo 
refu.scd  to  surrender  their  prisoner  to  the  sherilT, 
and  (Jcneral  Sherinan  was  ordered  to  call  out  the 
militia  of  liis  di\ision  tosupport  that  otlicer.  At 
the  same  time  the  governor  Issued  a  proclamation 
declaring  tho  city  of  San  Francisco  in  a  state  of 
Insurrection.  General  Shernian  found  it  impo8.si- 
ble  to  arm  his  mlliliii  for  service,  and  resigned 
the  command.  The  governor  sought  and  ob- 
tained arms  elsewhere;  but  tho  schooner  which 
brought  them  was  seized  and  the  arms  possessed 
by  tlie  conimlttce.  On  attempting  to  arrest  tliu 
person  who  had  charge  of  the  schooner,  one  of 
tho  vigilance  conimitte<''s  policemen,  named  Hop- 
kins, WHS  stabbed  by  the  afterwards  notorious 
Judge  Terry,  who,  with  .some  others,  had  under- 
taken to  protect  tlio  man.  "The  signal  for  a 
general  meetiugund'r  "rrus  wf?"  >-:i,iindc(l,  and  in 
a  short  time  l.tWO  inca  wc"'  reported  ready  for 
duty.  In  an  hour  4,000  men  were  under  arms 
and  prepared  to  act  against  the  so-culled  law- 
and-order  party,  who  were  collected  in  force  at 
tho  dilTerent  armories.  These  armories  wero 
surrounded."  Judge  Terry  was  demanded  and 
delivered  up,  and  all  the  arms  and  ammunition 
!  in  the  armories  were  removed.  "In  this  way 
was  settled  the  question  of  powr  between  the 
vigilance  committee,  who  wished  to  restore 
onler  and  were  working  to  establish  an  honest 
judiciary  and  a  ])ure  tmllot,  and  their  opponents, 
the  law-and-ordcr  party,  who  wished  to  uphold 
the  dignity  of  the  law  by  means  of  a  butcher'8 
knife  in  the  hands  of  a  judge  of  the  supreme 
court.  Although  the  committee  were  masters  in 
San  Francisco,  their  position  was  made  more 
precarious  by  the  very  fact  of  their  having  dis- 
armed their  opponents.  The  attention  of  the 
whole  Union  was  attracted  to  the  state  of  things 
in  California,  and  it  was  rumore<i  that  instruc- 
tions had  been  sent  from  Washington  to  all  the 
United  States  vcsselo  in  the  Pacific  to  proceed  at 
once  to  San  Francisco ;  an(i  that  orders  were  on 
the  way,  placing  the  United  States  military 
force  In"  California  at  the  disposal  of  Governor 
Johnson.  The  committee  went  on  steadily  with 
their  work.  .  .  .  All  the  iinportunt  changed 
which  they  had  undertaken  had  been  carried 
out  successfully,  and  they  would  gladly  have 
given  up  the  responsibility  they  hud  a  lined  liud 
it  not  been  for  the  ciwe  of  Judge  Ti  ....  At 
last  the  physicians  announced  that  lioi)kin8  was 
out  of  danger,  and  on  the  7tli  of  August  .Iiidgo 
Terry   was  released.    .    .   .   Having  got  rid  of 


351 


CALIFORNIA,  1856. 


CALIFORNIA.  1877-1880. 


.TiuIro  Terry  tlie  committee  prepared  to  bring 
tlieir  lnlx)ur»  to  a  close,  and  on  tlie  IHtli  of  August 
tlic  whole  iissociiition,  numbering  over  .1,000 
men,  after  mareliing  through  the  principiil  streets 
of  iSiin  Francisco,  returnecl  to  their  headquarters 
in  Sacramento  Street,  where  aft<'r  delivcriug  up 
their  arms  they  were  relieved  from  duty.  .  .  . 
In  tlic  following  November  there  v.iis  an  election 
of  city  and  county  oflicers.  Every  thing  went 
oil  very  (piietly.  A  'people's  tiolvet',  bearing 
the  mimes  of  thoroughly  trustworthy  citizens, 
irrespective  of  Jiarty,  was  elected  by  a  largo 
majority,  and  for  the  last  30  years  San  Fmncisco 
has  had  the  rejjutation  of  being  one  of  the  best 
governed  cities  in  the  United  States." — T.  G. 
Carv,  The  Sin  Francisco  Viyilanee  Covimittc< 
(Atlantic  MontMy,  Dec.  1877). 

At.so  in:  n.  II.  Bancroft,  Ilist.  of  the  Pacific 
States,  V.  18  (California,  v.  0),  ch.  35.— Gen.  W.  T. 
Sherman,  Menunrs,  ch.  4  (v.  1). 

A.  D.  1877-1880.— Denis  Kearney  and  the 
Sand  Lot  Party.— The  new  state  constitution. 
— "  Late  in  1H77  a  meeting  was  called  in  San  Fran- 
cisco to  express  sympathy  with  the  jnen  then  on 
strike  at  Pittsburg  in  Pennsylvania.  .  .  .  Some 
strong  language  used  at  this  meeting,  and  ex- 
aggerated by  the  newspapers,  frightened  the 
business  men  into  forming  a  sort  of  committee 
of  public  safety.  .  .  .  The  chief  result  of  the 
incident  was  further  irritation  of  the  poorer 
classes,  who  perceived  that  the  rich  were  afraid 
of  them,  and  therefore  disiicscd  to  deal  harshly 
with  them.  Shortly  after  came  an  election  of 
miuiicipal  olBcers  and  members  of  the  State 
legislature.  The  contest,  as  is  the  custom  in 
America,  brought  into  life  a  number  of  clubs 
and  other  organizations,  purporting  to  represent 
various  parties  or  sections  of  a  party,  and  among 
others  a  body  calling  itself  'The  Working  men's 
Trade  and  Labor  Union,'  the  Secretary  of  which 
was  a  certain  Denis  Kearney.  When  the  election 
was  over,  Kearney  declared  that  ho  would  keep 
his  imion  going,  and  form  a  working  man's  party. 
He  was  a  drayman  by  trade,  Irish  by  birth, 
brought  up  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  accustomed 
to  include  his  religion  among  the  established  in- 
stitutions be  reviled.  He  had  borne  a  good 
character  for  industry  and  steadiness  till  some 
friend  'put  him  into  stocks,'  and  the  loss  of 
what  he  hoped  to  gain  is  said  to  have  flt^t  turned 
him  to  agitation.  Ho  had  gained  some  faculty 
In  speaking  by  practice  at  a  Sunday  debating 
club  called  the  Lyceum  of  Self  Culture.  .  .  . 
Kearney's    tongue,    loud    and    abusive,    soon 

fathered  an  audience.  On  the  west  side  of  San 
rancisco,  as  you  cross  the  peninsula  from  tlie 
horbor  towards  the  ocean,  there  is  (or  then  was) 
a  large  open  space,  laid  out  for  building,  but  not 
yet  built  on,  covered  with  sand,  and  hence  called 
the  Sand  Lot.  Here  the  mob  had  been  wont  to 
gather  for  meetings;  here  Kearney  formed  his 
party.  At  first  he  had  merely  vagabonds  to  lis- 
ten, biit  one  of  the  two  pcsA  newspapers  took 
him  up.  These  two,  the  Chronicle  and  the 
Morning  Call,  were  in  keen  rivalry,  and  the  for- 
mer seeing  in  this  new  movement  a  chance  of 
going  ahead,  filling  its  columns  with  sensational 
matter  and  increasing  its  sale  among  working 
men,  went  in  hot  and  strong  for  the  Sand  Lot 
party.  .  .  .  The  advertisement  which  the  Chro-- 
nicle  gave  him  by  its  reports  and  articles,  and 
which  he  repaid  by  advising  working  men  to 
take  it,  soon  made  him  a  personage;  and  his 


position  was  finally  assured  by  his  being, 
along  with  several  other  speakers,  arrested  and 
prosecuted  on  a  charge  of  riot,  in  respect  of  in- 
llammatory  speeches  delivered  at  a  meeting  on 
tlie  top  of"  Nob  Hill,  one  of  the  steep  heights 
whicli  make  San  Francisco  the  most  picturesque 
of  American  cities.  The  prosecution  failed,  and 
Kearney  was  a  popular  hero.  Clerks  and  the 
better  class  of  citizens  now  began  to  attend  his 
meetings,  tliough  many  went  from  mere  curi- 
osity, as  they  would  have  gone  to  a  circus ;  tlio 
AV.  P.  C.  (working  man's  Party  of  California) 
was  organized  as  a  regular  party,  embraring  the 
whole  Stiite  of  California,  with  Kearney  for  its 
President.  .  .  .  The  Sand  Lot  party  <lrew  its 
support  chiefly  froir  tlic  Democrats,  wlio  here, 
as  in  the  East,  have  the  larger  share  of  the 
rabble:  hence  its  rise  was  not  unwelcome  to  tlio 
Republicans,  because  it  promised  to  divide  and 
weaken  their  old  opponents;  while  the  Demo- 
crats, hoping  ultimately  to  capture  it,  gave  a 
feeble  resistance.  Tlius  it  grew  the  faster,  and 
soon  began  to  run  a  ticket  of  its  own  at  city  and 
State  elections.  It  carried  most  of  the  city  offices, 
and  when  tlie  question  was  submitted  to  the 
people  whether  a  new  Constitution  should  be 
framed  for  California,  it  threw  its  vote  in  favor 
of  having  one  and  prevailed.  .  .  .  Next  came, 
in  the  summer  of  1878,  tlie  choice  of  delegates  to 
the  convention  which  was  to  frame  the  new  Con- 
stitution. The  Working  man's  Party  obtained  a 
substantial  representation  in  the  convention,  but 
its  nominees  were  ignorant  men,  without  ex- 
perience or  constructive  ideas.  .  .  .  However 
the  working  men's  delegates,  together  with  the 
more  numerous  and  less  corruptible  delegates  of 
thr  farmers,  got  their  way  in  many  things  and 
produced  that  surprising  instrument  by  which 
California  is  now  governed.  ...  1.  It  restricts 
and  limits  in  every  possible  way  the  powers  of 
the  State  legislature,  leaving  it  little  authority 
except  to  carry  out  by  statutes  the  provisions  of 
the  Constitution.  It  makes  'lobbying,'  i.  e., 
the  attempt  to  corrupt  a  legislator,  and  the  cor- 
rupt action  of  a  legislator,  felony.  2.  It  forbids 
tlie  State  legistaturo  or  local  authorities  to  incur 
debts  beyond  a  certain  limit,  taxes  uncultivated 
land  equally  ivith  cultivated,  makes  sums  due 
on  mortgage  taxable  in  the  district  where  the 
mortgaged  property  lies,  authorizes  an  income 
tax,  and  directs  a  highly  inquisitorial  scrutiny 
of  everybody's  property  for  the  purposes  of  taxa- 
tion. 3.  It  forbids  the  'watering  of  stock,'  de- 
clares that  the  State  has  power  to  prevent  cor- 
porations from  conducting  their  business  so  as  to 
'infringe  the  general  well-being  of  the  State'; 
directs  the  charges  of  telegraph  and  gas  com- 
panies, and  of  water-supplying  bodies,  to  be 
regulated  and  limited  by  law ;  institutes  a  rail- 
road commission  withpow.T  to  fix  the  transpor- 
tation rates  on  all  railroads  and  examine  the 
books  and  accounts  of  all  transportation  com- 
panies. 4.  It  forbids  all  corporations  to  employ 
any  Chinese,  debars  them  from  the  suffrage, 
forbids  their  employment  on  any  public  works, 
annuls  all  contracts  for 'coolie  labour,'  directs 
the  legislature  to  provide  for  the  punishment  of 
any  company  which  shall  import  Chinese,  to 
impose  conditions  on  the  residence  of  Chinese, 
and  to  cause  their  removal  if  they  fail  to  observe 
these  conditions.  It  also  declares  that  eight 
hours  shall  constitute  a  legal  day's  work  on  all 
public  works.    When  the  Constitution  came  to 


352 


CALIFORNIA,  1877-1880. 


CAMDORICUM. 


be  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people,  in  JIny 
1870,  it  was  vcbomently  oi)i)ose(l  by  the  moiiicd 
men.  .  .  .  Tlie  striij^^^le  was  severe,  but  tlie 
Grnnger  party  conmiandeil  so  many  r\iral  votes, 
and  tlic  Sand  Lot  party  so  many  in  San  Francisco 
(wliose  popidation  is  nearly  a  tliird  of  that  of  the 
entire  State)  that  the  Constitution  was  carried, 
though  l)y  a  small  majority,  only  11,000  out  of 
a  total  of  145,000  citizens  voting.  .  .  .  The  next 
thing  was  to  choose  a  legislature  to  carrj'  out 
the  Constitution,  Had  the  same  influences  pre- 
vailed in  tliis  election  as  prevailed  in  that  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention,  the  results  might  have 
been  serious.  But  fortunately  there  was  a  slight 
reaction.  ...  A  series  of  statutes  was  passed 
which  gave  effect  to  the  provisions  of  •  je  Con- 
stitution in  a  form  perhaps  as  little  harmful  as 
could  be  contrived,  and  certainly  less  harmful 
than  had  been  feared  when  the  Constitution  was 
put  to  the  vote.  JIany  bad  hills,  particularly 
those  aimed  at  tlii'  Cliincse,  were  defeated,  and 
one  may  say  generally  that  the  expectations  of 
tlic  Sand  Lot  men  were  grievously  isappointed. 
AVhile  all  this  was  passing,  Kearu  '  had  more 
and  more  declined  in  fame  and  po'.i  .-r.  lie  did 
not  sit  either  in  the  Constitutional  C(  nvention  or 
in  the  legislature  of  1880.  The  moh  had  tired  of 
his  harangues,  especially  as  little  seemed  to  come 
of  them,  and  as  the  cimdidates  of  the  W.  P.  C.  had 
behaved  no  better  in  ofHce  than  those  of  the  old 
parties.  He  had  quarreled  with  the  Chronicle. 
He  was,  moreover,  quite  unfitted  by  knowledge 
or  training  to  argue  the  legal,  economical,  and 
political  questions  invo:ved  in  the  new  Constitu- 
tion so  that  the  prominence  of  these  questions 
•threw  him  into  the  background.  .  .  .  Since  1880 
he  has  played  no  part  in  Californian  politics,  and 
is  indeed  so  insignificant  that  no  one  cares  to 
know  where  he  goes  or  what  he  does. " — J.  Bryce, 
The  American  Commomcealth,  ch.  90  {v.  2),  and 
app.  to  V.  1  (containing  the  text  of  the  Const,  of 
Col). 

— — • 

CALIGULA,    SceCAius. 

CALIPH,  The  Title.— The  title  Caliph,  or 
Khalifa,  simply  signifies  in  the  Arabic  language 
"Successor."  The  Caliphs  were  the  successors 
of  Mahomet. 

CALIPHATE,  The.  See  Mahometan  Con- 
quest. 

CALIPHS,  The  Turkish  Sultan  becomes 
successor  to  the.    SeeB.\or)An:  A.  D.  13.58. 

CALISCH,  OR  KALISCH,  Treaty  of.  See 
Geumany;  A.  I).  1813-1813. 

CALIXTINES,  The.  See  Bohemia:  A.  D. 
1419-1434. 

CALLAO:  Siege,  1825-1826.  See  Peru: 
A.  D.  1820-1836. 

A.  D.  1866. — Repulse  of  the  Spanish  fleet. 
See  Peru:  A.  D.  18?"  1870. 

CALLEVA. — One  of  the  greater  towns  of 
Roman  Britain,  the  walls  of  which,  found  at  Sil- 
chester  enclose  an  area  of  three  miles  in  circuit. 
— T.  Wright,  Celt,  lioman  and  Saxon,  ch.  5. 

CALLIAS,  Peace  of.  Sec  Athens:  B.  C. 
460-449. 

CALLINICUS,  B-ttle  of.— Fought  la  the 
wars  of  the  Romans  ^>ith  the  Persians,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Euphraten,  Easter  Eve,  iV  D.  531. 
The  Romans,  commanded  by  Belisarius,  suffered 
an  apparent  defeat,  but  they  checked  an  intended 
advance  of  the  Persians  on  Antioch. — G.  Itawlln- 
son,  Seventh  Oreat  Oriental  Monarchy,  ch.  19. 


CALLISTUS  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1119-1124. 
. . .  Callistus  III.,  Pope,  A.  1).  1455-1458. 

CALMAR,  The  Union  of.  See  Scandina- 
vian States:  A.  I).  I()18-i;t97,  and  1397-1537. 

CALPULALPAM,    Battle  of  (i860).    See 

MkXICO;   A.  I).  l«lH-lMflt. 

CALPURNIAN  LAW,The.— "Intliisyear, 
B.  (;.  149,  the  tribune  L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Frugl, 
who  was  one  of  tlie  Roman  writers  of  annals, 
proposed  and  carried  a  Lex  Calpurnia,  which 
made  a  great  change  in  the  Roman  criminal 
procedure.  Before  tliis  time  and  to  the  third 
P\uiic  war,  when  a  magi.stratus  had  misconducteil 
himself  in  his  foreign  administration  by  oppres- 
sive acts  and  si)oliation,  tliere  were  several  ways 
of  inquiring  into  his  offence.  .  .  .  But  these 
modes  of  procedi.re  were  insufiicient  to  protect 
the  subjects  of  Rome  against  bad  magistratus. 
.  .  .  The  remedy  for  these  evils  was  tlic  establish- 
ment of  a  court  under  the  name  of  Quaestio  Per- 
pctiia  de  pecuniis  ropetundis,  the  first  regul.ir 
crinunal  court  that  existed  at  Rome.  Courts 
similiirly  constituted  were  afterwards  established 
for  the  trial  of  persons  charged  with  other 
offences.  The  Lex  ("alpnrnia  defined  the  offence 
of  Repetundw,  as  it  was  briefly  named,  to  be 
the  taking  of  money  by  irregular  means  for  the 
use  of  a  governor.  The  name  Repetundas  was 
given  to  this  offence,  because  the  object  of  the 
procedure  was  to  compel  the  governor  to  make 
restitution.  .  .  .  The  court  consisted  of  a  pre- 
siding judge  .  .  .  and  of  a  body  of  judices  or 
jui-ymen  annually  appointed.  The  number  of 
this  body  of  judices  is  not  known,  but  they  were 
all  senators.  The  judge  and  a  juiy  taken  from 
the  body  of  the  judices  tried  all  the  cases  which 
came  before  them  during  one  year;  and  hence 
came  the  name  Quaestio  Perpetua  or  standing 
court,  in  opposition  to  the  extraordinary  commis- 
sions which  had  hitherto  been  appointed  as  the 
occasion  arose.  We  do  not  know  that  the  Lex 
Calpurnia  contained  any  ,yenaltics.  As  far  as  the 
evidence  shows,  it  simply  enabled  the  complain- 
ants to  obtain  satisfaction." — G.  Long,  Decline 
of  the  Roman  liepubUc,  ch.  3. 

CALUSA,  The.    Sec  Americvn  Aborigines : 

TiMUQUANAN   FAMILY. 

CALVEN,  Batl'a  of  (1499).  Sec  Switzer- 
land: A.  D.  1390   .499. 

CALVIN  Ar  J  THE  REFORMATION. 
See  Papacy:  A.  1).  1531-1535;  and  Geneva: 
A.  D.  1536-1564. 

CAMARCUM.— The  ancient  name  of  the 
town  of  Cambrai. 

CAMARILLA. —  A  circle  of  irresponsible 
chamber  counsellors  —  court'"rs  —  surrounding 
a  sovereign  with  influences  superior  to  those  of 
his  responsible  ministers. 

CAMBALU.OR  CAMBALEC.  SeeCiiiNA: 
A.  I).  12.59-1394. 

C AMB AS,  OR  C AMPA,  OR  C AMPO,  The. 
Sec  BoLiMA:  Aboriginal  iniiahitants;  and 
American  Aiiouuiinks:  Andesians. 

CAMBORICUM.— A  Roman  town  in  Bri- 
tain.— "  Camboricum  was  without  doubt  a  very 
important  town,  wliieh  rommanded  the  southern 
fens.  It  had  three  forts  or  citadels,  the  principal 
of  which  occupied  the  district  called  the  Castle- 
end,  in  the  modern  town  of  Cambridge,  and  ai)pears 
to  have  had  a  bridge  over  the  Cam,  or  Grauta ; 
of  the  others,  one  stood  below  the  town,  at  Ches- 
terton, and  the  other  above  it,  at  Granchcster. 
Numerous  roads  branched  off  from  this  town. 


353. 


CAMBORICUM. 


CAMPBELL. 


,  .  .  Bp(1o  calls  the  representative  of  CamlK)ri- 
cum,  in  his  time,  a  'little  deserted  city,'  and 
tells  us  how,  when  the  nuns  of  Ely  wanted  a 
coflln  for  tlieir  sjiiiitly  abbess,  Ethelnreda,  tliey 
found  a  iH'autiful  sculptured  sarcophagus  of 
white  marble  outside  the  city  walls  of  tlie 
Roman  town." — T.  Wright,  CkU,  Roman  and 
Siixoii,  eh.  ."i. 

CAMBRAI :  A.  D.  1581. —  Unsuccessful 
siege  by  the  Prince  of  Parma,  See  Netiieh- 
Lands:  a.  I).  1581-1584. 

A.  D.  1595-1598.— End  of  the  Principality  of 
governor  Balagni. — Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Spaniards. — Retention  under  the  treaty  of  Ver- 
vfns.     See  Fuanck:  A.  D.  ISOS-LIOS. 

A.  .D.  1677.— Taken  by  Louis  XIV.  See 
Netiiehlan-us  (Holland):  A.  I).  1674-1078. 

A.  D.  1670.— Ceded  to  France.  Sec  Nime- 
OUEN,  TuE  Peace  ok 

CAMBRAI,  The  League  of.  See  Yekice: 
A.  D.  1508-1. "509. 

CAMBRAI,  Peace  of.  See  Italy:  A.  D. 
1527-1529. 

C  AMBRI/^  .—The  early  name  of  Wales.  See 
Kymuy,  and  C.1.MBI11A;  also,  Buitain  :  6'rii  Cen- 
tury. 

CAMBRIDGE,    England,   Origin  of.     See 

CAMBOUK't:M.  ' 

CAMBRIDGE,  Mass.— The  first  settle- 
ment.    SiM' Maksaciiusettb:  A.  D.  1629-l«;i0.     , 

CAMBRIDGE,  Platform,  The.  See  Mass.v 
Ciiusetts:  a.  D.  1«40-1G51. 

CAMBYSES,  OR  KAMBYSES,  King  of 
Persia,  B.  C.  529-522. 

CAMDEN,  Battle  of.  See  United  States 
OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  1780  (FEimuAuv— August). 

CAMERONIAN  REGIMENT,  The.— In 
1689,  when  Claverhouse  was  raising  the  High- 
land clans  in  favor  of  James  II.,  "  AVilliam  Cle- 
land,  who  had  fought  with  distinguished  bravery 
at  Bothwell,  and  was  one  of  the  few  men  whom 
Claverhouse  feared,  made  an  offer  to  the  [Scot- 
tish] Estates  to  raise  a  regiment  among  the  Cam- 
eronians,  under  tlie  colonelcy  of  the  Earl  of 
Angus,  and  the  offer  was  accepted.  Such  was 
the  origin  of  the  Camcronian  regiment.  Its  first 
lieutenant-colonel  was  Cleland ;  its  first  chaplain 
•was  Shields.  Its  courage  was  first  tried  at  Dun- 
keld,  where  these  800  Covenanted  warriors  rolled 
back  the  tide  of  Celtic  invasion ;  and  since  that, 
undegenerate  thougli  changed,  it  has  won  tro- 
phies In  every  quarter  of  tlie  world." — J.  Cuu- 
ningham.  Church  Hist,  of  Scotland,  v.  2,  eh.  7. 

Also  in  :  J.  Browne,  Ilist.  of  the  IlighlancU, 
«.  2,  ch.  8. 

CAMERONIANS,  The.  See  Scotland: 
A.  D.  1081-1{)89. 

CAMISARDS,  The  revolt  of  the.  See 
Fkance:  a.  D.  1702-1710. 

CAMORRA,  OR  CAMORRISTI,  The.— 
"Besides  the  regular  authorities  known  to  and 
avowed  by  the  law  .  .  .  there  existed  under  t'le 
Bourbon  rule  at  Naples  [overthrown  by  Garibaldi 
in  1860]  a  self-constituted  authority  more 
terrible  than  either.  It  was  not  easy  to  obtain 
exact  proof  of  the  operation  of  this  authority, 
for  it  was  impatient  of  question,  its  vengeance 
was  prompt,  and  the  instrument  of  that  ven- 
geance was  the  knife.  In  speaking  of  it  as  one 
authority  it  is  possible  to  err,  for  different  forms 
or  branches  of  this  secret  institution  at  times 


revcalc(i  their  existence  by  the  orders  which 
thoy  issued.  Tliis  si'cret  influence  was  that  of 
tlie  Camorra,  or  Camorristi,  a  sort  of  combina- 
tion of  the  violence  of  the  middle  ages,  of  the 
trades  union  tyranny  of  Shetlleld,  and  of  the 
blackmail  levy  of  the  borders.  The  Camorristi 
were  a  body  of  unknown  individuals  who  sub- 
sisted on  the  public,  especially  on  the  smaller 
tradespeople.  A  man  eflected  a  sale  of  his  ware ; 
as  the  customer  left  his  shop  a  man  of  the  people 
would  enter  and  demand  the  tax  on  the  sale  for 
tlie  Camorra.  None  could  escape  from  the 
odious  tyranny.  It  was  impalpable  to  the 
police.  It  did  not  confine  itself  to  the  industry 
of  illicit  taxation.  It  issued  its  orders.  When 
the  Italian  Parliament  imposed  stamp  duties, 
that  sensibly  increased  the  cost  of  litigation,  that 
indispensable  luxury  of  the  Neapolitans,  the 
advocates  received  letters  warning  them  to  cease 
all  practice  in  tiie  courts  so  long  as  these  stamp 
duties  were  enforced.  'Otherwise,'  continued 
the  mandate,  '  we  shall  take  an  early  opportunity 
of  arranging  your  affairs.'  Signe{l  hy  'the 
Camorra  of  the  avvocati.'  The  arrangement 
hinted  at  was  to  be  made  by  the  knife.  .  .  .  The 
Italian  governmeiit,  much  to  its  credit,  made  a 
great  onslaught  on  the  Camorristi.  Slauy  were 
arrested,  imprisoned  or  exiled,  some  even  killed 
one  another  in  prison.  But  the  total  eradication 
of  so  terrible  a  social  vice  must  be  [published  in 
1867]  a  work  of  great  dilBculty,  perseverance 
and  time." — The  I'nnity  of  Italy;  by  an  English 
Civilian,  p.  70. 

CAMP  OF  REFUGE  AT  ELY.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  D.  1009-1071. 

CAMPAGNA,  OR  CAMPANIA.— " 'The 
name  of  Campania,'  says  Pelligrini,  '  which  was 
first  applied  to  the  territory  of  Capua  alone,  ex- 
tended itself  by  successive  rc-arraagements  of 
the  Italian  provinces  over  a  great  part  of  Central 
Italy,  and  then  gradually  shrank  back  again 
into  its  birth-place,  and  at  last  berame  restricted 
to  the  limits  of  one  city  only,  Naples,  and  that 
one  of  the  least  importance  in  Italy.  What 
naturally  followed  was  tlie  total  disuse  of  the 
name.'  .  .  .  The  term  Campania,  therefore,  be- 
came obsolete  except  in  the  writings  of  a  few 
mediaeval  authors,  whose  statements  created 
some  confusion  by  their  iguorauce  of  the  different 
senses  in  which  it  had  at  different  times  been 
used.  An  impression  seems,  however,  to  have 
prevailed  that  the  district  of  Capua  had  been  so 
named  on  account  of  its  flat  and  fertile  nature, 
and  hence  every  similar  tract  of  plain  country 
came  to  be  called  a  campagna  in  the  Italian 
language.  The  exact  time  wiien  the  name, 
which  had  thus  become  a  mere  appellative,  wa» 
applied  to  the  Roman  Campagna  is  not  accurately 
ascertained.  ...  It  will  be  seen  that  the  term. 
Roman  Campagna  is  not  a  geographical  definition 
of  any  district  or  province  with  clearly  fixed 
limits,  but  tlmt  it  is  a  name  loosely  employed  in 
speaking  of  the  tract  which  lies  round  the  city 
of  Rome." — R.  Burn,  Jiome  and  the  Campagna, 
'ch.  14,  note  at  end. 

Also  in  :  Sir  W.  Gell,  Topog.  of  Home,  v.  1. 

CAMPALUINO,  Battle  of.  See  Floiiencb: 
A.  T).  1289. 

CAMPANIANS,  The,  See  Sabinks  :  also, 
Samnites. 

CAMPBELL,  Sir  Colin  (Lord  Clyde),  The 
Indian  Campaign  of.  See  India  :  A.  D.  1867- 
1858. 


354 


CAMPBELL'S  STATION. 


CANADA. 


CAMPBELL'S  STATION,  Battle  of.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  ise."}  (October— 
Dgcemurk  :  Tennessee). 

CAMPERDOWN,  Naval  battle  of.  Sue 
ENfii,.VNi)  :  A.  1).  1797. 

CAMPO-FORMIO,  Peace  of.  See  Fijance  : 
A   D.   17!)7(.May— OcTOiiEU). 

CAMPO  SANTO,  Battle  of  (1743).  See 
Italy  :  A.  D.  1741-1743. 

CAMPO-TENESE,  Battle  of  (1806).  See 
Fkajjce  :  A.  D.  1805-1800  (Dece.muek— Sep- 
te.mbek). 

CAMPUS  I.ARTIUS  AT  ROME,  The. 
— "The  history  of  the  Cam 'pus  Jturlius  presents 
us  witli  a  series  of  striking  contrasts.  It  has 
been  covered  in  successive  ages,  first  by  tlio 
cornfields  of  the  Tarquiniau  dynasty,  then  by 
the  parade  ground  of  tlie  great  military  repub- 
lic, ne.\t  by  a  forest  of  martle  colonnades  and 
porticoes,  and,  lastly,  by  a  confused  mass  of 
mean  and  filthy  streets,  clustering  round  vast 
mansions,  and  innumemble  cliurches  of  every 
size  and  description.  .  .  .  During  the  time  of 
the  Republic,  tlie  whole  Campus  seems  to  have 
been  considered  state  property  and  was  used  as 
a  military  and  athletic  exercise  ground  and  a 
place  of  meeting  for  the  comitia  centuriata." — 
K.  Burn,  Ilome  ami  the  Campagna,  ch  13,  pt.  1. 
— "We  have  hitherto  employed  tins  name  to 
designate  the  whole  of  the  meadow  laud  bounded 
by  the  Tiber  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
CoUis  Ilortulorum,  the  Quirinal  and  the  Capito- 
line.  .  .  .  Butthc  Campus  Martius,  strictly  speak- 
ing, was  that  portion  only  of  tlie  tlat  ground 


which  lies  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  bend  of 
the  stream.  According  to  the  narrative  of  Livy, 
It  was  the  property  of  the  Tarquins,  and  upon 
their  expulsion  was  conflscateil,  and  then  conse- 
crated to  Mars ;  but  Dionysiiis  asserts  that  it  had 
been  previously  set  apart  to  the  gcd  and  sacri- 
legiously appropriated  by  tli(^  tyrant.  .  .  .  During 
the  republic  the  Campus  Martius  was  employed 
specially  for  two  purposes.  (1.)  Asa  placo'for 
holding  the  constitutional  assemblies  (coinitia) 
especially  the  Comitia  Centuriata,  and  also  for 
ordinary  public  meetings  (coneiones).  (2.)  For 
gymnastic  and  warlike  sport".  For  seven  cen- 
turies it  remained  almost  entirely  open.  ...  In 
the  Comitia,  the  citizens,  when  their  votes  were 
taken,  passed  into  enclosures  termed  septa,  or 
ovilia,  which  were,  for  a  long  period,  temporary 
wooden  erections. "— W.  Uumsay,  Manual  of 
Jiomaii  Antiq.,  ch.  1. 

CAMULODUNUM.  See  Colciiestek,  Ori- 
gin OK. 

CAMUNI,  The.    See  Rii.eti.\ns. 

CANAAN.  —  CANAANITES.  —  "  Canaan 
signifies  '  the  lowlands,'  and  was  primarily  the 
name  of  the  coast  on  which  the  great  cities  of 
Phoenicia  were  built.  As,  however,  the  inland 
parts  of  the  country  were  inhabited  by  a  kindred 
population,  the  name  came  to  be  extended  to 
designate  the  whole  of  Palestine,  just  as  Pales- 
tine itself  meant  originally  only  the  small  territory 
of  the  Philistines." — A.  II.  Sayce,  Fresh  Light 
from  the  Ancient  Monuments,  eh.  2. — See  PiifCNi- 
ciANs:  OiiioiN  and  eahlv  iiisToiiv ;  also,  Jews: 
The  Early  Hebrew  History,  and  Hamites. 


CANADA. 

(NEW  FRANCE.') 


Names. — "The  year  after  the  failure  of  Ver- 
razano's  last  enterprise,  1525,  Stefano  Gomez 
sailed  from  Spain  for  Cuba  and  Florida;  thence 
he  steered  northward  in  search  of  the  long  hoped- 
for  passage  to  India,  till  he  reached  Cape  Race, 
on  tiic  southeastern  extremity  of  Newfoundland. 
The  further  details  of  his  voyage  remain  un- 
known, but  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  he 
entered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  traded 
upon  its  shores.  An  ancient  Castilian  tradition 
existed  that  the  Spaniards  visited  these  coasts 
before  the  French,  and  having  perceived  no  ap- 
pearance of  mines  or  riches,  they  exclaimed 
frequently  'Aca  nada'  [signifying  'here  is 
nothing 'J;  the  natives  caught  up  the  sound,  and 
■when  other  Europeans  arrived,  repeated  it  to 
them.  The  strangers  concluded  that  lliese  words 
were  a  designation,  and  from  that  time  this  mag- 
nificent country  bore  the  name  of  Canada.  .  .  . 
Father  Hennepin  asserts  that  the  Spaniards  were 
the  first  discoverers  of  Canada,  and  that,  finding 
nothing  there  to  gratify  their  extensive  desires 
for  gold,  they  bestowed  upon  it  the  appellation 
of  Capo  di  Nada,  'Cape  Nothing,'  whence  by 
corruption  its  present  name.  ...  La  Potlierie 
gives  the  same  derivation.  .  .  .  This  derivation 
would  reconcile  the  different  assertions  of  the 
early  discoverers,  some  of  whom  give  the  name 
of  Canada  to  the  whole  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence; others,  equally  worthy  of  credit,  confine 
it  to  a  small  district  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Stadacoua  (now    Quebec).  .  .  .  Duponceau,   in 


the  Transactions  of  the  [American]  Philosophical 
Society,  of  Philadelphia,  founds  his  conjecture 
of  the  Indian  origin  of  the  name  of  Canada  upon 
the  fact  that,  in  the  translation  of  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew  into  the  Mohawk  tongue,  made  by 
Bmudt,  the  Indian  chief,  the  wonl  Canada  f» 
always  used  to  signify  a  village.  The  mistake 
of  the  early  discoverers,  in  taking  the  name  of  a 
part  for  that  of  the  whole,  is  very  pardonable  in 
persons  ignorant  of  the  Indian  language.  .  .  . 
The  natural  conclusion  ...  is,  that  the  word 
Canada  was  a  mere  local  appellation,  without 
reference  to  the  country;  that  each  tribe  had 
their  own  Canada,  or  collection  of  huts,  which 
shifted  its  position  according  to  their  migra- 
tions."—  E.  Warburton,  The  Conquest  of  Canada, 
V.  1,  ch.  \,  and  foot-note. — "  Canada  was  the  name 
which  Cartier  found  attached  to  the  laud  and 
there  is  no  evidence  that  he  attempted  to  displace 
it.  .  .  .  Nor  did  Roberval  attempt  to  name  the 
country,  while  the  commission  given  him  by  the 
king  does  not  associate  the  name  of  Francis  or 
any  new  name  therewith.  .  .  .  Tlicre  seems  to 
have  been  a  belief  in  New  England,  at  a  later 
day,  that  Canada  was  derived  from  'Willium  and 
Emery  de  Caen  (Cane,  as  the  English  spelled  it), 
who  were  in  New  France  in  1021,  and  later. 
Cf.  Morton's  'New  English  Canaan,'  Adam's  edi- 
tion, p.  235,  and  Josselyn's  'Rarities,'  p.  5;  also, 
J.  Reade,  in  his  history  of  geographical  naimiB 
in  Canada,  printed  in  New  Dominion  Jlonthly, 
xi.  344."— B.  F.  De  Costa,  Jacques  Cartier  and 


355 


CANADA. 


Founding  nt 
"    '  "■  ia(. 


Port  Boyaf. 


CANADA,  1603-1605. 


his  Sinrfiuort  (Xarrntite  and  Crit.  IIi»t.  of  Am., 
V.  4,  ch.  2),  iiitd  Editor's  foot -note.--"  Cnrtior  calls 
tin;  Ht.  Lawruncc  the  '  Uivcr  of  Ilochclaga,'  or 
'the  great  river  of  Cniinda.'  He  contines  tlio 
naiiKr  of  Caiiathi  to  a  district  cvteniliiig  from  the 
Isle  nu.x  ("ouUres  in  the  8t.  Lawrence  to  a  poiiii 
at  some  (list.ii.ee  i\l)o\e  the  Bite  of  Quolicc.  The 
country  belt  .v,  he  adds,  was  called  by  the  In- 
d'ans  Hiiguenay,  and  that  above,  lloehelaga.  In 
the  map  of  Gerard  Mcrcator  (LWU)  the  name 
C.inadii  !s  given  to  a  town,  with  an  adjacent  dis- 
trict, on  the  river  Stadin  (St.  Charles).  Lescar- 
bot,  a  later  writer,  insists  that  the  coimtry  on 
both  sides  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  from  Ilochelaga 
to  its  mouth,  bore  the  name  of  Canada.  In  the 
second  map  of  Ortelius,  puldished  about  the 
year  1572,  New  France,  Nova  Francia  is  thus 
divided: — '  Canada, 'a  district  on  the  St.  Lawrence 
above  the  River  Saguenay;  'Chilaga'(IIoclielaga), 
the  angle  between  the  Ottawa  and  the  St.  Law- 
rence; 'Saguenai.'a  district  below  the  river  of 
that  name;  '  Moscosa,'  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  cast  of  the  River  Uichclieu;  '  Avacal,'  west 
and  south  of  Moscosa;  'Norumbcga,'  Maine  and 
New  Brunswicli;  '  Apalachen,'  Virginia,  Penn- 
sylvania, etc.;  'Terra  Corterealis,'  Labrador; 
'Florida,'  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida.  Mcr- 
cator contines  the  name  of  New  Franco  to  districts 
bordering  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  Otliers  give  it 
a  much  broader  application.  The  use  of  this 
name,  or  the  nearly  allied  names  of  Fnincisca 
and  La  Franciscane,  dates  bacl{,  to  say  the 
least,  as  far  as  15'25,  and  the  Dutcli  geographers 
are  especially  free  in  their  use  of  it,  out  of  spite 
to  the  Si)aniards.  Tlie  derivation  of  the  name  of 
Canada  has  been  a  point  of  discussion.  It  is, 
without  doulit,  not  Spanish,  but  Indian.  .  .  . 
Lescarljot  alllrms  that  Canada  is  simply  an  In- 
dian proper  name,  of  wliich  it  is  vain  to  seelc  a 
meaning.  Bcllcforest  also  calls  it  an  Indian 
word,  but  translates  it  '  Terre,'  as  does  a'.so 
Tlievet." — F.  Prtrlcman,/'('oH«'('«  of  Prance  in  the 
■New  World;  CftampUiin,  ch.  1,  foot-note. 

The  Aboriginal  inhabitants.  Sec  American 
Abokioines:  Aloonqui.'VN  Family;  Huhons; 
OjiuwAYs;  SiouAN  Family;  Athapascan 
Family,  and  Eskimauan  Family. 

A.  D.  1497-1498.— Coast  discoveries  of  the 
Cabots.     See  Amkuica:  A.  D.  14»7  and  1498. 

A.  D.  1500. — Cortereal  on  the  coast.    See 

Am'-.tca:  a.  d.  irm. 

f  .  D.  1501-1504. — Portuguese,  Norman  and 
Briton  fishermen  on  the  Newfoundland  banks. 
See  Newfoundland:  A.  D.  1501-11578. 

A.  D.  1524. — The  coasting  voyage  of  Ver- 
razano.     See  Amkuica:  A.  U.  1533-1524. 

A.  D.  1534-1535.— Possession  taken  by 
Jacques  Cartier  tor  the  King  of  France.  See 
Ameuica:  A.  I).  1534-1535. 

A.  D.  1541-1603.— Jacques  Cartier's  last 
undertaking. — Unsuccessful  French  attempts 
at  Colonization.  See  America;  A.  D.  1541- 
1003. 

A.  D.  1603-1605.— The  Beginning  of  Cham- 
plain's  Career  in  the  New  World.— Coloniza- 
tion at  Port  Royal.— Exploration  of  the  New 
England  coast. —  In  Pontgrave's  expedition  of 
1003  to  New  France  [see  America:  A.  D.  154'- 
1003],  "Sanniel  de  Cliamplaiu,  a  captain  in  tiie 
navy,  accepted  a  command  ...  at  the  request 
of  l)e  Chatte  [or  De  Cliastes] ;  he  was  a  native 
of  Saiutonge,  and  had  lately  returned  to  Franco 
from  the  West  Indies,  where  he  had  gaiued  a 


high  name  for  boldness  and  skill.  Under  the 
direction  of  this  wise  and  energetic  man  the  first 
successful  efforts  were  made  to  foui.u  a  per- 
manent settlement  in  the  magnificent  province 
of  Canada,  and  the  stain  of  tlie  errors  and  disaster* 
of  more  than  seventy  years  was  at  len'  th  wiped 
away.  Pontgrave  and  Champlaia  sailed  for  the 
St.  Lawrence  in  1603,"  explored  it  as  far  as  the 
rapids  of  St.  Louis,  and  tlien  returned  to  France. 
They  found  that  the  patron  of  tlieir  undertaking, 
De  tliastes,  was  dead.  "  Pierre  du  Guast,  Sieur 
de  Slonts,  liad  succeeded  to  tlie  powers  and 
privileges  of  the  deceased,  with  even  a  more  ex- 
tensive commission.  De  Jlonts  was  a  Calvinist, 
and  liad  obtained  from  the  king  the  freedom  of 
religious  faith  for  liimself  and  his  followers  in 
America,  but  under  the  engagement  that  *'ie 
lioman  Catholic  worship  should  be  established, 
among  the  natives.  .  .  .  The  trading  company 
establislied  by  De  Cliatte  was  continued  and  in- 
creased by  Ills  successor.  With  this  additional 
aid  De  Monts  was  enabled  to  fit  out  a  more  com- 
plete armament  tlian  had  ever  liitherto  been 
engaged  in  Canadian  commerce.  He  sailed  from 
Havre  on  the  7th  of  March,  1604,  with  four 
vessels.  Of  tliese,  two  under  liis  immediate 
command  were  destined  for  Acadia.  Champlain, 
Poutrincourt,  and  many  otlicr  volunteers,  em- 
barked their  fortunes  with  liim,  purposing  to 
cast  their  future  lot  in  the  New  World.  A  third 
vessel  was  dispatched  under  Pontgrave  to  the 
Strait  of  Canso,  to  protect  the  exclusive  trading 
l)rivile"es  of  the  company.  The  fourth  steered 
for  Tadoussac,  to  barter  for  the  rich  furs  brought 
by  the  Indian  Imnters  from  the  dreary  wilds  of 
the  Saguenay.  On  the  6th  of  May  De  Monts 
readied  a  harbor  on  the  coast  of  Acadia ;"  but, 
for  some  reason  not  to  be  understood,  his  pro- 
jected colony  was  quartered  on  the  little  islet  of 
St.  Croix,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  that 
name,  which  became  subsequently  the  boundary 
between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick.  Meantime, 
the  fine  harbor,  now  Annapolis,  then  named 
Port    Royal,    had    been    discovered,    and    was 

granted,  with  a  large  surrounding  territory,  by 
m  lHonts  to  De  Poutrincourt,  who  proposed  to 
settle  upon  it  as  its  feudal  proprietor  and  lord. 
The  colony  at  St.  Croix  liaving  been  housed  and 
])Ut  in  order,  De  Poutrincourt  sailed  for  France, 
intending  to  bring  his  family  and  establisli  him- 
self at  Port  Royal.  De  Monts,  Champlain,  and 
those  who  remained,  suffered  a  winter  of  terrible 
hardsliips,  and  thirty-five  died  before  spring. 
De  Monts  now  resolved  to  seek  a  better  site  for 
his  Infant  settlement,  and,  finding  no  other 
situation  so  good  he  resumed  possession  of  that 
most  desirable  Port  Roy^l  wliich  lie  had  granted 
away  to  Poutrincourt  and  removed  his  colony 
thither.  Cliamplain,  meanwhile,  in  tlie  summer 
of  1605,  had  explored  the  coast  southward  far 
down  tlie  future  home  of  tlie  English  Puritans, 
looking  into  IMassachusetts  Bay,  taking  shelter 
in  Plymouth  liarbor  and  naming  it  Port  St. 
Louis,  doubling  Capo  Cod  ("whicli  lie  called  Cap 
Blanc),  turning  back  at  Nausett  Harbor,  and 
gaining  on  the  whole  a  remarkable  knowledge 
of  the  country  and  its  coast.  Soon  after  Cliam- 
plf.in's  return  from  this  coasting  voyage, 
De  Monts  was  called  home  to  Franco,  by  news 
of  machinations  that  were  threatening  to  ex- 
tinguish his  patent,  and  Pontgrave  was  left  in 
command  of  the  colony  at  Port  Royal. — E.  War- 
burton,  T/ie  Conquest  vf  Canada,  «.  1,  ch.  3. —  In 


356 


CANADA,   1003-1005. 


Champlaf  i'» 


CAN  AH  A,  1008-1611. 


Do  Monts'  jwtitioii  to  tlu;  kin/j;  for  leave  to  colo- 
nize Aciulia  that  rcj^ion  viun  dcfliicd  "ttse:;teii(l- 
iiig  from  the  lOtli  to  the  40tli  degree  of  north 
iatitude  or  from  Plulnd(dphiu  to  beyond  Mou- 
♦,2al." — F.  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  Friiiee  in  t'ui 
A'eie  W'>rtd:  Champlain,  ch.  3. 

.A '  io  IN :  E.  F.  Slafter,  [ftmoir  pref.  to 
"  Voi/offeg  of  SmnuA  de  Chdn.pluiii "  {Prince  the., 
1880),  cA.  1-5. 

A.  D.  icj6-i6o8. — The  fortunes  of  the 
Acadian  colony. — "Pe  Monts  fou.id  liis  patli- 
way  iu  France  surrounded  witli  ditllcidtiea.  Tlie 
Kocliclle  merchants  wl)o  were  jiartners  in  tlio 
enterprise  'lesircd  a  return  for  tlicir  investments. 
The  Baron  de  Poutrincou.t,  wlio  was  still 
possessed  with  the  desire  to  make  the  New 
World  his  homo,  proved  of  assistance  to  Do 
Monts.  De  Poutriucourt  returned  to  Acadia 
and  encouraged  the  colonists,  wlio  were  on  the 
verge  of  deserting  Port  Uoyal.  With  De  Pou- 
triucourt emigrated  at  this  time  a  Parisian 
advocate,  named  Mark  Lescarbot,  who  was  of 
great  service  to  the  colony.  During  the  absence 
of  De  Poutrincourt  on  an  exploring  expedition 
down  the  coast,  Lescarbot  drained  and  repaired 
the  colonists'  fort,  and  made  a  number  of  ad- 
ministrative changes,  much  improving  the  con- 
dition of  the  settlers.  The  following  winter  was 
one  of  comfort,  indeed  of  enjoyment.  ...  In 
May,  however,  the  sad  news  reached  the  colony 
that  the  company  of  the  merchants  on  whom  it 
depended  had  been  broken  up.  Their  depen- 
dence being  gone,  on  tlie  30th  of  July  most  of 
the  colonists  left  Acadia  for  France  ui  vessels 
sent  out  for  them.  For  two  years  the  empty 
buildings  of  Port  Royal  stood,  a  melancholy 
sight,  with  not  a  white  person  in  them,  but 
under  the  safe  protection  of  Memborton,  the 
Micmak  chief,  who  proved  a  trusty  friend  to  the 
French.  The  opposition  to  the  company  of 
Rochelle  arose  from  various  causes.  In  addition 
to  its  financial  difficulties  the  fact  of  De  Monts 
being  a  Protestant  was  seized  on  as  the  reason 
why  nothing  was  being  done  in  the  colony  to 
christianize  the  Indians.  Accordingly  when  De 
Monts,  fired  with  a  new  scheme  for  exploring 
the  northwest  passage,  turned  over  tlie  man- 
agement of  Acadian  allairs  to  De  Poutrincourt, 
who  was  a  sincere  Catholic,  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties disappeared.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
two  years  later  that  arrangements  were  made  for 
a  new  Acadian  expedition." — G.  Bryco,  Short 
Hist,  of  the  Gaihidian  People,  ch.  4,  sect.  1. 

Also  in:  J.  Hannay,  llist.  of  Acadia,  ch.  4. 

A.  D.  1608-1611. — Champlain's  third  and 
fourth  expeditions. — His  settlement  at  Que- 
bec, discovery  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  first 
Tvars  with  the  Iroquois. — "Do  Monts  in  no 
way  lost  heart,  and  he  resolved  to  continue  in 
the  career  of  exploration  for  settlement.  A  new 
expedition  Avas  determined  on,  and  De  Jlonts 
selected  the  Saint  Lawrence  as  the  spot  where 
the  effort  should  be  made.  Champlain  coun- 
selled the  change.  In  ^^lova  Scotia  and  on  the 
coast  of  New  Brunswicic  and  Maine  he  had  been 
struck  by  the  number  of  ports  affording  protec- 
tion to  vessels  from  sea,  and  by  the  small  number 
of  Indians  whom  he  had  met.  In  Nova  Scotia 
he  would  be  exposed  to  rival  attempts  at  settle- 
ment, and  at  the  same  time  he  could  not  see  the 
possibility  of  obtaining  Indian  allies.  In  Canada 
the  full  control  would  remain  with  those  who 
first  made  a  settlement  ou  the  Saint  Lawrence, 


and  Champlain  counted  the  native  tribes  lus 
l)owcrful  instiumciits  in  carrying  out  his  pciicy. 
We  have  «lie  key  here  to  his  "conduct  in  assisting 
the  Ilurons  in  ftlK-ir  wars.  .  .  .  In  1008  1 'ham- 
plain  »tart'.'('  for  the  St.  Lawrenc.  I'ontgnive 
was  with  the  expedition.  .V  settlement  was 
made  at  Quebec,  ns  'he  most  suitablr  place. 
Some  ground  was  cleared,  buililings  were  com- 
nionced,  when  a  conspiracy  wa.s  discoveicd. 
Tlie  ringleader  was  lianged  and  three  of  those 
mtivdy  iniplicated  w'ere  sent  back  to  France 
witli  Pontgrave  on  his  return  in  the  autumn. 
Matters  now  went  peaceably  on.  The  summer 
was  passed  in  completing  tlio  '  Abitation  de  (Jue- 
bec,'  of  which  Champlain  has  left  us  a  sketch. 
It  was  situated  in  tlio  jiresent  Lower  Town  on  the 
river  bank,  'n\  the  corner  whore  Notre  Dame 
Street  meets  Sous  le  Fort  '^treot.  It  was  hero 
Champlain  laid  the  foundation  Uix  the  future 
city.  Winter  came,  the  scurvy  carrying  olf 
twenty  of  their  number.  ...  In  June,  Dos 
JIarais,  Pontgravo's  son-in-law,  arrived,  telling 
him  that  Pontgrave  was  at  Taddusac.  Cliam- 
I)lain  i)roceeded  thither.  The  question  had  then 
to  bo  discussed,  what  policy  sliould  be  followed 
with  the  Indians?  Should  they  bo  bo  iiiileil  by 
what  force  Champlain  could  command,  in  the 
expedition  which  they  had  resolved  to  make 
against  the  Iroquois  ?  It  is  plain  that  no  advance 
in  discovery  could  have  boon  made  without  their 
assistance,  and  that  this  assistance  could  only 
have  been  obtained  by  rendering  them  service. 
.  .  .  AVith  the  view  of  making  explorations 
beyond  the  points  then  known  by  Europeans, 
Champlain  in  the  middle  of  June  ascended  the 
St.  Lawrence.  About  a  league  and  a  half  west 
of  the  river  Saint  Anne,  they  wore  joined  by  a 
party  of  Algonquins  wlio  were  to  form  a  pari  of 
the  expedition.  Cliamplaia  tells  us  of  their 
mortal  feud  with  the  Iroquois,  a  proof  that  in  no 
way  he  created  it.  They  all  returned  to  Quebec, 
where  there  was  festivity  for  some  days.  It  was 
brought  to  a  close  and  the  war  parties  started ; 
Champlain  with  nine  men,  Dcs  Marais  and  a 
pilot,  joined  it  [them  ?].  With  his  Indian  allies 
lie  ascended  the  Uiclielieu  and  reached  Lake 
Champlain,  the  first  white  man  who  saw  its 
waters:  subsequently  for  105  years  to  be  the 
scene  of  contest  between  the  Indian  and  white 
man,  the  French  and  English,  the  revolted 
Colonies  and  the  Mother  Country.  .  .  .  The 
advance  up  Lake  Chaini)lain  was  made  only  by 
night.  They  reached  Crown  Point.  They  were 
then  in  the  Iroquois  domain ;  very  shortly  they 
knew  of  the  presence  of  the  enemy."  On  the 
30th  of  July  the  invaders  fought  a  battle  with 
the  Iroquois,  who  fled  in  terror  before  the  arque- 
buse  of  Champlain,  which  killed  two  of  tlioir 
chiefs  and  wounded  a  third.  Soon  after  his 
return  to  Quebec  from  this  expedition  —  the 
beginning  of  the  long  war  of  the  French  with 
the  Iroquois  —  Champlain  was  sunimoued  to 
France.  The  patent  of  De  Monts  had  been  re- 
voked and  he  could  not  obtain  its  renewal. 
"Nevertheless,  De  Monts,  with  his  associates 
decided  to  continue  their  efforts,  and,  in  March, 
1010,  Champlain  again  started  for  Canada." 
After  reaching  Quebec  his  stay  this  time  was 
short.  He  joined  liis  Indian  allies  in  another 
expedition  of  war,  and  helped  them  to  win 
another  victory  over  ^tlie  Iroquois,  at  a  place 
on  the  Richelieu,  one  league  above  Sorel,  On 
rcturniug  he  got  news  of  the  ossassiuatiou  of 


357 


CANADA,  160a-16n. 


EnfjtiMh  (iftitck  itti 
Mount  l)e»ert. 


CANADA,  1310-1613. 


Ilfurj- fV  find  gUirU'd  (it  once  for  France.  "Tlio 
(Icalli  of  h 'ti'T  IV.  (••■'^rciscd  great  iiilluence  on 
the  I'ortuiieH  of  Cuniula.  He  hod  nerHonuIly 
taken  interest  in  Chuinpliiin's  'oyagcs,  and  Ins 
energetic  mind  was  well  tiualiflea  to  direct  the 
fortnne?  of  u  growing  colony.  Louis  XIII.  was 
not  then  ten  years  old.  Mary  of  Sledecis  was 
under  the  control  of  her  favourites,  Leonora 
Galigai,  an<l  her  husband,  Concino  Coneini. 
Hiclielieu  had  not  then  appeared  on  the  scene. 
.  .  .  The  Jesuits  were  becoming  all-powerful  at 
Court.  .  .  .  France  was  unsettled  and  disordered. 
The  Protestants,  not  witliout  provocation,  were 
acting  with  passion  and  without  judgment.  The 
assassination  of  the  King  had  alarmed  tliem. 
The  whole  kingdom  was  threatened  witli  con- 
vulsion and  anarchy,  and  Canada  was  to  pass 
out  of  the  notice  of  those  in  power:  and,  in  the 
sense  of  giving  aid,  half  a  century  was  to  elapse 
before  the  French  Oovernnicnt  could  compre- 
lieiid  the  duty  of  ta'ing  part  in  the  defence  of 
the  country,  and  of  protecting  the  persons  of 
those  living  iu  New  France.  The  ground  was 
to  be  regarded  simply  as  a  field  for  the  active 
trader,  side  by  side  with  the  devoted  missionary. 
Thus  the  Government  fell  virtually  under  the 
control  of  the  Jesuits,  who,  impatient  of  contra- 
diction, aimed  only  at  the  establishment  of  their 
authority,  which  was  to  bring  the  colony  to  the 
verge  or  destruction."  Cliamplain  returned  to 
his  colony  in  the  spring  of  1011,  facinjj  its  pros- 
pects with  sucli  courage  as  he  found  m  his  own 
stout  heart. — W.  Kiugsford,  IliH.  of  Canada,  bk. 
1,  eh.  3-4  (i>.  1). 

iVi.so  in:  E.  B.  O'Callaghan,  ed.,  Doc.  Hist, 
of  y.  r.,  T.  3,  pp.  1-0. 

A.  D.  1610-1613. — The  Acadian  colony  re- 
vived, but  destroyed  by  the  English  of  'ir- 
ginia. — Port  Hoyal  was  left  uninhabited  till  1010, 
when  Poutrincourt  returned  at  the  instance  of 
the  king  to  make  the  new  settlement  a  central 
station  for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians, — a  work 
winch  made  some  Jesuit  missionaries  prominent 
in  the  history  of  the  New  World.  His  son  fol- 
lowed in  1011,  with  fathers  Pierre  Biard,  and 
Euemond  Masse.  !Madamc  la  ^Marquise  de 
Guercheville,  a  pio\is  Catliolic,  to  whom  De 
Monts  had  ceded  his  title  to  Acadia,  and  to 
whom  afterwards  the  Frcncii  king  granted  the 
whole  territory  now  covered  by  the  United 
States,  was  the  chief  patroness  of  these  voyages. 
Desiring  to  make  another  settlement,  she  des- 
patched a  vessel  in  1013  with  two  more  Jesuits, 
father  Quentin  and  Gilbert  Du  Thet,  and  forty- 
eight  men  under  La  Saussaye.  "When  they 
arrived  at  Port  Boyal,  they  only  found  five  per- 
sons—  fathers  Biard  and  Masse,  their  servant, 
the  apothecary  Hebcrt,  and  another.  All  the 
rest  were  absent,  cither  hunting  or  trading. 
They  showed  the  Queen's  letter  to  Hebert,  who 
represented  Bieucourt  in  his  absence,  and  takirg 
the  two  Jesuits,  with  their  servant  and  luggage 
aboard,  again  set  sail.  It  was  their  intention  to 
establish  the  colony  at  Pentagoet,  which  father 
Biard  had  visited  the  year  previous,  but  when 
off  Grand  Manan  a  thick  fog  came  on,  which 
lasted  for  two  days,  and  when  it  became  clear, 
they  put  into  a  harbor  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Mount  Desert  Islan)!,  in  Matne.  The  harbor 
was  deep,  secure  and  commodious,  and  they 
judged  this  would  be  a  favorable  site  for  the 
colony,  and  named  the  place  St.  Sauveur.  .  .  . 
La  Saussaye  was  advised  by  the  principal  colon- 


ists to  erect  a  stifllcient  fortification  before  com- 
mencing to  cultivate  the  soil,  but  he  disreg:irdcd 
this  udvicc,  and  nothing  was  completed  in  t'lo 
way  of  defence,  except  the  raising  of  a  sma'l 
palisaded  structure,  when  a  storm  buret  upon 
the  colony,  wldch  was  little  expected  by  its 
founders.  In  1007  a  company  of  London  mer- 
chants liad  founded  a  colony  on  the  James  River, 
in  Virgil  ia,  where,  after  suffering  greatly  from 
the  insal  ibrity  of  tlie  climate  and  want  of  pro- 
visions, they  hail  attained  a  considerable  degree 
of  property.  In  1013  they  sent  a  fleet  of  eleven 
vessels  to  fish  on  the  coast  of  Acadia,  convoyed 
by  an  armed  vessel  under  the  command  of  Cap- 
tain Samuel  Argal,  who  had  been  connected  with 
the  colony  since  1009.  Argal  was  one  of  those 
adventurers  formed  iu  the  school  of  Drake,  who 
made  a  trade  of  piracy,  but  confined  themselves 
to  the  robbery  of  tliose  who  were  so  uufortimate 
as  not  to  be  their  own  countrymen.  .  .  .  When 
Argal  arrived  at  Slount  Desert,  he  was  told  by 
the  Indians  that  the  French  were  there  in  the 
harbor  with  a  vessel.  Learning  tliat  they  were 
not  very  numerous,  he  at  once  resolved  to  attack 
them.  All  the  French  were  ashore  when  Argal 
approached,  except  ten  men,  most  of  whom  were 
unacquainted  with  the  working  of  a  ship.  Argal 
attacked  the  French  witli  musketry,  and  at  tlie 
second  discharge  Gilbert  Du  Thet  fell  back,  mor- 
tally wounded;  four  others  were  severely  in- 
jured, and  two  young  men,  named  Lemoine 
and  Neveau,  jumped  overboard  and  were 
drowned.  Having  taken  possession  of  the  ves- 
sel, Argal  went  ashore  and  informed  La  Saussqye 
that  the  place  where  they  were  was  En^rlish 
territory,  and  included  in  the  charter  of  Virgmia, 
and  tliat  they  must  remove ;  but,  if  they  could 
prove  to  him  tliat  they  were  there  under  a  com- 
mission from  the  crown  of  France,  he  would 
treat  them  tenderly.  He  then  asked  La  Saussaye 
to  show  him  his  commission ;  but,  as  Argal,  with 
unparalleled  indecency,  had  abstracted  it  from  his 
chest  while  the  vessel  was  being  plundered  by  his 
men,  the  unhappy  governor  was  of  course  unable 
to  produce  it.  Argal  then  assumed  a  very  lofty 
tone.  .  .  .  When  Argul  arrived  in  Virgir'a,  he 
found  that  his  perfidious  theft  of  the  French 
governor's  commission  was  likely  to  cause  his 
prisoners  to  be  treated  as  pirates.  They  were 
put  into  prison  and  in  a  fair  way  of  being  exe- 
cuted, in  spite  of  Argal's  remonstrances,  until 
struck  with  sliame  and  remorse,  he  produced 
the  commission  which  he  had  so  dishonestly 
filched  from  them,  and  the  prisoners  were  set 
free.  But  the  protluction  of  this  document, 
while  it  saved  the  lives  of  one  set  of  Frenchmen, 
brought  ruin  upon  all  the  othere  who  remained 
in  Acadia.  The  Virginia  colonists  .  .  .  resolved 
to  send  Argal  to  destroy  all  the  French  settle- 
ments in  Acadia,  and  erase  all  traces  of  their 
power.  .  .  .  The  only  excuse  offered  for  this 
piratical  outrage  of  Argal  —  wliicli  was  com- 
mitted during  a  period  of  profound  peace  —  was 
the  claim  which  was  made  by  England  to  the 
whole  continent  of  North  Amer'  ..,  founded  on 
tlie  discoveries  of  tl'i  Cabots  more  than  a  cen- 
tury before.  That  claim  might,  perhaps,  have 
been  of  some  value  if  followed  by  immediate 
occupancy,  us  was  the  case  with  the  Spaniards 
in  the  ;South,  but  that  not  having  been  done, 
and  the  French  colony  being  the  oldest,  it  was 
entitled  to,  ut  least,  as  much  consideration  as 
that  of  Virginia.     Singularly  enough,   this  act 


358 


CANADA,  1010-1813. 


Attack nn  tie 
Iri'ifuoia. 


CANADA,  1011-1610. 


-J. 


produced  no  remonstrance    from    France, 
llaniiiiy.  Hint,  uf  Aiadia,  eh.  (5. 

Ai.«)  IN:  W.  C.  Diyantand  8.  II.  Gay,  Ihpii- 
i.r  I  fiat,  of  the  U.  S.,  r.  1,  ch.  13. 

A.  D.  i6n-i6i6.— The  founding  of  Montreal. 
— Champlain's  invasion  of  the  Iroquois  in  New 
York. — "  In  1011  Cliunipliiiii  ajruiii  rt'turni.-d  ti) 
Anicricn  .  .  .  iind  on  the  28th  of  May  proceedt'd 
in  search  of  liis  allies,  whom  lie  was  to  meet  by 
appointment.  Not  (hiding  them  he  employed 
Ills  time  in  ehoosinj;  a  site  for  n  new  settlement, 
higher  up  the  river  than  Quebec.  After  a  care- 
ful survey,  he  fixed  upon  an  eligible  spot  in  the 
vicinity  of  Mont  Uoyal.  His  choice  lias  been 
amply  justified  by  the  great  prosperity  to  which 
tills  place,  under  the  name  of  Montreal,  lias  sub- 
sequently ri.sen.  Having  cleared  a  consi<lerable 
space  of  ground,  he  fenced  it  in  by  an  earthen 
ditcli  and  planted  grain  in  the  enclosure.  At 
length,  on  the  13tli  of  June,  three  weeks  after 
the  time  appointed,  a  party  of  his  Indian  friends 
appeared.  .  .  .  As  an  evidence  of  their  good  will 
they  imparted  much  valuable  information  respect- 
ing the  gcoifraphy  of  this  continent,  with  wliich 
they  secmeiT  to  be  tolerably  well  acquainted  as 
far  south  as  the  Gulf  of  Jlexico.  They  readily 
agreed  to  his  propo.sal  to  return  shortly  with  40 
or  50  of  his  per)pIo  to  iirosecute  discoveries  and 
form  settlements  in  their  country  if  he  thought 
proper.  They  even  made  a  request  that  u  French 
youth  sliould  accompany  them,  and  make  obser- 
vations upon  their  territory  and  tribe.  Cham- 
plain  again  returned  to  France,  with  a  view  of 
making  arrangements  for  more  extensive  opera- 
tions ;  but  this  object  was  now  of  very  dilUcult 
accomplishment.  De  Monts,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointe<l  governor  of  Saintonge,  was  no  longer 
inclined  to  take  the  lead  in  measures  of  this  kind, 
and  excused  himself  from  going  to  court  by  stat- 
ing the  urgency  of  his  own  alfairs.  He  tlierefore 
committed  the  whole  conduct  of  the  settlement 
to  Cluimplaiu,  advising  him,  at  the  same  time, 
to  seek  some  powerful  protector,  wliosc  influence 
■would  overcome  any  opposition  which  might  be 
made  to  his  plans.  The  latter  was  so  fortunate 
as  to  win  over,  almost  immediately,  tlie  Count 
de  Soissons  to  aid  him  in  liis  designs.  This 
nobleman  obtained  tiie  title  of  lieutenant-general 
of  New  France;  and,  by  a  formal  agreement, 
transferred  to  Champlain  all  tlie  functions  of  that 
high  oflice.  Tlie  Count  died  soon  after,  but 
Champlain  found  a  still  more  influential  friend 
in  tlie  Prince  of  Conde,  who  succeeded  to  all  the 
privileges  of  the  deceased,  and  transferred  them 
to  him  in  a  manner  equally  ample.  These  privi- 
leges, including  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade, 
gave  great  dis.satisfaction  to  the  merchants;  but 
Champlain  endeavored  to  remove  their  principal 
objection,  by  permitting  as  many  of  them  as 
chose  to  accompany  him  to  the  New  World,  and 
to  engage  in  this  traffic.  In  consequence  of  this 
permission,  three  merchants  from  Normandy,  one 
from  Rochellc,  and  one  from  St.  Malo,  accom- 
panied him.  They  were  allowed  the  privileges 
of  a  free  trade  on  contributing  six  men  each  to 
assist  in  projects  of  discovery,  and  giving  one- 
twer.tieth  of  their  iiroflts  towards  defraying  the 
expenses  of  the  settlement.  In  the  beginning  of 
March  j;iR13]  the  expedition  sailed  from  Har- 
fleur,  and  on  the  7tli  of  May  arrived  at  Queliec. 
Cliamplaiii  now  engaged  in  a  new  project."  His 
new  proje'c  was  a  voyage  of  exploration  up  th" 
Ottawa  Liver,  which  he  accomplished  with  grcui 


dilllculty,  through  the  aid  of  his  Indian  allies, 
but  from  which  he  returned  disappointed  in  the 
hope  he  had  entertained  of  discovering  the  north- 
ern sea  and  away  to  India  theieby.  The  next 
summer  found  Champlain  again  in  Prance,  wliere 
•'matters  still  continued  favorable  for  tlic  col- 
ony. The  Prince  of  Conde  retained  his  influence 
at  Court,  and  no  diflleulty  was  coiise(|uently 
found  in  equipping  a  small  fleet,  to  carry  out 
settlers  and  sui)plies  from  Houen  and  St.  Malo. 
On  board  of  this  fleet  came  four  fathers  of  the 
order  of  the  Kecollets,  whos(!  benevolence  in- 
duced them  to  desire  the  conversion  of  the  In- 
dians to  Christianity.  These  were  the  first  priests 
who  settled  in  C'anada.  Champlain  arrived  safely, 
on  the  a.'ithof  May,  at  Tadoussac,  wlience  lie  im- 
mediately inished  forward  to  Quebec,  and  sub- 
secjuently  to  the  usual  place  of  Indian  rendez- 
vous, at  the  Lachine  Hapids.  Hero  he  found  his 
Algonquin  and  Huron  allies  full  of  projects  of 
wai  against  the  Irorpiois,  whom  they  now  pro- 
posed to  assail  among  the  lakes  to  the  westward, 
with  a  force  of  3,000  flgliting  men."— J.  Mac- 
Mullen,  Hint,  of  Canada,  ch.  1. — "Champlain 
found  tlie  Ilurons  and  tlieir  allies  preparing  for 
an  expedition  against  their  ancient  enemies,  the 
Iroquois.  Anxious  to  reconnoitre  the  hostile  ter- 
ritory, and  also  to  secure  the  friendship  of  tlio 
Canadian  savages,  the  gallant  Frenchman  re- 
solved to  accompany  their  warriors.  After  visit- 
ing the  tribes  at  tlie  hea<l  waters  of  the  Ottawa, 
and  discovering  Lake  Huron  [at  Georgian  Bay], 
which,  because  of  its  'great  extent,'  he  named 
'  A\  Mer  Douce, '  Champlain,  attended  by  an  armed 
party  of  ten  Frenchmen,  accordingly  set  out 
toward  the  south,  with  his  Indian  allies.  Enrap- 
tured with  the  '  very  beautiful  and  pleasant 
country '  through  whic:li  they  passed,  and  amusing 
themselves  with  fishing  unci  hunting,  as  the" 
descended  the  chain  of  'Shallow  Lakes,'  which 
discharge  their  waters  through  the  River  I'rent, 
the  expedition  reached  the  banks  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Crossing  the  end  of  the  lake,  '  at  the  outlet  of 
the  great  River  of  Saint  Lawrence,'  and  pass- 
ing by  many  beautiful  islands  on  the  way,  tho 
invaders  followed  the  eastern  shore  of  Ontario 
for  fourteen  leagues,  toward  their  enemy's  coun- 
try. .  .  .  Leaving  tlie  shores  of  the  lake,  the  in- 
vaders continued  their  route  inland  to  the  south- 
ward, for  25  or  30 leagues."  After  a  journey  of 
five  days,  "the  expedition  arrived  before  tho 
fortified  village  of  the  Iroipiois,  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Onondaga  Lake,  near  the  site  of  the 
l)resent  town  of  Liverpool.  Tlie  village  was  in- 
closed by  four  rows  of  palisades,  made  of  largo 
pieces  of  timber  closely  interlaced.  The  stock- 
ade was  30  feet  high,  witli  galleries  running 
around  like  o  parapet."  In  the  siege  which 
followed  tlie  Iroquois  were  dismayed  by  the  fire- 
arms of  Cliainpluiu  and  his  men,  and  by  tlie 
ojieration  of  a.  moveable  tower  with  which  he  ad- 
vanced to  tlieir  stockade  and  set  fire  to  it.  But 
his  Indian  allies  proved  incapable  of  acting  in 
any  rational  or  ctHcient  way,  or  to  submit  to  the 
least  direction,  and  the  attack  was  abortive. 
After  a  few  days  the  invading  force  retreated, 
carrying  Cliamplaiii  with  them  and  forcing  him 
to  remain  in  the  Huron  country  until  the  follow- 
ing spring  (1010),  when  he  maile  his  way  back  to 
Montreal— J.  R.  Brodhead,  Hist,  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  v.  1,  eh.  3.— The  above  account,  which 
fixes  on  Onondaga  Lake  the  site  of  the  Iroquois 
'  )tt  to  which  Cliampioin  penetrated,  does  not 


359 


CANADA,  HI  I -1616. 


'!%€  HutuSrea 
Astxiutet. 


CANADA,  1016-1628. 


iigr>.'  with  tlio  vicwH  of  Pi'rkmnn,  O'Cftlliiclmn, 
and  Miinr  tluT  liiMtoriiuiH,  wliotriicc  Cliiimpliiiii'x 
iniite  fiii  lirr  wcKlwiird  in  New  York;  but  It  ac- 
cepts tlic  concliisii.iiH  rciiclied  by  ().  II.  MurHlmll, 
,1,  v.  II.  (,'liirk,  1111(1  other  turcf id  studcntH of  tin- 
((lU'stlim.  .Mr.  MucMiilK'ii,  in  tlic  "History  of 
Ciimuhi"  ouotod  iibovo,  find*  nil  extriiordlimry 
roule  for  the  cxpt'dition  via  Lnkcs  Huron  and 
8t.  Clair,  to  the  vicinity  of  Detroit.— J.  V.  H. 
Clark,  Jfiiit.  of  Oiiondngit. 

Also  is:  O.  H.  MnrHhall,  Ohamplain's  Etp. 
uii'nt  the  Onondtiyas.  —  C'humplain's  Voi/iK/ea 
O'riiiff  S/jc.),  1880.— E.  B.  O'Callnglmn,"  ed., 
Dof.  Hint,  of  X.   Y..  r.  !l,  !>/).  10-24. 

A.  D.  i'6i6-i6a8.— Champlain  and  the  fur 
traders.- The  first  Jesuit  mission. — Creation 
of  the  Company  of  the  Hundred  Associates. 
— "  Tlio  exploration  in  tlie  distant  Indian  terri- 
tories wliieh  we  liave  just  described  in  tlie  i)re- 
ceding  pages  was  the  liutt  made  by  Clminplain. 
He  had  plans  for  the  survey  of  other  regions  yet 
unexplored,  but  the  favorable  opportunity  did 
not  occur.  Henceforth  ho  directed  his  attention 
more  exclusively  than  he  had  hitherto  done  to 
the  enlargeni'^nt  and  strengthening  of  his  colonial 
plantation,  without  such  success,  we  regret 
to  say,  as  his  zeal,  devotion  and  labors  fitly  do- 
served.  The  obstacles  that  lay  in  his  way  were 
insurmountable.  The  establishment  or  factory, 
we  can  hardly  call  it  a  plantation,  at  Quebec, 
was  tlie  creature  of  a  company  of  merchants. 
They  had  invested  considerable  sums  in  ship- 
ping, buildings,  nnd  in  the  employment  of  men, 
in  order  to  carry  on  a  trade  In  furs  and  peltry 
wiUi  tlie  Indians,  and  they  naturally  desired 
reinunemtive  returns.  This  was  the  limit  of 
the).'  purpose  in  making  the  investment.  .  .  . 
Undci  these  circumstances,  Champlain  struggled 
on  for  yeors  against  a  current  wnich  he  could 
barely  diiect,  but  by  no  means  control.  .  .  . 
He  succeedc(i  at  length  in  extorting  from  the 
company  a  promise  to  enlarge  the  establishment 
to  80  persons,  with  suitable  equipments,  farming 
implements,  all  kinds  of  scede,  and  domestic 
animals,  including  cattle  and  sheep.  But  when 
the  time  came,  this  promise  was  not  fulfilled. 
DiSereuces,  bickerings  and  feuds  sprang  up  in 
the  company.  Some  wanted  one  thing,  and 
some  wantett  another.  The  Catholics  wished  to 
extend  the  faith  of  their  church  into  the  wilds  of 
Canada,  while  the  Huguenots  desired  to  prevent 
it,  or  at  least  not  to  promote  it  by  their  own  contri- 
butions. The  company,  inspired  by  avarice  and  a 
desire  to  restrict  the  establishment  to  a  mere 
trading  post,  iiiised  an  issue  to  discredit  Cham- 
plain.  It  was  gravely  proposed  that  ho  should 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  exploration,  and 
that  the  government  and  trade  should  henceforth 
be  under  the  d'rection  and  control  of  Pont 
Grave.  But  Champlain  .  .  .  obtained  a  decree 
ordering  that  he  should  liave  the  command  at 
Qucliec,  and  at  nil  other  settlements  in  New 
France,  and  that  the  company  should  abstain 
from  any  interference  with  him  in  the  discharge 
of  the  duties  of  his  office."  In  1620  the  Prince 
do  Conde  sold  his  viceroyalty  to  the  Duke  de 
Montmorency,  then  high-iidmiral  of  France,  who 
commissioned  Champlain  anew,  as  his  lieuten- 
ant, and  supported  him  vigorously.  Champlain 
had  made  voyages  to  Canada  in  1617  and  1618, 
and  now,  in  1020,  he  proceeded  to  his  post 
again.  At  Quebec  he  began  immediately  the 
building  of  a  fort,  which  he  called  fort  St.  Louis. 


The  company  of  associates  opposed  this  work, 
and  so  provoked  the  Duke  or  Montinoreney  by 
their  conduct  that  "in  the  spring  of  U121,  he 
Kiininiarily  dissolved  the  association  of  mer- 
chants, which  he  denominated  the  'Ciinipany  of 
Uoiien  and  !St.  .Malo,'  and  established  iimitlier  in 
its  nlace.  He  continued  Chainnlain  in  the  otiloo 
of  lieutenant,  but  committed  all  matters  relating 
to  trade  to  William  do  Caen,  a  merchant  of  higli 
standing,  and  to  Enieric  de  Caen,  tlie  neiiliew  of 
the  former,  a  good  naval  captain."  In  tlio 
course  of  the  following  year,  however,  the  new 
and  the  old  trading  companies  were  consolidated 
in  one.  "Champlain  remained  at  Quebec  four 
years  before  again  returning  to  France.  His 
time  was  divided  between  many  local  enterprises 
of  great  importimce.  His  special  attention  was 
given  to  anvancing  the  work  on  the  unfinished 
fort,  in  order  to  provide  against  incursions  of 
tlio  hostile  Irociuois,  who  at  one  time  approached 
the  very  walls  of  Quebec,  and  attacked  unsuc- 
cessfully the  guarded  house  of  the  Herollccts  on 
the  St.  Charles. "  In  the  summer  of  1024  Cham- 
plain returned  again  to  France,  where  the  Duko 
de  Montmorency  was  just  stdling,  or  had  sold, 
his  viceroyalty  to  the  Duko  do  Ventadour. 
"This  nobleman,  of  a  deeply  religious  cast  of 
mind,  had  taken  holy  orders,  and  his  chief  pur- 
pose in  obtaining  the  viceroyalty  was  to 
encourage  the  planting  of  Catholic  missions  in 
New  France.  As  his  spiritual  directors  were 
Jesuits,  he  naturally  committed  the  work  to 
them.  Three  fathers  and  two  lay  brothers  of 
this  order  were  sent  to  Canada  in  162.'),  and  othere 
subsequently  Joined  them.  .  .  .  Champlain  was 
reappointed  lieutenant,  but  remained  in  France 
two  years."  Returning  to  Quebec  in  July,  1026, 
he  found,  as  usual,  that  everything  but  trade 
had  suffered  neglect  in  his  absence.  Nor  was  he 
able,  during  the  following  year,  to  improve 
much  the  prospects  of  the  colony.  As  a  colony, 
"it  had  never  prospered.  The  average  number 
composing  it  had  not  exceeded  about  50  persons. 
At  tins  time  it  may  have  been  somewhat  more, 
but  did  not  reach  a  hundred.  A  single  family 
only  appears  to  have  subsisted  by  the  cultivotion 
of  the  soil.  The  rest  were  sustained  by  supplies 
sent  from  France.  .  .  .  The  company  as  a  mere 
trading  association,  was  doubtless  successful. 
.  .  .  The  large  dividends  that  they  were  able 
to  make,  intimated  by  Champlain  to  be  not  far 
from  forty  per  centum  yearly,  were,  of  course, 
highly  satisfactory  to  the  company.  .  .  .  Nearly 
twenty  years  ha(l  elapsed  since  the  founding  of 
Quebec,  and  it  still  possessed  only  the  character 
of  a  trading  post,  and  not  that  of  a  colonial 
plantation.  This  progress  was  satisfactory 
neither  to  Champlain,  to  the  Viceroy,  nor  to  the 
Council  of  State.  In  the  view  of  these  several 
interested  parties,  the  time  had  come  for  a  radi- 
cal change  in  the  organization  of  the  companv. 
Cardinal  de  Richelieu  had  risen  by  his  extraordi- 
nary ability  as  a  statesman,  a  short  time  an- 
terior to  this,  into  supremo  authority.  ...  He 
lost  no  time  in  organizing  measures.  .  .  .  The 
company  of  merchants  whose  finances  had  been 
so  skilfully  managed  by  the  Caens  was  by  hira 
at  once  dissolved.  A  new  one  was  formed,  de- 
nominated '  La  Compagnie  de  la  Nouvelle- 
France,' consisting  of  a  hundred  or  more  mem- 
bers, ond  commonly  known  as  the  Company  of 
the  Hundred  Associates.  It  was  under  the 
control  and  management  of  Richelieu  himself. 


360 


CANADA,  1016-1028. 


Jen 


Fair  II f  Ihe 
Hit  MtMiinu 


CANADA,  1034-1053. 


Its  iticmljcrs  wc/o  liirRcly  Kcntlemon  in  olllcitil 
positions.  ...  Its  'uitliority  exti'iiiifil  over  tlio 
wli)!';  (lomiiin  o''  New  i'miico  and  Fioridii.  .  .  . 
If.  I'litert'd  into  uii  ohligatimi  .  .  .  witliin  tliu 
sniice  of  1^  y.  ure  to  trnnsport  4,000  coloniHtii  to 
New  France.  .  .  .  Tin  orj^iinizntion  of  tlio  com- 
pany .  .  .  WHS  riititled  by  tlio  Council  of  Stuto 
on  tlio  Ctliof  M,.^,  1028."— E.  F.  Sliiftcr,  Memoir 
of  Vhamplaiii  (\  uyayea :  Prince  iiuc.,  1880,  v.  1), 
c/i.  0. 

Also  in:  Pi\re  Clmrl'ivoLx,  llinl.  of  Xew 
Fniiirf,  traim.  by  J.  (f.  N/xd,  lik.  4  (t\  2). 

A.  D.  1628-1635. — Conquest  and  brief  occu- 
pation by  the  English. — Restoration  to  France. 
— "Tlid  first  ciu'u  of  tlie  new  Conipiiiiy  was  to 
succor  Quebec,  whoso  inmates  were  on  tlic  verge 
of  starvfttiou.  Four  armed  vessels,  witli  a  fleet 
of  transports  commanded  by  Uo(|uemont,  one  of 
the  associates,  sailed  from  Dieppe  witli  colonists 
and  supplies  in  April,  1628;  but  nearly  at  tlio 
snmo  time  another  squadron,  destined  also  for 
Q\iebec,  was  sailing  from  an  English  port.  War 
had  at  length  brolten  out  in  France.  The  Hugue- 
not revolt  had  come  to  a  head.  Uocliellc  was  in 
arms  against  the  king;  and  Richedeu,  with  his 
royal  ward,  was  beleaguering  it  with  the  wliolo 
strength  of  the  kingdom.  Charles  I.  of  England, 
urged  by  the  heated  pas.sions  ('f  Buckingliam, 
had  declared  himself  for  the  rebels,  and  sent  a 
fleet  to  their  aid.  .  .  .  The  attempts  of  Sir 
William  Alexander  to  colonize  Acadia  hiul  of 
late  turned  attention  in  England  towards  the 
New  World  ;  and,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war.  an  expedition  was  set  on  foot,  under  tlio 
auspices  of  tliat  singular  personage,  to  seize  on 
the  French  possessions  in  Nortli  America.  It 
was  a  private  enterprise,  imdertaken  by  London 
merchants,  prominent  among  whom  was  Gervaso 
Kirkc,  an  Eiiglislmian  of  Derbyshire,  who  had 
long  lived  at  Dieppe,  and  had  there  married  a 
Frenchwoman.  Qervase  Kirko  and  his  associates 
fitted  out  three  small  armed  ships,  commanded 
respectively  by  his  sons  David,  Lewis  • -d 
Thomas.  Letters  of  marque  were  obtained  from 
the  king,  and  the  adventurers  were  authorized  to 
drive  out  tlie  French  from  Acadia  and  Canada. 
Many  Huguenot  ugees  were  among  tlie  crews. 
Having  been  expv,iled  from  New  France  as 
settlers,  the  persecuted  sect  were  returning  ai 
caemies."  The  Kirkes  reached  the  St.  Lawrence 
in  advance  of  Roquemont's  supply  ships,  inter- 
cepted the  latter  and  captured  or  sank  the  whole. 
They  then  sailed  back  to  England  with  their 
spoils,  and  it  was  not  until  the  following  summer 
that  they  returned  to  complete  their  conquest. 
Meantime,  the  small  garrison  and  population  at 
Quebec  were  reduced  to  starvation,  and  were 
subsisting  on  acorns  and  roots  when,  in  July 
1029,  Admiral  David  Kirke,  with  his  three  ships, 
appeared  before  the  place.  Champlain  could  do 
nothing  but  arrange  a  dignifled  surrender.  For 
three  years  following,  Quebec  and  New  Franco 
remained  under  the  control  of  the  English.  They 
were  then  restored,  under  a  treaty  stipulation  to 
France.  "It  long  remained  a  mj^stery  why 
Charles  consented  to  a  stipulation  wliich  pledged 
him  to  resign  so  important  a  conquest.  The 
mystery  is  explained  by  tlic  recent  discovery  of 
a  letter  from  the  king  to  Sir  Isaac  AVake,  his 
ambassador  at  Paris.  The  promised  dowry  of 
Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  amounting  to  800,000 
crowns,  had  been  but  halt  i)aid  by  the  French 
government,  and  Charles,  theu  at  issue  with  his 


24 


Parliament  and  in  desperate  need  of  money, 
iiislruits  his  ambassador  tliat,  when  he  receive* 
the  balance  due,  and  not  before,  he  is  to  give  up 
to  tli('  Frcncli  lioth  Quebec  and  Port  Uoval, 
wlilrli  had  also  been  captuicil  by  Kirke.  I'lio 
letter  was  accompanied  liy  'solemn  instruments 
under  our  hand  anil  seal '  to  make  good  the  trans- 
fer on  ftilfllment  of  tlie  condition.  It  was  for 
a  sum  e(|ual  to  about  i(;240.(N)0  that  Charles 
entailed  on  Great  Britain  and  her  colonics  u 
century  of  bhwHly  wars.  The  Kirkes  Jind  their 
associates,  who  hail  made  the  conquest  at  their 
own  cost,  under  tlie  royal  authority,  were  never 
reimbursed,  though  David  Kirke  received  tho 
honor  of  knightlioiMl,  wliieli  cost  the  kinff 
nothing," —  and  also  the  grant  of  Newfoiinillanir 
On  the  .'ith  of  July,  l«:i2,  (Juebec  was  delivered 
up  by  Thomas  Kirke  to  Emery  de  Caen,  eom- 
missioned  by  the  French  king  to  reclaim  tho 
lilace.  Tlie  latter  held  command  for  one  year, 
with  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade;  then  Cliam- 

Iilain  resumed  the  government,  on  behalf  of  tho 
lundred  Associates,  continuing  in  it  until  his 
deatli,  which  occurred  on  Christmas  Day,  1035. 
— F.  Parkinan,  Pioiuem  of  tYance  in  the  A'ino 
World:  ChampUiin,  cli.  10-17. 

Ai.soiN:  Cdkmlar  (f  iSttite  PajKri :  Coloninl 
Series.  1574-1660,  pp.  00-143.— D.  Brymner, 
Rcpt.  on  Canadiiiii  Archiren,  pp.  xi-rir.  <tiul  note 
D. — H.  Kirke,  Fint  h'ni/lish  ConqiteM  of  Canmht. 
—Sec,  also,  Newfoundi^and,'  A.  D.  1010-10.55. 

A.  D.  1634-1652.— The  Jesuit  missions  and 
their  fate. — The  fli-st  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
came  to  Quebec  in  1025,  as  stated  above,  but  it 
was  not  until  nearly  seven  years  later  that  t'ley 
made  their  way  into  tlio  heart  of  the  Indian 
country  and  began  there  their  devoted  work. 
"The  Father  Superior  of  the  Jlission  was  Paul 
le  Jeune,  a  man  devoted  in  every  libro  of  mind 
and  heart  to  the  work  on  which  he  had  come. 
He  utterly  scorned  ditHeulty  and  pain.  He  had 
received  the  order  to  depart  for  Canada  'with 
inexpressible  1oy  at  the  prospect  of  a  living  or 
dying  martyrdom.'  Among  his  companions  was 
Jean  de  Brebueuf,  a  man  noble  in  birtli  and 
aspect,  of  strong  intellect  and  will,  of  zeal  which 
knew  no  limit,  and  recognized  no  obstacle  iu 
the  path  of  duty.  .  .  .  Far  in  the  west,  beside  a 
great  lake  of  which  the  Jesuits  had  vaguely 
heard,  dwelt  tho  Hurons,  u  powerful  nation 
with  many  kindred  tribes  over  which  tliey  ex- 
ercii^d  Intluence.  The  Jesuits  resolved  to  found 
a  mission  among  the  Hurons.  Once  in  every 
year  a  fleet  of  canoes  came  down  the  great  river, 
bearing  six  or  seven  hundred  Huron  warriors, 
who  visited  Quebec  to  dispose  of  their  furs,  to 
gamble  and  to  steal.  Breba'uf  and  two  com- 
panions took  passage  [1034]  with  tlio  returning 
fleet,  and  set  out  for  the  dreary  scene  of  their 
new  apostolate.  .  .  .  The  Hurons  received  with 
hospitable  welcome  the  black-robed  strangers. 
The  priests  were  able  to  repay  the  kindness  with 
services  of  high  value.  They  taught  more 
effective  metluMls  of  fortifying  the  town  in 
which  they  lived.  They  promised  the  help  of  a 
few  French  musketeers  against  an  impending 
attack  by  the  Iroquois.  They  cured  diseases; 
they  bound  up  wounds.  Tliey  gave  simple  in- 
struction to  the  young,  and  gained  the  hearts 
of  their  pupils  by  gifts  of  beads  and  raisins. 
The  elders  of  the  people  came  to  have  the  faith 
explained  to  them:  they  readily  owned  that  it 
was  a  good  faith  for  the  French,  but  they  could 


361 


CANADA,  1684-1609. 


TTn-  fymeh 
in  Ihf  Went. 


CANADA.  1684-1673. 


not  be  pornimclcd  that  it  wiis  siiltiiWe-  for  the  red 
limii.  Till'  fiitlirm  laltnuri'il  in  liiipu  iiiiil  tlir 
■»viiK<'^  liami'il  to  love  tlii'tii.  .  .  .  Hoiiii-  of 
tlii'ir  iiirtlioilH  of  coiivcrxion  were  I'Xi'ccillnnly 
null'.     A    Irttcr   from  Fatlii'i'  (JarnliT  Iiiih  Imtii 

iiri'srrviMl  ill  M-lilch  picliircs  an-  ordiTril  froii, 
I'raiK-c  for  the  Hpiii'iial  iiiiprovcmciit  of  the 
IndiuUN.  Many  ri'prrHcntUioiis  of  itoiils  In  piT- 
dition  arc  ri'iiuircd,  witli  appropriati^  lucoiiipaiii' 
mi'iit  of  thiiiii'M,  and  trliinipliaiit  drinons  trarini; 
thciii  with  pincrrM.  One  pictiiri'  of  Hiivrd  souls 
woiilil  sulllct',  and  'a  picturi?  of  Christ  without 
iihrard.'  Tliry  were  conHiinicd  by  ii  zeal  for 
the  liaptiHiii  of  littk'  childri'n.  At  the  outset 
the  Inciiiuis  welcomed  this  ceremonial,  liellevinjt 
that  it  was  a  eliarm  to  avert  Rieitiiess  and  death. 
But  wlieii  e|iidemics  wasted  them  they  charged 
the  calamity  against  the  mysterious  o|)eratioiis 
of  the  fathi'i'H,  and  refused  now  to  permit  bap- 
tism. The  fathers  recognized  the  hand  of  .''^atan 
in  this  proliibition,  and  refused  to  submit  to  it. 
They  liaptl/.ed  liy  stealth.  ...  In  time,  the 
patient,  self-denving  labour  of  the  fathers  might 
have  won  thosit  discimraging  savages  totlie  cross; 
but  a  fatal  interruption  was  at  hand.  A  power- 
ful and  relentless  enemy,  l)ent  on  c.vtermiimtion, 
was  alioiit  to  sweep  over  the  Huron  territory, 
involving  the  savages  and  their  teachers  in  one 
common  ruin.  Tliirty-two  years  had  jms-sed 
since  those  illjudged  expeditions  in  which 
<yhumplain  bad  given  help  to  tlie  Uurons  against 
the  Iroipiois.  Tlic  unforgiving  savages  had 
never  forgotten  the  wrong.  .  .  .  The  Iroquois 
[lt)48-ltUUJ  attacked  in  overwhelming  force  tlio 
towns  of  their  llurcm  enemies;  forced  the  inade- 
quate defences ;  burned  tlie  palisades  and  woimIcii 
liuts;  slaughtered  with  indescribable  tortures 
the  wretched  inhabitants.  In  one  of  tliese  towns 
they  found  IJrcbu'uf  and  one  of  his  companion.s. 
Tliey  bound  the  ilifated  missionaries  to  stakes; 
they  hung  around  their  necks  collars  of  red-hot 
iron;  tliey  poured  boiling  water  on  their  heads; 
they  cut  stripes  of  tiesh  from  their  quivering 
limbs  and  ate  them  in  tlieir  sight.  To  the  last 
Brebieuf  cheered  with  hopes  of  licaven  the 
native  converts  who  shared  his  agony.  And 
thus  was  gained  the  crown  of  martyrdom  for 
which  in  the  fervour  of  their  entiiusiasm,  these 

food  men  had  long  yearned.  In  a  few  years  the 
[uron  nat  \<m  was  extinct ;  famine  and  small-pox 
swept  oil  1  !io3o  whom  the  Iroquois  spared.  The 
Huron  mission  was  closed  by  the  extirpation  of 
the  race  for  whom  it  was  founded.  Many  of  the 
missionaries  iierishod ;  some  returned  to  France. 
Their  labour  seemed  to  liavc  been  in  vain ;  their 
years  of  toil  and  suffering  left  no  trace." — U. 
Mackenzie,  Amcriai:  A  Jlistori/,  pp.  320-333. — 
"  With  the  fall  of  the  Ilurons,  fell  the  best  hope 
of  the  Caniulian  mission.  They,  and  the  stable 
and  populous  comnuinities  around  them,  had 
been  the  rude  material  from  which  the  Jesuit 
would  have  formed  his  Christain  empire  in  the 
wilderness;  but,  one  by  one,  these  kindred  peo- 
ples were  uprooted  and  swept  away,  while  the 
neighboring  Algonquins,  to  wliom  they  had  been 
a  bulwark,  were  involved  with  them  in  a  common 
ruin.  ...  In  a  measure,  the  occupation  of  the 
Jesuits  was  gone.  Some  of  them  went  home, 
'well  resolved,' writes  the  Father  Superior,  'to 
return  to  the  ccmbat  at  the  first  sound  of  the 
trumpet';  while  of  those  who  remained,  about 
twenty  in  number,  several  soon  fell  victims  to 
famine,  hardship  and    the    Iroquois.      A  few 


years  more,  and  Canada  ceased  to  l)p  n  mission 
jiolitical  and  commercial  interestH  gradually  be- 
came ascendant,  and  tlie  story  of  Jesuit  pro- 
pagandism  was  interwoven  with  her  civil  and 
'  Mitary  annals." — F.  I'arkman,  T/ie  Jemtitu  in 
X  Am.,  r/i.  m. 

Also  i.\:  Father  Charlevoix,  Jfint.  nf  New 
Fmui-r,  tr.  by  Shin,  bk.  5-7  (/•.  2).— J.  O,  Hliea, 
Tlie  JiKiiitH,  Uerollirlii,  and  the  Iiiilinn»  (Aarrii- 
till'  ami  Critiiud  Hint,  of  Am  ,  r.  4,  eh.  tl). 

A.  D.  1634-1673.— Nicolet.—Marauette. — 
Joliet. — Pioneer  exploration  in  the  West  and 
discovery  of  the  Missis.iippi. —  When  Cliam- 
jilain  gave  up  his  work,  the  map  of  New  France 
was  blank  beyond  Lake  Ontario  and  Ueorgian 
Hay.  The  first  of  the  French  explorers  who 
wii'leneil  it  far  westward  was  a  Nonuati  named 
Jean  Nicolet,  who  came  to  America  in  KllH,  and 
who  was  trained  for  many  years  in  Champlain'a 
service.  "  After  dwelling  some  time  among  the 
Nipisslngs,  he  visited  tlie  Far  West;  seemingly 
between  the  years  1034  and  1040.  In  a  bircb- 
Imrk  canoe,  the  brave  Norman  voyagenr  croK.Hed 
or  coasted  Lake  Huron,  entered  the  St.  Mary's 
River,  and,  tirst  of  white  men,  stood  at  the  stndt 
now  called  Sault  Hte  Marie.  He  do(!s  not  seem 
to  have  known  of  Lake  Superior,  but  returned 
down  the  St.  Mary's  River,  passed  from  Lake 
Huron  through  the  western  detour  to  Michili- 
mackinac,  and  entered  anotlier  fresh-water  sea, 
Mitcliigannon  or  Michigan,  also  afterwards 
known  as  the  Lake  of  the  Illinois,  Lake  St. 
Joseph,  Lake  Dauphin,  or  even  Algoniiuin 
Lake.  Here  he  visited  the  Menomoneo  tribe  of 
Indians,  and  after  tliem  the  Winnibagoes.  .  .  . 
The  lierci!  wrath  of  the  Iroquois  liad  driven 
numbers  of  the  Hurons,  Ottawas,  and  sevenil 
minor  Algonquin  tribes  westward.  The 
Iroquois,  like  a  wedge,  had  split  tlie  northern 
tribes  into  east  and  west.  Sault  Ste  Marie  be- 
came u  centnd  point  for  tlie  refugees.  .  .  . 
Another  gathering  place  for  the  fugitives  had 
been  found  very  near  the  south-west  corner  of  this 
great  lake.  This  was  La  Pointe,  one  of  the 
Apostle  Islands,  near  the  present  town  of  Asli- 
lond  in  Wisconsin.  Tlie  Jesuits  took  up  these 
two  points  as  mission  centres.  ...  In  1009  the 
Fathers  Dablon  and  Marquette,  with  their  men, 
had  erected  a  palisaded  fort,  enclosing  a  chiqiel 
and  house,  at  Sault  Ste  Marie.  In  the  same  year 
Father  Allouez  had  begun  a  mission  at  Green 
Bay.  In  1070  an  intrepid  explorer,  St.  Lusson, 
under  orders  from  Intendant  Talon,  came  west 
searching  for  copper-mines.  He  was  accom- 
jianied  by  the  afterwards  well-known  Joliet. 
When  this  party  arrived  at  Sault  Sto  Marie,  tlio 
Indians  were  gathered  together  in  great  num- 
bers, and  with  imposing  ceremonies  St.  Lusson 
took  possession  of  '  Sainte  JIarie  du  Saut,  as  also 
of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  the  island  of 
^lanetoulin,  and  all  countries,  rivers,  lakes,  and 
streams  contiguous  and  adjacent  thereunto.' 
...  It  was  undoubtedly  the  pressing  desire  of 
the  Jesuit  fathers  to  visit  the  country  of  the 
Illinois  and  their  great  river  that  led  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  'Father  of  Watere.'  Fatuer 
Allouez  indeed  had  already  ascended  the  Fo.x 
River  from  Lake  Michigau,  and  seen  the  marshy 
lake  which  is  the  lieatl  of  a  tributary  of  the 
Mississippi.  At  last  on  June  4th,  1673,  the 
French  minister,  Colbert,  wrote  to  Talon:  'As 
after  the  increase  of  the  colony  there  is  nothing 
more  important  for  the  colony  than  the  discovery 


362 


CANADA,  1634-1073. 


CANADA.   1637-16.17. 


■of  n  ixifWAKo  to  tlin  .South  .Son,  his  Mnjcsty  wIshi'H 
you  to  j{lv(?  It  your  iiltciitioii.'  TIiIh  tii('Hwif((>  to 
tlii^  Intciulaiitntinc  iis  he  wim  Inivliin  for  Kraiicc, 
1111(1  li<>  ri'coiiiiiK'iKlcil  the  Ht'hciiiiMiiKl  till' cxplori'r 
hu  Imd  ill  view  for  ciirryliiK  it  out  to  llic  notlct' 
of  tlu!  (lovcriior,  Frontrimc,  who  hiid  Just 
Brrlvcd.  Oovmior  Front<>!iii('  npprovcil  iinil  Ihr 
explorer  stiirtcd.  The  niiiii  chosen  for  the  enter- 
prise WHS  I.oiils  .loliet,  who  had  already  been  at 
Hault  Hie  Marie.  He  was  of  hunilile  birth,  and 
was  II  native  of  \ew  Franee.  .  .  .  Tlu-  Freneli 
Canadian  ex|>lorer  was  aceeptalili^  to  the  niis- 
sionaries,  and  ininiediately  journeyed  west  to 
meet  Marquette,  who  was  to  iieeompany  lilni. 
.  .  .  M.  iJoliet  met  the  priest  Marquette  at 
Bt.  Ignncc  Migslon.  Mieliiliinackinae.  .laciiues 
Marquette,  of  wlioni  we  have  already  hearil, 
was  born  in  11137  at  (iaoii,  ('liaiiipaK"('.  i" 
France.  He  spraii)?  of  an  ancient  and  dis- 
tinKuished  family.  .  .  .  On  May  17tli,  1673, 
■wiUi  deepest  religious  emotion,  tlie  triwier  and 
missionary  launched  forth  on  Lake  Miehl);;an 
their  two  canoes,  containing  seven  Frenchinen  in 
all,  to  make  the  ftreatest  (liscovery  of  the  time. 
They  hastened  to  Qrecii  Hay,  followed  the  couitie 
of  Father  Alloucz  up  the  Fo.x  Uiver,  and  reached 
the  trilie  of  the  Maseoutins  or  Fire  Nation  on 
.hia  river.  These  were  new  Indians  to  the  ex- 
plorers. They  were  peaceful,  and  helped  the 
voyagers  on  their  way.  With  Kuides  furnished, 
the  two  canoes  were  transported  for  2,700  paces, 
4»nd  the  head  waters  of  the  Wisconsin  were 
reached.  After  an  easy  descent  of  30  or  40 
leagues,  on  June  17th,  1673,  the  feat  was  accom- 
plished, the  Mississippi  was  discovered  by  white 
men,  and  the  canoes  shot  out  upon  its  surface  In 
latitude  43°.  Sailing  down  the  great  river  for  a 
month,  the  party  reached  the  village  of  Akansea, 
on  the  Arkansas  liiver,  in  latitude  34°,  and  on 
July  17th  began  their  return  journey.  It  is  but 
Just  to  say  tliat  some  o.  the  Hecollet  fathers,  be- 
tween whom  and  the  Jesuits  jealousy  existed, 
have  disputed  the  fact  of  Joliet  and  Alarquetto 
■ever  reaching  this  point.  The  evidence  here 
seems  entirely  in  favour  of  the  explorers.  On 
their  return  journey  the  party  turned  from  the 
Mississippi  into  a  tributary  river  in  latitude  38°. 
This  was  the  Illinois.  Ascending  this,  the 
Indian  town  of  Kaskasl-ia  was  readied,  and 
here  for  a  time  Father  Marquette  remained. 
Joliet  and  his  party  passed  on,"  arriving  at 
Montreal  in  due  time,  but  losing  all  their  papers 
In  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Father  Mar- 
quette cstAblished  a  mission  among  the  Illinois 
Indians,  but  his  labors  were  cut  short.  He  died 
while  on  a  journey  to  Green  Bay,  May  18,  1675. 
"High  encomiums  of  Father  Marquette  fill  — 
and  deservedly  so —  the  'Jesuit  Relations.'  We 
have  his  autograph  map  of  the  Mississippi. 
This  great  stream  he  desired  to  call  '  Conception 
River,'  but  the  name,  like  those  of  '  Colbert  and 
'  Buade '  [the  family  name  of  Count  Frontenac], 
which  were  both  bestowed  upon  it,  have  failed 
to  take  the  place  of  the  musical  Indian  name. " 
— G.  Bryce,  Short  JIM.  of  the  Canadian  People, 
eh.  5,  sect.  3. 

Also  in  :  F.  Parkman,  La  Salle  and  the  Dii- 
cmei-y  of  tht  Qreat  West,  eh.  2-5.— C.  W.  Butter- 
flelu,  Hilt,  of  the  IHsanery  of  tfie  N.  W.  by 
Mcolet.—J.  W.  Monette,  Hist,  of  the  Discovery 
and  Settlement  of  the  Valley  of  the  Miss.,  hk.  3, 
ch.  1  (v.  1).— 8.  8.  Hebberd,  Ilist.  of  Wis.  under 
the  dominion  of  Franee,  ch.  1-2. 


A.  D.  1637-1657.— The  Sulpicikn  settlement 
of  Montreitl  and  reliKtout  activity  at  Quebec. 

— ('haiiiplulii  was  NUici'rdcd  as  governor  of  New 
France  by  .M,  de  Chillcaufdrl,  of  wlios<>  brief 
administration  little  is  known,  and  the  latter 
was  followed  by  M.  dc  Montiiiagny.  out  of  the 
tranHlatiiin  of  whose  name  the  Indians  funned 
the  title  Onontio,  signifying  "Oreiit  .Moun- 
tain," vlilch  they  afterwards  appUcd  to  all  the 
Frriuh  governors.  .Montinagiiy  entered  with 
zeal  into  the  plans  of  Cliainplairi,  "but  dilllcul- 
ties  accuinulate<l  on  all  sides.  .Men  anil  money 
were  wanting,  trade  languiHlicd,  and  llie  Akho- 
ciated  C!onipanv  in  France  were!  daily  becoming 
indilTerent  to  the  success  of  the  colony.  Homo 
few  merchants  and  inhabitants  of  tlie  outposts, 
indeed,  were  enriched  by  llic  prolllable  deal- 
iiiilH  of  the  fur-trade,  but  tlieir  suddenly -aciiiilred 
weiiltli  excited  the  jealousy  rather  than  Increased 
the  general  pDspority  of  the  si'ttlers.  The 
work  of  rellgiou"  inntitutions  was  alone  j)ursueil 
with  vigor  and  success  in  thosi!  limes  of  failure 
and  discouragement.  At  Sillery,  one  league 
from  tiiiebec,  i\n  establishment  was  founded  for 
the  instniction  of  thesav'g""  and  the  dilTusion 
of  Chrisiian  liglit  [1«:,  1.  The  Hotel  Dieu 
owed  its  existence  to  the  Duchesso  d'Aiguillon 
two  years  afterwinl,  and  the  convent  of  the 
Ursulines  was  founded  by  the  pious  and  high- 
born Madame  de  la  Peltrie.  The  partial  success 
and  subseiiuent  failure  of  Champlain  and  his 
Indian  allies  in  tlieir  encounters  with  the  Iro- 
quois had  emboldened  these  bravo  and  politic 
savages.  They  now  captured  several  conoea 
belonging  to  the  Hurons,  loden  with  furs,  which 
that  friendly  people  were  conveying  to  tjuebec. 
Montmagny's  military  force  was  Ux)  small  to 
allow  of  his  avenging  this  insult;  he,  however, 
zealously  promoted  an  enterprise  to  build  a  fort 
and  elTect  a  settlement  on  the  island  of  Montreal, 
which  he  fondly  hoped  would  curb  the  audacity 
of  his  savage  foes.  The  Associated  Company 
would  render  no  aid  whatever  to  this  important 
plan,  but  the  religious  zeal  of  the  Abb6  Olivier 
overcame  all  difllculties.  lie  obtAined  a  grant 
of  Montreal  from  the  king,  and  dispatched  tho 
Sieur  de  Maisonneuve  and  others  to  take  posses- 
sion. On  the  17th  of  May,  1641,  the  place  des- 
tined for  the  settlement  was  consecrated  by  the 
superior  of  the  Jesuits.  At  the  same  time  the 
go  'g^fnor  erected  a  fort  at  the  entrance  of  the 
F'ver  Richelieu,"  which  so  far  checked  the  Iro- 
quois tliot  they  entered  into  a  treaty  of  peace 
f  nd  respected  it  for  o  brief  period. — L.  Warbur- 
ton,  The  Conquest  of  Canada,  v.  1,  ch.  12. — The 
settlement  of  Montreol  was  undertaken  by  an 
associatiim  of  thirty-flvc  rich  and  influential  per- 
sons in  France,  among  whom  was  the  Duke  de 
Liancourt  de  la  Roche Quyon.  "This  company 
obtained  a  concession  of  the  island  in  1640,  and 
a  member  >f  the  association  orrived  at  Quebec 
from  Franco  with  several  immigrating  families, 
some  soldiers,  and  on  armament  valued  at  25,000 
piastres."  In  1642  "a  reinforcement  of  colo- 
nists arrived,  led  by  M.  d'Ailleboust  de  Musseau, 
During  the  following  year,  a  second  party  came. 
At  this  time  the  European  population  resident  in 
Canada  did  not  exceed  200  souls.  The  immi- 
grants who  now  entered  it  had  been  selected 
with  the  utmost  care.  "—A.  Bell,  Ilist.  of  Canada, 
bk.  8,  ch.  1  (d.  1).— In  1657  the  scigniority  of 
Montreal  was  ceded  to  the  Seminary  of  St.  8ul- 
pice  in  Paris,  where  the  reins  of  its  government 


363 


CANADA.  I637-1(W7. 


navaoti  of 
oil. 


tht  /ruyHou 


CANADA,  1003-1874. 


wrrr  belli  iiiilll  lOlW— Kiillicr  Clmrlrvolx,  Ilitt. 
1)/  NfiP  francf,  trim*,  by  Shen.  r.  U,  /),  2U. 

Al.KO  IN:  K.  I'urkiiiiiii,  Thf  Jrimili  in  S'orlh 
Am.,  fh.  13- IS. 

A.  D.   1640-1700.— The  wan  with  the  Iro- 

?uoil. — "  Friiin  iilxpiil  tlir  ynir  ItHO  to  llii-  ynir 
704),  n  I'lmntiinl  wiirfitrr  wiiHiMiiiiitiilnril  Ix'twct'ii 
the  in>(|ii(iiH  iinil  tli«  Frriicli,  inti'rru|it<Ml  imcii- 
Hioniilly  l)y  n<'K<>tiittii>iiH  mid  brief  ititervnlii  of 
IM'iiee.  An  tlie  former  poHMeHKed  botli  biiiil(M  of 
the  Hi.  Liiwrenee,  ni.d  tlie  rirciiitH  of  liiltcH  Krie 
and  Ontario,  llii'y  intercepted  tlie  fur  tnide, 
wliieb  tlie  Krenrb  were  aiixioim  to  maintain  willi 
tlie  weitlerii  natioiiH.  .  ,  .  Tbe  war  part les  of  tlie 
1.1'aKiii'  raiijfcd  tliniilKli  tliewi  terrilorieH  ho  con- 
Htantly  tliat  it  waH  impoHHibli!  for  tlie  Freiicli  to 
piiHM  in  Hafety  tbroilKli  tlie  lakeN,  or  I'ven  up  tlu^ 
Ht.  Lawrence  bImivc  .Montreal.  ...  Ho  ({rent  wim 
tlio  feur  of  tlicHv  Huddeii  uttackH,  tliat  iKitli  tlie 
tnuU^nt  and  tlie  nilsMlonaricM  were  obliKe<l  to 
Mcend  tlin  Ottawa  river  to  near  its  Hoiirce.  and 
from  tlience  to  crotw  over  to  tlii'  Haiilt  St.  .Marie, 
and  tilt!  Bliores  of  Lake  .Superior.  .  .  ,  To  retali- 
ate for  tlicMe  freiiiient  inroads,  and  to  prevent 
their  recurrence,  tlie  country  of  the  Iro(|uois  was 
often  invaded  by  tlie  French.  ...  In  1««.'),  .M. 
Courcelles,  (governor  of  Canada,  led  a  Htrong 
party  into  the  country  of  the  Mohawks;  hut  tlio 
linrdsliips  tliey  encountered  rendered  it  necessary 
for  them  to  return  without  accompiishinjt  their 
purpose.  The  ne.xt  year,  ,M.  de  Tracy,  Viceroy 
of  New  France,  with  l,a(M)  French  and  000  In- 
dians, renewed  the  invasion  with  better  success, 
lie  captured  Te-llton-ta-16-ga,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal villafj;cs  of  tho  Mohawks,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Scliobaric  Creek ;  hut  after  destroy- 
ing till,  town,  and  the  stores  of  com,  which  they 
found  in  caches,  they  wore  obliged  to  n'tire 
without  meeting  an  opposing  force.  Again,  In 
16H4,  -M.  I)e  La  Ilarre,  tlien  governor  of  Canada, 
entered  tin  country  of  the  Onondagas,  with 
about  1,800  men.  Having  readied  Hungry  Day, 
on  the  east  shoro  of  lake  Ontario,  a  conferenco 
was  had  with  a  delegation  of  Iro(iuois  chiefs. 
...  A  species  of  armistice  was  Anally  agreed 
upon,  and  tliiis  tho  expedition  ended.  A  more 
guccessful  enterprise  was  projected  and  carried 
Into  execution  in  1087  by  M.  I)c  Nonville,  then 

Sovcmor  of  Canada.  Having  raised  a  force  of 
,000  French  and  000  Indians,  he  embarked  them 
in  a  fleet  of  200  bateau,  and  as  many  birch  bark 
canoes.  After  coasting  lake  Ontario  from  Kings- 
ton to  Irondequoit  bay,  in  tho  territory  of  the 
Senecas,  ho  lauded  at  the  head  of  this  bay,  and 
found  himself  within  a  few  miles  of  the  pnncipal 
yillages  of  the  Senecas,  which  were  then  in  the 
counties  of  Ontario  and  Monroe."  After  one 
battle  with  about  500  of  tho  Senecas,  the  latter 
retreated  into  the  interior,  and  the  Frcach  dc- 
■troyed  four  of  their  villages,  together  with  the 
surrounding  fields  of  growing  com.  "  To  retali- 
ate for  this  invasion,  a  formidable  party  of  tho 
Iroquois,  in  the  fall  of  the  same  year,  i.iadc  a 
sudden  descent  upon  Fort  Chambly,  on  the  Sorel 
River,  near  Montreal.  Unablo  to  capture  the 
fort,  which  was  resolutely  defended  by  tho  gar- 
rison, they  ravaged  the  settlements  adjacent,  and 
returned  with  a  number  of  captives  Ahout  the 
same  time,  a  party  of  800  attacked  Irontenac, 
on  the  site  of  Kingston,  and  destroyed  and  laid 
waste  the  plantations  and  establishments  of  the 
French  without  the  fortification.  In  July  of 
the  ensuing  year  the  French  were  made  to  feel 


Rtill  more  Hcniilbly  the  power  of  their  revenffc. 
A  band  of  t,',  .K)  warriors,  animated  with  tlie- 
fiercest  rewiilment,  niiule  a  di'Hcnit  upon  tho 
iHiandof  Monlrral.  .  .  .  All  that  were  witlioiit 
the  fortifiratioiiH  fell  under  the  rille  or  the  n'lent- 
IcKjt  loniahawk.  Tlieir  lioiisrs  were  burned,  their 
plantatioiiH  ravaged,  and  the  whole  iHland  eov- 
eri'il  with  desolation.  AlHiut  l.dOOof  the  French, 
accordliig  to  Home  writers,  periHiied  in  this  iiivu- 
sioii,  or  were  larrh'd  into  captivity.  .  .  .  Over- 
whelmed bv  this  sudden  dlsiiHler,  the  French  ile- 
stroyed  their  fiirtsat  Niagara  and  Fmiitcnae,  and 
thus  yielded  the  whole  country  west  of  .Montreal 
to  the  poHseHsion  of  tiie  Iri>i|uoiH.  At  this  erili- 
eal  periiHi  Count  Froiiteiiac  again  becanio  gov- 
ernor of  Canada,  and  during  tlie  short  residue  of 
ills  life  devoted  liiniself,  witli  untiring  energy, 
to  restore  its  declining  prosperitv,"—  L.  H.  Mor- 
gan, I ^atjue  of  the  Irntiuniii,  bk.  I,  eh.  1. 

Ai.KOlN:  \V.  Kiiigsford,  lliiit.  of  ('muula,  bk. 
'i-i  (c.  1-2).— E.  n.  O'Callaghan.  ed.,  J),>e.  Hint. 
of  \.  r,  r,  1,  pp.  n7-278.--J.  1{.  Hrodhead, 
hint,  of  the  State  of  N.  Y.,  ».  2,  eh.  'A  and  8.— 
O.  H.  Marshall,  Kjrped.  of  the  Marijuiii  dti  NonriUe 
iifl'nt  the  Semraii  (llint.   Writ i ni/M,  pp.  123-180). 

A.  D.  1660-1688. — French  encroachments 
and  Eng^liah  concessions  in  Newfoundland. 
See  Nkwkoiniii.a.ni):  A.  D.  1(10(»-|((HH, 

A.D.  1663-1674.— Erected  by  Colbert  into  a 
Royal  Province. — Brief  career  of  the  French 
West  India  Company. — "In  l(H!;t  the  ])roeeed- 
ings  of  llie  company  [of  the  liundred  asstxiiates] 
became  so  obnoxious  that  the  king  of  Franco 
decided  upon  the  immediate  resumption  of  his 
rights,  and  the  erecting  of  Canada  Into  a  royal 
government:  Monsieur  do  Mosy  was  appointed 
governor,  and  proceeded  from  Franco  to  Quebec 
with  400  regular  troops,  and  100  families  as 
settlers,  witli  cattle,  horses  and  implements  of 
agriculture.  Under  the  royal  jurisdiction,  tho 
governor,  a  king's  commissioner,  an  apostolical 
vicar,  and  four  other  gentlemen,  woro  formed 
Into  a  sovereign  council,  to  whom  were  confided 
the  powers  of  cognizance  in  all  causes,  civil  and 
criminal,  to  judge  in  the  last  resort  according  to 
the  laws  anil  orciinances  of  France,  and  the  pnic- 
tice  of  tlie  I'arliamcnt  of  Paris,  reserving  the 
general  legislative  powers  of  the  Crown,  to  be 
applied  acconling  to  circumstances.  Tliia  Coun- 
cil was  further  invested  with  the  regulation  of 
commerce,  the  expenditure  of  tho  public  monies, 
and  tho  establishment  of  inferior  courts  at  Three 
Kivcrs  and  Montreal.  This  change  of  Canada 
from  an  ecclesiastical  mission  to  a  secular  govern- 
ment was  owing  to  the  great  Colbert,  who  was 
animated  by  tho  exampTo  of  Great  Britain,  to 
improve  the  navigation  and  commerce  of  his 
country  by  colonial  establishments.  The  enlight- 
ened policy  of  this  renowned  financial  minister 
of  Louis  XIV.  was  followed  by  the  success  which' 
it  deserved.  To  a  regulated  civil  government! 
was  added  increased  military  protection  against 
tho  Iroquois  Indians;  tho  emigration  of  French 
settlers  to  New  France  was  promoted  by  every 
possible  means,  and  a  martial  spirit  was  imparted, 
to  the  population,  by  the  location  in  the  colony 
of  the  disbanded  soldiers  of  the  Carignan  regi- 
ment .  .  .  and  otlicr  troops,  whose  ofticers 
became  the  principal  Seigneurs  of  tho  colony,  on 
condition  of  making  cessions  of  land  under  the 
feudal  tenure,  as  it  itill  exists,  to  the  soldiers  and 
other  inhabitants."  Tho  ambitious  projects  of 
Louis  XIV.  soon  led,  however,  to  a  new  measure 


364 


CANADA,  1608-1874. 


Krplnrntinnii  nf 

iM  Stlllr 


CANADA,  1880-1687 


which  nrovt'd  h'nn  witlufnctory  In  Itn  working. 
"The  rrciicli  Wi'st  Indlii  Conipiiiiy  wiih  rr- 
mcMli'lli'tl  [l(l6-t|,  luiil  CiiiiikIii  iiddril  to  their 
p<m»«'H(il<)im,  Hubordlniitc  to  the  crown  of  Kriincc, 
with  powers  coiitrolU'il  hy  hin  MiiJcxty'K  )("'vcrn- 
orH  iind  IntcnduntH  in  tlic  dUTcriiit  cnlmdcH." 
The  domain  of   llic  compiuiy  cndjriiccd  all  thn 

KomhckhIoiih  of  Friinco  In  the  New  World  mid  lti» 
ilandH  and  on  the  African  coaNt.  "  Tlic  com- 
pany was  to  enjoy  ii  monopoly  of  the  lerritoricH 
and  the  trade  of  thi!  colonicM  thint  conceded  for 
40  years;  it  was  not  oidy  to  enjoy  the  excliiHivc! 
nnvli(ation,  hut  hl»  Majesty  conferred  a  bounty 
of  00  l'v.<'«  on  every  ton  of  jjcwmIs  exported  to 
France.  .  .  The  company  was  not  only  endowed 
IIS  Heieiieur  with  all  iinconccdcd  lands,  liiit 
!r. .(  Med  w<ll<  the  ri^ht  of  extliiKuihhInfr  the  titles 
of  HelKnIories  (framed  or  sold  by  previous  coin- 
paiiies,  on  condition  of  reinibiirsin({  the  ffnmtecs 
and  purchasers  forlheir  costs  and  Improvements." 
The  West  India  Company's  manajrement  soon 
showed  evil  elTects,  and  camo  to  an  end  after  ti'n 
yearn  of  unsatisfactory  trial.  "  Monsieur  Dc 
Tnlon,  the  Intendant,  a  mini  of  profound  views, 
.  .  .  perceived  that  It  was  the  natural  Interest 
nf  the  ('oni|iiiiiy  to  discoiira^i^  coloni/.ation.  He 
represented  to  tlur  minister  Colbert  the  absoliiti? 
neces-sity  of  the  total  resumption  of  the  riffhts  <if 
the  crown;  drew  his  attention  to  the  means  of 
obtaining  abundance  of  warlike  inutrunients  and 
naval  stores  within  the  colony  .  .  .  anil,  in  fact, 
at  last  prevailed;  so  that,  In  1074,  the  king  of 
France  resumed  Ids  rights  to  a'l  the  territories 
conceded  to  the  West  India  Con, puny,  as.sumed 
their  debts  and  the  current  value  of  their  stock, 
and  appointed  a  governor,  council  and  judges 
for  the  direction  of  the  Canadian  colonies.  .  .  . 
From  this  period  (1074),  when  the  population, 
embracing  ccmverted  Ii'i'/ins,  did  not  exceeil 
8,000,  the  French  seuienx  t  in  Canada  rapidly 
■  progressed,  and  os  it  rose  In  power,  and  iiKsiimeil 
oflcnsivc  operations  on  the  New  England  frontier, 
the  jealousy  of  the  British  o'onicH  became 
roused,  and  both  parties,  aided  alf  rnately  by  tlio 
Indians,  carried  on  a  destructive  and  harassing 
border  warforo. " — H.  M.  Martin,  Jlist.  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  eh.  T. 

Also  in  :  A.  Bell,  //«><.  of  Canada,  bk.  8,  eh.  8 
(r.  1). — P.  Parkman,  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada, 
eh.  10-17. 

A.  D.  1669-1687. — La  Salle  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Louisiana. —  "  Second  only  to  Champlain 
among  the  heroes  of  Canadian  history  stands 
Robert  Cavclicr  de  la  Salle  —  a  man  of  iron  if 
ever  there  was  one —  a  man  austere  and  cold  in 
manner,  and  endowed  with  such  indomitable 
pluck  and  perseverance  as  have  never  been  sur- 
passed in  tlds  world.  He  did  more  than  any  other 
man  to  extend  the  dominion  of  France  in  the 
New  World.  As  Champlain  had  founded  the 
colony  of  Canada  and  opened  the  way  to  the 
great  lakes,  so  La  Salle  completed  the  discovery 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  added  to  the  French  pos- 
sessions the  vast  province  of  Louisiana.  .  .  .  T~ 
1009  La  Salle  made  his  first  journey  to  the  ■"'  ,t, 
hoping  to  find  a  northwest  passage  to  Chin'  ,  out 
very  little  Is  known  about  this  expedi''  ..,  except 
that  the  Ohio  River  was  discovered,  and  perhaps 
also  the  Illinois.  La  Salle's  feudal  domain  of 
St.  Sulpice,  sot.e  eight  miles  from  Montreol, 
bears  to-day  the  name  of  La  Chine,  or  China, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  applied  to  it  in  derision 
of  this  fruitless  expedition.    In  1678  the  priest 


Mnr(|iirttc  and  the  furtmder  .lolirt  nrtunlty 
reached  the  MlHsiNsippI  by  way  of  the  Wlscon 
sill,  anil  Kiiiled  down  the  great  river  as  far  a.s  the 
mouth  of  the  .Arkansas;  and  now  the  life  work 
of  I,a  Salle  began  In  earnest.  He  formed  11  grand 
project  forexhloriiig  the  .MissiHsipiil  to  Its  mouth, 
and  determining  whether  it  flowed  Into  the  (Julf 
of  California  or  the  (iiilf  of  Mexico.  The  ad- 
vance of  Spain  oil  the  Hide  of  .Mexico  wiis  to  be 
chicked  fori'Ver,  the  Kngiisii  were  to  he  (nntlned 
to  the  ciist  of  the  Allcghaiiles,  and  (Uicli  military 
posts  wire  t(.bi'  establlKlied  as  would  cITectuillly 
contlrm  the  authority  of  l.oiiis  XIV'.  tliroughout 
the  centre  of  this  continent.  La  Salle  had  but 
little  ready  money,  and  was  surrounded  by  rivals 
and  enemies;  but  he  had  a  powirfiil  friend  In 
Count  Fronteimc,  the  Viicroy  of  Cmia'la.  .  .  . 
At  length,  after  siirnioiinting  innuiiienibli>  didl- 
ciilties,  a  ve.H.Hel  |llie  OrilTon  or  (irilllii|  was  built 
and  launchi'd  on  thi*  Nlagani  HIver  1 1071)1,  a 
small  I)arty  of  110  or  40  men  were  gathered  to- 
gether, and  I.a  Salle,  having  just  recovered  from 
a  treacherous  dose  of  iiolson,  embarked  on  his 
great  enterprise.  His  departure  was  clouded  by 
the  news  that  his  Inipatient  creditors  had  laid 
lianils  upon  his  Ciinadiiin  estates;  but,  nothing 
daunted,  he  piished  on  through  2,akes  Krie  iinu 
Huron,  and  after  many  disasters  n'ached  the 
southern  extremity  of  Lake  .Michigan.  The  vessel 
was  now  sent  back,  with  half  the  party,  to  Ni- 
agara, carrying  furs  to  apiicase  the  ercilitorsand 
|>iirchasc  additional  supiillcs  for  the  remainder 
of  the  journey,  while  La  Salle  with  his  diminished 
company  |iiislie<l  <m  to  the  Illinois,  where  a  fort 
was  built,  and  approi)riately  named  Fort  Crdve- 
cieur,  or,  as  we  niiglit  translate  it,  tlie  '  fort  of 
the  breaking  heart.'  Here,  amid  perils  of  famine, 
mutiny,  and  Indian  attack,  and  exposed  to  death 
from  the  wintry  cold,  they  waited  until  it  Inramo 
evident  to  all  that  their  vessel  must  liave  perished. 
She  never  was  he  1  from  again,  and  most  likely 
had  foundered  on  her  perilous  voyage.  To  add 
to  the  troulile.  La  Salle  was  again  poisoned;  but 
his  iron  constitution,  aided  by  some  lijcky  anti- 
dote, again  carried  him  safely  through  tlie  ordeal, 
11  lid  Mlxiut  the  1st  of  March,  1680,  lie  started  on 
foot  c  Montreal.  Leaving  Fort  Crftveco'iir  and 
its  tiny  garrison  under  command  of  his  faithful 
lieutenant,  Tonty,  he  set  out  with  four  French- 
men and  one  Mohegan  guide.  .  .  .  They  made 
their  way  for  a  tliousanil  miles  acr.)ss  Michigan 
and  Western  Canada  to  Niagara,  and  so  on  to 
^Montreal.  ...  At  Niagara  La  Salic  learned  that 
a  ship  from  France,  freighted  for  him  with  a  cargo 
worth  more  than  20,000  livres,  had  been  wrecked 
in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  nothing  had 
been  saved.  In  spite  of  this  dreadful  blow,  he 
contrived  to  get  together  supplies  and  reenforce- 
ments  at  Montreal,  and  had  returned  to  Fort 
Frontenac,  at  the  lower  end  of  Lake  Ontario, 
when  still  more  woful  tidings  were  received. 
Here,  towanl  the  end  of  July,  a  message  came 
from  the  fortress  so  well  named  Criivccoeur.  The 
garrison  had  mutinied  and  destroyed  the  fort,^ 
and  made  their  way  back  through  Michigan." 
The  indomitable  LaSalle  promptly;  hunted  down 
he  deserters,  and  sent  them  in  cl.  lins  to  Quebec, 
i'l  then  "  proceeded  again  to  the  Illinois  to  re- 
construct his  fort,  and  rescue,  if  possible,  his 
lieutenant  Tonty  and  the  few  faithful  followers 
who  had  survived  the  mutiny.  This  little  party, 
abandoned  in  the  wilderness  had  found  shelter 
among  the  Illinois  Indians;  but  during  the  sum- 


866 


CAXADA,  1669-1687. 


CANADA,  1689-1600. 


»"er  oi'  1680  the  great  village  or  town  of  the  Illi- 
nois was  destroyed  by  the  Iroquois,  und  tlie  hard- 
prcssei  Frenchmen  retreated  up  the  western  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan  to  Green  Bi'.y.  On  arriving  at 
the  Illino!s,  tlicrcfore.  La  Salle  found  nothing 
but  the  terrible  traces  of  lire  and  massacre  and 
cannibal  orpies;  but  he  spent  the  following  win- 
ter to  goo<l  i)urpose  in  securing  the  friend,  'n  of 
the  western  Indians,  and  in  making  an  alh..ace 
witli  them  against  the  Iroquois.  Then,  in  May, 
1081,  he  set  out  again  for  Canada,  to  look  after 
his  creditors  and  obtain  new  resources.  On  the 
way  home,  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Michigan,  he 
met  Ins  friend  Tonty,  and  together  they  paddled 
their  canoes  a  thousand  miles  and  came  to  Fort 
Frontenac.  So,  after  all  this  hardship  and  dis- 
aster, the  work  was  to  be  begun  anew ;  and  the 
enemies  of  the  ^reat  explorer  were  exulting  in 
what  they  imagined  must  be  his  despair.  But 
that  was  a  word  of  which  La  Salle  knew  not  the 
meaning,  and  now  his  fortunes  began  to  change. 
In  Mr.  Parkman's  words,  '  Fate  at  length  seemer' 
tired  of  the  conflict  with  so  stubborn  an  adver-  i 
sary.'  At  this  third  venture  everything  went 
smoothly.  The  little  fleet  passed  up  the  grt  ., 
lakes,  from  the  outlet  of  Ontario  to  the  head  of 
Michigan,  and  gained  the  Chicago  River.  Cross- 
ing the  narrow  portage,  they  descended  the  Illin- 
ois and  the  Mississippi,  till  they  came  out  upon  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico ;  and  on  the  9th  of  April,  1683, 
the  fleurs-de-lis  were  planted  at  the  mouth  of  the 
great  river,  and  all  the  country  drained  by  its 
tributaries,  from  the  Allcghanies  to  the  Rocky 
Mountflins,  was  formally  declared  to  be  the  prop- 
erty r  '-.e  king  of  France,  and  named  after  him 
L>'i'3iina.  Returning  up  the  river  after  his 
triumph.  La  Salle  founded  a  station  or  small  col- 
ony on  the  Illinois,  which  he  called  St.  Louis, 
and  leaving  Tonty  in  command,  kept  on  to  Can- 
ada, and  crossed  to  France  for  means  to  circum- 
vent his  enemies  and  complete  liis  far-reaching 
schemes.  A  colony  was  to  be  founded  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  military  stations 
were  to  connect  this  with  the  French  settlements 
in  CanadA.  At  the  French  court  La  Salle  was 
treated  like  a  hero,  and  a  tine  expedition  was  soon 
fltted  out,  but  everything  was  ruined  by  jealousy 
and  ill-will  between  La  Salle  and  the  naval  com- 
mander, Beaujeu.  The  fleet  sailed  beyond  the 
mouth  of  the  ilississippi,  the  colony  was  thrown 
upon  the  coast  of  Texas,  some  of  the  vessels  were 
wrecked,  and  Beaujeu  —  though  apparently  with- 
out sinister  design  —  sailed  away  with  the  rest, 
and  two  years  of  terrible  suffering  followed.  At 
last,  in  March,  1687,  La  Salle  started  to  find  the 
Mississippi,  hoping  to  ascend  it  to  Tonty's  fort 
on  the  Illinois,  and  obtain  relief  for  his  followers. 
But .  ^  had  scarcely  set  out  on  this  desperate  en- 
terprise when  two  or  three  mutinous  wretches  of 
his  party  laid  an  ambush  for  him  in  the  forest, 
and  shot  him  dead.  Thus,  at  the  early  age  of 
forty-three,  perished  this  extraordinary  man,  with 
his  life-work  but  half  accomplished.  Yet  his 
labors  had  done  much  towards  building  up  the 
imposing  dominion  with  which  New  France  con- 
fronted New  England  in  the  following  century. " 
— J.  Fiske,  Tlis  Ronianee  of  the  Spanish  and 
French  Explorers  (Harper's  Mug.,  v.  ti,  pp.  446- 
448. 

Also  in  :  F.  Parkman,  La  Salle  and  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Oreat  West. — Chevalier  Tonti,  Acc't 
of  M.de  la  Salle's  last  Exp.  (N.  T.  Hist.  Soc.  Coil's, 
V.  8). — J.  G.  Shea,  Discovery  and  Expl.  of  the  Mis- 


nssij)]n  Valley. — C.  lid  CXcTCCi,  First  Estahlishment 
of  the  Faith  in  A'.  France,  tr.  by  Shea,,  ch.  21-35 
(i-.  2). 

A.  D.  1689-1690.— The  first  Inter-Colonial 
War  (King  William's  War):  The  Schenectady 
Massacre. — Montreal  threatened,  Quebec  at- 
tacked, and  Port  Royal  taken  by  the  English. 
— Tlie  Revolution  of  1688,  in  England,  which 
drove  James  II.  from  the  tli  i-oiie,  and  called  to  it 
his  daugiiter  Slary  with  her  able  husband,  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  produced  war  between  England 
and  !■  ranee  (see  Fuance:  A.  D.  1689-1690).  The 
French  and  English  colonies  in  America  were 
soon  involved  in  the  contest,  and  so  far  as  it 
troubled  American  history,  it  bears  in  New 
England  annals  the  name  of  King  William's 
War  "If  the  issue  had  depended  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  colonies,  it  could  hardly  have 
seemed  doubtful.  The  French  census  for  the 
North  American  cc  Cnent,  in  1688,  showed  but 
11,349  persons,  scurcly  a  tenth  part  of  the  Eng- 
lish population  on  its  frontiers ;  about  a  twentieth 
part  of  English  North  America.  West  of  Mon- 
treal, the  princiiJil  French  posts,  and  those  but 
inconsiderable  ones,  wer"  at  Frontenac,  at  Macki- 
naw, and  on  the  Illinois.  At  Niagara,  there 
was  a  wavering  purpose  of  maintaining  a  post, 
but  no  permanent  occupation.  So  weak  were 
the  garrisons  that  English  traders,  with  an  escort 
of  Indians,  had  ventui'ed  even  to  Mackinaw. 
.  .  .  France,  bounding  its  territory  next  New 
England  by  the  Kennebec,  claimed  the  whole 
eastern  coast,  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Breton,  New- 
foundland, Labrador,  and  Hudson's  Bay ;  and  to 
assert  and  defend  this  boundless  region,  Acadia 
and  itj  dependencies  counted  but  900  French 
inhabitants.  The  miiisionaries,  swaying  the 
minds  of  the  Abenakis,  were  the  sole  source  of 
hope.  On  the  declaration  of  war  by  France 
against  England,  Count  Frontenac,  once  more 
governor  of  Canada,  ivas  charged  to  recover 
Hudson's  Bay;  to  protect  Acadia;  and,  by  a 
descent  from  Canada,  to  assist  a  fleet  from 
Franco  in  making  conquest  of  New  York.  Of 
that  province  De  Callieres  was,  in  advance,  ap- 
pointed governor;  theEnglisli  Catholics  were  to 
be  permitted  to  remain, —  other  inliabitants  to  be 
sent  into  Peunsylvania  or  New  England.  .  .  . 
In  the  east,  blood  was  first  shed  at  Cocheco, 
where,  thirteen  years  before,  an  unsuspecting 
party  of  350  Indians  ha  1  been  taken  prisoners 
and  shipped  for  Bostor,  to  be  sold  into  foreign 
slavery.  The  memory  of  the  treachery  was  in- 
delible, and  the  Indian  emissaries  of  Castin 
easily  excited  the  tribe  of  Penacook  to  revenge. 
On  the  evening  of  tlie  27th  of  June  [1689]  two 
squaws  repaired  to  the  house  of  Richard  Wald- 
ron,  and  the  octogenarian  magistrate  bade  them 
lodge  on  the  floor.  At  ni^ht,  they  rise,  unbar 
the  gates,  and  summon  tlieir  companions,"  who 
tortured  the  aged  WaldTOn  until  he  died.  "The 
Indians,  burning  his  house  and  others  that  stood 
near  it,  having  killed  three-and-twenty,  returned 
to  the  wiluerness  with  29  captives."  In  August, 
the  stockade  at  Pemaquid  was  taken  by  100 
Indians  from  the  French  mission  on  the  Penob- 
scot. "  Other  inroads  were  made  by  the  Penob- 
scot and  St.  John  Indians,  so  that  the  settlements 
east  of  Falmouth  were  deserted.  In  September, 
commissioners  from  New  England  held  a  con- 
ference with  the  Mohawks  at  Albany,  soliciting 
an  alliance.  'We  have  burned  Montreal,' said  . 
they; '  we  are  the  allies  of  the  English;  we  will 


366 


CANADA,  1689-1690. 


CANADA.  1693-1697. 


keep  the  chain  unbroken.'  But  they  refused  to 
Invade  the  Abcnakis.  .  .  .  Front  ennc  .  .  .  now 
used  every  effort  to  win  the  Five  Nations  [the 
Iroquois]  to  neutrality  or  to  friendship.  To  re- 
cover esteem  in  their  eyes;  to  secure  to  Duran- 
taye,  tlie  commander  at  Mackinaw,  the  means  of 
treating  witli  the  Hurons  and  the  Ottawas;  it 
■was  resolved  by  Frontenac  to  make  a  triple 
descent  into  the  English  provinces.  From  Mon- 
treal, a  party  of  110,  composed  of  French  and  of 
the  Christian  Iroquois, — having  De  Mantet  and 
Sainte  Helcne  as  leaders  .  .  .  — for  two  and 
twenty  days  waded  through  snows  and  morasses, 
through  forests  and  across  rivers,  to  Schenectady. 
The  village  had  given  itself  calmly  to  slumber: 
through  open  and  unguarded  gates  the  invaders 
entered  silently  [Feb.  8,  1690],  and  having,  just 
before  midnight,  reached  its  heart,  the  war- 
whoop  was  raised  (dreadful  sound  to  the  mothers 
of  that  place  and  their  children  I),  and  the  dwell- 
ings set  on  Are.  Of  the  inhabitants,  some,  half 
clad,  fled  through  the  snows  to  Albany ;  60  were 
massacred,  of  whom  17  were  children  and  10 
were  Africans.  .  .  .  The  party  from  Three  Rivers, 
led  by  Hertel,  and  consisting  of  but  53  persons 
.  .  .  surprised  the  settlement  at  Salmon  Falls, 
on  the  Piseataqua,  and,  after  a  bloody  engage- 
ment, burned  houses,  barns,  and  cattle  in  the 
stalls,  and  took  54  prisoners,  chiefly  women  and 
children.  .  .  .  Returning  from  this  expedition, 
Hertel  met  the  war  party,  under  Portneuf,  from 
Quebec,  and,  with  them  and  a  reCnforcement 
from  Castin,  made  a  successful  attack  on  the  fort 
and  settlement  in  Casco  Bay.  Meantime,  danger 
taught  the  colonies  the  necessity  of  union,  and, 
on  the  1st  day  of  May,  1690,  New  York  beheld 
the  momentous  example  of  an  American  congress 
[see  Unitkd  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1690].  .  .  . 
At  that  congress  it  was  resolved  to  attempt  the 
conquest  of  Canada  by  marching  an  army,  by 
way  of  Lake  (  .;amplam,  against  Montreal,  while 
Massachusetts  should,  with  a  fleet,  attack  Que- 
bec."—G.  Bancroft, /Tm*.  of  the  U.  8.,  ch.  31  (p.  3), 
{pt,  8,  eh.  11,  V.  3,  ill  the  "Author's  la«t  Re- 
miion"). — Before  the  end  of  the  month  in  which 
the  congress  was  held.  Port  Royal  and  the  whole 
of  Acadia  had  already  been  conquered,  having 
surrendered  to  an  expedition  sent  out  by  Mas.sa- 
chusetts,  in  eight  small  vessels,  under  Sir  Wil- 
liam Phips.  The  larger  fleet  (consisting  of  33 
ships  and  carrying  3,000  men)  directed  against 
Quebec,  sailed  in  August  from  Nastasket,  and 
was,  likewise,  commanded  by  Phips.  "The 
plan  of  the  campaign  contemplated  a  diversion 
to  bo  made  by  an  assault  on  Montreal,  by  a 
force  composed  of  English  from  Connecticut  and 
New  York,  and  of  Iroquois  Indians,  at  the  same 
time  witli  the  attack  on  Quebec  by  the  fleet. 
And  a  second  expedition  into  Maine  under  Cap- 
tain Church  was  to  threaten  the  Eastern  tribes 
whose  incursions  had,  during  tlie  last  summer, 
been  so  disastrous.  ...  As  is  so  apt  to  happen 
when  a  plan  involves  the  simultflneous  action  of 
distant  parties,  the  condition  of  success  failed. 
The  movement  of  Church,  who  had  with  him 
but  300  men,  proved  ineffective  as  to  any  con- 
tribution to  the  descent  upon  Conadn.  ...  It 
was  not  till  after  a  voyage  of  more  than  six 
weeks  tliat  the  fleet  from  Boston  cast  anchor 
within  the  mouth  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  and 
meanwhile  the  overland  expedition  against  Mon- 
treal had  miscarried.  The  commanders  respec- 
tively of  the  Connecticut  and  the  New  York  troops 


mi 


had  disagreed,  and  could  not  act  effectively  t«- 
getlier.  .  .  .  The  supply,  both  of  boats  and  of 
provisions,  was  found  to  be  insulHcient.  The 
disastrous  result  was  that  a  retreat  was  ordered, 
without  so  much  as  an  embarkation  of  the 
troops  on  Lake  Cliamplain.  Frontenac  was  at 
Montreal,  whither  ho  had  gone  ■  to  superintend 
the  defence,  when  the  nitelligence,  so  unex- 
pected, roaclicd  him  from  Quebec ;  and  presently 
after  came  the  tidings  of  Phips's  fleet  beiuK  in 
the  St.  Lawrence.  Nothing  could  liave  been 
more  opportune  thi»n  this  coincidence,  which 
gave  the  Governor  liberty  to  ha.sten  down  to 
direct  his  little  force  of  200  soldiers  at  the 
capital.  The  French  historian  says  that,  if  he 
had  been  thr''e  days  later,  or  it  the  Englisli  fleet 
had  not  been  delayed  by  contrary  winds,  or  had 
had  better  pilots  in  the  river,  where  it  was  nearly 
a  fortnight  more  in  making  its  slow  way,  Fron- 
tenac would  have  come  down  from  the  upper 
country  only  to  find  the  English  nommander  in 
his  citadel.  As  it  was,  there  ensued  a  crushing 
mortification  and  sorrow  to  Mnssacliusetts.  New 
France  was  made  much  more  formidable  than 
ever."  The  fleet  arrived  before  Quebec  Oct.  6, 
and  retreated  on  the  lltli,  after  considerable 
cannonading  and  an  assaidt  which  the  French 
repelled.  It  suffered  storms  and  disasters  on  the 
return  vnyage.  and  lost  altogether  some  200 
men. — J.  G.  Palfrey,  Hist,  of  New  Kng.,  hk.  4,  eh. 
3  {v.  4). 

Also  in:  F.  Parkman,  Count  Frontenac  and 
New  France  under  Ijoxtis  XIV.,  ch.  10-13. — Bee. 
Hist.  ofN.  T.,  V.  1-3.— F.  Bowen,  Life  of  SirW. 
Phips  (Library  of  Am.  Bio/;.,  v.  7),  ch.  2-3.— J.  R. 
Brodhead,J3i«^  of  the  State  of  N.  V.,  v.  2,  ch.  13. 
— .1.  Pearson,  et  al.  Hist,  of  the  Schenectady  Pat- 
ent, ch.  8-10. 

A.  D.  i692-i6()7.— The  first  Inter-Colonial 
War  (King  William's  War) :  Abortive  plans 
of  invasion  on  both  sides. — French  recovery  of 
Acadia. — "  The  defeat  of  the  expedition  of  1690 
was  probably  attributable  to  the  want  of  concert 
on  the  part  of  tlie  troops  from  Connecticut  and 
New  York  and  those  from  Massachusetts,  and 
the  failure  of  tlie  supplies  which  were  sought 
from  England.  .  .  .  But  there  was  mismanage- 
ment on  all  hands  in  the  conduct  of  the  expedi- 
tion; and  it  seems  to  have  been  predestinated 
that  New  England  should  not  be  delivered  from 
the  presence  of  the  French  at  the  north,  until 
time  had  wrought  the  necessary  changes  which 
were  to  render  the  conquest  of  that  country 
available  for  the  promotion  of  still  more  impor- 
tant ends.  Hence  a  new  expedition,  projected 
two  years  later,  and  resolved  to  be  prosecuted  in 
the  following  year  [1693],  was  attendee  with  the 
like  circumstances  of  mortification  and  defeat. 
England  herself  participated  in  this  enterprise, 
and  .  .  .  the  government  was  informed  that  it 
had  '  pleased  the  king,  out  of  his  great  goodness 
and  disposition  for  the  welfare  of  all  his  subjects, 
to  send  a  considerable  strength  of  ships  and  men 
into  the  West  Indies,  and  to  direct  Sir  Francis 
Wheeler,  the  admiral,  to  sail  to  New  England 
from  the  Caribbee  Islands,  so  as  to  be  there  by  the 
last  of  M'iy  or  the  middle  of  June  at  furthest, 
with  a  streiigth  sufficient  to  overcome  the  enemy, 
if  joined  and  seconded  by  tlie  forces  of  New 
England.' .  .  .  Unfortunately  for  the  success  of 
these  plans,  the  letter,  which  should  have  reached 
Boston  by  the  first  of  April,  did  not  arrive  until 
July ;  and  the  mortality  which  prevailed  in  the 


CANADA,  1693-1697. 


CANADA,  1700-1785. 


fleet  (luring  its  stiiy  in  tlie  West  Indies  was  ho 
grout  tliot,  wlien  the  commander-in-chief,  bir 
Francis  Wlieeler,  ancliored  off  Nantaskct,  — 
))ringing  liinist-lf  the  news  of  tlie  projected 
invasion, —  he  liad  lost  1,300  out  of  2,100  sailors, 
and  l,800out  of  2,400  soldiers.  All  thoughts  of 
reducing  Caimila  were  therefore  abandoned ;  hut 
a  plan  for  another  year  was  settled  with  th(! 
governor,  the  details  of  which  were  that  2,000 
land  forces  should  be  sent  from  England  to 
Cunscau  by  the  tirst  of  June,  to  be  joined  by 
3,000  from  the  colonies,  aud  that  the  whole  force 
should  go  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  divide  and 
simultaneously  attack  Montreal  and  Quebec. 
Changes  in  the  government  of  the  province, 
however,  and  other  causes,  prevented  the  execu- 
tion of  this  plan,  whose  success  was  problem- 
atical even  if  it  had  been  attempted.  But  if  the 
plans  of  tlie  English  for  the  reduction  of  Canada 
were  doomed  to  disappointment,  the  plans  of  the 
French  for  tlie  recovery  of  Acadia  were  more 
successful.  For  the  first  year  after  the  conquest 
of  that  country,  indeed,  the  French  were  as 
little  concerned  to  regain,  as  the  English  were  to 
retain,  the  possession  of  its  territory ;  nor  was 
Massachusetts  able  to  bear  the  charge  of  a 
sufficient  military  force  to  keep  its  inhabitants  in 
subjection,  though  she  issued  commissions  to 
judges  and  other  officers,  and  required  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  oath  of  fidelity.  In  the 
course  of  that  year  [1601],  authority  was  given  to 
Mr.  John  Nt'ion,  of  Boston,  who  had  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  overthrow  of  Andros,  and  who 
was  bound  thither  on  a  tradiug  voyage,  to  be 
commander-in-chief  of  Acadia;  but  as  lie  neared 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's,  he  was  taken  by 
Monsieur  Villebon,  who,  under  a  commission 
from  the  French  king,  had  touched  at  Port 
Royal,  and  ordered  the  English  flag  to  be  struck, 
and  the  French  flag  to  be  raised  in  its  place. 
The  next  year  an  attempt  was  made  to  dislodge 
Villebon,  but  witnout  success.  ...  In  the 
summer  of  1696,  Pemaquid  was  taken  by  the 
French,  under  D'lberville  and  Castine,  and  the 
frontier  of  the  dominion  of  France  was  extended 
into  Maine ;  and  by  the  treaty  of  the  following 
year  Acadia  was  receded  to  France,  and  the 
English  relinquished  their  claims  to  the  country. 
The  last  year  of  King  William's  War,  as  it  was 
long  termed  in  New  England,  was  a  year  of 
especial  alarm  to  the  province  [Massachusetts] 
and  rumors  were  rife  that  the  French  were  on 
the  eve  of  fitting  out  a  formidable  fleet  for  the 
invasion  of  the  colonies  and  the  conquest  of  New 
York."  According  to  the  plan  of  the  French 
undertaking,  a  powerful  fleet  from  France  was 
to  be  joined  by  a  force  of  1,500  men,  raised  by 
Count  Frontenac,  in  Canada,  and  make,  first,  a 
conquest  of  Boston.  "When  that  town  was 
taken,  they  were  to  range  the  coast  to  Piscataqua, 
destroying  the  settlements  as  far  back  into  the 
country  as  possible.  Should  there  be  time  for 
further  acquisitions,  they  were  next  to  go  to 
New  York,  and  upon  its  reduction  the  Canadian 
troops  were  fc  march  overland  to  Quebec,  laying 
waste  the  country  as  they  proceeded."  This 
project  was  frustrated  bjr  happenings  much  the 
same  in  kind  as  those  which  thwarted  the  designs 
of  the  English  against  Quebec.  The  fleet  was 
delayed  by  contmry  winds,  and  by  certain  boot- 
less undertakings  in  Newfoundland,  until  the 
season  was  too  far  advanced  for  the  enterprise 
contemplated.     "  The  peace  of  Kyswick,  which 


368 


soon  followed,  led  to  a  temporary  suspension  of 
hostilities.  France,  anxious  to  secure  as  large  a 
share  of  territory  in  America  as  possible,  retained 
the  whole  coast  and  adjacent  islands  from  ]klaine 
to  Labrador  and  Hudson's  Bay,  with  Canada, 
and  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  The  posses- 
sions of  England  were  southward  from  the  St. 
Croix.  Hut  the  bounds  between  the  nations 
were  imiierfectly  define<l,  and  were,  for  a  long 
time,  a  subject  of  dispute  and  negotiation."'— J. 
S.  Barry,  I'ltHt.  of  Mans.,  v.  2,  eh.  4. 

Also  in:  F.  Parkman,  Count  Frontenac  and 
NeiB  ]<Vance  iiiuler  Louis  XIV.,  eh,  16-10. — J. 
Hannay,  JltHt.  of  Acadia,  ch.  14. — See,  also, 
Newfoundland:  A.  D.  1694-1697. 

A.  D.  1696. — Frontenac's  expedition  against 
the  Iroquois. — The  war  with  tlie  "Bastonnais" 
or  "  Bostonnais,"  as  he  called  the  New  England- 
ers,  did  not  divert  Frontenac's  attention  from 
"the  grand  castigation  which  at  last  he  was 
planning  for  the  Iroquois.  He  had  succeeded, 
in  1094,  in  inducing  them  to  meet  him  in  general 
council  at  Quebec,  and  had  framed  the  conc"'- 
tions  of  a  truce;  but  the  English  at  Albany 
intrigu'  d  to  prevent  the  fulfilment,  and  war  wos 
again  imminent.  Both  sides  were  endeavoring 
to  secure  the  alliance  of  the  tribes  of  the  upper 
lakes.  These  wavered,  "nd  Frontenac  saw  the 
peril  and  the  remedy.  His  recourse  was  to  at- 
tack the  Iroquois  in  their  villages  at  once,  and 
conquer  on  tlie  Mohawk  the  peace  he  needed  at 
Michilimackinac.  It  was  Frontenac's  last  cam- 
paign. Early  in  July  [1690]  he  left  Montreal 
with  2,200  men.  He  went  by  way  of  Fort 
Frontenac,  crossed  Lake  Ontario,  landed  at 
Oswego,  and  struggled  up  its  stream,  and  at 
last  set  sails  to  his  canoes  on  Lake  Onondaga. 
Then  his  force  marched  again,  and  Frontenac, 
enfeebled  by  his  years,  was  borne  along  in  an 
arm-chair.  Eight  or  nine  miles  and  a  day's 
work  brought  them  to  the  Onondaga  village; 
but  its  inhabitants  had  burned  it  and  fled. 
Vaudreuil  was  sent  with  a  detachment  which 
destroyed  the  town  of  the  Oneidas.  After  com- 
mitting all  the  devastation  of  crops  that  ho 
could,  in  hopes  that  famine  would  help  him, 
Frontenac  began  his  homeward  march  before  the 
English  at  Albany  were  aroused  at  all.  The 
effect  was  what  Frontenac  wished.  The  Iro- 
quois ceased  their  negotiations  with  the  western 
tribes,  and  sued  for  peace." — G.  Stewart,  Jr.,i 
Ji'rontenae  and  his  Times  (Narrative  and  Critical 
Hist,  of  Am., v.  4,  ch.  7). 

Also  in:  F.  Parkman,  Count  Frontenac  and 
New  France  under  Louis  XIV.,  ch.  18-10. 

A.  D.  1698-1^10. — Colonization  of  Louisiana 
and  the  organization  of  its  separate  govern- 
ment.    See  Louisiana:  A.  D.  1698-1712. 

A.  D.  1700-1735. — The  spread  of  French 
occupation  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  on 
the  Lakes. — "From  the  time  of  La  Salle's  visit 
in  1679,  we  can  trace  a  continuous  French  occu-' 
pation  of  Illinois.  ...  He  planted  his  citadel  of 
St.  Louis  on  the  summit  of  '  Starved  Rock,'  pro- 
posing to  make  that  the  centre  of  his  colony. 
...  At  first  his  colony  was  exceedingly  feeble, 
but  it  was  never  discontinued.  '  Joutel  found  a 
garrison  at  Fort  St.  Louis  ...  in  1687,  and  in 
1689  La  Ilontan  bears  testimony  that  it  still  con- 
tinued. In  1"96  a  public  document  proves  its 
existence;  and  when  Tonty,  in  1700,  again  de- 
scended the  Mississippi,  he  was  attended  by 
twenty    Canadians,   residents   on   the  Illinois.' 


CANADA,  1700-173(5. 


CANADA,  1711-1718. 


ISven  while  the  wars  named  after  King  William 
and  Queen  Anne  were  going  on,  the  French  set- 
tlements were  growing  in  numlxira  iind  increas- 
ing in  size ;  those  wars  over,  they  made  still  more 
rapid  progress.  Missions  grew  into  settlements 
and  parishes.  Old  Kaskaskia  was  begun  in 
what  La  Salle  called  the  '  terrestrial  paradise ' 
before  the  clo.se  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  AVabash  Valley  was  occupied  about  1700, 
the  first  settlers  entering  it  by  the  portage  lead- 
ing from  tlic  Kankakee.  Later  the  voyageurs 
found  a  shorter  route  to  the  fertile  valley.  .  .  . 
The  French  located  their  principal  missions  and 
posts  with  admirable  judgment.  There  is  not 
one  of  them  in  which  we  cannot  see  the  wisdom 
of  the  priest,  of  the  soldier,  and  the  trader  com- 
bined. The  triple  alliance  worked  for  an  im- 
mediate end,  but  the  sites  that  they  chose  are  as 
Important  to-day  as  they  were  when  they  chose 
them.  ...  La  Salle's  colony  of  St.  Louis  was 
planted  in  one  of  the  gardens  of  the  world,  in 
the  midst  of  a  numerous  Indian  population,  on 
the  great  line  of  travel  between  Lake  Michigan 
and  the  Mississippi  River.  Kaskaskia  and  the 
ncigliboring  settlements  held  the  centre  of  the 
long  line  extending  from  Canada  to  Louisiana. 
The  Wabash  colony  commanded  that  valley  and 
the  Lower  Ohio.  Detroit  was  a  position  so  im- 
portant that,  securely  held  by  the  French,  it 
practically  banished  from  the  English  mind  for 
fifty  years  tlie  thought  of  acquiring  the  North- 
west. .  .  .  Then  how  unerringly  were  the 
French  guided  to  the  carryiug  places  between  the 
Ntrthern  and  the  Southern  waters,  viz.,  Green 
Bay,  Fox  River,  and  the  AVisconsin;  the  Chi- 
cago River  and  the  Illinois ;  the  St.  Joseph  and 
the  Kankakee;  the  St.  Joseph  and  the  Wabasli; 
the  Maumce  and  the  Wabash;  and,  later,  on  the 
•eve  of  the  war  that  gave  New  France  to  .ng- 
land,  the  Chautauqua  and  French  Creek  routes 
from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Ohio.  ...  In  due  time 
the  French  began  to  establish  tliemselves  on  the 
Northern  frontier  of  the  British  colonies.  They 
built  Fort  Niagara  in  1726,  four  years  after  the 
English  built  Fort  Oswego.  Following  the 
^arly  footsteps  of  Cliamplam,  they  ascended  to 
the  head  of  the  lake  that  bears  his  name,  where 
they  fortified  Crown  Point  in  1727,  and  Ticon- 
•deroga  in  1731.  Presque  Isle,  the  present  lite 
of  the  city  of  Erie,  was  occupied  about  the  time 
that  Vincennes  was  founded  m  the  Wabash  Val- 
ley [1735].  Finally,  just  on  the  eve  of  the  last 
«truggle  between  England  and  France,  the 
French  pressed  into  the  valleys  of  the  Alleghany 
and  the  Ohio,  at  the  same  time  that  the  English 
also  began  to  enter  them." — B.  A.  Hinsdale,  The 
Old  Northwest,  eh.  4. 

A.  D.  1702-1710.— The  Secon<!  Inter-Colo- 
nial War  (Queen  Anne's  War) :  Border  rava- 
ges in  New  England  and  Acadia. — English 
Conquest  of  Acadia.  See  New  England  :  A.  D. 
1702-1710. 

A.  D.  1711-1713.— The  Second  Inter-Colo- 
nial War. —  Walker's  Expedition  against 
Quebec. —  Massacre  of  Fox  Indians. —  The 
Peace  of  Utrecht. —  After  the  reduction  of  Port 
Royal,  whiLli  was  practically  the  conquest  of 
Acadia,  Colonel  Nicholson,  who  bore  the  honors 
of  that  achievement,  repaired  to  England  and 
prevailed  with  the  government  to  fit  out  an  ade- 
quate expedition  for  the  Conquest  of  Canada. 
"  The  fleet,  consisting  of  15  ships  of  war  and  40 
transports,  was  placed  under  the  command  of 


Sir  Hovonden  Walker ;  seven  veteran  reglmont« 
from  Marllwroiigh's  army,  with  a  battalion  of 
marines,  were  intrusted  to  Mrs.  Masham's  second 
brother,  whom  the  queen  had  itensioned  and 
made  a  brigadier-general,  whom  his  bottle  com- 
panions called  honest  Jack  Hill.  .  .  .  From  June 
25th  to  the  30th  day  of  July  1711,  the  fleet  lay 
at  Boston,  taking  in  supplies  and  the  colonial 
forces.  At  the  same  time,  an  army  of  men  from 
C'onnecticut,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York,  Pala- 
tine emigrants,  and  about  'tOO  Iroquois,  assem- 
bling at  Albany,  prepared  to  burst  upon  Mon- 
treid ;  while  in  Wisconsin  the  English  had  allies 
in  the  Foxes,  who  were  always  wishing  to  expel 
the  French  from  Michigan.  In  Quebec,  meas- 
ures of  defence  began  by  a  renewal  of  friend- 
ship witli  the  Indians.  To  deputies  from  the 
Onondagas  and  Senecas,  the  governor  spoke  of 
the  fidelity  with  whieli  the  French  had  kept  their 
treaty ;  and  he  reminded  them  of  their  jjromisc 
to  remain  quiet  upon  their  mats.  A  war  festival 
was  next  held,  at  which  were  present  all  the 
savages  domiciliated  near  the  French  settlements, 
and  all  the  delegates  of  their  allies  who  liad  come 
down  to  Montreal.  In  the  presence  of  700  or  800 
warriors,  the  war  song  was  sung  and  the  hatchet 
uplifted.  The  savages  of  the  remote  west  were 
wavering,  till  twenty  Ilurons  from  Detroit  took 
up  the  hatchet,  and  swayed  all  the  rest  by  their 
example.  By  the  influence  of  tlie  Jesuits  over 
the  natives,  an  alliance  extending  to  the  Oiib- 
ways  constit<ited  the  defence  of  Slontreid.  De- 
scending to  Quebec,  Vaudreui!  found  Abenaki 
volunteers  assembling  for  his  protection.  Meas- 
ures for  resistance  had  been  adopted  with  hearti- 
ness ;  tlie  fortiflcations  were  strengtliencd ;  Beau- 
port  was  garrisoned;  and  the  people  were 
resolute  and  confiding ;  even  women  were  ready 
to  labor  for  the  common  defence.  Toward  the 
last  of  August,  it  was  said  tliat  peasants  at 
Matanes  had  descried  90  or  06  vessels  with  the 
English  flag.  Yet  September  came,  and  still  from 
the  heights  of  Cape  Diamond  no  eye  caught  one 
sail  of  the  expected  enemy.  The  English  squad- 
ron, leaving  Boston  on  the  30th  of  July  [1711], 
after  loitering  near  tlio  bay  of  Gaspe,  at  last  be- 
gan to  ascend  the  St.  Lawrence,  while  Sirlloven- 
tten  Walker  puzzled  himself  with  contriving  how 
he  would  secure  his  vessels  during  the  winter  at 
Quebec."  At  the  same  time,  the  present  and 
actual  difficulties  of  the  expedition  were  so  heed- 
lessly and  ignorantly  dealt  with  that  eight  ships 
of  tlie  fleet  were  recl-.ed  among  tlie  rocks  and 
shoals  near  the  Egg  Isi uds,  and  884  men  were 
drowned.  Tlie  enterprise  was  then  abandoned. 
"  'Had  we  arrived  safe  at  Quebec,'  wrote  the 
admiral,  '  ten  or  twelve  thousand  men  must  have 
been  left  to  perish  of  cold  and  hunger:  by  the 
loss  of  a  part,  Providence  saved  all  the  rest.' 
Such  was  the  issue  of  hostilities  in  the  nort  ast. 
Their  total  failure  left  the  expedition  from 
Albany  no  option  but  to  return,  and  Slontreal 
was  unmolested.  Detroit,  in  1712,  almost  fell 
before  the  valor  of  a  party  of  the  Ottagamies,  or 
Foxes.  .  .  .  Resolving  to  burn  Detroit,  tliey 
pitched  their  lodgings  near  the  fort,  wliieli  Du 
Buisson,  with  but  twenty  Frenchmen,  defended. 
Aware  of  their  intention,  he  summoned  his  In- 
dian allies  from  the  chase ;  and,  about  tlic  middle 
of  Jlay,  Ottawas  and  Ilurons  and  Pottawotta- 
inies,  with  one  branch  of  the  Sacs,  Illinois, 
Mcnomonies,  and  even  Osages  and  Missouris, 
each  nation  with  its  own  ensign,  came  to  his  re- 


nfi9 


CANADA,  1711-1718. 


Boundaru 
Dinpulea. 


CANADA,  1750-1753. 


llcf.  So  wide  was  the  influence  of  the  mission- 
aries in  tlie  West.  .  .  .  Tlic  warriors  of  the  Fox 
nation,  far  from  destroying  Detroit,  were  them- 
selves besieged,  and  at  lust  were  compelled  to 
surrender  at  discretion.  Those  who  bore  arms 
were  ruthlessly  murdered;  the  rest  distributed 
among  the  confederates,  to  be  enslaved  or  mas.sa- 
cred  at  the  will  of  their  masters.  Cherished  as  the 
loveliest  spot  in  Canada,  the  possession  of  De- 
troit secured  for  Quebec  a  great  highway  to  the 
upper  Indian  tribes  and  to  the  Mississippi.  .  .  . 
In  the  meantime,  the  preliminaries  of  a  treaty 
had  been  signed  between  France  and  England ; 
and  the  war  .  .  .  was  suspended  by  negotiations 
that  were  soon  followed  by  the  uncertain  peace 
of  Utrecht  [April  11,  1713].  .  .  .  England,  by 
the  peace  of  Utrecht,  obtained  from  France  large 
concessions  of  territorv  in  America.  The  as- 
sembly of  New  York  had  addressed  the  queen 
against  French  settlements  in  the  West ;  AVilliam 
Penn  advised  to  establish  the  St.  Lawrence  as 
the  boundary  on  the  north,  and  to  include  in  our 
colonies  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  '  It  will 
make  glorious  country ' ;  such  were  his  pro- 
phetic words.  .  .  .  The  colony  of  Louisiana  ex- 
cited in  Saint-John  '  apprehensions  of  the  future 
undertakings  of  the  French  in  North  America.' 
The  occupation  of  the  Mississippi  valley  had 
been  proposed  to  Queen  Anne;  yet,  at  the 
peace,  that  immense  region  remained  to  France. 
But  England  obtained  the  bay  of  Hudson  and  its 
borders ;  Newfoundland,  subject  to  the  rights  of 
France  in  its  tisherics ;  and  all  Nova  Scotia,  or 
Acadia,  accorumg  to  its  ancient  boundaries.  It 
was  agreed  that  'France  should  never  molest  the 
Five  Nations  subject  to  the  dominion  of  Great  Bri- 
tain.' But  Louisiana,  according  to  French  ideas, 
included  both  banks  of  the  Alississippi.  Did  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  assent  to  such  an  extension  of 
French  terjitory  1  And  what  were  the  ancient 
limits  of  Acadia  ?  Did  it  include  all  that  is  now 
New  Bruns  vick  ?  or  had  Prance  still  a  large  ter- 
ritory on  Mie  Atlantic  between  Acadia  and 
Maine  ?  And  what  were  the  bounds  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Five  Nations,  which  the  treaty  ap- 
peared to  recognize  as  a  part  of  the  English 
dominions  ?  These  were  questions  which  were 
never  to  be  adjusted  am!cably." — G.  Bancroft, 
Hist,  of  the  U.  8.  (Author' i  Last  Jtension),  pt.  3, 
ch.  12  (».  2). — With  reference  to  the  destruction  of 
the  Fox  Indians  at  Detroit,  a  recent  writer  says: 
"The  French  official  reports  pretend  that  the 
Wisconsin  Indians,  being  in  secret  alliance  with 
the  Iroquois  and  the  English,  had  come  to  De- 
troit with  the  express  purpose  of  besieging  the 
fort  and  reducing  it  to  ruins;  and  their  state- 
ment has  heretofore  been  unsuspectingly  ac- 
cepted by  all  historians.  But  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  charge  is  a  shameful  falsehood.  The 
Fox  Indians  had  rendered  themselves  very  ob- 
noxious to  the  French.  Firmly  lodged  on  the 
Fox  River,  they  controlled  the  chief  highway 
to  the  West;  a  haughty,  independent  and  in- 
tractable people,  they  could  not  be  cajoled 
into  vassalage.  It  was  necessary  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  French  policy  to  get  them  out 
of  the  way.  They  were  enticed  to  Detroit  in 
order  that  they  might  be  slaughtered." — S.  S. 
Ilebberd,  Hist,  of  Wis.  under  tlie  dominion  of 
France,  eh.  5-0. 

Also  in:  Wis.  Hist.  Soc.  Colls.,  v.  5. — W.  Kiugs- 
ford.  Hist,  of  Canada,  bk.  6,  ch.  5-6  (».  2).— It. 
Brown,  Hist,  of  the  Island  of  Cape  Breton,  letters 


8-9.— See,  also,  Utrecht:  A.  D.  1712-1714,  and 
Newfoundland:  A.  I).  1713. 

A.  D.  1720. — The  fortifying  of  Louisbourg. 
See  Cape  Bheton:  A.  D.  1720-1745. 

A.  D.  1744-1748.— The  Third  Inter-Colonial 
War  (King  George's  War). — Loss  and  recovery 
of  Louisbourg  and  Cape  Breton.  See  New 
Enoland:  a.  I).  1744;  1.45;  and  1745-1748. 

A.  D.  1748-1754.— Active  measures  to  fortify 
possession  of  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  West, 
See  Ohio  (Valley):  A.  D.  1748-1754. 

A.  D.  1750-1753. — Boundaries  disputes  with 
E  ngland.— Futile  negotiations  at  Paris.-  "  For 
the  past  three  years  [1750-1753]  the  commis- 
sioners appointed  under  the  treaty  of  ;x-la- 
Chapelle  to  settle  the  question  of  bd  laries- 
between  France  and  England  in  America  had 
been  in  session  at  Paris,  waging  interminable 
war  on  paper;  La  Galissoniire  and  Silhouette  for 
France,  Shirley  and  Mildinay  for  England.  By 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  Acadia  belonged  to 
England ;  but  what  was  Acodia  ?  According  to 
the  English  commissioners,  it  comprised  not  only 
the  peninsula  called  Nova  Scotia,  but  all  tho 
immense  tract  of  land  between  the  River  St. 
Lawrence  on  the  north,  the  Gulf  of  the  same- 
name  on  the  east,  the  Atlantic  on  the  south,  and 
New  England  on  the  west.  The  French  commis- 
sioners, on  their  part,  maintained  that  the  name 
Acadia  belonged  of  right  only  to  about  a  twen- 
tieth part  of  this  territory,  and  that  it  did  not 
even  cover  the  whole  of  the  Acadian  peninsula, 
but  only  its  southern  coast,  with  an  adjoining- 
belt  of  barren  wilderness.  When  the  French 
owned  Acadia,  they  gave  it  boundaries  as  com- 
prehensive as  those  claimed  for  it  by  the  English 
commissionaries ;  now  that  it  belonged  to  a  rival, 
they  cut  it  down  to  a  paring  of  its  former  self. 
.  .  .  Four  censuses  of  Acadia  while  it  belonged 
to  the  French  had  recognized  the  mainland  as 
included  in  it;  and  so  do  also  the  early  French 
maps.  Its  prodigious  shrinkage  was  simply  the 
consequence  of  its  possession  by  an  alien.  Other 
questions  of  limits,  more  important  and  equally 
perilous,  called  loudly  for  solution.  What  line 
should  separate  Canada  and  her  western  dependen- 
cies from  the  British  colonies?  Various  prin- 
ciples of  demarcation  were  suggested,  of  which 
the  most  prominent  was  a  geographical  one.  All 
countries  watered  by  streams  falling  into  the  St. 
Lawrence,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  Mississippi 
were  to  belong  to  her.  This  would  have  planted 
her  in  the  heart  of  New  York  and  along  the 
crests  of  the  Alleghanies,  giving  her  all  the 
interior  of  the  continent,  and  leaving  nothing  to 
England  but  a  strip  of  sea-coast.  Yet  in  view 
of  what  France  had  achieved;  of  the  patient 
gallantry  of  her  explorers,  the  zeal  of  her  mis- 
sionaries, the  adventurous  hardihood  of  her 
bushrangers,  revealing  to  civilized  mankind  the 
existence  of  this  wilderness  world,  while  her 
rivals  plodded  at  their  workshops,  their  farms, 
or  their  fisheries,  —  in  view  of  all  this,  her  pre- 
tensions were  moderate  and  reasonable  compared 
with  those  of  England.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht 
had  declared  the  Iroquois,  or  Five  Nations,  to  be 
British  subjects ;  therefore  it  was  insisted  that 
all  countries  conquered  by  them  belonged  to  the 
British  Crown.  But  what  was  an  Iroquois  con- 
quest ?  The  Iroquois  rarely  occupied  the  coun- 
tries they  overran.  .  .  .  But  the  range  of  their 
war-parties  was  prodigious ;  and  the  English  laid 
claim  to  every  mountain,  forest  or  prairie  where 


370 


CANADA,  1750-1758. 


The  last 
ttntggU  begun. 


CANADA,  1755. 


an  Iroquois  lind  taken  a  scalp.  This  would  give 
them  not  only  the  country  between  the  Alle- 
chanies  and  the  Mississippi,  but  also  that  between 
Lake  Huron  and  the  Ottawa,  tlius  reducing 
Canada  to  the  patch  on  the  American  map  now 
represented  by  the  province  of  Quebec,  —  or 
rat»)er  by  a  port  of  it,  since  tlie  extension  of  Acadia 
to  the  8t.  Lawrence  would  cut  off  the  present 
coimties  of  Qaspe,  Rimouski  and  Bonaventuro. 
Indeed,  among  the  advocates  of  British  claims 
there  were  those  who  denied  that  France  had 
any  rights  wliatever  on  the  south  side  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Such  being  the  attitude  of  the  two 
contestants,  it  was  plain  them  was  no  resort  but 
the  last  argument  of  kings.  Peace  must  be  won 
with  the  swonl." — F.  Parkman,  Montcalm  and 
Wolfe,  eh.  5  (r.  1). 

Also  in:  T.  C.  Haliburton,  Account  of  Nova 
Scotia,  V.  i,pp.  143-149. — See,  also.  Nova  Scotia: 
A.  D.  1749-1755.— Relative  to  the  very  dubious 
English  claim  based  on  treaties  with  the  Iroquois, 
see  New  York:  A.  D.  1684,  and  1726. 

A.  D.  17SS  (April).— Plans  of  the  English 
against  the  French. — "While  the  negotiations 
[between  England  and  France,  at  Paris]  were 
pending,  Braddock  arrived  in  the  Chesopeake. 
In  March  [nUb]  i  -,  reached  Williamsburgh,  and 
visited  Annapolis;  on  the  14th  of  April,  he,  with 
Commodore  Keppel,  held  a  congress  at  Alex- 
andria. There  were  present,  of  the  American 
governors,  Shirley,  next  to  Braddock  in  military 
rank;  Delancey,  of  New  York;  Morris,  of 
Pennsylvania;  Sharpe,  of  Maryland;  and  Din- 
widdle, of  Virginia.  .  .  .  Between  England  and 
France  peace  existed  under  ratified  treaties;  it 
was  proposed  not  to  invade  Canada,  but  to  repel 
encroachments  on  the  frontier.  For  this  end, 
four  expeditions  were  concerted  by  Braddock  at 
Alexandria.  Lawrence,  the  lieutenant-governor 
of  Nova  Scotia,  was  to  reduce  that  province 
according  to  the  English  interpretation  of  its 
boundaries;  Johnson  [afterwards  Sir  William 
Johnson,  of  New  York]  from  his  long  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Six  Nations,  was  selected  to  enroll 
Mohawk  warriors  in  British  pay  and  lead  them 
with  provincial  militia  against  Crown  Point; 
Shirley  proposed  to  drive  the  French  from 
Niagara ;  the  commander-in-chief  was  to  recover 
the  Ohio  valley."— G.  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the 
U.  8.  (Author's  last  revision),  v.  2,  pp.  416-419. 

A.  D.  17SS  (June).— French  disaster  at  Sea. 
— Frustrated  attempt  against  Nova  Scotia. — 
The  arrival  of  Dieskau  at  Quebec. — "  In  1754, 
France  fully  awakened  to  the  fact  that  England 
not  only  intended  to  maintain  her  position  in  the 
wilds  of  America,  but  likewise  by  sea.  She 
equipped  an  armament  under  the  command  of 
admirals  Macnamara  and  Bois  de  la  Mothe,  of  18 
ships  of  the  line  and  9  frigates,  having  on  board, 
ostensibly  for  Canada,  eleven  battjvlions  of  troops 
under  General  Dieskau,  an  '  elfive '  of  Marshal 
Saxe.  England,  apprised  of  this  force  being 
sent,  despatched  Vice-Admiral  Boscawen  with 
11  ships  of  the  lino  and  one  frigate  to  intercept 
it  en  route.  Botli  sailed  about  the  same  time, 
the  22d  of  April,  1755.  The  French  ambassador 
at  London  being  duly  notified,  replied:  'That 
his  royal  master  would  consider  the  first  gun 
fired  at  sea  in  a  hostile  manner  to  be  a  declaration 
of  war.'  The  esoteric  instructions  of  the  French 
ileet  were  to  rendezvous  at  Chebuctou  Harbour, 
destroy  Halifax,  and  then  proceed  to  Annapolis 
for  the  same  purpose.    While  the  instructions 


were  of  necessity  secret,  it  was  well  known  In 
Acadia  that  an  att(>mpt  would  be  made  by 
Frtmce  to  recover  possession  of  the  province. 
It  was  this  fleet,  so  eagerly  expected  by  the 
Acadians,  that  gave  rise  to  the  insolent  manner 
in  which  they  addressed  the  Council  at  Halifax, 
and  which  led  to  an  inunediate  removal  of  their 
arms  and  8ubse(iuent  dispersal.  Owing  to  mis- 
adventure, some  of  the  French  fleet  imder 
Alacnamara  had  to  put  back  to  Brest;  the  re- 
mainder met  the  Englisli  off  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland [June  8]  in  a  dense;  fog ;  avoiding  an 
engagement,  several  of  them  escaped  by  taking 
the  northern  route  via  Bcllcisle  .  .  .  siiccess- 
fully  reaching  thei.  'harbour  of  refuge,' Louis- 
bourg.  The  '  Lys  '  and  the  '  Alcyde '  were  suf- 
ficiently unfortunate  to  be  compelled  to  face  the 
guns  of  the  English  frigates  '  Dunkirk '  and 
'  Defiance, 'and  after  five  hours  close  engageme\it 
the  '  Lvs '  struck  its  colors  .  .  .  followed  by  the 
'Alcyde,' when  Hocquart  in  command  became 
Boscawen's  prisoner  by  sea  for  the  third  time, 
together  with  £76,000  sterling  in  money,  eight 
companies  of  soldiers  and  several  officers  and 
engineers.  The  unexpected  rencontre  with  Bos- 
cawen's fleet,  the  loss  of  two  of  their  vessels,  and 
the  knowledge  that  the  garrison  at  Halifax  was 
considerably  reinforced  by  the  forces  brought  out 
by  Boscawen,  caused  the  abandonment  of  all 
attempts  to  recover  Acadia.  Dieskau,  after 
landing  a  few  regiments  at  Louisbourg,  pro- 
ceeded to  Quebec."— G.  E.  Hart,  The  Fall  of 
New  France,  pp.  51-54. 

Also  in:  J.  Campbell,  Natal  Hist,  of  Qreat 
Britain,  v.  5,  ;>;'•  104-106. 

A.  D.  17SS  (July).— Defeat  of  Braddock's 
Expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne.  Sec  Ohio 
(Valley):  A.  D.  1755. 

A.  D.  1 755  (August— October) :  The  abortive 
expedition  against  Niagara. —  According  to 
the  English  plan  of  campaign,  concerted  with 
Braddock  at  Alexandria,  Governor  Shirley  was 
to  lead  an  army  for  the  conquest  of  Niagara ; 
but  his  march  westward  ended  at  Oswego. 
"Colonel  Philip  Schuyler  led  the  first  regiment 
of  the  expedition.  Boats  were  built  at  Oswego 
to  convey  600  men  by  lake.  Shirley  followed 
by  way  of  the  Mohawk,  and  reached  Oswego 
August  21.  He  was  delayed  from  various 
causes,  and  in  October  a  council  of  war  decided 
that  the  attack  on  Niagara  should  be  postponed 
for  a  year.  Shirley  was  to  have  met  Braddock 
in  victory  at  Niagara.  Both  branches  of  the 
plan  had  been  shattered.  The  great  western 
scheme  sank  to  a  mere  strengthening  of  the 
defences  of  Oswego.  Colonel  Mercer  was  left  in 
command  of  a  garrison  of  700  men,  with  instruc- 
tions to  build  two  new  forts,  and  General  Shirley 
took  the  remainder  of  his  force  back  to  Albany. 
The  pitiful  failure  led  to  recriminations  relative 
to  the  causes  of  the  fatal  delays." — E.  H. 
Roberts,  New  York,  v.  1,  eh.  20. 

Also  in:  R.  Hildreth,  Hiet.  of  the  V.  S.,  eh.  26 
(v.  2). 

A.  D  I7SS  (September).— The  Battle  of 
Lake  George  and  defeat  of  Dieskau.— '  Tlie 
expedition  against  Crown  Point  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  had  been  intrusted  to  General  William 
Johnson.  His  troops  were  drawn  principally 
from  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut;  a  regiment 
from  New  Hampshire  joined  them  at  Albany. 
At  the  head  of  boat  navigation  on  the  Hudson,  a 
fort  was  built  which,  in  honor  of  their  com- 


871 


CANADA,  1755. 


KxiU  of  tht 
Acadiam. 


CANADA,  1766. 


mander,  wliom  they  revercncod  ft«  '  ii  lirnvo  nn<l 
vlrtiious  iniin,' tlio  RolditTH  nnmcd  Fort  Lymiiii. 
Hut  when  .lohiiHon  aHHiinu^d  thi-  coiiinmiid  liu 
iiUKciu'rously  chnngcd  tlio  niiinp  to  Fort  Kdwiird. 
Leaving;  a  garrison  in  this  fort,  Joliiison  moved 
with  about  ."i.OOO  nwi\  to  the  licad  of  Laku  Qeorgo, 
and  tliiTL'  f(>riiic<l  a  camp,  iiitending  to  dfHrcnd 
into  Lalte  (Jhamplain.  Ilcndricli,  the  celebniti'd 
Mohuwii  chief,  with  lux  warriors,  were  nnionj; 
these  troopH.  Israel  Putnam,  too,  was  tliere,  as 
u  captain,  and  Jolin  Htarli  as  a  lieutenant,  each 
taking;  lessons  in  warfare.  The  French  were  not 
idle;  the  district  of  Montreal  made  the  most 
strenuous  exertions  to  meet  the  invading  foe. 
All  the  men  who  were  able  to  bear  arms  were 
called  into  active  service ;  so  that,  to  gather  in 
the  harvest,  their  places  were  supplied  by  men 
from  other  districts.  The  energetic  Baron  Dies- 
kau  resolved,  by  a  bold  attack,  to  terrify  the 
invaders.  Taking  with  Iiim  200  regulars,  and 
4ibout  1,200  Canadians  and  Indians,  he  set  out  to 
capture  Fort  Edward;  but,  as  he  drew  near,  the 
Indians  heard  that  it  was  defended  by  cannon, 
which  they  greatly  dreaded,  and  they  refused  to 
advance.  lie  now  changed  his  plan,  and  resolved 
to  attack  Johnson's  camp,  which  wassnpposcd  to 
>)«  without  cannon.  Meantime  scout«  had 
reported  to  Johnson  that  they  liad  seen  roads 
made  through  the  woods  in  the  direction  of  Fort 
Edward.  Not  knowing  the  movements  of  Dies- 
kau,  a  detaclmient  of  1,000  men,  under  Colonel 
Ephraim  Williams,  of  Massachusetts,  and  200 
Mohawks,  under  Ilendrick,  marched  to  relieve 
that  post.  The  French  had  information  of  their 
appniach  and  placed  themselves  in  ambush. 
They  were  concealed  among  the  thick  bushes  of 
a  swamp,  on  the  one  side,  and  rocks  and  trees  on 
the  other.  The  Englisli  recklessly  marched  into 
the  defile.  They  were  vigorously  attacked 
[Sept.  5]  and  thrown  into  confusion.  Ilendrick 
was  almost  instantly  killed,  and  in  a  short  time 
Williams  fell  also.  The  detachment  commenced 
to  retreat,  occasionally  halting  to  check  their 
pursuers.  The  firing  was  heard  in  the  camp ;  as 
the  sound  drew  nearer  and  nearer,  it  was  evident 
the  detachment  was  retreating.  The  drums  beat 
to  arms,  trees  were  hastily  felled  and  thrown 
together  to  form  a  breastwork,  upon  which 
were  placed  a  few  cannon,  just  arrived  from  the 
Hudson.  Scarcely  were  thesr,  preparations  made 
whta  the  panting  fugitives  appeared  in  sight, 
hotly  pursued  by  the  French  and  Indians. 
Intending  to  enter  the  camp  with  the  fugitives, 
Dieskau  urged  forward  his  men  with  the  greatest 
Impetuosity.  The  moment  the  fugitives  were 
past  the  muzzles  of  the  cannon  they  opened  with 
a  tremendous  sliowcr  of  grape,  which  scattered 
the  terrified  Indians  and  checked  tlie  Canadians, 
but  the  regulars  pushed  on.  A  determined  con- 
test ensued,  which  lasted  Ave  liours,  until  the 
regulars  were  nearly  all  slain,  while  tlie  Indians 
and  Canadians  did  but  little  execution;  tliey 
remained  at  a  respectful  distance  among  the 
trees.  At  length  the  enemy  began  to  retreat, 
and  the  Americans  leaped  over  tlie  breastworks 
and  pursued  (hem  with  great  vigor.  Thot  same 
evening,  after  the  pursuit  haa  ceased,  as  the 
French  were  retreating,  they  were  suddenly 
attacked  with  great  spirit  by  the  New  Hamp- 
shire regiment,  which  was  on  its  way  from  Fort 
Edward.  They  were  so  panic  stricken  by  this 
now  assault  tliat  they  abondoned  everything  and 
fled  for  their  lives.     Dieskau  had  been  wounded 


once  or  twice  at  the  commencement  of  the  battle, 
but  he  never  left  his  post.  .  .  .  He  was  taken 
pri.Honer,  kindly  treated,  and  sent  to  England, 
where  lie  died.  Joliiis<m  wos  slightly  wounded 
at  the  commencement  of  the  battle,  and  prudently 
retired  from  danger.  To  General  livman  belongs 
the  honor  of  the  victory,  yet  ■lolinson,  in  his 
report  of  the  battle,  did  not  even  mention  his 
name.  .Tohnson,  for  his  exertions  on  that  ilay, 
was  made  a  baronet,  and  received  from  royal 
favor  a  gift  of  |2.">,000.  He  had  friends  at 
court,  hut  Lyman  was  unknown.  Col.  Ephraim 
Williams,  who  fell  in  this  battle,  while  pas.sing 
through  Albany,  had  taken  the  precaution  to 
make  his  will,  in  which  he  iK'queathed  property 
to  found  a  frc^c  school  in  western  Massachusetts. 
That  school  has  since  grown  into  AVilliams  Col- 
lege."— J.  II.  Patton,  Concise  Jlist.  of  t/w  Am. 
People,  r.  1,  rh.  22. 

Also  in:  W.  L.  Stone,  Life  and  Times  of  Sir 
W.  Johnson,  v.  1,  ch.  10. — F.  Parkman,  Montcalm 
and  y/olfe,  v.  1,  ch.  9. 

A.  D.I7S5  (October — November). — Removal 
and  dispersion  in  exile  of  the  French  Acadians. 
See  Nova  Scotia:  A.  D.  IT.W. 

A.  D.  1756. — Formal  declarations  of  war — 
the  "  Seven  Years  War  "  of  Europe,  called  the 
"  French  and  Indian  War  "  in  British  America. 
— Montcalm  sent  from  France. — "Ou  the  18th 
of  May,  1750,  England,  after  a  year  of  o])en  hos- 
tility, at  length  declared  war.  She  had  attacked 
Franco  by  land  and  sea,  turned  loose  lier  ships 
to  prey  on  French  commerce,  and  brought  some 
300  prizes  into  her  ports.  It  was  the  act  of  a 
weak  government,  supplying  by  spasms  of  vio- 
lence what  it  lacked  in  considerate  resolution. 
France,  no  match  for  her  amphiliious  enemy  in 
the  game  of  marine  depredation,  cried  out  in 
horror;  and  to  emphasize  her  complaints  and 
signalize  a  pretended  good  faith  which  her  acts 
had  belied, ostentatiously  released  a  British  frigate 
captured  by  her  cruisers.  She  in  her  turn  de- 
clared war  on  the  9th  of  June :  and  now  began 
the  most  terrible  conflict  of  the  18th  century;  one 
that  convulsed  Europe  and  shook  Amenica,  India, 
the  coasts  of  Africa,  and  the  islands  of  the  sea 
[seeENOLAND:  A.  D.  1754-175.5,  and  after;  also 
Germany:  A.  D.  1755-1756,  and  after].  .  .  . 
Henceforth  France  was  to  turn  her  strength 
against  her  European  foes;  and  the  American 
war,  the  occasion  of  the  universal  outbreak,  was 
to  hold  in  her  eyes  a  second  place.  .  .  .  Still, 
something  must  be  done  for  the  American  war; 
at  least  there  must  be  a  new  general  to  replace 
Dieskau.  None  of  the  court  favorites  wanted  a 
command  in  the  backwoods,  and  the  minister  of 
war  was  free  to  choose  whom  he  would.  His 
choice  fell  on  Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de  Mont- 
crim-Qozon  de  Saint  Veran.  .  .  .  The  Chevalier 
de  Levis,  afterwards  Marshal  of  Franco,  was 
named  as  his  second  in  command.  .  .  .  The 
troops  destined  for  Canada  were  only  two  battal- 
ions, one  belonging  to  the  regiment  of  La  Sarre, 
and  the  other  to  that  of  Uoyal  Roussillon.  Louis 
XV.  and  Pompadour  sent  100,000  men  to  fight 
the  battles  of  Austria,  and  could  spare  but  1,200 
to  reinforce  New  France."  Montcalm,  who 
reached  Quebec  in  Slay,  was  placed  in  difficult 
relations  witli  the  governor-general,  Vaudreuil, 
by  the  fact  that  the  latter  held  command  of  the 
colonial  troops.  The  forces  in  New  France,  w(!ro 
of  three  kinds, — "the  '  troupes  do  terre,' troops 
of  the  line,  or  regulars  from  France ;  the  '  troupes 


372 


CANADA,  1756. 


7^  "FVench  and 
Indian  War." 


CANADA,  1786-1757. 


de  la  marine,'  or  colony  regulars;  and  lastly  the 
militia.  The  first  consisted  of  the  four  battalions 
that  had  como  over  with  Dieskau  and  the  two 
that  had  come  with  Montcalm,  comprising  in  all 
a  little  Ics.?  than  3,000  men.  Besides  these,  the 
battalions  of  Artois  and  Bourgogne,  to  the  num- 
ber of  1,  too  men,  were  in  garrison  at  Louisbourg. " 
This  constituted  Montcalm's  command.  The 
colony  regul  rs  and  the  militia  remained  subject 
to  the  orders  of  the  governor,  who  manifested  an 
early  jealousy  of  Montcalm.  The  former  troops 
numbered  less  than  3,000 men.  "  All  theelTectivo 
male  population' of  Canada,  from  15  years  to  60, 
was  enrolled  in  the  militia.  ...  In  1750  the 
militia  of  all  ranks  counted  obout  13,000;  and 
eight  years  later  the  number  had  increased  to 
about  15,000.  Until  the  last  two  years  of  the 
war,  those  employed  in  actual  warfare  were  but 
few.  ...  To  the  white  flglifing  force  of  the 
colony  are  to  be  added  the  red  men.  .  .  .  Tlie 
military  situation  was  somewhat  perplexing. 
Ire  luois  spies  had  brought  reports  of  great  pre- 
parations on  the  part  of  the  English.  As  neither 
party  dared  offend  these  wavering  tribes,  their 
warriors  could  pass  with  impunity  from  one  to 
the  other,  and  were  paid  by  each  for  bringing  in- 
formation, not  always  trustworthy.  They  de- 
clared that  the  English  were  gathering  in  force 
to  renew  the  attempt  made  by  Jolmson  the 
year  before  against  Crown  Point  and  Ticon- 
deroga,  as  well  as  that  made  by  Shirley  against 
Forts  Prontenac  and  Niagara.  Vaudreuil  had 
spared  no  effort  to  meet  the  double  danger. 
Lotbinifire,  a  Canadian  engineer,  hod  been  busied 
during  tlie  winter  in  fortifying  Ticondcroga, 
while  Pouchot,  a  captain  in  the  battalion  of 
Beam,  had  rebuilt  Niagara,  and  two  French 
engineers  were  at  work  in  strengthening  the 
defences  of  Prontenac.  .  .  .  Indians  presently 
brought  word  that  10,000  English  were  coming 
to  attack  Ticonderoga. "  Both  Montcalm  and 
Levis,  with  troops,  "hastened  to  the  supposed 
scene  of  danger  .  .  .  and  reached  Ticonderoga 
at  the  end  of  June.  They  found  the  fort 
.  .  .  advanced  towards  completion.  It  stood  on 
the  crown  of  the  promontory.  .  .  .  The  rampart 
consisted  of  two  parallel  walls  ten  feet  apart, 
built  of  the  trunks  of  trees,  and  held  together  by 
transverse  logs  dovetailed  at  both  ends,  the  space 
betv^een  being  filled  with  earth  and  gravel  well 
packed.  Such  was  the  first  Port  Ticonderoga, 
or  Carillon, — a  structure  quite  distinct  from  the 
later  fort  of  which  the  ruins  still  stand  on  the 
same  spot.  .  .  .  Ticonderoga  was  now  the  most 
advonced  position  of  the  French,  and  Crown 
Point,  which  hod  before  held  that  perilous  honor, 
was  in  the  second  line.  .  .  .  The  danger  from 
the  English  proved  to  be  still  remote.  .  .  .  Mean- 
while, at  the  head  of  Lake  George,  the  raw  bands 
of  ever-active  New  Engloud,  were  mustering  for 
the  fray." — P.  Porkmon,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe, 
V.  1,  ch.  11. 

Also  in:  W.  Kingsford,  Ilist.  of  Canada,  bk. 
11,  ch.  0  (v.  3). 

A.  D.  1256-1757.  —  French  successes. — 
Capture  of  Oswego  and  Fort  William  Henry. 
— Bloody  Twork  of  the  savage  allies. —  On  the 
death  of  Braddock,  Gov.  Shirley  became  cora- 
monder-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  America, 
"a  position  for  which  he  was  not  adopted  by 
military  knowledge.  .  .  .  His  military  schemes 
for  the  season  of  1756  were  grand  in  conception 
and  theory,  but  disastrous  failures  in  practice. 


Ten  thousand  men  were  to  advance  against 
Crown  Point  — 6,000  for  service  on  Lake  On- 
tiirio,  3,000  for  an  attark  on  Fort  Duciuesne, 
and  2,000  to  advance  up  the  river  Kennebec, 
destroy  the  settlement  adjoining  the  Chaudiire 
and  descending  the  mouth  of  that  river  within 
three  miles  of  Quebec,  keep  all  that  part  of 
Canada  in  alarm.  While  each  of  these  armies 
was  being  put  into  motion,  the  season  Inid  be- 
come too  fur  advanced  for  action  at  any  one 
point.  Moreover,  the  British  Government,  dis- 
satisfied with  a  Provincial  officer  being  at  the 
head  of  its  army  in  America,  determined  upou 
sending  out  General  Lord  Loudoun.  Wlule 
Shirley  was  preparing,  Montcalm  advanced 
against  the  three  forts  at  Oswego,  the  terror  of 
the  French  in  the  Iroquois  country  and  which  it 
had  been  their  desire  to  destroy  for  many  years 
back ;  they  likewise  commanded  the  entrance  to 
Lake  Ontario.  The  English  liad  a  garrison  of 
1,800  men  in  these  divided  between  Fort  Ontario 
.  .  .  Fort  Oswego  .  .  .  and  Fort  George,  or 
Rascal  .  .  .  about  a  mile  distant  from  each 
other."  Montcalm  took  oil  three  of  the  forts 
without  much  difficulty,  and  demolished  them. 
"  Shirley  was  much  blamed  for  this  defeat  and 
the  failure  of  his  projects,   and  lost  both   his 

fovemment  and  command,  being  succeeded  by 
ohn  Campbell,  fourth  Earl  of  Loudoun,  Baron 
Mauchlaw,  one  of  the  si.xteen  peers  of  Scotland, 
witli  General  Abercromby  as  second  in  command 
—  both  notorious  for  previous  incompetency. 
.  .  .  They  were  sent  out  with  considerable  rein- 
forcements, and  had  transferred  to  them  by 
Shirley  16,000  men  in  the  field,  of  whom  6,000 
were  regulars;  but,  with  that  masterly  inactivity 
and  indecision  for  which  Loudoun  was  most 
renowned,  no  further  movement  was  made  this 
year.  The  year  1757  was  not  distinguished  by 
any  military  movements  of  much  moment." 
An  intended  attack  on  Louisbourg  was  postponed 
because  of  news  that  a  powerful  F;  'ch  tleet 
held  possession  of  its  harbor  ond  that  the 
garrison  was  very  strong.  "Montcalm,  finding 
himself  free  from  attack,  penetrated  with  his 
army  of  7,006  men  to  Port  William  Henry,  at 
the  iiead  of  Lake  George.  Included  wore  2,000 
Indians.  The  fort  was  garrisoned  by  2,264 
regulars  under  Colonel  Munroe  of  the  85th  Regi- 
ment, and  in  the  neighborhood  there  was  an 
additional  force  of  4,600  men  under  General 
Webb.  On  tlie  3d  of  August  the  fort  was  in- 
vested and,  after  a  summons  to  surrender  was 
rejected,  the  attack  was  begun  and  continued 
with  undiminished  fervor  until  the  0th  at  noon, 
when  a  capitulation  was  signed.  General  Webb 
did  not  join  Munroe,  as  he  was  instructed  to  do 
by  Abercromby's  plans,  some  cowardice  being 
attributed  to  him  by  contemporary  writers.  An 
incident  of  the  war  which  has  given  rise  to  a 
great  deal  of  controversy  and  ill-feeling  up  to 
the  present  moment,  was  the  so-called  massacre 
at  Fort  William  Henry,  the  outcome  of  the 
numerous  horde  of  savages  the  French  allies 
had  in  the  engagement.  ...  On  the  morning 
following  the  ■  surrender,  the  garrison  was  to 
march  out  under  a  proper  escort  to  protect  them 
from  injury  at  the  hands  of  the  Indians.  The 
evacuation  had  barely  commenced,  when  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  looting  of  the  day  previous,  which  en- 
sued immediately  after  the  capitulation  had  been 
signed,  was  attempted.  An  effort  being  made 
by  the  escort  to  stop  it,  some  drunken  Indians 


373 


CANADA,  176ft-1757. 


lAntialHiurff 
and  Ticonderoga, 


CANADA.  1758. 


attnrkrd  the  ilrllh".  which  rosiiltcd  In  tlip  miirdpr- 
Injt  1111(1  Hciilpinj;  of  koiiic  (10  or  70  of  the 
iirTfHiiirrM ;  nmltrcntInK  imd  rohliiti^  n  largv  niini- 
xwT  of  others.  I'poii  a  cnrcful  invcslljfntlon  of 
the  rontempomry  niiflioritics,  no  liliiiiiewlmtovcr 
cnn  bo  nttiichcd  to  tlie  koo(1  fiiiiu'  of  the  brave 
nnd  hiimano  Moritrnlm  or  Do  LeviH.  .  .  .  Fort 
Georije, or  Williiim  llenrv,  ns  it  wiis  IndilTereiitly 
callecT,  like  Its  rompeer  l'N)rt  Oswejro,  was  razed 
to  the  ground  and  tlu^  army  retreated  into  tlieir 
winter  quarters  at  Montreal.  The  termination 
of  the  year  left  the  Freiieh  masters  of  Lakes 
Clmmplaln  and  Georgo,  together  wIlIi  the  ehaiii 
of  great  lakes  connecting  the  8t.  Lawrence  witli 
the  MisBlssippi ;  also  the  undisturbed  possession 
of  all  the  country  in  dispute  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains."— O.  H  Hart,  T/ie  Fall  of 
Neie  France,  pp.  70-70. 

Also  in:  E.  Warlmrton,  Conquest  of  Canada, 
V.  2,  <•/(.  2-3. 

A.  D.  1758. — The  loss  of  Louisbourg;  and 
Fort  Du  Quesne.— Bloody  defeat  of  the  Eng- 
lish at  Ticonderoga. — "The  affairs  of  Great 
ISritain  in  North  America  wore  a  more  gloomy 
aspect,  at  the  close  of  the  camjiaign  of  1757, 
than  at  any  former  period.  By  tlio  acquisition 
of  fort  William  Henry,  the  French  had  obtained 
complete  possession  of  the  lakes  Champlain,  and 
George.  By  the  destruction  of  Oswego,  thev 
had  acquired  the  dominion  of  those  lakes  which 
connect  tlie  St.  Lawrence  with  the  waters  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  unite  Canada  to  Louisiana.  By 
means  of  fort  Du  Quflsne,  they  maintained  their 
ascendency  over  the  Indians,  and  held  undis- 
turbed possession  of  the  country  west  of  tlie 
Allegheny  mountains;  while  the  Lnglish  settlers 
were  driven  to  the  blue  ridge.  The  great  object 
of  the  war  in  that  quarter  was  gained,  and 
France  held  the  country  for  which  hostilities  had 
been  commenced.  .  .  .  But  this  inglorious  scene 
was  about  to  be  succeeded  by  one  of  unrivalled 
brilliancy.  .  .  .  The  brightest  era  of  British  his- 
tory was  to  commence.  .  .  .  The  public  voice 
had,  at  length,  made  its  way  to  the  throne,  and 
had  forced,  on  the  unwilling  monarch,  a  minister 
who  has  been  justly  deemed  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  the  age  in  which  ho  lived.  ...  In  the 
summer  of  1757,  an  administration  was  formed, 
which  conciliated  tlio  great  contending  interests 
in  parliament;  and  Mr.  Pitt  was  placed  at  its 
head.  .  .  .  Possessing  the  public  confidence 
without  limitation,  he  commanded  all  tlie  re- 
sources of  the  nation,  and  drew  liberally  from 
the  public  purse.  .  .  .  In  no  part  of  his  majesty's 
dominions  was  the  new  administration  more 
popular  than  in  his  American  colonies.  .  .  . 
The  circular  letter  of  Mr.  Pitt  assured  the  several 
governors  that,  to  repair  tlie  losses  and  disap- 
pointments of  the  last  inactive  campaign,  the 
cabinet  was  determined  to  send  a  formidable 
force,  to  operate  by  sea  and  land,  against  the 
French  in  America;  and  he  called  upon  them  to 
raise  as  large  bodies  of  men,  within  their  re- 
spective governments,  as  the  number  of  inliabit- 
ants  nii-'ht  a'low.  .  .  .  The  legislature  of  Mas- 
sachu.si  its  agi  cd  to  furnish  7,000  men;  Connec- 
ticut 5,000;  and  New  Hampshire  3,000.  .  .  . 
Three  expeditions  were  proposed.  The  first  wis 
against  Louisbourg;  the  second  against  Ticon- 
deroga and  Crown  Point ;  and  the  third  against 
fort  Du  QuCsne.  The  army  destined  against 
Louisbourg,  consisting  of  14,000  men,  was  com- 
manded by  major  general  Amherst.     [The  expe- 


dition was  suoccssfiil  and  Tjouisbourg  fell,  July 
2(1,  1758.— See  Cave  Bukto.v  Iki.a.M):  A.  I). 
1758-1700.1  .  .  .  The  expedition  against  Ticon- 
deroga and  Crown  Point  was  conducted  by  gen- 
eral Aberrrombie  in  person.  His  army,  consist- 
ing of  near  10,(X)0  ciTectives,  of  wliom  9,000 
were  provincials,  was  attended  by  a  fonnldable 
train  of  artillery,  and  possessed  every  retiuisite 
to  ensure  success.  On  the  5th  of  July  he 
embarked  on  lake  George,  and  reached  the  land- 
ing place  early  the  next  morning.  A  discmbarli- 
ation  being  ciTected  without  opposition,  the 
troops  wen;  immediately  formed  In  four  columns, 
the  Britisli  in  the  centre,  and  the  provincials  on 
tlie  Hanks;  In  wliicli  order  tliey  marched  towards 
the  advanced  guard  of  the  French,  composed  of 
one  battalion  posted  in  a  log  camp,  which,  on 
the  approach  of  the  Knglisli,  made  a  precipitate 
retreat.  Abercrombie  continued  his  march  to- 
wards Ticonderoga,  with  the  intention  of  invest- 
ing that  place ;  but,  tlie  womls  being  thick,  and 
the  guides  unskilful,  his  columns  were  thrown 
into  confusion,  and.  In  some  measure,  entangled 
with  each  otlier.  In  this  situation  lord  Howe,  at 
the  head  of  the  right  centre  column,  fell  in  with 
a  part  of  the  advanced  guard  of  the  French ; 
which,  in  retreating  from  lake  George,  was  like- 
wise lost  in  the  wood,  lie  immediately  attacked 
and  dispersed  them ;  killing  several,  and  taking 
148  prisoners,  among  wliom  were  five  ofilcers. 
This  small  advantage  was  purchased  at  a  dear 
rate.  Though  only  two  officers,  on  the  side  of 
the  British,  were  killed,  one  of  these  was  lord 
Howe  himself,  who  fell  on  the  first  fire.  This 
gallant  young  nobleman  had  endeared  himself 
to  the  whole  army.  .  .  .  Without  farther  oppo- 
sition, the  Englisli  army  took  possession  of  the 
post  at  the  Saw  Mills,  within  two  miles  of 
Ticonderoga.  This  fortress  Tcalled  Carillon  by 
the  French],  wliicli  commands  the  communica- 
tion between  the  two  lakes,  is  encompassed  on 
three  sides  by  water,  and  secured  in  front  by  a 
morass.  The  ordinary  garrison  amounting  to 
4,000  men,  was  stationed  under  the  cannon  of 
the  place,  and  covered  by  a  breast-work,  the  ap- 
proach to  which  had  been  rendered  extremely 
difficult  by  trees  felled  in  front,  with  their 
branches  outward,  many  of  which  were  sharp- 
ened so  as  to  answer  the  purpose  of  chevaux-de- 
f  rize.  This  body  of  troops  was  rendered  still  more 
formidable  by  its  general  than  by  its  position. 
It  was  commanded  by  the  marquis  de  Montcalm. 
Having  learned  from  his  prisoners  the  strength 
of  the  army  under  the  walls  of  Ticonderoga, 
and  that  a  reinforcement  of  3,000  men  was  daily 
expected,  general  Abercrombie  thought  it  ad- 
visablo  to  storm  the  place  before  tl.is  reinforce- 
ment should  arrive.  ,Tlie  troops  matched  to  the 
assault  with  great  intrepidity ;  but  tiieir  utmost 
efforts  could  make  no  impression  on  the  works. 
.  .  .  After  a  contest  of  near  four  hours,  and 
several  repeated  attacks,  general  Abercrombie 
ordered  a  retreat.  The  army  retired  to  ihe  camp 
from  which  it  had  marched  m  the  morniiig ;  ancl, 
the  next  day,  resumed  its  former  position  on  the 
south  side  of  lake  George.  In  this  rash  attempt, 
the  killed  and  wounded  of  the  English  amounted 
to  near  2,000  men,  of  whom  not  quite  400  were 
provincials.  The  French  were  covered  during 
the  whole  action,  and  their  loss  was  incon- 
siderable. Entirely  disconcerted  by  this  unex- 
pected and  bloody  repulse,  general  Abercrombie 
relinquished  bis  designs   against   Ticonderoga 


374 


CANADA,  1758. 


Kngliah  Conituest 
of  i^ebev. 


CANADA,  1759. 


and  Crown  Point.  ScarehinK  howovcr  for  tlio 
mcnns  of  rcpniring  tlio  misfortune,  I  not  the 
(llHirrncu,  BUHtuincii  ))y  IiIh  iirniH,  he  rciidilv  ix'- 
ccdcd  to  a  proposition  nmde  by  colonel  Briid- 
street,  for  in  expedition  iijjuin.st  'nrt  Frontljjnae. 
This  fortn  stands  on  tlie  north  si<Ie  of  On- 
tario. .  .  .  Colonel  Briidstreet  embarked  on  the 
Ontario  at  O.swcro,  and  on  the  25th  of  August, 
landed  within  one  mile  of  the  fort.  In  two  (lays, 
his  batteries  were  opened  at  so  short  a  distance 
that  almost  every  shell  toolt  elTeet;  and  the  j{ov- 
ernor,  finding;  the  j)lace  absolutely  untenal)le, 
sumindered  at  discretion.  .  .  .  After  destroying 
the  fort  and  vessels,  and  such  stores  as  could  not 
be  brought  olT,  colonel  IJradstreet  returned  to 
tlic  army  wliich  undertook  nothing  fartlierduring 
the  can  paign.  The  demolition  of  fort  Frontig- 
nac  and  of  tlie  stores  which  had  been  collected 
there,  contributed  materially  to  the  success  of 
tlie  expedition  against  fort  Du  (JuCsne.  The 
conduct  of  this  enterprise  had  been  entrusted  to 
general  Forbes,  who  marched  from  Philadelphia, 
about  the  beginning  of  July,  at  the  head  of  the 
main  body  of  the  army,  destined  for  this  service, 
in  order  to  join  colonel  Bouquet  at  Raystown. 
So  much  time  waF  cmployecl  in  preparing  to 
move  from  this  place,  that  the  Virginia  regulars, 
commanded  by  colonel  Washington,  were  not 
ordered  to  Join  the  British  troops  until  the  month 
of  September.  .  .  .  Early  in  October  general 
Forbes  moved  from  liaystown ;  but  the  obstruc- 
tions to  his  march  were  so  great  that  be  did  not 
reach  fort  Du  C^uGsne  until  late  In  November. 
The  garrison,  being  deserted  by  the  Indians,  and 
too  weak  to  maintain  the  place  against  the  formid- 
able array  which  was  approaching,  abandoned 
the  fort  the  evening  before  the  arrival  of  the 
British,  and  escaped  down  the  Oliio  in  boats.  The 
English  placed  a  garrison  in  it,  and  changed  its 
name  to  Pittsburg,  in  compliment  to  their  popular 
minister.  The  acquisition  of  this  post  was  of 
great  importance  to  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
and  Virginia." — J.  Marshall,  Life  of  Wathinglon, 
V.  1,  ch.  13. 

Also  in  :  W.  C.  Bryant  and  8.  H.  Gay,  Pop. 
Hist,  of  tlie  U.  S.,  V.  8,  eh.  11.— B.  Fernow,  Tim 
Ohio  Valley  in  Colonial  Dat/t,  ch.  7. — Major  U. 
Rogers,  Journals,  erf.  by  Ilongh,  pp.  115-123. — 
W.  Irving,  Life  of  Washington,  v.  1,  ch.  24. — 
N.  B.  Craig,  The  Olden  Time,  v.  1,  pp  177-200. 

A.  D.  1759  (June— September).— The  Fall  of 
Quebec. — "Wolfe's  name  stood  high  in  the 
esteem  of  all  who  were  qualified  to  judge,  but, 
at  the  same  time,  it  stood  low  in  the  column  of 
colonels  in  the  Army  List.  The  great  minister 
[Pitt]  thought  that  the  former  counterbalanced 
the  latter.  .  .  .  One  of  the  last  gazettes  in  the 
year  1758  announced  the  promotion  of  Colonel 
James  Wolfe  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and 
his  appointment  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
expedition  against  Quebec.  About  the  middle 
of  FebruaVy,  1759,  the  squadron  sailed  from 
England  to  Louisbourg,  where  the  whole  of  the 
British  force  destined  for  the  River  St.  Lawrence 
was  ordered  to  assemble.  .  .  .  Twenty -two  ships 
of  the  line,  five  frigates,  and  nineteen  smaller 
vessels  of  war,  with  a  crowd  of  transports,  were 
mustered  under  the  orders  of  the  admiral  [Saun- 
ders],  and  a  detachment  of  artillery  and  engineers, 
and  ten  battalions  of  infantry,  with  six  companies 
of  Rangers,  formed  Wolfe's  command ;  the  right 
flank  companies  of  the  three  regiments  which  still 
garrisoned  Louisbourg   soon  after   joined   the 


army,  and  were  fonne<l  Into  a  corps  called  tho 
Louisbourg  Orcnadiers.  The  total  of  tho  land 
forces  embarked  were  somewhat  under  H,000. " — 
E.  Warburtoii,  Coin/uest  of  ('diKiiIti,  r.  8,  eh.  0. — 
"Wolfe,  with  his  8,(MH)  iiuii,  ascended  the  Ht 
Lawri'TK'o  in  the  licet  in  the  month  of  June. 
With  him  came  Brigadiers  .Monckton,  Towns- 
hend  and  Murray,  youthful  and  bmve  like 
liimself,  and,  like  himself,  already  8ch(H)lcd  to 
arms.  .  .  .  The  Grenadiers  of  tho  army  were 
commanded  by  Colonel  Guy  Carieton,  and  part 
of  the  light  infantry  by  Lieuteuant-Colonol  Wil- 
liam Howe,  both  destined  to  celebrity  in  after 
years,  in  llie  annals  of  the  American  revolution. 
Colonel  Howe  was  brother  of  the  gallant  Lord 
Howe,  whose  fall  in  tho  preceding  year  was  so 
generally  lamented.  Among  the  ofllcers  of  tho 
licet  was  Jervi.s,  the  future  admiral,  and  ulti- 
mately Earl  St.  Vincent ;  and  the  master  of  ono 
of  the  ships  was  James  Cook,  afterwards  re- 
nowned as  a  discoverer.  About  the  end  of  June, 
the  tr(M)ps  debarked  on  the  large,  populous,  aiul 
well-cultivated  Isle  of  Orleans,  a  little  below 
Quebec,  and  encamped  in  its  fc'rtile  fields. 
Quebec,  tho  citadel  of  Canada,  was  strong  by 
nature.  It  was  built  round  tlio  point  of  a  rocky 
promontory,  and  flanked  by  precipices.  .  .  .  Tho 
place  was  tolerably  fortified,  but  art  had  not  yet 
rendered  it,  as  at  the  present  day,  iniitrcgiiable. 
Montcalm  commanded  tho  post.  His  troops 
were  more  numerous  than  the  assailants;  but 
the  greater  part  of  them  were  Canadians,  n;any 
of  them  inliabitants  of  Quebec;  and  he  had  a 
host  of  savages.  His  forces  were  <lrawn  out 
along  the  northern  shore  below  the  city,  from 
the  River  St.  Charles  to  the  Falls  of  >Iontmorency , 
and  their  position  was  secured  by  deep  intrench- 
ments.  .  .  .  After  much  resistance,  Wolfe  estiib- 
lished  batteries  at  the  west  point  of  tho  Isle  of 
Orleans,  .and  at  Point  Levi,  on  the  right  (or 
south)  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  within  cannon 
range  of  the  city.  .  .  .  Many  houses  wire  set  on 
fire  in  the  upper  town,  the  lower  toTn  was 
reduced  to  rubbish;  the  main  fort,  however, 
remained  unharmed.  Anxious  for  a  decisive 
action,  Wolfe,  on  the  9th  of  July,  crossed  over 
in  boats  from  the  Isle  of  Orleans  to  the  north 
bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  encamped  below 
the  Montmorency.  It  was  an  ill-judged  position. 
...  On  the  18th  of  July,  Wolfe  made  a  recon- 
noitcring  expedition  up  the  river,  with  two 
armed  sloops,  and  two  transports  with  troops. 
He  passed  Quebec  unliarmed  and  carefully 
noted  the  shores  abov<'  it.  Rugged  cliffs  rose 
almost  fn,n  the  water's  edge.  .  .  .  He  returned 
to  Montmorency  disappointed,  and  resolved  to 
attack  Montcalm  in  his  camp,  however  difticult 
to  be  approached,  iii'd  however  strongly  posted. 
Townshend  and  Murray,  with  their  brigades, 
were  to  cross  the  Montmorency  at  low  tide, 
below  the  falls,  and  storm  the  redoubt  thrown  up 
in  front  of  the  ford.  Monckton,  at  tho  same  time, 
was  to  cross,  with  part  of  his  brigade  in  boats 
from  Point  Levi.  ...  As  usual  in  complicoted 
orders,  port  were  misunderstood,  or  neglected, 
and  confusion  was  the  consequence."  The 
assault  was  repelled  and  Wolfe  fell  back  across 
the  river,  having  lost  four  hundred  men,  with 
two  vessels,  which  ran  aground  and  were  burned. 
He  felt  the  failure  deeply,  and  his  chagrin  was 
increased  by  news  of  the  successes  of  his  coadju- 
tors at  Ticonderoga  and  Niagara.  "The  dilB- 
culties  multiplying  around  him,  and  the  delay  of 


375 


CANADA,  176». 


Pmth  nf 


ANADA.  1789. 


Ofliiprnl  Amhorst  In  hiuitnninf;  to  lii«  aid,  prpyod 
!nri'S8iintly  »»  liU  HpiritH.  .  .  .  TIh-  itgltation  of 
his  initxl,  and  IiIh  itciitc  RcnHlbillty,  linxi^ht  on  a 
fc'vcr,  wlilcli  for  Home  thntt  incitimcitatod  lilm 
from  laklnK  tin-  Held.  In  tlic  midst  of  IdxillnnKH 
ho  t'ttllcd  u  conncil  of  war,  in  whicli  thi'  wliole 
plan  of  (>[H'mtionH  was  altered.  It  was  deter- 
mI'iCKl  to  convey  tr(M>ps  above  the  town,  and 
endeavor  to  make  ii  tliversion  in  that  direetion, 
or  draw  Montcalm  into  the  open  Held.  .  .  .  The 
brief  (Canadian  Kumnier  was  over;  they  were  in 
the  month  of  M.'ptemlM'r.  Tlie  canii)  at  Mont- 
morency was  broken  up.  The  troops  were 
transported  to  Point  Levi,  leaving  a  sufllcient 
number  to  man  the  batteries  on  the  Isle  of 
Orleans.  On  the  ,'ith  and  fith  of  September  the 
embarkation  t(H)k  place  above  Point  Levi,  in 
transports  which  had  been  sent  for  the  |)nr- 
pose.  Montcalm  detache<l  I)c  Bongainville  with 
1,500  men  to  keep  alon^  the  north  shoro  •ibove 
the  town,  watch  the  movements  of  the  scjuadron, 
and  prevent  a  landing.  To  deceive  him.  Admiral 
Holmes  moved  with  the  ships  of  war  three 
leagues  beyond  the  place  where  the  landing  was 
to  bo  Bttcmpt<'d.  lie  was  to  drop  down,  how- 
ever, In  the  night,  and  protect  the  landing.  .  .  . 
The  descent  was  made  In  tiat-bottomed  boats, 
past  midnight,  on  the  13th  of  September.  They 
dropped  down  silently,  with  tho  swift  current. 
'  Qui  va  la  'I '  (wh(,  goes  there  ?)  cried  a  sentinel 
from  the  shore.  'La  France,'  replied  a  captain 
in  tlio  first  boat,  wlio  understood  tho  French 
language.  '  A  quel  regiment  ? '  was  the  demand. 
'  De  la  Itelne  '  (tho  queen's)  replied  the  captain, 
Itnowlng  that  regiment  was  in  Do  Ilougainville's 
detachment.  Fortunately,  a  convoy  of  provisions 
was  expected  down  from  De  Bougainville's, 
wliich  the  sentinel  supposed  this  to  be.  '  Passe,' 
cried  he,  and  the  boats  glided  on  without  further 
challenge.  The  landing  took  place  in  a  cove 
near  Cape  Diamond,  which  still  bears  Wolfe's 
name,  tie  had  marked  it  in  rcconnoiterlng,  and 
saw  tliat  a  crngged  path  straggled  up  from  it 
to  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  which  might  be 
climbed,  though  with  difflculty,  and  that  it 
appeared  to  be  slightly  guarded  at  top.  Wolfe 
was  among  tlie  first  that  landed  and  ascended  up 
the  steep  and  narrow  path,  where  not  more  than 
two  could  go  abreast,  and  which  liad  been 
broken  up  by  cross  ditches.  Colonel  Howe,  at 
the  same  time,  with  the  light  infantry  and  High- 
landers, scrambled  up  the  woody  precipices, 
helping  themselves  by  the  roots  and  branches, 
and  putting  to  flight  a  sergeant's  guard  posted 
at  the  summit.  Wolfe  drew  up  the  men  in  order 
as  thcv  mounted ;  and  by  the  break  of  day  found 
liimself  in  possession  of  the  fateful  Plains  of 
Abraham.  Montcalm  was  thunderstruck  when 
word  was  brought  to  him  in  his  camp  that  the 
English  were  on  the  heights  threatening  the 
weakest  part  of  the  town.  Abandoning  his 
intrenchments,  he  hastened  across  the  river  St. 
Charles  and  ascended  the  heights,  which  slope  up 
gradually  from  its  banks.  His  force  wos  equal 
in  number  to  that  of  the  English,  but  a  great 
part  was  made  up  of  colony  troops  and  savages. 
When  he  saw  the  formidable  host  of  regulars  he 
had  to  contend  with,  he  sent  off  swift  messengers 
to  summon  De  Bougainville  with  his  detachment 
to  ills  aid ;  and  De  Vaudreil  to  reinforce  him  with 
1,500  men  from  the  camp.  In  the  meantime  he 
prepared  to  flank  the  left  of  the  English  line  and 
force  them  to  the  opposite  precipices. "    In  the 


memorable  battle  which  ensued,  Wolfe,  who  led 
the  KnglUh  line,  received,  first,  a  musket  ball  in 
hi.H  wrist,  and  sixm  afterward  wa.s  struck  by  a 
second  In  the  breiust.  He  was  borne  mortally 
wounded  to  the  rear,  and  lived  just  long  enough 
to  hi'ar  a  cry  from  those  around  him  that  the 
enemy  ran.  Giving  a  (juiek  order  for  Webb's 
regiment  to  be  hurried  down  to  tho  Charles 
Kiver  bridge  and  then?  obstruct  the  Fn-nch 
retreat,  he  turned  upon  his  side,  saving,  "Now, 
(l(xl  be  praised,  I  will  die  In  peace,'' and  expired. 
In  the  meantime  the  French  commander,  Jlont- 
calm,  had  received  his  death-wound,  while 
striving  to  rally  his  flying  troops.  Tho  victory 
of  the  Knglish  was  complete,  and  they  hastened 
to  fortify  their  position  on  tho  Plains  of  Abraham, 
preparing  to  attack  the  citadel.  But,  Montcalm 
dying  of  his  wound  the  following  morning,  no 
further  defence  of  the  place  was  undertaken.  It 
was  surrendered  on  the  17th  of  September  to  Gen- 
eral Townshend,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand.— W.  Irving,  Lifcof  Wnthiiii/ton,  v.  1,  eh.  25. 

Also  in:  P.  Parknian,  ^f()lltralrn  and  Wolfe, 
eh.  27-28  (v.  2).  — H.  Wright,  Lifi  of  Wolfe,  eh. 
21-33.— Lord  .Mahon  (Karl  Stitnho}y;),  Im.  of 
Knfi.,  17i:i-1783,  eh.  35  {v.  4).— W  Smith,  Hut. 
of  C'atuula,  v.  1,  eh.  6. — .7.  Knox,  IfinforiealJonr- 
nnl,  V.  1,  jtp.  2.M-360;  r.  3,  pp.  \-\:\'Z. 

A.  D.  1759  (July— August).— The  fall  of 
Niagara,  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point. — 
"  For  tho  campaign  of  1751)  the  British  Parlia- 
ment voted  liberal  supplies  of  men  and  money, 
and  tho  American  colonics,  encouraged  by  the 
successes  of  the  preceding  year,  raised  large  num- 
bers of  troops.  Amherst  superseded  Abercrombie 
as  commander-in-chief.  'The  plan  for  the  year 
embraced  three  expeditions:  Fort  Niagara  was  to 
bo  attacked  by  Prideaux,  assisted  by  Sir  William 
Johnson ;  Amherst  was  to  march  his  force  against 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point;  and  Quebec  was 
to  be  assailed  by  an  army  under  Wolfe  and  a  fleet 
under  Saunders.  Prideaux  and  Amherst,  after 
tho  capture  of  the  forts,  were  to  descend  the  St. 
Lawrence,  take  Montreal,  and  join  the  army  before 
Quebec.  .  .  .  Vaudreuil,  the  Governor,  having 
received  warning  from  France  of  the  intentions  of 
the  English,  sent  a  small  force  to  Niagara  under 
the  engineer  Pouchot.  not  expecting  to  be  able 
to  hold  the  post,  and  not  wishing  to  sacrifice 
many  men,  or  to  spare  the  troops  from  the  more 
important  points.  Pouchot  repaired  the  defences, 
and  when  the  alarm  was  given  that  the  English 
were  near,  sent  for  men  from  Presqu'  Isle, 
Venango,  and  Detroit.  Prideaux,  in  command  of 
two  British  regiments,  a  battalion  of  Royal 
Americans,  two  battalions  from  New  York,  and 
a  train  of  artillery,  was  joined  by  Johnson  with 
a  detiichment  of  Indians.  They  began  their 
march  from  Schenectady  on  the  30th  of  May, 
and,  after  a  difficult  journey,  reached  Oswego, 
wliere  a  detachment  under  Colonel  Haldimand 
was  left  to  take  possession  and  form  a  post,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  forces  embarked  on  Lake 
Ontario,  and  on  the  1st  of  July  landed  without 
opposition  about  six  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Niagara.  .  .  .  Prideaux  began  his  trenches 
on  the  10th,  and  on  the  11th  a  sally  was  made 
from  the  fort ;  but  the  English  placed  themselves 
in  line  of  battle,  and  the  French  were  obliged  to 
retire.  Prideaux  was  steadily  advancing  tho 
work  .  .  .  when,  on  the  19th,  he  was  killed  by 
the  bursting  of  a  shell  from  a  Coehorn  mortar  in 
one  of  the  trenches,  where  he  had  gone  to  issue 


376 


CANADA,  1750. 


TV  fymrh 
Sumnttrr, 


CANADA.  1760. 


orders.  Amlier«t  iinpolnU'il  Ocnonil  Qftjfo  to 
micrfcd  liiiii.  but  iK'Tori!  tlii^  iirrlvitl  of  ih\)fv  llic 
cumiimjiikI  ili'volvi'd  ii|)(iii  Ot'ticnil  Joliiimiii,  who 
curried  on  tlii'  Hlcffc-  lU'cordliig  to  llu?  pliiiis  of 
I'ridnuix."  On  tlii>  34tli  ii  coiisldcriililu  force  of 
Frciich  itiid  Iiidliiiix,  ul)out  1,(1(10  Hlroii)(,  Kent  to 
the  rclli'f  of  tlie  bcleiif^uercd  fort,  wjis  Inter- 
cepted and  routed,  most  of  the  French  oIllcerH 
nnd  men  beinn  nliilnor  captured.  TlilHt(H)k  from 
Pouebol  his  iiiHt  hope,  iind  ho  surn'ndered  th<! 
followlnif  (hiy.  "  Ah  the  stivlions  lK>yond  Nhiifiim 
were  now  completely  cut  olT  from  communieik- 
tion  with  the  en.st,  iind  had  i:f\\fi\  up  ii  lur^e  piirt 
of  their  men  to  join  D'Aubry  |in  the  iittx-mpt  to 
reli(^ve  Niujfiim],  they  were  no  lonfjer  ciipiible  of 
resistllnc(^  I're«(|u'^.sle,  Vetmngo,  iind  Le  U(eut 
were  easily  tnlceli  l)y  Oolouel  liouquet,  who  had 
l)een  sent  {()  sinninon  them  to  surrender."  The 
detiichmeiit  left  at  Oswejfo.  in  charge  of  Btores, 
was  atti.cked  by  a  Ixxly  of  French  and  Indians 
from  r,a  Presentation  (Ugdeusburi^).  but  the  at- 
t4ick  failed.  "  For  tho  reduction  of  the  fort»  at 
TieoncU'rogii  and  Crown  I'oint,  Amherst  had 
somewhat  more  than  ll.UOO  men.  He  be^an 
prepariitions  early  In  May  at  Albany,  preparing 
boats,  ^fathering  stores,  and  disciplining  the  now 
recruits."  In  Juno  he  reached  LakeOeor^o  with 
his  army,  but  It  was  not  until  late  in  .July  that 
"the  army  moved  down  the  lake  in  four  columns. 
In  a  lleet  of  whale-boats,  bateau.x,  and  artillery 
rafts,  very  much  as  Abercromby's  men  had  gone 
to  their  defeat  tho  year  before,  and  Icf-  ihe  boats 
nearly  opposite  tho  former  landing-place.  The 
vanguard,  pushing  on  rapi(dy  over  the  road  to 
the  falls,  met  a  detachment  of  French  and  In- 
dians, whom  they  overpowered  and  scattered 
after  a  slight  skirmish,  and  tlio  main  body 
pressed  on  and  took  a  position  at  tho  saw  mills. 
From  prisoners  it  was  learned  that  Bourlamnquo 
commanded  at  Ticonderoga  with  3,4()0  men. 
Montcalm  was  at  Quebec'  The  French  with- 
drew from  their  outer  lines  into  tho  fort,  ond 
made  a  show  of  resistance;  for  several  doys  while 
they  evacuated  tho  place.  An  explosion,  during 
the  night  of  tho  a.'ith  of  July,  "and  the  light  of 
tho  burning  works,  ossunul  tho  English  of  the 
retreat  of  the  Frcpch,  of  which  they  had  already 
heord  from  a  deserter,  and  Colonel  Ilaviland  pur- 
sued them  down  tho  lake  with  a  few  troops,  and 
took  sixteen  prisoners  anil  some  boats  laden  with 
powder.  .  .  .  After  tho  flames  were  extinguished, 
Amherst,  who  had  lost  about  75  men,  wont  to 
work  to  repair  tho  fortifications  and  complete  tho 
road  from  tho  lake.  Some  sunken  French  boats 
were  raised,  and  a  brig  was  built.  Amherst  was 
slowly  preparing  to  attack  Crown  Point,  and 
sent  Rogers  with  his  rangers  to  reconnoitre.  But 
on  the  first  of  August  they  learned  that  tho 
French  htul  abandoned  that  fo^'t  also ;  and  on  tho 
10th  that  Bourlamaquc's  men  were  encamped  on 
the  Isle  aux  Noix,  at  tho  northern  extremity  of 
Lake  Champlain,  commandii'g  the  entrance  to 
the  Richelieu.  They  had-  been  joineil  by  some 
small  detachments,  and  numbered  about  3,500 
men.  Amherst  spent  his  time  in  fortifying  Crown 
Point,  and  building  boats  and  riifta,"  until  "it 
was  too  late  to  descend  to  Montreal  and  go  to  tho 
help  of  Wolfe;  the  time  for  that  had  been  passed 
in  elaborate  and  useless  preparations." — R.  John- 
son, Iliiit.  of  the  French  War,  ch.  18. 
Also  IN:  E.  Warburton,  Conquest  of  Canada,  v. 

3,  ch.  0.— W.  L.  Stone,  Life  and  Timet  of  Sir 

W.  Johnson,  v.  2,  eh.  4. 


30 


A.  D.  1760.— The  completion  of  the  Ensllih 
conquest. —The  end  of  "  New  France."— "  Not- 

witliMtundiriif  till' HuecesMcs  of  IT.-iK,  Canada  wa« 
not  yet  coMipletely  coticpiered.  If  .Vndierst  had 
moved  on  faster  and  taken  .Montreal,  the  work 
would  have  been  llnished;  but  his  failure  to  do 
HO  gave  th(!  Fn-nch  forces  an  opportunity  to 
rally,  and  the  indefatigabh!  De  Levis,  who  had 
Hucceerled  .Montt'alm,  gjithered  what  remained  of 
tho  army  at  .Montreal,  and  nunli!  preparation:! 
for  attemptitig  the  recovery  of  (^uebi'c.  .  .  . 
After  several  fnutless  utiaeks  hiiil  been  made  on 
the  British  outposts  during  the  winter.  De  l,evi» 
refitted  all  the  vessels  y<'t  ri'maining  early  in  tho 
spring  and  gathered  the  stores  still  left  at  tho 
forts  on  th(^  l{lch<'lieu.  On  the  17th  of  .Vpril.  hn 
left  .Montreal  with  all  his  force  and  deseended 
the  river,  gathering  up  llw,  iletaehed  troops  on 
the  way;  the  whole  amountini;  to  more  than 
10,000  men.  Quebec  had  In'en  left  in  charge  of 
Murray,  with  7,(MM)  men,  a  supply  of  heavy  ar- 
tillery, and  stores  of  anununilioii  a  id  provisions; 
out  the  lUimber  of  men  had  been  much  reduce(l 
by  sickness  and  by  hanlship  encountered  in 
bringing  fuel  'o  the  citv  from  forest),  some  as 
far  as  ten  niilof  away.  Their  position,  however, 
had  been  very  much  strengthened.  .  .  .  De  Levis 
encamped  at  St.  Foy,  and  on  the  '27tli  advanced 
to  within  three  miles  of  the  citv." — 11.  Johnson, 
Jfigt.  of  thi:  French  Wir,  ch.  2t"— "On  the  28tU 
of  April,  Murray,  marching  out  from  tho  city, 
luft  tho  advantageous  ground  which  he  first 
o(!CU])ied,  and  hazarded  an  attack  near  Sillery 
Wood;  The  advance-guard,  under  Bourlamaque, 
returned  it  with  ar(h)r.  In  danger  of  being  sur- 
nnindcd,  Murray  was  obliged  to  fiy,  leaving  'his 
very  fine  trainof  artillery,' and  losuig  1,000  men. 
Tho  French  appear  to  have  lost  about  HOO, 
though  Murray's  report  increased  it  more  tlian 
eightfold.  During  the  next  two  days,  L(!vl 
[Levis]  opened  trenches  against  the  town;  but 
the  frost  delayed  the  works.  The  English  gar- 
risoii,  reduced  to  2,200  elToctive  men,  labored 
with  alacrity;  women,  and  even  cripples  were 
set  to  light  work.  In  tho  French  army,  not  a 
word  would  be  listened  to  of  the  possibility  of 
failure.  But  Pitt  liad  foreseen  and  proparea  for 
all.  A  fleet  at  his  bidding  went  to  relievo  tho 
city ;  and  to  his  wife  he  was  able  to  write  in 
Juno:  'Join,  my  love,  with  mo,  in  most  humble 
and  grateful  thanks  to  the  Almighty.  Swanton 
arrived  at  Quebec  in  the  Vanguard  on  the  15ili 
of  May,  and  destroyed  all  the  French  shipping, 
six  or  seven  in  number.  Tho  siege  was  raised 
on  the  17th,  with  every  happy  circumstance. 
The  enemy  left  their  camp  stanaing;  abandoned 
40  pieces  of  cannon.  Happy,  happy  day  I  My 
joy  and  hurry  are  inexpressible.'  When  tho 
spring  opened,  Amherst  had  no  difficulties  to 
encounter  in  taking  possession  of  Canada  but 
such  as  he  himself  should  create.  A  country 
suffering  from  a  four  years'  scarcity,  :i  dis- 
heartened peasantry,  flve  or  six  battalions,  w^isted 
by  Incredible  services  and  not  recruited  from 
France,  offered  no  opposition.  Amherst  led  tho 
main  army  of  10,000  men  by  way  of  Oswego; 
though  the  labor  of  getting  there  was  greater 
than  that  of  proceeding  directly  upon  Jlontrcal. 
He  descended  tho  St.  Lawrence  cautiously,  tak- 
ing possession  of  the  feeble  wo'-ks  at  Ogdeng- 
burg.  Treat  'ig  the  helpless  Canadians  with 
humanity,  ami  with  no  loss  of  lives  except  in 
passing  the  nipids,  on  the  7th  of  September,  1760, 


377 


CANADA,  1780. 


TV 


^^ 


CANADA,  1T8JHTT4. 


\w  mot  bpfon-  Mmitrritl  ilio  nrmy  of  Murniy. 
Thi^  next  ility  Iliiviliincl  iirrivcd  witli  forcrH  fmrii 
Crown  I'oint;  iiikI,  in  tin-  view  of  the  tlircc 
urnilt'H,  III)'  tliiK  (if  HI.  OcorKi*  wjih  niiiM'il  in 
triiinipli  over  tlu-  gnXv  of  Moiitri'iil.  .  .  .  Tlie 
<.'a|iitiiliition  [HiKiicij  liy  liir  MiiniiilHilcViiiulrt'uii, 
jfovirnor.  uKiiinul  tlic  pnilcHl  of  [,i'vis|  Inclucti'il 
»li  Citniiiiii,  wlilcli  wiiH  Hiilil  til  cxti'iiil  III  till'  rrrst 
of  liinil  liiviiiini;  liniiiclirH  of  \.ttkvn  Krii'  iiiiil 
Mirliik'iiii  from  tliiwi'  of  tlii'  Miiinii,  llir  W'iiIiiihIi, 
nnil  till'  liliiioiH  riviTH.  I'rojiiTty  anil  rriiKin" 
wcri'  ciirril  fur  in  liii'  trriuH  of  Murri'nilcr;  Imt  for 
civil  lilHTty  no  Htl|iuliillon  wiih  tlioiiKlit  of.  .  .  . 
On  till'  tlftli  <lnv  iiftt'r  tlii^  capituliitlon,  lioKcrH 
(Icparti'il  with  2(H)  niiiKcrH  to  carry  Kn({lisli  lian- 
nvrx  to  till'  iippiT  postH.  .  .  .  '1*111'  InilliinH  on 
till)  liiki'H  wi'ir  at  iii'iici',  iiniti'il  unilcr  I'ontiac, 
tlio  xn-at  chief  ot  tint  OttawiiN,  liappy  in  a 
country  fruitful  of  corn  anil  alioiuiilinK  in  Kainc. 
Tilt!  Aincrli'an.H  were  met  at  the  mouth  of  a  river 
by  a  deputation  of  Ottawat*.  '  Pontlae,'  Haiti  tliey, 
'  IH  the  chief  and  lord  of  the  country  you  are  in; 
wait  till  he  can  see  you.'  When"  Pontine  and 
IlogerH  met,  the  savnn*-'  chieftain  asked:  'How 
have  you  dared  to  enter  mv  country  without  my 
leave?'  'I  come,'  replieil  the  English  agent, 
'  with  no  design  against  the  Indians,  but  to  re- 
movo  the  Frtmch.'  "  Pontlae,  after  some  delay, 
smoked  the  calumet  with  Itugcrs  and  consented 
to  his  mission.  The  latter  then  priK'eeded  to 
take  iwssesslon  of  Detroit.  In  the  following 
spring  he  went  on  to  the  French  posts  in  the 
northwest.— a.  Bancroft,  IlUt.  of  the  If.  S. 
{Autlu)r'»  liut  retinion),  V,  3,  pp.  .523-534. 

Also  in:  W.  Smltli,  JIUt.  of  Caiuuhi,  r>.  1,  ch.  7 
(giving  the  Articles  of  Capitulation  In  full).— F. 
Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  ch.  20-80  (r.  2). 

A.  D.  1763.— Ceded  to  England  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris.    Sec  Seven  Years  Wau. 

A.  D.  1763-1774.— The  Province  of  Quebec 
created. — Eleven  years  of  military  rule. — The 
Quebec  Act  of  1774. — Extension  of  Quebec 
Province  to  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi. — 
"  For  three  years  after  the  conquest,  the  govern- 
ment of  Canada  wasentrusted  to  military  chiefs, 
stationed  at  Quebec,  Montreal  and  Three  Itlvcrs, 
the  headquarters  of  the  three  departments  Into 
which  General  Amherst  divided  the  country. 
Military  councils  were  established  to  administer 
law,  though,  as  a  rule,  the  people  did  not  resort 
to  such  tribunals,  but  settled  their  difflcultics 
Jimong  themselves.  In  1703,  the  king,  Qcorgc 
III. ,  Issued  a  priKlamation  establishing  four  now 
governments,  of  which  Quebec  was  one.  Lab- 
rador, from  St.  John's  River  to  Hudson's  Bay, 
Anticostl,  and  the  Magdalen  Islands,  were  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Newfoundland,  and  the 
islands  of  St.  John  (or  Prince  Edward  Island,  as 
Jt  was  afterwards  called),  and  Cape  Breton  (He 
Royale)  with  the  smaller  islands  adjacent  thereto, 
were  added  to  tlie  government  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Express  power  was  given  to  the  governors,  in 
the  letters-patent  by  ■  dilch  these  governments 
were  constituted,  to  summon  general  assemblies, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  His  Majesty's 
Council,  '  in  such  manner  and  form  as  was  usual 
in  those  colonies  and  provinces  which  were  under 
the  King's  immediate  government.'.  .  .  No  os- 
genililv,  however,  ever  met,  as  the  Frencli-Cana- 
diaii  population  were  unwilling  to  take  the  test 
oath,  and  the  government  of  the  province  was 
carried  on  solely  by  the  governor  general,  with 
the  assistance  of  an  executive  coimcil,  composed 


in  the  first  instance  of  the  two  lioutcnant-gov- 
I'ruom  of  Montreal  and  Three  Itlvi-rs,  the  ddef 
Justice,  the  surveyor  general  of  customs,  and 
eight  othorH  chosen  fniin  the  leading  residents  In 
the  colony.  From  lifllt  to  1771  the  province  ro- 
mained  in  a  very  unsetlied  state,  rhictly  on  ac- 
count of  the  uncertainty  that  previdled  as  to  the 
laws  artiially  in  force.  .  .  .  The  province  nf 
(^ucIh'c  ri'iuaini'd  for  eleven  years  under  the 
system  of  government  estjihlished  liv  the  pro- 
clamatliinof  170:i.  In  1771,  Parliament  Intervened 
for  i\w  first  time  in  Canadian  alTuirs  ami  niiiile 
Important ciinHtitutional  changes.  The  previous 
constitutliin  had  been  created  by  letters  patent 
under  tlie  great  seal  of  Oreat  Britain,  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  an  unquestionable  and  undisputed  pre- 
rogative of  the  ('rown.  The  ciiliiniai  inslitutliins 
of  the  old  iKissessions  of  Great  Britain,  now 
known  as  the  United  States  of  .<Vmerl('a,  had  their 
origin  In  the  same  way.  But  in  1774,  a  system 
of  government  was  granted  to  Cainida  by  tho 
express  authority  of  Parliament.  This  constitu- 
tion was  known  its  tlic  Queliec  Act,  and  greatly 
extended  the  boundaries  "f  tho  province  of 
Quebec,  as  detlned  in  the  proclamation  of  17flti. 
On  one  side,  the  province  expended  to  the  fron- 
tiers of  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  Now  York 
province,  the  Oulo,  and  tho  left  bank  of  the 
Mississippi;  on  the  other,  to  tho  Hudson's  Bay 
Territory.  Labrador,  and  the  Islands  annexed  to 
Newfoundland  by  the  proclamation  of  1763,  wero 
made  part  of  the  province  of  Quebec.  .  .  .  Tho 
Act  of  1774  was  exceedingly  unpopular  in  Eng- 
land and  In  tho  English-speaking  colonies,  then 
at  tho  commencement  of  the  Involution.  Par- 
liament, however,  appears  to  have  been  influenced 
by  a  desiro  to  adjust  the  government  of  tho 
province  so  as  to  conclliaio  tho  majority  of  tho 
people.  .  .  .  The  new  constitution  came  into 
force  in  October,  1774.  The  Act  sets  forth  among 
the  reasons  for  legislation  that  tho  provisions 
made  by  the  proclamation  of  1763  were  '  Inap- 
plicable to  the  state  and  circumstances  of  tho 
said  province,  tho  inhabitants  whereof  amounted 
at  the  conquest,  to  above  65,000  persons  pro- 
fessing the  religion  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
cnjoyii.g  an  established  form  of  cou.<-titutlon  and 
system  of  laws,  by  which  their  persons  and  prop- 
erty had  i)cen  protected,  governed,  and  ordered 
for  a  long  scries  of  years,  from  tho  first  establish- 
ment of  the  province.'  Consequently,  it  is  pro- 
vided that  Itoman  Catholics  should  bo  no  longer 
obliged  to  take  the  test  oath,  but  only  the  oath 
of  allegiance.  Tlio  government  of  the  province 
was  entrusted  to  a  governor  and  a  leglslativ„ 
council,  appointed  by  the  Crown,  inasmuch  as 
it  was  'inoxpodlcnt  to  call  an  assembly.'  This 
coimcll  was  to  comprise  not  more  than  twenty- 
three,  and  not  less  Uian  seventeen  members,  and 
had  the  jiower,  with  the  consent  of  the  governor 
or  commander-in-chief  for  the  time  being,  to  make 
ordinances  for  the  peace,  welfare,  and  good 
government  of  the  province.  They  had  no  au- 
thority, liowevcr,  to  lay  on  any  taxes  or  duties 
except  such  as  the  inhabitants  of  any  town  or 
district  might  be  authorized  to  assess  or  levy 
within  its  precincts  for  roods  and  ordinary  local 
services.  No  ordinance  could  bo  passed,  except 
by  a  majority  of  the  council,  and  every  one  had 
to  be  transmitted  within  six  months  after  its  enact- 
ment to  His  Majesty  for  approval  or  disallow- 
ance. It  was  also  enacted  that  In  all  matters  of 
controversy,  relative  to  property  and  civil  rights, 


378 


CANADA,  17ea-t774. 


Inviulon. 


CANADA,  m*-1778. 


n-couriM!  dhoiild  Iw  Imil  tn  the  Fn-ncli  civil  pro- 
<'i'iliiri',  wliilNttlKMTiiiiltml  likw  of  KtiKJiinil  Nhniiltl 
obtain  til  llit>  cxi'IuhIiiii  of  cviTV  iitlirr  criiiiiiial 
cihIc  wliicli  iiii^lit  liiiv*^  iirt'viilli'il  iM'fiirc  17li(. 
.  .  .  Uoiiiiiri  CiilliiilirH  wrr«  iiiTiiiitli'il  to  oliwrv" 
tliclr  religion  with  pcrfccl  frriMJiitn,  iiiiil  tlicir 
I'lrr^y  wi'rr  to  enjoy  their  '  lU'eUNtoineil  due-t  tin<l 
rlxlilH'  witli  respect  to  Kuch  per^ions  at  profeSMeil 
tliitt  creeil.  ('onNei|Uently,  the  Itoinan  Catliollc 
poiiulation  of  (^anaila  were  relieved  of  their  dix- 
aliilitleH  many  years  before  peimji'  of  the  Hanie 
belief  III  Orea't  llrltain  and  Ireland  received 
Niiniljir  prlvile>;eH.  TIk'  new  coiiMlitiilion  wns 
inaiinnruted  by  .Major  Oeneral  Carletoii,  after- 
wards liord  Dorehi'stcr,  who  iioniiiiated  a  le);i>;- 
lalivi^  coiiiici!  of  twenty  tiiree  iiieinbers,  of  wliom 
ei){lit  wen?  Itoiiian  Catholii'S. " — .1.  (i.  liourinot 
MitiiHitl  iif  ('iinnt.  Hint,  iif  ('iti)iiilii,  eh.  2-H. 

Ai.hoin:  W.  Houston,  lhinniu'iit»  llUmtriilire 
of  t/ii"  f.'iiimdiiin  I'liiiMitutiiiii,  jip.  IMI-IMI.  —  See, 
also,  IInitkdHtatksok  Am.  :  A.  I).  l77l(M.\iU'ii 
— Afim.). 

A.  D.  1775-1776.— Invaiian  by  the  revolting 
American  colonists. — Loss  and  recovery  of 
Montreal. — Successful  defence  of  Quebec— 
At  the  befjiniiiiif;  of  the  revolt  of  \\w  thirteen 
colonies  which  siib^"(iiieiitly  forini'd,  by  tlu'ir 
Hepiiration  from  (Ireut  Hritain,  the  Unlteil  States 
of  Amorlctt,  it  was  believed  aiiioiiK  them  that 
Canada  would  join  their  inovciiiciit  if  the  liritish 
troops  which  occupied  tlu?  country  were  driven 
out.  Acting  on  this  belief,  the  ('ontinental  Con- 
gress at  I'hilailel|>liia,  in  .liine.  177."),  ailoptcd  a 
resolution  instnictiiii;  (J<'iieral  Schuyler  to  repair 
without  delay  to  TiconderoKa  (which  had  been 
surprised  and  taki'ii  a  few  weeks  bi^foreby  Ktlian 
Allen  and  his  "  Green  .Mountain  Hoys"),  and  "  if 
he  found  it  practicable,  anil  it  would  not  be  dis- 
at^recable  to  the  Cauadiaiis,  imiuediately  to  lake 
possession  of  St.  .John's  and  Montreal,  aiid  pursue 
any  othe?  luensures  in  Canada  which  iniitht  have 
a  tendepcy  to  promote  tlie  peace  and  security  of 
these  colonic.-*."  Oeneral  Schuyler  found  it 
dilllcult  to  gather  tr(«)ps  and  supplies  for  the 
])rojected  expedition,  and  it  was  the  middle  of 
Aiiiiust  before  he  was  prepared  to  move.  His 
chief  subordinate  ofllcer  was  Oen.  Uichard  Mont- 
gomery, an  Irishman,  formerly  in  the  Hritisli 
service,  but  settled  latterly  in  New  York;  iind 
lu-  was  to  be  suiipor'.ed  by  a  cooperative  move- 
ment planned  and  led  by  IJeiiedict  Arnold. 
"Oeneral  Montgomery,  with  3,0()0  men,  would 
go  ilowu  Lake  Chaniplain  and  attack  Montreal; 
while  Oeneml  Arnold,  with  1,300,  was  to  seek 
the  headwaters  of  Kennebec  Uiver,  cross  the 
height  of  land,  and  descend  the  Chaudicre  to  the 
very  gates  of  (Jiiebec.  The  bnive  General 
Cnrleton,  who  had  been  with  Wolfe  at  Quebec, 
was  now  in  command  of  the  forces  of  Canada  — 
if  .'iOO  Uritish  regulars  and  a  few  hundred  militia 
might  be  so  denominated.  No  doubt  Governor 
Carleton  with  his  small  army  undertook  too 
much.  He  sought  to  defend  the  way  to  Montreal 
by  holding  Port  St.  John,  and  that  to  (Juebec  by 
defending  Chambly.  IJotli  tlie.se  places  fell  be- 
fore the  Americans.  Oeneral  Slontgomery 
pushed  on  down  tlie  Uiver  Uichelieii  and  occu- 
pied Sorel,  throwing  forces  across  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  erected  batteries  on  both  sides  to 
prevent  intercourse  between  ^lontreal  and 
Quebec.  Montreal,  now  <lefonceless,  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  on  the  lUtli  of  November,  and 
11  British  vessola  were  given  up  to  the  enemy. 


It  wn*  D'rllyadark  hour  for  Canada.  Oeneral 
Carh'ton  nas  been  severely  critici/ed  fur  dlvidln){ 
his  forces.  The  truth  is,  the  attack  wax  ho  un- 
expected, and  Ml  HiHin  after  the  mitbreak  of  tliu 
relM'llion,  lliat  no  plan  of  defence  for  Canailn 
had  been  laid.  .  .  .  Oenerid  Carliton  escaped 
from  .Monln'iil,  and,  in  a  boat,  passed  the  Sorel 
biitti'ries  with  iniilllid  oars  under  covir  of  night. 
The  general  had  but  I'euchi'd  (Quebec  in  tiiiie. 
The  expedition  iif  Arnnld  had  already  gained  tliu 

St.  Lawreni n  the  side  opiiosite  the  '  Ancient 

Capital.'  The  energy  displayed  by  Arnold's 
men  was  remarkable.  The  Kiimeliec  Is  a  series  ' 
of  rapids,  lis  swift  current  hurrirs  over  dan- 
genius  nicks  at  every  turn.  The  highlands 
when  reached  cunslst  of  Hwamiis  and  riH'ky 
ridges  coven'd  witli  forest.  'I  he  Cliaudlera 
proved  worse  than  the  Keiineliec,  and,  thu 
eiirn'iit  lieing  with  the  boats,  dashed  them  to 
pieces  on  tlie  I'iM'ks.  Arnold's  men,  on  their  six 
weeks'  inanli,  had  run  short  of  fond,  and  w(>re 
<'i  impelled  t4>eat  the  dogs  which  hadaccompanleil 
Ihein.  Not  much  more  than  half  of  Arnold's 
army  reached  the  St.  Lawrence.  Arnold's  force 
inissed  the  St.  Lawreni'e,  laniled  at  Wolfe's 
Cove,  and  built  huts  for  themselves  on  the  I'lains 
of  Abraliaiii,  On  the  Tith  of  December  .Mont- 
ginnery  joined  the  Kcniielicc  men  before  tjnebec. 
The  united  force  was  of  some  II.OOO  men,  sup- 
ported by  about  a  dozen  light  guns.  Carleton 
liail,  for  the  defence  of  Quebec,  only  one  com- 
pany of  ri'gulars  and  a  few  seamen  and  marines 
i.f  a  sloop  of  war  at  tjiieliec.  The  popularity  of. 
the  governor  was  such  that  he  easily  prevailed 
upon  the  citizens,  both  Kn-nch  and  Kiiglish,  to 
enroll  themselves  in  coinpan'es  for  tlie  defence 
of  their  lionies.  He  wis  able  to  count  upon 
about  1,000  bayonets.  The  defences  of  (Jueliec 
were,  however,  too  strong  for  the  Americans. 
On  the  night  of  December  Jilst,  a  desperate 
eirort  was  made  to  take  the  city  by  escalaile. 
Four  attacks  were  made  simultaneonsly.  Arni'ld 
sought  to  enter  by  the  St.  Charles,  on  the  north 
side  of  Quebec,  and  Jlontgomery  by  the  south, 
between  Cape  Diamond  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Two  feints  were  to  be  made  on  the  side  towards 
the  I'lains  of  .'Vliraham.  The  hope  of  the  com- 
manders was  to  have  forced  the  gates  from  the 
lower  to  the  upper  town  in  both  ciLses.  Arnold 
failed  to  reach  the  hiwer  town,  and  In  a  sortie 
the  def.'ndeis  cut  olt  nearly  the  whole  of  his 
(Mjluinn.  He  escap  ;d  wounded.  Montgomery 
was  killed  at  the  s<;coijd  entrenchment  of  the 
lower  town,  and  Ir's  troops  retired  in  confusion. 
The  American  ge  lerals  have  been  criticized  by" 
experts  for  not  ir  iking  their  chief  attack  on  the 
wall  ft.cing  on  the  I'lains  of  Abniham.  .  .  . 
Oeneml  Arnold  .emained  before  Quebec,  though 
his  troops  had  become  reduced  to  800  men. 
General  Car'.e^on  pursued  n  policy  of  actiiik 
strictly  on  the  defensive.  If  he  retained  (Juebco 
it  wou'd  bi;  his  greatest  success.  General  Aniolil 
sought  to  gain  the  sympathy  of  the  French 
Canadian  lei'gniors  and  people,  but  without  any 
success.  Three  thousand  troops,  however,  came 
to  reinforce  Arnold  early  in  the  year,  and  4,000 
occupied  Montreal,  St.  .John's,  and  Chambly. 
Hut  on  the  0th  of  May  relief  came  fnini  Eng- 
land; men  of  war  and  transports,  with  three 
brigades  of  infantry  besules  artillerv,  stores,  and 
ammunition.  The  Americans  withdrew  to  Sorel. 
The  Hritisli  tniops  followed  them,  and  a  brigade 
encuiupc'd  ttt  Three  Kivers.     The  Ameriuuus  at- 


379 


CANADA,  1775-1776. 


Thr  Family 
Compact. 


CANADA,  1820-1837. 


tempted  to  si.rpriso  the  force  at  Three  Uivcrs, 
but  were  repulH;'(l  witli  heavy  loss.  The  Ameri- 
cans now  fell  buck  from  Slontreul,  deserted  nil 
the  posts  down  to  LiikeClmmpliiin.  and  Governor 
Ciirleton  had  the  pleasure  of  occupying  Isleuux- 
Noix  as  tlie  outpost,  h'avinjr  C'aniula  as  it  had 
been  Iwfore  the  lirst  attack  In  the  year  before." 
— ti.  Hryce.  f^/iort  Jfint.  <//  the  Camidiaii  J'coplc, 
eh.  6,  met.  'i. 

Ar.so  IN:  IJ.  J.  Lossing,  Life  and  Times  of 
Philip  Schiii/let;  r.  1,  eh.  10-29,  and  v.  8,  eh.  1-4. 
— J.  Sparks,  Life  and  Tfeamii  of  Benedict  Arnold, 
eh.  3-5  {Lihrary  of  Am.  Bioy,,  v.  3). — J.  Arm- 
strong, Life  of  liicluird  Montr/oineri/  (Lib.  of  Am. 
Jliof/.,  V.  1). — C.  II.  Jones,  Jlist.  of  the  Vampainn 
for  the  Comiuentof  Cnna<Uiin  1776. — J.  J.  Henry, 
Arihold's  CamjMiign  ar/uinst  Quebec. 

A.  D.  1776. — General  Carleton's  unsuc- 
cessful advance  against  Ticonderoga.  See 
UxiTKi)  Statks  OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  1770-1777. 

A.  D.  1777. — Burgoyne's  disastrous  invasion 
of  New  York.  See  Unitkd  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  D.  1777  (,ri:LY— OCTOUEH). 

A.  D  1783. — Settlement  of  boundaries  in 
the  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States.  See  United  States  ov 
Am.  :  A.  I).  1783  (Ski'Temdeb). 

A.  D.  1783-1784.— Influx  of  the  "United 
Empire  Loyalists "  from  the  United  States. 
Bee  ToKiBs  of  the  American  Revolution. 

A.  D.  1791— .The  Const  tutional  Act. — Di- 
vision of  the  province  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada. — "  In  1791  a  bill  was  introduced  by 
Pitt  dividing  the  Province  into  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada,  the  line  of  division  being  so  drawn  as  to 
give  a  great  majority  to  the  British  element  in 
Upper  Canada  and  a  great  majority  to  the  French 
settlers  in  Lower  Canada.  The  measure  was 
strongly  oppo.sed  by  Fo.k,  who  urged  that  the 
separation  of  the  English  and  French  inlmbitiuits 
■was  most  undesirable.  .  .  .  The  act  was  passed, 
and  is  known  us  the  Constitutional  Act  of  1791. 
...  In  each  province  the  legislature  was  to 
consist  of  tlie  Governor,  a  Legislative  Council 
and  a  Legislative  Assembly.  The  Governor  had 
power  to  give  or  withhold  the  royal  assent  to 
bills,  or  to  reserve  them  for  consideration  by  the 
Crown.  He  could  summon,  pnirogue,  or  dis- 
solve the  legislature,  but  was  required  to  con- 
vene the  legisluture  at  least  once  a  year.  The 
Legislative  Council  in  Upper  Canada  consisted  of 
not  less  than  7,  and  in  Lower  Cunada  of  not  Ijss 
than  I.')  members,  chosen  by  the  King  for  life,  the 
Speaker  being  appointed  by  the  Go  vernor-Oeneral. 
The  Legislative  Assembly  was  in  counties  elected 
bj'  40s.  freeholders,  and"  in  towns  by  owners  of 
houses  of  £5  yearly  value  and  by  resicient  inhabit- 
ants paying  £10  yearly  rent.  The  numbtr  and 
limits  of  electoral  districts  were  fixed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor-General. Lower  Canada  had  50  members. 
Upper  Canada  16  members,  assigned  to  <heir 
respective  legislatures.  The  new  Constitutir  a  did 
not  prove  a  success.  Serious  differences  arose 
between  the  Legislative  Council  and  the  Legislat- 
ive Assembly  in  regurd  to  the  control  of  the 
revenue  and  supplies,  diiterences  which  were 
aggravated  bv  the  craflict  tnat  still  went  on 
between  the  p'rench  and  English  races.  .  .  .  The 
discontent  resulted  in  the  rebellion  of  1837-8. " — 
J.  E.  C.  Muuro,  I'he  Uonxtitutionof  Canuda,  ch.  2. 

Also  in:  W.  Houston,  D(ks.  Illustrative  of 
the  Gaiuidiun  Const.,  pp.  112-133. — D.  Brymner, 
Mept.  on  Canadian.  Arcldves,  1890,  app,  B. 


A.  D.  1812-1815.— The  War  of  Great  Britain 
with  the  United  States.  See  United  States 
OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  1813  (June — October),  to  1815 

(.lANI'AllY). 

A.  D.  1818. —  Convention  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  relating  to 
Fisheries,  etc.  See  Fisiiekies,  Nokth  A.meiii- 
can:  a.  1).  1814-1818. 

A.  D.  1820-1837.— The  Family  Compact.— 
"  The  Family  Compact  manifestly  grew  out  of 
the  principles  of  the  U.  E.  Loyalists.  It  was  the 
union  of  the  leaders  of  the  loyalists  with  others 
of  kindred  spirit,  to  rule  Upper  Cunada,  heedless 
of  the  rights  or  wishes  of  its  people.  We  have 
admired  the  patriotic,  heroic  and  sentimental 
side  of  U.  E.  loyalism ;  but  plainly,  as  related  to 
civil  government,  its  political  doctrines  and 
Ijructices  were  tyrannical.  Its  prominent  mem- 
bers belonged  to  the  class  which  in  the  American 
colonies,  in  the  persons  of  Governors  Bernard 
and  Hutchinson,  and  many  o^'-ers  of  high  ofHcc 
and  standing,  had  plotted  to  destroy  the  liberties 
of  the  people  and  had  hastened  the  American 
revolution.  ...  By  the  years.  1818  or  1820  a 
junto  or  cabal  had  been  formed,  definite  in  its 
aims  and  firmly  combined  together,  known  as 
the  r'amily  Compact,  not  to  its  best  leaders 
seeming  an  embodiment  of.  selfishness,  but  rather 
set  for  patriotic  defence  and  hallowed  with  the 
name  of  religion. " —  G.  Bryce,  Short  Hist,  of  the 
Canadian  People,  ch.  10,  seet.  2. — "Upper 
Canada  .  .  .  has  long  been  entirely  governed  by 
a  party  commonly  designated  throughout  the 
Province  as  the  '  Family  Compact, '  a  name  not 
much  more  appropriate  than  party  designations 
usually  are,  ina  smuch  as  there  is,  in  truth,  very 
little  of  family  connection  among  the  persons 
thus  united.  For  a  long  time  this  body  of  men, 
receiving  at  times  accessions  to  its  members,  pos- 
sessed almost  all  the  highest  public  otlices,  by 
means  of  which,  and  of  its  influence  in  the 
E.xecutive  Council,  it  wielded  all  the  powers  of 
government;  it  maintained  influence  in  the  legis- 
lature by  means  of  its  predominance  in  the  Leg- 
islative Council ;  and  it  disposed  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  petty  posts  which  are  in  the  patronage  of 
the  Government  al'  /ver  the  Province.  Succes- 
sive Governors,  as  they  came  in  their  turn,  are 
said  to  have  either  submitted  quietly  to  its  influ- 
ence, or,  after  a  short  and  unavailing  struggle, 
to  have  yielded  to  this  well-organized  party  the 
real  conduct  of  affairs.  The  bench,  the  magis- 
tracy, the  high  offices  of  the  Episcopal  Church, 
and  a  great  part  of  the  legal  profession,  are  filled 
by  the  adherents  of  this  party :  by  grant  or  pur- 
chase, they  have  ucquireil  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  waste  lands  of  the  Province;  they  are  all 
powerful  in  the  chartered  banks,  and,  till  lately, 
shared  among  themselves  almost  exclusively  all 
offices  of  trust  and  profit.  The  bulk  of  this  party 
consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  native-born  inhabit- 
ants of  the  colony,  or  of  emigrants  who  settled 
in  it  before  the  last  war  with  the  Unitci  States; 
the  principal  members  of  it  belong  to  the  church 
of  England,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  claims 
of  that  church  has  always  been  one  of  its  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics." — Earl  of  Durham, 
Itept.  on  the  Affairs  of  British  N.  Am.,  p.  105. — 
"The  influences  which  produced  the  Family 
Compact  were  not  confined  to  Upper  Canada. 
In  the  Lower  Province,  as  well  as  in  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick,  similar  causes  led  to  similar 
results,  and  the  term  Family  Compact  has  at  one 


380 


CANADA,  1820-1837. 


Discontent 
and  Rebellion. 


CAKADA,  K37. 


time  or  anotlicr  been  a  familiar  one  in  all  the 
British  North  American  colonies.  .  .  .  The  des- 
ignation Family  Compact,  however,  did  not  owe 
its  origin  to  any  combination  of  North  American 
colonists,  but  was  borrowed  from  the  diplomatic 
history  of  Europe."— J.  C.  Dent,  Tlic  Story  of 
the  Upjifr  Camulinn  Ii/:l)ellion,  eh.  3. 
^  A.  D.  1837. — The  Causes  of  discontent  which, 
produced  rebellion. — "It  was  in  Lower  Canada 
that  the  greatest  difUculties  arose.  A  constant 
antagonism  grew  up  between  the  majority  of 
the  legislative  council,  who  were  nominees  of 
the  Crown,  and  the  nuijority  of  the  representa- 
tive assembly,  who  were  elected  by  the  popula- 
tion of  the  province  [see  above:  A.  D.  1791]. 
The  homo  Government  encourr.ged  and  indeed 
kept  up  that  most  odious  and  dangerous  of  all 
instruments  for  the  supposed  management  of  a 
colony  —  a  'British  party'  devoted  to  the  so- 
called  interests  of  tlie  mother  country,  and  obedi- 
ent to  the  word  of  command  from  their  miusters 
and  putrons  at  liorae.  The  majority  in  the  legis- 
lative council  constantly  thwarted  the  resolu- 
tions of  the  vast  majority  of  the  popular  assembly. 
Disputes  arose  as  to  the  voting  of  supplies.  The 
Government  retained  in  their  service  officials 
whom  the  lepresentative  assembly  had  con- 
demned, and  insisted  on  the  right  to  pay  them  their 
salaries  out  of  certain  funds  of  the  colony.  The 
representative  assembly  took  to  stoppmg  the 
supplies,  and  the  Government  claimed  the  right 
to  counteract  this  raea.sure  by  appropriating  to 
the  purpose  sucli  public  moneys  as  happened  to 
be  within  their  reacli  at  the  time.  The  colony  — 
for  indeed  on  these  subjects  the  population  of 
Lower  Canada,  right  or  wrong,  was  so  near  to 
being  of  one  mind  that  we  may  take  the  declara- 
tions of  public  meetings  as  representing  the  col- 
ony—  demanded  that  the  legislative  council 
should  be  made  elective,  and  that  tlie  colonial 
government  should  not  be  allowed  to  dispose  of 
the  moneys  of  the  colony  at  their  pleasure.  The 
House  of  Commons  and  the  Gtovemment  lierc  re- 
plied by  refusing  to  listen  to  tlie  proposal.  .  .  . 
It  is  not 'necessary  to  suppose  that  in  all  these 
disputes  the  popular  majority  were  in  the  right 
and  the  officials  in  the  wrong.  No  one  can  doubt 
that  there  was  much  bitterness  of  feeling  arising 
out  of  tile  mere  differences  of  race.  ...  At  last 
the  representative  assembly  refused  to  vote  any 
further  supplies  or  to  carry  on  any  further  busi- 
ness. They  formulated  their  grievances  against 
the  liome  Govt.ninent.  Their  lomplaints  were 
of  arbitrary  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  governors ; 
intolerable  composition  of  the  legislative  council, 
wliich  they  insisted  ouglit  to  be  elective;  illegal 
appropriation  of  the  public  money,  and  violent 
prorogation  of  the  provincial  parliament.  One 
of  the  leading  men  in  the  movement  which  after- 
wards became  rebellion  in  Lower  Canada  was  Mr. 
Louis  Joseph  Papineau.  This  man  had  risen  to 
high  position  by  his  talents,  his  energy,  and  his 
undoubtedly  honourable  character.  He  had  rep- 
resented Montreal  in  therepresentative  Assembly 
of  Lower  Canada,  and  he  afterwards  became 
Speaker  of  the  House.  He  made  himself  leader 
of  the  movement  to  protest  against  the  policy  of 
the  governors,  and  that  of  the  Government  by 
whom  they  were  sustained.  He  held  a  series  of 
meetings,  at  some  of  which  undoubtedly  rather 
strong  language  was  used.  .  .  .  Lord  Gosford, 
the  governor,  began  by  dismissing  several  militia 
officers  who  had  taken  part  in  some  of  these 


demonstrations;  Mr.  Papineau  himself  was  an 
officer  of  this  force.  Then  the  governor  issued 
warrants  for  the  apprehension  of  many  members 
of  the  popular  A.ssembly  on  the  charge  of  high 
treason.  Some  of  these  at  once  left  the  country ; 
others  against  whom  warrants  were  issued  were 
arrested,  and  a  sudden  resistance  was  made  by 
their  friends  and  supporters.  Then,  in  a  manner 
familiar  to  all  who  have  read  anything  of  the 
history  of  revolutionary  movement  s.  the  resistance 
to  a  capture  of  prisoners  suddenly  transformed 
itself  into  open  rebellion." — J.  McCarthy,  Hist. 
of  our  own  Times,  b.  1,  ch.  3. — Among  the  griev- 
ances which  gave  rise  to  discontent  in  both  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  "  ilrst  of  all  there  was  the 
chronic  grievance  of  the  Clergy  Keserves  [whicli 
were  public  lands  set  ajiart  by  the  Act  of  1791 
for  the  sujjport  of  the  Protestant  Clergy],  com- 
mon both  to  Britisli  and  Frene'i,  to  Upper  and  to 
Lower  Canada.  In  Upper  Canada  these  reserves 
amounted  to  2,500,000  acres,  being  one-seventh 
of  the  lands  in  tlie  Province.  Three  objections 
were  made  against  continuing  these  Ileserves  for 
the  purpose  for  which  they  had  been  set  apart. 
The  first  objection  arose  from  the  way  in  which 
the  E.xccutive  Council  wished  to  apply  the  rev- 
enues accruing  from  these  lands.  According  to 
the  Act  they  were  to  be  applied  for '  maintaining 
the  Protestant  religion  in  Canada' ;  and  the  Execu- 
tive Council  interpreted  this  as  meaning  too  ex- 
clusively the  Church  of  Englan<l,  which  was  es- 
tablished by  law  in  the  mother-country.  But  the 
objectors  claimed  a  right  for  all  Protestant  de- 
nominations to  share  in  tlie  Reserves.  The  second 
objection  was  that  the  amount  of  these  lands  was 
too  large  for  the  purpose  in  view:  and  the  third 
referred  to  the  way  in  which  the  Reserves  were 
selected.  Tliese  2,500,000  acres  did  not  lie  in  a 
block,  but,  when  the  early  surveys  were  made, 
every  seventh  lot  was  reserved ;  and  as  these  lots 
were  not  cleared  for  years  the  people  complained 
that  they  were  not  utilized,  and  so  became  incon- 
venient baiTiers  to  uniform  civilization.  With 
the  Roman  Catholics,  both  priests  and  people, 
the  Clergy  Reserves  were  naturally  unpopular. 
.  .  .  An  additional  source  of  complaint  was  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  government  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  had  found  its  way  into  the  hands 
of  a  few  powerful  families  banded  together  by  a 
Family  Compact  [see  above :  A.  D.  1820-1837]. 
.  .  .  But  the  Constitutional  difficulty  was,  after 
all,  the  great  one,  and  it  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the 
whole  dispute.  .  .  .  Altogether  the  issues  were 
very  complicated  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley 
Provinces  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  .  .  .  and 
so  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  some  should 
internret  the  rebellion  as  a  class,  and  perhaps 
semi-religious,  contest  rather  than  a  race-con- 
flict. The  constitutional  dead-lock,however,  was 
tolerably  clear  to  those  who  looked  beneath  the 
surface.  .  .  .  The  main  desire  of  all  was  to  bo 
f  .-eed  of  the  burden  of  Executive  Councils,  nom-  , 
*nated  at  home  and  kept  in  office  with  or  without 
the  wish  of  the  people.  In  Upper  Canada, 
William  Lyon  Mackenzie,  and  in  Lower  Canada. 
Louis  Papineau  and  Dr.  Wolfred  Nelson,  agitated 
forindependence."— W.  P.  Greswell,  Iliet.  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  ch.  16. 

Also  in:  J.  McMulIen,  Hist,  of  Canada,  ch. 
19-20.— Earl  of  Durham,  Rept.  and  Dispatches. 
—Sir  P.  B.  Head,  Narrative.— Rgpt.  of  Gomrs.  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  i  •;'■  'iw,  grievances  complained  of 
in  Lower  CavMla{HaumofComimns,  Feb.  20, 1837). 


381 


CANADA,  1837-1888. 


Burtiing  of 
the  Carolitie. 


CANADA,  1840-1841. 


A.  D.  1837-1838.— The  rebellion  under  Papi- 
neau  and  Mackenzie,  and  its  suppression. — 
The  Burning:  of  the  Caroline. — "  Iiuincdiiitely 
on  tlio  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion,  t!ie  cou- 
stitulion  of  Lower  Ciuiada  wiis  suspended;  the 
revolt  was  put  down  at  once,  and  with  little 
dilHculty.  Though  the  outbreak  in  Upper  Can- 
ada showed  that  a  comparatively  small  portion 
of  the  i)0i)uhition  was  disaffected  to  the  govern- 
ment, there  were  some  sharp  skirmishes  before 
the  smouldering  tire  was  completely  trodden  out. 
...  On  the  night  of  the  4th  of  December,  1837, 
when  all  Toronto  was  asleep,  cxcejjt  the  police- 
men who  stocxl  sentries  over  the  arras  in  the  city 
hall,  and  a  few  gentlemen  who  sat  up  to  watch 
out  the  night  with  the  Adjutant-Oeneral  of 
Militia  in  the  Parliament  House,  the  alarm  came 
that  the  rebels  were  u])on  tiic  city.  They  were 
under  the  command  of  a  n  nvspaper  editor  named 
Mackenzie,  whose  grotes  jue  llgure  was  until 
lately  [this  was  publishci  in  1805]  familiar  to 
the  frequenters  of  the  iJanadian  llouse  of  As- 
sembly. Kumours  Iwi  been  rife  f'^r  some  days 
past  of  arming  and  drilling  among  t.ie  disaffected 
m  the  Home  and  London  districts.  .  .  .  The 
alarm  threw  Toronto  into  commotion.  .  .  .  The 
volunteers  were  formed  in  the  market  square 
during  the  night  and  well  armed.  In  point  of 
discipline,  even  in  the  ...st  instance,  they  were 
not  wholly  deficient,  many  of  them  being  retired 
officers  and  discharged  men  from  both  the  naval 
and  military  services.  .  .  .  Towards  morning 
news  came  of  a  smart  skirmisli  which  had 
occurred  during  the  night,  in  whidi  a  party  of 
the  rebels  were  driven  back  and  their  leader 
killed.  During  the  succeeding  day  and  night, 
loyal  yeomen  kept  pouring  in  to  act  in  defence 
of  the  crown.  Sir  Allan,  then  Colonel,  Jfacnab, 
the  Speaker  of  the  Hcuse  of  Assembly  .  .  . 
raised  a  botly  of  his  friends  and  adherents  in  the 
course  of  the  night  and  following  day,  and, 
seizing  a  vessel  in  tlie  harbour  at  Hamilton, 
hurried  to  Toronto.  .  .  .  Tlie  rebels  were  de- 
feated and  dispersed  next  day,  at  a  place  somo 
two  miles  from  Toronto.  In  this  action,  the 
Speaker  took  the  command  of  the  Volunteers, 
which  he  kept  during  the  subsequent  campaign 
on  the  Niagara  frontier,  and  till  all  danger  was 
over.  .  .  .  ^lackenzio  soon  rallied  his  scattered 
adherents,  and  seized  Navy  Island,  just  above 
Niagara  -Falls,  where  he  was  joined  by  large 
numbers  of  American  'sympathizers,'  who  camo 
to  the  .spot  on  the  chance  of  a  quarrel  with  the 
English.  On  receipt  of  is  intelligence,  the 
Speaker  hastened  from  neighbourliood  of 

Brantford  (where  he  had  just  dispersed  a  baud 
of  insurgents  imder  the  command  of  a  doctor 
named  Duncombe)  to  reinforce  Colonel  Cameron, 
formerly  of  the  79th,  who  had  taken  up  a  posi- 
tion at  Chippewa.  Navy  Island,  an  eyott  somo 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  lies  in  the  Niagara 
Hiver  within  musket-shot  of  the  Canadian  bank. 
The  current  rims  past  the  island  on  both  sides 
with  great  velocity,  and,  immediately  below  it, 
hurries  over  the  two  miles  of  rocks  and  rapids 
that  precede  its  tremendous  leap.  The  rebels 
threw  up  works  on  the  side  facing  the  Cana- 
dians. They  drew  their  siipplies  from  Port 
Schlosaer,  an  American  work  nearly  opposite  the 
village  of  Chippewa."  A  small  steamboat,  named 
the  Caroline,  had  been  secured  by  the  insurgents 
and  was  plying  between  Fort  Schlo.sser  and 
Navy  Island.     She  "had  brought  over  several 


fleld-pieces  and  other  military  stores ;  it  therefore 
became  necessary  to  deciile  whether  it  was  not 
expediimt  f'.r  the  safety  of  Canada  to  destroy 
her.  Great  Britain  was  not  at  war  with  the 
United  States,  and  to  cut  out  an  Americaa 
steamer  from  an  American  port  was  to  incur  a 
heavy  responsibility.  Nevertheless  Colonel  Mac- 
nab  determined  to  assume  it."  A  party  sent 
over  in  boats  at  night  to  Fort  Schlosser  surprised 
the  Caroline  at  her  wharf,  tired  her  and  sent  her 
adrift  in  the  river,  to  be  carried  over  the  Falls. 
— Viscount  Bury,  Krodua  of  the  Western  Nations, 
V.  3,  ch.  12. — "On  all  sides  the  in.surgcnts  were 
crushed,  jails  were  lilled  with  their  leaders,  and 
180  were  sentenced  to  be  hanged.  Some  of  them 
were  executed  mid  some  were  banished  to  Van 
Dieman's  Land,  while  others  were  pardoned  on 
account  of  their  youth.  But  there  was  a  great 
revulsion  of  feelmg  in  England,  and  after  a  few 
years,  pardons  were  extended  to  almost  all. 
Even  Papineau  and  JIackenzie,  the  leaders  of 
the  rebellion,  were  allowed  to  come  back,  and, 
strange  to  say,  both  w  jre  elected  to  seats  in  tlio 
Canadian  Assembly." — W.  P.  Greswell,  Ifist.  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  ch.  16,  sect.  13. — On  the 
American  border  the  Canadian  rebellion  of  1837- 
38  was  very  commonly  called  ' '  the  Patriot  War. " 

Also  in:  C.  Lindsey,  Life  and  Times  of  Wm.' 
Lyon  Mackenzie,  v.  3. — J.  C.  Dent,  Stor;/  of  tlie 
U.  Canada  liebellion, 

A.  D.  1840-1841. — International  Imbroglio' 
consequent  on  the  burning  of  the  Carol!  le. — 
The  McLeod  Case. — The  burning  of  the 
steamer  Caroline  (see,  above,  A.  D.  1837-1838) 
gave  rise  to  a  serious  question  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  "In  the  fray 
which  occurred,  an  American  named  Durfree 
was  killed.  Tlie  British  government  avowed 
this  invasion  to  be  a  public  act  and  a  necessary 
measure  of  self-defence ;  but  it  was  a  question 
when  Mr.  Van  Buren  [President  of  tlie  United 
States]  went  out  of  olHcc  whether  this  avowal 
had  been  made  in  an  authentic  manner.  ...  In 
November,  1840,  one  Alexander  3IcLeod  came 
from  Canada  to  New  York,  where  he  boasted 
that  he  was  the  slayer  of  Durfree,  and  thereupon 
was  at  once  arrested  on  a  charge  of  murder  and 
thrown  into  prison.  This  aroused  great  anger 
in  England,  and  the  conviction  of  ^IcLeod  was 
all  that  was  needed  to  cause  immediate  war.  .  .  . 
Our  [the  American]  government  was,  of  course, 

freatly  hampered  in  action  ...  by  the  fact  that 
IcLcod  was  within  the  jurisdiction  and  in  tlio 
power  of  the  Now  York  courts,  and  wholly  out 
reach  of  those  of  the  United  States.  .  .  .  Jlr. 
Webster  [who  became  Secretary  of  State  under 
President  Taylor]  .  .  .  was  hardly  in  ofiice 
before  he  received  a  demaiu'  from  Mr.  Fox  for 
tlie  release  of  McLeod,  in  which  full  avowal  was 
made  that  the  burning  of  tlic  Caroline  was  a 
public  act.  Mr.  Webster  determined  that  .  .  . 
tlie  only  way  to  dispose  of  McLeod  was  to  get 
him  out  of  prison,  separate  him,  diplomatically 
speaking,  from  the  affair  of  the  Caroline,  and 
tlien  take  that  up  as  a  distinct  matter  for  nego- 
tiation with  tlic  British  government.  .  .  .  His 
fii'st  step  was  to  instruct  the  lAttorney-GeneRil  to 
pruceed  to  Lockport,  where  ^IcLeod  was 
imprisoned,  and  communicate  with  the  counsel 
for  the  defence,  furnishing  tliem  with  authentic 
information  that  the  destruction  of  the  Caroline 
was  a  public  act,  and  that  therefore  McLeod 
could  not  bo  held  icsponsible.  .  .  .  This  threw 


382 


CANADA,  1840-1841. 


Clear  Oritt 
and  Cotuervatitvs. 


CANADA,  1866-1871. 


tlie  responsibility  for  McLcod,  and  for  consequent 
peace  or  war,  wlicie  it  b<'lougcd,  on  tlie  New 
Yorlt  iiutliorities,  who  scemeil,  liowcver,  but 
little  inclined  to  assist  the  general  government. 
McLeod  came  before  tlie  Supreme  Court  of  New 
Yoric  in  July,  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  but 
tlicy  refused  to  release  hini  on  tlie  grounds  set 
'forth  in  Mr.  ^Vc^bste'  s  instructions  to  the  Attor- 
ney-General, and  'le  was  remanded  for  trial  in 
October,  which  wps  highly  embarassiug  to  our 
government,  as  it  liciit  tliis  dangerous  affair 
open."  But  when  McLeod  came  to  trial  in 
October,  1841,  it  appeared  that  he  was  a  mere 
braggart  wlio  liad  not  even  be  :n  present  when 
Durfree  was  liilled.  Ilis  acquittal  liapi)ily  ended 
the  cose,  and  smootlieil  tlie  way  to  tlie  negoti- 
ation ol  iho  Asliburton  treaty,  wliicli  opened  at 
Wasliington  soon  afterwards  and  whieli  settled 
all  questions  between  England  and  the  United 
States.— II.  C.  Lodge,  Danid  Webster,  cli.  8. 

Also  in  :  \V.  II.  Seward,  Works,  r.  2,  pp.  547- 
588.— 1).  Webster,   Works,  v.  0,  ;)/).  247-209. 

A.  D.  1840-1867.- -Reunion  of  the  provinces. 
— The  opposition  of  races. — Clear  Grits  and 
Conservatives. — "The  reunion  of  the  two  I'ro- 
vinces  liad  been  projected  before:  it  was  greatly 
desired  by  tlie  Brilisli  of  tlie  Lower  Province; 
and  in  1822  a  bill  for  the  purpose  had  actually 
been  brought  into  the  Imperial  Parliament,  but 
the  Prc.ieh  being  bitterly  opposed  to  it,  tlie  Hill 
had  been  dropped.  The  French  were  as  much 
opposed  to  reunion  as  ever,  clearly  seeing,  what 
the  author  of  the  policy  [Lord  Durham]  had 
avowed,  that  the  measure  was  directed  against 
their  nationality.  But  since  tlie  Hebelliou  they 
were  jirostrate.  Their  Constitution  had  been 
superseded  by  a  Provisional  Council  sitting 
under  the  protection  of  Imperial  bayonets,  and 
tills  Council  consented  to  the  union.  The  two 
Provinces  were  now  [July,  1840]  placed  under  a 
Governor-General  with  a  single  legislature,  con- 
sisting, like  the  legislatures  of  the  two  Provinces 
before,  of  an  Upper  House  nominated  by  the 
Crown  and  a  Lower  House  elected  by  tlie  people. 
Each  province  was  to  have  the  same  number  of 
representatives,  although  the  population  of  the 
French  Province  was  at  that  time  much  larger 
than  that  of  the  British  Province.  The  French 
language  was  proscribed  in  official  proceedings. 
French  nationality  was  thus  sent,  constitutionally, 
under  the  yoke.  But  to  leave  it  its  votes, 
necessary  and  right  as  that  might  be,  was  to 
leave  it  the  only  weapon  which  puts  the  weak  on 
a  level  with  the  strong,  and  even  gives  them  the 
advantage,  since  the  weak  are  the  most  likely  to 
hold  togetlier  and  to  submit  to  the  discipline  of 
organised  party.  .  .  .  The  French  .  .  .  '  had 
the  wisdom,'  as  their  manual  of  history  .  .  . 
complacently  observes,  '  to  remain  united  among 
themselves,  and  by  that  union  were  able  to 
exercise  a  happy  intluence  on  the  Legislature  and 
the  Government.'  Instead  of  being  politically 
suppressed,  they  soon,  thanks  to  tlieir  compact- 
ness as  an  interest  and  their  docile  obedience  to 
their  leaders,  became  politically  dominant.  The 
British  factions  began  to  bid  against  each  other 
for  their  support,  and  were  presently  it  their 
feet.  ,  .  .  Tlie  statute  proscribing  the  use  of  the 
French  language  in  official  jiroceedings  was 
repealed,  and  the  Canadian  Legislature  was 
made  bi-linguu'.  Tlie  Premiership  was  divided 
between  the  Engl'ih  and  the  French  leader,  and 
the  Ministries  were   designated   by  the  double 


name — 'the  Lafontaine-Baldwin,'  or  'the  Mac- 
donald-Tache.'  The  French  got  their  full  share 
of  seats  in  the  Cabinet  and  of  patronage;  of 
public  funds  they  got  more  than  their  full  share, 
especially  as  being  small  consumers  of  imported 
goods  they  contributed  fnr  less  than  their  quota 
to  the  public  revenue.  By  their  aid  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  the  Upper  I'^rovince  obtained  the 
privilege  of  Sejiarate  Schools  in  contravention 
of  the  principle  of  religious  e(iuality  and 
severance  of  the  Church  from  the  State.  In  time 
it  was  recognized  as  a  rule  that  a  ^Ministry  to 
retain  power  must  have  a  majority  from  each 
section  of  the  Province.  This  practically  almost 
reduced  the  Union  to  a  federation,  under  which 
French  nationality  was  more  securely  entrencliecl 
than  ever.  Gradually  the  Fixiicfi  and  their 
clergy  became,  as  tlie^v  have  ever  since  been,  the 
basis  of  what  styles  itself  a  Conservative  party, 
playing  for  French  support,  liy  defending 
clerical  privilege,  by  protecting  Frencli  nation- 
ality, and,  not  least,  by  allowing  the  French 
Province  to  dip  her  liand  deep  in  the  common 
treasury.  On  tlie  other  hand,  a  secession  of 
thorough-going  Reformers  from  the  Jloderates 
.  .  .  gave  birth  to  the  jiartv  of  the  '  Clear  Grits,' 
the  leader  of  which  was  ilr.  George  Brown,  a 
Scotch  Presbyterian,  and  which  having  tirst 
insisted  on  the  secularization  of  the  Clergy 
Reserves,  became,  when  that  (juestion  was  out 
of  the  way,  a  party  of  g(meral  opposition  to 
French  and  Roman  Catholic  influence.  ...  A 
change  had  thus  come  over  the  character  and 
relations  of  jjarties.  French  Canada,  so  lately 
the  seat  of  disaffection,  became  the  basis  of  the 
Conservative  party.  British  Canada  became  the 
stronghold  of  the  Liberals.  ...  A  period  of 
tricky  combinations,  perlidious  alliances,  and 
selfish  intrigues  now  commenced,  and  a  series  of 
weak  and  ephemeral  governments  was  its  fruit." 
—  Goldwin  Smitli,  Canada  and  the  Canadian 
Question,  cli.  7. 

Also  in  :  W.  Houston,  Bom.  lllustratite  of  tlie 
Canadian  Const.,  pp.  149-185. — J.  G.  Bourinot, 
Manual  of  the  Const,  hist,  of  Canada,  cli.  5. 

A.  D.  1842. — Settlement  of  boundary  dis- 
putes with  the  United  States  by  the  Ash- 
burton  Treaty.  See  Umted  States  ok  A.m.  : 
A.  D.  1842. 

A.  D.  1854-1866.— The  Reciprocity  Treaty 
with  the  United  States  and  its  abrogation. 
See  Tauiff  Lkgislation  (Unitkd  States  and 
Canada):  A.  D.  1854-1806. 

A.  D.  1864.— The  St.  Albans  Raid.  See 
United  States  of  Aji.  :  A.  D.  1864  (Octobeu). 

A.  D.  1866-1871. — Fenian  invasions. —  The 
Fenian  movement  (see  Iueland:  A.  .').  1858- 
1867)  had  its  most  serious  outcome  in  an  at- 
tempted invasion  of  Canada  from  the  United 
States,  wliich  took  place  in  1800.  "Canadian 
volunteers  were  under  arms  all  day  on  the  i7th 
of  .March,  1800,  exijccting  a  Fenian  invasion,  but 
it  was  not  made:  in  April  an  iiisignifieant  attai:;k 
was  made  upon  New  Brunswick.  About  900 
men,  under  Col.  O'Neil,  crossed  from  BulTalo  to 
Fort  Erie  on  the  night  of  May  31st.  Jloving 
westward,  this  body  aimed  at  destroying  tlie 
Welland  Canal,  when  they  were  met  by  the 
Queen's  Own  Volunteer  Regiment  of  Toronto, 
and  the  13th  battalion  of  Hamilton  Militia,  near 
the  village  of  Ridgeway.  Here,  after  a  conflict 
of  two  hours,  in  wliieli  for  a  time  the  Volunteers 
drove   the    enemy  before   them,  the  Canadian 


383 


CANADA,  1866-1871. 


FedfratUm  nf 
the  l^rovincea. 


CANADA.  1867. 


forces  retired  to  nidgewny,  and  tlienco  to  Port 
Colborne,  with  a  losw  of  nine  killed  aud  ilO 
wouiuled.  Col.  Peacoek,  in  charge  of  a  body  of 
regulars,  was  inarching  to  meet  the  volunteers, 
so  that  O'Xeil  was  compelled  to  tlee  to  Fort  Erie, 
and,  crossing  to  the  United  States  with  his  men, 
was  arrested,  but  afterwards  liberated.  The  day 
after  the  skirmish  the  regulars  and  volunteers 
encamped  at  Fort  Erie,  and  the  danger  on  the 
Niagara  Frontier  was  past.  A  Fenian  expedi- 
tion threatened  Prescott,  aiming  at  reaching  the 
capital  lit  Ottawa,  and  another  band  of  marauders 
cro.ssed  the  ))order  from  St.  Albans,  Vermont, 
but  both  wen;  easily  driven  back.  The  Fenian 
troubles  roused  strong  feeling  in  Canada  against 
the  American  authorities.  ...  A  Fenian  attack 
was  led  by  Col.  O'Neil  on  the  Lower  Canadian 
frontier,  in  1870,  but  it  was  easily  met,  and  the 
United  States  authorities  were  moved  to  arrest 
the  repulsed  fugitives.  A  foolish  movement  was 
again  made  in  1871  by  the  same  leader,  tlirough 
Minnesota,  against  Manitoba.  Through  the 
prompt  action  of  the  friendly  American  com- 
mander at  Fort  Pembina,  the  United  States  troops 
followed  the  Fenians  across  the  border,  arrested 
their  leader,  and,  though  he  was  liberated  after 
a  trial  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  tl(e  expedition 
ended  as  a  miserable  and  laughable  failure. 
These  movements  of  the  Fenian  Society,  though 
trifling  in  effect,  yet  involved  Canada  in  a  con- 
siderable expense  from  the  maintenance  of  bodies 
of  the  Active  Militia  at  different  points  along 
the  frontier.  The  training  of  a  useful  force  of 
citizen  soldiery  however  resulted." — G.  Bryce, 
81iort  Hist,  of  t/ie  Canadian  People,  pp.  468- 
470. 

Also  IN:  G.  T.  Denison,  Jr.,  The  Fenian  Raid 
on  fbrt  Erie. — Corr.  relating  to  tlie  Fenian  In- 
vasion. — Official  Report  of  Gen.  John  O'Neill. 

A.  D.  1867. — Federation  of  the  provinces  of 
British  North  America  in  the  Dominion    of 
Canada. — The  constitution  of  the  Dominion. 
— "  The  Union  between  Upper  and  Lower  Canada 
lasted  until  1867,  when  the  provinces  of  British 
North  America  were  brought  more  closely  to- 
gether In  a  federation  and  entered  on  a  new  era 
in  their  constitutional  history.     For  many  yearS/ 
previous  to  1865,  the  administmtion  of  governs 
ment  in  Canada  had  become  surrounded  with 
political  difficulties  of  a  very  perplexing  charac- 
ter. .  .  .  Parties  at  last  were  so  equally  balanced 
on  account  of  the  antagonism  between  the  two 
sections,  that  the   vote  of  one  member  might 
decide  the  fate  of  an  administration,   atd  the 
course  of  legislation  for  a  year  or  a  series  of 
years.     From  the  31st  of  May,  1863,  to  the  enlV 
of  June,  1864,  there  were  no  less  than  five  dif- 
ferent ministries  in  charge  of  the  public  busi- 
ness.    Legislation,    in  fact,  was  at  last  practi- 
cally at  a  dead -lock.  .  .  .  It  was  at  this  critical 
juLcturc  of  affairs  that  the  leaders  of  the  govern^, 
ment  and  opposition,  in  the  session  of  1864,  came^ 
to  a  mutual  understimding,  after  the  most  ma- 
ture consideration  of   tlie   whole  question.     A, 
coalition  government  was  formed  on  the  basis  oil 
a    federal    union    of  all  the   British  American 
provinces,  or  of  the  two  Canadas,  in  ?ase  of  the 
failure  of  the  larger  .scheme.  .  .  .  It  was  a  happy 
coincidence  that  the   legislatures  of  the  lower/ 
provinces  were    about  considering  a  maritime' 
union    at    the    time    the  leading  statesmen  of 
Canada  had  combined  to  mature  a  plan  of  set- 
tling their  political  difficulties.    The  Canadian 


ministry  at  once  availed  themselves  of  this  fact 
to  meet  the  moritime  delegates  at  their  conven- 
tion in  Charlottetown,  and  the  result  was  tlioj' 
decision  to  consider  the  question  of  the  larger^ 
uni(m  at  Quebec.  Accordingly,  on  the  lOtli 
of  October,  1864,  delegates  from  all  the  British 
North  American  provinces  assembled  in  confer- 
ence, in  'the  ancient  capital,'  and  after  veryt  / 
ample  deliberations  during  eighteen  daj's,  agreecl  ^ 
to  73  resolutions,  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
Act  of  Union.  These  resolutions  were  formally 
submitte<l  to  the  legislature  of  Cana(Ui  in  Janu- 
ary, 186.'),  and  after  an  elaborate  debate,  which'' 
extended  from  the  3d  of  Feburary  to  the  14th  of 
March,  both  houses  agreed  by  very  large  majori- 
ties to  an  address  to  her  Majesty  praying  her  to 
submit  a  measure  lo  the  Imperial  Parliament 
'  for  the  purpose  of  unitii.g  the  provinces  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  the  Quebec 
resolutions. '  Some  time,  however,  liad  to  elapse 
before  the  Union  could  be  consummated,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  strong  opposition  that  very  soon 
exhibited  itseli  in  the  maritime  provinces,  more 
especially  to  the  financial  terms  of  the  scheme." 
Certain  modifications  of  the  terms  of  the  Quebec 
resolutions  were  acccordingly  made,  and  "the 
provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick,  being  at  last  in  full  accord,  through 
the  action  of  their  respective  legislatures,  the 
plan  of  union  was  submitted  on  the  12th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1867,  to  the  Imperial  Parliament,  where 
it  met  with  tlie  wann  support  of  the  statesmen 
of  1 11  parties,  and  passed  without  amendment  in 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  the  royal  assent 
being  given  on  the  39th  of  JIarch.  The  new 
constitution  came  into  force  on  the  First  of  July 
[annually  celebrated  since,  as  '  Dominion  Day  1 
1867,  and  the  first  parliament  of  the  united 
provinces  met  on  November  of  the  same  year. 
.  .  .  The  confederation,  as  inaugurated  in  1867, 
consisted  only  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ontario 
[Upper  Canada],  Quebec  [Lower  Canada],  Nova 
Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick.  By  tlie  146th  sec- 
tion of  the  Act  of  Union,  provision  was  made 
for  the  admission  of  other  colonies  on  addresses 
from  the  parliament  of  Canada,  and  from  the 
respective  legislatures  of  Newfoundland,  Prince 
Edward  Island,  and  British  Columbia.  Rupert's 
Land  and  the  North-west  Territory  miglit  also 
at  any  time  be  admitted  into  the  Union  on  the 
address  of  the  Canadian  Parliament.  .  .  .  The 
title  of  Dominion  did  not  appear  in  the  Quebec 
resolutions.  The  71st  Kes.  is  to  the  effect  that 
'  Iler  Majesty  be  solicited  to  determine  the  rank 
and  name  of  t  le  federated  Provinces. '  The 
name  ['The  Dom.nionof  Canada']  was  arranged 
at  the  conference  'leld  in  London  in  1866,  when 
the  union  bill  was  i.nally  dVafted."— J.  G.  Bouri- 
not.  Manual  of  Const.  Hist,  of  Canada,  eh.  6-7 
{inth  foot-note).— " 'V\\Q  Federal  Constitution  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  contained  in  the 
British  North  America  Act,  1867,  a  statute  of 
the  British  Parliament  (30  Vict.,  c.  3).  I  note  a 
few  of  the  many  points  in  which  it  deserves  to 
be  com))ared  with  that  of  the  United  States. 
Tlie  Federal  or  Dominion  Government  is  con- 
ducted on  the  so-called  'Cabinet  system'  of 
England,  i.  e.,  the  Ministry  sit  in  Parliament, 
antf  hold  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  Governor-General  [appointed 
by  the  Crown]  is  in  the  position  of  an  irrespon- 
sible and  permanent  executive  similar  to  that  of 
the  Crown  of  Great  Britain,  acting  on  the  advice 


384 


CANADA,  1807. 


The  Dominion 
of  Canada. 


CANADA,   1809-1873. 


of  responsible  ministers.  lie  can  dissolve  Pnr- 
liumcnt.  The  Upper  House  or  Heiiiite,  is  com- 
posed of  78  persons,  noniiniited  for  life  by  tlie 
Oovernor-Geiierul,  I.  e.,  the  Ministry.  The 
House  of  Commons  has  at  present  210  members, 
who  arc  elected  for  Ave  years.  Both  senators 
and  members  receive  salaries.  The  Senate  has 
very  little  i)ower  or  inlluence.  The  Governor- 
General  has  a  veto  but  rarely  exercises  it,  and 
may  reserve  a  bill  for  the  (Juecn's  pleasure. 
The  judj^es,  not  only  of  the  Federal  or  Dominion 
Courts,  but  also  of  tlie  provinces,  are  appointed 
by  tlio  Crown,  i.  e. ,  by  the  Dominion  Jlinistry, 
and  hold  for  good  \)ehaviour.  Each  of  the 
Provinces,  at  present  [1888]  seven  in  number, 
has  a  legislat\ire  of  its  own,  which,  liowever, 
consi.sts  in  Ontario,  British  Columbia,  and  Mani- 
toba, of  one  Hou.se  only,  and  a  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  with  a  riglit  of  veto  on  the  acts  of  the 
legislature,  which  he  seldom  exercises.  Mem- 
bers of  the  Domiiuon  Parliament  cannot  sit  in  a 
Provincial  legislature.  The  Governor-General 
has  a  right  of  disallowing  acts  of  a  Provincial 
legislature,  and  sometimes  exerts  it,  especially 
when  a  legislature  is  deemed  to  have  exceeded 
its  constitutional  competence.  In  each  of  the 
Provinces  there  is  a  responsible  ^linistry,  work- 
ing on  the  Cabinet  system  of  England.  The 
distribution  of  matters  within  the  competence  of 
the  Dominion  Parliament  and  of  the  Provincial 
legislatures  respectively,  bears  a  general  resem- 
blance to  that  existing  in  the  United  States ;  but 
there  is  tliis  remarkable  distinction,  that  whereas 
in  the  United  States,  Congress  lias  only  the 
powers  actually  granted  to  it,  the  State  legisla- 
tures retaining  all  such  powers  as  liave  not  been 
taken  from  them,  the  Dominion  Parlianient  has 
a  general  power  of  legislation,  restricted  only 
by  the  grant  of  certain  specific  and  exclusive 
powers  to  the  Provincial  legislatures.  Criminal 
law  is  reserved  for  the  Domiinon  Parliament; 
and  no  Province  has  the  right  to  maintain  a 
military  force.  Questions  iis  to  the  constitu- 
tionality of  a  statute,  whether  of  the  Dominion 
Parliament  or  of  a  Provincial  legislature,  come 
before  the  courts  in  tlie  ordinary  way,  and  if  ap- 
pealed, before  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council  in  England.  The  Constitution  of  the 
Dominion  was  never  submitted  to  a  popular  vote, 
and  can  be  altered  only  by  the  British  Parliament, 
•except  as  regards  certain  points  left  to  its  own 
legislature.  .  .  .  There  exists  no  power  of  amend- 
ing the  Provincial  constitutions  by  popular  vote 
similar  to  that  which  the  peoples  of  the  several 
States  exercise  in  the  United  States." — J.  Bryce, 
I'/te  Amcncaii  Commonwealth,  v.  1,  app.,  note 
(B)  to  ch.  30.—  See  Constitution  op  Canada. 

Al.so  in:  J.  E.  G.  Slunro,  The  Count,  of 
Caiuulu  (with  text  of  Act  in  app.) — Pari.  Debate 
on  Confederation,  3d  Sem.,  Sth  Prm.  Pari,  of 
Caniula. — \V.  Houston,  Boen.  Illustrative  of  the 
Canmlian  Const.,  pp.  180-324. 

A.  D.  1869-1873.— Acquisition  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Territory. — Admission  of  Manitoba, 
British  Columbia  and  Prince  Edward's  Island 
to  the  Dominion. — "In  1869  .  .  .  the  Dominion 
was  enlarged  by  the  acquisition  of  tlie  famous 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory.  Wlien  the  charter  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  exi)ired  iu  1869, 
Lord  Granville,  then  Colonial  Secretary,  pro- 
posed that  the  chief  part  of  the  Company's 
territories  should  be  transferred  to  the  Dominion 
for  £300,000;  and  the  proposition  was  agreed  to 


on  both  sides.  The  Hudson's  Bay  ("barter  dated 
from  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  region  to 
which  it  referred  carries  some  of  its  history  im- 
printed in  its  names.  Prince  Uupert  was  at  the 
head  of  the  association  incorporated  by  the 
Cliarter  into  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The 
name  of  Kupert's  Land  perpetuates  his  memory. 
.  .  .  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  obtained  from 
King  Charles,  by  virtue  of  the  Charter  in  1070, 
the  sole  and  absolute  govenmient  of  the  vast 
watershed  of  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Kupert's  Land 
of  the  tUiarter,  on  condition  of  paying  yearly  to 
the  King  and  his  successors  'two  elks  and  two 
black  beavers,'  'whensoever  and  as  often  as  we, 
our  heirs  and  successors,  shall  happen  to  enter 
into  the  said  countries,  territories  and  regions.' 
Tlie  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  o])posed  by  the 
North  West  Fui  Oomi)any  m  1783,  which  fought 
them  for  a  long  time  with  Indians  and  law,  with 
the  tomahawk  of  the  red  man  and  the  legal 
itidgment  of  a  Komilly  or  a  Keating.  In  XHVi 
Lord  Selkirk  founded  the  Bed  lUver  Company. 
This  interloper  on  the  battle  field  was  harassed 
by  the  North  West  Company,  and  it  was  not 
until  1821,  when  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  North 
West  Companies  —  impoverished  by  their  long 
warfare  —  amalgamated  their  interests,  that  the 
Red  Hiver  settlers  were  able  to  reap  their  har- 
vests iu  ijcace,  disturbed  only  by  occasional 
leagues  of  locusts  and  blackbir<ls.  In  1835,  on 
Lord  Selkirk's  death,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
bought  the  settlement  from  his  executors.  It 
had  been  under  their  sway  before  that,  having 
been  committed  to  their  care  by  Lord  Selkirk 
during  his  lifetime.  The  privilege  of  exclusive 
trading  east  of  the  Hocky  Jlountaius  was  con- 
ferred by  Uoyal  license  for  twenty-one  years  in 
May  1838,  and  some  ten  years  later  the  Company 
received  a  grant  of  Vancouver's  Island  for  the 
term  of  ten  years  from  1849  to  1859.  The  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  were  always  careful  to  foster 
the  idea  that  their  territory  was  chielly  wilder- 
ness, and  discountenanced  the  reports  of  its  fer- 
tility a  'd  fitness  for  colonisation  which  were  from 
time  to  time  brought  to  the  ears  of  the  English 
Government.  In  1857,  at  the  instance  of  Mr. 
Labouchere,  a  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  was  appointed  to  enquire  into  tho 
state  of  the  British  possessions  under  the  Com- 
pany's administration.  Various  Government 
expeditions,  and  the  publication  of  many  Blue 
Books,  enlightened  the  public  mind  as  to  the  real 
nature  of  those  tracts  of  land  which  the  council 
from  the  Fenchurch  Street  house  declared  to  be 
so  desolate.  .  .  .  During  the  sittings  of  the  Com- 
mittee there  was  cited  in  evidence  a  petition  from 
575  Bed  River  settlers  to  the  Legislative  Assem- 
bly of  Canada  demanding  British  protection. 
Tins  appeal  was  a  proceeding  curiously  at  vari- 
ance with  the  later  action  of  the  settlement. 
When  in  1809  the  chief  part  of  the  territories 
was  transferred  to  Canada,  on  the  jjroposition  of 
Earl  Granville,  the  Red  River  country  rose  in 
rebellion,  and  refuscil  to  receive  tlie  new  Gov- 
ernor. Louis  Riel,  the  insurgent  chief,  seized  on 
Fort  Garry  and  tlie  Company's  treasury,  and 
proclaimed  the  independence  of  tlie  settlement. 
Sir  Garnet,  then  Colonel,  AVolseley,  was  sent  in 
command  of  an  expedition  which  reached  Fort 
Garry  on  August  23,  when  the  insurgents  sub- 
mitted without  resistance,  and  the  district  re- 
ceived the  name  of  ^Manitoba."  —  J.  McCarthy, 
Iliat.  of  our  own  Times,  ch.  55  (».  4). — Manitoba 


885 


CANADA,  1809-1878. 


CAN0S8A. 


niid  t]if!  Northwest  TiTritorics  wcro  admitted  to 
tlit^  DiiiiiiiiioiiConfcderution  Miiy  I'i,  1870;  liritisli 
(-'oliimbiu,  July  20,  1871;  Prince  Edward  Island, 
July  1,  187^. — J.  McCouu,  ManUuki  ami  tlu- 
Great  Xorth  Weal. 

Ai.Ho  in:  G.  M.  Adam,  The  Canadian  Kurth- 
vxnt,  ch.  1-ia.— O.  L.  lluyshe.  The  Red  Hirer 
Expedition.— \y .  P.  Oreswcll,  Ilint.  of  the  Do- 
minion  of  UaiuuUi,  p.  313. — J.  E.  0.  Munro, 
The  (hnMitution  of  Canada,  eh.  2. — O.  E.  Ellis, 
The  IlniUon  Jiay  Company  (Xarratice  and  Crit- 
ical Jlist.   of  Am,,   V.   8).— See,    also,    British 


Columbia  :  A.  D.  1858-1871,  and  Nortitwest 
Tkiiiiitouies  of  Canada. 

A.  D.  1871.— The  Treaty  of  Washing^ton. 
See  Alabama  Claims:  A.  I).  1871. 

A.  D.  1877.— The  Halifax  Fishery  Award. 
See  FisiiEitiKS,  NouTii  Amkuican  :  A.  I).  1H77- 
1888. 

A.  D.  1885-1888.— Termination  of  the  Fish- 
ery articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Washinj^ton. — 
Renewed  controversies. — The  rejected  Treaty. 
See  FisEiKiiiEs,  NoUTll  A.MEIIICAN :  A.  I).  1877- 
1888. 


CANAI,  The.  Sec  American  Aiiouioines: 
Ai.dONQLiAN  Family. 

CAN  ARES,  The.     Sec  Ecuador:  The  auo 

RKilNAL   ISllAUnW    "S. 

CANARY  ISLa:IDS,  Discovery  of  the.— 

The  llrst  great  step  in  African  e.vploration  "  was 
the  discovery  of  the  Canary  Islands.  These  were 
the  '  Elysian  fields '  and  '  Fortunate  islands '  of  an- 
tiquity. Perhaps  there  is  no  country  in  the 
world  that  lias  been  so  many  times  discovered, 
con(iuered,  and  invaded,  or  so  much  fabled 
about,  as  these  islands.  There  is  scarcely  a 
nation  upon  earth  of  any  maritime  repute  that 
hius  not  had  to  do  with  them.  PlKcnicians,  Car- 
thaginians, Romans,  floors,  Genoese,  Normans, 
Portuguese,  and  Spaniards  of  every  province 
(Aragonese,  Castilians,  Gallieians,  Biscayans, 
Andalucians)  have  all  made  their  appearance  in 
these  islands.  The  Cartliagiuians  are  said  to 
have  discovered  them,  and  to  have  reserved  them 
as  an  asylum  in  case  of  extreme  danger  to  the 
state.  Sertorius,  the  lloman  general  who  par- 
tooli  the  fallen  fortunes  of  Marius  is  said  to  have 
meditjited  retreat  to  these  '  islands  of  the  blessed,' 
and  by  some  writers  is  supposed  to  have  gone 
there.  Juba,  the  JIauritanian  prince,  son  of  the 
Julia  celebrated  by  Sallust,  sent  ships  to  examine 
them,  and  has  left  a  description  of  them.  Then 
came  the  death  of  empires,  and  darkness  fell 
upon  the  human  race,  at  least  upon  the  records 
of  their  history.  When  the  world  revived,  and 
especially  when  the  use  of  the  loadstone  began 
to  be  known  among  mariners,  the  Canary  Islands 
were  again  discovered.  Petrarch  is  referred  to 
by  Viera  to  prove  that  the  Genoese  sent  out  an 
expedition  to  these  islands.  Las  Casas  mentions 
that  an  English  or  French  vessel  bound  from 
France  or  England  to  Si)ain  was  driven  by  con- 
trary winds  to  the  Canary  Islands,  and  on  its 
return  spread  abroad  in  Franco  an  account  of  the 
voyage." — A.  Helps,  Njmnish  Conquest,  bk.  1,  ch.  1. 

Also  in  :  E.  H.  Bunbury,  Hist,  of  Ancient 
Oeog.,  ch.  20,  note  E. 

CAN  AS,  The.    See  Peru:  The  aboriqinal 

INHAniTANTS. 

CANCELLARIUS.    See  Chancellor. 

CANDAHAR.— Siege  and  relief  of  English 
forces  (i38o).  See  Afouanistan:  A.  D.  1809- 
I88I; 

CANDIA. — This  is  the  name  of  the  principal 
town  in  the  island  of  Crete,  but  has  been  often 
applied  to  Crete  itself.  See  Turks:  A.  D.  1045- 
1009,  where  an  account  is  given  of  the  so-culled 
"  War  of  Candia";  also  Crete:  A.  I),  ii'i'i. 

CANDRAGUPTA,  OR  CHANDRAGUP- 
TA,  The  empire  of.  See  India:  B.  C.  327-312, 
and  312 . 

CANGI,  The.— A  tribe  in  early  Britain  which 
occupied  the  westerly  part  ot  Modern  Car- 
narvonshire.   See  Britain,  Celtic  Tribes. 


CANICHANAS,  The.    See  Bolivia:  Abo- 

RKIINAL  l.NHABITANT.S. 

CANIENGAS,  The.  Sec  American  Abo- 
RKilNKs:  Iroquois  Conkederacv. 

CKaHJE,  Battles  of  (B.  C.  216).    See  Punic 

War:  The  Second (B.  C.  88).    See  Home: 

B.  C.  90-88. 

CANNENEFATES,  The.— "  On  the  other 
bank  of  the  Rhine  [on  the  right  bank]  ne.vt  to 
the  Batavi,  in  the  modern  Kennemer  district 
(nMrth  Holland,  bevond  Amsterdam)  dwelt  the 
Cannenefates,  closely  related  to  them  but  less 
numerous ;  they  arc  not  merely  named  among 
the  tribes  subjugated  by  Tiberius,  but  were  also 
treated  like  the  Batavi  in  the  furnishing  of 
soldiers." — T.  Jlommsen,  Iliat.  of  Rome,  bk.  8, 
ch.  4. 

CANNING,  Lord,  The  Indian  administra- 
tion of,  A.  D.  1850-1802. 

CANNING  MINISTRY,  The.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  D.  1820-182:. 

CANOPUS,  Decree  of. — An  important  in- 
scribed stone  found  in  1805  at  San,  or  Tauis,  in 
Egypt,  which  is  a  monument  of  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Euergetes,  who  ascended  the  throne  in 
240  B.  C.  It  gives  "in  hieroglyphics  and  Greek 
(the  demotic  version  is  on  the  edge)  a  decree. of 
the  priests  assembled  at  Canopus  for  their  yearly 
salutation  of  the  king.  When  they  were  so 
assembled,  in  his  ninth  year,  his  infant  daughter 
Berenice,  fell  sick  and  died,  and  there  was  great 
lamentation  over  lier.  The  decree  first  recounts 
the  generous  conduct  and  prowess  of  the  king, 
who  had  conquered  all  his  enemies  abroad,  and 
hud  brought  back  from  Persia  all  the  stJitues  of 
the  gods  carried  off  in  old  time  from  Egypt  by 
foreign  kings.  Ho  had  also,  in  a  great  threaten- 
ing of  famine,  when  the  Nile  had  failed  to  rise  to 
its  full  amount,  imported  vast  quantities  of  corn 
from  Cyprus,  Pha'nicia,  &c.,  and  fed  his  people. 
Consequently  divine  honours  are  to  be  paid  to 
him  and  his  queen  as  '  Benefactor-Gods  '  in  oil 
the  temples  of  Egypt,  and  feasts  are  to  be  held 
in  their  honour.  .  .  .  This  great  inscription,  far 
more  perfect  and  considerably  older  than  the 
Rosctta  Stone,  can  now  be  cited  as  the  clearest 
proof  of  Champollion's  reading  of  the  hiero- 
glyphics."— J.  P.  'iilaXiafXy,  Story  of  Alexander's 
Empire,  ch.  15,  w>te. 

CANOSSA,  Henry  IV.  at.— In  the  conflict 
which  arose  between  the  German  Emperor, 
Henry  IV.  (then  crowned  only  as  King  of  the 
Romans)  and  Pope  Gregory  "V^II.  (the  inflexible 
Hildebrand),  the  former  was  placed  at  a  great 
disadvantage  by  revolts  and  discontents  in  his 
own  Germanic  dominions.  When,  therefore,  on 
the  22d  of  February,  A.  D.  1076,  the  au(4acious 
pontiff  pronounced  against  the  king  his  tremen- 
dous sentence,  not  only  of  excommunicat'on,  but 
of    deposition,    releasing    all    Christians    from 


386 


CANOSSA. 


CAPE  UHICTON  ISLAND. 


allt'giancp  to  liini,  ho  addressed  u  larjte  party, 
bolli  in  Ofrniaiiy  and  ItJily,  who  were  more  than 
willinj;  to  accei)t  an  excuse  for  (k'privini;  Henry 
of  hid  erown.  Thi.s  party  controlled  a  (liet  helll 
at  Tribiir,  in  Oetober,  which  declared  that  Iuh 
forfeiture  of  the  throne  would  be  made  irre- 
vocable if  he  did  not  procure  from  tlie  pope  a 
relea.se  from  his  exconununication  before  the  com- 
ing amiiversary  of  its  pronunciation,  in  February. 
A  diet  to  be  held  lien  at  Aiigsburir,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  pope,  would  deternune  the 
alfairs  of  tl'e  Empire.  'Yith  characteristic 
energy,  Henry  resolved  to  make  his  way  to  tlu- 
popi!,  in  person,  and  to  become  reeoni:iled  with 
liim,  before  tlie  Augsburg  meeting.  Accom- 
panied by  the  (lueeii,  her  child,  and  a  few 
attendants,  he  cros.s('d  the  Alps,  with  great  liaril- 
shij)  and  danger,  in  the  midst  of  an  uncom- 
monly cohl  and  .snowy  winter.  jMeantirne,  the 
pope  liad  started  U])on  his  journey  to  Augsburg. 
Ileiiring  on  the  way  of  Henry's  movement  to 
meet  him,  not  desirmg  the  encounter,  and  dis- 
trusting, moreover,  the  intentions  of  his  enemy, 
he  took  refuge  in  the  strong  fortress  of  Cancssa, 
high  up  in  the  rocky  recesses  of  the  Apennines. 
To  that  mountain  retreat  the  despenito  king 
pre.s.se<l  his  way.  "It  was  .lanuary  21,  1077, 
when  Henry  arrived  at  Canos.sa;  the  cold  was 
severe  and  the  snow  lay  deej).  He  was  lodged 
at  the  foot  of  the  castle-steep,  and  had  an  inter- 
view with  the  countess  Matilda  [mistress  of  the 
castle,  and  devoted  friend  of  the  pope],  Hugh, 
abbot  of  Clugny,  and  others,  in  the  Chapel  of 
St.  Nicolas,  of  which  no  traces  now  remain. 
Three  ilays  were  spent  in  debating  terms  of 
reccmciliation;  Matilda  and  Hugh  interceded 
with  the  pope  on  the  king's  behalf,  but  Gregory 
was  inexorable;  unless  Henry  surrendered  the 
crown  into  the  pope's  hands  the  ban  should  not 
be  taken  off.  Henry  could  not  stoop  so  low  as 
this,  but  ho  made  up  his  mind  to  play  the  part 
of  a  penitent  suppliant.  Early  on  the  morning 
of  January  25  he  mounted  the  winding,  rocky 
path,  until  he  reached  the  uppermost  of  the 
three  walls,  the  one  which  enclosed  the  castle 
yard.  And  here,  before  the  gateway  which  still 
exists,  and  perpetuates  in  its  name,  '  Porta  dl 
penit<jnza,'  the  memory  of  this  strange  event, 
the  king,  barefoot,  and  clad  in  a  coai-sc  woolen 
shirt,  sto(Kl  knocking  for  admittance.  But  he 
knocked  in  vain:  from  morning  till  evening  the 
heir  of  tlie  Roman  Empire  stood  shivering  out- 
side the  fiist-closed  door.  Two  more  di>ys  he 
climbed  the  rugged  path  and  stood  weeping  and 
imploring  to  be  admitted."  At  last,  the  iron- 
willed  pontiff  consented  to  a  parley,  and  an  agree- 
ment was  brought  about  by  which  Henry  was 
released  from  excommunication,  but  the  question 
of  his  crown  was  left  for  future  settlement.  In 
the  end  he  gained  nothing  by  his  extmordinary 
abasement  of  himself.  3Iany  of  his  supporters 
were  alienated  by  it;  a  rival  king  was  elected. 
Gathering  all  his  energies,  Henry  then  stood  lii^ 
ground  and  mailc  a  flglit  in  which  even  Gregory 
fled  before  him;  but  it  was  all  to  no  avail. 
The  triumph  remained  with  the  priests. — W. 
R.  AV.  Stephens,  JliUlebrand  and  Ilis  Times,  eh. 
11-15. 

AIjSO  in:  a.  F.  Villcmain,  Life  of  Oregory 
VI L,  l)k.  5.— See,  also,  Pai-acy:  A.  D.  1050- 
1122;  also  Homk:  1081-1084. 

CANTABRIA,  Becomes  Barduliaand  Cas- 
tile.   Sec  Sl'Au; ;  A.  D.  1020-1230. 


CANTABRIANS  AND  ASTURIANS, 
The. — The  Canlabrians  were  an  ancient  people  in 
the  north  of  Spain,  inhabiting  a  region  to  the  west 
of  the  Asturians.  They  were  not  con(|Uered  by 
the  l{omans  imtil  the  reign  of  Augustus,  who  led 
an  expedition  against  them  in  person,  11.  C.  27, 
but  was  forced  by  illness  to  conunit  the  campaign 
to  his  lieutenants.  The  Cantabrians  s\ibmitted 
soon  after  being  defeated  in  a  great  battle  at 
Vellica,  near  the  sources  of  the  Ebro;  but  in  22 
IJ.  C.  they  joined  the  .\sturians  in  a  desperate 
revolt,  which  was  not  subdued  until  three  vears 
later.— {;.  ilerivale,  IUkI.  <if  the  Itomann,  ch.  JM. 

Also  in:  T.  )Iomms<.'n,  Hist,  of  Home,  lik.  8, 
ch.  2. — See  Ai'I'kndix  A,  v.  1. 

CANTjE,   The.— a   tribe   in   ancient  Cale- 
donia.    See  Hkitain.  Cki.tic  TuniKs. 
^CANTERBURY.— The  murder  of  Becket 
(1170).     See  Enoi.ani):  .\.  I).  11(VJ-1170. 

CANTERBURY  PRIMACY,  Origin  of 
the.     See  Enoi-a-mj:  A.  I).  51)7-085. 

CANTII,  The. — The  tribe  of  ancient  liritons 

liich  occupied  the  region  of  Kent.    See  Bkitain, 

.i.Tic  Thiiucs. 

CANTON:  A.  D.  1839-1842.— The  Opium 
War. — Ransom  of  the  city  from  English  as- 
sault.— Its  port  opened  to  British  trade.  See 
China:  A.  U.  18;)'J-I842, 

A.  D.  1856-1857.— Bombardment  by  the 
English. — Capture  by  the  English  and  French, 
See  China:  A.  1).  1850-1800. 


CANTONS,  Latin.    See  Gens,  Roman;  also 

Al.llA. 

CANTONS,     Swiss.      See     Switzeuland: 

A.  1>.  1848-18U0. 

CANULEIAN    LAW,    The.      See    Rome: 

B.  C.  445. 

CANUTE,  OR  CNUT,  King  of  England, 
A.  I).  1017-1(J35,  and  King  of  Denmark,  A.  1). 

1018-1035 Canute  II.,  King  of  Denmark, 

A.  D.  1080-1080 Canute  III.,  King  of  Den- 
mark, A.  I).   1147-1150 Canute  IV.,  King 

of  Denmark,  A.  I).  1182-1203. 

CANZACA.     See  Eciiatana. 

CANZACA,  OR  SHIZ,  Battle  of.— A  battle 
fought  A.  I).  591,  by  the  Romans,  under  Narses, 
supporting  the  cause  of  Chosro(!s  II.  king  of  Per- 
sia, against  a  usurper  Bahrain,  who  had  driven 
him  from  his  throne.  Bahrain  was  defeated  and 
Chosroi!s  restored. — G.  Rawlinson,  Seventh  Oreat 
Oriental  Moiuirchy,  ch.  23. 

CAP  OF  LIBERTY,  The.  See  Liberty 
Cai\ 

CAPE  BRETON  ISLAND:  A.  D.  1497.— 
Discovery  by  John  Cabot.  See  Ameiiica  :  A.  U. 
1407. 

A.  D.  1504. — Named  by  the  fishermen  from 
Brittany.  See  Nkwkouni>lani):  A.  I).  1501- 
1578. 

A.  D.  1713.  —  Possession  confirmed  to 
France.     See  Newfoundland:  A.  1).  1713. 

A.  D.  1720-1745. — The  fortification  of  Louis- 
bourg.  —  After  the  surrender  of  Placentia  or 
Plaisance,  in  Newfoundland,  to  England,  under 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (see  Newfoundland:  A.  I). 
1713),  the  French  government  detennincd  to 
fortify  strongly  some  suitable  harbor  on  the 
islanc  of  Cape  Breton  for  a  naval  station,  end 
especi  illy  for  the  jjrotcction  of  the  fisheries  of 
Franci  '>n  the  ueigliboring  coasts.  The  harbor 
knowu.  orcviously  as  Havre  &.  \'  Anglois  wat 
chosen  ior  the  purpose.     "When  the  French 


387 


CAPE  UUETON  ISLAND. 


CAPITOLINE  HILL  AT  HOME. 


government  decided  In  favour  of  Ilnvro  A  1'  An- 
gluix  itH  imnic  wtis  <tliitnK<'d  to  LoiiiHboiirK,  in 
iionour  of  tlie  kinKI  and,  to  murk  the  value  set 
upon  Cape  Hrelon  it  was  called  Isle  lioyale, 
which  it  retained  until  its  thial  conquest  In  1758, 
when  its  ancient  name  was  resumed."  In  I'i'M 
the  fortitU'ations  wer<'  commeneed,  and  the  work 
of  their  construction  was  prosecuted  with  enerjjy 
and  with  unstinted  lllteralily  for  more  thiin  twenty 
years  "  Even  the  Enf^lish  colonies  contributed 
a  gri  ;  proportion  of  I !ie  materials  u.sed  in  their 
consti  uclion.  When  Messrs.  Newton  and  Hrad- 
street,  who  were  sent  to  confer  with  M.  de  St. 
Ovule  [to  remonstrate  against  the  supplying  of 
arms  to  the  Indliuis  in  Nova  ScotiaJ  .  .  .  re- 
turned to  Annapolis,  they  reported  that  during 
their  short  stay  at  Loulsbourg,  In  17!)!),  fourteen 
colonial  ves.sels,  belonging  chlclly  to  New  Eng- 
land, arrived  there  with  cargoes  of  boards,  timlyer 
and  bricks.  .  .  .  Loulsbourg  [described,  with  a 
J)lau,  in  the  work  liere(|Uoled|  .  .  .  had,  between 
the  years  1720  and  1745.  cost  the  French  nation 
the  enormous  sum  of  U(),(M)(),000  llvres,  or  £1,- 
200,000  sterling;  nevertheless,  as  l)u8sie\ix  In- 
forms us,  the  fortitlcatlons  were  still  vmtlrilshed, 
and  likely  to  remain  so,  because  the  cost  had  far 
exceeded  the  estimates;  and  it  was  found  such  a 
large  garrison  would  be  re((ulred  for  their  defence 
that  the  government  had  abandoned  the  idea  of 
completing  them  according  to  the  original  de- 
sign."— U.  Brown,  J/inl.  df  (he  hUind  of  (,'(ij»^ 
Breton,  Utten  9-11. — "The  fort  was  built  of 
stone,  with  walls  more  than  iiO  feet  high,  and  a 
ditch  80  feet  wide,  over  which  was  a  communica- 
tion with  the  town  by  a  drawbridge.  It  had  si.\ 
bastions  and  three  batteries,  with  platforms  for 
148  cannon  and  sl.x  mortars.  On  an  islet,  which 
was  flanked  on  one  side  by  a  shoal,  a  battery  of 
30  guns,  28  pounders,  defended  the  entrance  of 
the  harbor,  which  was  aliout  400  yards  wide,  and 
was  also  commandi^d  from  within  by  the  Grand  or 
Royal  Battery,  mounting  as  many  guns,  of  the 
calibre  of  42  pounds.  The  fort  .  .  .  was  a  safe 
rendezvous  and  refuge  for  French  fleets  and 
privateers,  sailing  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
It  connnanded  the  maritime  way  into  Canada, 
and  it  watched  the  English  settlements  all  along 
the  coast.  It  was  a  standing  threat  to  the  great 
business  of  New  England  seamen,  which  was 
the  fishery  on  the  banks."— J.  G.  Palfrey,  llint. 
of  N.  Eiiff.,  bk.  5,  ch.  U  (r.  5).—"  '  So  great  was 
its  strength  that  it  was  called  the  Dunkirk  of 
America.  It  had  nunneries  and  palaces,  terraces 
and  gardens.  That  such  a  city  rose  upon  a  low 
and  desolate  island  in  the  inmncy  of  American 
colonization  appears  incredible;  explanation  is 
alone  found  in  the  fishing  enthusiivsm  of  the 
period.'  "— C.  B.  Elliott,  I'lie  IT.  8.  andt/ie  N.  K. 
IFinheries,  p.  18. 

A.  D.  1744.— Outbreak  of  the  Third  Inter- 
colonial War.  Sec  New  Ekolakd:  A.  I). 
1744. 

A.  D.  1745.— Conquest  by  the  New  Eng- 
landers.-  Fall  of  Louisbourg.  See  New  Eno- 
i..\nd:  A.  I).  1715;  and  En(ii..\ni>:  A.  D.  1745- 
1747. 

A.  D.  1748.— Restored  to  France.  See  Aix- 
LA-CitAfKi.i,u,  TiiK  Conokesb;  and  New  Eno- 
l.w,d:  a.  D.  1745-1748. 

A.  D.  1758-1760.— The  final  capture  and 
destruction  of  Loulsbourg,  by  the  English.— 
"  In  Slay,  1758  [during  the  Seven  Yeare  War  — 
see   Canada;   A.  D.    1750-1703   and   after',  a 


powerful  fleet,  under  rommand  of  AdndrnI 
Iloscawen,  arrived  at  Halifax  for  the  purpose  of 
reciipturing  a  pla<'e  [Loulsbourg!  whicli  ougiit 
never  to  have  i)een  given  up.  The  fleet  con- 
sisted of  23  ships  of  the  line  and  18  frigates, 
besides  transports,  and  when  it  left  Halifax  it 
innnbered  157  vessels.  With  It  was  a  land 
force,  under  .TelTery  Amherst,  of  upward  of 
12,0(M)  men.  The  i  rench  forces  at  Louisbonrg 
were  much  Inferior,  and  consisted  of  only  8 ships 
of  the  line  and  3  frigates,  and  of  about  4.(MH) 
soldiers.  The  English  fleet  set  siul  from  Halifax 
on  the  28th  of  May,  and  on  the  8th  of  June  a 
landing  was  effected  In  Oabarus  Bay.  The  ne.\t 
day  the  attack  iM'gan,  and  after  a  sharp  conflict 
th(!  French  abandoned  and  destroyed  two 
Important  batteries.  The  siege  was  then  pushed 
by  regular  ajiproaches ;  but  it  was  not  until  the 
2<tth  of  July  that  the  garrison  capitulated.  By 
the  terms  of  surrender  the  whole  garrison  w(mo 
to  become  prisoners  of  war  and  to  be  sent  to 
England,  and  the  English  acquired  218  cannon 
and  18  mortars,  beside  great  quantities  of  ammu- 
nition and  nnlitary  stores.  All  the  vessels  of 
war  had  been  captured  or  destroyed;  but  their 
crews,  to  the  number  of  upward  of  3,600  men, 
were  included  In  the  capitulation.  Two  years 
later,  at  the  bi'ginning  of  1760,  orders  were  sent 
from  England  to  demolish  the  fortress,  render 
the  harbor  impracticable,  and  transport  the 
garrison  and  stores  to  Halifax.  These  orders 
were  carried  out  so  effectually  that  few  traces 
of  Its  fortifications  remain,  and  the  place  is 
inhabited  only  by  fishermen." — C.  C.  Smith,  77*« 
\\'tirs  on  the  tkalward  (Xarratice  and  Critical 
IliKt.  of  Am.,  r.  5,  eh.  7). 

Also  in:  F.  Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe, 
ch.  10  (r.  2). — See,  also,  Canada  (New  Fu.^nce): 
A.  I).  1758. 

A.  D.  1763.— Ceded  to  England  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris.     See  Si;ven  Yeahs  Wau. 

A.  D.  1763. — Added  to  the  government  of 
Nova  Scotia.    See  Canada;  A.  D.   1763-1774 


CAPE  COLONY.    See  South  Akhica. 
CAPE    ST.  VINCENT,  Naval  battle   of. 
See  Enoland:  A.  I).  1797. 
CAPETIANS,  Origin  and  crowning  of  the. 

See  Fhanck:  A.  1).  861,  and  877-987. 

CAPHARSALAMA,  Battle  of.— One  of  the 
victories  of  the  Jewish  patriot,  Judas  Maccaboius 
over  the  Syrian  general  Nicanor,  B.  C.  162. — 
Josephus.  Antiq.  of  the  JeiM,  bk.  12,  eh.  10. 

OAPHTOR. — An  ancient  Phoenician  settle- 
ment on  the  coast  of  the  Nile  Delta.  ' '  From  an 
early  period  the  whole  of  this  district  had  been 
colonised  by  the  Phnenicians,  and  as  Phmnicia 
itself  was  called  Keft  by  the  Egyptians,  the  part 
of  Egypt  in  which  they  had  settled  went  by  the 
name  of  Keft-ur,  or '(Greater  Phoenicia.'" — A. 
11.  Sayce,  Freah  Liyht  from  the  Ancient  Monu- 
ments, eh.  2. — On  the  other  Inind,  Ewald  and 
other  writers  say  that  "the  Philistines  came 
from  Caphtor,"  and  that  "  this  now  obsolete 
name  probably  designated  either  the  whole  or  a 
part  of  Crete." 

CAPHYjE,  Battle  of.— Fought  B.  C.  320  in 
the  Social  War  of  the  Acluean  and  ^Etolian 
Leagues.  The  forces  of  the  former  were  totally 
routed. — C.  Thirlwall,  Hist,  of  Greece,  r.h.  63. 

CAPITOLINE  HILL  AT  ROME.— The 
Capitol. — "In  prehistoric  times  this  hill  was 
called  the  Mons  Saturnius,  see  Varro,  Lin.  Lat., 


388 


CAPITOLINE  HILL  AT  HOME. 


CARAFFA. 


V.  41 ;  its  nnmc  bcinjf  connertrd  witli  that  logcn- 
dnry  '  xoUU'ii  age '  wlii'u  Hiitiini  Iiiiii.si'lf 
reigned  fii  Italy.  .  .  .  This  liill,  wliitli,  lilio  tlio 
otiior  hills  of  liomc,  has  hail  its  contour  much 
altered  by  cutting  away  and  levelling,  consists 
of  a  moss  of  tufa  rock  harder  in  structure  than 
that  of  the  Palatine  hill.  It  appears  once  to 
Iiavc  been  surrounded  by  elilTs,  very  steep  at 
most  places,  and  had  only  approaches  on  one 
side  —  that  tr)\vards  the  l-'oruiu.  .  .  .  The  top  of 
the  hill  is  shap<'d  into  two  peaks  of  about  e()ual 
height,  one  of  whicli  was  known  as  tlic  Capi- 
toliuni,  and  the  other  as  the  Arx,  or  Citadel.  .  .  . 
The  Capitolium  was  also  in  early  time  known  ns 
the  'Mons  Trtri)oius,'  so  called  from  the  familiar 
legend  of  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia.  .  .  .  In  later 
times  the  name  'rupes  Tarpeia  '  was  applied,  not 
to  thi^  whole  peak,  but  to  a  part  of  its  elill  wliicth 
faced  towards  the  '  Vicus  Jugarius'  and  the 
'Forum  Magnum.'  The  identification  of  tliat 
part  of  th(!  Tarpeian  rock,  which  was  used  for 
the  execution  of  criminals,  according  to  a  very 
primitive  custom,  is  now  almost  impossible.  At 
one   place   the  clilT  of  tlie  Ca])itolium  is  quite 

f)erpcndicular,  and  has  been  e\it  very  carefully 
nto  an  upright  even  surface;  a  deep  groove, 
about  a  foot  wide,  runs  uj)  the  face  of  this 
cutting,  and  tlicre  are  many  rock-cut  chambers 
excavated  in  this  part  of  tlie  cliff,  some  openings 
into  which  appear  in  the  face  of  the  rock.  This 
is  popularly  though  crroneoi"  'y  known  as  the 
Tarpeian  rock.  .  .  .  The  perpendicular  cliff  was 
once  very  much  higher  than  it  is  at  present,  as 
there  is  u  great  accumulation  of  rubliish  at  its 
foot.  .  .  .  That  this  cliff  cannot  be  the  Tarpeian 
rock  wlicro  crindnals  were  executed  is  shown  by 
Dionysius  (viii.  78,  and  vii.  35),  who  expressly 
says  that  this  took  place  in  the  sight  of  people  in 
the  Forum  Magnum,  so  that  the  popular  Uupes 
Tarpeia  is  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  hill. " — J.  II. 
Middleton,  Ancient  Home  in  1885,  ch.  7. — See, 
also.  Seven  Hills  op  Rome,  and  Gens,  Roman. 

CAPITULARIES.— "It  is  commonly  sup- 
posed that  the  term  capitularies  applies  only  to 
the  laws  of  Charlemagne;  this  is  a  mistake. 
The  word  'capitula,'  'little  chapters,'  equally 
applies  to  all  the  laws  of  the  Frank  kings.  .  .  . 
Charlemagne,  in  Ids  capitularies,  did  anything 
but  legislate.  Capitularies  are,  properly  speak- 
ing, the  whole  acts  of  his  government,  public 
acts  of  all  kinds  by  which  he  manifested  his 
authority." — F.  Guizot,  Hist,  of  CiHlization, 
lect.  31. 

Also  in  :  E.  F.  Henderson,  Select  Ilist.  Docs, 
of  the  Middle  Ar/cs,  bk.  3. 

CAPITULATIONOF  CHARLES  V.  See 
aEHMANY:  A.  D.  1520-1531. 

CAPO  D'ISTRIA,  Count,  The  Assassina- 
tion of.     See  GnEECE:  A.  I).  1830-1863. 

CAPPADOCIA.    See  MiTiiniD.VTic  Waus. 

CAPS,  Party  of  the.  See  Scandinavian 
States  (Sweden):  A.  D.  1730-1793. 

CAPTAL. — A  title,  derived  from  "  capitalis," 
originally  cqiuvalent  to  count,  and  anciently 
borne  by  several  lords  in  Aquitaiue.  "Towards 
the  14th  century  there  were  no  more  than  two 
captals  acknowledged,  that  of  Buch  and  that  of 
Franc." — I  roissart  (.lohnes),  Chronicles,  bk.  1, 
eh.  158,  note. 

CAPTIVITY,  Prince  of  the.  See  Jews: 
A.  D.  300-400. 

CAPTIVITY  OF  THE  JEWS,  The.  See 
Jews:  B.  C.  604-536. 


CAPUA.— Capua,  originally  an  Etruscan 
city,  callcil  Vulturnum,  was  taken  l)y  \\u-  Sam- 
nites,  U,  ('.  434,  and  was  afterwards  a  city  in 
whicli  Etruscan  and  neighboring,'  (Jreek  inllueiiccs 
were  ndxed  in  their  effect  on  a  barbarous  new 
population.  "Capua  iH'came  by  its  commereo 
and  agriculture  the  si^cond  city  in  Italy  in  point 
of  size  — the  tlrstin  point  of  wealth  and  luxury. 
Tlie  deep  demoralization  in  which,  aei'ording  to 
the  accounts  of  the  ancients,  that  city  surpassed 
all  others  in  Italy,  is  especially  retlecled  in  llie 
mercenary  recriiiting  and  in  tlie  gladiatorial 
sports,  both  of  which  nre-eminenlly  nourished  in 
Capua.  Nowlien^  did  recruiting  (iIHcits  tind  so 
numerous  a  concourse  as  in  tins  metroiiolis  of 
demoralized  ('ivili/.ation.  ,  .  .  Tlie  gladiatorial 
sports  ...  if  they  did  not  originate,  were  at 
any  rate  carried  to  perfectiim  in  Capua.  There, 
sets  of  gladiali.rs  made  their  appearance  even 
during  baiKiuets." — T.  Mommsen,  Jlinl.  of  lloine, 
bk.  3,  ch.  r,. 

B.  C.  343.  Surrender  to  the  Romans.  See 
Rome:  IJ.  (      ;i;i-3iKI. 

B.  C.  2I0-2H.— Welcome  to  Hannibal. — 
Siege  and  capture  by  the  Romans. — The  city 
repeopled.     Seel'i'Nic  Wau,  The  Second. 

A.  D.  800-1016. — The  Lombard  principality. 
See  Italy  (Soutiieun):  A.  I).  Hl)0-ll)ltl. 

A.  D.  1501. — Capture,  sack  and  massacre 
by  the  French.    See  Italy:  A.  I>.  1501-1504. 

CAPUCHINS,  The.— "The  Capuchins  were 

only  a  branch  of  the  great  Franciscan  order,  and 
their  mode  of  life  a  nuxliflcalicm  of  Its  Rule. 
Among  the  Franciscans  the  severity  of  their 
Rule  had  early  become  a  subject  of  discu.ssion, 
whicli  finally  led  to  a  secession  of  some  of  tlio 
members,  of  whom  Matteo  do'  Bassi,  of  the  con- 
vent of  Montefalcone  was  the  leading  spirit. 
These  were  the  rigorists  who  desired  to  restore 
the  iirimitive  austerities  of  the  Order.  They 
began  by  a  change  of  dress,  adding  to  tlie  usual 
monastic  habit  a  'cappuccio,' or  pointed  hoixl, 
which  Matteo  claimed  was  of  the  same  pattern 
as  that  worn  by  St.  Francis.  By  the  bull 
'  Religionis  zelus  (1538),  Matteo  obtained  from 
Pope  Clement  VII.  leave  for  himself  anil  his 
companions  to  wear  this  peculiar  dress ;  to  allow 
their  beards  to  grow;  to  live  in  hermitages, 
according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Francis,  and  to  devote 
themselves  chietiy  to  the  reclaiming  of  great 
sinners.  Paul  III.  afterwanls  gave  them  pi.'r- 
mission  to  settle  wheresoever  tliey  liked.  Con 
sistently  with  tlie  austerity  of  their  professions, 
their  churches  were  unadi''..ed,  and  their  con- 
vents built  in  the  simplest  style.  They  beeanio 
very  serviceable  to  tlie  Church,  and  their  fear- 
lessness and  assiduity  in  waiting  ujion  tlie  sick 
during  the  plague,  which  ravaged  the  whole  of 
Italy,  made  them  extremely  pojiular. " — J.  Alzog, 
Manuiil  of  Unicermil  Church  Hint.,  p.  3,  /).  455. 

CAPUCHONS,  OR  CAPUTIATI.  See 
White  IIoods  ok  Fkance. 

CARABOBO,  Battles  of  (1821-1822).  See 
Coi.OMUiAN  St.\tes:  a.  I).  1810-1830. 

CARACALLA,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  I). 
211-217. 

CARACCAS :  A.  D.  1812.— Destruction  by 
earthquake.  Se6  Colomuian  States;  A.  1). 
1810-lHU). 

CARAFFA,  Cardinal  (Pope  Paul  IV.)  and 
the  Counter  Reformation.  Sec  Papacy:  A.  U. 
1537-1563,  and  1555-1603. 


389 


CAUA«. 


CARL. 


CARAS,  OR  CARANS,  OR  CARANQUIS, 

The.     Sit  Ki  rAiHiii. 
CARAUSIUS,    Revolt    of.     Sec    IIuiiain: 

AD.   '-'MH  'iKT. 

CARAVELS.  — GALEONS,  Etc.  — '  Tli<' 
term  ciinivcl  wiih  originally  Ki^'<'<i  '<>  Hliips 
iiiiviKiitr<l  wholly  l>y  Hiiils  iih  (liHtin^riiiHliiMl  from 
till!  ftiillcy  propi'llcil  liy  oars.  It  lias  Ik'cii 
np|ilic<l  U)  n  Kr''"!  variety  of  vchscIs  of  (lllTcri'iit 
»i/.i'  atitl  ('(mBtnutlioti.  'I'lio  raravcis  of  the  New 
World  (liscovcrcm  may  \h;  jfiK'niUy  (k'lW'rilK'd  as 
loiijt  narrow  bouts  of  from  2i)  to  100  tons  burden, 
with  tliroo  or  four  maNis  of  about  ciinal  hei.i;iil 
carryini;  hoiik  times  sipiare  and  sonuMimes  lateen 
miils,  the  fourth  mast  set  at  the  heel  of  the  bow- 
sprit carrying  s(|uare  sails.  Tliey  were  tisually 
Imlf-deeked,  and  adorned  with  the  lofty  forecastle 
nnd  loftier  poop  of  thi^  day.  The  latter  eon- 
Btiliited  over  that  part  of  the  vessel  a  double  or 
trebh' deck,  which  was  pierced  for  caimoii.  .  .  . 
The  galera  was  a  vessel  of  low  bulwarks,  navi- 
gated by  sails  and  oars,  usually  twenty  or  thirty 
oars  on  cither  side,  four  or  live  oarsmen  to  a 
bench.  .  .  .  The  gulea/a  was  the  larfjest  class  of 
fralera,  or  cnift  propelled  wholly  or  in  part  by 
ojirs.  ...  A  galeota  was  a  small  galera,  having 
only  10  or  20  oarsmen  on  a  side,  and  two  mast,s. 
The  galeim  was  a  largo  armed  merchant  vessel 
with  liigh  bulwarks,  three  or  four  decks,  with  two 
or  three  masts,  8(|imre  rigged,  spreading  courses 
and  top-.sails,  and  sometimes  topgallant  sails. 
.  .  .  Those  which  iplied  between  Acapuleo  and 
Manila  were  from  1,200  to  2,(H)0  tons  burden.  A 
galeoncillo  was  a  small  galeon.  The  carac  was 
a  large  carrying  ves.s<'l,  the  one  intended  for 
Columbus' second  voyage  being  1,2.)0  toneles  or 
1,500  tons.  A  nao,  or  navio,  was  a  large  ship 
witli  high  bulwarks  and  three  masts.  A  nave 
was  a  vessel  with  deck  and  sails,  the  former 
distinguishing  it  from  tlio  barca,  and  tlie  absence 
of  oars  from  a  galera.  The  bergantin,  or  brig, 
had  low  bulwarks.  .  .  .  The  name  brigautine 
was  api)lied  in  America  also  to  an  open  tlat- 
bottomed  boat,  which  usually  carried  one  sail  and 
from  8  to  10  men." — IL  II.  Bancroft,  Hint,  of  the 
Piieific  titiiten,  v.  1,  p.  187,  foot-note. — Sec,  alst), 
Amkhic.x.:  a.  I>.  1402. 

CARBERRY,  Mary  Stuart's  surrender  at. 
See  Scotland;  A.  D.  irjOl-l.lOS. 

CARBONARI,  Origin  and  character  of  the. 
Bee  Italy  (SouTiiEnN):  A.  I).  1808-1809. 

CARCHEMISH.     See  IIittitks,  The. 

CARCHEMISH,  Battle  of.— Fought,  B.  C. 
604,  between  the  armies  of  Necho,  the  Egyptian 
Pharaoh,  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  then  crown  prince 
of  Babylon.  Necho,  being  defeated,  was  driven 
back  to  Egypt  and  stripped  of  all  his  Syrian 
conquests. — V.  Lcnormant,  Manual  of  Ancient 
llii>t.  of  the  Kimt,  bk.  2,  ch.  4. 

CARDADEN,  Battle  of  (i8o8).  Sec  Spain: 
A.  I).  1808-1809  (I)kci.;m!h.:k— March). 

CARDINAL  INFANT,  The.  See  Netiieu- 
l.ANOs:  A.  I).  10;i5-16:!8. 

CARDINALS,  College  of.  Sec  Ccria,  Tue 
UoMAN  (Fai'ai,),  and  Papacy:  A.  D.  1059. 

CARDUCHI,  The. -"South  of  the  lake 
[Lake  of  Van,  in  Asia  Minor]  lay  the  Carduclii, 
wliom  the  later  Greeks  call  the  Qordyipaus  nnil 
Gordycnes ;  but  among  the  Armenians  they  were 
known  as  Kordii,  among  the  Syrians  as  Kardu. 
These  arc  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Kurds,  a 
nation  also  of  the  Aryan  stock." — M.  Duuekcr, 
Uint.    of  Antiquity,  bk.    2,    ch.    13. — See,   also, 


(loiiDVKNE.— Under  8aladln  nnd  the  Ayonblto 
dyniisty  tli<-  Kurds  played  nn  Important  part  in 
medlM'val  hislorv.     Hec  Sai.adin,  Empikk  oF. 

CARGILLITES,  The.  See  Scoti.amij: 
A,  I).   lOMI-KWlt. 

CARHAM,  Battle  of.—  Fought  and  won  bv 
an  army  of  Scots,  under  King  Maldihn,  inva(l- 
iiig  the  then  English  earldom  of  Bernicia,  A.  I). 
1018,  and  securing  the  aimcxation  of  Lothian  to 
till'  Scottish  kingdom.  The  l)atllcli('ld  was  near 
that  on  which  I'lodden  was  afterwards  fought. — 
E.  A.  Freeman,   S'nnnan  ('oni/iimt,  eh.  0,  met.  3, 

CARIANS,  The.— "The  Carians  may  bo 
called  the  doubles  of  the  Ldeges,  They  aro 
termed  the  'speakers of  a  barliarous  tongue,' and 
yet,  on  tlie  other  hand,  Apollo  is  sitid  to  have 
spoken  Carian.  As  a  people  of  pirates  dad  in 
bron/.c  they  onc^;  upon  a  time  bad  their  day  in 
tlio  Archipelago,  and,  Hue  tlie  Normans  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  swooped  down  from  the  sea  to 
desolate  the  coasts ;  but  their  real  home  was  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  their  settleini'nts  lay  bc'tween 
those  of  I'lirygians  and  Pisidians,  and  eom- 
munity  of  religion  united  them  with  the  Lydians 
and  RIysians." — E.  Curtiiis,  IM,  of  llreee^,  bk.  1, 
elt.  3.  —  The  country  of  the  Carians  was  tlio 
mountainous  di.strict  in  the  southwestern  angle 
of  Asia  .Alinor,  tlie  coast  of  which  is  indented 
with  gulfs  and  frayed  with  long-projecting 
rocky  promontories.  The  island  of  llhofles  lies 
close  to  it  on  i\w  south.  The  Carians  were  sub- 
jugated by  the  Lyilian  King  Cnesus,  and  after- 
wards passed  under  the  Persian  yoke.  The 
Persians  i)ermitted  the  establishment  of  a  vassal 
kingilom,  under  a  dynasty  which  fixed  its 
cajjital  at  llalicarnassus,  and  made  that  city  one 
of  the  splendid  Asiatic  outpo.sts  of  Greek  art  and 
civilization,  though  always  faithfully  Persian  in 
its  politics.  'It  was  to  the  memory  of  one  of  the 
Carian  kings  at  llalicarnassus,  5laiisolus,  that 
the  famous  sepulchral  monument,  which  gave 
its  name  to  all  similar  edifices,  and  which  the 
oncients  counted  among  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  was  erected  by  his  widow,  llali- 
carnassus offered  an  obstinate  resistance  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  was  destroyed  by  that  ruth- 
less conqueror  after  it  had  succumbed  to  his 
siege.  Subsequently  rebuilt,  it  never  gained  inj- 
porlancG  again.  The  Turkish  town  of  Budruin 
now  occupies  the  site. — C.  T.  Newton,  Travel* 
and  DtKCorerien  in  the  I/evant,  r>.  3. — Sec,  also, 
Hamites  and  Doiuans  and  Ionians. 

CARIAY,  The.  See  American  Auouioineb: 
QucK  OR  Coco  Group. 

CARIBBEAN  ISLANDS,  The.  See 
Ami;uica:    a.  D.  1493-1490,  and  West  Indies. 

CARIBS,  The.  See  American  Aboiuoines: 
Cariils. 

CARILLON.— The  French  name  of  Fort 
Ticonderoga.  See  Canada  (New  France): 
A.  I).  1758. 

CARINTHIA,  Early  mediaeval  history. 
See  Slavonic  Peoples:  6tii-7th  Centuries, 
nnd  Germany:  A.  D.  843-963. 

CARINUS,  Roman  Emperor.  A.  D.  383- 
284. 

CARIPUNA,  The.  See  American  Ajiori- 
oines:  Guck  or  Coco  Group. 

CARISBROOK  CASTLE,  The  flight  of 
King  Charles  to.  See  England:  A.  D.  1647 
(August — December). 

CARIZMIANS.     See  Kiiuarezm. 

CARL,  OR  KARL.    Sec  Etbel.— ExnEiiiNa. 


390 


CAHLINOM. 


CARNOT. 


CARLINGS.     8cc   Fhankh  ((!Ani.ovi!«niAN 
E.MI-IUK):  A.   I).  7ft«  Hll. 
CARLISLE,  Origin  of.     See  Lii(ii;vAi,i,irM. 
CARLISTS    AND    CHRISTINOS.      *,• 

8l>AI\;    A.    I),   IHim-IHltl,  1111(1  1M7;|-1HH,-,. 

CARLOMAN,  King  of  the  Franks  (East 
Franks — Germany — in  association  with  Louis 
in.),  A.  I).  H7(|-8M1 :  (Burgundy  and  Aquitaine), 

A.  I).  H7U-HSI Carloman,  Duke  and  Prince 

of  the  Franks,  A.  I).  711-717. 

CARLOS.    SccCiiAui.hx 

CARLOVINGIANS.  8p.-  Fuanks  (Cabo- 
LlNiiiAN  KMriiiK):  A.  D.  788-814. 

CARLOWITZ,  Peace  of.  Soo  IIunoaky: 
A.  I).  l(W;t-imH». 

CARLSBAD,  Congress  of.  Sci;  Okkmamy: 
A.  1).   IHll^lMO. 

CARMAGNOLE.  Sou  Fuancb:  A.  I).  1703 
(Fkiiiiiakv — .Vi'uii.). 

CARMANIANS,  The.— "The  normoiiliuis 
of  llcrDiliitiis  n\v.  till!  Oariiiiiniiiim  of  tlio  liitiT 
Gri'cks,  who  uIm)  piissed  willi  tlii'in  us  a  Hi'piinite 
nation,  tliou;^h  closi'ly  iillicil  to  the  I'lTHiiins  itiid 
Modes.  Tlicy  wiiiidcred  to  mid  fro  to  the  east  of 
Persia  in  the  district  now  called  Klrnian." — M. 
Diiiickcr,  IHxt.  of  Antiqiiiti/,  v.  !>.  Iik.  H.  c/t.  ii. 

CARMATHIANS,  The.— "  In  the  277th 
year  of  the  IIcKira  [.V.  I).  HUO),  and  in  the  iieijch- 
bourlKMKl  of  C'ufa,  an  Arabian  preacher  of  the 
name  of  C'aniiath  assumed  the  lofty  and  iiicoin- 
nrehenslhle  style  of  the  Ouiih',  the  Director,  tl.o 
Deinonstratioii,  the  Word,  the  Holy  Qlio.st,  the 
Camel,  the  Herald  of  the  Messiah,  who  had  con- 
versed with  him  in  a  human  shape,  and  the 
repres('iitative  of  Mohammed  the  son  of  Ali,  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  of  the  Anj;el  Gabriel." 
Carmath  was  one  of  the  eaat(!rn  proselytes  of  the 
sect  of  the  Ishmaileans  or  Ishniailitcs  —  the  same 
from  which  spraiii;  the  terrible  secret  order  of 
the  Assassins.  He  founded  another  branch  of 
the  Ishmaileans,  which,  taking  his  name,  were 
culled  the  C'armathiaiis.  The  sect  made  rai)id 
goins  amoiij;  the  Ucdouins  and  were  so(m  a  for- 
midable and  uncontrollable  body.  "After  a 
blo(xly  conllict  they  prevailed  in  the  province  of 
Bahrein,  along  the  Persian  Gulf.  Far  anil  wide 
the  tribes  of  the  desert  were  subject  to  the 
sceptre,  or  rather  to  the  sword,  of  Ai)u  Said  and 
bis  son  Abu  Taher;  and  these  rebellious  imams 
could  muster  in  the  field  107,000  faiiaties.  .  .  . 
The  cities  of  liaccu  and  Baalbee,  of  Cufa  and 
Bassorali,  were  taken  and  pillaged;  Bagdad  was 
filled  witli  consternation ;  and  the  caliph  trembled 
behind  the  veils  of  his  palace.  .  .  .  The  rapine 
of  the  Carmathians  was  sanctified  by  their  aver- 
sion to  the  worship  of  Jlecca.  They  robbed  a 
caravau  of  pilgrhns,  and  20,000  devout  Moslems 
were  abandoneil  on  the  burning  sands  to  a  death 
of  hunger  and  thirst.  Another  year  [A.  D.  929] 
they  sutTered  the  pilgrims  to  proceed  without 
interruption;  but,  in  the  festival  of  devotion, 
Abu  Taher  stormed  the  holy  city  and  trampled 
on  the  most  venerable  relics  of  the  Mahometan 
faith.  Thirty  thousand  citizens  and  strangers 
were  put  to  the  sword;  the  sacred  precincts 
were  polluted  by  the  burial  of  3,(M)0  dead  bodies; 
the  well  of  Zemzen  overfiowed  with  blood ;  the 
golden  spout  was  forced  from  its  place;  the 
veil  of  the  Caaba  was  divided  among  these  im- 
pious sectaries;  and  the  black  stone,  the  first 
monument  of  the  nation,  was  borne  away  in 
triumph  to  their  capital.  After  this  deed  of 
sacrilege  and  cruelty  they  continued  to  infest  the 


contlnes  of  Irak,  8yria  and  KgVPt;  but  the  vital 
prlnciiile  of  cnthiisiaHm  had  withered  at  the  root. 
...  It  is  needless  to  enipiire  into  what  factions 
they  were  broken,  or  by  whose  swords  they  wero 
finiillv  extirpated.  The  sect  of  llic  CarmalhiaiiH 
may  be  eonsldei'  '  as  the  seconil  visible  cause  of 
th(!  decline  and  fall  of  the  empire  of  the  caliphs." 
— K.  GiblMin,  Dedine  mill  FnUnfl/iK  Unmiiit  Kin- 
pi  iv.  r/i.  ,12,  iinil  note  />;/  Dv.   liinith. — St'O,  uliM), 

CARMELITE  FRIARS. —  "  About  the 
niiildleof  thel  12lli)ci'nlury,  one  llerthold.  a  Cain- 
briaii,  wllli  a  few  companions,  migrated  to  Mount 
Carmel  [I'lilestine],  and  iu  the  place  where  tliD 
prophet  Klias  of  old  is  said  to  liiive  hiil  himself, 
iiuilt  a  humble  cottage  with  a  cliapel.  In  whicli 
he  and  his  assix^iates  led  a  laborious  anil  solitary 
life.  As  others  continued  to  unite  themHi'lveii 
with  these  residents  on  .Mount  Ciirinrl,  .Vlliert  tho 
patriarch  of  .Icrusalcm,  near  the  cominencement 
of  the  next  centurv  prescribed  for  them  a  riilo 
of  life;  which  the  pontilTs  afterwards  sanctioned 
by  their  authority,  and  also  cliaiiged  in  v.irioiis 
respects,  and  when  it  was  found  too  rlgnroiis 
anil  burdensome,  mitigated  eonsideralily.  Such 
was  the  origin  of  the  celebrated  order  of  Car- 
melites, or  as  it  Is  commonly  called  the  order  of 
St.  Mary  of  Mount  Carmel  (and  known  in  Eng- 
land as  the  White  Friars];  which  subseiiueiitly 
_,as.sed  from  Syria  intc  Kurope,  and  became  ono 
of  the  principal  niendi( mt  orders.  The  Carmel- 
ites themselves  reject  with  disdain  this  account 
of  their  origin,  and  most  strenuously  contend  that 
the  holy  prophet  Klias  of  the  Old  Testament, 
was  the  parent  and  founder  of  their  society. 
But  they  were  able  to  persuade  very  few,  (or 
rather  none  out  of  their  soi^iety),  that  their  origin 
was  so  ancient  and  illustrious." — J.  ],.  von  Mos- 
lii'im,  Iimtiliitin  of  Ktvlcniimlifiit  Ifinton/,  hk.  'A, 
cenfji  12,  pt.  2,  i-k.  2,  met.  21. 

Ai.soin:  G.  Wadilington,  Hint,  of  the  C'/iiiir/i, 
eh.  II),  seet.  5. — J.  Alzog,  Munuiil  of  Unineriiiil 
Chiireli  Hint.,  sect.  244  (r.  2). — K.  L.  Cutts,  Scene* 
and  (!hiiiiietern  of  the  Miilille  Ai/en,  ch.  5. 

CARMIGNA'NO,  Battle  of  (1796).  See 
FitAMic:  .V.  I).   179(1-1797  (OcTonKK—Ai'HiL). 

CARNABII,   OR    CORNABII,   The.     Se^ 

BitlTAIN,  ClJ.TIC  TitllllOS. 

CARNAC.     See  .ViiLUY. 

CARNATES,  The.     See  Tiuanian  Races. 

CARNEIAN  FESTIVAL,  The.— A  Spar- 
tan festival,  sjiid  to  liave  been  instituted  B.  C. 
070.  "The  Carneian  festival  fell  in  the  Spartan 
mouth  Carneius,  the  Athenian  .Metageitnon,  cor- 
responding nearly  to  our  August.  It  was  held 
in  lionour  of  Apollo  Carneius,  a  deity  worshipped 
from  vi'ry  ancient  times  in  the  Peloponnese, 
especially  at  Amycia;.  ...  It  was  of  a  warlike 
character,  like  the  Athenian  BoedrUmia." — O, 
Uawlinson,  Note  to  Ileroilotiis,  bk.  7. 

Ai.so  IN :  E.  Curtius,  Jliit.  of  Oreece,  bk.  2,  eh.  1. 

CARNIANS,  The.     See  UiiAvrrANs. 

CARNIFEX  FERRY,  Battle  of.  See 
Unitkd  Statks  ok  Am.  :  A.  O.  1801  (August — 
DECK.MHKn:  West  Vikoinia). 

CARNONACiE,  The.  Sec  Buitain,  Celtic 
Tiiiuks. 

CARNOT,  Larare  N.  M.,  and  the  French 
Revolution.  See  France:  A.  D.  1793  (June— 
OcTouKii),  to  1707  (SEi-rEMBEii),  and  1800-1801 
(May— FEniiuAuv). 

CARNOT,  Sadi,  President  of  the  French 
Republic,  1887 . 


391 


CAItNUTES. 


CAUTHAaE. 


CARNUTBS,  The.— The  Cnrnutpn  w«ro  n 
tlilM!  who  iXcupU'il  a  rc^iiiii  HiippoM"!  to  lie  tlic 
O'litcr  of  (liiul.  Till'  miimUtm  city  ( 'hurt res 
BtuiuU  III  tlic  iiiidMt  of  it.  Till-  hiiitimI  K<'>i<'r<>l 
mcctiti);  plarc  of  tlw  DruidH  wiin  in  tlii'  coiiiilry 
of  the  ('iirmiti  H, — <1.  Loiij;.  ItrHine  of  tlit  Itnmnii 
Urjiuhlie,  r.  11,  rh.  'J2.— Hw,  iilxo,  °  VknK'I'I  ok 
Wkhtkiin  (Iaii,. 

CAROLINAS,  The.  Hon  Novtii  Cakomna, 
and  Sol  I'll  Caiiomna. 

CAROLINE,  Queen,  Trial  of.  Hoc  Eno- 
l,ANl>:   A.  I),  lM'2()-lHa7. 

CAROLINE,  The  BurninE  of  the.  Hie 
Canada:  A.  I).  1h;)7-1h;ih,  nrci  ThK>-1s41. 

CAROLINE  BOOKS,  The.— A  work  put 
fortli  l)y  ('liiirlciniiK'X'  iiK"'"'*'  l>iiitK<''W>i''*l>>J>>  '" 
roMHiili'riklil(^  Hyinpittliy  witli  tlic  vIcwh  of  tlii^ 
KuMtiTii  IcoiiocliiNtH  iiiui  nKiiiiiHt  tlic  ilccrrcM  of 
tlio  Sccoml  Couiuil  of  Nioi'ii  (A.  I).  787),  l.s 
known  iih  tlic  Ciiroliiic  Hooks.  It  is  Huppoxcd  to 
hiivi'  l«'cn  rldctly  tlic  coinposllion  of  the  kind's 
Iciinicd  friend  iind  counxcllor,  Alcuin,  the  En^- 
liHliniiin. — .1.  I.  Monibort,  Jliitt.  nf  dharlet  the 
Orenl.  ttk.  a,  rh.  13. 

CAROLINGIA.— On  the  division  of  tho 
••mpiro  of  ('liiirli'innKno  between  his  three  ;?riin(i- 
Bons,  A.  I).  843,  the  western  kinirdom,  whieU 
fell  to  ("hiirles,  took  for  u  lime  the  name  of 
('urolin>;iii,  as  part  of  liothitr's  middle  kingdom 
t(K)k  the  mime  of  Lotliarin^ia,  or  Lorniine.  liut 
tho  imine  died  out,  or  wiis  slowly  superseded  by 
that  of  France. — K.  A  Freeman,  Hist.  Deog.  uf 
Kurvix,  ell.  (I.  nect.  1. 

CAROLINGIANS.  See  Fkankb  (Cako 
LiNdiAN  Emi-iuk):  a,  '~   708-814. 

CARPET-BAGGE.  3.  Sec  United  States 
OP  Am.:  a.  1).  1H««-1M71. 

CARR  DIKE.— A  Hoioan  work  in  Britain, 
formed  for  tlic  draining  of  the  Lincolnshiro 
Fens,  and  usckI,  also,  as  a  road. — 11.  51.  Hearth, 
Jiomnn  Hntain,  eh.  16. 

CARRACKS,  OR  CARACS.-"  A  larRc 
species  of  luereliant  ves.sel,  principally  used  hi 
coasting  trade,"  among  the  Spaniards  of  tho  inth 
and  10th  centuries. —  W.  Irving,  Life  and  Voyage» 
of  Ooluml/uf,  Ilk.  0,  ch.  1  (n.  1),  fuot-note.  —  See, 
aisc,  Cauavki.b. 

CARRARA  FAMILY,  The:  Its  rite  to 
sovereignty  at  Padua  and  its  struggle  with 
the  Visconti  of  Milan.  Hco  Vekona:  A.  1). 
1260-i;mH,  and  Milan:  A.  D.  1377-1447. 

CARRHiE,  Battles  of  (B.C.  53).   See  Rome: 

B.  0.  ri7-53 (A.  D.  207),    See  Persia:  A.  D. 

230-«37. 

CARRICK'S  FORD,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1801  (June— July  :  West 

VlUOINIA). 

CARROCCIO,  The.— "Tho  militia  of  every 
city  [in  Lombardy,  or  northern  Italy,  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries]  was  divided  into  separate 
bo<lies,  according  to  local  partitions,  each  led  by 
a  Qonfaloniero,  or  standard-bearer.  They  fought 
on  foot,  and  assembled  round  the  carroecio,  a 
heavy  car  drawn  by  oxen,  and  covered  with  the 
flags  and  armorial  bearings  of  the  city.  A  high 
pole  rose  in  the  middle  of  this  car,  bearing  ttic 
colc-rs  and  a  Christ,  which  seemed  to  bless  the 
army,  with  both  arras  extended.  A  priest  said 
daily  mass  at  an  altar  placed  in  the  front  of  the 
car.  The  trumpeters  of  the  community,  seated 
on  the  back,  part,  sounded  the  charge  and  the 
retreat.  It  was  Ileribert,  archbishop  of  Milan, 
contemporary  of  Conrad  the  Salic,  who  invented 


this  car  In  Imitation  of  the  ark  of  alllanro,  and 
cailHcd  it  to  be  adopted  at  Milan.  All  the  freir 
I'llieHof  Italy  followed  the  example:  this  sacred 
car.  intriiHled  to  the  giianliiinship  of  the  nillltia, 
gave  them  weight  and  r'ontldeiiei'." — .1.  ('.  Ii.  do 
Hlsiiioiidl.  Hint,  iif  the  Itiiliiin  llijiii/ilicii,  rh.  1. 

CARTEREl*.  Sir  George,  The  Jerser 
Grant  to.  Sec  New  .Jeiirev:  A.  D.  lOei-lOOT, 
to  1(1HH-17;18. 

CARTERET'S  MINISTRY.  Sec  Eno- 
I,  A  Nil:  A.  I).  1 74'.'- 1 7 1.-). 

CARTHAGE,  The  founding  of.— p:thbaal, 
or  Ilhobaal,  a  priest  of  .Vslarle,  ac<|iiired  pos-ses- 
sion  of  the  throne  of  Tyre  H.  (',  1117,  deposing 
and  putting  to  <leatli  the  legitimate  prince,  a 
descendant  of  Hiram,  Solomon's  ally  and  friend. 
The  .Ie/.el«'l  of  .lewish  history,  who  married 
Ahab,  king  of  Isi  el,  was  the  daughter  of  this 
king  Kthbaal.  "Kthbaul  was  siici'eeded  by  his 
son  Hale/.or  (88.V-877  H  (.'.).  After  eight  years 
Hale/.or  left  two  sons,  Mutton  and  Sicharbaal, 
both  under  age.  .  .  .  Mutton  died  in  the  year 
851)  li.  ('.  and  again  left  a  son  nine  years  old, 
Pygmalion,  and  a  daughter,  Klissa,  a  few  years 
older,  whom  he  had  married  to  his  brother 
Sicharbaal,  the  priest  of  the  templt!  of  .Melkarth. 
Mutton  had  intended  that  Eli.ssa  and  Pygmalion 
should  reign  together,  and  thus  the  ])ower  really 
pa.ssed  into  the  hands  of  Sicliarbaal,  the  husband 
of  Elissa.  When  Pygmalion  reached  his  six- 
teenth year  the  people  transferred  to  him  tho 
sovereignty  of  Tyre,  and  he  put  Sicharbaal,  his 
uncle,  to  death  .  .  .  (84011.  C.).  Eli-ssii  [or  Dido, 
as  she  was  also  called)  lied  from  Tyre  before  her 
brother,  as  we  are  told,  with  others  who  would 
not  submit  to  the  tyranny  of  Pygmalion.  Tho 
exiles  .  .  .  are  said  ...  to  have  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ityke, 
tho  old  colony  of  the  Pheiiieians,  and  there  to 
have  bought  as  much  land  of  the  Libyans  as 
could  be  covered  by  the  skin  of  an  ox.  By 
dividing  this  into  very  thin  strips  they  obtained 
a  piece  of  land  sutlieient  to  enable  them  to  build 
a  fortress.  This  now  dwelling-place,  or  the  city 
which  grew  up  round  this  fortress,  the  wander- 
ers called,  in  reference  to  their  old  home,  Kar- 
thada  (Kartiv  hadasha),  1.  e.,  'the  new  city,' 
t'lio  Karchedon  of  the  Greeks,  the  Carthage  of 
the  Romans.  The  legend  of  the  purchise  of 
the  soil  may  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that 
the  settlers  for  a  long  time  paid  tribute  to  the 
ancient  iiopulation,  the  Maxyans,  for  their 
soil." — M.  Duncker,  Jliat.  of  Antiquity,  hk.  3, 
ch.  11. 

Also  IN:  .1.  Kenrick,  Phncninn  :  Hi»t.,eh.    1. 

Divisions,  Size  and  Population. — "The  city 
proper,  at  the  time  at  which  it  is  best  known  to 
us,  the  iieriixl  of  the  Punic  wars,  consisted  of 
the  Byrsa  or  Citadel  quarter,  a  Greek  word 
corrupted  from  the  Canaanitish  Bozrn,  or  Bostra, 
that  IS,  a  fort,  and  of  the  Cothon  or  harbour 
quarter,  so  important  in  the  history  of  the  final 
siege.  To  the  north  and  west  of  these,  and 
occupying  all  the  vast  space  between  them  and 
•  he  isthmus  behind,  were  the  Megara  (Hebrew, 
taguriin),  that  is,  the  suburbs  and  gardens  of 
Carthage,  which,  with  tho  city  proper,  covered 
an  area  of  23  miles  in  circumference.  Its  popu- 
lation must  have  been  fully  proportioned  to  Its 
size.  Just  before  the  third  Punic  war,  when  its 
strength  had  been  drained  ...  it  contained 
700,000  inhabitants."— R.  B.  Smith,  Carthage 
and  tflw  Cartliaginians,  ch.  1, 


392 


CAnriiAOE. 


(AnTIIAOK. 


Krcoimin,    Girthdtgt  (Ui»l. 


Al.w)    IN:    K.    A. 
Kmxiiin,  Ath  tfrif*). 

Tiie  Dominion  of.— "  All  mir  piwltlvi'  liifor 
iiiittloii,  Hciiiity  iM  it  U,  iilHiiil  ()iirtli»K<'  it»<l  Ix'i' 
iiiHtitiuioiiH,  rclulcM  to  tli(!  fdurtli,  tliliil,  <ir 
hi'coikI  cfiitiirli'H  H.  ('. ;  vi't  It  iniiy  lir  lidil  In 
justify  pi'cHiiiiiptivc  {'oncfuHloim  iis  to  llir  llflli 
ct'iiliirv  "■  <'i  •■.H|>('(iiilly  In  rrfcrniri'  to  llic 
fri'iicriil  KyHtcm  piirsiii'il.  Tlic  iiiitxirniiiii  of  her 
nowcT  WHS  iiltiilncd  hrforc  her  Ili'Ht  wiir  willi 
Uonic,  wlilcli  bcifiiii  in  'HH  It.  ('. ;  tlu-  tint  unci 
M-coiid  i'iuil(^  wiirs  hoth  of  tlicin  ((rcatlv  ri'iliici'il 
licr  HtrciiKtli  niid  (loiiiliiloii.  Yet  In  Hprirof  hucIi 
ri'tliu'tion  wo  Iciirn  llmt  iiboiit  I.IO  IJ.  ('.  Hlinrlly 
hcforu  tli(!  third  I'unic  war,  whicli  ended  In  tlic- 
capluit'  mid  depopulation  of  the  eilj'.  not  less 
tlian  7(K),(M)0  kouIs  were  eonipiited  in  it.  as  rx'cu- 
pantH  of  a  fortilled  eireuniference  of  above  twenty 
MiileH,  covering  a  peninsula  with  its  isthmus. 
Upon  this  iHthinus  Its  citaiiel  liyrsa  wasNituated. 
surrounded  liy  a  triple  wall  of  its  own,  and 
crowned  at  its  suinniit  liy  a  nijif^nitlcent  teniplo 
of  .itlsculapius.  Tlie  numerous  population  isthu 
moro  remarkalile,  since  Ulica  (a  consldemble 
city,  colonized  from  I'lnenlela  more  anciently 
tlian  even  (lartha^e  itself,  and  always  indepenil- 
cut  of  the  Carthaginians,  tliou)^li  In  tlie  condition 
of  an  inferior  aiKldiscontentcd  ally)  was  within 
till!  distance  of  seven  miles  from  (;artha)i;c  on  the 
one  side,  and  Tunis  Hceminf^ly  not  miicli  further 
olT  on  tliu  other.  Even  at  that  time,  tiK),  thy 
Cartliaginians  arc  said  to  havu  possessed  aoo 
tributary  cities  in  Libya.  Yet  this  was  but  a 
small  fraction  of  the  pr(xliKious  empire  which 
liad  belonged  to  them  certainly  in  the  fourth 
century  U.  C.  and  in  all  probability  also  I  'tween 
4«0-110  B.  C.  That  cmnirii  extended  eastward 
as  far  a.s  the  Altars  of  the  I'liilicnl,  near  tlie 
Great  Syrtis,  —  westward,  all  along  the  coast  to 
the  Pillars  of  Herakles  ami  tlie  western  coast  of 
Morocco.  The  Hue  of  coast  southeast  of  Car- 
thage, as  far  as  the  bay  called  the  Lesser  Syrtis, 
was  proverliiai  (under  tlio  name  of  liyzaclum 
ami  the  Emporia)  for  its  fertility.  AK>ng  this 
extensive  line  were  distributed  indigenous 
Libyan  tribes,  living  l)y  agriculture;  and  a 
mixed  population  called  I.iiby-Pha'nician.  .  .  . 
Of  the  Litiy-i*h(enician  towns  the  numlier  is  not 
Itnown  to  us,  but  it  must  liave  been  pnKligiously 
great.  ...  A  few  of  the  towns  along  the  coast, 
—  Hippo,  Utica,  Adrumotum,  Tiiapsus,  Lcpils, 
&c. —  were  colonies  from  Tyre,  like  Carthage 
Itself.  .  .  .  Yet  tlie  Carthaginians  contrived  m 
time  to  render  every  town  trlbutjiry,  witli  the 
exception  of  Utica.  ...  At  one  time,  immedi- 
ately after  the  first  Piniic  war,  they  took  from 
the  rural  cultivators  as  much  as  one-lialf  of  their 
prmluce,  and  doul)1ed  at  one  stroke  the  tribute 
levied  upon  the  towns.  .  .  .  The  native  Cartlia- 
ginians, though  encoiinigcd  liy  lumorary  marks 
to  undertake  .  .  .  inilitary  service  were  gener 
idly  averse  to  it,  and  sparingly  employed.  .  .  . 
A  chosen  division  of  2,.')U0  citizens,  men  of 
wealth  and  family,  formed  what  was  called  the 
Sacred  Hand  of  Carthage  distinguished  for  their 
bravery  in  the  field  as  well  as  for  the  splendour 
of  their  arms,  and  the  gold  and  silver  plate 
wiiicli  formed  part  of  their  baggage.  We  shall 
find  these  citizen  troops  occasionally  employed 
on  service  in  Sicily :  but  mo.st  part  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian army  consists  of  Gauls,  Iberians,  Liby- 
ans, &c.,  a  mingled  host  got  together  for  tiie 
occasion,  discordant  in  lauguagc  as  well  as  in 
26 


riiiiU)m«."— O.  Orolf,  IM.  of  Oretet,  pt.  3,  eh. 
Ml. 

B.  C.  480.— Invasion  of  Sicily.— Great  defeat 
at  Himera.    See  Sn  ii,v;  ».  c.  Imo, 

B.  C.  409-40^.— Invasion*  of  Sicily.— De- 
struction, of  Selinus,  Himera  and  AKrigentutn. 
.Sic  .S|(  ii.v;    11.  ( ',  4()!»- lO.V 

B.  C.  396.— Siege  of  Syracuse.    See  Svha- 

(1  sk:  h.  c.  ;)(»t  :m(i. 

B.  C.  383.— War  with  Syracuse.  See  Sicily  : 
H.  (,'.  ;w;i. 

B    C.   3io-3o6.— Invasion    by   Agathoklea. 

SeeSviiACl'SK:  II.  C.  !J17-'JH1). 

B.  C.  264-241.— The  first  war  with  Rome.— 
Expulsion  from  Sicily.  — Loss  of  maritime 
supremacy.     .Sec  I'lsic  Wak,  'I'm-;  l-'iiisr. 

B.  C.  241-238.— Revolt  of  the  mercenaries. 
— At  the  close  of  the  First  I'unic  War,  the  vet- 
eran armv  of  mercenaries  with  whhh  llamilcar 
liarca  had  maintained  hlms<'lf  so  loni;  In  Sicily — 
a  motley  gathering  of  Greeks,  Llgurians,  Gaiiis, 
Ilieriaiis,  Libyans  and  others — was  sent  ov<'r  to 
Cartilage  for  the  long  arrears  of  pay  due  them 
and  for  their  discharge.  The  party  111  power  in 
Carthage,  being  botli  Incapable  and  mi'ari,  and 
being  also  embarrassed  by  an  empty  tri'asiiry, 
exasperated  this  dangeri.us  body  of  men  by 
ilelays  and  by  attempts  at  bargaining  with  them 
for  a  reduction  of  their  claims,  until  a  general 
mutiny  was  provoked.  The  mercenaries,  20,000 
strong  with  Spendliis,  a  runaway  Campanlan 
slave,  Matlio,  an  African,  and  Aiitaritus,  a  Gaul, 
for  their  leaders,  marched  from  tin;  town  of  Sicca, 
where  they  were  quartered,  and  campi'd  near 
Tunis,  threatening  Carthagi-.  The  government 
became  jiaiiicstricken  and  t<M)k  no  measures 
which  did  not  embolden  the  mutineers  and 
increase  tlieir  demands.  All  the  oppressed  Afri- 
can peoples  in  the  Carthaginian  (tomain  rose  to 
join  the  revolt,  and  poured  into  tlu^  hands  of  tlio 
mercenaries  the  tribute  money  which  Carthage 
would  have  wrung  from  them.  The  latter  was 
soon  brought  to  a  state  of  sore  distress,  without 
an  army,  without  ships,  and  with  its  supplies  of 
f<M:  I  mostly  cut  off.  The  neighboring  cities  of 
U'i'a  ami  Hippo  Zarytus  were  besieged.  At 
len^tli  the  Carthaginian  government,  controlled 
by  a  party  hostile  to  llamilcar,  was  obliged  to 
call  him  to  the  command,  but  a.ssoelated  witt 
him  Hanno,  ids  biltert^st  personal  enemy  and  the 
most  incompetent  leader  of  the  ruling  faction, 
llamilcar  succeeded,  after  a  desperate  and  long 
struggle,  in  destroying  the  mutineers  to  almost 
the  last  man,  and  in  saving  Carthage.  But  the 
war,  whicli  lasted  'nore  than  three  years  (U.  C. 
241-238),  was  merciicss  and  horrible  beyond  de- 
scription. It  was  known  to  the  amiints  as  the 
"Trucelcss  War"  and  the  "  Inexp:  l)lo  War." 
The  .scenes  and  circumstances  of  it  ii;ne  lieen  ex- 
traordinarily [lictured  in  Klaulicrt's  "  Salammbo," 
which  is  one  of  the  most  revolting  but  most 
powerful  of  historical  romances. — K.  B.  Smith, 
C'art/iii      (tiul  the  Oirt/uif/inUiiui,  ch.  8. 

Al,i-()  i.v:  W.  llinc.  itiiit.  '//  Itoiiw.  hk.  4,  cli.  A. 

B.  C.  237-202.— Hamilcar  in  Spain.— The 
second  war  with  Rome. — Hannibal  in  Italy 
and  Sicily.— Scipio  in  Africa. — The  great  de- 
feat at  Zama.— Loss  of  naval  dominion  and 
of  Spain.     .See  Pu.Nic  Wau,  The  Siico.NU. 

B.  C.  146.— Destruction  by  Scipio.— Car. 
tliage  existed  by  Uoiiian  su/Teraiice  for  fifty 
years  after  the  ending  of  the  Second  Punic  War, 
and  even  recovered  some  considerable  prosperity 


393 


CAHTIIAGE. 


CARTHAGE. 


In  tniflp,  tt;on;?li  Home  took  care  tlmt  licr  clmnops 
for  recovery  sliould  bu  slij^lit.  Wlicii  IIannil)!iI 
giivo  sij^iis  of  lu'iug  ulile  to  reform  tlm  govern- 
meiit  of  lUv  city  aixl  to  distiiiguisli  liiiiiself  in 
statesmanship  as  lie  Iniil  imniortali/.eil  liimself  in 
war,  Home  (lenniiided  liini.  and  he  escaped  her 
chains  only  liy  llight.  When,  even  wilhont 
Ilannilial,  Carlhafce  slowly  rcpidred  the  broken 
fortunes  of  her  merchants,  there  was  an  enemy 
at  her  door  always  ready,  at  the  biilding  of 
Itome,  to  ])hinder  them  afresh.  This  was  Mas- 
sinissa,  the  Numidian  prince,  client  and  obedient 
serv.uit  of  the  Roman  state.  Aitain  and  afjain 
the  helpless  Carthai^inians  appealed  to  Rome  to 
protect  them  from  Ins  depredations,  and  linally 
they  ventured  to  attempt  the  protection  of  them- 
selves. Then  the  patient  perlidy  of  Roman  state- 
craft gras|>ed  its  reward.  It  had  wailed  many 
years  for  the  iirovocations  of  Massirussa  to  work 
their  ciTect;  the  maddened  Carthaginians  had 
broken,  at  last,  the  hard  letterof  the  treaty  of  201 
by  as.sailing  the  friend  and  ally  of  Rome.  The 
pretext. siilliccd  foranewdei'laration  of  war,  with 
the  ILved  purpose  of  pressing  it  to  the  last  ex- 
treme. Old  Cato,  who  had  been  crying  in  the 
cars  of  the  Senate,  "Carthago  deleiula  est," 
should  have  his  will.  The  doomed  Cartha- 
ginians were  kei)t  in  ignorance  of  the  fate 
(lecreed,  until  they  had  been  foully  tricked  into 
the  surrender  of  their  arms  and  the  whole  arma- 
ment of  their  city.  IJut  when  they  knew  the 
dreadful  truth,  they  threw  off  all  cowardice  and 
rose  to  such  a  majesty  of  spirit  as  liad  never 
been  exhibited  in  their  history  befcnc.  Without 
weapcms,  or  engines  or  ships,  until  they  made 
them  anew,  they  shut  their  gates  and  kept  llie 
Roman  armies  out  for  more  than  two  years.  It 
was  another  Scipio,  adopted  grandson  and  name- 
sidie  of  the  concpieror  of  Hannibal,  who  finally 
entered  Carthage  (H.  C.  146),  fought  his  way  to 
its  citadel,  sU-cet  by  street,  and,  against  his  own 
wish,  by  commaiKl  of  the  implacable  senate  at 
Rome,  levelled  its  last  building  to  the  earth, 
after  sending  the  iidiabitants  who  survived  to  be 
sold  as  slaves. — R.  15.  Smith,  Cartluuje  itiul  the 
C'art/iiif/iniiin/i,  eh.  20. 

Ai>s()  in:  II.  G.  Liddell,  Hist,  of  lioine,  ch.  40. 

B.  C.  44.— Restoration  by  Csesar.— "A  set- 
tlement named  .lunoiiia,  had  been  made  at  Car- 
thage by  C.  Gracchus  [which  fiu'nished  Ids 
enemies  one  of  their  weai)ons  against  him,  be- 
cause, they  sai<l,  he  had  drawn  on  himself  the 
curse  of  Seipio]  and  it  aj^ijoars  that  the  city  of 
Gracchus  still  existed.  Cae.sar  restored  the  old 
name,  and,  as  Strabo  says,  rebuilt  the  place: 
many  Romans  who  preferred  Carthage  to  Rome 
were  sent  there,  and  some  .soldiers;  and  it  is  now, 
adds  Strabo  [reign  of  August  11.',]  more  pojjtdous 
than  any  town  in  L'bya." — G.  Long,  Dediitcof  the 
lioiiMii  liepiihUc,  V.  a,  ch.  33. 

2d'4th  Centuries. — The  Christian  Church. 
SeeCiiitisTiANiTy:  A.  I).  100-;!12. 

A.  D.  439.— Taken  by  the  Vandals. — 
Cartilage  was  surprised  and  captured  by  the 
'•■  dais  on  the  9th  of  Oct.,  A.  1).  4;)!).— nine 
•  ,i's  after  the  C(m(iuest  and  destruction  of  the 
.  frican  provinces  by  Genseric  began; — M^ 
years  after  the  ancient  Carthage  was  destroyed 
by  Scipio.  "  A  new  city  had  risen  from  its 
ruins,  with  the  title  of  a  colony;  and  though 
Carthago  might  yield  to  the  royal  jn-erogatives 
of  Coustautiuople,  and  perhaps  to  the  trade  of 
Alexandria  or  the  splendour  of  Aiitioch,  she  still 


maintained  the  second  rank  in  the  West  —  as  the 
Rome  (if  we  may  use  the  style  of  contemporaries) 
of  the  African  world.  .  .  .  The  buildings  of  ('ar- 
thage  were  tiniform  and  magiiilieent.  A  shady 
grove  was  ])lanttHl  in  the  midst  of  the  capital; 
the  new  port,  a  secure  and  capacious  liarl)our, 
was  subservient  to  the  commerdal  industry  of 
citizens  and  .strangers;  and  the  splendid  games  of 
the  circus  and  theatre  were  cxliibite<l  almo.st  in 
the  i)resence  of  the  barbarians.  Tlie  reputation 
of  the  Carthaginians  was  not  ecpial  to  that  of 
their  couritry,  and  the  reproach  of  Punic  faith 
still  adlu^red  to  their  subtle  and  faithless  chamc- 
ter.  The  habits  of  trade  and  the  abuse  of 
luxury  had  corrupted  their  manners.  .  .  .  The 
King  of  the  Vandals  severely  reformed  the  vices 
of  a  voluptuous  people.  .  .  .  The  lands  of  the 
proconsidar  i)rovince,  which  formed  the  im- 
mediate district  of  Carthage,  were  accurately 
measured  and  divided  among  the  barbarians." 
— E.  Gibbon,  Derliiu  and  ?all  of  the  liomiiii 
Empive,  ch.  33. — See,  also,  Vandai.s:  A.  D.  439- 
439. 

A.  D.  533. — Taken  by  Belisarius.  See 
Vandai.s.  a.  I).  r)33-.'")34. 

A.  D.  534-558.— The  Province  of  Africa 
after  Justinian's  conquest.— "Successive  in- 
roads [of  the  Moorish  tribes]  had  reduced  tho 
l)rovince  of  Africa  to  one-third  of  the  measure 
of  Italy;  yet  the  Roman  emperors  ccmtinued  to 
reign  above  a  century  over  Carthage  and  the 
fruitful  coa.st  of  the  Mediterranean.  But  the 
victories  and  the  losses  of  Justinian  were  alike 
pernicious  to  mankind  ;  and  such  was  the  desola- 
tion of  Africa  that  a  stranger  might  wander  whole 
days  rtilliout  meeting  the  face  either  of  a  friend 
or  an  enemy.  The  nation  of  the  Vandals  liad 
disajjpeared.  .  .  .  Tlicir  numbers  were  inlinitely 
surp!is.sed  by  the  number  of  the  Moorish  families 
extirpated  in  a  relentless  war;  and  the  same 
destruction  was  retaliated  on  the  Romans  and 
tlieir  allies,  who  peri.slied  by  the  climate,  their 
mutual  (piarrels,  and  the  rage  of  the  barbarians. 
When  Procopius  first  landed  [with  Belisarius, 
A.  D.  1)33]  he  admired  tho  populousness  of  the 
cities  and  country,  strenuously  exercised  in  the 
labours  of  commerce  and  agriculture.  In  less 
than  twenty  years  that  busy  scene  was  converted 
into  a  silent  solitude;  the  wealthy  citizens 
escaped  to  Sicily  and  Constantinople;  and  tho 
secret  historian  has  confidently  atlirmcd  that  live 
millions  of  Africans  were  consumed  l)y  the  wars 
and  government  of  the  Emperor  Justinian." — E. 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Full  of  the  Itomaa  Empire, 
ch.  43. 

A.  D.  698. — Destruction  by  the  Arabs, — "  In 
the  77tli  year  of  the  Ilegira  [A.  D.  098]  .  .  . 
Abd'ahnalec  [the  Calii)li]  sent  llossau  Ibn  An- 
no'man,  at  the  head  of  40,000  choice  troops,  to 
carry  out  the  scheme  of  African  coiuiucst  [wliicli 
had  languished  for  some  years,  during  the  civil 
wars  among  tho  Moslems].  That  general  pressed 
forward  at  once  with  his  troops  agairst  tho  city 
of  Carthage,  which,  though  deelined  from  its 
ancient  might  and  glory,  was  still  an  important 
seaport,  fortified  witii  lofty  wails,  haughty  towera 
and  powerful  bulwarks,  and  liad  a  numerous 
garrison  of  Greeks  and  other  Christians.  Ilossan 
proceeded  accortling  to  tho  old  Arab  mode ;  be- 
leaguering and  reducing  it  by  a  long  siege;  ho 
then  as.sailed  it  by  storm,  scaled  iis  lofty  walls 
with  ladders,  ami  made  himself  master  of  the 
place.    Many  of  the  iuhabituuls  fell  by  the  edge 


394 


CARTHAGE. 


CAUTOUCHE. 


of  the  sword ;  many  escnped  by  scp  to  Sicily  and 
Spain.  The  walls  were  then  demolished;  the 
city  \ras  given  up  to  be  plundered  l)y  the  sol- 
diery, the  meanest  of  whom  was  enriched  by 
booty.  .  .  .  The  triumph  of  the  Moslem  host 
was  suddenly  interrupted.  While  they  were 
revelling  in  the  ravaged  palaces  of  Carthage,  a 
fleet  appeared  before  the  port ;  snapped  the  strong 
chain  wliicli  guarded  the  entrance,  and  sailed 
into  the  harbor.  It  was  a  combined  force  of  sliips 
and  troops  from  Constantinople  and  Sicily ;  re- 
inforced by  Qoths  from  Spain ;  all  >mdcr  the  com- 
mand of  the  prefect  John,  a  patrician  general  of 
great  valor  and  experience,  llossan  felt  himself 
unable  to  cope  with  such  a  force ;  he  withdrew, 
however  in  good  order,  and  conducted  his  troops 
laden  with  spoils  to  Tripoli  and  Caerwan,  and, 
having  strongly  posted  them,  lie  awaited  rein- 
forcements from  the  Caliph.  These  arrived  in 
course  of  time  by  sea  and  land.  llossan  again 
tooli  the  field ;  encountered  the  prefect  John,  not 
far  from  Utica,  defeated  him  in  a  pitched  battle 
and  drove  him  to  embark  the  wrecks  of  his  army 
and  make  all  sail  for  Constantiiiople.  Carthage 
was  again  assailed  by  the  victors,  and  now  its 
desolation  was  complete,  for  thu  vengeance  of 
the  Moslems  gave  that  majestic  city  to  the  flames. 
A  heap  of  ruins  and  the  remains  of  a  noble  aque- 
duct are  all  the  relics  of  a  metropolis  that  once 
valiantly  contended  for  dominion  with  Home." 
— W.  Irving,  Maliamet  aiul  his  Successors,  v.  3, 
eh.  5i. 

Also  in  :  N.  Davis,  Carthage  and  Her  Remains. 
— See,  also,  Mahometan  Conquest  :  A.  D.  647- 

709. 

♦ 

CARTHAGE,  Mo.,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  .'..  D.  1861  (July— Septemdeh  : 
Missouri). 

CARTHAGENA  (NEW  CARTHAGE).— 
The  founding;  of  the  city. — Hasdrubal,  son-in-law 
and  successor  of  Hamilcar  Barca  in  Spain ,  founded 
New  Carthage  —  modern  Carthagena — some  time 
between  339  and  331  B.  C.  to  be  the  capital  of 
the  Carthaginian  dominion  in  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula.— U.  B.  Smith,  Carthage  and  t/ie  Cartlia- 
ginians,  ch.  9. 

Capture  by  Scipio.  See  Punic  War.  The 
Second. 

Settlement  of  the  Alans  in.  See  Spain: 
A.  D.  409^14. 


CARTHAGENA  (S.  Am.):    A.  D.  1697.— 
Taken  and  sacked  by  the  French. —  One  of  the 

last  enterprises  of  the  French  in  tlie  war  which 
was  closed  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  —  under- 
taken, in  fact,  while  tin  negotiations  at  Ryswick 
were  in  progress  —  was  the  storming  and  sacking 
of  Carthagena  by  a  privateer  squadron,  from 
Brest,  commanded  by  rear-admiral  Pointis,  April, 
1697.  "The  inhabitants  were  allowed  to  carry 
away  their  effects ;  but  all  the  gold,  silver,  and 
precious  stones  were  the  prey  of  the  conqueror. 
Pointis  .  .  .  reentered  Brest  safe  and  sound, 
bringing  back  to  his  ship-owners  more  than  ten 
millions.  The  oflicers  of  the  squadron  and  the 
privateers  had  well  provided  for  themselves  be- 
sides, and  the  Spaniards  had  probably  lost  more 
than  twenty  millions." — 11.  Martin,  Ilist.  of 
Prance:  Age  of  Louis XIV.  {tr.  by  M.  L.  Booth), 
i>.  3,  ch.  3. 

A.  D.   1741. —  Attack    and  repulse  of  the 
English.    See  England:  A.  D.  1739-1741. 


A.  D.  1815.— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
Spaniards.  See Colomhian  States:  A.  D.  \HU\- 
1819. 


CARTHUSIAN     ORDER.— La     Grande 

Chartreuse.— "  St,  Bruno,  once  a  canon  cf  St. 
Cunibert's,  at  Cologne,  and  afterward  clian- 
collor  of  the  metropolitan  church  of  P.heims,  fol- 
lowed by  six  companions,  founded  a  monastery 
near  Grenoble,  amii'  the  bleak  and  rugged 
mountains  of  the  ('jsert  of  Cliartreuse  (A.  D. 
1084).  The  rule  given  by  St.  Bruno  to  his  disci- 
ples was  founded  upon  that  of  St.  Benedict,  but 
with  such  modifications  as  almost  to  make  of  it 
a  new  and  particular  one.  The  Carthusians  were 
very  nearly  akin  to  the  monks  of  Vallis-Unibrosa 
and  Camaldoli;  they  led  the  same  kind  of  life  — 
the  eremitical  joined  to  the  cenobitic.  Each  re- 
ligious had  his  own  cell,  where  he  spent  the  week 
in  solitude,  and  met  the  commimity  only  on  Sim- 
day.  .  .  .  Never,  perhaps,  had  the  monastic  life 
surrounded  itself  with  such  rij'  ors  and  holy  aus- 
terities. .  .  .  Thereligious  we,  e  bound  to  a  life- 
long silence,  having  reno\mced  tlie  world  to  hold 
converse  with  Heaven  alone.  Like  the  solitaries 
of  Thebais  they  never  eat  meat,  and  tlieir  dress, 
as  an  additional  penance,  consisted  only  of  a 
sack-cloth  garment.  >Ianual  labors,  broken  only 
by  the  exercise  of  common  prayer ;  a  boird  on 
the  bare  earth  for  a  couch;  a  vn..  w  cell,  whero 
the  religious  twice  a  day  receives  his  slight 
allowance  of  boiled  herbs;— such  is  the  life' of 
pious  austerities  of  whicli  the  world  knows  not 
the  heavenly  sweetness.  For  800  years  has  this 
order  continued  to  edify  and  to  serve  the  Church 
by  the  pmctice  of  the  most  sublime  virtue ;  and 
its  very  rigor  seems  to  hold  out  a  mysterious 
attraction  to  pious  soids.  A  congregation  of 
women  has  embraced  the  primitive  rule." — J.  E. 
Darras,  Ilist  of  tin:  Catlwlie  Church,  v.  3,  ch.  4, 
]mr.  26,  and  ch.  10,  par.  11. —  From  the  account 
of  a  visit  to  the  Grande  Chartreuse,  the  parent 
monastery,  near  Grenoble,  made  in  1667,  by 
Dom  Claude  Lancelot,  of  Port  Royal,  the  follow- 
ing is  taken:  "  All  I  had  heard  of  this  astonish- 
ing seclusion  falls  infinitely  short  of  the  reality. 
No  adequate  description  can  be  given  of  tho 
awful  magnificence  of  this  dreary  solitude.  .  .  . 
The  desert  of  the  Chartreuse  is  wholly  inacces- 
sible but  by  one  exceedingly  narrow  defile.  This 
pass,  which  is  only  a  few  feet  wide,  is  indeed 
truly  tremendous.  It  winds  between  stupendous 
granite  rocks,  which  overhang  above.  .  .  .  The 
monastery  itself  is  as  striking  as  the  approach. 
...  On  the  west  .  .  .  there  is  a  little  space 
whicli  ...  is  occupied  by  a  dark  grove  of  pino 
trees ;  on  every  otlier  side  tlic  rocks,  whicli  aro 
as  steep  as  so  many  walls,  are  not  more  than  ten 
yards  from  the  convent.  By  this  means  a  dim 
and  gloomy  twilight  perpetually  reigns  within." 
— M.  A.  Schimmelpenninck,  A  tour  to  Alet  and 
La  Orande  Chartreuse,  v.  1,  ;);'•  0-13. 

CARTIER,  Jacques,  Exploration  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  by. — See  Amekica:  A.  D.  1534-1535, 
and  1541-1003. 

CARTOUCHE.— "It  is  impossible  to  travel 
in  Upper  Egypt  without  knowing  what  is  meant 
by  a  cartouche.  A  cartouche  is  that  elongated 
oval  terminated  by  a  straight  line  which  is  to  be 
seen  on  every  wall  of  the  Egyi)tian  temples,  and 
of  wliich  other  monuments  also  afford  us 
numerous  examples.  The  cartouche  always 
contains  the  name  of  a  king  rr  of  a  queen,  or  in 


395 


CAUTOUCHE. 


CASTE  SYSTEM  OF  INDIA. 


Bomc  cases  the  names  of  royal  princesses.  To 
designate  a  king  there  are  most  frequently  two 
cartouches  side  hy  side.  The  first  is  called  the 
pnenomen,  the  second  thenomen." — A.  Mariette, 
Monument*  of  Upjier  Eijypt,  p.  43. 

CARTWRIGHT'S  POWER  LOOM,  The 
invention  of.     .See  Cotton  Manufactuue. 

CARUCATE.    See  Hide  op  Land. 

CARUS.  Roman  Emperor,  A.  1).  282-383. 

CAS  A  MATA,  Battle  of.  See  Mexico:  A.  D. 
1847  (Maucii— Sei'temheu). 

CASALE:  A.  D.  1628-1631.— Siege  by  the 
Imperialists. —  Final  acquisition  by  France. 
See  Italy:  A.  I).  1027-1031. 

A.  D.  1640. — Unsuccessful  siege  by  the 
Spaniards.     See  Italy:  A.  D.  1635-1659. 

A.  D.  1697.— Ceded  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 
See  Savoy  and  Piedmont:  A.  D.  1580-1713. 

CASALSECCO,  Battle  of  (1427).  See 
Italy:  A.  D.  1412-1447. 

CASAS,  Bartolom^  de  las.  The  humane 
labors  of.  See  Slaveuy:  Modern — ov  the 
Indians. 

CASDIM.    See  Baotlonia,  Primitive. 

CASENA,  Massacre  at.  See  Italy:  A.  D. 
134:i-1393. 

CASHEL,  Psalter  of.  See  Tara,  The  IIii.l 
AND  the  Feih  ok. 

CASHEL,  Synod  of.  See  Ireland:  A.  D. 
1169-1175. 

CASHMERE:  A.  D.  1819-1820.— Conquest 
by  Runjet  Singh.     See  Sikhs. 

A.  D.  1846.— Taken  from  the  Sikhs  by  '^'•e 
English  and  given  as  a  kingdom  to  Gholab 
Singh.     See  India:  A.  D.  1845-1849. 
*■ ■ 

CASIMIR  I.,  King  of  Poland,  A.  D.  1037- 

1058 Casimir  II.,  Duke  of  Poland,  A.  D. 

1177-1194 Casimir  III.  (called  The  Great), 

King  of  Poland,  A.  D.   1333-1370 Casimir 

IV.,   King    of  Poland,  A.    D.    1445-1493 

Casimir,  John,  King  of  Poland,  A.  P.  1648- 
1668. 

CASKET  GIRLS,  The.  See  Louisiana: 
A.  D.  1728. 

CASKET  LETTERS, The.  SeeScoTLANU: 
A.  D.  1561-1568. 

CASPIAN  GATES  (PYLiE  CASPIiE).— 
An  important  pass  in  the  Elburz  Mountains,  so 
called  by  the  Greeks.  It  is  identifled  with  the 
pass  known  to  the  modern  Persians  as  the  Girduni 
Surdurrah,  some  fifty  miles  or  more  eastward, 
or  northeivstward,  from  Teheran.  "Through 
this  pass  alone  can  armies  proceed  from  Armenia, 
Media,  or  Persia  eastward,  or  from  Turkestan, 
Khorasnn  and  Afghanistan  into  the  more  western 
parts  of  Asia.  Tlie  position  is  therefore  one  of 
primary  importance.  It  was  to  guard  it  that 
llhages  was  built  so  near  to  the  eastern  end  of  its 
territxiry. " — G.  Kawlinson,  Sixth  Oreat  Oriental 
Monarchy,  eh.  4. 

Also  in:  Same,  Mm  Great  Monarchies:  Media, 
ch.  1. 

CASSANDER,  und  the  wars  of  the  Dia- 
dochi.  See  Macedonia:  B.  C. 323-316  to 297-280; 
also  Greece:  B.  U.  321-312. 

CASSANO,  Battles  of  (1705  and  1799).  See 
Italy:  A.  D.  1701-1713,  and  France:  A.  D.  1799 
(April — Septemiieu). 

CASSEL:  a.  D.  1383.— Burned  by  the 
French.    See  Flanubiw:  A.  D.  1383. 


CASSEL,  Battles  of  (1338  and  1677).  See 
Flanders;  A.  D.  1328,  and  Netherlands  (Hol- 
land): A.  I).  1674-1678. 

CASSIAN  ROAD.— One  of  the  great  Roman 
roads  of  antiquity,  which  ran  from  Rome,  by 
way  of  Sutrium  and  Clusium  to  Arretium  and 
Florentia. — T.  Jlommseii,  llist.  of  Rome,  bk.  4, 
ch.  11. 

CASSII,  The.— A  tribe  of  ancient  Britons 
whose  territory  was  near  the  Thames.  See  Bri- 
tain, (;eltio1''uiiies. 

CASSITERIDES,  The.— The  "  tin  islands," 
from  which  the  Pha>nicians  and  Cartliaginians 
obtained  their  supply  of  tin.  Sonio  arcliajologists 
identify  them  with  the  British  islaiids,  some  with 
the  Scilly  islands,  and  some  with  the  islanr'  4  in 
Vigo  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Spain. — Charles  Elton, 
Origins  of  Eiig,  Hist. 

Also  in;  .1.  Rhys,  Celtic  Britain. 

CASSOPIANS.     See  Epirus. 

CASTALIAN  spring.— a  spring  which 
issued  from  between  two  peaks  or  cliffs  of  Mount 
Parnassus  and  flowed  downward  in  a  cool  stream 
pa.st  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 

CASTE  SYSTEM  OF  INDIA,  The.— 
"  Tlie  caste  system  of  India  is  not  based  upou  an 
exclusive  descent  as  involving  u  difference  of  rank 
and  culture,  but  upon  an  exclusive  descent  as  In- 
volving purity  of  blood.  In  the  old  materialistic 
religion  which  prevailed  so  largely  in  the  ancient 
world,  and  was  closely  associated  with  sexual 
ideas,  the  maintenance  of  purity  of  blood  was. 
regarded  as  a  sacred  duty.  The  "individual  had 
no  existence  independent  of  the  family.  Male 
or  female,  the  individual  was  but  a  link  in  the 
life  of  the  family ;  and  any  intermixture  would 
be  followed  by  the  separation  of  the  impure 
branch  from  the  parent  stem.  In  a  word,  caste 
was  the  religion  of  the  sexes,  and  as  such  exists 
in  India  to  this  day.  .  .  .  The  Hindus  are  di- 
vided Into  an  infinite  number  of  castes,  accord- 
ing to  their  hereditary  trades  and  professions ; 
but  in  the  present  day  they  are  nearly  all  com- 
prehended in  four  great  castes,  namely,  the 
Brahmans,  or  priests ;  tlie  Kshatriyas,  or  soldiers ; 
the  Vaisyus,  or  merchants ;  and  the  Sudras,  or 
servile  class.  The  Brahmans  are  the  mouth  of 
Brahma ;  the  Kshatriyas  are  his  arms ;  the  Vaisyas 
are  hi?  thighs ;  and  the  Sudras  are  his  feet.  The 
three  first  castes  of  priests,  soldiers,  and  mer- 
chants, are  distinguished  from  the  fourth  caste 
of  Sudras  by  the  thread,  or  paita,  which  is  worn 
depending  from  the  left  shoulder  and  resting  on 
the  right  side  below  the  loins.  The  investiture 
usually  takes  place  between  the  eighth  and 
twelfth  year,and  is  known  as  the  second  birth, and 
those  who  are  invested  are  termed  the  '  twice 
born. '  It  is  difilcult  to  say  whether  the  thread  in- 
dicates a  separation  between  the  conquerors  and 
the  conquered ;  or  whether  it  originated  in  a  re- 
ligious investiture  from  which  the  Sudras  were 
excluded."— J.  T.  Wheeler,  Hist,  of  India,  v.  3, 
jip.  114  and  64. — "  Among  the  delusions  about 
modern  India  which  itsecms  impossible  to  kill, the 
belief  still  surviveo  that,  although  there  have 
been  many  changes  in  the  system  of  caste,  it  re- 
mains true  that  the  Hindu  population  is  divided 
into  the  four  grcaf,  classes  described  by  Manu ; 
Brahmans,  Kshatriyas,  Vaisyas,  and  Sudras.  In 
India  itself  this  notion  is  fostered  by  the  more 
learned  among  the  Brahmans,  who  love  to  make 
themselves  and  others  believe  in  the  continuous 
existcucu  of  a  diviuely  constituted  organization. 


396, 


CASTE  SYSTEM  OP  INDIA. 


CASTLE  ST.  ANGELO. 


To  whiit  extent  the  religious  nnil  sociiil  systems 
slindowed  fortl:  in  tlic  ancient  liraluniiniciil  litera- 
ture had  nn  aetuai  -ixistencc  it  is  dillicult  to  say, 
but  it  is  certain  tliat  little  n-iiiains  of  tlieni  now. 
The  Bn\hnians  maintain  their  exceptional  posi- 
tion; but  noonecan  discern  theo  .er  great  castes 
which  Manu  descrilKjd.  Excluding  the  lirali- 
mans,  caste  means  for  the  most  i)ail  hereditary 
occupation,  but  it  also  often  signifies  a  common 
oi.ginof  tribe  or  race.  India,  in  the  words  of 
Sir  Henry  Maine,  is  divided  into  a  vast  number 
of  independent,  self-acting,  organised  social 
groups  —  trading,  manufacturing,  cultivatinjj. 
'  In  the  enormous  majority  of  instances,  caste  is 
only  the  name  for  a  ui\mbcr  of  practices  wliicli 
are  followed  by  each  om;  of  a  midtitude  of  groups 
of  men,  wlielher  such  a  group  be  ancient  ami 
natural  or  mo<lern  and  artificial.  As  a  rule,  every 
tiiide,  every  profession,  every  guild,  every  tribe, 
every  class,  is  also  a  caste ;  and  the  members  of 
a  caste  not  only  have  their  special  objects  of 
worship,  selected  from  the  Hindu  Pantheon,  or 
adopted  into  it,  but  they  exclusively  eat  togctlier, 
and  exclusively  intermarry.'  ^Ir.  Kitts,  in  his 
interesting  '  Compendium  of  the  Castes  and  Tribes 
of  India,' compiled  from  the  Indian  Census  re - 

})orts  of  1881,  enumerates  1039  dilferent  castes. 
*"orty-8even  of  these  have  each  more  than  1,000,- 
000  members;  twenty-one  have  3,000,000 and  uj)- 
wards.  The  Bralimans,  K\nibis  (agriculturists), 
and  Chumars  (workers  in  leather),  are  the  only 
three  castes  each  of  which  has  more  than  10,- 
000,000;  nearly  15  perceiit.  of  the  inhabitants  of 
India  arc  included  in  these  three  castes.  Tlie 
distinctions  and  subdivisions  of  caste  are  in- 
numerable, and  even  the  Brahmans,  wlio  have 
this  in  common,  tliat  they  arc  reverenced  by  the 
members  of  all  other  castes,  are  as  much  divided 
among  themselves  as  the  rest.  There  are  nearly 
14,000,000 Brahmans;  accor^ling  to  Mr.  Sherring, 
in  his  work  on  '  Hindu  Tribes  and  Castes,'  there 
are  more  than  1,800  Brahmanical  subdivisions; 
and  it  constantly  happens  that  to  a  Brahman  of 
some  particular  class  or  district  tlie  pollution  of 
eating  with  other  Brsilimans  would  be  ruinous. 
.  .  .  The  Brahmans  have  become  so  numerous 
that  only  a  small  proportion  can  be  employed  in 
sacerdotal  functions,  and  the  charity  which  it  is 
a  duty  to  bestow  upon  them  could  not,  however 
profuse,  be  sutllcient  for  their  support.  Tliey 
are  found  in  almost  every  occupation.  They  are 
soldiers,  cultivators,  traders,  and  servants;  they 
were  very  numerous  in  the  old  Sepoy  army,  and 
the  name  of  one  of  their  subdivisions,  'Pande,' 
became  the  generic  term  by  which  the  mutineer 
of  1857  were  commonly  known  by  the  English 
in  India.  .  .  .  Mr.  Ibbetson,  in  his  report  on  the 
census  In  the  Punjab,  shows  liow  completely  it 
is  true  that  caste  is  a  social  and  not  a  religious 
institution.  Conversion  to  Alohammednnism,  for 
instance,  does  not  necessarily  affect  the  caste  of 
the  convert. " — Sir  J.  Strachey,  India,  led.  8. 

Also  in  :  JI.  Williams,  Rcligiou*  Thought  and 
Life  in  India,  eh.  18. — Sir  A.  C.  Lyall,  Asiatic 
StudifK,  ch.  7. — Sir  H.  S.  Maine,  Village  Communi- 
tien,  eh.  2. 

CASTEL.    See  Mogontiacu.m. 

CASTELAR  AND  REPUBLICANISM 
IN  SPAIN.  See  Spain:  A.  D.  1800-1873,  and 
1873-1885. 

CASTELFIDARDO,  BatMe  of  (i860).  See 
Italy:  A.  I).  1859-1861. 

CASTELLANO.    See  Spanish  Coins. 


CASTIGLIONE,  Battle  of.  See  France: 
A.  I).  17!)))  (ApKir. — OcTonKu). 

CASTILE,  Early  inhabitants  of.  Sec 
Ckltidkiiianh. 

A.  D.  713-1230.— Origin  and  rise  of  the 
kingdom.  See  Spaln:  A.  1).  713-737,  and  1020- 
1230. 

A.  D.  1 140.— Separation  of  Portugal  as  an 
independent  kingdom.  See  I'oien-oAi,:  A.  I). 
1095-1325. 

A.  D.  1169.— The  first  Cortes.— The  old 
monarchical  constitution.     See  C'outks. 

A.  D.  1212-1238.— Progress  of  arms.— Per- 
manent union  of  the  crown  with  that  of  Leon. 
— Conquest  of  Cordova. — Vassalage  impos<>d 
on  Granada  and  Murcia.  See  Spain;  A.  (). 
1212-1238. 

A.  D.  1248-1350.— Reigns  of  St.  Ferdinand, 
Alfonso  the  Learned,  and  their  three  succes- 
sors.    See  Spain:  A.  1).  1248-1350. 

A.  D.  1366-1360^— Pedro  the  Cruel  and  the 
invasion  of  the  English  Black  Prince.  See 
Spain  (Castii.e:):  A.  1).  1360  1309. 

A.  D.  1368-1476.- Under  the  house  of  Tras- 
tamare.-  Discord  and  civil  war. — The  triumph 
of  Queen  Isabella  ^nd  her  mar.iage  to  Ferdi- 
nand of  Aragon.     See  Spain:  A.  1).   1^08-1479. 

A.  D.  1515. — Incorporation  of  Navarre  with 
the  kingdom.     See  Navauuk:  A.  I).  1443-1521. 

A.  D.  1516.— The  crown  united  with  that  of 
Aragon,  by  Joanna,  mother  of  Charles  V.  See 
Spain:  A.  I>.  1496-1517. 

CASTILLA  DEL  ORG.  Sec  Ameuica: 
A.  D.  1.509-1511. 

CASTILLON,  Battle  of  (1450).  See  Fhance: 
A.  D.  1431-1453. 

CASTLE  ST.  ANGELO.— The  Mausoleum 
of  Hadrian,  begun  by  the  emperor  Hadrian,  A.  I). 
135,  and  probably  completed  by  Antoninus  Pius, 
"owes  its  preservation  entirely  to  the  peculiar 
litne.ss  of  its  site  and  shape  for  tlie  purposes  of 
a  fortress,  which  it  has  served  since  the  time  of 
Belisarius.  .  .  .  After  the  burial  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  the  tomb  was  closed  until  the  sack  of 
Rome  by  Alaric  in  410  A.  D.,  when  his  barba- 
rian soldiers  probably  broke  it  open  in  searcli  of 
treasure,  and  scattered  theashesof  the  Antonines 
to  the  winds.  From  this  time,  for  a  hundred 
years,  the  tomb  was  turned  into  a  fortress,  the 
possession  of  which  became  the  object  of  many 
struggles  in  the  wars  of  the  Goths  under  Vitiges 
(537  A.  D.)  and  Totilas  (killed  553).  From  the 
end  of  the  sixth  century,  when  Gregory  the 
Great  saw  on  its  sun.mit  a  vision  of  St.  Michael 
sheathing  his  sword,  in  token  tliat  the  prayers 
of  the  Romans  for  preservation  from  the  jilague 
were  heard,  the  Mausoleum  of  Hadrian  was 
considered  as  a  consecrated  building,  under  the 
name  of  'S.  Angelus  inter  Nubes,'  'Usque  ad 
Ccelos.'or  'Inter  Ca'los,'  until  it  was  seized  in 
023  A.  D.  by  Alberic,  Count  of  Tusculum,  and  the 
infamous  JIarozia,  and  again  became  the  scone 
of  the  fierce  struggles  between  Popes,  Emperors, 
and  reckless  adventurers  which  marked  those 
miserable  times.  Tlic  last  injuries  appear  to  have 
been  infl-xtcd  upon  the  building  in  the  contest 
between  the  French  Pope  Clemens  VII.  and  the 
Italian  Pope  Urban  VIII.  [see  Papacy:  A.  D. 
1377-1417].  The  exterior  was  then  finally  dis- 
mantled and  stripped.  Partial  additions  and  resto- 
rations soon  began  to  take  place.  Boniface  IX., 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  erected 


397 


CASTLE  ST.  ANGELO. 


CATALAN  GRAND  COMPANY. 


new  bfttUcments  and  fortifications  on  and  around 
the  building;  and  .since  his  time  it  has  remained 
In  the  ])()s.session  of  the  Papal  go /eminent.  Tlie 
strange  niedlcv  of  Papal  reception  rooms,  dun- 
geons and  nulitary  magazines  wliieli  now  en- 
cunihers  llie  top,  was  chiefly  huilt  by  Paid  111. 
The  corridor  connecting  it  with  the  Vatican 
dates  from  the  time  of  Alexander  Borgia  (1494 
A.  I).),  and  the  bronze  statu('  of  St.  Michael  on 
the  summit,  whidi  replaced  an  older  marlile 
statue,  from  the  reign  of  Benedict  XIV." — K. 
Burn,  llitiitf  (iiid  the  Vmnjxit/nii,  ch.  11. 

Al.so  in:  W.  W.  Story,  dnntlc  St.  Aiii/elo. 

C ASTLEN AUDARI,  Battle  of  (1632).  See 
Fuanck:  a.  I).  lf.;!0-lfi:!2. 

CASTLEREAGH,  Lord,  and  the  union  of 
Ireland  with  Great  Britain.  Sec  Ikei.and: 
A.  I).  170H-1H0O. 

CASTOR  WARE.— "  Durobrivian  or  Castor 
ware,  as  it  is  variously  called,  is  the  pnxluetion 
of  the  extensive  Homano-British  potteries  on  the 
River  Nen  in  Northamptoiisliire  and  Hunting- 
donshire, wliicb,  with  settlements,  arc  computed 
to  have  covered  a  district  of  some  twenty  sipiarc 
miles  in  extent.  .  .  .  There  are  several  varieiiis 
.  .  .  and  two  especially  have  been  reniarl<ed; 
the  first,  blue,  or  slate-coloured,  the  otlier 
reddish-brown,  or  of  a  dark  copper  colour." — L. 
•Tewett,  Gtutve  Mounds,  2>   1'')3. 

CASTRA,  Roman. — '"  When  a  Roman  army 
was  in  tlie  field  it  never  halted,  even  for  a  single 
night,  without  throwing  up  an  entrenchment 
capable  of  containing  tlie  wliolc  of  the  troops 
and  their  baggage.  Tliis  field- worli  was  tcrniL'd 
Castra.  .  .  .  The  form  of  the  camp  was  a  square, 
each  side  of  which  was  2,017  Roman  feet  in 
length.  Tlic  defences  consisted  of  a  ditch, 
(fossa,)  the  earth  dug  out,  being  thrown  inwards 
so  as  to  form  a  rampart,  (agger,)  upon  the  sum- 
mit of  which  a  palisade  (vallum)  was  erected  of 
wooden  stakes,  (valli  —  sudes,)  a  certain  number 
of  wliich  were  carried  by  each  soldier,  along  witli 
his  entrenching  tools." — W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of 
lioirmii  Aiitiq.,  rh.  13. 

CASTRICUM,  Battle  of.  Sec  Fuanck: 
A.  D.  1799  (Septkmiiku — OcTonKii). 

CASTRIOTS,  The.  See  Ai.hani.'VNS:  A.  D. 
1443-14B7. 

CASTRUCCIO  CASTRACANI,  The  des- 
potism of.     See  Italy:   A.  D.  i;!i;i-i;330. 

CAT  NATION,  The.  See  Amkkican  Aiio- 
nioiNKs:  IIuKONS,  &c.,  and  Iiioquois  Con- 
fedeuacv:  Tiikik  Conquests,  &c. 

CATACOMBS  OF  ROME,  The.— "The 
Roman  Catacomlis  —  a  name  con.secrated  bj  lung 
usage,  but  having  no  etymological  meaning,  and 
not  a  very  determinate  geograpliical  one  —  are  a 
vast  labyrinth  of  galleries  excavated  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  in  the  hills  around  the 
Eternal  City;  not  in  the  hills  <m  wliich  the  city 
itself  was  built,  but  in  tliose  beyond  the  walls. 
Their  extent  is  enormous,  not  as  to  the  amount 
of  superficial  soil  which  they  underlie,  for  they 
rarely,  if  ever,  pass  beyond  the  third  milestone 
from  tlie  city,  but  in  the  actual  lengtli  of  their 
galleries;  for  tlie.se  are  often  excavated  on 
various  levels,  or  piani,  three,  four,  or  even  five, 
one  above  the  other,  and  they  cross  and  reeross 
one  another,  some  times  at  sliort  intervals,  on 
each  of  these  levels;  so  that,  on  the  whole,  there 
arc  certainly  not  less  that  350  miles  of  them; 
that  is  to  say,  if  stretched  out  in  one  continuous 
Une,  they  would  extend  the  whole  length  of  Italy 


itself.  The  galleries  are  from  two  to  four  feet 
in  width,  and  vary  in  height  acconliiig  to  the 
nature  of  the  rock  in  whicli  they  are  dug.  The 
walls  on  both  sides  are  pierced  with  horizontal 
niches,  like  slielves  in  a  book-ca.se,  or  bertlis  in  a 
steamer,  and  every  niche  once  contained  one  or 
more  dead  bodies.  At  various  intervals  this 
succes.sion  of  shelves  is  interrupted  for  a  moment, 
that  room  may  be  made  for  a  doorway  opening 
into  a  small  chamber;  and  the  walls  of  these 
chambers  are  generally  pierced  with  graves  in 
the  same  way  as  tlu!  galleries.  These  vast  ex- 
cavati<ms  once  formed  the  ancient  Cliristian 
cemeteries  of  Rome;  they  were  begun  in 
apostolic  times,  and  contii.'ied  to  be  used  as 
burial-places  of  the  faithful  until  the  capture  of 
the  city  by  Alaric  in  the  year  410.  In  the  third 
century,  the  Roman  Cliurch  numbered  twenty- 
five  or  twenty-six  of  them,  corresponding  to  tno 
number  of  her  titles  or  parishes  within  tlie  city; 
and  besides  thes<;,  there  are  about  twenty  others, 
of  smaller  dimensions,  isolated  monuments  of 
special  martyrs,  or  belonging  to  this  or  that 
private  family.  Originally  tliey  all  belonged  to 
private  families  or  individuals,  the  villas  or 
gardens  In  which  they  were  dug  being  the 
property  of  wealthy  citizens  who  had  embraced 
the  faith  of  Christ,  and  devoted  of  their  substance 
to  His  service.  Hence  their  most  ancient  titles 
were  taken  merely  from  tlie  names  of  their  law- 
ful ownei-s,  many  of  which  still  survive.  .  .  . 
It  has  always  been  agreed  among  men  of  learn- 
ing who  have  had  an  opportunity  of  examining 
these  excavations,  that  tliey  were  used  exclusively 
by  the  Christians  as  places  of  burial  and  of  holti- 
ing  religious  assemblies.  Modern  research  has 
placed  it  beyond  a  doubt,  that  they  were  also 
originally  designed  for  this  purpose  and  for  no 
other." — J.  S.  Northcote  and  W.  R.  Brownlow, 
Roma  Sotterranen,  bk.  1,  ch.  1. 

A1.8O  IN:  A.  P.  Stanley,  Chvintinii  Inntitntions, 
ch.  13. 

CATALAN  GRAND  COMPANY,  The.— 
The  Catalan  Grand  Company  was  a  formidable 
body  of  militjiry  adventurers  —  mercenary  sol- 
diers—  formed  in  Sicily  during  the  twenty  years 
of  war  that  followed  the  Sicilian  Vespers. 
"  High  pay  and  great  license  drew  the  best 
sinews  in  Catalonia  and  Aragon  into  tlie  mercen- 
ary battalions  of  Sicily  and  induced  tliem  to 
s'lbniit  to  the  severest  discipline."  The  con- 
clusion of  peace  in  1302  threw  this  trained  army 
out  of  employment,  and  the  greater  part  of  its 
members  were  enlisted  in  tlie  service  of  Androni- 
cusll.,  of  the  restored  Greek  empire  at  Constanti- 
nople. They  were  under  the  command  of  one 
Roger  de  Flor,  who  had  been  a  Templar,  de- 
graded from  his  knighthood  for  desertion,  and 
afterwards  a  pirate;  but  wliose  military  talents 
were  undoubted.  The  Grand  Company  soon 
quarrelled  with  the  Greek  emperor;  its  leader 
was  assassinated,  and  open  war  declared.  The 
Greeli  army  was  terribly  defeated  in  a  battle  at 
Apros,  A.  I).  1307,  and  tlie  Catalans  plundered 
Thrace  for  two  years  without  resistance.  Galll- 
poli,  tlieir  headquarters,  to  which  they  brought 
their  captives,  became  one  of  tlic  great  slave 
marts  of  Europe.  In  1310  they  marched  into 
the  heart  of  Greece,  and  were  engaged  in  the 
service  of  Walter  de  Brienno,  Duke  of  Athens. 
He,  too,  found  them  dangerous  servants. 
Quarrels  were  followed  by  war;  the  Duke 
perished  in  a  battle  (A.  D.  1311)  with  his  Catalan 


398 


CATALAN  GRAND  COMPANY. 


CATHOLICS. 


mercenaries  on  the  banks  of  the  Cephissus;  his 
dukedom,  embrncing  Attica  and  Bojotia,  was  tlie 
prize  of  their  victory.  The  widows  and  daugli- 
ters  of  the  Greek  nobles  wlio  liad  fallen  were 
forced  to  marry  the  officers  of  the  Catalans,  who 
thus  settled  themselves  in  family  as  well  us 
estate.  They  elected  a  Duke  of  Athens;  but 
proceeded  afterwards  to  make  the  duchy  au 
appanage  of  the  House  of  Aragon.  The  title 
was  held  by  sons  of  the  Aragonese  kings  of 
Sicily  until  1377,  when  it  passed  to  Alphonso  V., 
king  of  Aragon,  and  was  retained  by  the  kings 
of  Spain  after  the  union  of  the  crowns  of 
Aragon  and  Castile.  The  titular  dukes  were 
represented  at  Athens  by  regents.  "  During  the 
period  the  duchy  of  Athens  was  possessed  by 
the  Sicilian  branch  of  the  house  of  Aragon,  the 
Catalans  were  incessantly  engaged  in  wars  with 
all  their  neighbours."  But,  gradually,  their 
military  vigor  and  discipline  were  lost,  and  their 
name  and  power  in  Greece  disappeared  obout 
1388,  when  Athens  and  most  of  the  territory  of 
its  duchy  was  conquered  by  Nero  Acciainoli,  a 
rich  and  powerful  Florentine,  who  had  become 
governor  of  Corinth,  but  acted  as  an  independent 
prince,  ond  who  founded  a  new  ducal  family. — 
G.  Finlay,  IIi»t.  of  the  Byzantine  and  Greek 
Empires,  bk.  4,  ch.  2,  sect.  3. 

Also  in  :  Same,  Uist.  of  Greece  from  its  Comj. 
by  the  Crusaders,  ch.  7,  sec.  3. — E.  Gfibbon,  Decline 
and  Fall  of  Die  Roman  Empire,  eh.  63. 

CATALANS:  A.  D.  1151— The  County  of 
Barcelona  united  by  marriage  to  Aragon. 
See  Spain  :  A.  D.  1035-1258. 

A.  D.  I2th-i5th  Centuries. — Commercial 
importance  and  municipal  freedom  of  Barce- 
lona.   See   Barcelona:  13th-10th  Centuuiks. 


A.  D.  1461-1473. — Lon^   but    unsuccessful 
revolt  against  Jonn  IL  of 
A.  D.  1368-1479. 


■  Aragon.    See  Sp.\in  : 


A.  D.  1630-1640. — Causes  of  disaffection 
and  revolt.     See  Spain:  A.  D.  1637-1640. 

A.  D.  1640-1652. — Revolt.— Renunciation  of 
allegiance  to  the  Spanish  crown. — Annexation 
to  France  offered  and  accepted. — Re-subjec- 
tion to  Spain.  See  Spain:  A.  D.  1640-1043; 
1644-1646;  1648-1653. 

A.  D.  1705.— Adhesion  to  the  Allies  in  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  See  Sp.\in  : 
A.  D.  1705. 

A.  D.  1713-1714. — Betrayed  and  deserted  by 
the  Allies.     See  Spain:  A.  D.  1713-1714. 


CATALAUNIAN  PLAINS.  See  Huns: 
A.  D.  451. 

CATALONIA.    See  Catalans. 

CATANA,  OR  KATANA,  Battle  of.  See 
Syisacuse:  B.  C.  397-390. 

CATANIA. — Storming  and  capture  by 
King  Ferdinand  (1849).  See  Italy:  A.  D. 
1848-1849. 

CATAPAN.  See  Italy  (SotrrnERN):  A.  1). 
800-1016. 

CATAWBAS,  The.  See  American  Abo- 
KioiNKs:  Siouan  Family. 

CATEAU-CAMBRESIS,  Treaty  of.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1547-1559. 

CATERANS.— "In  1384  an  act  was  passed 
[by  the  Scotch  parliament]  for  the  suppression  of 
masterful  plundered,  who  get  in  the  statute  their 
Highland  name  of  'catenm.'.  .  .  This  is  the 
first  of  a  long  succession  of  penal  and  denuncia- 


tory laws  against  the  Highlanders." — .1.  H.  Bur- 
ton, Hist,  of  Scotland,  v.  3,  eh.  37. 

catharists,  or  PATARENES.— 

"Among  all  the  sects  of  the  Middle  Ages,  very 
far  the  most  importiint  in  numbers  and  in  radical 
antagonism  to  the  Church,  were  the  Cathari,  or 
the  Pure,  as  with  characteristic  sc<:tarian 
a.ssumption  they  styled  themselves.  Albigenses 
they  were  called  in  Languedoc;  Patareiies  in 
North  Italy ;  Good  Men  by  themselves.  Stretch- 
ing through  central  Europe  to  Thrace  and 
Bulgaria,  they  joined  hands  with  the  Paulicians 
of  the  East  and  shared  their  errors.  Whether 
these  Cathari  stootl  in  lineal  historical  descent 
from  the  old  Manichicaiis,  or  hiul  generated  a 
dualistic  scheme  of  their  own,  is  a  ({uestioii  hard 
to  answer,  and  which  has  been  answered  in  very 
different  ways.  This  much,  however,  is  certain, 
that  in  all  essentials  they  agreed  with  tliem." — 
U.  C.  Trench,  Lects.  on  Mediieval  Church  Hist., 
leet.  15. — "In  Italy,  men  supposed  to  hold  the 
same  belief  [as  that  of  the  Paulicians,  Albigenses, 
etc.]  went  by  the  name  of  the  Pateriui,  a  word  of 
uncertain  derivation,  perhaps  arising  from  their 
willingness  meekly  to  submit  to  all  sufferings 
for  Christ's  sake  (pati),  perhaps  from  a  quarter 
in  the  city  of  Jlilan  named  '  Pataria ' ;  and  more 
lately  by  that  ol  Catiiari  (tlie  Pure,  Puritans), 
which  was  soon  corrupted  into  Gazari,  whence 
the  German  '  Ketzer, '  the  general  word  for  a 
heretic." — L.  Mariotti,  Pra  Doleitu)  and  hit 
Times,  ch.  1. — See,  also,  Paulicians,  and  Albi- 
genses. 
CATHAY.    See  China:  Tiik  Names  of  thk 

Coi'.NTKV. 

CATHELINEAU  and,  THE  INSUR- 
RECTION IN  LA  VENDEE.  See  France: 
A.  D.  1793  (March — April);  (June);  and  (July 

— ~"D  K  C  F  MBE  R^ 

CATHERINE  I.,  Czarina  of  Russia,  A.  D. 
1735-1737 Catherine  II.,  Czarina  of  Rus- 
sia, A.  D.  1763-1796 Catherine   and  Jean 

d'Albret,  Queen  and  King  of  Navarre,  A.  D. 

1503-1513 Catherine  de  Medici :  her  part 

in  French  history.  See  France:  A.  D.  1533- 
1547,  to  1584-1589. 

CATHOLIC  ASSOCIATION  AND  THE 
CATHOLIC  RENT  IN  IRELAND.  See 
IREL.VND:  A.  D.  1811-1839. 

CATHOLIC  DEFENDERS.  See  Ireland: 
A.  I).  1760-1798. 

CATHOLIC  LEAGUE,  The.  See  Papacy: 
A.  D.  1530-1531. 

CATHOLIC  LEAGUE  IN  FRANCE, 
The.     See  France:  A.  I).  1576-1.585  and  after. 

CATHOLICS  (England):  A.  D.  1572-1679. 
— Persecutions.  See  En(!L.vni);  A.  U.  157^ 
1603;  1585-1587;  1.587-1588;  1678-1679. 

(Ireland) :  A.  D.  1691-1782.— Oppression  of 
the  Penal  Laws.  See  Irelakd:  A.  1).  1691- 
1782. 

(England):  A.  D.  1778-1780.— Repeal  of 
Penal  laws.— No-Popery  Riots.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  U,  1778-1780. 

(Ireland) :  A.  D.  1795-1796.— Persecution  by 
Protestant  mobs.— Formation  of  the  Orange 
Society.     See  Irei..\.nu;  A.  1).  1795-1796. 

(Ireland) :  A.  D.  1801.  —  Pitt's  promises 
broken  by  the  King.  See  Enoland:  \.  \). 
1801-1806. 

(England  and  Ireland):  A.  D.  1829.— Eman- 
cipation from  civil  disabilities.  See  Ioeland: 
A.  D.  1811-1839. 


399 


CATHOLICS. 


CAUCASUS  AND  THE  CniCAS8IAN8. 


CATHOLICS,  Old.     Sec  Papact:    A.   D. 

18««-1H7(). 

CATILINE,  The  Conspiracy  of.  See  Rome: 
B.  ('.  «:). 

CATINI,  The.    See  Huitain,  Cki.tk'  Tiiiiiks. 

CATO  THE  YOUNGER,  and  the  last 
▼ears  of  the  Roman  Republic.  See  Rome: 
IJ.  ('.  03-r)H,  ti)  47-4(1. 

CATO  STREET  CONSPIRACY,  The. 
Sec  Kn(ii,.\ni>:  \.  I).  1H30-18:37. 

CATRAIL,  The. — An  anciont  ninipart.  the 
reiniiins  of  wliieli  are  found  in  southern  Heot- 
hinil,  runninjj  from  the  south-east  corner  of 
PcebleKiiliire  to  the  south  slilo  <>f  Lulilesdnle.  It 
is  supposed  to  have  marked  the  boundary 
between  the  old  Anglian  kingdom  of  Bernicia 
and  the  territory  of  the  British  kings  of  Alcluith 
(Dumbarton).—" W.  F.  Skene,  CelticSoithiiid.v.  1. 

CATTANI.—  VASSALL—  MASNADA.— 
SERVI.— The  feiidal  barons  of  northern  Italy 
were  called  t'attani.  In  the  Florentine  territory, 
"many  of  these  Cattani,  after  having  be^n  sub- 
dued and  made  citizens  of  Florence,  still  main- 
tained tlieir  feudal  following,  and  weie  usually 
attended  by  troops  of  retainers,  half  slaves,  linff 
freedmen,  called  'Uomini  di  Masnada,' whohchl 
certain  possessions  of  them  by  the  tenure  of 
military  service,  took  oaths  of  fidelity,  and 
appear  to  have  included  every  rank  of  person  in 
the  different  Italian  states  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  chief;  but  without  any  degrada- 
tion of  character  being  attached  to  such  employ- 
ment. This  kind  of  servitude,  which  could  not 
be  thrown  off  without  a  formal  act  of  manumis- 
sion, was  common  in  the  north  of  Italy,  and 
began  in  the  11th  century,  when  innumerable 
chieftains  started  up  owning  no  superior  but  the 
emperor.  Being  at  constant  war  with  each  other 
they  sought  every  means  of  creating  a  military 
foUowin'j  by  granting  lands  to  all  ranks  of 
people,  and  it  is  probable  that  many  slaves 
were  tnen  partly  emancipated  for  the  purpose: 
such  a  condition,  though  not  considered  dis- 
honourable, was  thus  essentially  tinged  wit':  the 
colours  of  slavery,  and  so  far  differed  from  tie 
'  Vassi  'and  '  Vassali,'  as  well  as  from  the  'Vava- 
sours.' .  .  .  Some  slight,  perhaps  unnecessary 
distinction  is  made  between  the  'Vassi,'  who  are 
supposed  to  have  been  vassals  of  the  crown,  and 
the  'Vassali,'  who  were  the  vassals  of  great 
lords.  The  '  Vavasours '  were  the  vassals  of 
great  vassals.  .  .  .  This  union  [as  described 
above]  of  '  Servi,'  slaves,  or  vassals  of  one  chief, 
was  called  '  Masnada,'  and  hence  the  name  '  Mas- 
nadieri,' so  often  recurring  in  early  Italian  his- 
tory; for  the  commanders  of  these  irregular 
bands  were  often  retained  in  the  pay  of  the 
republic  and  frequently  kept  the  field  when  the 
civic  troops  had  returned  to  their  homes,  or  when 
the  war  was  not  sufficiently  important  to  bring 
the  latter  out  with  the  Can-occio.  .  .  .  Besides 
these  military  Villains,  who  were  also  called 
'Fedoli,'  there  were  two  other  kinds  of  slaves 
amongst  the  early  Italians,  namely  prisoners  of 
war  and  the  labourers  attached  to  the  soil,  who 
were  considered  as  cattle  in  every  respect  except 
that  of  their  superior  utility  and  value:  the 
former  species  of  slavery  was  probably  soon  dis- 
solved by  the  union  of  self-interest  and  human- 
ity: the  latter  began  to  decline  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury, partly  continued  through  the  13th,  and 
vanished  entirely  in  the  I'Mi  centur''." — H.  E. 
Napier,  Florentine  HUtorij,  o.  1,  p.  634 


CATTI,  The.    See  Ciiatti. 
CATUVELLANI,  The.    S.e  BniTAiN,  Cei,- 

CAUCASUS  AND  THE  CIRCASSIANS. 
— The  Russian  conquest. — "The  Caucasus  ha.s 
always  po.s,ses.sed  a  certain  fas<ination  not  for 
the  Russians  only,  but  also  for  western  nations, 
and  is  pecidiarfy  rich  in  historical  traditions, 
and  in  memories  of  ancient  times  and  ancient 
nations.  Here  to  the  rocks  of  Elbruz,  Prome- 
the  8  lay  chained;  and  to  Colchis,  wliere  the 
Phasis  flowed  towards  the  sea,  through  ever 
green  woods,  came  the  Argonaut.s.  The  present 
Kutais  is  the  old  capital  of  King  .Eetes,  near 
which,  in  the  sacred  grove  of  Ares,  hung  the 
golden  fleece.  The  gold  mines  which  tlie  Rus- 
sians discovered  in  1804  were  apparently  known 
to  the  Greeks,  who.se  <!olony,  Dioscurias,  was 
an  a.s.semblage  of  .'iOO  diverse  nationalities.  .  .  . 
Here  on  the  coasts  of  the  stormy  and  dangerous 
Black  Sea  arose  the  famous  Pontine  kingdom  [seo 
MiTiiiiiiUTic  Wahs]  which  in  .spite  of  its  valiant 
resistance  under  Mithridates.  fell  a  victim  to 
Roman  aggression.  Along  the  rivers  Kura  and 
Rion  ran  the  old  commercial  road  from  Europe  to 
Asia,  which  enriched  the  Venetians  and  the 
Genoese  in  the  middle  ages.  Up  to  recent  times 
this  trade  consisted  not  only  of  all  sorts  of  other 
merchandise,  but  of  slaves;  numberless  girls  and 
women  were  conveyed  to  Turkish  harems  i.nd 
there  exercised  an  important  inlluence  on  the 
character  of  the  Tartar  and  Jlongol  races.  In 
the  middle  ages  the  Caucasus  was  the  route  by 
which  the  wild  Asiatic  hordes,  the  Goths, 
Khasars,  Huns,  Avars,  Mongols,  Tartars,  and 
Arabs  cro.ssed  from  Asia  into  Europe ;  and  con- 
sequently its  secluded  valleys  contain  a  popula- 
tion composed  of  more  different  and  distinct 
races  than  any  other  district  in  the  world.  .  .  . 
It  was  in  the  16th  century,  under  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible, that  Russia  first  turned  her  attention  to 
the  conquest  of  the  Caucasus;  but  it  was  not 
till  1859  that  the  defeat  and  capture  of  the 
famous  Schamyl  brought  about  the  final  subju- 
gation of  the  country.  ...  In  1785  [after  the 
partial  conquest  of  1784 — see  Turks:  A.  D. 
1776-1792]  the  mountaineers  had  been  incited  to 
take  arms  by  a  so-called  prophet  Scheick  Man- 
sur,  but  he  was  seized  and  banished  to  Solovetsk, 
on  the  White  Sea.  In  1820  a  MoUah,  Kasi  by 
name,  made  his  appearance  in  Daghestan,  and 
began  to  preach  the  '  Kasawat,'  that  is,  holy  war 
against  the  Russians.  To  him  succeeded  another 
equally  fanatical  adventurer,  Hamset  Beg.  The 
work  which  they  had  begun  was  carried  on  by 
Schamyl,  who  far  surpassed  his  predecessors  in 
all  the  qualities  which  make  up  a  successful 
guerilla  chief,  and  who  maintained  the  unequal 
conflict  against  the  en6:r>'es  of  his  country  for  35 
years  with  singular  good  fortune,  undaunted 
courage,  untinng .  energy,  and  conspicuous 
ability.  He  was  of  the  tribe  of  tlie  Lesgliians  in 
Daghestan,  and  was  bom  in  1796,  in  the  village 
of  Gimri,  of  poor  shepherd  parents.  In  spite  of 
his  humble  origin  he  raised  himself  to  the  rank 
of  an  Imaum,  surrounded  himself  with  a  strong 
body-guard  of  devoted  adherents,  whom  he 
named  Murides,  and  succeeded  in  fanning  to  a 
flame  the  patriotic  ardour  of  his  fellow-country- 
men. The  capture  of  the  mountain  fastness  of 
Achulgo  in  1839  seemed  to  be  the  death-blow  of 
Schamyl's  cause,  for  it  brought  about  the  loss  of 
the  whole  of  Daghestan,  the  very  focus  of  the 


400 


CAUCASUS  AND  THE  CIRCASSIANS. 


CECROPIA 


Muridcs'  activity.  Srhamyl  barely  cscapfid 
beiaij  madi!  u  prisoner,  ami  was  forceci  to  yield 
up  ills  son,  Djammel-ICddeii,  only  nine  years  of 
ago  as  a  hostage.  The  boy  was  sent  to  St. 
Petersburg  and  placed  in  a  cadet  corps,  which 
he  left  at  the  conclusion  of  his  military  educa- 
tion somewhere  about  18.50  and  returned  to  his 
native  countrv  in  1854  where  he  <lied  a  few 
years  later.  In  1840  the  Tchetcliens,  who  had 
jjrt^viously  been  pacified,  rose  in  arms  once  more, 
and  Daghestan  and  other  Jj)i»rts  of  the  country 
followed  their  example.  The  country  of  the 
Tchetchens  was  a  specially  favourable  theatri! 
for  the  conflict  witli  the  Russians;  its  long 
mountain  chains,  rocky  fastnesses,  impenetrable 
forests,  and  wild  precipices  and  gorges  rendered 
ambusciules  and  surprises  of  constant  and,  to 
the  Russians,  fatal  occurrence.  During  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  war,  Russia  liad  ransomed 
the  officers  taken  prisoners  by  tlie  mountaineers, 
but,  subsequently,  no  ([uarter  was  given  on 
either  side.  At  last,  by  means  of  a  great  cou- 
wjntration  of  tnwps  on  all  the  threatened  points, 
by  fortifying  the  chief  central  stations,  and  by 
forming  broad  military  roads  tliroughout  the 
district,  tiie  Russians  succeeded  in  breaking 
down  Scliamvl's  resistance.  He  now  suffered 
one  reverse  after  another.  His  chief  fastnesses, 
Dargo,  Weden,  and  Guni,  were  successively 
stormed  and  destroyed;  and,  finally,  he  himself 
and  his  family  were  taken  prisoners.  He  was 
astonished  and,  it  is  said,  not  altogether  grati- 
fied to  find  that  a  violent  death  was  not  to  close 
his  romantic  career.  Ho  and  his  familv  were  at 
first  interned  at  Kaluga  in  Ru.ssia,  both  a  house 
and  a  considerable  sum  of  money  for  his  mainte- 
nance being  assigned  to  him.  But  after  a  few 
years  he  was  allowed  to  remove  to  Mecca,  where 
he  died.  His  sons  and  grandsons,  who  have  en- 
tirely adopted  the  manners  of  the  Russians,  are 
oflScers  in  the  Circassian  guard.  In  1864  the 
pacification  of  the  whole  country  was  accom- 
plished, and  a  few  years  later  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  was  proclaimed  at  Tiflis.  After  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  various  mountain  tribes,  the 
Circassians  liad  the  choice  given  them  by  the 
QovemmcDt  of  settling  on  tlie  low  country  along 
the  Kuban,  or  of  emigrating  to  Turkey.  The 
latter  course  was  chosen  by  the  bulk  of  tlu 
nation,  urged,  thereto,  in  great  measure,  by  en- 
'•  ys  from  Turkey.  As  many  as  400,000  are  said 
u  have  come  to  the  ports,  where  the  Sultan  had 
promised  to  send  vessels  to  receive  tlicm;  but 
delays  took  place,  and  a  Irrge  number  diid  of 
want  and  disease.  Those  \vlio  reached  Turkey 
were  settled  on  the  west  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea, 
in  Bulgaria  and  near  Varna,  and  proved  them- 
selves most  troublesome  and  unruly  subjects. 
Most  of  tlione  who  at  first  remained  m  Circassia 
followed  their  fellow-countrymen  in  1874." — 
H.  M.  Chester,  Rusna,  ch.  18. 

Also  in;  F.  Mayne,  Life  of  Nietiolas  I.,  pt.  1, 
eh.  11  and  14. — S.  M.  Schmucker,  Life  and  Reign 
of  Nicholas  L,  ch.  21. 

CAUCAPUS.The  Indian.— "The  real  Cauca- 
sus was  the  inost  lofty  range  of  mountains  known 
to  the  Greeks  before  [Alexander's  conquests], 
and  they  were  generally  regarded  as  the  highest 
mountams  in  the  world.  Hence  when  the  army 
of  Alexander  came  in  sight  of  the  vast  mountain 
barrier  [of  the  Hindoo  Koosh]  that  rose  before 
them  as  they  advanced  northward  from  Aracho- 
sia,  they  seem  to  have  at  once  concluded  that 


this  could  be  no  other  than  the  Caucasus." 
Hence  the  name  Caiicasus  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  those  mountains;  "for  the  n;une  of  Hindor 
Koosh,  by  which  they  ari'  still  known,  i  •  nothing 
more  than  a  corruption  of  flic  Indian  (Jaucasus. 
— E.  II.  Bimburv,  Hint,  of  Ancient  Oeog.,  eh.  13, 
note  Q. 

CAUCI,  The.  Sei^  Ikeland,  TninEs  ok 
K\ui,v  Cki.tic  Inii.vhitants. 

CAUCUS.— In  KtlU  — the  fourth  year  of  the 
colony  of  .Massacliusetts  May  —  the  freemen  of 
the  colony  chose  niiillr\  instead  of  Winthrop 
for  governor.  The  iir\i  year  they  "  followed 
up  tlie  doctrine  of  rotation  in  olll<'e  by  choosing 
Haynes  as  governor,  a  dioice  agreeil  \ipon  l)y 
deputies  from  the  towns,  who  came  together  for 
tliat  purpose  previously  to  the  meeting  of  the 
court  —  the  first  instance  of  'tlie  cauiMis  system' 
on  record." — K.  Hildreth,  Hint,  of  the  U.  S.,  i:  1, 
/).  334. — See,  also,  CoNanEss  of  the  United 
St  a  t  k  s 

CAUDINE  FORKS,  The  Romans  at  the. 
See  R0.M1::  B.  C.  :!t:t-3«0. 

CAUSENNiE,  OR  ISINiE.— A  town  of 
some  importance  in  Roman  Brilain.  "Tliera 
can  be  no  doubt  that  this  town  occupied  tlie  site 
of  tlie  modern  Ancaster,  wliicli  has  been  cele- 
brated for  its  Roman  antiquities  since  the  time 
of  Lcland." — T.  Wright,  Celt,  Roman  and  Saxon, 
ch.  5. 

CAVALIERS,  The  party  of  the.  See  Eng- 
land; A.  I).  1641  (Octodeu);  al.so.  Round- 
heads. 

CAVE  DWELLERS.— "We  find  a  hunting 
and  fishing  race  of  cave-dwellers,  in  the  remote 
pleistocene  age,  in  possession  of  France,  Bel- 
gium, Germany,  and  Britain,  probably  of  the 
same  stock  as  the  Eskimos,  living  and  forming 
part  of  a  fauna  in  which  northern  and  soutliern, 
living  and  extinct,  species  are  strangely  mingled 
with  those  "now  living  in  Europe.  In  the  neolithic 
age  caves  were  inhabited,  and  used  for  tombs,  by 
men  of  the  Iberian  or  Basque  race,  which  is  still 
represented  by  the  small  dark-haired  peoples 
of  Europe." — W.  B.  Dawkins,  Cave  Hunting, 
]>.  430. 

CAVE    OF   ADULLAM.    See    Adullam, 

C.\VE  OF. 

CAVOUR,  Count,  and  the  unification  of 
Italy.  See  Italy;  A.  D.  1856-1859,  and  1859- 
1861. 

CAVOUR,  Treaty  of  (1561).  See  Savoy: 
A.  D.  1559-1580. 

CAWNPUR,  OR  CAWNPORE:  A.  D. 
1857. — Sieee  by  the  Sepoy  mutineers. — Sur- 
render and  massacre  of  the  English.  See 
India;  A.  D.  1857  (May— August),  and  1857- 
1858  (July— June). 

CAXTON  PRESS,  The.  See  Printing 
andtiiePiiess;  a.  D.  1476-1491. 

CAYENNE,  Colonization  of.  See  Guiana: 
A.  D.  1580-1814. 

CAYUGAS,  The.  See  Ameiucan  Abo- 
rigines; Iroquois  Confedeuacy. 

CEADAS,  The.     See  Baratiiuu.m. 

CEBRENES,  The.     See  Thoja. 

CECIL,  Sir  William  (Lord  Burleigh),  and 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  See  England;  A.  I). 
1558-1598. 

CECORA,  Battle  of  (1621).  See  Poland: 
A.  D.  1.590-1648. 

CECROPIA.— CECROPIAN  HILL.— The 
Acropolis  of  Athens.     See  Attica. 


401 


CEDAU  CREEK. 


CENSORS. 


CEDAR  CREEK,  Battle  of.  Hoc  United 
Statk.s  ok  Am.  :  \.  1).  \HM  (AuiiUHT — OcxoiiEn: 
VimiiNi.\). 

CEDAR  MOUNTAIN  OR  CEDAR  RUN, 
Battle  of.  Sec  Uniteu  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1882  (.IiJi.Y— Auni'BT:  Vikoinia). 

CELESTINE   11.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1143-1144. 

.  . .  .Celestine  III.,  Pope,  A.  1).  1191-1198 

Celestine  IV.,  Pope,  A.  I).  1241 Celestine 

v..  Pope,  A.  I).  1294.  July  to  December. 

CELTIBERIANS,  The.— "The  Celtiberi 
(K'cupled  the  centre  of  Spain,  and  a  large  jjartof 
the  two  Castiles,  an  elevated  tabk^  land  bordered 
and  internectt'd  by  muuntaiu8.  They  were  the 
most  warlike  race  in  the  Spanish  peninsula. " — 
O.  Long,  Decline  of  the  Ildiiuiii  Itepublie,  ch.  1. — 
"Tlie  appellation  Oelliberians  indicates  that  in 
the  north-eastern  part  of  the  peninsula  [Spain] 
there  was  a  mi.\ture  of  Celts  and  Iberians. 
Nevertheless  the  Iberians  must  have  been  the 
prevailing  race,  for  we  find  no  indications  of 
Celtic  characteristics  in  the  people." — \V.  Ihne, 
llUt.  of  Jloine,  hk.  3,  ch.  6,  note. — See,  also, 
KuMANi'iAN  Wau. 

CELTS,  The.— "The  Celts  form  a  branch  of 
the  great  family  of  nations  which  lias  been 
varioush  called  Aryan,  Indo-PIuropeiui,  ludo- 
Qermanic,  IndoCeltic  and  .Japhetic,  its  other 
branches  being  represented  by  the  Italians,  the 
Greeks,  the  Litu-Slaves,  the  Armenians,  the 
Persians  and  the  chief  peoples  of  Hindustan. 
.  .  .  The  Celts  of  antiquity  who  appeared  tirst 
and  oftr^iiest  in  history  were  tho.se  of  Gallia, 
which,  having  been  made  by  the  French  into 
Gaule,  we  term  Gaul.  It  included  the  France 
and  Switzerland  of  the  present  day,  and  much 
territory  besides.  Tliis  people  iiad  various 
names.  One  of  them  was  Oalli,  which  in  their 
language  meant  warriors  or  brave  men;  .  .  . 
but  the  Gauls  themselves  in  Ctcsar's  time  appear 
to  have  preferred  the  name  which  he  wrote 
CeltfB.  This  was  synonymous  with  the  other 
and  appears  to  have  meant  warriors.  .  .  .  The 
Celtic  family,  so  far  back  as  we  can  trace  it  into 
the  darkness  of  antiquity  consisted  of  two  groups 
or  bran<'lies,  with  linguistic  features  of  their  own 
which  marked  them  off  from  one  another.  To 
the  one  belonged  the  ancestors  of  the  jicople  who 
speak  Gaelic  in  Ireland,  the  Isle  of  JIan  and  the 
Highlands  of  the  North.  .  .  .  The  national  name 
which  the  members  of  this  group  have  always 
given  themselves,  .so  far  as  one  knows,  is  that  of 
Gaidhel,  pronounced  and  spelt  in  Englisli  Gael, 
but  formerly  written  by  themselves  Goidel.  .  .  . 
The  other  group  is  represented  in  point  of 
speech  by  the  ])eople  of  Wales  and  the  Bretons. 
.  .  .  .''he  national  name  of  those  speaking  these 
dialects  was  that  of  Briton ;  but,  since  that  word 
has  now  no  precise  meaning,  we  take  the  Welsh 
form  of  it,  which  is  Brython,  and  call  this  group 
Brythous  and  Brythouic,  whenever  it  is  needful 
to  be  exact.  The  ancient  Gauls  must  also  be 
classifled  with  them,  since  the  Brythons  may  be 
regarded  as  Gauls  who  came  over  to  settle  in 
Britain." — J.  Khys,  Celtic  Britain,  ch.  1. — See, 
also,  AuvANS,  and  Ari'ENin.K  A,  v.  1. 

Origin  and  first  meaning  of  the  name. — 
"  Who  were  the  Keltic  of  Spain  V  tlie  population 
whose  name  occurs  in  the  word  Celtic!  and 
Celtiberi,  Keltic  Iberians  or  Iberian  Kelts  V  .  .  . 
I  think,  that  though  used  to  denominate  the 
tribe  and  nations  allied  to  tlie  Gauls,  it  [the  word 
Celt  or  Kelt]  was,  originally,  no  Gallic  word  — 


as  little  native  as  Welsh  is  British.  I  also  think 
that  even  the  first  populations  to  which  it  was 
applied  were  other  than  Keltic  in  the  nuxlern 
sense  of  the  term.  I  think,  in  short,  that  it  was 
a  word  belonging  to  the  IlK'rian  language, 
applied,  until  the  time  of  Coisar  at  least,  to  Iberic 
])opulations.  ...  By  the  time  of  CiEsar,  how- 
ever, a  great  number  of  undoubted  Gauls  were 
included  under  the  name  Celtic :  in  other  words, 
the  Iberian  name  for  an  Iberian  population  was 
first  adopted  by  the  Greeks  as  the  name  for  all 
the  inhabitants  of  south-western  Gaul,  and  it 
was  then  extended  by  the  liomans  so  as  to 
include  all  the  populations  of  Gallia  except  the 
Belgiu  and  Aquitanians." — U.  G.  Latham, /l%- 
nology  of  Kuroiye,  ch.  2. 

♦ 

CELTS. — A  name  given  among  archieologists 
to  certain  iirehistoric  implements,  both  stone  and 
bronze,  of  the  wedge,  chisel  and  axe  kind.  Mr. 
Thomas  Wright  contends  that  the  term  is 
properly  applied  only  to  the  bronze  chisels,  which 
the  old  antiquary  Ilearne  identified  with  the 
Itomau  celtis,  or  chisel  —  whence  the  name.  It 
has  evidently  no  connection  with  the  word  Celt 
used  ethnologically. 

CELYDDON,  Forest  of  (or  Coed  Celydon). 
See  Bhitain,  Celtic  Tuibes. 

CENABUM.    See  Genabum. 

CENOMANIANS,  The.    See  Inscbiiians. 

CENSORS,  The  Roman.—"  The  censorship 
was  an  office  so  remarkable  that,  liowever 
familiar  the  subject  may  be  to  many  readers,  it 
is  necessary  here  to  bestow  some  notice  on  it. 
Its  original  business  was  to  take  a  register  of  the 
citizens  and  of  their  property;  but  this,  which 
seems  at  first  sight  to  be  no  more  than  the  dniw- 
ing  up  of  a  mere  statistical  report,  became  in 
fact,  from  the  large  discretion  allowed  to  every 
Uoman  officer,  a  political  power  of  the  highest 
importance.  The  censors  made  out  the  returns 
of  the  free  population ;  but  they  did  more ;  they 
divided  it  according  to  its  civil  distinctions,  and 
drew  up  a  list  of  the  senators,  a  list  of  the 
equites,  a  list  of  the  members  of  the  several 
tribes,  or  of  those  citizens  who  enjoyed  the  right 
of  voting,  and  u  list  of  the  lurarians,  consisting 
of  those  freedmen,  naturalized  strangers,  and 
others,  who,  being  enrolled  in  no  tribe,  possessed 
no  vote  in  the  comitia,  but  still  enjoyed  all  the 
private  rights  of  Uoman  citizens.  Now  the  lists 
thus  drawn  up  by  the  censors  were  regarded  as 
legal  evidence  of  a  man's  condition.  .  .  .  Prom 
tlience  the  transition  was  easy,  according  to 
Roman  notions,  to  the  decision  of  questions  of 
right;  sucli  as  whether  a  citizen  was  really 
worthy  of  retaining  his  rank.  ...  If  a  man 
behaved  tynmuically  to  his  wife  or  children,  if 
he  was  guilty  of  excessive  cruelty  even  to  his 
slaves,  if  he  neglected  his  land,  if  he  indulged  in 
habits  of  extravagant  expense,  or  followed  any 
calling  which  was  regarded  as  degrading,  the 
offence  was  justly  noted  by  the  censors,  ami  the 
offender  was  struck  off  from  the  list  of  senators, 
if  his  rank  was  so  high;  or,  if  he  were  an 
ordinary  citizen,  he  was  expelled  from  his  tribe, 
and  reduced  to  the  class  of  tlio  icrarians.  .  .  . 
The  censors  had  the  entire  management  of  the 
regular  revenues  of  the  stjite,  or  of  its  vcctigalia. 
They  were  the  commonwealth's  stewards,  and  to 
their  hands  all  its  property  was  entrusted.  .  .  . 
With  these  almost  kingly  powers,  and  arrayed  in 
kingly  state,  for  the  censor's  robe  was  all  scarlet 


402 


CBNovyRS. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


.  .  .  tho  ceniora  might  well  seem  too  great  for  a 
free  commonwcultli.  — T.  Arnold,  Iliit.  of  Iloinf, 
eh.  17. — See,  iilso,  Lurtkilv. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA:  Ruins  of  ancient 
civilization.  See  Amkuican  Aiiouiuineh: 
Mayas,  iiiid  QticiiKs;  also,  Mkxico,  Ancient. 

Discovery  and  early  settlement.  See  Ameii- 
ICA     A.  1).  14»8-ir)0,j;   inOK-ir.U;   1513-1517. 

A.  D.  1831-1871. — Separation  from  Spain, 
and  Independence. — Attempted  federation  and 
its  failures. — Wars  and  revolutions  of  the  five 
Republics. — "The  eenlral  part  of  the  American 
continent,  extending  from  the  southern  boundary 
of  Mexico  to  tho  Isthmus  of  Panama,  consisted 
in  the  old  colonial  times  of  several  Inteiulaneiea, 
all  of  which  were  united  in  the  Captaincy-Gen- 
eral of  Guatemala.  Like  the  West  Indian 
Islands,  it  was  a  negleci  ■  i  part  of  the  Spanish 
Empire.  .  .  .  Central  America  has  no  history  up 
to  the  epoch  of  independence.  ...  It  was  not 
until  the  success  of  the  Revolution  had  become 
certain  on  both  sides  of  them,  both  In  Mexico 
and  New  Qn\na<la,  tlnit  the  Intendancies  which 
made  up  the  Captaincy-General  of  Guatemala 
declared  themselves  also  independent  of  Spain. 
The  cry  of  liberty  had  indeed  been  raised  in 
Costa  Rica  in  1813,  and  in  Nicaragua  in  1815; 
but  tho  Revolution  was  postponed  for  six  years 
longer.  Guatemala,  tho  seat  of  government, 
published  its  declaration  in  September,  1821,  and 
Its  example  was  speedilv  followed  by  San  Salva- 
dor and  Honduras.  Nicantgua,  on  jiroclaiming 
its  independence,  together  with  one  of  the  depart- 
ments of  Guatemala,  declared  its  adhesion  to 
wliat  was  known  in  Mexico  as  the  plan  of  Iguala 
[see  Mexico:  A.  D.  1820-1830].  As  there  were 
no  Spanish  troops  in  Central  America,  the  recu- 
sant Spanish  official  party  could  make  no  resist- 
ance to  the  popular  movement;  and  many  of 
them  crossed  the  sea  to  Cuba  or  returned  to 
Spain.  .  .  .  Tlie  Revolution  of  Central  America 
thus  stands  alone  in  the  history  of  independence, 
as  having  been  accomplished  without  the  shed- 
ding of  blood."  During  tho  brief  empire  of 
Iturbidc  in  Mexico  [see  as  above]  the  Central 
American  states  were  annexed  to  it,  though 
with  strong  resistance  on  the  part  of  all  except 
Guatemala.  "On  the  proclamation  of  the  Fed- 
enjl  Republic  in  Mexico  [1824],  tlie  whole  of 
Central  America,  except  the  district  of  Chiapas, 
withdrew  from  the  alliance,  and  drove  out  the 
Mexican  officials  as  only  a  year  before  they  liad 
driven  out  the  Spanish  officials.  The  people  now 
had  to  face  the  task  of  forming  a  government 
for  themselves:  and  .  .  .  they  now  resolved  on 
combining  in  a  federation,  in  imitation  of  tlie 
great  United  States  of  North  America.  Perhaps 
no  states  were  ever  less  suited  to  form  a  federal 
imion.  The  petty  territories  of  Central  America 
lie  on  two  oceans,  are  divided  by  lofty  niountiiins, 
and  have  scarcely  any  communication  with  each 
other:  and  the  citizens  of  each  have  scarcely  any 
common  interest.  A  Central  American  feilera- 
tion,  however,  'was  an  imposing  idea,  and  tlie 
people  clung  to  it  with  great  pertinacity.  The 
first  effort  for  federation  was  made  under  the 
direction  of  General  Fillsola.  All  the  Intendan- 
cies combined  i'l  one  sovereign  state;  iii-st  under 
the  name  of  the 'United  Provinces,'  afterwards 
(November  23,  1823)  under  that  of  the  '  Federal 
Republic '  of  Central  America.  ...  A  constitu- 
tion of  tlie  most  liberal  kind  was  voted.  This 
constitution  is  romarliable  for  having  been  the 


first  which  nbolKdied  slavery  at  o.ncc  and  abso- 
lutely and  declan'd  the  slave  trade  to  bo  piracy. 
.  .  .  The  clerical  and  oligarchic  party  set  their 
faces  stubbornly  against  the  execution  of  the 
constitution,  and  began  the  revolt  at  Leon  in 
Nicaragua.  The  union  broke  down  in  182(t,  and 
though  Mora/.an  [of  Honduras]  reconstituted  it 
in  1820,  its  history  Is  a  record  of  continual  re- 
bellion and  reaction  on  the  part  of  the  Guatc- 
maltec  oligarchy.  Of  all  South  American  con- 
servative parties  this  oligarchy  was  perhaps  the 
most  despicable.  They  sank  to  their  lowest 
when  they  raised  the  Spanish  fiag  In  1832.  Rut 
in  doing  this  tliey  went  too  far.  Morazan's 
successes  date  froni  this  time,  and  having  beaten 
the  Guatemaltccs,  ho  transferred  the  Federal 
government  In  1834  to  San  Salvador.  Hut  the 
Federal  Republic  of  Central  America  dragged 
on  a  precarious  existence  until  1838,  when  it  was 
overthrown  by  the  revolt  of  Carrera  in  Guate- 
mala. From  the  first  the  Infiuenco  of  the  Fed- 
eralists in  the  capital  began  to  decay,  and  it  was 
soon  apparent  that  they  lia<l  little  power  except 
in  Honduras,  San  Salvador  and  Nicaragua.  The 
Costa  Ricans,  a  thriving  commercial  community, 
but  of  no  great  ))olitical  importance,  and  sepa- 
rated by  mountainous  wastes  fro  r.  all  the  rest, 
soon  ceased  to  take  any  part  in  public  business. 
A  second  Federal  Republic,  excluding  Costiv 
Rica,  was  agreed  to  in  1842;  but  it  fared  no 
better  than  tho  first.  Tho  chief  representative 
of  tlic  Federalist  principle  in  Central  America 
was  Jlorazan,  of  Honduras,  from  whose  govern- 
ment Carrera  had  revolted  in  1838.  On  tho  fail- 
ure of  the  Federation  Morazan  had  fled  to  Chile, 
and  on  his  return  to  Costa  Rica  ho  was  shot  at 
San  Jos6  by  the  Carrerlsts.  This  was  a  great 
blow  to  the  Liberals,  and  It  was  not  until  1847 
that  a  third  Federation,  consisting  of  Honduras, 
San  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua,  was  organized. 
For  some  years  Honduras,  at  tho  head  of  these 
states,  carried  on  a  war  against  Guatemala  to 
compel  It  to  join  the  union.  Guatemala  was  far 
more  than  their  match:  San  Salvador  and  Nica- 
ragua soon  failed  in  the  struggle,  and  left  Hon- 
duras to  carry  on  the  war  alone.  Under  General 
Carrera  Guatemala  completely  defeated  Its  rival; 
and  to  his  successes  are  due  the  revival  of  the 
Conservative  or  Clerical  party  all  over  Central 
America.  .  .  .  The  government  of  each  state 
became  weaker  and  weaker:  revolutions  were 
everywhere  frequent:  and  ultimately  .  .  .  the 
whole  country  was  near  falling  into  the  hands  of 
a  North  American  adventurer  [see  Nicauaocja: 
A.  D.  1855-1800].  In  former  times  the  English 
government  had  maintained  some  connection 
with  the  country  [originating  with  the  bucca- 
neei-s  and  made  important  by  the  mahogany -cut- 
ting] through  the  independent  Indians  of  the 
Mosquito  co;ist,  over  whom,  for  the  purposes  of 
their  trade  with  Jamaica,  it  had  maintained  a 
protectorate :  and  even  a  small  English  eoinmer- 
cial  colony,  called  Greytown,  had  been  founded 
on  this  coast  at  the  mouth  of  tho  river  San  Juan. 
Towards  the  close  of  Carrera 's  asceiuhiiify  this 
coast  was  resigned  to  Nicaragua,  iind  tho  Bay 
Islands,  which  lie  off  the  coast,  to  Honduras:  and 
England  thus  retained  nothing  In  the  country  but 
the  old  .settlement  of  British  Honduras,  with  its 
cap!  tal,  Belize.  After  Carrera's  death  in  1805,  tho 
Liberal  party  began  to  reas.sert  itself:  and  in  1871 
tiiere  was  a  Liberal  revolution  in  Guatemala  It- 
self."— E.  J.  Payne,  Hint.  oJ'Eurup'u  Culou's,  c/i.21. 


108 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


CIIALCI8  AND  ERKTRIA. 


Al.do  IN :   11.  11.  Bancroft,  Ilitt.  of  the  Pneifle 

Staten. 

* 

CENTRAL  ASIA.    See  Aria,  Ckntiiai,. 

CENTRE,  The.     Hci'  Ukiiit.  &v. 

CENTREVILLE,  Evacuation  of.  Hce 
Unitki)  Statkh  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  18fll-lM63  (I)e- 
CKMiiKU— Maiicii:  Viuoinia). 

CENTURIES,  Roman.    See  C'o.mitia  Cen- 

Tl'IIIATA. 

CENTURION.— The  onkrrcommamllnjf  one 
of  llic  llfty  live  ('cnturlcs  or  ('(imimiiics  in  a 
Uoiimri    l('u;iiiii    of    tlic    empire.     See     Lkoion, 

CENWULF,  KingofMercia,  A.  D.  704-819. 

CEORL.     See  Kom,,  and  PItiiki,. 

CEPEDA,  Battle  of  (1859).  ^^i'*"  Auoentink 
Rkim  lil.ic:   A.  I).  IHID-IHT'T 

CEPHISSUS,  Battle  of  the  (A.  D.  1311). 
See  Catalan  Oiiand  Company, 

CERAMICUS  OF  ATHENS.— Tlio  Ceni- 
niicus  was  orl^rinally  tlic  most  important  of  tlie 
suburban  (iiHtriets  of  Alliens  and  derived  its 
name  from  the  potters.  "It  is  iirobalile  tliat 
about  the  time  of  I'isislmtus  tlie  market  of  tlio 
aneient  suburb  called  tlie  Ceramieus  (for  every 
Attic  district  jiossessed  its  own  marliet)  was  con- 
stituteil  the  eenlral  market  of  the  ('ity.  .  .  . 
They  [the  Pisistratidie]  connected  Athens  In  all 
directions  by  roadways  with  the  country  di.s- 
tricts:  tiiese  roads  were  accurately  measured, 
and  all  met  on  the  Ceramieus,  in  the  centre  of 
which  an  altar  was  erected  «o  the  Twelve  Gods. 
From  this  centre  of  town  a  id  country  were  cal- 
culated the  distances  to  tlie  dilTerent  country 
districts,  to  the  ports,  and  to  the  most  important 
sanctuaries  of  the  common  fatherland.  .  .  .  [In 
the  next  century  —  in  the  age  of  Pericles  —  the 
population  had  extended  to  the  north  and  west 
and]  part  of  the  ancient  potters'  district  or 
Ceramieus  had  long  become  n  quarter  of  the  city 
[the  Inner  Ceramieus];  the  other  part  remained 
Siiburb  [the  Outer  Ceramieus].  Between  the 
two  lay  the  double  cntc  or  Dipylum,  the  broad- 
est and  most  splendid  gate  of  the  city.  .  .  . 
Here  the  broad  carriage-road  which,  avoiding 
all  lieiglits,  ascended  from  the  market-place  of 
llippodamus  directly  to  the  city-inarket  of  the 
Ceramieus,  entered  the  city ;  from  here  straiglit 
to  the  west  led  the  road  to  Eleusis,  the  sacred 
course  of  the  festive  processions.  .  .  .  Prom 
this  road  again,  immediately  outside  the  gate, 
branched  off  that  which  led  to  the  Academy. 
.  .  .  The  high  roads  in  tlie  vicinity  of  tlie  city 
gates  were  everywhere  bordered  witli  numerous 
and  handsome  sepulchral  monuments,  in  par- 
ticular the  road  leading  through  the  outer  Cera- 
mieus. Here  lay  the  public  burial-ground  for 
the  citizens  who  had  fallen  in  war;  tlie  vast 
space  was  divided  into  fields,  corresponding  to 
the  different  battle-fields  at  home  and  abroad." — 
E.  Curtius,  Iliat.  of  Greece,  bh.  3,  ch.  2,  and  bk.  3, 
eh.  3. 

Also  in  :  AV.  M.  Leake,  Topography  of  Athens, 
sect.  3. 

CERESTES,  OR  KERESTES,  Battle  of 
(1596).     See  Hungary  :  A.  D.  1595-1606. 

CERIGNOLA,  Battle  of  (1503).   See  Italy: 

A.  n.  ir)0i-i,')()4. 

CERISOLES,  Battle  of  (1544).  See  France: 
A.  1).  ir)32-1547. 

CERONES,  The.  See  Bihtain,  Celtic 
TaiBBS. 


CERRO  GORDO,  Battle  of.  Sco  Mexico: 
A.  I>.  IH47(.MAmir— SKi-rKMnK.n). 

CESS.— A  word,  corrupted  from  "assess," 
si>;iiifyiiig  a  rate,  or  ta.\;  used  especially  in 
Scotland,  and  applied  more  particularly  to  a  tax 
imposed  in  1()7N,  for  the  maintenance  of  troops, 
during  tlie  persecution  of  the  Covenanters. — A 
Cl'iiiil  of  M^itnetnes,  ed.  hy  ,T.  II,  Thoinpmin,  p.  67. 
—  The  Imp.  Dirt. 

CEUTA,  A.  D.  1415.— Sieg^e  and  capture 
by  the  Portugese.  See  1'oiituoai,:  A.  1).  14ir(- 
MIIO. 

A.  D.  1668.— Ceded  to  Spain.  See  Pohtu- 
oal:  a.  D.  1637-1608. 


CEVENNES,  The  prophets  of  the  (or  the 
C^venol  prophets).  — The  Camisards.  See 
FllANCK:  .\.  1).  17tl',>-171(). 

CEYLON,  3d  Centary  B.  C— Conversion 
to  Buddhism.     SeelNHiA:  B.  ('.  312 . 

A.    D.    1802.— Permanent     acquisition     by 
England.     See  Fhanck:  A.  I).  lMOl-1803. 
♦ 

CHACABUCO,  Battle  of (1817).  SccCuilk: 
A.  I).  1H10-1H18. 

CHACO,  The  Gran.    See  Guan  Ciiaco. 

CHiGRONEA,  Battles  of  (B.  C.  338).    See 

GiiKiccE;    U.    C.    357-386 (B.  C.   86).     See 

MiTiiuiDATu:  Wahs. 

CHAGAN.     See  Khan. 

CHA'HTAS,  OR  CHOCTAWS,  The.  See 
Ameuican  Ahokioines:  Muskiiooban  Family. 

CHALCEDON.— An  ancient  Greek  city, 
founded  by  tlio  Megarians  on  the  Asiatic  side  of 
the  Bosphoriis,  nearly  opposite  to  Byzantium, 
like  whicli  city  it  suffered  in  early  times  many 
changes  of  masters.  It  was  bequeathed  to  the 
P.omans  by  tlic  last  king  of  Bithynia. 

A.  D.  358.— Capture  by  the  Goths.  See 
Goths:  A.  I).  258-267. 

A.  D.  616-635. — The  Persians  in  possession. 
See  Peiisia:  A.  D.  226-627. 

CHALCEDON,  The  Council  of  (A.  D.  451). 
See  Nestorian  and  Monophysite  Contro- 
versy. 

CHALCIS  AND  ERETRIA.-"Tlie  most 
dangerous  rivals  of  Ionia  were  tlic  towns  of 
Euba!a,  among  whicli,  in  the  fl,rst  instance, 
Cyme,  situated  in  an  excellent  bay  of  the  east 
coast,  in  a  district  abounding  in  wine,  and  after- 
wards the  two  sister-towns  on  the  Euripus,  Chal- 
cis  and  Eretria,  distinguished  themselves  by 
larger  measures  of  colonization.  While  Eretria, 
tlie  'city  of  rowers,'  rose  to  prosperity  especially 
by  means  of  purple-flshericB  a!id  a  ferry-naviga- 
tion conducted  on  a  constantly  increasing  scale, 
('halcis,  the  'bronze  city,' on  the  double  sea  of 
the  Boeotian  sound,  contrived  to  raise  and 
employ  for  herself  the  most  important  of  the 
many  treasures  of  the  island  —  its  copper.  .  .  . 
Chalcis  became  the  Greek  centre  of  tins  branch 
of  industry ;  it  became  the  Greek  Sidon.  Next 
to  Cyprus  there  were  no  richer  stores  of  copper 
in  tlie  Greek  world  than  on  Euboea,  and  in  Chal- 
cis were  tlio  first  copper- works  and  smithies 
known  in  European  Greece." — E.  Curtius,  UUt. 
of  Greece,  bk.  2,  ch.  3.— Tlie  Chalcidians  were 
enterprising  colonists,  particularly  in  Thrace,  in 
tlie  Macedonian  peninsula,  whore  they  are  said 
to  have  founded  thirty-two  towns,  which  wore 
collectively  called  the  Chalcidice,  and  in  southerj 
Italy  and  Sicily.     It  was  the  abundant  wealth  of 


404 


CHAWI8  AND  ERETHIA. 


CnANOBLLOR 


Tlimcfi  In  mctnlllo  nrrH  which  drew  tlic  Chiilcl- 
dliiim  to  it.  About  71)0  H.  C.  u  bonier  feud 
l)etwct'n  Clmli'lH  iiiid  Krclrlii,  comcrriiii;;  iTrtaiii 
"  Lvlniitiiiii  llcldM"  wliicli  liiy  bi'twtcn  lliciii, 
grew  to  Hiicli  proporlioiiH  and  ho  iiiiiny  other 
Htutea  eimu'  to  tiike  part  In  it,  that,  "according 
to  Tluieydides  no  war  of  iiioro  iiidverHul  import' 
aiico  for  the  whole  imlloti  was  foujflit  between 
tho  fall  of  Troja  and  the  Persian  war." — The 
Kanie,  r.  1,  lik.  2,  c/i.  1.  —  ChalelH  wan  subdued 
by  thi!  Athenians  in  H.  (;.  BOO.  8ec  Athenb: 
B.  C.  noO-.IOd ;  also  Ki.Eiiiifns,  and  Eoikea. 

CHALCUS.     See  T.m.knt. 

CHALDEA.  — CHALUEES.      See    Bahv- 

LONIA, 

CHALDEAN  CHURCH.     Sec  Nkstokians. 

CHALDIRAN,  Battle  of  (1514).  He.'  TiriiKs; 
A.  I).  HHI^l.V.'O. 

CHALGROVE  FIELD,  Fall  of  Hampden 
at.     See  Enoi.and:    A.  I).  1643  (Auoust — Sei-- 

TEMHKIl). 

CHALONS,  Battles  at  (A.  D.  271).— Amonc 
the  many  pretenders  to  tlio  Roman  imperial 
throne — "tlie  thirty  tyrants,"  as  they  were 
called  — of  the  distracted  reign  of  Oalllenus,  was 
Tetrieus,  who  had  been  governor  of  Aquitaine. 
Tho  dangerous  honor  was  forced  upon  him,  by 
a  demoraliz(^d  army,  and  he  reigned  against  his 
will  for  several  years  over  Gaul,  Spain  antl 
Britain.  At  length,  when  the  iron-handed 
Aurellan  had  taken  tho  reins  of  government  at 
Itomo,  Tetrieus  secretly  plotted  with  him  for 
deliverance  from  bis  own  uncoveted  greatness. 
Aurellan  invaded  ''  ud  and  Tetrieus  leu  an  army 
against  him,  only  betray  it,  in  a  great  battle 
at  Chalons  (271),  « liero  the  rebels  were  cut  to 
pieces. — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  eh.  11. 

A.  D.  366.  See  Alemanni,  Invasion  of 
Gaul  by  the. 

A.  D.  451.  See  Huns:  A.  D.  451,  Attila's 
Invasion  of  Qaui,. 


CHALYBES,  The.— Tho  Chalybes,  or 
Chalybians,  were  an  ancient  people  in  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  coast  of  the  Euxino,  proboblv  east 
of  tho  Halys,  who  were  noted  as  workers  of  Iron. 
— E.  H.  Bunbury,  Ilist.  of  Ancient  Oeog.,  ch.  22, 
note  A. 

CHAM  AVI,  The.  See  Bructeri;  also, 
Franks;  also,  Gaul:  A.  D.  355-301. 

CHAMBERS  OF  REANNEXATON, 
French.     See  Fhance:  A.  I).  1670-1081. 

CHAMBERSBURG,  Burning  of.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864  (July: 
Virginia — Maryland). 

CHAMPAGNE:  Origin  of  vhe  county.— 
In  the  middle  years  of  the  revolt  that  dethroned 
the  Carlovinglans  and  raised  the  Capotians  to  a 
tlirone  which  they  made  the  throne  of  a  kingdom 
of  France,  Count  Herbert  of  Vermandoiii  allied 
himself  with  tho  party  of  the  latter,  and  began 
operations  for  the  expanding  of  Ids  domain. 
"The  Champaign  of  Rheims,  the  'Campania 
Remensis' — a  most  appropriate  descriptive  de- 
nomination of  the  region  —  an  extension  of  the 
plains  of  Flanders  —  but  not  yet  employed  politi- 
cally as  designating  a  province  —  was  protected 
against  Coimt  Herbert  on  the  Vermandois  border 
by  the  Castrum  Theoilorici  —  Chateau  Thierry. 
.  .  .  Herbert's  profuse  promises  induced  the 
commander  to  betray  his  dutj'.  .  .  .  Herbeit, 
through  this  occupation  of  Ch&teau  Tlueiiy, 


obtained  therltv of  Troyesandall  the  'Campania 
ReinensiM.'  wlilrb,  under  his  poti'nt  sway,  was 
speedily  developed  Into  the  magnilleent  ('ouiily 
of  Champagne.  Herbert  and  his  lineage  lielil 
Chanipagne  during  three  genenilions,  until  some 
time  after  the  accession  of  the  Capets,  when  the 
Grand  Fii'f  pas.sed  from  the  Mouse  of  Ver- 
mandois to  the  lliiuse  of  lllois,"— Sir  F.  I'al- 
grave.  Hint.  <if  SnniHiinhi  mul  /■.'m/.,  r.  2,  ;>.  103. 

CHAMPfeAUBERT,  Battle  of.  See 
I'^hanci;:  A.  D.  Ihi  1  (.Iamaiiy— Maiicii), 

CHAMPION Y.Sortie of (1870).  See  France: 
A.  I>.  1H70-IH7I. 

CHAMPION'S     HILL,     Battle     of.      See 

United  States  ok  Am.  :   A.  I).   1863  (Arnii 

Jfi.Y:  On  the  Missihhippi). 

CHAMPL  AIN,  Samuel.— Explorations  and 
Colonizations.  See  Canada  (Ni^w  FitANcE): 
A.  1).  160;t-Ul(r(;  KIOH-lOll;  and  lOll-lOIO. 

CHAMPLAIN,  Lake:  A.  D.  1776. -Arnold's 
naval  battle  with  Carleton.  See  II.nitemStateh 
OF  A.M. :  A.  I).  177<l-1777. 

A.  D.  181^. — Macdonough's  naval  victory. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  1).  1814  (Sep- 
tember). 

- — » 

CHAMPS  DE  MARS. -CHAMPS  DE 
MAI. — Wlien  the  Merovingian  kings  of  the 
Franks  summont'd  their  captains  to  gather  for 
tho  plaiming  and  preparing  of  campaigns,  tho 
assemblies  A-ere  cailecl  at  first  the  Champs  do 
Mars,  because  the  meeting  was  In  earliest  spring 
—  In  March.  "  But  as  the  Fnmks,  from  serving 
on  foot,  became  cavaliers  under  tho  second  [tho 
Carlovlnglan]  race,  the  time  was  change(l  to 
May,  for  the  sake  of  forage,  and  the  as-semblies 
were  called  Champs  do  Mai." — E.  E.  Crowe, 
Hint,  of  France,  ch.  1. — See,  also,  Mallum,  and 
Parliament  of  Paris. 

CHANCAS,  The.  See  Peru:  The  Abori- 
ginal INIIAHITANTS. 

CHANCELLOR,  The.— "Tho  name  [of  tho 
Chancellor],  derived  [irobably  from  the  cancelll 
or  screen  behind  which  the  secretarial  work  of 
the  royal  household  was  carried  on,  claims  a  con- 
siderablo  antiquity ;  and  the  offices  which  it  de- 
notes are  various  in  proportion.  The  chancellor 
of  the  Karollngian  sovereigns,  succeeding  to  tho 
place  of  the  more  ancient  rcferendarius,  Is  simply 
the  royal  notary,  the  archifancellarius  Is  tho 
chief  of  a  large  body  of  such  officers  a.ssoclated 
under  the  .mmo  01  the  choncery,  and  is  the  keeper 
of  the  royal  seal.  It  is  from  this  minister  that 
the  English  chancellor  derives  his  name  and 
function.  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  first  of  our 
sovereigns  who  had  a  seal,  is  also  the  first  who 
had  a  chancellor ;  from  the  rcign  of  the  Conqueror 
tho  office  has  descended  in  regular  succession. 
It  seems  to  have  been  to  a  comparatlv(!ly  lato 
period,  generally  if  not  always,  at  least  in  Eng- 
land, held  by  an  ecclesiastic  who  was  a  member 
of  the  royol  household  and  on  a  footing  with  tho 
great  dignitaries.  The  chancellor  was  the  most 
dignified  of  tho  royal  chaplains,  if  not  the  head 
of  that  body.  Tho  whole  secretarial  work  of  the 
liousehold  and  court  fell  on  the  chancellor  and 
the  chaplains.  .  .  .  Tho  chancellor  was,  in  a 
manner,  the  secretary  of  state  for  all  depart- 
ments."—W.  Stubbs,  Const.  Hist.  ofEng.,ch.  11, 
sect.  121.—"  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  we  begin 
to  perceive  signs  of  the  rise  of  the  extraordinary 
or  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the  Chancellor.  Tho 
numerous  petitions  addressed  to  the  King  and 


406 


niANCELLOR 


CHARLES. 


liiH  (.'ouncil,  McckinK  tlio  Inturpmiltion  of  tlw-  royal 
KHicp  und  fuvoiir  cither  to  niltlnuti!  tli(!  ImrHli- 
MfsH  of  the  ( 'oniiiioii  I.iiw  or  Hiipply  ItH  (Ictlcii'iiriis, 
had  Utii  In  tliu  H[M'('iitl  care  of  the  (.'haiitrllor, 
who  uxumiiK-d  and  reported  upon  tliem  to  the 
Khix.  .  .  .  Al  letit'th,  in  t!WH,  l)y  a  writ  or  or- 
dinance of  the  'i'M  vcar  of  KdwanI  III.  all  such 
niattcrH  iw  were  'of  (knco  '  were  ciirccttMl  to  he 
<liHpatclieil  hy  the  Chamudlor  or  liy  the  Keeper 
of  the  I'rivy  Heal.  Thin  wan  n  great  Htep  in  tlie 
re<'o^Tiltion  of  tlio  o(|iiital>ie  Jurisdiction  of  tlip 
(Nuirt  of  (liancery,  hh  diHtinct  from  the  legal 
jurisdiction  of  the  Ohancclior  and  of  thu  (NxirtH 
of  Common  Law;  although  it  was  not  until  the 
following  reign  tliat  it  can  be  sidd  to  havu  been 
permanently  cHtaliliHhed." — T.  I'.  Tasweli-Lang- 
mead,  h'ng.  Omul.  JIiiit.,j>p.  17:1-174.— "The Lord 
Chancellor  is  a  I'rivy  Councillor  by  IiIh  offlcc;  a 
Cabinet  Minister ;  and,  according  to  Lord  Chancel- 
lor KllcHinere,  prolocutor  [I'hainnan,  or  Speaker] 
of  the  IIous(!  of  Lords  by  prescription." — A.  C. 
Ewald,  T/ic  Croitn  and  it»  Ailrisert,  Uet.  2. 

Amm)  in  :  E.  FiBchcl,  2'he  KnglUh  Corutitntion, 
bk.  5,  ek.  7. 

CHANCELLOR'S   ROLLS.     See  Excue- 

qllKK. — ExcilKtilKK  KoI.I.M. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE,  Battles  of.  Bee 
Un'teij  States  ok  A.vi.  :  A.  1).  1883  (.VrniL— 
M.\/:  Viu(iinia). 

CHANCERY.     Hee  CiiANCEi,i,on. 

CHANDRAGUPTA,  OR  CANDRAGUP- 
TA,  The  empire  of.  Bee  India:  H.  C.  327-312, 
und  312 . 

CHANEERS,  The.  See  Ameuican  Aboiii- 
gineh:  SioiAN  Family. 

CHANTILLY,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  op  Am.  :  A.  I).  1802  (Auoubt— Septem- 
HEit:  Vihoinia). 

CHANTRY  PRIESTS.—"  With  the  more 
wealthy  and  devout  lin  the  14th,  15th  and  16th 
centiirfeH]  it  was  the  pnicticc  to  erect  little 
chapels,  which  were  cither  added  to  churches  or 
enclosed  by  screens  within  them,  where  chantry 
priests  might  celebrate  mass  for  the  good  of  their 
souls  in  perpetuity.  .  .  .  Large  stmis  of  money 
were  .  .  .  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  chantry 
priests,  whose  duty  it  was  to  say  mass  for  the 
rcpo.se  of  the  testator's  soul.  .  .  .  The  character 
and  conduct  of  the  chantry  priests  must  have  be- 
come somewhat  of  a  lax  order  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury. "—K.  It.  Sharpc, /;i^  to  •'  Calendar  of  Wills 
in  the  Ctiiirt  of  Iliiatinr/,  Ix/mlon,"  n.  2,  ;).  viii. 

CHAOUANONS,  The.   See  American  Abo- 

niOINES:    SlIAWANESi;. 

CHAPAS,   OR  CHAPANECS,  The.    See 

Ameuican  .Viioukiinks:  Zapotkcb,  &c. 

CHAPULTEPEC,  Battle  of.  See  Mexico: 
A.  D.  1847  (Maucii— SEi-rEMiiKii). 

CHARCAS,  Las. — The  Spanish  province 
which  now  forms  the  Republic  of  Uolivia.  Also 
called,  formerly,  Upper  Peru,  and  sometimes  the 
province  of  Potosi. —  See  Aimientine  Republic  : 
A.  D.  1580-1777;  and  Bolivia:  A.  D.  1825- 
1826. 

CHARIBERT  I.,  King  of  Aquitaine,  A.  D. 

561-507 Charibert  II.,  King  of  Aquitaine, 

A.  D.  628-031. 

CHARITON  RIVER,  Battle  of.  See 
United  Stati:s  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1862  (.Iult — 
SEPTKMiiEU :  Missorui — Aukansak). 

CHARLEMAGNE'S  EMPIRE.  See 
Fuankb(CaulovingianEmpiue):  A.  D.  708-814; 
Roman  Empike:  A.  D.  800;  Lombards:  A.  D. 


7M-774;  Baxonh:  A.   D.  772-Sftl;  Avarh:  701- 
805;  and  HpAiN:  A.  I).  778. 
CHARLEMAGNE'S  SCHOOL  OF  THE 

PALACE.      See  HciKHIL  OK  THE  I'alack. 

CHARLEROI :  A.  0. 1667.— Taken  by  the 
French.  Sec  Nktiieklands  (The  Hpanihii 
I'uoviNCEK):  A.  I).  1007. 

A.  D.  1668.— Ceded  to  France.  See  Nrthkh- 
LANDS  (Holland):  A.  I>.  1608. 

A.  D.  1670.— Restored  to  Spain.  See  Nimb- 
oi'EN,  The  Peace  ok. 

A.  D.  1693.— Siege  and  cnoture  by  the 
French.     Sec  FnAN(  e:  .V.  "    lOu.t  (■Iin.Y). 

A.  D.  1697.— Restored  to  Spain.  See  Francb  : 
A.  I).  16  >7. 

A.  D.  1713.— Ceded  to  Holland.  See 
Utheciit:  a.  I).  17l'2-1714. 

A.  D.  1746-1748.— Taken  by  French  and 
ceded  to  Austria.  Hee  Netiieiilandh:  A.  I). 
1740-1747,andAix  LA  (;iiapelle,Tiie(;on«reb8. 

CHARLES  (called  The  Great  —  Charle- 
magne), King  of  Neustria,  /  .  I).  768;  of  all  the 
Franks,  A.  D.  771 ;  of  Franks  and  Lorabardy, 

774 ;  Emperor  of  the  West,  800-814 Charles 

of  Austria,  Archduke,  Campaigns  of.  See 
France:  A.  I).  1706  (Aprii,— Octobeu);  1700- 
1707  (October— April)  ;  1707  (Aprii^.May); 
1708-1700  (August— April);  1700  (August- 
December);  also  Ger.many:  1800  (.January- 
June),     (  .July— Seitemueu  ) Charles     of 

Bourbon,  King  of  Naples  or  the  Two  Sicilies, 

17:J4-1750 Charles  (called  The  Bold),  Duke 

of  Burgundy,  1407-1477 Charles   I.,  King 

of  England,  1625-1640.— Trial  and  execution. 

See  England:  A.  I).  1640(.Januauv) Charles 

I.  (of  Anjou),  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  1200- 

1282;  King  of  Naples,   1282-128.5 Charles 

I.,   King   of   Portugal,    1880- Charles   II. 

(called  The  Bald),  Emperor,  and  King  of  Italy, 
A.  1).  875-877;  Kingof  Neustriaand  Burgundy, 

840-877 Charies  II.,  King  of  England,  1000- 

1085.  (Bt  a  loyal  fiction,  supposed  to  have 
reigned  from  1649,  when  his  father  was  be- 
headed ;  though  the  throne  was  in  Cromwell's 

possession) Charles  II.,  King  of  Naples, 

1285-1300 Charles  II.,   King   of  Navarre, 

1340-1387 Charles  II.,  King  of  Spain,  106.'>- 

1700 Charles  III.  (called  The  Fat),  Em- 
peror, King  of  the  East  Franks  (Germany), 
and  King  of  Italy,  A.  1).  881-888;  King  of  the 

West   Franks  (France),    884-888 Charles 

III.   (called   The    Simple),   King   of    France, 

A.  D.  802-020 Charles  III.,  King  of  Naples, 

1381-1386 Charles  III.,  King  of  Navarre, 

1387-1425 Charles    III.,    King    of   Spain, 

17.50-1788 Charles  IV.,  Emperor,  and  King 

of  Italy,  135.5-1378;  King  of  Bohemia,  1340- 
1378;  King  of  Germany,  1347-1378;   King  of 

Burgundy,  130.5-1378 Charles  IV.,  King  of 

France,  and  of  Navarre  (Charies  I.),  1322-1328. 

.  . .  .Charies  IV.,  King  of  Spain,  1788-1808 

Charles  V.,  Emperor,  1510-1558;  Duke  of  Bur- 
eundy,  1500-1555;  King  of  Spain  (as  Charles 
I.)  and  of  Naples,  or  the  Two  Sicilies,  1516- 

1556.      See    Austria:     A.    I).    1400-1526 

Charies  V.  (called  The  Wise),  King  of  France, 

1304-1380 Charles  VI.,  Germanic  Emperor, 

and  King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  1711-1740. 
. . .  .Charies  VI.  (called  The  Well-loved),  King 
of  France,  1380-1422 Charies  VII.  (of  Ba- 
varia),    Germanic    Emperor,     1742-1745 

Charies  VIL,  King  of  France,  1422-1461 


406 


CHARLES. 


CIIATILLON  sun  HKINK. 


Charlei  VIII.,  King  of  France,  148»-1408. 
Charles  IX.,  King  of  France,  I.VIO-lfl74. 
Charlei  IX.,  King  of  S'/eden.  HlOl-ltlll. 
Charles    X.,    King    of    France  (the    last 


of 


the  House  of  Bourbon),  I^Jt-iHilo Charles 

X.,   King  of   Sweden,    HW-Kino Charles 

XI.,  King  of  Sweden,  tiWI()-|<m7 Charles 

XII.,  King  of  Sweden,  KIDT-WIH Charles 

XIII.,  King  of  Sweden,  Ihoimhih Charles 

XIV.(Bernadotte),  King  of  Sweden,  IHlH-mit. 
. . .  .Charles  XV.,  King  of  Sweden,  1H,-.I»-|HTJ. 

Charles  Albert,  Duke  of  Savoy  and  King 

of  Sardinia,    ts:il   IHII) Charles  Emanuel, 

Duke  of  Savoy,  l.'iHO-KIMO Charleb  Emanuel 

II.,    Duke    of    Savoy,    ItllW KC."     ...Charles 
Emanuel   III.,   Duke   of  Savoy  and   King  of 

Sardinia,  17;lO-177;t Charles  Emanuel  iV., 

Duke  of  Savoy  and   King  of  Sardinip    1  DXl- 

mn Charles  Felix,    Duke  of  Savoy  and 

King  of  Sardinia,  lHJl~lH;ti Charles  Mar- 

tel,  Duke  of  Austrasia  and  Mayor  of  the  Palace 

(of  the  King  of  the  Franks),  .V.  D.  71.')-7U 

Charles   Robert,  or    Charobert,   or  Caribert, 

Kingof  Hungary,  lMi)M-i;ilJ Charles  Swrr- 

kerson,  King  of  Sweden.  lltll-ll«7. 

CHARLESTON,  S.  C. :  A.  D.  i6ao.— The 
founding  of  the  city.    Scu  HouTii  Caiiolina: 

A.  1).  1(170- loim. 

A.  D.  i7o6.— Unsuccessful  attack  by  the 
French.  Sim;  South  Caiioi.ina:  A.  I).  1701- 
1700. 

D.    1775-1776. — Revolutionary  proceed- 
Suo  .Soi-Tii  Caikm.ina:   A.    I).    l77.')  anil 


D.    1776.— Sir  Henry   Clinton's    attack 
repulse.      See    United    States  ok  Am.  : 


A, 
ings. 
1776. 

A. 
and 

A.   I).  1*70  (.lUNE). 

A.  D.  1780.— Siege  by  the  British.— Sur- 
render of  the  city.  Sec  United  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  1).  1780  (Feiiuuauy — Ai:oUKT). 

A.  D.  i860.— The  splitting  of  the  National 
Democratic  Convention.  See  United  ST.vrns 
okAm.  :  A.  1).  lH0O(AiMiii Novk.miikii). 

A.  D.  i860.— The  adoption  of  the  Ordinance 
of  Secession.  Sec  United  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  I).  1800  (NovEMHEii — Decemueii). 

A.  D.  i860. — Major  Anderson  at  Fort  Sum- 
ter. Sen  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1800 
(Decemueu). 

A.  D.  1861  (April). — The  Beginning  of  war. 
— Bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter.  Sec  United 
8t.\tes  OK  Am.  :  A.  U.  1801  (Maiuh— Aphil). 

A.  D.  1863  (April).— The  attack  and  repulse 
of  the  Monitor  fleet.  See  United  States  of 
Am.  :  A.  I).  1803  (Ai'iui, :  South  Cauomna). 

A.  D.  1863  (July). — The  Union  troops  on 
Morris  Island. — Assault  on  Fort  Wagner. 
See  United  States  ok  A.m.  :  A.  1).  180!)  (Jii.y: 
South  Caiioi.ina). 

A.  D.  1863  (August — December).— Siege  of 
Fort  Wagner.— Bombardment  of  the  city. 
See  United  States  OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  1803  (August 
— Decemueu:  South  Caiioi.ina). 

A.  D.  1865  (February). — Evacuation  by  the 
Confederates. — Occupation  by  Federal  troops. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1865  (Febru- 
Auv :  South  Caholina). 

CHARLESTOWN,  Mass.:  A.  D.  1623.— 
The  first  settlement.  See  Massachusetts: 
A.  1).  lOaO-1630. 

CHARTER  OAK,  The.  See  Connecticut : 
A.  I).  1085-1087. 


CHARTER  OF  FORESTS.  8«'eENiil.AND: 
A.  1).  l'Ji:;-l.'71. 
CHARTERHOUSE,OR  CHARTREUSE. 

Hoc  {'AUTIIIHIXN  OllMKIl. 

CHARTISTS. -CHARTISM.     See     E.so- 

land:    A.   1».    IHItH-lMfJ,  Jtnci   IMIH. 

CHARTRES,  Defeat  of  the  Normans  at.— 
The  Nonimii,  Unlli),  liivcHtiiiff  llic  city  cif  CImr- 
trcH,  Hustiiined  there,  mi  the  '.iOtli  of  .luly,  A.  I>. 
911,  the  most  Herli>us  defeiit  which  hv  iiiul  his 
piriites  ever  «ii(Tere(l. — Sir  F.  I'iil){rm-e,  //int. 
of  Xormii  mil/  mill  A'/h/.,  tik:  1,  r/i.  5. 

CHARTREUSE.  La  Grande.  See  Caii- 
TlirwlAN  Okdkk. 

CHASIDIJa,  OR  CHASIDEES,  OR  AS- 

SIDEANS,  The.— .V  Tmmc,  HiKiiifyiiiK  the 
jjdilly  or  pliiiis,  iiHKumeil  liy  11  party  ainoii);  the 
,IeWH,  III  the  .second  century  M.  i',.,  who  resisted 
the  (JrccliuilzInK  tendencies  of  the  time  under 
the  liilliienee  of  the  OriecoSyriiui  ddininiitliiii, 
mid  who  were  the  nucleus  of  the  Mucciil«'an 
revolt.  The  latiT  school  of  the  Pharisees  if  rc^p- 
resented  by  Kwald  (Ifinl.  of  Im-ii  '<■.  5,  nirt.  'i) 
to  have  lieen  the  prisluct  of  a  11,1.  ..wIiik  iraiis- 
foriiiationof  the  school  of  the  Cliasidiiii;  wliili'thii 
Es.senes,  in  Ills  view,  were  a  purer  resiiliii^  of  the 
Cliashlini  "who  strove  after  piety,  yet  would 
not  Joii.  the  Pharisees" ;  who  abandoned  "  society 
as  worldly  and  Incurably  corrupt,"  and  in  whom 
"the  con.selenee  of  the  nation,  as  it  were,  with- 
drew into  the  wilderness." — II.  Ewahl,  Iliiit.  of 
hriifl,  hk.  5,  met.  'i. — A  iinMlerii  sect,  iHjrrowinjj; 
the  name,  founiled  l)y  one  Isnu'l  Baal  Sehein,  vrlio 
first  appeared  In  Podolla,  in  iriO,  is  said  to  em- 
brace most  of  the  .Jews  In  tjallcia,  Hungary, 
Southern  Russia,  and  Wallai  liin — 11.  C.  Adams, 
Hint,  of  the  Jeim.  p.  333. 

Ai,s()  IN  ;  II.  Oraetz,  JftHt.  of  t/ieJeies,  v.  \  ch.  P. 

CHASuARII,  The.     See  Franks:    Oihoin, 

ETC.      ^ 

CHATEAU  CAMBRESIS,  Treaty  of 
(1559).^   SeeFliANCE:  A.  D.  l.')47-15r)i). 

CHATEAU  GALLAIRD.— This  was  the 
name  given  to  a  famous  castle,  built  by  Hichard 
Cu!ur  (le  Lion  in  Normandy,  and  designed  to  be 
the  key  to  the  defences  of  that  important  duchy. 
"As  a  iiioiiument  of  warlike  skill,  his  'Saucy 
Castle,'  Chateau  CJaillard,  stands  first  among  tlio 
fortresses  of  the  AIi(hlle  Ages.  Uieliard  ti.\(!d 
its  site  where  the  Seine  benils  suddenly  at  Gail- 
Ion  in  a  great  semicircle  to  the  north,  and  where 
the  Valley  of  Les  AndiMys  breaks  the  line  of  the 
chalk  cliffs  along  its  bank.  The  castle  ff)rnied 
part  of  an  intrenched  camp  which  Hidiard  ile- 
signed  to  cover  his  Norman  capital.  .  .  .  The 
easy  reduction  of  Normandy  on  the  fall  of 
Cliiltcau  Gaillard  at  a  later  time  [when  it  was 
taken  by  Philip  Augustus,  of  France]  proved 
HU^hard's  foresight." — .1.  It.  Green,  Short  Ilist. 
of  the  Kiiqlinh  People,  ch.  2,  neet.  0. 

CHATEAU  THIERRY,  Battle  of.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1814  (.Januauv— .Maucii). 

CHATEAUVIEUX,  Fete  to  the  soldiers 
of.     See  LiiiEitTY  Cai*. 

CHATHAM,  Lord;  Administration  of.  See 
Enoland:     a.   I>.     17.')7-17«0:    1760-1703,    and 

1765-1708 And  the  American  Revolution. 

See  United  States  of  A.m.  :  A.  I).  1775  (.Janu- 
ary— Mahcii). 

CHATILLON,  Battles  of  (1793).  See 
France:  A.  D.  1703  (.July- Decemueu). 

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE,  Congress  of. 
See  France  :  A.  D.  1814  (January— SIauch). 


m 


CHATTANOOGA. 


CIIERU8CI. 


CHATTANOOGA :  The  name.  Sco  United 
Statics  of  A.m.  :  A.  I).  186a  (Auoust — Skitkm- 
iiEii:  Tennebskk). 

A.  D.  1862.— Secured  by  the  Confedemtes. 
Sni'  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  I).  180a(.IrNE — 
OCTOIIEII :  Ten.nehskk — Kentih'ky). 

A.  D.  1863  (August). — Evacuation  by  the 
Confederates.  Hcu  United  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  I).  18(1!{  (AudusT — Septembek:  Tennessee). 

A.  D.  1863  (October— November).— The 
siege. — The  battle  on  Lookout  Mountain. — 
The  assault  of  Missionary  Ridge. — The  Rout- 
ing of  Bragg's  army.  Sec  United  States  of 
Am.:  a.  I).  180!!  (Octobek— Novembem :  Ten- 
nessee). 

* 

CHATTI,  or  CATTI,  The.— "Beyond [the 
JIuttiaei]  are  the  Clmtti,  wliose  settklnents  begin 
lit  the  llercyniiin  forest,  where  the  country  is 
not  so  open  luiil  marshy  ns  in  the  other  <;antons 
into  which  Germany  stretches.  They  are  found 
where  there  are  hills,  and  with  them  grow  less 
frequent, for  the  llercynian  forest  keeps  close  till 
it  has  seen  llie  last  of  its  native  Chatti.  Hardy 
frames,  close-knit  limbs,  fierie  countenances, 
und  a  peculiarly  vigorous  courage,  mark  the 
tribe.  For  Germans,  they  have  nnich  intelli- 
gence and  sagacity.  .  .  .  Other  tribes  you  see 
going  to  battle,  the  Chatti  to  a  campaign." — 
"The  settlements  of  the  Chatti,  one  of  the  chief 
German  tribes,  apparently  coincide  with  poi  ions 
of  Westphalia,  Nassau,  Hesse-Darmstjidt  and 
Hcsse-Cassel.  Dr.  Latham  assumes  the  Chatti 
of  fiicitus  to  be  the  Suevi  of  Cicsar.  The  fact 
that  the  name  Chatti  does  not  occur  in  Ca'sar 
renders  this  hypothesis  by  no  means  improbable." 
— Tacitus,  Germany,  trans,  by  Church  and  Brod- 
rihh,  and  note. — See,  also,  SuKVl. 

CHAUCER,  and  his  times.  See  England: 
A.  D.  1350-1400. 

CHAUCI  and  CHERlISCI,.The.— "The 
tribe  of  the  Chauci  .  .  .  beginning  at  tlie  Frisian 
settlements  and  occupying  a  part  of  the  coast, 
stretches  along  the  frontier  of  all  the  tribes 
which  I  have  enumerated,  till  it  reaches  with  a 
bend  as  fcr  as  the  Chatti.  This  vast  extent  of 
country  is  not  merely  possessed  but  densely 
peopled  by  the  Chauci,  the  noblest  of  the  Ger- 
man races,  a  nation  who  would  maintain  their 
grnntnesw  hy  .igliteous  dealing.  Without  am- 
bition, without  lawless  violence,  ...  the  crown- 
ing prnf  of  their  valour  and  their  strength 
is,  that  they  keep  up  tlieir  superiority  without 
harm  to  ethers.  .  .  .  Dwelling  on  one  side  of  the 
Chauci  and  Chatti,  tlic  Cherusci  long  cherished, 
unossailed,  au  excessive  and  enervating  love  of 
peace.  This  was  more  pleasant  than  safe,  .  .  . 
and  so  the  Cherusci,  ever  reputed  good  and  just, 
are  now  called  cowards  and  fools,  while  in  tlie 
case  of  tlie  victorious  Chatti  success  has  been 
identified  with  prudence.  The  downfall  of  the 
Cherusci  brt  ught  with  it  also  that  of  the  Fosi,  a 
neighbouring  tribe." — "Tlie  settlements  of  the 
Chauci  .  .  .  nuist  have  included  almost  the  en- 
tire country  between  tlie  ^  ^s  and  the  Wes(!r  — 
that  is,  Oldenburg  and  ^  of  Hanover  —  and 
have  taken  in  portions  ot  Westphalia  about 
Munstcr  and  Paderboni.  The  Cherusci  .  .  . 
appear  to  liave  occupied  Brunswick  and  the 
south  part  of  Hanover.  Armiuius  who  destroyed 
the  Komau  army  under  Varus,  was  a  Clicruscim 
chief.  .  .  .  The  P\)si  .  .  .  must  have  occupied 
part  of  Hanover. " — Tacitus,  Minor  Works,  trans. 


by  Chureh  and  lirodribb:  The  Germany,  iHth 
(leoff.  notes. — ULshop  Stubbs  conjectures  that  the 
fthauci,  Cherusci,  and  spme  other  tribes  may 
have  been  afterwards  comprehended  under  the 
general  name  "Saxon."    See  Saxons. 

CHAZARS,  The.     See  Kiiazaus. 

CHEAT  SUMMIT,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1861  (August — Decem- 
uek:  W?;st  Vihoinia). 

CHEBUCTO.— The  original  name  of  the 
harbor  chosen  for  the  site  of  the  city  of  Hali- 
fax. See  Nova  Scotia:  A.  D.  1740-1755,  and 
Halifax:  A.  D.  1749. 

CHEIROTONIA  .—A  vote  by  show  of  hands, 
among  the  ancient  Greeks. — Q.  F.  SchOmann, 
Anttq.  of  Orcece:  The  State,  pt.  8,  eh.  3. 

CHEML     See  Eovi'T :  Its  NA.ME8. 

CHEMNITZ,  Battle  of  (1639).  Sec  Ger- 
many: A.  D.  1634-1639. 

CHERBOURG.— Destroyed  by  the  Eng- 
lish. See  England:  A.  U.  1758 (July — August). 

CHEROKEE  WAR,  The.  See  South 
Cauoi.ina:  a.  D.  1759-1761. 

CHEROKEES,  The.  See  American  Abo- 
rigines:  ChEKOKEES. 

CHERRONESUS,  The  proposed  State  of. 
See  Northwest  Territory  of  the  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1784. 

CHERRY   VALLEY,   The    massacre  at. 

See  United  States  op  Aji.  :  A.  D.  1778  (June 
— No'>  ember). 

CHERSON.  See  Bosphorus:  A.  D.  565- 
574. 

A.  D.  988.— Taken  by  the  Russians.— "A 
thousand  years  after  the  rest  of  the  Greek  nation 
was  sunk  in  irremediable  slavery,  Cherson  re- 
mained free.  Such  a  phenomenon  as  the  ex- 
istence of  manly  feeling  in  one  city,  when  man- 
kind everywhere  else  slept  contented  in  a  state 
of  political  degradation,  deserved  attentive  con- 
sideration. .  .  .  Cherson  retained  its  position  as 
an  independent  State  until  the  reign  of  Theo- 
philus  [Byzantine  emperor  A.  D.  829-842],  who 
compellecl  it  to  receive  a  governor  from  Con- 
stantinople; but,  even  under  the  Byzantine 
government,  it  continued  to  defend  its  municipal 
institutions,  and,  instead  of  slavishly  soliciting 
the  imperial  favour,  and  adopting  Byzantine 
manners,  it  boasted  of  its  constitution  and  self 
government.  But  it  gradually  lost  its  former 
wealth  and  extensive  trade,  and  when  Vladimir, 
the  sovereign  of  Russia,  attacked  it  in  988,  it 
was  betrayed  into  his  hands  by  a  priest,  who  in- 
formed hiin  how  to  cut  off  the  water.  .  .  . 
Vladimir  obtained  the  hand  of  Anno,  the  sister 
of  the  emperors  Basil  XL  and  Constantine  VIII., 
and  was  baptised  and  married  in  the  church  of 
the  Panaghia  at  Cherson.  To  soothe  the  vanity 
of  the  Empire,  he  pretended  to  retain  possession 
of  his  conquest  as  the  dowry  of  his  wife.  Mony 
of  the  priests  who  converted  the  Russians  to 
Christianity,  and  mLuy  of  the  artists  who 
adorned  the  earliest  Russian  churches  with 
paintings  and  mosaics,  were  natives  of  Cherson. " 
— G.  Finlay,  Hist,  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  fro^n 

716  to  1057. 

« 

CHERSONESE,  The  Golden.    SceCHRYSE. 

CHERSONESUS.— The  Greek  name  for  a 
peninsula,  or  "laud-island,"  applied  most  especi- 
ally to  the  long  tongue  of  land  between  the 
Hellespont  and  the  Gulf  of  Melas. 

CHERUSCI,  The.    See  Cuaucl 


408 


CHESAPEAKE  AND  SHANNON. 


CrilCAQO. 


CHESAPEAKE  AND  SHANNON,  The 
fight  of  the.  Sci'  L'.NITED  8t.vti:s  ok  Am.  :  A.I). 
18l'i-I81i!. 

CHESS,  Origin  of  the  game  of,— "If  wc 

wisheil  to  know,  for  iiistanci!,  wlio  has  tjiu>;ht  us 
tlie  game  of  cliess,  thu  name  of  chess  would  tell 
us  better  than  anything  else  that  it  canio  to  the 
West  from  Persia.  In  spite  of  all  that  lias  been 
written  to  the  contrary,  ches,s  was  originally  the 
game  of  Kings,  the  game  «f  Shahs.  This  worcl 
Shall  became  in  Old  French  eschac,  It.  scacco, 
Germ.  .Schach;  while  the  Old  French  eschecs 
was  further  corrupted  into  chess.  Tlic  more 
original  form  chec  has  likewise  been  prcserve<l, 
though  wc  little  think  of  it  when  we  draw  a 
clicquo,  or  when  wo  suffer  a  check,  or  wlien  we 
speak  of  the  Chancellor  of  tlic  E.\ehoquer.  The 
great  object  of  the  chess-player  is  to  protect  the 
king,  and  when  the  king  is  in  danger,  the 
opponent  is  obliged  to  say  'check,'  i.  e..  Shall, 
tiie  king.  .  .  .  After  this  the  various  meanings 
of  check,  cheque,  or  exchequer  become  easily 
intelligible,  though  it  is  quite  true  that  if  similar 
changes  of  meaning,  which  in  our  case  we  can 
watch  by  the  light  of  history,  had  taken  place  in 
the  dimness  of  prehistoric  ages,  it  would  be 
dilTlcult  to  convince  the  sceptic  that  exchequer, 
or  scaccarium,  the  name  of  the  chess-board  was 
afterwards  used  for  the  checkered  cloth  on 
which  accounts  were  calculated  by  means  of 
counters,  and  that  a  checkered  career  was  a  life 
with  many  cross-lines." — F.  Max  MUUer,  Bio(i. 
of  Wordu,  ch.  4. 

CHESTER,  Origin  of.     See  Deva. 

CHESTER,  The  Palatine  Earldom.  See 
Palatine.Tue  English  Counties;  also  AVales, 

PniNCE  OP. 

CHESTER,  Battle  of.— One  of  the  fiercest 
of  the  battles  fought  between  the  Welsh  and  the 
Angles,  A.  I).  613.     The  latter  wore  the  victors. 

CHEVY  CHASE.    See  Otteubuun,  B.vtti.e 

OP. 

CHEYENNES,  OR  SHEYENNES,  The. 

See  American  Abouig INKS :  Algonquian  Fa.m- 

ILY. 

CHIAPAS  :  Ruins  of  ancient  civilization  in. 

See  Am  Kuic.\N  AnouiGiNEs ;  Mayas  ;  and  Mexico, 
Ancient. 

CHIARI,  Battle  of(i70i).  Sec  Italy  (Savoy 
AND  Piedmont):  A.  D.  1(01-1713. 

CHIBCHAS,    The.      Sec  Ameuican   Abo- 

RIOINES:    ClIIBCIIAK. 

CHICAGO:  AD.  1812.— Evacuation  of  the 
Fort  Dearborn  Post,  and  massacre  of  most  of 
the  retreating  garrison.  See  United  States 
OK  Am.  :  A.  D.  1813  (.Iune— Octoiiek). 

A.  D.  i860.—  The  Republican  National  Con- 
vention.— Nomination  of  Lincoln.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1800  (Apuil— Novem- 
ber). 

A.  D.  1871.- The  great  Fire.—"  The  greatest 
event  in  the  history  of  Chicago  was  the  Great 
Fire,  as  it  is  terme(i,  which  broke  out  on  the 
evening  of  Oct.  8,  1871.  Chicago  was  at  that 
time  [except  in  the  bu.siness  centre]  a  city  of 
wood.  For  a  long  time  prior  to  the  evening  re- 
ferred to  there  had  been  blowing  a  hot  wind  from 
the  southwest,  which  had  dried  everything  to 
the  iuflammability  of  tinder,  and  it  was  ui)on  a 
mass  of  suu  and  wind-dried  wooden  structures 
that  the  Are  began  its  work.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  from  the  accidental  upsetting  of 
a  kerosene  lamp  in  a  cow  barn  [Mrs.  O'Leary's] 

27 

409 


on  De  Koven  Street,  near  the  corner  of  .Tcfforson, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  Tnis  region  was 
composed  large'^' of  shanties,  and  the  fire  spread 
rapidly,  very  •  1  crossing  the  river  to  the  South 
Side,  and  fas  ing  on  that  portion  of  the  city 
which  contained  nearly  all  tiie  leading  business 
hoiLses,  and  which  was  built  up  very  largely  witll 
stone  and  brick.  Rut  it  seemed  to  enkindle  as 
if  it  were  tinder.  Some  buildings  were  blown 
up  with  gunpowder,  which,  in  connection  with 
the  .strong  southwest  gale,  prevented  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Ihinies  to  the  south.  The  tire  swept 
on  Monday  steadily  to  the  north  including  every- 
thing from  the  hike  to  the  South  Branch,  and 
then  crossed  to  the  Xorth  Side,  and,  taking  in 
everything  fnmi  tli(^  lake  to  the  North  Branch, 
it  burned  northward  for  a  distance  of  three  miles, 
where  it  died  out,  at  the  city  limits,  when  there 
was  nothing  more  to  burn.  In  the  midst  of  this 
broad  area  of  devastation,  on  the  north  side  of 
Washington  Square,  between  Clark  Street  and 
Dearborn  Avenue,  the  well-known  Ogden  house 
stands  amid  trees  of  the  ancient  forest  and  sur- 
rounded by  extensive  grounds,  the  solitary  relic 
of  that  section  of  the  city  lieforc  the  liery  tlood. 
The  total  aren  of  the  land  burned  over  was  3,100 
acres.  Nearly  30,000  buildings  were  consumed; 
100,000  people  were  rendered  homeless;  200  lives 
were  lost,  and  the  grand  total  of  values  destroyed 
is  estimated  at  |200,000,000.  Of  this  vast  sum, 
nearly  one-half  was  covered  by  insurance,  but 
under  the  tremendous  losses  many  of  the  in- 
surance companies  were  forced  to  the  wall,  and 
went  into  liquidation,  and  the  victims  of  the  con- 
flagration recovered  only  about  one-flfth  of  their 
aggregate  losses.  Among  the  buildings  which 
were  burned  were  the  court-house,  custom-house 
and  post  office,  chamber  of  commerce,  three  rail- 
way depots,  nine  daily  newspaper  oftlces,  thirty- 
two  hotels,  ten  theatres  and  halls,  eight  public 
schools  and  some  branch  sc'iool  buildings,  forty- 
one  churches,  five  elevators,  .!nd  all  the  national 
banks.  If  the  Great  Fire  was  r.n  event  without 
parallel  in  its  dimensions  and  the  magnitude  of 
Its  dire  results,  1  he  charity  which  followed  it  was 
equally  unrivalled  in  its  extent.  .  .  .  All  the 
civilized  world  appeared  to  instantly  appreciate 
the  calamity.  Food,  clothing,  supplies  of  every 
kind,  money,  ".iiessages  of  atfection,  sympathy, 
etc.,  began  pouring  in  at  once  in  a  stream  that  ap- 
peared endless  and  bottomless.  In  all,  the  amount 
contributed  reached  over  §7,000,000.  .  .  .  It  was 
believed  by  many  that  the  fire  had  forever  blotted 
out  Chicago  from  the  list  of  great  American 
cities,  but  the  spirit  of  her  people  was  undaunted 
by  calamity,  and,  encouraged  by  the  generous 
sympathy  and  help  from  all  quarters,  they  set 
to  work  at  once  to  repair  their  almost  ruined 
fortunes.  .  .  .  Rebuilding  was  at  once  com- 
menced, and,  within  a  year  after  the  fire,  more 
than  $40,000,000  were  expended  in  improvements. 
The  city  came  up  from  its  ruins  far  more  palatial, 
splendid,  strong  and  imperishable  than  before. 
In  one  sense  the  fire  was  a  benefit.  Its  consequence 
was  a  class  of  structures  far  better,  in  every 
essential  respect,  than  before  the  conflagration. 
Fire-proof  buildings  became  the  rule,  the  limits 
of  woo<l  were  carefully  restricted,  and  the  value 
of  the  reconstructed  portion  imnieasuralily  ex- 
ceeded that  of  the  city  which  li,n  1  been  destroyed. " 
—ifarquis'  IfiiullMKik  of  C/iicai/u,  p.  32.— "Thou- 
sands of  people  on  the  North  Side  fleil  far  out  on  the 
prairie,  but  other  thousands,  less  fortunate,  were 


CHICAGO. 


CHICAGO. 


Iicmmcd  in  before  they  could  ronch  the  country, 
and  wen;  driven  to  tlie  Sands,  n  group  of  l)encii- 
hillociis  fronting  on  Lalie  Micliigiui.  Tlicsc  liad 
been  covered  willi  rescued  mereliamlise  'ind  fui 
niture.  Tlie  (lames  fell  fiercely  upon  the  heaps 
of  goods,  and  the  miserable  refugees  were  driven 
into  the  iilacli  waves,  wliere  they  stood  neck-deep 
in  rhilllng  water,  scourged  l>y  sheets  of  sparks 
and  blowing  sand.  A  great  number  of  )<orses 
had  been  collected  hero,  and  they  too  dashed  into 
tlic  sea,  where  scores  of  tliem  were  drowned. 
Toward  evening  tlie  Mayor  sent  a  ticet  of  tow- 
boats  which  took  off  tlie  fugitives  at  the  Sands. 
When  the  ne.xtday  [Tuesday,  October  10]  dawned, 
the  |)rairie  was  covered  with  the  calcined  ruins 
of  more  than  17,000  buildings.  .  .  .  Tills  was 
the  greatest  and  most  disastrous  c(mtlagration  on 
reconl.  The  burning  of  Mo.scow,  in  1813,  caused 
ft  loss  amounting  to  .€30,000,000;  but  the  loss  at 
Chicago  was  in  excess  of  this  amount.  Tlie 
Great  Fire  of  London,  in  lOflO.  devastated  a  tnict 
of  486  acres,  and  lestroyed  IJi.OOO  buildings;  but 
that  of  f'hicago  swept  over  1,000  acres,  and 
burned  more  than  17,000  buildings." — M.  P. 
Swcetser,  C'him;io  ("  Cities  of  the  \YiirM,"  r.  1). 
—  The  following  is  the  statement  of  area  burned 
over,  and  of  propt^rtv  destroyed,  made  by  tlie 
Chicago  l{elief  and  Aid  Society,  and  wliicli  is 
probably  authoritative:  " The  total  area  burned 
over  in  the  city,  including  streets,  was  3, 124  acres, 
or  nearly  tliree  and  one-third  stiuare  miles.  Tliis 
area  contJiined  about  7U  miles  of  streets,  18,000 
buildings,  and  the  homes  of  100,000  people." — 
A.  T.  Andreas,  IHkI.  of  Cliirarjo.  v.  3,  /).  760. 

Ai-s«>  IN:  J].  Colbert  and  E.  Chanibcrlnin,  Chi- 
ear/o  and  the  Great  ('onjliif/nitioii. 

A.  D.  1886-1887.— The  Haymarket  Con- 
spiracy.—  Crime  of  the  Anarchists. — Their 
trial  and  execution. —  "  In  Februaiy,  1886, 
Messrs.  McCormick,  large  agriceUurnl machine 
makers  of  Chicago,  refusing  to  yii  1  to  the 
dictation  of  their  workmen,  who  required  tliem 
to  discharge  some  non-Union  hands  they 
had  taken  on,  announced  a  'lock-out,'  and  pre- 
pared to  resume  business  as  soon  as  possible  witli 
a  new  stalT.  Spies,  Lingg,  and  other  German 
Anarchists  saw  their  opportunity.  Tliey  jier- 
suaded  the  ousted  workmen  to  prevent  the 
'  scabs,' —  anglice,  '  blacklegs, '  —  from  entering 
the  works  on  the  day  of  their  reopening. 
Revolvers,  rifles,  aid  bombs  were  readily  found, 
the  latter  being  entrusted  principally  to  the 
hands  of  professional  'Ueds.'  The  most  violent 
a])peals  were  made  to  the  members  of  Unions  and 
the  populace  generally ;  but  though  a  succession  of 
riots  were  got  up,  they  were  easily  quelled  by  tlu! 
resolute  action  of  'lie  ])oliee,  backed  by  the 
approval  of  the  immense  majority  of  tlie  people  of 
Chicago.  Finally,  a  mass  meeting  in  arms  was 
called' to  take  place  on  .May  4tli,  1886,  at  7.!!0  i),m.. 
In  tlie  Haymarket,  u  long  and  recently  wideiK'd 
stri'et  of  "the  town,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
denouncing  the  police.  IJut  the  intention  of  the 
Anarchists  was  not  merely  to  denounce  the  police : 
this  was  the  pretext  only.  The  i)ris()ns  were  to 
be  forced,  the  police-stations  blown  up,  the 
public  buildings  attacked,  and  the  onslaught  on 
property  and  capital  to  be  inaugurated  by  the 
devastation  of  one  of  the  fairest  cities  of  the 
Union.  By  8  p.  m.  a  mob  of  some  three  or  four 
tliousand  persons  had  been  collected,  and  were 
regaled  by  speeches  that  became  more  violent 
as  the  night  wore  ou.     At  10  p.  in.  tlie  police 


appeared  in  force.  The  crowd  were  commanded 
to  disperse  peaceably.  A  voice  shouted :  '  We 
arc  peaceable. '  Captain  Scliaack  says  this  was  a 
signal.  The  words  were  hardly  uttered  when 
'a  spark  flashed  through  the  air.  It  looked  like 
(he  lighted  remnant  of  a  cigar,  but  hissed  like 
a  miniature  sky-rocket.'  It  was  a  bomb,  and 
fell  amid  the  ranks  of  the  police.  A  terrific 
explosion  followed,  and  immediately  afterwards 
tlie  mob  opened  Are  upop  the  police.  The  latter, 
stunned  for  a  nionient,  soon  recovered  them- 
selves, returned  the  lire,  charged  the  mob,  and 
in  a  couple  of  minutes  dispersed  it  in  every 
direction.  Hut  eight  of  their  comrades  lay  dead 
upon  tli(!  pavement,  and  scores  of  others  were 
weltering  in  their  blood  around  the  spot.  Such 
was  the  Chicago  outrage  of  May  4(li,  1886." — 
The  Spectator,  Apr.  10,  1890  (reriewiny  Sehaiirk'8 
"  Amirchy  and  Anarehintn").  —  The  Anarchists 
who  were  arrested  and  brought  to  itrial  for  this 
crime  were  eight  in  number, —  August  Spies, 
Michael  Schwab,  Samuel  Fielden,  Albert  H. 
Parsons,  Adolpli  Fischer,  George  Engel,  Louis 
Lingg,  and  Oscar  W.  Neebe.  Tlic  trial  began 
July  14,  1886.  The  evidence  closed  on  the  10th 
of  August ;  the  argument  of  council  consumed 
more  tlian  a  week,  and  on  the  20tli  of  August 
the  jury  brought  in  a  verdict  which  condemned 
Neebe  to  imprisonment  for  fifteen  years,  and  all 
the  other  i)risoi'ers  to  death.  Lingg  committed 
suicide  in  prison ;  the  sentences  of  Schwab  and 
Fielding  wen;  commuted  by  tlie  Governor  to 
imprisonment  for  life;  the  remaining  four  were 
hanged  on  the  11th  of  November,  1887. — Judge 
Gary,  The  Chieai/o  Anarchists  of  1880  (Century 
Mmi.,  April,  1893). 

Also  in:  il.  J.   Scliaak,   Anarchy  and  Anar- 
ch ints. 

A.  D.  1892-1893.— The  World's  Columbian 
Exposition. — "  As  a  fitting  imxle  of  celebrating 
(he  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  landing  of 
Columbus  on  Oct.  13,  1493,  it  was  proposed  to 
liave  a  universal  exhibition  in  the  United  States. 
Tlie  idea  was  flrsi  taken  up  by  citizens  of  New 
York,  where  subscriptions  to  the  amount  of 
$5,000,000  were  obtained  from  merchants  and 
capitalists  before  application  was  made  for  the 
sanction  and  support  of  the  Federal  Government. 
Wncn  the  matter  came  up  in  Congress  the 
claims  of  Chicago  were  considered  superior,  and 
a  bill  was  passed  and  approved  on  April  35, 
1890,  entitled  '  An  Act  to  provide  for  celebrating 
the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery 
of  America  by  Christopher  Columbus,  by  hold- 
ing an  international  exhibition  of  arts,  industries, 
manufactures,  and  the  products  of  the  soil 
mine,  and  sea  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  in  the 
State  of  Illinois.'  Tlie  iict  provided  for  the 
appointment  of  commissioners  who  should 
organize  tlie  exposition.  .  .  .  Wlien  the  organ- 
ization was  completed  and  the  stipulated  fliiau- 
cial  support  from  the  citizens  and  munieipali'.y 
of  Chicago  assured,  President  Harrison,  on  Dec. 
24,  1890,  issued  a  proclamation  inviting  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth  to  participate  in  the  World's 
(lolumbian  Exposition.  Since  tlie  time  was  too 
sliort  to  have  tlie  grounds  and  buildings  com- 
pleted for  the  summer  of  1893,  as  was  originally 
intenclcd,  the  opening  of  the  exposition  was 
announced  for  May,  189!).  When  the  work  was 
fairly  begun  it  was  accelerated,  as  many  as 
10,000  workmen  being  employed  at  one  time,  in 
order  to  have  the  buildings  ready  to  be  dsdi- 


410 


CHICAGO. 


CHILE,  14S0-1734. 


catcd  with  imposing  ceremonios  on  Oct.  12,  1803, 
in  comniL'inomlion  of  tliu  i'.\act  date  of  the  dis- 
covery of  Anicrica." — Appleton'a  Annual  Cydo- 
padid,  1891,  p.  8^7. —On  .May  1,  180iJ,  tlie  Fair 
was  opened  witli  appropriate  ceremonies  hy 
President  Cleveland. 

CHICASAS,  The.  Sec  American  Abo- 
BloiNKs:  MusKiiooKAN  FAMILY;  also,  Louisi- 
ana: A.  D.  1719-t7r)0. 

CHICHIMECS,  The.     See  .Mexico:  A.  D. 

CHICKAHOMINY,  Battles  on  the  (Gaines' 
Mill,  1862;  Cold  Harbor,  1864).  See  Unitkd 
Status  ok  Am.:  A.  I).  ISO'J  (.Tune— July: 
ViK(iiNiA);  and  lHfi4(.MAY — Jt;xi;:  Viikhnia). 

CHICKAMAUGA,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  of  Am,  :  A.  I).  1863  (August— Septem- 
ber: Tennknskk). 

CHICORA. — Tlie  name  given  to  the  region  of 
South  Carolina  by  its  Spanish  discoverers.  Sec 
America:  A.  D.  l.JlO-l.T'.l 

CHILDEBERT  L,  King  of  the  Franks,  at 

Paris,  A.  I).  oll-r),j8 CTiildebert  11.,   King 

of   the    Franks    (Austrasia),    A.    1).    .")?."i-.VJ{I; 

(Burgundy),  rm-rm Childebert  HL,  King 

of  the  Franks  (Neustria  and  Burgundy),  A.  I). 
60.'>-711. 

CHILDERIC  U.,  King  of  the  Franks  (Aus- 
trasia), A.  1).  0(10-078 Childeric  UL,  King 

of  the  Franks  (Neustria),  A.  1).  743-753. 

CHILDREN  OF  REBECCA.  See  ItEBEC- 
CAITE8. 

CHILDREN'S  CRUSADE,  The.  Set) 
Crusades:  A.  D.  1313. 

CHILE:' The  Araucanians. —  "The  land  of 
Chili,  from  f!0"  south  latitude,  was  and  is  still  in 
part  occupied  by  several  tribes  who  speak  tlie 
same  language.  They  form  the  fourth  and  most 
southern  group  of  the  Andes  people,  and  are 
called  Araucanians.  Like  almost  all  American 
tribal  names,  the  term  Araucanian  is  indefinite ; 
sometimes  it  is  restricted  to  a  single  band,  and 
som.  ''.nes  so  extended  as  to  embrace  a  group  of 
tribes.  Some  regard  them  as  a  separate  family, 
calling  them  Chilians,  while  others,  whom  we 
follow,  regard  them  as  the  soutliern  members  of 
the  Andes  group,  and  still  others  class  them 
with  the  Pampas  Indians.  The  name  Araucanian 
is  an  improper  one,  introduced  by  the  Spaniards, 
but  it  is  so  firmly  fixed  that  it  cannot  be  changed. 
The  native  names  are  Mohiche  (warriors)  and 
Alapuche  (natives).  Originally  thev  extended 
from  Coquimbo  to  the  Chonos  Archipelago  aiul 
from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  even  now  they  extend, 
though  not  very  far,  to  the  east  of  the  Cordilleras. 
They  are  divided  into  four  (or,  if  we  include  tlie 
Picuhcho,  five)  tribes,  the  names  of  which  all  end 
In  '  tche '  or  'che,'  the  word  for  man.  Other 
minor  divisions  exist.  The  entf'c  number  of  the 
Araucanians  is  computed  at  about  30,000 
souls,  but  it  is  decreasing  by  sickness  as  well  as 
by  vice.  They  are  owners  of  their  land  and  have 
cattle  in  abundance,  pay  no  taxes,  nml  even  their 
labor  in  the  construction  of  liigliways  is  only 
light.  They  are  warlike,  brave,  and  still  enjoy 
some  of  the  blessings  of  the  Inca  civilization; 
only_  the  real,  western  Araucanians  in  Chili  have 
attained  to  a  sedentary  life.  Long  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Spauia.ds  the  government  of  the 
Araucanians  offered  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
military  aristocnicy  of  the  old  world.  All  the 
rest  that  has  been  written  of  their  higli  stage  of 


culture  has  proved  to  be  an  empty  picture  of 
fancy.  Tlicy  followed  ngriculfure,  built  fixed 
lioii.ses,  and  made  at  least  an  attempt  at  a  form 
of  governnient,  but  they  still  remain,  as  a  wliohi, 
cruel,  plundering  savages." —  T/ie  StandttrJ 
Niituml  Hint.  (J.  H.  Kinf/slei/,  ed.),  v,  6,  ;)/). 
333-334.— "  Tlie  Araucanians  inlialiit  the  delight- 
ful region  between  tlii'  Andes  iind  the  sea.  and 
between  the  rivers  Hio-bio  and  Valdivia.  They 
derive  tlie  api>ellation  of  Ariiucaiiians  from  the 
province  of  Aniiico.  .  .  .  The  i)i)litical  division 
of  the  Araucanian  .state  is  regulated  with  much 
intelligence.  It  is  divided  from  north  to  south 
into  four  governments.  .  .  .  Each  government 
is  divided  into  five  provinces,  and  each  piovlnco 
into  nine  counties.  Tlie  state;  consists  of  three 
orders  of  nobility,  each  being  subordinate  to  tlio 
other,  and  all  having  tlieir  respective  vassals. 
They  are  the  Txiui.s,  the  .Vpo-Ulmenes,  and  the 
Ulmenes.  The  Toqiiis.  or  governors,  are  four  in 
numlier.  They  are  independent  of  each  oilier, 
but  confederated  for  the  public  welfare.  The 
Arch-Ulmenes  govern  flie  provinces  under  their 
resiiective  Toquis.  Tuo  Ulmenes  govern  the 
i  counties.  The  upper  ranks,  generally,  are  like- 
I  wise  comprehended  under  the  term  Ulmenes." — 
R.  G.  Watson,  Spanish  ami  Porttiytwse  S.  Am., 
v.  1,  ch.  13. 

Ai-SoiN:  J.  I.  Molina,  Oeog.,  Natural  and  Civil 
Hint,  of  Chili,  i\  3,  bh.  3. 

A.  D.  1450-1724. — The  Spanish  conquest. — 
The  Araucanian  War  of  Independence. — "  In 
the  year  14.50  the  Peruviin  Iiiea,  Yupauqui, 
desirous  of  extending  his  d(  minions  towards  the 
south,  stationed  himself  wit.'i  a  powerful  army 
at  Atacama.  Thence  he  dispatched  a  forces  of 
10,000  men  to  Chili,  under  the  command  of 
Chincliiruea,  w'  o,  overcon;ing  almost  incredible 
obstacles,  inarched  through  1:  sandy  de.sert  as  far 
as  Copiapo,  a  di.stance  of  80  leagues.  The 
Ci^piapins  flew  to  arms,  and  preiiared  to  resist 
tills  invasion.  But  Chinchirue.i,  true  to  the 
policy  which  the  Incas  always  observed,  stood 
upon  the  defensive,  trusting  to  persuasion  rather 
than  to  force  for  the  accomplishment  of  his 
d  ■  igns.  .  .  .  Willie  he  proffered  peace,  he 
wiiued  them  of  the  consequences  of  resisting 
the  '  Children  of  the  Sun.'  "  After  wavering  for 
a  time,  the  Copianins  submitted  themselves  to 
the  rule  of  the  Incas.  "  The  adjoining  province 
of  Coquimbo  was  easily  subjugated,  and  steadily 
advancing,  the  Peruvians,  some  six  years  after 
their  first  entering  the  country,  firmly  established 
t.hcm.selves  in  the  valley  of  Chili,  at  a  distance 
of  more  than  300  leagues  from  the  frontier  of 
Atacama.  Tlie  '  Children  of  the  Sun  '  had  met 
thus  far  with  li*,tlc  resistance,  and,  encouraged 
by  success,  they  marched  their  victoiious  armies 
agaiiLst  the  Purumancians,  a  warlike  people 
living  beyond  the  rivsr  Rapel."  Here  they  were 
desperately  resisted,  in  a  battle  which  lasted 
three  days,  and  from  which  both  armies  witli  ■ 
drew,  undefeated  and  unvictorious.  On  learning 
this  result,  the  Inca  Yupanqul  ordered  his  gen- 
erals to  relinquish  all  ittempts  at  further  con. 
quest,  and  to  "  seek,  vy  the  introduction  of  wise 
laws,  and  by  instructing  the  people  iii  agricuK 
turc  and  the  arts,  to  establish  themselves  more 
firmly  in  the  territory  already  acquired.  To 
what  extent  the  Peruvians  were  successful  in 
the  cndaavor  to  ingr.ift  their  civilization,  religion, 
and  customs  upon  the  Chilians,  it  is  at  iliLi  distaut 
day  impossible  to  determine,  since  the  earliest 


411 


CHILE,  1450-1784. 


CHILE,  1810-1818. 


historiiins  difTer  widely  on  tlit  subject.  Certain 
it  is,  that  on  the  arrival  of  tlic  Spaniards  the 
Incas,  at  least  nominally,  ruled  tlie  country, 
and  received  an  annual  tribute  of  gokl  from  the 
people.  In  the  year  l.^SS,  after  the  death  of  the 
unfortunate  Inca  Alahuullpu,  Diego  Ahnagro, 
fired  by  the  love  of  glory  and  the  thir.st  for 
gold,  yiehled  to  the  solicitations  of  Fnuiei.sco 
Pizarro,  the  conqueror  of  Peru,  and  .set  out  for 
the  subjection  of  (.'hili,  which,  as  yet,  had  not 
been  visited  by  any  European.  His  arniy  con- 
sisted of  570  H|)aniards,  well  cquippeil,  and 
15,000  Peruvian  auxiliaries.  Regardless  of  diffi- 
culties and  dangers  this  impetuous  soldier  se- 
lected the  nec.r  route  that  lay  along  the  summits 
of  tlie  Andes,  in  preference  to  the  more  circuitous 
road  passing  through  the  desert  of  Atacama. 
Upon  the  horrors  of  this  inarch,  of  which  so 
thrilling  an  account  is  given  by  Pre.scott  in  the 
'Conquest  of  Peru,'  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  to 
dwell ;  suffice  it  to  state  th'it,  on  reaching  Copiapo 
no  less  than  one-fourth  of  his  Snanish  troops, 
and  two-thirds  of  his  Indian  ajxilia'ies,  had 
perished  from  the  effects  of  cold,  fatigue  and 
starvation.  .  .  .  Everywhere  the  Spaniards  met 
with  a  friendly  reception  from  the  natives,  who 
regarded  them  as  a  superior  race  of  beings,  and 
the  after  conquest  of  tlie  country  would  probably 
hi  ve  been  attended  with  no  dilticulty  had  a  con- 
ciliatory policy  been  adojited ;  but  this  naturally 
inoffensive  people,  aroused  by  acts  of  the  most 
barbarous  cruelty,  soon  flew  to  arms.  Despite 
the  opposition  of  the  natives,  who  were  now 
rising  in  every  direction  to  oppose  his  marcli, 
Almagro  kept  on,  overcoming  every  obstacle, 
until  he  reached  the  river  Cachapoal,  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  the  Purumauciau  territory." 
Here  he  met  with  so  8tid)born  and  effective  a 
resistance  that  he  abandoned  his  expedition  and 
returned  to  Peru,  where,  soon  after,  he  lost  his 
life  [see  Peru:  A.  D.  153:5-1548]  in  a  co.^test 
with  the  Pizarros.  "  Pizarro,  ever  desirous  of 
conquering  Chili,  in  1540  dispatched  Pedro  Val- 
divia  for  that  purpose,  with  some  200  Spanish 
soldiers  and  a  large  body  ot  Peruvians."  The 
invasion  of  Valdivia  was  opposed  from  the 
moment  he  entered  the  country ;  but  he  pushed 
on  until  he  reached  the  river  Mapoclio,  and 
"encamped  upon  the  site  of  the  present  capital 
of  Chili.  Valdivia,  finding  the  locution  pleasant, 
and  the  surrounding  jilain  fertile,  here  founded 
a  city  on  the  24tli  of  February,  1541.  To  this 
first  European  settlement  in  Chili  he  gave  the 
name  of  Santiago,  in  honor  of  the  patron  saint 
of  Spain.  lie  laid  out  the  town  in  Spanish 
style ;  and  as  a  place  of  refuge  in  case  of  attack, 
erected  a  fort  upon  a  steep  rocky  hill,  rising 
some  200  feet  above  the  plain. "  Tlie  Mapochins 
soon  attacked  the  infant  town,  drove  its  people 
to  the  fort  and  burned  their  settlement;  but  were 
finally  repulsed  with  dreadful  slaughter.  "On 
the  arrival  of  a  second  army  from  Peru,  Valdivia, 
whose  ambition  had  "Iways  been  to  conquer  the 
southern  provi.iccs  o*  Chili,  advanced  into  the 
country  (if  the  Parumancians.  Here  history  is 
probably  d(^fccti\e,  as  we  have  no  account  of 
a'iy  battles  fought  with  these  brave  peoj/le.  .  .  . 
We  simply  learn  tliat  the  Spanish  leader  eventu- 
ally gained  their  good-will,  and  established  with 
them  an  alliance  both  offensive  and  defensive. 
...  In  the  following  year  (1546)  the  Spanish 
forces  crossed  the  river  Maule,  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Purumancians,  and  advanced 


toward  the  Itata.  While  encamped  near  the 
latter  river,  they  were  attacked  at  dead  of  night 
by  a  body  of  Araucanians.  So  unexpected  was 
the  approach  of  this  new  enemy,  that  many  of 
the  horses  were  cajitured,  and  the  army  with 
difficulty  escaped  total  destruction.  After  this 
terrible  defeat,  Valdivia  finding  himself  unable 
to  proceed,  returned  to  Santiago. "  Soon  after- 
wards he  went  to  Peru  for  reinforcements  and 
was  absent  two  years;  but  came  oack,  at  the  end 
of  that  time,  with  a  large  band  of  followers,  aud 
marched  to  the  South.  "Keaching  the  bay  of 
Talcahuano  without  liaving  met  with  any  oppo- 
sition, on  the  5th  of  October,  1550,  he  founded 
the  city  of  Concepcion  on  a  site  at  present  known 
as  Penco."  The  Araucanians,  advancing  boldly 
upon  the  Spaniards  at  Concepcion,  were  defeated 
in  a  furious  battle  which  cost  the  invaders  many 
lives.  Three  years  I'lter,  in  December,  1553,  the 
Araucanians  liad  their  revenge,  routing  the 
Spaniards  utterly  and  pursuing  them  so  funously 
that  only  two  of  their  whole  army  escaped. 
Valdivia  was  among  the  prisoners  taken  and  was- 
slain.  Again  and  again,  under  the  lead  of  a 
youthful  hero,  Lautaro,  and  a  vigorous  toqui,  or 
chief,  named  Caupolican,  the  Araucanians  as- 
sailed the  invaders  of  their  country  with  success; 
but  the  latter  increased  in  numbers  and  gained 
ground,  at  last,  for  a  time,  building  towns  and 
extending  settlements  in  the  Araucanian  territory. 
The  indomitable  people  were  not  broken  ii» 
spirit,  however;  and  in  1598,  by  an  universal  and 
simultaneous  rising,  they  expelled  tlie  Spaniards 
from  almost  every  settlement  they  had  made. 
"In  1602  ...  of  the  numerous  Spanish  forts 
and  settlements  south  of  the  Bio-Bio,  Naciiniento 
and  Arauco  only  had  not  fallen.  Valdivia  and 
Osorno  were  afterward  rebuilt.  About  the  same 
time  a  fort  was  erected  at  Boroa.  This  fort  was 
soon  after  abandoned.  Valdivia,  Osorno,  Naci- 
miento,  and  Arauco  still  remain.  But  of  all  the 
'  cities  of  the  plain  '  lying  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  haughty  Araucanians,  not  one  ever  rose 
from  its  oshes;  their  names  exist  only  in  liistory ;, 
and  the  sites  where  they  once  flourished  are  now 
marked  by  ill-detiued  and  grass-grown  ruins. 
From  the  period  of  their  fall  dates  the  independ- 
ence of  tlie  Araucanian  nation;  for  though  a 
hundred  years  more  were  wasted  in  the  vain 
attempt  to  reconquer  the  heroic  people  .  .  .  the 
Spaniards,  weary  of  constant  war,  and  disheart- 
ened by  tlie  loss  of  so  much  blood  and  treasure, 
were  Anally  compelled  to  sue  for  peace ;  and  in 
1724  a  treaty  was  ratified,  acknowledging  their 
freedom,  aud  establishing  the  limits  of  their  terri- 
tory."— E.  K.  Smith,  The  Araiiamiaiis,  cli.  11-14. 

Also  in:  R.  G.  Watson,  Spanish  and  Portu- 
{lueseS.  Am.,  r.  l,ch.  12-14. — J.  I.  Molina,  Qeog., 
.Natund  and  Vivil  Hist,  of  Chili,  v.  2,  bk.  1,  3-4. 

A.  D.  1568. — The  Audiencia  established. 
See  Ai:dienc'i.\s. 

A.  D.  1810-1818. — The  achievement  of  in- 
dependence.—  San  Martin,  the  Liberator. — 
"  Chili  lirst  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  Sep- 
tember, 1810  [on  the  pretext  of  fidelity  to  the 
Bourbon  king  dethroned  by  Xapoleon],  but  the 
national  independence  was  not  fully  established 
till  April  1818.  During  the  intermediate  period, 
the  dissensions  of  the  different  parties;  their  dis- 
putes as  to  the  form  of  government  and  the  law 
of  election;  with  other  distracting  causes,  arising 
out  of  the  ambition  of  turbulent  individuals,  and 
the  inexperience  of  the  whole  nation  in  political 


412 


CHILE,  1810-1818. 


CHILE.  1833-1884. 


affaire ;  so  materially  retarded  the  union  of  tlie 
cowntry,  tliat  tlie  Spaniards,  by  Hcnding  expedi- 
tions from  Peru,  were  eiialilcd,  in  1(H14,  to  regain 
their  lost  authority  in  Cliili.  Meanwliiie  tlic 
Oovcnnnent  of  IJucnos  Ayrcs,  tlio  independence 
of  wliicli  liad  been  establislied  in  1810  [see  Aii- 
OENTINE  Kkpuiii.ic:  A.  D.  1800-1820],  naturally 
dreaded  that  tlie  Spaniards  would  not  long  be 
confined  to  the  western  side  of  tlio  Andes;  but 
would  speedily  make  a  descent  upon  the  prov- 
inces of  the  River  Piute,  of  which  Buenos  Ayres 
is  the  capital.  In  order  to  guard  against  this  for- 
midable danger,  they  bnively  resolved  themselves 
to  become  tlie  invaders,  and  by  great  exertions 
equipped  an  army  of  4,000  men.  The  command 
of  this  force  was  given  to  General  Don  Jose  de 
San  Jilartin,  a  native  of  the  town  of  Yapeyu  in 
Paraguay ;  a  man  greatly  beloved  by  all  ranks, 
and  held  in  such  high  estimation  by  the  people, 
that  to  his  personal  exertions  the  formation  of 
this  army  is  cliicflv  due.  With  these  troops  San 
Martin  entered  Chili  by  a  pass  over  the  Andes 
heretofore  deemed  inaccessible,  and  on  the  12th 
of  February,  1817,  attacked  and  completely  de- 
feated the  royal  army  at  Chacabuco.  Tlie 
Cliilians,  thus  freed  from  the  immediate  presence 
of  the  enemy,  elected  Gcnenil  O'Higgins  [see 
Peru:  A.  D.  1550-1816]  as  Director;  and  lie,  in 
1818,  offered  the  Chilians  a  constitution,  and 
nominated  live  senators  to  administer  the  affairs 
of  the  country.  This  meritorious  oflicer,  an 
J  isliman  by  descent,  though  born  in  Chili,  has 

er  since  [1825]  remained  at  the  head  of  the 
government.  It  was  originally  proposed  to  elect 
General  San  Martin  as  Director;  but  this  he 
steadily  refused,  proposing  his  companion  in 
anns,  O'Higgins,  in  his  stead.  Tlie  remnant  of 
the  Spanish  army  took  refuge  in  Talcuhuana,  a 
fortified  sea-port  near  Conception,  on  the  southern 
frontier  of  Chili.  Vigorous  measures  were  taken 
to  reduce  this  place,  but,  in  tlie  beginning  of 
1818,  the  Viceroy  of  Peru,  by  draining  that  prov- 
ince of  its  best  troops,  sent  off  a  body  of  5,000 
men  under  General  Osorio,  who  succeeded  in 
joining  the  Spaniards  shut  up  in  Talcuhuana. 
Thus  reinforced,  the  Itoyal  army,  amounting  in 
all  to  8, 000,  drove  back  tlio  Chilians,  marched  on 
the  capital,  and  gained  other  considerable  advan- 
tages; particularly  in  a  night  attack  at  Talca,  on 
the  19th  of  March  1818,  where  the  Royalists 
almost  entirely  dispersed  the  Patriot  forces.  San 
Martin,  however,  who,  after  the  battle  of  Chaca- 
buco, had  been  named  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  united  armies  of  Chili  and  Buenos  Ayres," 
rallied  his  army  and  equipped  it  anew  so  quickly 
that,  "  on  the  5th  of  April,  only  17  days  after  his 
defeat,  he  engaged,  and,  after  an  obstinate  and 
sanguinary  contlict,  completely  routed  tlie  Span- 
ish army  on  the  plains  of  Maypo.  From  tliat 
day  Chili  may  date  her  complete  independence ; 
for  althougli  a  small  portion  of  the  Spanish 
troops  endeavoured  to  make  a  stand  at  Concep- 
tion, they  were  soon  driven  out  and  the  country 
left  in  the  free  possession  of  the  Patriots.  Having 
now  time  to  breathe,  the  Chilian  Government, 
aided  by  that  of  Buenos  Ayres,  determined  to 
attack  the  Royalists  in  their  turn,  by  sending  an 
armament  against  Peru  [see  Peuu:  A.  D.  1830- 
1820] — a  great  and  bold  measure,  originating 
with  San  Martin." — Capt.  B.  Hall,  ExtrcKts  from 
ajounuil,  t.  \,  ch.  1. 

Also  in  :  J.  Sliller,  Menwira  of  General  Miller, 
cJi.  4r-7(».  1). — T.  Sutcliffe,  Sixteen  Years  in  Chili 


and  Pern,  eh.  2-4.— Gen.  R.  Mitre,  Th"  Eman- 
ei}xitioii  of  S.  Aiiieriea  :  Hint,  nf  Sin  .\fiirtin. 

A.  D.  1820-1826.— Operations  in  Peru.  See 
Peiii;;  A,  1).  1820-1820. 

A.  D.  1833-1884. — A  successful  oligarchy 
and  its  constitution. — The  war  with  Peru  and 
Bolivia. — "After  tlu;  perfettion  of  its  national 
independence,  the  Chilean  government  soon 
pa.s.sed  into  the  permanent  control  of  civilians, 
'  while  the  other  governments  of  the  west  coast 
remained  priz<'s  for  military  chieftains,'  Its 
present  constitution  was  framed  in  1833.  and 
though  it  is  only  half  a  century  old  '  it  is  the 
oldest  written  national  constitution  in  force  in 
all  the  world  except  our  own,  unless  the  Magna 
Cliarta  of  England  be  included  in  the  category.' 
The  political  history  of  Chile  during  the  fifty 
years  of  its  life  has  been  that  of  a  well  ordered 
commonwealth,  but  one  of  a  most  unusual  and 
interesting  sort.  Its  government  has  never  been 
forcibly  overthrown,  and  only  one  serious  at- 
tempt at  revolution  lias  been  made.  Chile  is  in 
name  and  in  an  important  sense  a  republic,  and 
yet  its  government  is  an  oligarchy.  Suffrage  is 
restricted  to  those  male  citizens  who  are  regis- 
tered, who  are  twenty-five  years  old  if  unmar- 
ried and  twenty-one  if  married,  and  who  can 
read  and  write;  and  there  is  also  a  stringent 
property  qualification.  The  consequence  is  tliat 
tlie  privilege  of  voting  is  confined  to  an  aristoc- 
racy :  in  1876,  the  total  number  of  ballots  thrown 
for  president  was  onlj'  46,114  in  a  population  of 
about  two  and  a  quarter  millions.  The  presi- 
dent of  Chile  has  immense  powers  of  nomina- 
tion and  appointment,  and  when  he  is  a  man  of 
vigorous  will  he  tyrannically  sways  public 
policy,  and  can  almost  always  dictate  tlie  name 
of  his  successor.  The  government  has  thus 
become  practically  vested  in  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  leading  Chilean  families.  There 
is  no  such  thing  as  '  public  opinion '  in  the  sense 
in  which  we  use  the  phrase,  and  the  newspapera, 
though  ably  conducted,  do  not  attempt,  as  they 
do  not  desire,  to  change  the  existing  order  of 
tilings,  'History,'  says  Mr.  Browne,  'does 
not  furnisli  an  example  of  a  more  powerful 
political  "  machine "  under  the  title  of  republic; 
nor,  1  am  bound  to  say,  one  which  has  been 
more  aiily  directed  so  far  as  conc(!rns  the  ag- 
grandizement of  the  countrj',  or  more  honestly 
administered  so  far  as  concerns  jiecuniary  cor- 
ruption.' Tlie  population  of  Chile  doubled  be- 
tween 1848  and  1875;  the  quantity  of  land 
brought  under  tillage  was  quadrupled;  .  .  . 
more  than  1,000  miles  of  railroad  were  built;  a 
foreign  export  trade  of  |31, 695,039  was  reported 
in  1878;  and  two  powerful  ironclads,  which 
were  destined  to  play  a  most  important  part  in 
Chilean  affairs,  were  built  in  England.  Mean- 
while, the  constitution  was  officially  interpreted 
so  as  to  guarantee  religious  toleration,  and  tlie 
political  power  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priest- 
hood diminished.  Almost  everything  good, 
except  home  manufactures  and  popular  educa- 
tion, flourished.  The  develo])ment  of  the  nation 
in  tlicse  years  was  on  a  wonderful  sc'ale  for  a 
South  American  state,  and  the  contrast  between 
Chile  and  Peru  was  peculiarly  striking.  .  .  . 
Early  in  1879  began  the  great  series  of  events 
which  were  to  make  the  fortune  of  Chile.  We 
use  the  wonl  'great,'  in  its  low,  superficial 
sense,  and  without  the  attribution  of  any  moral 
signiflcauce  to  the  adjective.    The  aggressor  in 


413 


CHILE,  1833-1884. 


CHILE,  1885-1891. 


the  war  botwocn  Chilo  and  Peru  was  inspired  b_v 
thf  most  jMiri'ly  soltlsh  motives,  iind  it  rcinains 
to  ln'  wen  wlirtlicr  tlio  just  gods  will  not  win  in 
tlic  ionK  run,  even  tliouRli  tlio  gamo  of  tlicir 
anlaKonists  bo  played  with  lioavily  plated  iron- 
clads. .  .  .  At  the  date  last  mentioned  Chile  was 
sufTerinif,  lik<!  many  other  nations,  from  a  general 
depression  in  business  pursuits.  Its  people 
w(!re  in  no  serious  trouble,  but  as  a  govornment 
it  was  in  a  bad  way.  .  .  .  The  means  to  keep 
up  a  sinking  fund  for  the  foreign  del)t  had 
failed,  and  the  (hilean  live  per  eents  were 
<]Uoled  ill  London  at  si.vty-l'oiir.  'A  i)olitieal 
eloud  also  was  darkening  again  in  tin;  north,  in 
the  renewal  of  something  like  a  confederation 
between  IN'rii  and  Holivia.'  In  this  state 
of  things  the  governing  oligareliy  of  Chile 
decided,  rather  suddenly,  Mr.  Urowne  thinks, 
upon  a  scheme  whicli  was  sun;  to  result  either 
in  splendid  prosperity  or  al)solnte  ruin,  and 
which  comeinplatcd  nothing  less  than  a  war  of 
conquest  against  Peru  and  l5olivia,  with  a  view 
to  se'i/.ing  the  most  valuable  territory  of  the 
former  countrj'.  There  is  a  certain  strip  of  land 
bordering  >ipon  the  Pacilic  and  about  401)  miles 
long,  of  which  tlie  northern  tliree  quarters  be- 
longed to  Peru  and  Bolivia,  the  remaining  one 
quarter  to  Chile.  Upon  this  land  a  heavy  rain 
never  falls,  and  often  years  pass  in  whicli  the 
soil  does  not  feel  a  shower.  .  .  .  Its  money  value 
is  immense.  '  From  this  region  the  world  de- 
rives almost  its  whole  supply  of  nitrates  — 
chieHy  saltpetre  —  and  of  iodine;'  its  mountains, 
also,  are  rich  in  metals,  anil  great  deposits  of 
gimno  are  found  in  the  highlands  bordering  the 
sea.  The  nitrate-bearing  country  is  a  plain, 
from  lifty  to  eighty  miles  wide,  the  nitrate  lying 
in  layers  just  below  a  thin  sheet  of  impacted 
stones,  gravel,  and  sand.  The  export  of  salt- 
petre from  this  region  was  valued  in  1883  at 
nearly  po,000,000,  and  the  worth  of  the  Peruvian 
section,  wliich  is  much  the  largest  and  most  pro- 
ductive, is  estimated,  for  government  purposes, 
at  a  capital  of  $600,000,000.  Cliile  was,  natu- 
rally, well  aware  of  the  wealth  which  lay  so 
close  to  her  own  doors,  and  to  possess  herself 
thereof,  and  thus  to  rehabilitate  her  national 
fortunes,  she  addressed  herself  to  war.  The 
occasion  for  war  was  easily  found.  Bolivia  was 
first  attacked,  a  difficulty  whii  li  arose  at  her 
port  of  Antofagasta,  with  respect  to  her  en- 
forcement of  a  tax  upon  some  nitrate  works 
carried  on  by  a  Cliilean  company,  affording  a 
good  pretext;  and  when  Peru  attempted  inter- 
vention her  envoy  was  confronted  with  Chile's 
knowledge  of  a  secret  treaty  between  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  and  war  was  formally  declared  by  Chile 
upon  Peru,  April  5,  1879.  This  war  lasted, 
with  some  breatliing  spaces,  for  almost  exactly 
five  years.  At  the  outset  the  two  belligerent 
powers — Bolivia  being  soon  practically  out  of 
the  contest  —  seemed  to  be  about  equal  in  ships, 
soldiers,  and  resources ;  but  the  supremacy  which 
Chile  soon  gained  upon  the  seas  svibstantially 
determined  the  war  in  her  favor.  Each  nation 
owned  two  powerful  iron-clads,  and  six  months 
were  employed  in  settling  the  question  of  naval 
superiority.  ...  On  the  21st  of  May,  1879,  the 
Peruvian  fleet  attacked  and  almost  destroyed  the 
Chilean  wooden  frigates  which  were  blockading 
Iquique ;  but  in  chasing  a  Chilean  corvette  tlie 
larger  Peruvian  iron-clad  —  the  Independencia  — 
ran  too  near  the  shore,  and  was  fatally  wrecked. 


'  So  Pent  lost  one  of  her  knights.  The  game  she 
played  with  the  other  —  the  iluascar  —  was  ad- 
mirable, hut  a  losing  one;'  and  on  the  8th  of 
October  of  the  same  year  the  Iluascar  was 
attacked  by  the  Chilean  licet,  which  included 
two  ironclads,  and  was  finally  captured  'after  a 
desperate!  resistance'  .  .  .  From  this  moment 
the  Peruvian  coast  was  at  Chile's  mercy:  the 
(Jhilean  arms  prevailed  in  every  pitclied  battle, 
at  San  Francisco  [November  10,  187i)J,  at  Tacna 
I  .May  26,  1880],  at  Arica  [.Uuw  7,  1880] ;  and 
flnafly.  >"i  the  17lh  of  .January,  1881,  after  a 
series  of  actions  whicli  resembled  in  some  of 
tlieir  <l(!tails  the  engagements  that  preceded  our 
capture  of  the  city  of  .Slexico  [ending  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Battle  of  Miratloresl,  the  victorious 
army  of  Chile  took  po.ssession  of  Lima,  the  capi- 
tal of  Peru.  .  .  .  The  results  of  the  war  have 
thus  far  exceeded  the  wildest  hopes  of  Chile. 
She  has  taken  absolute  possession  of  the  whole 
nitrate  region,  has  cut  liolivia  oil  from  the  scui, 
and  achieved  the  permanent  dissolution  of  the 
Peni-Bolivian  confederation.  As  a  consequence, 
her  foreign  trade  lias  doubled,  the  revenue  of 
her  government  has  been  trebled,  and  the  public 
debt  greatly  reduced.  The  Chilean  bonds,  whicli 
were  sold  at  64  in  London  in  tianuary,  1879,  and 
fell  to  60  in  March  of  that  year,  at  the  announce- 
ment ui  uio  war,  were  quoted  at  95  in  .January, 
l'<8t."— 7'/ic  Orowing  Poieer  of  the  Jtepuhlic  of 
Vhile  (Atlantic  Monthly,  July,  "1884). 

Also  in:  II.  Birkedal,  The  lute  M'^ar  iiiS.  Am. 
(Ore.rliind  jVonthli/,  Jan.,  Feb.,  and  Afarch,  1884). 
— C.  li.  Markhani,  The  War  bet.  Peru,  and  Chile. 
— H.  N.  Boyd,  Chile,  ch.  IQ-n.—.Veasage  of  tlie 
Prca't  oftiM  v.  8.,  transmittinq  Papers  relating  to 
the  War  in  8.  Am.,  Jan.  36,  1883.— T.  W.  Knox, 
Decisive  Battles  since  Waterloo,  ch.  23. — See,  also, 
Peuu:  a.  U.  1826-1876. 

A.  D.  1885-1891.— The  presidency  and  dic- 
tatorship of  Balmaceda. — His  conflict  with 
the  Congress. — Civil 'war. — "Save  in  the  one 
struggle  m  which  tlie  parties  re-sorted  to  arms, 
the  political  development  of  Chili  was  free  from 
civil  disturbances,  and  the  ruling  class  was  dis- 
tinguished among  the  Spanish- American  nations 
not  only  for  wealth  and  education,  but  for  its 
talent  for  government  and  love  of  constitutional 
liberty.  Tlie  republic  was  called  '  the  England 
of  South  America,'  and  it  was  a  common  boast 
that  in  Chili  a  pronunciamicnto  or  a  revolution 
was  impossible.  The  spirit  of  modern  Liberalism 
became  more  prevalent.  ...  As  the  Liberal 
party  became  all-powerful  it  split  into  factions, 
divided  by  questions  of  principle  and  by  strug- 
gles for  leadership  and  olHce.  .  .  .  The  patron- 
age of  the  Chilian  President  is  enormous,  em- 
bracing not  only  tlie  general  civil  service,  but 
local  officials,  except  in  the  municipalities,  and 
all  appointments  in  the  army  and  navy  and  in 
the  telegraph  and  railroad  services  and  the  giv- 
ing out  of  contracts.  The  President  has  always 
been  able  to  select  his  successor,  and  has  exer- 
cised this  power,  usually  in  liarmony  with  the 
wishes  of  intliumtial  statesmen,  sometimes  call- 
ing a  conference  of  party  chiefs  to  decide  on  a 
candidate.  In  tlie  course  of  time  the  more  ad- 
vanced wing  of  the  Liberals  grew  more  numer- 
ous than  the  Motlerates.  The  most  radical 
section  had  its  nucleus  in  a  Reform  Club  in 
Santiago,  composed  of  young  university  men,  of 
whom  Balmaceda  was  the  finest  orator.  Enter- 
ing Congress  in  1868,  he  took  a  leading  part  in 


414 


CHILE,  1885-1891. 


CIIIMAUIKAN  FAMILY. 


debates.  ...  In  1885  lie  was  the  most  popular 
mun  in  the  country ;  but  his  cliiim  to  t!ie  jiresi- 
(lential  succession  was  cont<.'8t<,'il  by  various  otlicr 
aspirants — older  politicians  und  leaders  of  fac- 
tions striving  for  supremacy  in  Coi):<rcss.  He 
was  elected  by  an  overwlielniing  majority,  and 
as  President  enjoyed  an  unexampled  degree  of 
popularity.  For  two  or  tlnfc  years  the  politi- 
cians who  had  been  his  party  associates  worked 
in  liarmony  witli  his  ideas.  ...  At  tlie  lloml  of 
the  democratic  tide  he  was  tiie  most  popidar 
man  in  Soutli  America.  Hut  when  the  old 
teriitorial  families  saw  the  seats  in  Congress  and 
tile  posts  in  tiie  civil  service  tliat  had  been  their 
l)rerogative  Ulled  by  new  men,  and  fortunes 
made  Ijy  upstarts  wliere  all  chances  had  been  at 
their  disposid,  tlien  a  reaction  .set  in,  corruption 
was  scented,  and  Jloderato  Liberals,  joining 
hands  witli  the  Nationalists  and  the  reviving 
Conservative  party,  formed  an  opposition  of 
respectable  strength.  In  the  earlier  part  of  his 
administration  Baimaceda  had  the  co-operation 
of  the  Nationalists,  wlio  were  represented  in  the 
Cabinet.  In  the  last  two  years  of  his  term,  when 
the  time  drew  near  for  selecting  his  successor, 
defection  and  revolt  and  the  rivalries  of  aspir- 
ants for  tlie  succession  tlirew  the  party  into  dis- 
order and  angered  its  Intlierto  unciuesticmed 
leader.  ...  In  January,  1890,  the  Opposition 
were  strong  euoiigii  to  place  their  candidate  in 
tlie  chair  when  the  House  of  Hepreseutatives 
organizctd.  Tlie  ministry  resigned,  and  a  conllict 
between  tlie  E.xccutive  and  legislative  brandies 
of  the  Government  was  openly  begun  when 
the  President  appointed  a  Cabinet  of  liis  own 
selection.  .  .  .  This  ministry  had  to  face  an  over- 
whelming majority  against  tlie  President,  whicli 
treated  hini  as  a  dictator  and  began  to  pass  hos- 
tile laws  and  resolutions  that  were  vetoed, 
and  refused  to  consider  the  measures  that  he 
recommended.  The  ministers  wen;  cited  before 
tlie  Chambers  and  questioned  about  the  manner 
of  tlieir  appointment.  Tlicy  either  declined  to 
answer,  or  answered  in  a  way  tliat  increased  the 
animosity  of  Congress,  whicli  finally  passed  a 
vote  of  censure,  in  obedience  to  which,  as  was 
usual,  the  Cabinet  resigned.  Tlieu  Baimaceda 
apjiointed  a  ministry  in  open  detiance  of  Con- 
gress, witli  Sanfuentes  at  its  head,  tlie  man  who 
was  already  spoken  of  as  his  selected  candidate 
for  the  presidency.  He  prepared  for  tlie  strug- 
gle that  lie  invited  by  removing  the  chiefs  of  the 
administration  of  the  departments  and  replacing 
them  witli  men  devoted  to  himself  and  liis  policy, 
and  making  clianges  in  the  police,  tlie  militia, 
und,  to  some  extent,  in  the  army  and  navy  com- 
mands. The  jjress  denounced  i.im  as  a  dictator, 
and  indignation  meetings  were  held  in  every 
town.  Baimaceda  and  his  supporters  pretended 
to  be  not  only  the  champions  of  the  people 
against  tlie  aristocracy,  but  of  the  principle 
of  Chili  for  the  Chilians." — Appletoii's  Annual 
Ci/dop.,-[mi,pp.  133-124.— " Tlie  conllict  between 
President  Baimaceda  und  Congress  riiiened  into 
revolution.  On  January  1,  1891,  the  Opposition 
members  of  tlie  Senate  and  House  of  Deputies 
met,  and  signed  an  Act  declaring  that  tlio  Presi- 
dent was  unworthy  of  his  post,  and  that  he  was 
no  longer  head  of  tlie  State  nor  President  of  tlio 
Republic,  as  he  had  violated  the  Constitution. 
On  January  7  the  navy  declared  in  favour  of  the 
Legislature,  and  against  Baimaceda.  The  Presi- 
dent denounced  the  luvy  as  traitors,  abolished  all 


the  laws  of  the  country,  declared  himself  Dicta- 
tor, and  proelaimcil  martini  law.  It  was  a  reign 
of  terror.  The  Opposition  recruited  an  army  in 
the  Island  of  Santa  .Maria  under  Oeneral  Urrutia 
and  Commander  Canto.  ( )u  Fi'bruary  It  a  severe 
light  took  place  witli  the  (lovernment  troops 
in  Liuiiiue,  and  the  (Congressional   army   took 

i)ossession  of  Pisa(j;ua.  In  April,  President 
ialmaceda  .  .  .  delivered  a  long  message,  de- 
nouncing tlie  navy.  .  .  .  The  contest  continued, 
and  April  7,  Ariea,  in  tlie  province  of  Tar- 
apaca,  was  taken  by  the  revolutionists.  Some 
naval  lights  occurred  later,  and  the  iron-clad 
Blanco  Encalada  was  blown  up  by  the  Dicta- 
tor's torpedo  cruisers.  Finally,  on  August  21, 
General  Canto  landed  at  Concon,  ten  miles  north 
of  Valparaiso.  Balniaeeda's  forces  attacked  im- 
mediately and  were  routed,  losing  8,500  killed 
and  wounded.  The  Congress  army  lost  COO. 
On  the  2«tli  a  <lecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Pla- 
cilla,  near  Valparaiso.  The  Dictator  liad  12,000 
troops,  and  the  opposing  army  10,000.  Balnia- 
eeda's forces  WL'tr,  completely  routed  after  live 
hours'  hard  ligliting,  with  aloss  of  1.500  men. 
Santiago  formally  siirrendered,  and  tlie  triumph 
of  tile  Congress  party  was  complete,  A  Junta, 
headed  by  Sefior  Jorge  Montt,  tcuik  charge  of , 
alTairs  at  Valparaiso  August  iiO.  Baimaceda, 
who  had  taken  refuge  at  the  Argentine  Lega- 
tion in  Santiago,  was  not  able  to  make  his  escape, 
and  to  avoid  capture,  trial,  and  punishment,  com- 
mitted suicide,  September  20,  by  rshooting  him- 
.self.  On  the  19tli  November  Admiral  Jorge 
.Montt  was  chosen  by  the  Electoral  College,  at 
Santiago,  President  of  Cliili,  and  on  December  26 
he  was  installed  with  gi'eat  ceremony  anrl  general 
rejoicings." — Annual  /iiyister,  1891,  p.  420. 


CHILIARCHS.— Captains  of  thousands,  in 
the  army  of  tlio  Vandals. — T.  Hodgkin,  Italy 
and  Tier  Invadem,  bk.  3,  eh.  2. 

CHILLIANWALLAH,  Battle  of  (1840). 
See  India:  A.  D.  1845-1849. 

CHILPERICL,  King  of  the  Franks  (Neus- 

tria),  A.  D.  561-584 Chilperic  II.,  King  of 

the  Franks,  A.  D.  71.5-720. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS,  Applying  for 
the  Stev7ardship  of  the. —  A  seat  in  the  lintish 
House  of  Coninums  "cannot  be  resigned,  nor 
can  a  man  wiio  has  once  formally  taken  his  seat 
for  one  constituency  tlirow  it  up  and  contest 
another.  Eitlier  a  disqualification  must  be  in- 
curred, or  the  House  must  declare  the  seat 
vacant."  The  necessary  disqualitieation  can  be 
Incurred  by  accepting  an  office  of  profit  under 
the  Crown, —  witliin  certain  olBcial  categories. 
"Certain  old  otllces  of  nominal  value  in  the  gift 
of  tlie  Treasury  are  now  granted,  as  of  course, 
to  members  who  wisli  to  resign  their  seats  in 
order  to  be  quit  of  Parliamentary  duties  or  to 
contest  anotlier  constituencv.  These  offices  are 
the  Stewardship  of  tlie  Chiltern  Hundreds 
[Crown  property  in  Bucliinghamshire],  of  tlie 
manors  of  East  Ilendred,  Northstead,  or  Hemp- 
holme,  and  the  escheatorship  of  JIunster.  The 
office  is  resigned  as  soon  as  it  has  oi)erated  to 
vacate  the  seat  and  sever  the  tie  between  the 
member  and  his  constituents." — SirW.  R.  Anson, 
Law  and  Custom  of  the  C'onxt.,  v.  1,  p.  84. 

CHIMAKUAN  FAMILY,  The.  See 
American  Ahouioines:  Ciii.maku.vn  Fa.mily. 

CHIMARIKAN  FAMILY,  The.  See 
Ameuic'A^  Auokioines:  Cuimakikan  Family. 


416 


cniNA. 


CHINA. 


CHINA. 


The  names  of  the  Country.— "That  spacious 
gent  of  imcici  I  civilization  which  we  cull  China 
haB  loomed  iilways  ho  largo  to  western  eyes, 
.  .  .  that,  at  eras  far  apart,  we  find  it  to  have 
l)ec'ii  (listinguished  by  different  appellations 
nccordin^c  as  it  was  reganhid  as  the  terminus  of 
a  Houtherii  sea-route  coasting  the  great  penin- 
sulas and  islands  of  Asia,  or  as  that  of  a  northern 
land  route  traversing  the  longitude  of  tliat  con- 
tinent. In  the  former  aspect  the  name  applied 
lias  nearly  always  been  some  form  of  the  name 
bin,  CInn,  8inie,  China.  In  the  latter  point  of 
view  the  region  in  (lueation  was  known  to  the 
ancients  as  the  land  of  the  Hercs;  tho  middle 
ages  us  the  Empire  of  Cathay.  The  name  of 
China  has  been  supposed,  like  many  another 
word  and  name  connected  with  'rade  an("l 
geogrnphy  of  the  far  east,  to  have  come  to  us 
through  the  Malays,  and  to  have  been  applied  by 
them  to  the  great  eastern  monarchy  from  the 
style  of  the  dynasty  of  Thsin,  which  a  little  more 
than  two  centuries  before  our  era  enjoyed  a 
brief  but  very  vigorous  existence.  .  .  .  There 
are  reasons  however  for  believing  that  the  nume  of 
China  must  have  been  bestowed  at  a  much  earlier 
date,  for  it  occurs  in  tlie  laws  of  >Ianu,  which 
assert  the  Chinas  to  have  been  degenerate  Ifsha- 
tryas,  and  in  the  Mahabharat,  compositions  many 
centuries  older  than  the  imperial  dynasty  of  Thsin. 
.  .  .  This  name  may  have  yet  possibly  been  con- 
nected with  the  Thsin,  or  some  monurchy  of  like 
dynastic  title;  for  that  dyjinsty  had  reigned 
locally  in  Shensi  from  the  9th  century  before  our 
era;  and  when,  at  a  still  wirlier  date,  the  empire 
was  partitioned  into  many  small  kingdoms,  we 
find  among  them  the  dynasties  of  tho  T(;in  and 
tho  Ching.  .  .  .  Some  at  least  of  the  circum- 
stances which  have  been  collected  .  .  .  render 
it  the  less  improbable  that  tho  Sinim  of  the 
prophet  Isaiah  .  .  .  should  bo  truly  interpreted 
as  indicating  the  Cliinese.  The  name  of  China 
in  this  form  was  late  in  reaching  tho  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  to  them  it  probably  came  through 
people  of  Arabian  speech,  as  tho  Arabs,  being 
without  tho  soimd  of  '  ch, '  made  the  Chii  a  of  the 
Hindus  and  Malays  into  Sin,  and  perhaj  s  some- 
times into  Thi'i.  Hence  the  Thin  of  the  ai  thor  of 
th(^  Perijjlus  of  the  f>y  thraean  Sea,  who  appears  to 
be  tho  flist  extant  author  toemploy  f  ho  name  in  this 
form ;  hence  also  tho  Sinajaud  Thinai  of  Ptolemy. 
...  If  wo  now  turn  to  the  Seres  we  find  this 
name  mentioned  by  classic  authors  much  more 
frequently  and  at  an  earlier  date  by  at  least  a 
century.  Tlie  naiuo  is  familiar  enough  to  the 
Latin  poets  of  the  Augustan  age,  but  always  in 
a  vague  way.  .  .  .  Tho  name  of  Seres  is  proba- 
bly from  itii  earliest  use  in  the  west  identilied 
with  the  name  of  the  silkworm  and  its  produce, 
und  this  association  continued  until  the  name 
ceased  entirely  to  bo  used  as  a  geographical 
expression.  ...  It  was  in  the  days  of  the  Jlou- 
gols  .  .  .  bhat  China  tirst  became  really  known 
to  Europe,  and  that  by  a  name  which,  though 
especially  applied  to  tlio  northern  provinces,  also 
came  to  bear  a  more  genend  ai)plication,  Cathay. 
This  name,  Khitai,  is  tliat  by  which  Chi"a  is 
styled  to  this  day  by  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  nations 
which  know  it  from  an  inland  point  of  view, 
including  the  Russians,  the  Persians,  and  the 
nations  of  Turkestan;  and  yet  it  originally 
belonged  to  a  people  who  were  not  Chinese  at 


a  I  .'ho  Khitans  were  a  people  of  Mancliu 
rui  ,  who  iidiabited  for  centuries  a  coimtry  to 
the  north-east  of  China."  During  a  peri(Hl 
between  the  10th  and  12th  centuries,  tlie  Khi- 
tans ac(|uired  supremacy  over  their  neighbours 
and  established  an  empire  wliich  embraced 
Northern  China  and  the  adjoining  regions  of 
Tartary.  "It  must  have  been  during  this  piriiwl, 
ending' witli  the  overthrow  of  tliedyna.sty  I  called 
the  Leao  or  Iron  Dynasty)  in  1 12:1,  and  whilst  this 
northern  monarchy  was  the  face  whiiJi  the  Celes- 
tial Empire!  turned  to  Inner  Asia,  tliat  the  name 
of  IChitan,  Khitat,  or  IChitaT,  became  indissolu- 
bly  associated  with  China." — II.  Yule,  t'athny 
iiml  the  Wdjl  Thither:  I'nUiiiititiry  ICmdi/. 

The  Origin  of  the  People  and  their  early 
History. — "The  origin  of  the  Chinese  race  is 
slirouded  in  some  obscurity.  The  llrst  recorda 
we  have  of  them  represent  them  as  a  band  of 
immigrants  settling  in  tho  north-eastern  pro- 
vinces of  the  modern  empire  of  China,  and  fight- 
ing their  way  amongst  tho  aborigines,  much  a3 
tho  Jews  of  old  forced  their  way  into  Canaan 
against  tlio  various  tribes  which  they  found  in 
possession  of  tho  land.  It  is  probable  that 
though  they  all  entered  China  by  the  same 
route,  they  separated  into  bands  almost  on  tho 
threshold  of  the  empire,  one  b(xly,  those  who 
have  left  us  the  records  of  their  history  in  tho 
ancient  Chinese  books,  apparently  followocl  tho 
cour.se  of  tho  Yellow  River,  and,  turning  south- 
ward with  it  from  its  northernmost  bend,  settled 
themselves  in  tho  fertile  districts  of  the  modern 
provinces  of  Shansi  and  Ilonan.  Rut  as  wo  find 
nlso  that  at  about  tho  same  period  a  largo  settle- 
ment was  made  as  far  south  as  Annaiii,  of  which 
there  is  no  mention  in  the  books  of  the  northern 
Chinese,  we  must  assume  that  another  body 
struck  directly  southward  through  the  southern 
provinces  of  China  to  that  country.  The  ques- 
tion then  arises,  where  did  these  people  come 
from?  and  the  answer  which  recent  research  [see 
Rahvlonia  Primitive]  gives  to  this  question 
is,  from  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  ...  In 
all  probability,  the  outbreak  in  Susiana  of, 
possibly,  some  political  disturbance,  in  about  the 
24th  or  23rd  century  H.  C,  drove  the  Chinese 
from  the  land  of  their  adoption,  and  that  they 
wandered  eastward  until  they  finally  settled  in 
China  and  the  countries  south  of  it.  .  .  .  It 
wou'd  appear  also  that  tho  Chinese  came  into 
China  possessed  of  the  resources  of  Western 
Asian  culture.  They  brought  with  them  a 
knowledge  of  writing  and  astronomy,  as  well  as 
of  the  arts  which  primarily  minister  to  the  wants 
and  comfort  of  mankind.  The  invention  of 
these  civilising  influences  is  traditionally  attri- 
buted to  the  Emperor  Hwang-te,  who  is  said  to 
have  reigned  from  H.  C.  2U9;-2597.  But  tho 
name  of  this  sovereign  leads  us  to  suppose  that  ho 
never  sat  on  tho  throne  in  China.  One  of  his 
names,  we  are  told,  was  Nai,  anciently  Nak,  and 
in  the  Chinese  paleographical  collection  he  is 
described  by  a  character  composed  of  a  group 
of  phonetics  which  read  Nak-kon-ti.  Tlio 
resemblance  between  this  name  lud  that  of  Nak- 
liunte,  who,  according  to  the  S  isian  texts,  was 
the  chief  of  the  gods,  is  sulliciontly  striking,  and 
many  of  the  attributes  belonging  to  him  arc  such 
as  to  place  him  on  an  equality  with  the  Susian 
deity.    In  exact  accordance  also  with  the  system 


416 


CHINA. 


Dytuutie; 


CHINA. 


of  Hiibyloninn  chronology  lie  cgtabllshcd  a  cycle 
of  twelve  years,  und  Uxeil  the  length  of  the  your 
ut  300  (luyH  composed  of  twelve  months,  with  an 
intcrculury  month  to  bulance  the  surplug  titnc. 
lie  further,  we  are  told,  built  a  Ling  tai,  or 
observatory,  rendnding  us  of  the  IJabylonian 
Zigguratu,  or  house  of  observation,  '  from  which 
to  watch  tlie  movements  of  the  heavenly  Imdies.' 
The  primitive  Chinese,  like  the  Habyloniuns, 
recognised  live  planets  besides  the  sun  and  nioon, 
und,  with  one  exception.  Itnew  them  by  the  same 
names.  .  .  .  The  various  phusiis  of  these  |)lanet8 
were  curefully  watched,  and  portents  were 
derived  from  every  real  and  imaginary  change  in 
thei.-  relative  ))08itions  and  colours.  A  coini)ari- 
gon  between  the  astrological  tablets  translated  by 
Professor  Sayce  and  the  astrological  chapter 
{87th)  in  the  She  ke,  the  earliest  of  the  Dynastic 
Histories,  shows  a  remarkable  parallelism,  not 
only  in  the  general  style  of  the  forecasts,  but  in 
particular  portents  which  arc  so  ctmtrary  to 
Chinese  prejudices,  as  a  nation,  und  the  train  of 
thought  of  the  people  that  they  woidd  be  at  once 
put  down  as  of  foreign  origin,  even  if  they  were 
not  found  in  the  Babylonian  records.  ...  In 
the  reign  of  Chwan  Hu  (2513-2435  13.  C),  we 
find  according  to  the  Chinese  records,  that  the 
year,  us  umong  the  Chnldeans,  began  with  the 
third  month  of  the  solar  year,  and  a  comparison 
between  the  ancient  names  of  the  months  given 
in  the  Urh  ya,  the  oldest  Chinese  dictionary, 
with  the  Accadian  eciuivalcnts,  shows,  in  some 
instances,  an  exact  identity.  .  .  .  These  parallel- 
isms, together  with  a  host  of  others  which  might 
be  produced,  all  point  to  the  existence  of  an 
early  relationship  betveen  Chinese  and  Slesopo- 
tamian  culttirc;  and,  armed  with  the  advantages 
thus  posscs.sed,  the  Chiiieso  entered  Into  the 
empire  over  which  they  \v.  '•o  ultimately  to  over- 
spread themselves.  But  tiiey  came  among  tribes 
who,  though  somewhat  inferior  to  them  in 
general  civilisation,  were  by  no  nienns  destitute 
of  culture.  .  .  .  Among  such  people,  and  others 
of  a  lower  civilisation,  such  as  the  Jungs  of  the 
west  and  the  Teks,  the  ancestors  of  the  Tekke 
Turcomans,  in  the  north,  the  Chinese  succeeded 
in  establishing  themselves.  The  Emperor  Yaou 
(2350-2255  B.  C.)  divided  his  kingdom  into 
twelve  portions,  presided  over  by  as  many  Pas- 
tors, in  exact  imitation  of  the  duodenary  feudal 
system  of  Susa  with  their  twelve  Pastor  Princes. 
To  Yaou  succeeded  Shun,  who  carried  on  the 
work  of  his  predecessor  of  consolidating  the 
Chinese  power  with  energy  and  success.  In  his 
reign  the  first  mention  is  made  of  religious  wor- 
ship. ...  In  Shun's  reign  occurred  the  great 
flood  which  inundated  most  of  the  provinces  of 
the  existing  empire.  The  waters,  we  are  told, 
rose  to  so  great  a  height,  that  the  people  had  to 
betake  themselves  to  the  mountains  to  escape 
death.  The  disaster  arose,  as  many  similar  dis- 
asters, though  of  a  less  magnitude,  have  since 
arisen,  in  conseciuence  of  the  Yellow  River 
bursting  its  bounds,  and  the  '  Great  Yu '  was 
appointed  to  lead  the  waters  back  to  the'r  chan- 
nel. With  unremitting  v-'nergy  he  set  about  his 
task,  and  in  nine  years  succeeded  in  bringing  the 
river  under  control.  ...  As  a  reward  for  the 
services  he  had  rendered  to  the  empire,  hn  was 
invested  with  the  principality  of  Hea,  and  after 
having  occupied  the  throne  conjointly  with  Shun 
for  some  years,  he  succeeded  that  soverign  on  his 
death,  in  2208  B.  C.     With  Yu  began  the  dynasty 


I  of  Ilea,  which  gave  place,  in  1706  B.  C,  to  tho 
Shang  Dynasty.  The  last  soverign  of  the  lira 
line,  Kieh  kwei,  is  said  to  have  been  u  monster 
of  Iniquity,  and  to  have  sulTered  the  just  punish- 
ment for  his  crimes  at  the  hands  of  T'aiig,  tho 
prince  of  the  Stale  of  Shung,  who  took  his  throne 
from  him.  In  like  manner,  040  years  later.  Woo 
Wang,  the  prince  of  (,'liow,  overthrew  ('how 
Sin,  the  last  of  the  Shang  Dynasty,  ond  estab- 
lished himself  as  the  chief'  of  the  soverign 
state  of  the  enii)ire.  By  empire  it  must  not  bo 
supposed  tliat  the  empire,  as  it  exists  at  present, 
is  meant.  The  ('hiiia  of  the  Chow  Dynasty  lay 
between  tho  33rd  and  38th  parallels  of  latitude, 
and  the  100th  and  llOth  of  longitude  oidy,  and 
extended  over  no  more  than  portions  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  Pill  ('hih-li,  Shunse,  Shense,  Honan, 
Keang-so,  ond  Shan-tung.  This  territory  was 
re-arranged  by  Woo  Wang  into  the  lune  princi- 
palities established  by  Yu.  .  .  .  Woo  is  held  up 
\n  Chinese  history  as  one  of  the  model  monarchs 
of  antiquity.  .  .  .  Under  the  next  rider,  K'ang 
(B.  C.  1078-1053),  tho  empire  was  consolidated, 
and  the  feudal  princes  one  and  all  acknowledged 
their  allegiance  to  the  ruling  house  of  Chow. 
.  .  .  From  all  accounts  there  speedily  occurred  a 
marked  degeneracy  in  the  characters  of  the  Chow 
kings.  .  .  .  Already  a  spirit  of  lawlessness  was 
spreading  far  and  wide  among  the  princes  and 
nobles,  and  wars  and  rumours  of  wars  were 
ctjating  misery  and  unrest  throughout  the  coun- 
try. .  .  .  Tho  hand  of  every  man  was  against 
his  neighbour,  and  a  constant  state  of  internecine 
war  succeeded  the  peace  and  prosperity  which 
had  existed  under  the  rule  of  Woo-wang.  .  .  . 
As  time  went  on  and  the  disorder  increased, 
supernatural  signs  added  their  testimony  to  the 
impending  crisis.  The  brazen  vessels  upon 
which  Yu  had  engraved  the  nine  divisions  of  the 
empire  were  observed  to  shake  and  totter  as 
though  foreshadowing  the  approaching  change 
in  the  political  position.  Jleanwhile  Ts'in  on  the 
northwest,  Ts'oo  on  the  south,  and  Tsin  on  the 
north,  having  vanquished  all  the  other  states, 
engaged  in  the  final  struggle  for  the  Mastery 
over  the  confederate  principalities.  The  ul!,- 
mate  victory  rested  with  the  state  of  Ts'in,  and 
in  255  B.  C.,  Chaou-seang  Wang  become  the 
acknowledged  ruler  over  the  'black-haired'  peo- 
ple. Only  four  years  were  given  him  to  reign 
supreme,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Ileaou-wan  Wang,  who  died 
almost  immediately  on  ascending  the  throne.  To 
him  succeeded  Chwang-seang  Wang,  who  was 
followed  in  240  B.  C.  by  Che  Hwang-te,  the  first 
Emperor  of  China.  The  abolition  of  feudalism, 
whicli  was  the  first  act  of  Che  Ilwaug-te  raised 
much  discontent  among  those  to  whom  the  feudal 
system  had  brought  power  and  emoluments,  and 
the  countenance  which  had  been  given  to  the 
system  by  Confucius  and  Mencius  made  it  desir- 
able—  so  thought  the  emperor — to  demolish 
once  for  all  their  testimony  in  favour  of  that 
condition  of  affairs,  which  he  had  decreed  should 
be  among  the  things  of  the  past.  With  this 
object  ho  ordered  that  the  whole  existing  litera- 
ture, with  the  exception  of  books  on  medicine, 
agriculture,  and  divinotion  should  be  burned. 
The  decree  was  obeyed  as  faithfully  as  was 
possible  in  the  case  of  so  sweeping  an  ordinance, 
•  and  for  many  years  a  night  of  ignorance  rested 
on  the  country.  The  construction  of  one  gigan- 
tic work  —  the  Great  Wall  of  China  —  has  made 


41! 


CHINA. 


HrligionM. 


CHINA. 


the  nam<!  rit  tliis  mnnarcli  im  famnufi  as  tlin  dcH- 
triiclinri  of  till!  IxKikH  Iiiih  made  it  infamous. 
Fiiiiliiitr  tlic  nuiiiiK'MU  TartarH  wi-nr  maliiii^ 
ilanKvroua  inroads  into  tliv  rinpiri',  luHlctcrmintMl 
will)  characteristic  tlioniiiKlincsH  to  liiiild  u  liugo 
barrier  which  Bhould  protect  tho  norlliern  fron- 
tier of  the  empire  throii^li  all  time.  In  211  n.  (-'. 
tho  work  was  betcnn  under  his  personal  super- 
vision, and  tlmugh  every  endeavor  was  made  to 
hasten  its  completion  he  died  ('.2(10)  leaving  it  un- 
t1ni.shc<l.  Ilis  death  was  the  signal  for  an  out- 
'ireak  among  tho  dispossessed  feudal  princes, 
who,  however,  after  some  yi  iirs  of  disorder,  were 
ii^ain  riMlueed  to  the  ranli  of  <iti/.ens  liy  a  siic- 
cessi.:'  leader,  who  adopted  the  title  of  itaoii-te, 
and  iian."d  his  dj'iiaHt y  that  of  Han  (200).  From 
that  day  to  thi.s,  with  occasional  interregnums, 
the  empire  lias  liec^n  ruled  on  tlie  lines  laid  down 
liy  Che  Hwangle.  I>ynasty  has  succeeded 
dynasty,  but  tho  political  tradithm  has  remained 
unchanged,  and  though  iMongols  and  Manchoos 
have  at  different  times  wrested  the  throne  from 
its  legitimate  heirs,  they  have  been  engulfed  in 
tho  homogeneous  mass  inhabiting  the  empire, 
and  instead  of  impressing  their  seal  on  the  coun- 
try have  become  but  the  retleclion  of  the  van- 
(|uisbcd.  Tlie  dynasties  from  the  beginning  of  the 
earlier  Han,  founded,  as  staled  above,  by  Kaou-te, 
are  as  follows:  —  The  earlier  Han  Dynasty  B.  C. 
206- A.  1).  2.5;  tho  late  Han  A.  D.  25-220;  the 
Wei  220-280;  tho  western  Tsin  205-317;  the 
eastern  Tsin  317-420;  the  Sung  420-479;  the 
Ts'e  479-,5()2;  the  Leang  502-557;  the  Ch'in  557- 
.580.  Simultaneouslv  w'ith  these  —  the  northern 
Wei  A.  1).  :t8fi-5;)4";  tho  western  Wei  535-557; 
the  eastern  Wei  534-550;  the  northern  Ts'e  550- 
577;  the  northern  Chow  557-580.  The  Suy  .589- 
018;  the  Tang  618-907;  tho  later  Leang  907-923; 
the  later  T'ang  923-930;  the  later  Tsin  930-947; 
the  later  Han  947-051 ;  tho  later  Chow  951-900, 
tho  Sung  960-1127;  the  southern  Sung  1127- 
1280;  tho  Yuen  1280-1808;  the  Ming  1308-1044; 
the  Ts'ing  1044.  Simultaneously  with  some  of 
tlicse  —  the  Leaou  007-1125;  the  western  Leaou 
1125-1108;  the  Kin  1115-1280."— R.  K.  Douglas, 
China,  ch.  1. 

Also  rN  D.C.  Boulger,  Jlut  of  China,  v.  1-2. 

The  Religions  of  the  People. — Confucian- 
ism.—  Taouism. —  Buddhism. — "  Tho  Chinese 
describe  themselves  as  possessing  three  religions, 
or  more  accurately,  three  sects,  namely  Joo 
keaou,  tho  sect  of  Scholars;  Fuh  keaou,  the 
sect  of  Buddha;  and  Taou  keaou,  the  sect  of 
Taoii.  Both  as  regards  age  and  origin,  the  sect 
of  Scholars,  or,  as  it  is  generally  called,  Con- 
fucianism, represents  pre-eminently  the  religion 
of  China.  It  has  its  root  in  tlie  worship  of 
8hang-te,  a  deity  which  is  associated  with  tho 
earliest  traditions  of  tlio  Chinese  race.  Ilwang-te 
(2097  B.  C.)  erected  a  temple  to  his  honour,  and 
succeeding  emperors  worshipped  before  his 
.shrine.  .  .  .  During  the  troulilous  times  which 
followed  after  the  reign  of  the  few  llrst  sovereigns 
of  tlie  Chow  Dynasty,  the  belief  in  a  personal 
deity  grew  iudi-stinct  and  dim,  until,  when  Con- 
fucius [born  B.  C.  551]  began  his  career,  there 
appeared  nothing  strange  in  his  atheistic  doc- 
trines. He  never  in  any  way  denied  the  ex- 
istence of  Shang-te,  but  he  ignored  him.  His 
concern  was  with  man  as  a  member  of  society, 
and  the  object  of  liis  teaching  was  to  lead  him 
into  those  patlis  of  rectitude  which  might  best 
contribute  to  bis  own  liappiucss,  and  to  tJie  well- 


418 


being  of  that  <'ommunity  of  which  he  formed 
part.  Man,  he  held,  was  born  g(Kid,  and  was 
endowed  with  (iiialilles  which,  when  eultivote<l 
and  improved  by  watclifuliK'SS  and  self-restraint, 
might  eiiablo  him  to  aciiuiro  godlike  wisdom 
and  to  become  'the  equal  of  Heaven.'  He 
divided  mankind  into  four  classes,  viz.,  those 
who  are  born  with  the  possession  of  knowledge; 
tho.>M'  who  learn,  and  so  readily  get  possession  of 
knowledge;  those  who  are  dull  anil  stupid,  and 
yet  succeed  in  learning;  and,  lastly,  those  who 
are  dull  and  stupid,  and  yet  do  not  learn.  To 
all  tlie.se,  except  those  of  tho  last  class,  the  path 
to  the  climax  reached  by  tho  'Sage'  is  open. 
Man  has  only  to  watch,  listen  to,  understand, 
and  obey  the  moral  sense  implanted  in  him  by 
Heaven,  and  the  highest  perfection  is  within  his 
reach.  ...  In  this  system  there  is  no  place 
for  a  i)er8onal  God.  I'lie  impersonal  Heaven, 
according  to  Confucius,  implants  a  pure  nature 
in  every  being  at  his  birtli,  but,  having  done 
thi.s,  there  is  no  further  supernatural  interference 
with  the  thouglits  and  deeds  of  men.  It  is  in 
tlie  power  of  each  one  to  perfect  his  nature,  and 
tliiTc  is  no  divine  inlluence  to  restrain  those  who 
take  the  downward  course.  Man  has  his  destiny 
in  his  own  hands,  to  make  or  to  mar.  Neither 
had  Confucius  any  inducement  to  offer  to  en- 
courage men  in  tho  pnictico  of  virtue,  except 
virtue's  self.  He  was  a  matter-of-fact,  unim- 
aginative man,  who  was  quite  content  to  occupy 
himself  with  the  study  of  his  fellow-men,  and 
was  disinclined  to  grope  Into  tlic  future  or  to 
peer  upwards.  No  wonder  that  his  system,  as 
he  enunciated  it,  i)roved  a  failure.  Eagerly  he 
sought  in  tho  execution  of  his  olllcial  duties  to 
effect  the  regeneration  of  the  empire,  but  beyond 
tlio  circle  of  lu.s  personal  disciples  ho  found  few 
followers,  and  as  soon  as  princes  and  statesmen 
had  satisfied  their  curiosity  about  him  they 
turned  their  backs  on  his  precepts  and  would 
none  of  his  reproofs.  Succeeding  a^es,  recognis- 
ing tho  loftiness  of  his  aims,  eliminated  all  that 
was  imi)n";ticablo  and  unreal  in  his  system,  and 
held  fast  to  that  part  of  it  that  was  true  and 
gootl.  They  were  content  to  accept  tho  logic  of 
events,  and  to  throw  overboard  the  ideal  'sage,' 
and  to  ignore  the  supposed  potency  of  his  in- 
fluence; but  '.hey  cUmg  to  the  doctrines  of  filial 
piety,  brot'.erly  love,  and  virtuous  living.  It 
was  admin:  tion  for  tlic  emphasis  which  he  laid 
on  these  and  other  virtues  which  has  drawn  so 
many  millions  of  men  unto  him;  which  has 
made  his  tomb  at  Keo-foo  been  to  be  the  Mecca 
of  Confucianism,  and  has  adorned  every  city  of 
the  empire  with  temples  built  in  his  honour.  .  .  . 
Concurrently  with  the  lapse  of  pure  Confucian- 
ism, and  the  adoption  of  those  principles  which 
lind  their  earliest  expression  in  tlio  pre-Confucian 
classics  of  Cliina,  there  is  observable  a  return  to 
the  worship  of  Shang-tc.  Tho  most  magnificent 
temple  in  tho  empire  is  the  Temple  of  Heaven  at 
Poking,  where  the  highest  object  of  Chinese 
worslup  is  adored  with  the  purest  rites.  .  .  . 
What  is  popularly  known  in  Europe  as  Con- 
fucianism is,  therefore,  Confucianism  with  the 
distinctive  opinions  of  Confucius  omitted.  .  .  . 
But  this  worsliip  of  Shang-te  is  confined  only  to 
the  emperor.  'Tlie  people  have  no  lot  or  heritage 
in  the  sacred  acts  of  worship  at  the  Altar  of 
Uca"en.  .  .  .  Side  by  side  with  the  revival  of 
the  Joo  keaou,  under  the  influence  of  Confucius, 
grew  up  a  system  of  a  totally  different  nature. 


CHINA. 


Kublai  Kluin. 


CHINA,  rjftU-ia94. 


and  wlilrli,  wlii-n  (llvcstcd  of  its  OHotcrIc  doc- 
trinrs,  mid  rcduccil  l)y  tlio  priicllriilly-inirKh'd 
ChinuMirii  to  II  (ikIi:  of  iiiondH,  wim  tli'Mtiiiid  in 
futuro  UKVS  to  liccoini'  iilUIiiitcd  with  tliu  tciicli- 
ingH  of  tlio  tingv.  Tliis  wiis  TitoiiiHiii,  wlilrli 
wi»B  founded  liy  Liioii-tazt',  who  wiw  a  con- 
tt'inpomry  of  Confucius.  An  uir  of  niyHt<'rv 
haiif^s  over  the  liistory  of  I.aoii  Iszc.  Of  lifs 
purputagc  wo  liiiow  nolliiii);,  imd  Ihi^  liistorianM,  in 
tht'ir  anxh'ty  to  coiiri'al  llicir  i>riioraii(tc  of  liis 
earlliT  ycant,  Hlicltcr  IIiciiihcIvi-i  Iwhind  llic 
Icffcnd  tlial  ho  was  liorii  an  old  man.  .  .  .  Tlic 
primary  nicaniiij;  of  Taou  is  'Tlio  way,'  "Tlio 
palli,'  Imt  in  Laoiitszo's  jihliosopiiy  it  was  more 
tlian  tiio  way,  it  was  tlio  way-jjix'r  as  well.  It 
wim  an  eternal  road;  alon^  it  nil  bein^fs  and 
thiii)5»  walked;  it  was  everylhinj?  and  nothing, 
and  llio  (.'auso  and  eileet  of  all.  All  things 
originated  from  Taoii,  eoiiforined  to  Taou,  and 
to  Taou  at  last  returned.  ...  'If,  then,  wo  hud 
to  e.\press  tlio  ineaniiiK  of  Taou,  wo  should 
desorilio  it  as  tlio  Absoluto;  the  totality  of  Ueing 
and  ThinKs ;  tho  phenomenal  world  and  its  order ; 
and  tho  ethical  nature  of  the  goml  man,  and  the 
principle  of  his  action.'  It  was  absorption  into 
tills  '  Alothcrof  all  things'  that  Laou-t.szo  aimed 
at.  And  this  end  was  to  bo  attained  to  by  self- 
emptiness,  and  by  Kiting  free;  scope  to  the  un- 
containinated  nature  which,  like  Confucius,  he 
taught  was  given  by  Heaven  to  all  men.  .  .  . 
But  these  subtleties,  like  the  more  abstruse 
speculations  of  Confucius,  were  suited  only  to 
the  taste  of  the  schools.  To  the  common  people 
they  were  foolishness,  and,  before  long,  the 
philosophical  doctrine  of  Laou-tszi?  of  the 
identity  of  existence  and  non-existence,  a.ssumed 
in  their  eyes  a  warrant  for  the  old  Epicurean 
motto,  '  Let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow  we 
die.'  T'!n  pleasures  of  sen.se  were  substituted 
for  the  delights  of  virtue,  and  the  next  step  was 
to  desire  prolongation  of  the  time  when  those 
pleasures  could  bo  enjoyed.  Legend  said  that 
Laou-ts/.o  had  secured  to  himself  immunity  from 
death  by  drinking  the  elixir  of  immortality,  and 
to  enjoy  tho  same  privilege  became  the  all- 
absorbing  object  of  his  followers.  The  demand 
for  elixirs  and  charms  produced  a  supply,  and 
Taoulsm  quickly  degenerated  into  a  system  of 
magic.  .  .  .  Tho  teachings  of  Laou-tszo  having 
familiarised  the  Chinese  mind  with  philosophiciii 
doctrines,  which,  whatever  were  their  direct 
source,  bore  a  marked  resemblance  to  ti  mus- 
ings of  Indian  sages,  served  to  prepare  \  way 
for  the  introduction  of  Buddhism.  The  exact 
date  at  which  the  Chinese  first  became  acquainted 
with  the  doctrines  of  Buddha  was,  according  to 
an  author  quoted  in  K'ang-he's  Imperial  Ency- 
clopajdia,  the  thirtietli  year  of  the  reign  of  She 
Hwang-te,  i.  e.,  B.  C.  216.  The  story  this  writer 
tells  of  the  difficulties  which  the  first  missionaries 
encountered  is  curious,  and  singularly  sugges- 
tive of  the  narrative  of  St.  Peter's  imprison- 
ment."— 1?  K.  Douglas,  China,  ch.  17. — Also 
IN  The  same,  Confucianiam  and  Ttwuiam. — 
''Buddhism  .  .  .  penetrated  to  China  along  the 
fixed  route  from  India  to  that  country,  round  tho 
north-west  corner  of  the  Himalayas  and  across 
Eastern  Turkestan.  Already  in  the  2nu  year 
B.  C,  an  embassy,  perhaps  sent  by  Iluvishka 
[who  reigned  in  Kabul  and  Kashmere]  took 
Buddhist  books  to  the  then  Emperor  of  China, 
A-ili;  and  the  Emperor  Ming-ti,  02  A.  I).,  guided 
by  a  dream,  is  said  to  have  sent  to  Tartury  and 


Central  India  and  brought  HiKldhist  books  to 
China.  From  this  lime  Buddhism  rapidly 
spread  there.  ...  In  thi!  fourth  cenlurv  Buil- 
dliisni  beeami' the  slate  religion.  "—T.  W.  Rbyt 
Davids,  Jlmlil/iium,  ch.  0. 

Ai.wi  IN  J.  Legge,"7'A<!  Jit lif/ions  of  China. — 
J.  Edkins,  Ileliyion  in  China. — The  same, 
ChiufM  Jliiililhinin. — .S.  Beals,  /liiililhium  in 
China. — S.  .lohnson,  Oritiital  IttUfiionn:  China. 

A.  D.  1205-1334.—  Conquest  by  Jinei* 
Khan  and  his  son. — "The  eoiKpiest  of  ('linia 
was  (■omiiieiieid  liy  Cliiiighiz  lor  .linirLs  Kliaii|, 
although  it  was  not  completed  for  several  gen- 
erations. Already  in  120.')  lie  had  invaded  Tiin 
gut,  a  kingdoin  occupying  tlie  (ixlreiiie  north- 
west of  China,  and  extending  beyond  Chinese 
limits  in  the  same  ilirection,  held  by  a  dynasty 
of  Tibetan  race,  which  was  or  had  been  avassal 
to  the  Kill.  Tliis  invasinn  was  repeated  In  suc- 
ceeding years;  and  in  1211  his  attacks  extinded 
to  tho  Empire  of  the  Kin  itself.  In  1214  ho 
ravaged  their  provinces  to  the  Yellow  Hiver,  and 
in  tho  following  year  took  Cliungtu  or  Peking. 
In  121U  he  turned  his  arms  against  AVestern 
Asia;  .  .  .  but  a  lieutenant  whom  he  had  left 
behind  him  in  tlii^  East  continued  to  proseeuto 
the  subjection  of  Nortliern  China.  Chinjrhiz 
himself  on  his  return  from  his  western  coiuiui'sts 
renewed  his  attack  on  Taugut,  and  died  on  that 
enterprise,  18th  August.  Okkodai,  tlie  son  and 
successor  of  Chinghiz,  followed  up  the  subjuga- 
tion (  f  Chiiifli,  extinguished  tlie  Kin  llnally  in 
12a4  and  con.solidated  with  his  Empire  all"  the 
provinces  nortii  of  the  Great  Kiang.  Th'> 
Southern  j)rovinces  remained  for  the  present 
subject  to  the  Chinese  dynasty  of  the  Sung, 
reigning  now  at  Kingsso  "or  iJaugcheu.  This 
kingdoin  was  known  to  the  Tartars  as  Nangkiass, 
and  also  by  tho  quasi-Chinese  title  of  Mungi  or 
Manzi,  made  so  famous  by  Marco  Polo  and  the 
travellers  of  the  following  age." — II.  Yule, 
Cathaji  and  the  II'k.v  Thither.  Preliminary  Kk- 
»<ty,  tert.  91-02.  —  See,  also,  Mongols:  A.  I). 
1153-1'227. 

A.  D.  1259-1294.— The  Empire  of  Kublai 
Khan. — Kubhii,  or  Kliubilai  Khan,  one  of  tho 
grandsons  of  Jingis  Khan,  who  reigned  as  the 
Great  Khan  or  Supreme  lord  of  the  Mongols 
from  1250  until  1204,  "was  tho  sovereign  of  the 
largest  empire  that  was  ever  controlled  by  one 
man.  China,  Corea,  Thibet,  Tung-King,  Cochin 
China,  a  great  portion  of  India  beyond  the 
Ganges,  the  Turkish  and  Siberian  realms  from 
the  Eastern  Sea  to  the  Dnieper,  obeyed  his  com- 
mands ;  and  although  the  chief  of  the  Hordes  of 
Jagatui  and  Ogatui  refused  to  acknowledge  him, 
the  Ilklians  of  Persia  .  .  .  were  his  feudatories. 
.  .  .  The  Supreme  Khan  had  immediate  authority 
only  in  Mongolia  and  China.  .  .  .  The  capital  of 
the  Kliakan,  after  the  accession  of  Khubilai,  was 
a  new  city  ho  built  close  to  the  ancient  metropo- 
lis of  the  Liao  and  Kin  dynasties." — II.  II. 
Iloworth,  //(■«<.  (/  the  Mongols,  v.  1,  pp.  210-283. 
— "Khan-Biilig  (.Mong.,  'The  Khan's  city'), 
the  Cambalu  of  Marco,  Peking  .  .  .  was  cap- 
tured by  Chinghiz  in  1215,  and  hi  1204  Kublai 
made  it  his  chief  residence.  In  1207  he  built  a 
new  city,  three  '  li '  to  the  north-east  of  the  old 
one,  to  which  was  given  the  name  of  Ta-tu  or 
'  Great  Court,'  called  by  the  Mongols  DaYdu,  the 
Taydo  of  (Jdoric  and  Taidu  of  Polo,  who  gives  a 
description  of  its  dimensions,  the  number  of  its 
gates,  etc.,  similar  to  that  in  the  text.    The 


419 


CHINA.  1250-1204. 


Tartar 
fktvrrrigniy. 


(^IIINA,  1204-1H82. 


C'lilncRO  iiccountit  elvo  nnly  cloven  fcatcn.  Tills 
city  WHH  ikbiiniliiiKMi  iis  ii  roviil  rcitltltMu'c  on  the 
uxpulHioM  (if  tilt)  MoMpil  (lyiiiiHty  In  lilUH.  Iml 
re  (h-(-u|iIimI  in  I4'.il  by  tlii'tlilnl  .Mini;  Kin|i<'r(ir, 
wild  liuilt  tlic  walls  IIS  tluiy  iinw  exist,  ri'iliii'iii>; 
tlu.'ir  extent  mill  the  iiunilii'r  <if  the  gates  to  nine. 
ThU  Ih  what  is  riiiiim<iiily  called  the  '  Tartar 
city  '  of  the  present  day  (I'lilled  also  by  the  Clil- 
nes(>  LaU'ChhiiiK  <ir  '(')1(1  Town'),  wl'iieli  IJiere- 
fore  represenls  tlie  Taydo  of  Odorle." — II.  Yule, 
Valhiiji  ami  t/ui  Way  Thither,  v.  1,  j>.  127,  foot- 
note. 

Al.KO  IN  .Marco  I'olo,  Trnrelt,  irith  Xotetbif  Sir 
II.  Yide.  hk.  2.— See,  also,  Monooi.h:  A.  1).  122U- 
12114,  and  I'oi.o.  M.MUo. 

A.  D.  1294-1883.— Dissolution  of  the  Em- 
pire of  Kublai  Khan.— The  Mine  dynasty 
and  its  fall.— The  enthronement  of  the  pre- 
sent Manchu  Tartar  Dynasty,  of  the  Tsingsor 
Ch'ings.— The  appearance  of  the  Portuguese 
and  the  Jesuit  Missionaries. — "The  ininieiliate 
Kuecessors  of  Kiililiii,  bniiiKht  up  In  the  luxuries 
of  the  Imperial  palace,  the  most  gorgeous  at  that 
time  in  the  world,  relied  upon  the  pre.stigi^  with 
which  the  glory  of  the  late  emperor  invested 
them,  and  never  dreunied  that  changu  could 
touch  a  dominion  so  vast  and  so  solid.  Some  de- 
voted themselves  to  elegant  literature  and  the 
improvement  of  the  people;  later  princes  to 
the  mysteries  of  Buddhism,  which  biraiiie,  in 
Home  degree,  the  state  religion;  mid  as  tlie  cycle 
went  round,  the  dregs  of  the  dynasty  iihaiiddiied 
themselves,  us  usual,  to  priests,  women,  anil 
(mnuclis.  .  .  .  The  distant  provinces  threw  oil 
their  subjection;  robbers  ravaged  the  land,  and 
pirates  the  Hca;  a  minority  ami  a  famiiiu  came 
at  the  same  moment;  unif  in  less  than  ninety 
years  after  its  commencement,  the  fall  of  the 
dynasty  was  only  illumined  by  some  few  Hashes 
of  dying  heroism,  and  every  armed  Tartar,  who 
could  obtain  a  horse  to  aid  his  (light,  spurred 
back  to  Ills  native  deserts.  Sonio  of  them, 
of  the  royal  race,  turning  to  the  west,  took 
refuge  with  the  Manchows,  and  in  proccs-s  of 
time,  marrying  with  ine  families  of  the  chiefs, 
intermingled  the  blood  of  the  two  great  tribes. 
The  proximate  cause  of  this  catastrophe  was  a 
Chinese  of  low  birth,  who,  in  the  midst  of  the 
troubles  of  the  time,  found  means  to  raise  him- 
self by  his  genius  from  u  servile  station  to  the 
leadership  of  a  body  of  the  malcontents,  and 
thence  to  step  into  the  imperial  throne.  The  new- 
dynasty  [the  Sling]  began  their  reign  with  great 
brilliance.  The  emperor  carried  tlio  Tartar  war 
into  their  own  country,  and  at  home  made  unre- 
lenting war  u|)on  the  abuses  of  his  palace.  lie 
committed  the  niisttike,  however,  of  granting 
separate  principalities  to  the  members  of  his 
house,  which  in  the  next  reign  caused  a  civil 
war,  and  the  usurpation  of  the  throne  by  an 
uncle  of  the  then  emperor.  The  usurper  found 
it  necessary  to  transfer  the  capital  to  Peking,  as 
u  post  of  dcfcn.  e  against  the  eastern  Tartars, 
who  now  made  their  appearance  again  on  this 
eventful  stage.  He  was  successful,  however,  in 
his  wars  in  the  desert,  and  lie  added  Tonnuin 
and  Cochin  China  to  the  Chinese  dominions. 
After  him  the  fortunes  of  the  dynasty  began  to 
wane.  The  government  became  weaker,  the 
Tartars  stronger,  some  princes  uttaclicd  them- 
selves to  literature,  some  to  Buddhism  or  TaOism; 
Cochin  China  revolted,  and  was  lost  to  the  em- 
pire, Japan  ravaged  the  coasts  with  her  priva- 


terrH ;  famine  camo  to  odd  to  the  horrors  of  mis- 
rule. "—  l.,eltcli  Ultchie.  IUkI.  of  tlie  Oriental  A'a- 
liiiiiik.  Ilk.  7,  eh.  1  (/'.  2).  — "  tVoni  wllhout,  the 
.Mings  weni  ciiiisliiiilly  hiiras.>«'il  by  the  eiieriiach- 
ments  of  the  Tartars;  fnini  within,  the  ceaseless 
intriguing  of  the  eunuchs  (resulting  in  one  case 
In  the  teiiipiirary  deposition  of  an  Hmiieror)  was 
a  fertile  cause  of  trouble.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  tOtli  <;eiiturv  the  I'nrtuguese  appeared  upon 
the  scene,  and  troin  their  'concesHiiin  '  at  .Macao, 
Home  time  the  residence  of  Camoens,  opened 
ciimmereliil  reliitioim  between  China  and  the 
West.  They  brought  the  ChineHe,  among  otiier 
things,  opium,  which  had  previoUHly  been  Im- 
ported overiaiid  from  India.  They  pos.Hibly 
taught  them  how  to  make  gunpowder,  to  the  in- 
vention of  which  the  CliiiieKe  do  not  neem,  upon 
striking  a  balance  of  evidence,  to  iio.ssesH  an  in- 
dependent claim.  About  the  name  time  [15M0J 
Koine  ciintribiited  the  llrst  instalment  of  tliose 
wiinderful  .lesuil  fathers,  whose  names  may  truly 
be  said  to  have  tilled  the  empire  'witli  soiindH 
that  echo  still,' the  memory  of  their  selentitlo 
labours  and  the  benetitH  they  thus  conferred  upon 
China  having  long  Hurvived  the  wreck  and  dis- 
credit of  llie  faith  to  which  thi-y  devoted  their 
lives.  And  at  this  distance  of  time  it  diH^s  not 
appear  to  be  a  wild  Htatement  to  as.sert  that  had 
the  Jesuits,  the  Franciscans,  and  the  Dominicans, 
beenabli!  to  resist  quarrellii  ,  among  them.selves, 
and  had  they  rather  united  to  persuade  I'upal  in- 
fallibility to  permit  the  incorporation  of  ancestor 
worsliip  with  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
lioml.sh  church  —  China  wouhl  ut  this  moment 
be  a  Catholic  country,  and  liuddhism,  Taoism, 
and  Confucianism  would  long  since  have  receded 
into  the  past.  Of  all  these  Jesuit  mi.ssionaries, 
the  name  of  Matteo  Uicci  [who  died  in  1610] 
stands  by  coninion  consent  llrst  upon  the  long 
list.  .  .  .  The  overthrow  of  the  Mings  [A.  1>. 
lt}44]  was  brought  about  by  a  combination  of 
events,  of  the  utmost  importance  to  those  who 
would  understand  the  present  position  of  the 
Tartars  as  rulers  of  China.  A  sudden  rebellion 
had  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Picking  by  the  in- 
surgents, and  in  the  suicide  of  the  Emperor  who 
was  fated  to  be  the  last  of  his  line.  The  Im- 
perial Commander-in-chief,  Wu  San-kuei,  at  that 
lime  away  on  the  frontiers  of  Alanchuria,  en- 
gaged in  resisting  the  incursions  of  the  Manchu 
Tartars,  now  for  a  long  time  in  a  state  of  fer- 
ment, immediately  hurried  back  to  the  capital, 
but  was  totally  defeated  by  the  insurgent  leader, 
and  once  more  made  his  way,  this  time  as  a 
fugitive  and  u  suppliant,  towards  the  Tartar 
camp.  Here  he  obtained  [iromises  of  assistance, 
cl'ielly  on  condition  that  he  would  shave  his  head 
and  grow  a  tail  in  accordance  with  Manchu  cus- 
tom, and  again  set  oil  with  his  new  auxiliaries 
towards  Peking,  being  reinforced  on  the  way  by 
a  body  of  Mongol  volunteers.  As  things  turned 
out  y^w  San-kuei  arrived  at  Peking  in  advance 
of  these  allies,  and  actually  succeeded,  with  the 
remnant  of  his  own  scattered  forces,  in  routing 
the  troojis  of  the  rebel  leader  before  the  Tartars 
and  the  Slongols  came  up.  lie  then  started  In 
pursuit  of  the  flying  foe.  Meanwhile  the  Tar- 
tar contingent  arrived ;  and  on  entering  the  capi- 
tal, the  young  JIanchu  prince  in  command  was 
invited  by  the  people  of  Peking  to  ascend  the 
vacant*  throne.  80  that  by  the  time  Wu  Sun-kuei 
reappeared  ho  found  a  new  dynasty  [the  Ch'ing 
or  Tsing  dynasty  of  the  present  day]  already 


420 


CHINA,  rju4-iH»a. 


O/iiuiM   W'ltr, 


CHINA,  lMau-1843. 


C!itiil)lish('(l,  iiml  Ills  liitn  Miindiii  nlly  lit  tin-  liciiil 

of  iilTiilrH.     His  tli'Ml  intention  Imil  ilniilitlcHM  I n 

to  t'ciiKlniic  till'  Ming  line  of  i' iiprriirs;  lint  lii^ 
scciiiH  to  liiivu  rniilily  fiillcn  !>  v,  llli  tliii  iirriiiiKi'- 
nu'Mt  iilrriiily  iiiiulc,  itnil  to  liitvo  tciuiiTi'il  liU 
fornml  iillcfilitni'i^  on  tlii'  four  following  conili- 
tionH: — (l.)Tliat  no  ClilnrHi' woniitn  Hlioiild  Ik- 
tiikrn  Into  tlio  Iinprriiil  MniKlio.  (2.)  Tliiit  thi- 
ll fhI  ptiu  eat  t  lii' grrat  I  rirnniiil  rxiiuiiniit  ion  for  tlio 
lilKlx'tl  litiTiiry  ilinrrrH  hIioiiIiI  ncvrr  liii  glvrn  to 
a  Tartar.  (It.)  Tliat  tin;  propli-  hIiouIiI  itiiopt  tliii 
nntiniial  I'OHtiiinr  of  tlie  Tartars  in  llirlr  evi-ry- 
day  nil';  but  that  tliry  kIiouIiI  lie  allowi'il  to  bury 
thi'ir  i:i>rp»M'H  in  the  ilrrs.sof  the  lati>  liyna^ty.  (t.) 
That  tills  I'onilition  of  coHtunie  nIioiiIiI  not  apply 
to  tlin  womrii  of  Cliina,  who  wcrit  not  to  br 
conipclli'il  vithi-r  to  wi-iir  tlii!  hair  in  ii  tail  lu'forii 
niarriage(aH  tlm Tartar  t;lrls  ilo)iir  to  abanilon  tlic 
(Mistoin  of  conipri'HsinK  tlii'ir  fri't.  TIki  grrat 
Mini;  liviiastv  was  now  at  an  end,  though  not 
(Icstlni'il  wholij  to  pass  away.  A  largii  part  of 
it  may  bo  fuiiil  to  ri'nmin  in  tlii>  litrrary  inonii- 
Mii'iits  wliicli  wi-ri!  i-.xi'cuti'il  liiiring  its  tlireo  ccn- 
turii's  of  cxistciiri.-.  Tlu-  ilri'ss  of  thi)  period 
survives  upon  tliu  mu''  .::  Chinesu  stage;  anU 
when  oeea.slonally  the  present  alien  yoke  is  found 
to  gall,  seditious  whispers  of  '  restoration'  are  not 
altogether  unheard.  .  .  .  The  age  of  the  ('h'iiiga 
U  the  age  in  whieh  we  live;  but  it  i.s  not  so  fu- 
miliiir  to  some  persons  as  it  ought  to  be,  that  a 
Tartar,  and  not  a  Chinese  sovereign,  is  now 
dented  upon  tlie  throne  of  ('hina.  For  some  tiiuo 
after  the  aeeession  of  the  llrst  Manehu  Kniperor 
there  was  considerable  frietioii  between  the  two 
raecs,  due,  among  other  natural  causes,  to  the 
enforced  ado|ition  of  the  peculiar  coiiluru  in 
vogue  among  the  .Manchus  —  i.  e.,  the  tidl,  or 
plaited  queue  of  hair,  which  now  liaugs  down 
every  Chinainan'a  back.  This  fashion  was  for  a 
long  time  vigorously  resisted  by  the  inhabitants 
of  soutliern  China,  though  now  regarded  by  all 
alike  as  one  of  the  most  sacred  characteristics  of 
the 'bhick-baircd  people' .  .  .  The  sulij ligation 
of  the  empire  by  tlie  Manchus  was  followed  by  u 
military  occupatiim  of  the  ('ouiitry,  which  has 
survived  the  original  neceasity,  and  is  part  of  the 
system  of  government  at  the  present  day.  Gar- 
risons of  Tartar  troops  were  stationed  ut  various 
important  centres  of  population.  .  .  .  Those 
Tartar  garrisons  still  occupy  the  same  positions ; 
and  the  descendants  of  the  flrst  battalions,  with 
occasional  reinforcements  from  Peking,  live  side 
by  side  and  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  strictly 
Chinese  jjoiiulations.  These  Bannernien,  as  they 
are  called,  may  be  known  by  their  square,  heavy 
faces,  which  contrast  strongly  with  the  sharper 
and  more  astute  physiognomies  of  the  Chinese. 
Tliey  speak  the  dialect  of  Peking,  now  recognised 
as  the  ofliciiil  language  par  excellence.  They  do 
not  use  their  family  or  surnames  —  which  belong 
rather  to  the  clan  tlian  to  the  individual  —  but 
in  order  to  conform  to  the  requirements  of 
Chinese  life,  the  personal  name  is  substituted. 
Their  women  do  not  coiiipress  their  feet,  ana  the 
female  coiffure  and  dress  are  wholly  Tartar  in 
character.  Intermarriage  betweeu  the  two  races 
is  not  considered  desirable,  though  instances  are 
not  unknown.  In  other  respects,  it  is  tl:3  old 
story  of  '  victa  victrix ; '  the  conquering  Tartars 
have  been  themselves  conquered  by  the  people 
over  whom  they  sei  themselves  to  rule.  They 
have  adopted  the  language,  written  and  collo- 
quial, of  China.  .  .  .  Manehu,  the  language  of 


the  roniiuerors,  is  still  kept  alive  at  tlie  Court  of 
j'l'kiiig.  liy  u  Stale  lirtion,  it  is  HiippoHcd  to  be 
the  langiiuge  of  the  sovrreigii.  .  ,  .  Kiglit  em- 
perors of  this  lliii!  have  already  ix'cupii'd  the 
throne,  and  'beeuini'  guests  on  high;'  the  ninth 
is  yet  [in  IHH'i]  a  boy  less  than  ten  years  of  age. 
of  these  eight,  the  second  in  every  way  tills  tin) 
largest  spare  in  Chinesi!  history,  ivaiig  llsi 
(or  Kaiig  Hi)  reigned  for  slxty-omj  years.  .  .  . 
I'lider  the  third  .Maiiihii  J-'mperor,  ^  ling  (.'heng 
[A.  I).  17'J!t-17;mi.  liegiiii  that  violent  iiersecu- 
tion  of  the  Catholii's  which  has  rontlniled  almost 
to  the  present  day.  The  various  M'cta — Jesuits, 
Doniinicans,  Kraneiscaim — had  been  unable  to 
agree  about  the  Chinese  enuival"nt  for  (lod,  and 
the  matter  had  been  tlnally  referred  to  the  Pone. 
Another  ditlleiilty  had  arisen  as  to  the  toleratloa 
of  ancestral  worship  by  Chinese  converts  pro- 
fessing the  (.'atliolic  faith.  ...  As  the  Pope  re- 
fused to  permit  the  embodiment  of  this  ancient 
(custom  with  the  ceremonies  of  the  Catholic 
church,  the  new  religion  ceased  to  advance,  and 
liy-and-by  fell  into  disrepute." — H.  A.  Giles, 
lIMorie  China,  cli.  f>-0. 

Al.H(  IN  8.  \V.  Williams,  The  Muhllf.  Kingdom, 
eh.  17,  and  Ui-'iO  (v.  2).— C.  Gutzlaff,  Skf.trhof 
Chinese  Hid.,  v.  1,  rh,  10,  v.  2.  —  ,1.  Uoss,  Th« 
Manchim.  —  Abh6  Hue,  Chrittianity  in  ifhina, 
r.  2-8. 

A.  D.  1839-1842.— The  Opium  War  with 
England. — Treaty  of  Nanlcinz. — Opening  of 
the  Five  Ports. — "The  (Irst  Chinese  war  [of 
KnglundJ  was  in  one  sense  directly  attributablo 
to  the  altered  position  of  the  Kast  India  Com- 
puiiy  after  1833.  [.See  India:  A.  D.  1823-1833. 1 
Up  to  that  year  trade  between  England  and 
China  had  been  conducted  in  both  countries  on 
principles  of  strict  monopoly.  The  Chinese 
trade  was  sectired  to  the  East  India  Company, 
and  the  English  trade  was  confined  to  a  company 
of  merchants  specially  nominated  for  (he  pur- 
pose by  the  Emperor.  The  change  of  thought 
which  produced  the  destruction  of  monopolies 
in  England  did  not  penetrate  to  thi'  con.servative 
atmosphere  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  and,  while 
the  trade  in  one  country  was  thrown  open  to 
everyone,  trade  in  the  other  was  still  exclusively 
confined  to  the  merchants  nominated  by  the 
Chinese  Government.  Th(-se  merchants.  Hong 
merchants  as  they  were  called,  traded  separately, 
but  were  mutually  liable  for  the  dues  to  the 
Chinese  Government  and  for  their  debts  to  the 
foreigners.  Such  conditions  neither  promoted 
the  growth  of  trade  nor  the  solvency  of  the 
traders;  and,  out  of  the  thirteen  Hong  merchants 
in  1837,  three  or  four  were  avowedly  insolvent. 
(State  Papers,  v.  27,  p.  1310.)  Such  were  the 
general  conditions  on  which  the  trade  was  con- 
ducted. The  most  important  article  of  trade 
was  opium.  The  importation  of  o'>Mim  into 
China  had,  indeed,  been  illegal  since  1.00.  Hut 
the  Chinese  Government  had  nmdu  no  stringent 
efforts  to  prohibit  the  trade,  and  a  Si'lect  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons  had  declared 
that  it  was  inadvisable  to  abandon  an  important 
source  of  revenue  to  the  East  India  Company. 
(State  Papers,  v.  29,  p.  1020.)  The  opium  trade 
consequently  throve,  and  grew  from  4,100  chests 
in  1790  to  30,000  chests  in  1837,  and  the  Chinese 
connived  at  or  ignored  the  growing  trade. 
(Ibid.,  p.  1010).  ...  In  1837  the  Chinese  Gov- 
ernment adopted  a  fresh  policy.  It  decided  on 
rigourously  stopping  the  trade  at  which  it  bad 


421 


CHINA,  1839-1842. 


Opium  War. 


CHINA,  1889-1848. 


previously  tacitly  connived.  .  .  .  Whether  the 
Cliinesfl  Government  was  roiilly  slioclcud  lit  tlio 
growing  uw.  of  tlio  drug  nnd  the  consequences 
of  Its  use,  or  whcher  it  wiis  iilarmcd  nt  a  drain 
of  silver  from  C'ina  wliicli  disturbed  wliat  tlie 
political  nrithmcticians  of  England  a  hundred 
years  before  would  have  called  the  balance  of 
trade,  it  undoubtedly  determined  to  check  the 
trafTlc  by  every  means  at  its  disposal.  With 
this  object  it  strengthened  its  force  on  the  coast 
nnd  sent  Lin,  a  man  of  great  energy,  to  Canton 
[March,  1839]  with  supremo  authority.  (State 
rapers,  v.  29,  p.  934,  and  Autobiography  of  Sir 
H.  Taylor,  v.  1,  appx.,  p.  343.)  Before  Lin's 
arrival  cargoes  of  opium  had  been  seized  bv  the 
Custom  House  autliorities.  On  his  arrival  L'u 
required  both  the  Hong  merchants  and  the 
Chmese  merchants  to  deliver  up  all  the  opium 
In  their  possession  in  order  tliat  it  might  bo 
destroyed.  (State  Papers,  v.  29,  p.  930.)  The 
interests  of  England  in  China  were  at  that  time 
entrusted  to  Charles  Elliot.  .  .  .  Hut  Elliot 
occupied  u  very  difllcult  position  in  China.  Tlie 
("'  'nese  placed  on  their  communications  to  him 
the  Chinese  word  'Yu,'  and  wished  him  to 
place  on  his  despatclies  to  them  the  Chinese 
word  'Pin.'  But  Yu  signifies  a  commond,  and 
Pin  a  humble  address,  rnd  a  British  Plenipoten- 
tiary could  not  receive  commands  from,  or 
liumblc  himself  before,  Chinese  ofUcials.  (State 
Papers,  v.  29,  pp.  881,  880,  888.)  And  hence 
the  communications  between  him  and  the 
Chinese  Government  were  unable  to  follow  a 
direct  course,  but  were  frequently  or  usually 
sent  through  the  Hong  merchants.  Sucli  was  the 
state  of  tlr.ngs  in  China  when  Lin,  arriving  in 
Canton,  insisted  on  the  surrender  and  destruction 
of  all  tlie  opium  there.  Elliot  was  at  Macao. 
He  at  once  decided  on  icturning  to  the  post  of 
difllculty  and  danger;  and,  though  Canton  was 
blockaded  by  Chinese  forces  and  its  river  guarded 
by  Chinese  batteries,  he  made  his  way  up  in  a 
boat  of  H.  M.  S.  'Lame,'  and  threw  himself 
among  his  imprisoned  countrymen.  After  his 
arrival  he  took  the  responsibility  of  demanding 
the  surrender  into  his  own  hands,  for  the  service 
of  his  Government,  of  all  the  British  opium  i, 
China,  and  he  surrendered  tlie  opium  wliicli  he 
thus  obtained,  amounting  to  20,283  chests,  to  the 
Chinese  authorities,  by  whom  it  was  destroyed. 
(Ibid.,  pp.  945,  007.)  The  imminent  danger  to 
the  lives  and  properties  of  a  Icrge  number  of 
British  subjects  was  undoubtedly  removed  by 
Elliot's  action.  Though  some  difllculty  arose  in 
connection  with  the  surrender,  Lin  undertook 
gradually  to  relax  the  s  ringeucy  of  the  measures " 
which  he  had  adopted  (ibid.,  p.  977),  and  Elliot 
hoped  that  his  own  zealous  etforts  to  carry  out 
the  arrangement  which  he  had  made  would  lead 
to  the  raising  of  the  blockade.  He  was,  how- 
ever, soon  undeceived.  On  the  4th  of  April 
Lin  required  Iiim,  in  conjunction  with  the  mer- 
chants, to  enter  into  a  bond  under  which  all 
vessels  hereafter  engaged  in  the  opium  traffic 
would  have  been  confiscated  to  the  Chinese 
Government,  and  all  persons  connected  with  the 
trade  would  'suffer  death  at  the  hands  of  the 
Celestial  Court.'  (Ibid.,  p.  989.)  This  bond 
Elliot  steadily  refused  to  sign  (ibid.,  p.  992);  and 
feeling  .hat  '  all  sense  of  security  was  broken  to 
pieces'  (ibid.,  p.  978),  he  ordered  all  British  sub- 
jects to  leave  Canton  (ibid.,  p.  1004),  he  himself 
withdrew  to  the  Portuguese  settlement  at  Macao 


(ibid.,  p.  1007),  ond  ho  wrote  to  Auckland,  the 
Governor-Oenerul  of  India,  for  armed  assistant :'.. 
(Ibid.,  p.  1009.)  These  grave  events  natuniUy 
created  profound  aii.victy.  A  Select  Committee 
of  the  Ilouse  of  Commons  had  formally  dechned 
to  interfere  with  the  trade.  The  opiuui  ii..'nopoly 
at  that  time  was  worth  some  £1,000,000  or 
£1,500,000  a  year  to  British  India  (ibid.,  p.  1020); 
and  India,  engaged  in  war  with  Afghanistan 
and  already  involved  ia  a  serious  deficit,  could 
cot  afford  to  part  with  so  large  an  amount  of  its 
revenue  (ibid.,  p.  1020).  Nino-tenths  of  the 
British  merchants  ?n  China  were  engaged  in  the 
illegal  trade  (ibid.,  p.  1030),  while  Elliot,  in 
enforcing  the  surreiuli-r  of  the  opium,  had  given 
the  merchants  bonds  on  the  British  Government 
for  its  value,  and  the  20,000  chests  surrendered 
were  supposed  to  be  worth  from  000  to  1,200 
dollars  a  chest  (ibid.,  p.  987),  or  say  from 
£3,400,000  to  £4,800,000.  ...  As  the  summer 
advanced,  moreover,  a  fresh  outrage  increased 
the  intensity  of  the  crisis.  On  the  7th  July  some 
British  seamen  land(!d  near  Ilong  Kon,\  aad 
engaged  in  a  serious  riot.  A  native  wu.  un- 
fortunately killed  on  the  occasion,  and  though 
Elliot,  at  his  own  risk,  gave  the  relations  of  the 
victim    a    large    pecuniary    compensation,   and 

E laced  the  men  engaged  in  the  riot  on  tlieir  trial, 
in  was  not  satisfied.  lie  moved  down  to  the 
coast,  cut  off  the  supplies  of  British  subjects, 
and  threatened  to  stop  the  supplies  to  Macao  if 
the  Portuguese  continued  to  assist  the  British, 
flbid.,  pp.  1037-1039.)  The  British  were  in  con- 
sequ-ince  forced  to  leave  Macao;  and  about  the 
same  time  a  small  sel  tr,  the  'Black  Joke,' 
was  attacked  by  the  nese,  and  a  British  sub- 
ject on  board  of  her  .^  riously  wounded.  Soon 
afterwards,  however,  the  arrival  of  a  ship  of 
war,  the  'Volage,'  in  Chinese  waters  enabled 
Elliot  to  assume  a  bolder  front.  lie  returned  to 
Slacao;  he  even  attempted  to  procure  supplies 
from  tlie  mainland.  But,  though  he  succeeded 
in  purchasing  food,  'the  Mandarin  runners  ap- 
proached and  obliged  the  natives  to  take  back 
their  provisions,'  and  Elliot,  cxasnerated  at  their 
conduct,  fired  on  some  war  junks  of  the  Chinese, 
which  returned  the  fire.  A  w  .ek  afterwards 
Elliot  declared  the  port  and  river  of  Canton  to 
be  in  a  state  of  blockade.  (Ibid.,  p.  1000.)  The 
conunencemeut  of  the  blockade,  however,  did 
not  lead  to  immediate  war.  On  the  contrary,  the 
Chinese  showed  considerable  desire  to  av^"^ 
hostilities.  They  insisted,  indeed,  that  some 
British  sailor  must  be  smrendered  to  them  to 
suffer  for  the  death  of  the  Chinaman  who  had 
fallen  in  the  riot  of  Kong  Kong.  But  they 
showed  so  much  anxiety  to  conclude  an  arrange- 
ment on  this  jioint  that  they  endeavoured  to  in- 
duce Elliot  to  declare  that  a  sailor  who  was  acci- 
dentally drowned  in  Chinese  waters,  and  whose 
body  they  had  found,  was  the  actual  murderer. 
(State  Papers,  v.  30,  p.  27.)  And  in  the  mean- 
while the  trade  which  Lin  had  intended  to  de- 
stroy went  on  at  least  as  actively  as  ever.  Lin's 
proceedings  had,  indeed,  the  effect  of  stimulat- 
ing it  to  an  unprecedented  degree.  The  destruc- 
tion of  vast  stores  of  op'"-m  led  to  a  rise  in  ihe 
price  of  opium  in  China,  The  rise  in  price  pro- 
duced the  natural  consequence  of  an  increased 
speculiviion;  and,  though  British  shipping  was 
excluded  from  Chinese  waters,  and  the  contents 
of  British  vessels  liad  to  be  transferred  to  Ameri- 
can bottoms  for  conveyance  into  Chinese  ports, 


422 


CHINA.  1839-1843. 


Opium  War. 


CHINA,  1830-1842. 


Dritish  trade  liail  nevur  bc-i'n  so  largo  or  so 
ailvuntttgcous  as  in  tlio  period  wliich  siicuceclfd 
Liu's  arliitrary  proti'fdiiigs.  lOlliot  was,  of 
course,  uualjlc  to  prevent  war  either  by  the 
surrender  of  a  British  sailor  to  tlie  Cliineso,  or  hy 
even  assuming  tliat  a  drowned  man  was  the 
murderer;  and  war  In  consequence  l)ecanic  daily 
more  probable.  In  January,  1840,  operations 
actually  coninicnccd.  Elnot  was  instructed  to 
make  an  armed  demonstration  on  the  northern 
coasts  of  China,  to  take  possession  of  some  island 
on  the  coast,  and  to  ol)tain  reparation  and  in- 
demnity, if  possible  by  a  mere  display  of  force, 
but  otherwise  to  proceed  with  the  squadron 
and  thence  send  an  ultimatum  to  Pekin.  In 
accordance  with  these  orders  the  Island  of 
Chusiui  was  occupied  in  July,  and  the  llect  was 
sent  to  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  with  orders  to 
transmit  a  letter  to  Pckin.  But  the  sea  off  the 
Peiho  is  shallow,  the  ships  could  not  approach 
the  coasts,  and  tlie  Chinese  naturally  refused  to 
yield  to  an  empty  demonstration.  The  expedi- 
tion was  forced  to  leturn  to  Chusan,  where  it 
found  that  the  tioops  whom  they  had  left  be- 
hind were  smitten  by  disease,  that  one  out  of 
every  four  men  were  dead,  and  that  more  than 
one-half  of  the  survivors  were  invalid(;d.  Thus, 
throughout  1840,  the  Chinese  war  was  only  at- 
tended witli  disaster  and  distress.  Things  com- 
menced a  little  more  prosperously  in  1841  by  the 
capture  of  the  Chinese  position  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Canton  river.  Elliot,  after  this  success,  was 
even  able  to  conclude  a  preliminary  treaty  with 
the  Chinese  authorities.  But  this  treaty  did  not 
prove  satisfactory  either  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment or  to  the  Chinese.  The  British  saw  with 
di-smay  that  the  treaty  made  no  mention  of  the 
trade  in  opium  which  had  been  the  ostensible 
cause  of  the  war.  The  Whig  Government 
accordingly  decided  on  superseding  Elliot.  He 
was  recalled  and  replaced  by  Henry  Pottinger. 
Before  news  of  his  recall  reached  him,  however, 
the  treaty  which  had  led  to  his  supersession  had 
been  disavowed  by  iiio  Chinese  authorities,  and 
Elliot  had  commenced  a  fresh  attack  on  the 
Chinese  force  which  guarded  the  road  to  Canton. 
British  sailors  and  British  troops,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Bremer  and  Gough,  won  a  victory 
which  placed  Cau:on  at  their  mevy.  But  Elliot, 
shrinking  from  exposing  a  grciit  town  to  th'> 
horrors  of  an  assault,  stopped  the  ad  'ance  of  the 
troops  and  admitted  the  -Uy  to  ".  ransom  of 
£1,250,000.  (Sir  II.  Taylor^s  Autobiography, 
V.  1,  appx.,  pp.  353-303.)  His  moderation  was 
naturally  unacceptable  to  the  troops  and  not 
entirely  approved  by  the  British  Government. 
It  constituted,  howeve;,  Elliot's  last  action  as 
agent  in  China.  The  subsequent  operations 
were  conducted  under  Pottinger's  advice." — S. 
Walpole,  Ilist.  of  Eng.  from  1815,  Note,  v.  5, 
pp.  287-291.  —"Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  who  irrived 
as  Plenipotentiary  on  the  10th  of  August,  took 
the  chief  direction  of  the  affairs.  ...  To  the 
end  of  "lWX  there  were  various  successes  achieved 
hy  the  laud  and  naval  forces,  which  gave  the 
Biitish  possession  of  many  large  fortided  towns, 
amongst  which  were  Amoy,  Ting-hai,  Chin-hai, 
Ning-po,  and  Shang-hai.  The  Cliinese  were 
nevertheless  persevering  in  their  resistance,  and 
in  most  cases  evinced  a  bravery  which  showed 
how  mistaken  were  the  views  which  regarded 
the  subjection  of  this  extraordinary  peopV  as  an 
easy  task.  .  .  .  The  British  fleet  on  the  IS.hof 


Jime  [1843]  entered  the  great  river  Kiang,  and 
on  tlie  0th  of  July  advanced  up  the  river,  and 
cut  off  its  communication  witli  the  Grand  Canal, 
by  which  Nanking,  the  ancient  capital  of  Cliina, 
was  supplied  with  grain.  The  point  where  the 
river  intersects  tlie  canal  is  the  city  of  Chin- 
Kiang-<()0.  ...  On  the  morning  of  the  2l8t  the 
city  was  stormed  by  the  Britisli,  in  three  bri- 
gades. The  resistance  of  tlie  Tartar  troops  was 
most  desperate.  Our  troojis  fought  under  a 
burning  sun,  whose  overpowering  heat  caused 
some  to  fall  dead.  The  obstinate  defence  of  the 
]iIaco  prevented  its  being  taken  till  six  o'clock 
ill  the  evening.  When  the  streets  were  entered, 
the  houses  were  found  almost  deserted.  They 
were  llUed  with  ghastly  eorp.ses,  many  of  the 
Tartiir  soliliers  having  destroyed  their  families 
and  tlien  committed  suicide.  The  city,  from  the 
number  of  the  dead,  had  become  uninhabitable." 
— C.  Kniglit,  Popular  JUkI.  of  Emj.,  v.  8,  ch.  25. 
—  "Tlie  (lestruction  of  life  was  appalling.  .  .  . 
Every  Manehu  preferred  resistance,  death, 
suicide,  or  lliglit,  to  surrender.  Out  of  a  Mauchu 
population  (jf  4,000,  it  was  estimated  that  not 
more  than  50(»  survived,  the  greater  part  having 
perished  by  their  own  hands.  .  .  .  Within 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  troops  landed,  the 
city  and  suburbs  of  Cliinkiang  were  a  mass  of 
ruin  and  destrrction.  .  .  .  The  total  lo.ss  of  the 
English  was  37  killcl  and  181  wounded.  .  .  . 
Some  of  the  large  ships  were  towed  up  to  Nan- 
king, and  i...e  whole  fleet  reached  it  August  9tli, 
at  which  time  preparations  had  been  made  for 
the  assault.  .  .  .  Everything  was  ready  for  the 
assault  by  daylight  of  August  15th ; "  but  on  the 
night  of  the  i4th  the  Chinese  made  overtu.es  for 
the  negotiation  of  peace,  and  the  important 
Treaty  of  Nanking  was  soon  afterwards  con- 
cluded. Its  terms  were  as  follows:  "1.  Last- 
ing peace  between  the  two  nations.  2.  The 
ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Fulichau,  Ningpo,  and 
Shanghai  [known  afterwards  as  the  Treaty 
Ports]  to  be  opened  to  British  trade  and  resi- 
dence, and  trade  conducted  according  to  a  well- 
understood  tariff.  3.  '  It  being  ob\  usly  ueccs- 
•  ■../  and  desirable  that  British  subjects  should 
have  some  port  whereat  they  may  careen  and 
refit  their  ships  when  required,'  the  island  of 
Hongkong  'o  be  ceded  to  her  Slajesty.  4.  Six 
millions  of  dollars  to  be  paid  as  the  value  of  the 
opium  which  was  delivered  up  '  as  a  ransom  for 
the  lives  of  H.  B.  M.  Superintendent  anu  sub- 
jects,' in  March,  1839.  5.  Three  millions  of 
dollars  to  be  paid  for  the  debts  due  to  British 
merchants.  6.  Twelve  millious  to  be  paid  for 
the  expenses  incurred  in  the  expedition  sent  cut 
'  to  obtain  redress  for  the  violent  and  unjust  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Chinese  high  authorities.'  7.  The 
entire  amount  of  $31,000,000  to  be  paid  before 
December  31,  1845.  8.  All  prisoni  rs  of  war  to 
be  immediately  released  by  the  Chinese.  9.  The 
Emperor  to  grant  full  and  entire  amnesty  to 
tliooo  cf  hio  subjects  who  hud  aided  the  British." 
Articles  10  to  13  related  to  the  tariff  of  export 
and  import  dues  that  should  be  levied  at  the 
open  ports;  to  future  terms  of  ofllcii.1  corre- 
spondence, etc.  Tlie  Treaty  was  signed  by  the 
Commissioners  on  the  29th  of  August,  1843,  and 
the  Emiieror's  ratilication  was  received  Bepteni- 
ber  15th.— S.  W.  Williams,  Tlw  Middle  King- 
dom, ch.  32-23. 

Also  in  D.  C.  Boulger,  Hid.  of  China,  o.  3,  eh.  5 
-7.— E.  II.  Parker,  Chinese  Ace' t  of  the  Opium  War. 


423 


CHINA,  1850-1804. 


Tniping 
liebetUon. 


CHINA,  1850-1864. 


A.  D.  1850-1864.— The  TaipineT  Rebellion. 

— "Thf  jilnusc!  'Tiiiping  IU?l)ellioii  is  wliolly  cf 
foii'ijjii  iimmifactiire;  at  Pcliiiig  and  every  where 
ainoiij!;  those  loyal  to  the  government  the  in- 
surgents were  styled  '  Chiing-nmo  tseh,'  or 
'liong-lmired  rehels,' while  on  their  side,  by  i\ 
'wliiinsienl  resemblance  to  English  slang,  the  im- 
perialists were  di.Micd  '  imps.'  When  tlie  chiefs 
n8suine<i  to  be  aiming  at  independence  in  IS.TO, 
in  order  to  identify  their  f.)llowers  with  their 
cause  they  took  the  term  '  Ping  Chao.'or  'Peace 
Dynasty,'  as  the  style  of  their  sway,  to  dis- 
tinginsh  it  from  tlie  'Tsing  Chao,'  or  'Pure 
Dynasty '  of  the  IVlanchus.  Each  of  them  pre- 
fixed the  adjective  'Ta'  (or  'Tai,'  in  Cantonese), 
'Great,'  as  is  the  Chinese  custom  with  regard  to 
dynasties  and  nations ;  thus  tlie  name  Tai-ping 
became  known  to  foreigners." — S.  W.  Williams, 
T/ie  Middle.  Kiiir/dom.  f/i.  24  (r.  2),— "This  re- 
markable movement,  which  at  one  time  excited 
much  interest  in  Western  lands,  originated  with 
a  man  named  Hung  Sew-tseucn  [or  Hung  Siu- 
tseiien],  son  of  a  humble  peasant  residing  in  a 
village  near  Canton.  On  the  occasion  of  one  of 
liis  visits  to  the  provincial  city,  probably  in  the 
year  1833,  he  apjiears  to  have  seen  a  foreign 
Protestant  missionary  addressing  the  populace 
in  the  streets,  assisted  by  a  ni'.live  interpreter. 
Either  then  or  on  the  following  day  he  received 
from  some  tract-distributor  a  book  entitled 
'Good  Words  for  Exhorting  the  Age,'  which 
consisted  of  essays  and  sermons  l)y  Leang  A-fah, 
a  well-k'iown  convert  and  evangelist.  Taking 
the  volume  homo  with  him,  he  lookecl  it  over 
with  some  interest,  but  carelessly  laid  it  aside  in 
his  book-case.  A  few  years  afterward  lie  at- 
tended for  the  second  time  the  competitive 
literary  examination  with  high  hopes  of  honor 
and  clistinction,  having  already  passed  with 
much  credit  the  lower  examination  in  the  dis- 
trict city.  His  ambitious  vent\ire,  however,  met 
■with  severe  di.^ippointment,  and  he  returned  to 
his  friends  sicV  in  mind  and  body.  During  tliis 
state  of  mental  depression  and  pliysiealinlirmity, 
which  continued  for  some  forty  days,  lie  had 
certain  strange  visions,  in  which  lie  received 
commands  from  heaven  to  destroy  the  idols. 
These  fancied  revelations  seem  to  have  produced 
a  deep  impression  on  his  mind,  and  led  to  a  cer- 
tain gravity  of  demeanor  after  his  recovery  and 
return  to  his  quiet  occupation  as  a  student  and 
vil'ago  schoolmaster.  When  the  English  war 
broke  out,  and  foreigner.^  swept  up  Canton  River 
•with  their  wonderiul  fire-ships,  ...  it  is  not 
surprising  that  Hu.ig  should  have  hsnl  his  atten- 
tion again  attracted  to  the  Christian  publication 
■wliich  had  lain  so  long  neglected  in  liis  library. 
.  .  .  The  writings  of  Leang  A-fah  contained 
chapters  from  the  O'd  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures,  which  he  found  to  correspond  in  a 
striking  manner  with  the  preternatural  sights  and 
voices  of  that  memorable  period  in  his  history 
[during  his  .sickness,  si.K  years  before];  and  this 
strange  coincidence  convinced  liimot  their  truth, 
and  of  his  being  divinely  appointed  to  restore 
the  world,  that  is  China,  to  the  worship  of  the 
true  God.  Hung  Sew-tseucn  acct^pted  his  mis- 
sion and  began  the  work  of  propagatiiig  tlie 
faith  he  liad  eppou.scd.  Among  his  tir,st  converts 
■was  one  Fung  Yun-san,  who  became  a  most 
ardent  inissior.ny  and  disinterested  preacher. 
These  two  lenders  of  the  movement  traveled  far 
and  near  through    the   country,   teaching  the 


people  of  all  classes  and  forming  a  society  of 
G(Kl-worsliippers.  All  the  converts  renounced 
idolatry  ami  gave  up  the  worship  of  Confucius. 
Hung,  at  this  time  apparently  a  sincere  and 
earnest  Lctker  after  truth,  went  to  Canton  and 
placed  himself  under  the  instructions  of  the  Hev. 
Air.  Roberts,  an  American  missionary,  who  for 
some  cause  fearing  that  his  novitiate  mij'lit  be 
inspired  by  mercenary  motives,  denied  him  the 
rite  of  bajitisin.  But,  without  being  offended 
at  this  cold  and  suspicious  treatment,  he  went 
home  pnd  taught  his  converts  how  to  baptize 
themselves,  "rho  God-worshippers  rapidly  in- 
creased in  numbers,  and  were  known  and  feared 
as  zealous  iconoclasts.  .  .  .  For  a  year  after 
Hung  Sew-tseuen  had  rejoined  the  God-wor- 
sliippers  that  society  retiiined  its  exclusively 
religious  nature,  but  in  the  autumn  of  1850  it 
was  brought  into  direct  collision  with  the  civil 
magistrates,  when  the  movement  assumed  a 
political  character  of  the  highest  aims."  It  was 
soon  a  movement  of  declared  rebellion,  and 
allied  with  a  rebel  army  of  bandits  and  pirates 
which  liad  taken  arms  against  the  govern- 
ment in  south-eastern  China. — L.  N.  Wheeler, 
T/ie  foreigner  in  China,  ch.  13. — "The  Ilakka 
schooliniwter  proclaimed  his  '  mission '  in  ISr.O. 
A  vast  horde  gathered  to  him.  He  nominated 
five  'Wangs 'or  soldier  sub-kings  from  out  of 
his  clan,  and  commenced  liis  northward  movement 
from  Woosewen  in  January,  18!j!.  Through 
the  rich  prosperous  provinces  liis  desultory 
march,  inters'jersed  with  frequent  halts,  spread, 
destruction  and  desolation.  The  peaceful  fled 
shuddoringly  before  this  wave  of  fierce,  stalwart 
ruflianhood,  with  its  tatterdemalian  tawdrincss, 
its  flaunting  banners,  its  rusty  naked  weapons. 
Everywhere  it  gathered  in  the  local  scoundrelism. 
The  pirates  came  from  the  coast;  the  robbers 
from  the  interior  mountains  rallied  to  an  enter- 
prise that  promised  so  well  for  their  trade.  In 
the  perturbed  state  of  the  Cliinese  population 
the  horde  grew  like  an  avalanche  as  it  rolled 
along.  The  Heavenly  King  [as  Hung  now 
styled  himself]  met  with  no  opijosition  to  speak 
of^  and  in  1853  liis  promenade  ended  under  the 
shadow  of  the  Porcelain  Tower,  in  the  city  of 
Nanking,  the  second  metropolis  of  thi,  Chinese 
Empire,  where,  till  the  rebellion  and  liis  life 
ended  siniu'taneouslj',  he  lived  a  life  of  licen- 
tiousness, darkened  furtlier  by  the  grossest 
cruelties.  The  rebellion  had  lasted  nearly  ten 
years  when  the  fates  brought  it  into  collision 
with  the  armed  civilization  of  the  West.  The 
Imperialist  forces  had  made  sluggishly  some 
head  against  it.  Nanking  had  been  invested 
after  a  fashion  for  years  on  end.  '  Tiie  prospects 
of  the^Tai-pings,' says  Commander  Brine,  'in  the 
early  spring  of  1860,  had  become  very  gloomy. ' 
The  Imperialist  generals  had  hemmed  Tai-ping- 
dom  witliin  certain  limits  in  tlie  1  wer  valley  of 
the  Yantsze,  and  the  movement  languilied 
further  '  from  its  destructive  and  exhausting 
nature,  ■whicli  for  continued  vitality  constantly 
required  new  districts  of  country  to  exhaust  and 
destroy.'  But  in  1859  China  and  the  West  came 
into  collision.  .  .  .  The  rebellion  had  opi)or- 
tunity  to  recover  lost  ground.  For  the  sixth 
time  the  '  Faithful  King '  relieved  Nanking. 
Tlie  Imiierialist  generals  fell  back,  and  then  the 
Tai-pings  took  the  offensive,  and  as  the  result  of 
.sundry  victories,  the  rebellion  regained  an  active 
and  flourishing  condition.  .  .  .  Shanghai,  one  of 


■<24 


CHINA,  1850-1804. 


War  with 
Etigtand  and  trance. 


CHINA,  1850-1860. 


llio  trenty  ports,  was  tlireiitencd. " — A.  Forbes, 
Chinese  Gordon,  ch.  3.  — "  Europe  .  .  .  has 
known  ev.'  diiys  nmler  the  Imnds  of  lierco  cou- 
■inerors,  pi  indering  and  destroying  in  religion's 
name;  but  .ts  annuls  may  be  ransacked  in  vain, 
witJKMit  fin  Ing  any  parallel  to  the  miseries 
endured  in  t.iose  provinces  of  Cliina  over  which 
'  The  Heavenly  King,'  tlic  Tai-ping  prophet,  ex- 
tended his  fell  sway  for  ten  sad  years.  Hung 
Sew-ts\ien  (better  known  in  Cliina  by  liis  assumed 
title,  Tien  Wang)  .  .  .  liad  read  Christian  tracts, 
had  learnt  from  a  Christian  missionary;  and 
when  ho  announced  publicly  three  years  aft(!r- 
wards  that  part  of  his  mission  was  to  destroy  the 
temples  and  images,  and  showed  in  the  jargon 
of  his  pretended  visions  some  traces  of  his  New 
Testament  study,  the  conclusion  was  instantly 
seized  by  the  sanguine  minds  of  a  section  set 
upon  evangelizing  the  East,  tliat  their  efforts 
had  produced  a  true  prophet,  tit  for  the  work. 
SVeiUled  to  tliis  fancy,  they  rejected  as  the  in- 
ventions of  the  enemies  of  missions  the  tales  of 
Taiping  cruelty  which  soon  reached  Europe: 
and  long  after  the  details  of  the  impostor's  life 
at  Nankin,  with  its  medley  of  visions,  execu- 
tions, edicts,  ap'l  Inirem  iiuhdgcnce,  became 
notorious  to  the  world,  prayers  were  offered  for 
his  success  by  devotees  in  Great  Britain  as 
bigoted  to  his  cause  as  the  bloodiest  commander, 
or  '  Wang,'  whom  ho  had  raised  from  the  ranks 
of  his  followers  to  carry  out  his  '  exterminating 
decrees.'  The  Taiping  cause  was  lost  in  China 
before  it  was  wholly  abandoned  by  these 
fanatics  in  England,  and  their  belief  in  its  ex- 
cellence so  powerfully  reacted  on  our  policy, 
that  it  iniglit  have  preserved  us  from  active 
intervention  down  to  the  present  time,  had  not 
certain  Imperialist  successes  elsewhere,  the 
diminishing  means  of  their  wasted  possessions, 
and  the  rashness  of  tlieir  own  chiefs,  brought 
the  Taiping  arms  into  direct  collision  with  us. 
And  with  the  occasion  tliere  was  happily  raised 
up  the  man  whose  prowess  was  to  .scatter  their 
blood-cemented  (impire  to  pieces  far  more 
speedily  tlian  it  had  been  built  up." — C.  C. 
Chesney,  Essays  in  Military  E'>q.,  ch.  10. — "The 
Taiping  rebellion  was  of  so  barbarous  a  nature 
that  its  suppression  had  become  necessary  in  the 
interests  of  civilization.  A  force  raised  at  the 
expense  of  the  Shanghai  merchants,  and  sup- 
ported by  the  Chinese  government,  liad  been  for 
some  years  struggling  against  its  jirogress. 
This  force,  known  as  the  'Ever  Victorious 
Army,'  was  commanded  at  first  by  Ward,  an 
American,  and,  on  his  death,  by  Burgevine,  also 
an  American,  who  was  summarily  dismissed ;  for 
a  short  time  the  command  was  held  by  Holland, 
an  English  mi'rine  odicer,  but  he  wivs  defeated 
at  Taitsiui  2i  Feb.,  1803.  Li  Hung  Chang, 
governor-general  of  the  Kiang  provinces,  then 
applied  to  the  Britisli  conuuander-inchief  for  the 
services  of  an  English  olllccr,  and  Gordon  [Charles 
George,  subsequently  known  as  '  Cliinese 
Gordon']  was  authorised  to  accept  the  command. 
He  arrived  at  Sung-Kiong  and  entered  on  his 
new  duties  as  a  mandarin  and  lieutenant-colonel 
in  the  Chinese  service  on  21  Marcli  ly03.  His 
force  was  composed  of  some  tliiee  to  four  tliou- 
sand  Chinese,  oflicered  by  li50  Europeans  of 
almost  eveiy  nationality  and  often  of  doubtful 
character.  By  the  indomitable  will  ot  its  com- 
mander this  heterogeneous  body  was  moulded 
into  a  little  army  whoso  high-sounding  title  of 
28 


'ever-victorious'  became  a  reality,  and  in  less 
than  two  years,  after  IW  engagements,  the 
jiower  of  the  Taipings  was  completely  broken 
and  the  rebellion  stamped  out.  'I'lie  theatre  of 
operations  was  the  district  of  Kiangwio,  lying 
between  the  Yang  tze- Kiang  river  in  tlie  north 
and  the  bay  of  Hangcliow  in  the  south."  Ik- 
fore  the  summer  of  1803  was  over,  Gordon  h  id 
raised  the  rebel  .siege  of  Chanzu,  and  taken  frcn 
the  Taipings  the  towns  of  Fushaii,  Taitsan, 
Ouinsan,  Kahpoo,  Wokong,  Patacbiaow,  Leeku, 
Wanti,  and  Fusai(iwan  Finally,  in  December, 
the  great  city  of  Soo-chow  was  surrendered  to 
him.  Gordon  was  always  in  front  of  all  his 
storming  parties,  "carrying  no  other  weapon 
than  a  little  cane.  His  men  called  it  his  '  magic 
wand,'  regarding  it  as  a  charm  that  prote<^ted 
his  life  and  led  them  on  to  victory.  When  .Soo- 
chow  fell  Gordon  had  stipulated  with  the 
Governor-general  Li  for  the  lives  of  the  Wangs 
(rebel  leaders).  They  were  treacherous'.y  mur- 
dered by  Li's  orders.  Indignant  at  this  per- 
fidy, Gordon  refused  to  serve  any  longer  with 
Governor  Li,  and  when  on  1  Jan.  1804  money 
and  rewards  were  heaped  upon  him  by  the  Em- 
peror, declined  them  all.  .  .  .  After  some  [two] 
months  of  inaction  it  became  evident  that  if 
Gordon  did  not  again  take  the  field  the  Taipings 
would  regain  the  rescued  c<Aintry,"  and  he  was 
prevailed  upon  to  resume  his  campaign,  wliich, 
although  badly  wounded  in  one  of  the  battles, 
he  brought  to  an  end  in  the  follow  lUg  April 
(1804),  by  the  capture  of  Chan-chu-fu.  "This 
victory  not  only  ended  the  campaign  but  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  rebellion,  and  the  Chinese 
regular  forces  were  enabled  to  occupy  Nankin 
ill  the  July  folloviug.  The  large  money  present 
offered  to  Gordon  by  the  emperor  was  again 
declined,  although  he  had  spent  his  pay  in  pro- 
moting the  efHciency  of  his  force,  so  that  he 
wrote  home :  '  I  shall  leave  China  as  poor  as 
w lien  I  entered  it.'" — Col.  R.  H.  Veitch,  Charles 
Oeorr/e  Gordon  (Diet,  of  Xat.  Iliog.) 

Also  in:  A.  E.  Hake,  The  titori/  of  Chinese 
Gordon,  ch.  3-8.— W.  F.  Butler,  Chas.  Georf/e 
Gordon,  ch.  3. — S.  Mossman,  General  Gordon  in, 
China. — Private  Diary  of  Gen.  Gordon  in  China. 
— Jim.  Gallery  and  Yvan,  Hist,  of  tlie  Insurrec- 
tion in  China. 

A.  D.  1856-1860.— 'War  with  England  and 
France. — Bombardment  and  capture  of  Can- 
ton.— The  Allies  in  Pekin. — Their  destruction 
of  the  Summer  Palace. — Terms  of  peace. — 
The  speech  from  the  throne  at  tlie  opening  of 
the  Englisli  Parliament,  on  February  3,  1857, 
"stated  that  acts  of  violeuce,  insults  to  the 
British  flag,  and  infractions  of  treaty  rights,  com- 
mitted by  the  local  authorities  at  Canton,  and  a 
pertinacious  refusal  of  redress,  had  rendered  it 
necessary  for  her  JIajesty's  olllrers  in  China  to 
have  recourse  to  measures  of  force  to  obtain  satis- 
faction. Tlie  alleged  ollences  of  the  Cliinese  au- 
thorities at  Canton  had  for  their  single  victim 
the  lorclia  'Arrow.'  The  lorclia  'Arrow'  was  a 
small  boat  built  on  the  European  model.  The 
word  '  Lorclia'  is  tiiken  from  tlie  Portuguerx  set- 
tlement at  Macao,  at  tlie  mouth  of  tlie  Cant(m 
river.  It  often  <ccui-s  in  treaties  with  the  Chinese 
authorities.  On  October  8,  1850,  a  party  of 
Chinese  in  charge  of  an  oflicer  boarded  tlio 
'Arrow,'  in  the  Canton  river.  Tliey  took  off 
twelve  men  on  a  charge  of  piracy,  leaving  two 
men  in  charge  of  the  lorcha.    The  '  Arrow '  was 


426 


CHINA,  1856-1860. 


Affair  of 
the  Arrow. 


CriINA,  1856-1860. 


declared  by  its  owners  to  be  n  British  vcssci. 
Our  eonwul  ut  C'linton,  Mr.  Parlies,  (loiiiiUKlrd 
from  Yell,  the  Chinese  Governor  of  Canton,  the 
return  of  the  men,  basing  liis  demand  ujion  the 
Treaty  of  18i:t,  siiiipiemenlai  to  the  Treaty  of 
1842.  This  treaty  did  not  !;ive  the  Chinese"  au- 
thorities any  ri;;hl  to  seize  Clnnesc?  olTenders,  or 
supposed  ollenders,  on  board  an  Knirlish  vessel. 
It  merely  gave  tlieni  a  right  to  re(|uire  the  sur- 
render of  the  offenders  at  the  hands  of  the 
Enjilisli.  The  Chinese  Governor,  Yeh,  con- 
tended, liowever,  that  the  loreha  vas  a  Chinese 
pirate  vessel,  whieh  had  no  riglit  whatever  to 
hoist  the  flag  of  England.  It  may  be  plainly 
stjited  at  once  that  the  '  Arrow '  was  not  an 
English  vessel,  hut  only  a  Chinese  ves.4el  whieh 
hail  obtained  by  false  pret-nees  the  temporary 
possession  tif  a  Uritish  tlag.  Mr.  Consul  Parkes, 
however,  wis  fussy,  and  l:e  demanded  the  in- 
stant rcstoniiion  of  the  captured  men,  and  he  sent 
oil  to  our  Plenipotentiary  at  Hong  Kong,  Sir 
John  Bowring,  for  authority  and  assistance  in  the 
business.  >Slr  .John  Bowring  .  .  .  ordered  the 
Chinese  authorities  to  surrender  all  tlie  mea  taken 
from  the  '  Arrow,'  and  he  insisted  that  an  apology 
should  be  olTered  for  their  arrest,  and  u  formal 
pledge  given  that  no  such  act  should  ever  be 
committed  again.  If  this  were  not  done  witldn 
forty -eight  hours,  naval  ojierations  weretobe  be- 
gun against  the  Chinese.  Tlie  Chinese  Governor, 
Yell,  sent  back  all  the  men,  and  undertook  to 
pnmiise  that  for  the  future  great  care  should  be 
tiiken  that  no  Britisli  ships  slionld  be  vi.sited  im- 
properly by  Chinese  ollieers.  But  he  could  not 
offer  an  apology  for  the  particular  case  of  the 
'  Arrow,'  for  he  still  niaintaim^d,  as  was  indeed 
the  fact,  that  tlie  'Arrow'  was  a  Chinese  vessel, 
and  that  the  Englisli  had  nothing  to  do  with  lier. 
Acordingly  Sir  John  Bowring  carried  out  his 
tlireat,  and  had  Canton  bombarded  by  the  fleet 
which  Admiral  Sir  Michael  Seymour  commanded. 
From  October  23  to  November  liJ  naval  and  mili- 
tary operations  were  kept  uj)  continuously.  Com- 
missioner Y'eli  retaliated  by  foolislily  offering  a 
reward  for  tlie  head  of  every  Englishman.  This 
news  from  Cliiiia  created  a  consiilerable  sensation 
in  England.  On  February  24,  1857,  Lord  Derby 
brought  forward  in  tlie  House  of  Lords  a  motion, 
comprehensively  condemning  the  wliole  of  tlie 
proceedings  of  the  British  authorities  in  China. 
The  debate  would  liave  been  memorable  if  only 
for  the  powerful  speech  in  which  the  venerable 
Lord  Lyndliurst  sup|,orted  the  motion,  and  ex- 
posed the  utter  illegality  of  tlie  course  pursued 
by  Sir  John  Bowring.  The  House  of  Lords  re- 
jected the  motion  of  Lord  Derby  bv  a  majority 
of  146  to  110.  On  February  26"  Mr.  Ci.'hIcu 
brouglit  forward  a  similar  motion  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  .  .  .  Mr.  Cobdeii  had  probably 
never  dreamed  of  the  amount  or  the  nature  of 
the  sup[)ort  his  motion  was  destined  to  receive. 
The  vote  of  censure  was  carried  by  263  votes 
uguinat  347  —  a  majority  of  16.  Lord  Puhnerston 
announced  two  oi  three  days  after  that  the 
Government  had  resolved  on  a  dissolution  and  an 
appeal  to  the  country.  Lord  Palmerston  under- 
stood his  countrymen."  In  the  ensuing  elections 
his  victory  was  complete.  "Cobden,  Bright,  Mil- 
ner  Gibson,  W.  J.  Fox,  Layard,  an(l  many  other 
leading  opponents  of  the  Cliinese  policy,  were 
left  without  seals.  Lord  Palmerston  came  back 
to  power  with  renewed  and  redou'jled  strength." 
lie  "had  tUc  satisfaction  before  he  left  ofliee  [in 


18,')8]  of  lieing  able  to  announce  the  capture  of 
('anion.  The  operations  against  China  had  been 
virtually  suspended  .  .  .  when  the  Indian  !Mii- 
tiay  liroke  out.  England  liad  now  got  the  co- 
operation of  France.  France  had  a  complaint  of 
long  standing  against  Cliina  on  account  of  the 
murder  of  some  mis.sionaries,  for  which  redress 
had  been  asked  in  vain.  There  was,  tlierefore, 
an  allied  attack  made  upon  Canton  [December, 
1857],  and  o?  courae  the  city  was  easily  captured. 
Conimi.ssioner  Y'eh  himself  was  taken  iirisoner, 
not  until  he  had  beiMi  sought  for  and  hunted  oiit 
ill  most  ignominious  fasliion.  He  was  found  iit 
last  hidden  away  in  some  obscure  part  of  a  Iioiise. 
He  was  known  by  his  enormous  fatness.  .  .  . 
He  was  put  on  board  an  Engli.sli  man-of-war,  and 
afterwards  sent  to  Calcutta,  where  he  died  early 
in  the  following  yei'.'.'.  Unless  report  greatly  be- 
lied him  he  had  been  exceptionally  cruel,  even 
for  a  Chinese  olllcial.  Tlie  Englisli  and  French 
Envoys,  Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Gros,  succeeded 
in  making  a  treaty  with  China.  By  the  con- 
ditions of  tlie  treaty,  England  and  France  were 
to  have  ministers  at  the  (!liinese  Court,  on  certain 
special  occasions  at  least,  and  China  was  to  be 
represented  in  London  and  Paris;  there  was  to 
be  toleration  of  Cliristiauity  in  Cliina,  and  a 
certain  freedom  of  access  to  Chinese  rivers  for 
English  and  French  mercantile  vessels,  and  to 
the  interior  of  Cliina  for  Englisli  and  French  sub- 
jects. China  was  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
It  was  further  agreed  that  the  term  'barbarian' 
w.is  no  longer  to  be  applied  to  Europeans  in 
Cliina.  There  was  great  congratulation  in  Eng- 
land over  this  treaty,  and  the  prospect  it  alforded 
of  a  lasting  peace  with  China.  The  peace  thus 
])rocurcd  lasted  in  fact  exactly  a  year.  .  .  .  The 
tieatiy  of  Tien-tsin,  which  had  been  arranged  by 
Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Gros,  contained  u  clause 
providing  for  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications 
at  Pekin  within  a  year  from  tlie  date  of  the  sig- 
nature, wdiicli  took  nlace  in  ■Tune  1858.  Lord 
Elgin  returned  <o  Eng  and,  and  his  brother,  Mr. 
Frederick  Bruce,  was  appointed  in  JIarcli  1859 
Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary to  China.  Mr.  Bruce  was  directed  to  pro- 
ceed by  way  of  tlic  Peilio  to  Tien-tsin,  and  thence 
to  Pekin  to  excliange  the  ratifications  of  tlic 
treaty.  Lord  Malmesbury,  who  was  then  Foreign 
Secretary  .  .  .  impressed  upon  Mr.  Bruce  that 
he  was  not  to  be  put  off  from  going  to  the  capit'.l. 
Instructions  were  sent  out  from  fingland  at  the 
same  time  to  Admiral  Hope,  the  Naval  Com- 
mander-in-Cliief  in  Cliina,  to  i)rovido  a  sufBcient 
force  to  accompany  Jlr.  Bruce  to  tlie  mouth' of 
the  Peiho.  The  Peiho  river  flows  from  Mie  liigli- 
lands  on  the  west  into  the  Gulf  of  Pecheli,  at  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  Chinese  dominions.  Tlie 
capital  of  the  Empire  is  about  100  miles  inland 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho.  It  does  not  stand 
on  lliat  river,  which  flows  past  it  at  some  dis- 
tance westward,  but  it  is  connected  with  the 
river  by  means  of  a  canal.  The  town  of  Tien- 
tsin stands  on  the  Peiho  near  its  junction  with 
one  of  the  many  rivers  that  flow  into  it,  and 
about  forty  miles  fn^n  the  mouth.  The  entrance 
to  the  Peilio  was  defe.vled  by  tlie  Taku  *'orts. 
On  June  20,  1859,  Mv.  Bruce  and  the  French  En- 
voy reached  the  mouth  of  the  Peilio  witli  Admind 
Hope's  Meet,  some  nuieteen  vessels  in  all,  to 
escort  them.  They  found  the  forts  defended; 
some  negotiations  and  inter-communications  took 
place,  and  a  Chinese  official  from  Tien-tsin  came 


426 


CHINA,  1850-1800. 


Bnrbarinn» 
in  Pekin. 


CHINA,  1857-1868. 


to  Mr.  nruc<!  nnd  endeavoured  to  oMiiin  some 
delay  or  coin  promise.  Mr.  Hruce  became  con- 
vinced tliat  tlie  condition  of  tilings  predicted  by 
Lord  Malmesbury  was  coming  about,  and  tliat 
tlie  Cliincse  authorities  were  only  trying  to  de- 
feat his  purpose.  lie  called  on  Adinirid  Ilojje 
to  clear  a  passage  for  the  vessels.  WI.en  tlie 
Adinind  brought  up  his  gunboats  the  forts 
opened  lire.  The  Chinese  artillerymen  showed 
unexpected  skill  and  precision.  Four  of  the  gun- 
boats were  almost  immediately  di.sablcd.  All 
the  attacking  vessels  got  aground.  Admiral 
Hope  attempted  to  storm  the  forts.  The  attempt 
was  u  complete  failure.  Admiiiil  Hope  himself 
was  wounded;  so  was  the  commander  of  the 
French  veuse!  which  had  contriliuted  a  con'ingent 
to  the  storming  party.  The  attempt  to  loice  a 
passage  of  the  river  was  given  up  nnd  the  mis- 
sion to  Pekiu  WHS  over  for  the  preser.t.  It  seems 
only  fair  to  say  that  the  C^hinese  at  tlie  mouth  of 
the  Peiho  cannot  bo  accused  of  perfidy.  They 
had  mounted  the  forts  and  barricaded  the  river 
openly  and  even  ostentatiously.  ...  It  will  be 
easily  imagined  that  the  news  created  a  deep 
sensiitioii  in  Kngland.  People  in  general  made 
up  their  minds  at  once  that  the  matter  could  not 
be  allowed  to  rest  there,  and  that  the  mission  to 
Pekin  must  be  enforced.  .  .  .  Before  the  whole 
question  came  to  be  discussed  in  Parliament  the 
Conservatives  liad  gone  out  and  the  Liberals  had 
come  in.  The  English  and  French  Qovernments 
deti.rinined  that  the  men  who  had  made  the 
treaty  of  Tien-tsin  —  Loril  Elgin  and  Uaron  Gros 
—  should  be  sent  back  to  insist  on  its  reinforce- 
ment. Sir  Hope  Grant  was  appointed  to  the 
military  command  of  our  land  forces,  and  Geneml 
Cousin  de  Montauban,  afterwards  Count  Palikao, 
commanded  the  soldiers  of  France.  The  Chinese, 
to  do  them  justice,  fought  very  bravely,  but  of 
coui-so  they  liad  no  chance  whatever  against  such 
forces  as  those  commanded  by  the  English  ami 
French  generals.  The  allies  captured  the  Taku 
forts  [August,  1800],  occupied  Tien-tsin,  and 
marched  on  Pekia.  The  Chinese  Government 
endeavoured  to  negotiate  for  peace,  and  to  inter- 
pose any  manner  of  delay,  diiilomatic  or  other- 
wise, between  the  allies  and  their  progress  to  th'! 
capital.  Lord  Elgin  consented  at  last  to  enter 
into  negotiations  at  Tungchow,  a  walled  town 
ten  or  twelve  niiles  nearer  than  Pekin.  Before 
the  negotiations  took  place.  Lord  Elgin's  secre- 
taries, Mr.  Parkes  and  !Mr.  Loch,  some  English 
otticers,  Mr.  Bowlby,  the  correspondent  of  the 
'  Times,'  and  some  membei's  of  the  stall  of  Baron 
Oros,  were  treai  herously  seized  by  the  Chinese 
while  under  a  Bug  of  truce  and  dragged  off  to 
various  jirLsons.  Mr.  Parkes  and  Jlr.  Loch,  with 
eleven  of  their  companions,  were  afterwards  re- 
leased, after  having  been  treated  with  much 
cruelty  and  indignity,  but  thirteen  of  the  prison- 
ers died  of  the  horrible  ill-treatment  tlicy  re- 
ceived. Lord  Elgin  I'cfusetl  to  negotiate  untii 
the  jirisoners  had  been  returned,  and  the  allied 
armies  were  actually  at  one  of  the  great  gates  of 
Pekin,  and  had  their  giuis  in  position  to  blow 
the  gate  in,  when  the  Chinese  acceded  to  their 
term.s.  The  gate  was  surrendered,  the  allies  en- 
tered the  city,  and  the  English  and  French  flags 
were  hoistecf  side  by  side  on  the  walls  of  Pekin. 
It  was  only  after  entering  the  city  that  Lord 
Elgin  learned  of  the  murder  of  the  captives.  He 
then  deterntined  that  the  Summer  Palace  should 
be  burnt  dowu  as  a,  means  of  impressing  the 


mind  of  the  Chinese  authorities  generally  with 
some  sen.se  of  the  dnugiT  of  treachery  and  foul 
play.  Two  days  were  (M'cupied  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  palace.  It  covered  an  area  of  many 
miles.  Garilens,  temples,  small  lodges,  and  i)a- 
godas.  groves,  grottoes,  lakes,  bridges,  terraces, 
artificial  hills,  diversitied  the  vast  space.  All 
the  artistic  treasures,  all  the  curiosities,  arch' 
aeologieal  and  other,  that  C)liinese  wealth  and 
Chinese  taste,  such  as  it  was,  co\ild  bring  to- 
gether, had  been  accunuilated  in  this  inai;nilicent 
pleasaunce.  The  surrounding  scenery  was 
beautiful.  The  high  mountains  of  Tarlary  ram- 
l)arted  one  side  of  the  enclosure.  The  buildings 
were  set  on  tire;  the  whole  place  was  given  over 
to  destruction.  A  monument  was  raised  with  an 
inscripti(jn  in  Chinesi^  setting  forth  that  such 
was  the  reward  of  perfidy  and  cruelty.  Very 
different  ojjinions  were  held  in  England  a  •  the 
destruction  of  the  Imperial  palace.  To  ni.niy  it 
seemed  an  act  of  unintelligible  and  unpardonable 
vandalism.  Lord  Elgin  explained,  tlial  if  he  did 
not  demand  the  surrender  of  the  a(ttual  perpetra- 
tore,  it  was  because  he  knew  full  well  that  no 
dilHculty  would  have  been  made  about  giving 
him  a  seeming  satisfaction.  The  Chinese  Govern- 
ment would  liave  selected  for  vicarious  punish- 
ment, in  all  probability,  a  crowd  of  mean  and 
unfor'unato  wnjtches  who  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  murders.  ...  It  is  somewhat  singular  that 
so  many  persons  should  have  been  roused  to  in- 
dignation by  the  destruction  of  a  building  who 
took  with  perfect  composure  the  unjust  invasion 
of  a  country.  The  allied  powers  now  of  course 
had  it  all  their  own  way.  England  established 
her  right  to  have  an  envoy  in  Pc'kin,  whether  the 
Cliinese  liked  it  or  not.  China  'lad  to  pay  a  war 
indemnity,  and  a  large  sum  of  money  as  com- 
pensation to  the  families  of  the  murdered  prison- 
ers and  to  those  who  had  suffered  injuries,  and 
to  make  an  apology  for  the  attack  by  the  garrison 
of  the  Taku  forts.  Perhaiis  the  most  important 
gain  to  Europe  from  the  war  was  the  knowledge 
that  Pekin  was  not  by  any  means  so  large  a  city 
as  we  had  all  imagined  it  to  be,  and  that  it  was 
on  the  whole  rather  a  crumbling  and  tumble- 
down sort  of  place." — J.  McCarthy,  Short  Hint, 
of  ouv  own  Time,  ch.  12,  15,  17  (c/t.  30  and  43, 
V.  3,  of  larger  work). 

Also  in:  L.  Oliphant,  Narrative  of  tlte  Earl  of 
Elgin's  Mission,  v.  1. — H.  B.  Loch,  Personal  Mar- 
ratire. — S.  W.  Williams,  The  Middle  Kingdom, 
ch.  25  (,v.  2).— Col.  SirW.  F.  Butler,  Ohas.  Geo. 
Gordon,  ch.  3. 

A.  D.  1857-1868.— Treaty  w.th  the  United 
States. — The  Burlingame  Embassy  and  the 
Burlingame  Treaties. — "The  government  of 
the  United  States  viewed  with  an.xiety  tlie  new 
breaking  out  of  liostilitics  between  Great  Britain, 
supported  by  Prance  as  an  ally,  and  China,  in  the 
year  18.^0.  President  Bucharnn  sent  thither  the 
Hon.  William  B.  Reed  to  watch  the  course  of 
events,  and  to  act  the  part  of  a  mediator  and 
peacemaker  when  opportunity  should  offer. 
In  this  lie  waj  sustained  by  Ihe  intlueuce  of 
Russia.  Mr.  Reed  arrived  in  Hong-Kong,  on  the 
fine  war  steamer  Minnesota,  November  7,  1857. 
He  at  once  set  himself  to  remove  the  dilliculties 
between  the  English  and  Chinese,  and  save  if 
possible  the  future  effusion  of  blood.  He  en- 
tleavored  in  vain  to  persuade  the  proud  and  ob- 
stinate governor  Yeh  to  yield,  and  save  Cantou 
from  bombardment.    He  proceeded  to  the  north. 


427 


CHINA,  1857-1868. 


HurUnffame 
JCmlxusy. 


CHINA,  1857-1868. 


hik)  iniuli'  on  licliair  of  his  ^ovcriiiiiciit  a  treaty 
of  |uii(T  Willi  CliiTia  wliicli  wa.s  sij^iicd  .luiic  IH. 
Till!  first  article  of  the  treaty  contains  a  sijfiiitl- 
cant  reference  to  the  postuii;  of  the  United  Stal<'s 
In  relation  to  the  war  then  in  jjrogrcHs,  as  well 
as  to  any  which  might  thereafter  arise.  The 
article  says:  'There  shall  he,  as  there  have 
always  been,  i)eace  and  friiaidship  between  the 
United  .States  of  America  and  the  Ta-Tsing 
Kmpire,  and  between  their  jieople  respectively. 
They  shall  not  insidt  or  oppress  each  other  for 
any  trilling  cause,  so  as  to  produce  an  estran^e- 
ni'nt  between  them;  and  if  any  other  nation 
should  net  unjustly  or  oppres-sively,  the  United 
StJites  will  e.xerl  their  good  ollices,  (ui  being 
informed  of  the  ca.se,  to  bring  about  an  amicable 
arrangement  of  the  (piestion,  thus  showing  their 
friendly  feelings.'  A  subseiiuent  article  of  this 
treaty  is  to  be  interpreted  by  keeping  in  view 
the  Wtter  root  of  the  dilliculties  between  Groat 
Britain  and  China  which  led  to  the  previous  war 
of  1839  to  '4'2,  and  to  this  war.  After  stating 
the  ports  where  Americans  shall  be  perinilted  to 
reside  and  their  vessels  to  trade,  it  contuiues  in 
the  following  language:  'But  said  vi'.,sels  shall 
not  carry  on  a  dandestini;  and  fnmdulent  trade 
lit  other  ports  of  China  not  dedarec,  to  be  legal, 
or  aUmg  the  coasts  thereof;  and  any  vessel  under 
the  American  Hag  violating  'his  provision  shall, 
with  her  cargo,  be  subject  t(  .onliscation  to  the 
Chinese  government;  and  any  citizen  of  the 
United  States  who  shall  trade  in  any  contraband 
article  of  merchandise  shall  be  subject  to  be 
dealt  with  by  the  Chinese  government,  without 
being  entitled  to  any  countenance  or  protection 
from  that  of  the  United  States ;  and  tlie  United 
States  will  take  measures  to  prevent  their  flag 
from  being  abused  by  the  subjects  of  other  nations 
88  a  cover  for  the  violation  of  the  laws  of  the 
empire.'  .  .  .  Tlie  developinent  of  the  foreign 
trade  with  China  during  the  brief  time  which 
lias  passeil  [1870J  since  the  last  war  has  been  very 
gri  at.  .  .  .  The  Aiaericau  government  has  lieen 
represented  most  of  the  time  by  tlie  Hon.  Anson 
Burlingame,  who  has  taken  the  lead,  with  re- 
markable ability  and  success,  in  establishing 
the  policy  tf  peaceful  co-operation  between  the 
chief  treaty  powers,  in  encouraging  the  (^'liinese 
to  adopt  a  more  wise  and  progressive  jiolicy 
in  their  entercoiirse  with  foreign  nations  and  in 
the  introduction  of  the  improvements  of  the  age. 
.  .  .  Mr.  Burlingame,  who  liad  been  in  China  six 
years,  determined  [in  180V]  to  resign  his  i)ost  and 
return  to  America.  The  news  of  it  excited  much 
regret  among  both  Chinese  and  foreign  tliploma- 
tists.  The  former  endeavored  in  vain  to  dissuade 
him  from  his  purpose.  Failing  to  accomplish  this, 
lie  was  invited  by  Prince  Kung  to  a  farewell  enter- 
tainment, at  which  were  present  many  of  the  lead- 
ing offleers  of  the  government.  During  it  they 
c.ipressed  to  him  their  gratitude  for  his  offices  to 
tliem  as  an  intelligent  and  disinterested  counselor 
and  friend.  And  they  seem  to  have  conceived  at 
this  time  the  thought  of  putting  the  relations  of 
the  empire  with  foreign  countries  upon  a  more  just 
and  equal  bas's,  by  sending  to  them  an  imperial 
embassy  of  which  he  should  be  the  head.  They 
ptomptly  consulted  some  of  their  n'.ore  reliable 
friends  among  the  foreign  gentlemen  at  the  capi- 
tal, and  in  two  days  after  they  tendered  to  Mr. 
Bi-rlingame,  much'to  his  surprise,  the  appoint- 
ment of  minister  plenipotentiary  of  China  in  the 
Western  powers.  .  .  ,  Mr.  Builiugume  leU  the 


Chinese  capital  on  the  H'Ah  of  November,  18(17. 
The  embassy  consisted,  besides  the  principal,  of 
Cliih-k>')';  and  Hun  Chiakii,  a  Manchii  and  a 
Chinese  olHcer,  each  wearing  the  red  ball  on  his 
cap  which  indicates  on  ollicial  of  a  rank  next  to 
the  highest  in  the  empire;  J.  McLeary  Browr 
formerly  of  the  British  legation,  and  M.  I)i 
cliainp.s,  as  secretaries;  Teh  -Aliiig  and  Fung  1 
as  (Chinese  attaches,  and  several  other  jiersuns 
in  subordinate  pcsitions.  ...  It  went  to  Hhnug- 
liai,  thence  to  San  Fniucisco,  where  it  was  most 
cordially  welcomed  by  both  the  American  and 
Chinese  mercantile  communities.  It  reached 
■Washington  in  JNIay,  IHOS.  The  embassy  was 
treated  with  iiiiich  distinction  at  the  American 
capital.  No  American  .slatcsman  was  so  capable 
and  disposed  to  enter  cordially  into  its  objects  as 
tlie  Secretary  of  Slate  at  that  time,  the  lion. 
William  II.  Seward,  whose  mind  had  long  ap- 
l)reheii<led  the  great  features  of  the  policy  which 
American  and  foreign  nations  should  pursue  in 
relation  to  the  Chinese  em|)irc.  On  the  lOtli  of 
.Inly  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  ratified  a 
treaty  which  he  had  made  in  behalf  of  this 
country  with  the  representative  of  the  Chinese 
government.  The  treaty  defines  and  fixes  the 
))riiiciples  of  the  intercourse  of  Western  nations- 
with  China,  of  t'"  importance  of  which  1  have 
already  spoken,  .t  secures  the  territorial  integ- 
rity of  the  empire,  and  cimccdes  to  China  the 
rights  which  the  civilized  nations  of  the  world 
accord  to  each  other  as  to  eminent  domain  over 
land  and  waters,  and  jurisdiction  over  persons 
and  ])ropcrty  therein.  It  lakes  the  first  step 
toward  the  appointment  of  Chinese  consuls  in 
our  seaports  —  a  measure  promotive  of  both 
Chinese  and  American  interests.  It  secures  ex- 
emi/tion  from  all  disability  or  persecution  on 
account  of  religious  faith  in  either  country.  It 
recognizes  the  right  of  voluntary  emigration  and 
makes  penal  the  wrongs  of  the  coolie  tralHc.  It 
jiledgcs  jirivik'ges  as  to  travel  or  residence  in 
either  country  such  as  are  enjoyed  by  the  most 
favored  nation.  It  grants  to  the  Chinese  per- 
mission to  attend  our  schools  and  colleges,  and. 
allows  us  to  freely  establish  and  maintain  schools 
in  China.  And  while  it  acknowledges  the  right 
of  the  Chinese  government  to  control  its  own 
whole  interior  arrangements,  as  to  railroads, 
telegraphs  and  other  internal  improvements,  it 
suggests  the  willingness  of  our  government  ta> 
alford  aid  toward  their  construction  by  desig- 
nating and  authorizing  suitable  engineers  tO' 
perform  the  work,  at  the  expense  of  the  Chinese 
government.  The  treaty  expressly  leaves  the- 
question  of  naturalization  in  either  country  an 
open  one.  ...  It  is  not  accessary  to  follow  in 
detail  the  jjrogress  of  this  first  imperial  Chinese 
embassy.  In  England  it  was  r(;ceived  at  first 
very  coldly,  and  it  was  soii'e  months  before 
l)roi)er  attention  could  be  secured  from  the  gov- 
ernment to  its  objects.  At  length,  however,  on/ 
November  20,  it  was  presented  to  the  queen  at 
Windsor  Castle.  .  .  .  What  Iieart  is  there  that 
will  not  join  in  the  cordial  wish  that  the  treaties- 
made  b'  the  embassy  with  Great  Britain,  France, 
Prussia  and  other  Luropean  powers  may  be  the 
commencement  of  a  new  la'a  in  the  diplomatic 
and  national  intercourse  of  China  with  those  and 
all  other  lands  of  the  West ! "— W.  Speer  The 
Oldest  and  l/ie  Newest  Empire,  ch.  14. 

Also  in:    Treatum  and    Conventions  bet.    th«. 
U.  IS.  and  other  Pmers  (1889),  p.  159  ami  179. 


428 


CHINA,  1884-1885. 


Future  of 
the  Chinene. 


CHIPPEWA. 


A.  D.  i884-i88s.— War  with  France.  Hcv. 
Fh.vnck;  a.  I).  1H75-1MW). 

A.  D.  1892. — Exclusion  of  Chinese  from  the 
United  States.     Sec  I'mtki)  Sia ti'.s  oi-  A.m.  : 

A.   I).   IHICJ. 

A.  D.  1893. — The  future  of  the  Chinese. — A 
speculation. — "  China  is  goncnilly  rc^iirdcd  a.sii 
stalioimry  power  which  can  fairly  hold  it.s  own, 
though  it  has  lost  Anuani  to  Jraiicc,  and  the 
Kiizcrainty  of  Upper  Hurmah  to  England,  and 
thu  Amoor  Valley  to  Russia,  hut  which  is  not  11 
Korious  competitor  in  the  race  foreni|)irc.  There 
is  a  certain  idausihility  in  this  view.  f)n  the 
other  hand.  China  has  recovered  Eastern  Turkes- 
tan from  Jlahomniedan  rule  and  from  a  Uussian 
protectorate,  is  dominating  the  Corea,  and  has 
stamped  out  a  dangerous  rebellion  in  Yunnan. 
No  one  can  doulit  that  if  China  were  to  get  for 
sovereign  a  man  with  the  organising  and  aggres- 
sive genius  of  Peter  the  Great  or  Frederick  the 
Second,  it  would  he  a  very  formidable  neighbour 
to  either  British  India  or  Uussia.  Neither  is  it 
easy  to  suppo.se  that  the  improvements,  now 
tentatively  mtroduced  into  China,  will  notsoonbu 
taken  up  and  pushed  on  a  large  scale,  so  that 
railways  will  be  ('arried  into  the  heart  of  Asia, 
and  large  armies  Irilled  an<l  furnished  with  arms 
of  precisiim  on  the  European  model.  In  any 
such  case  the  rights  which  China  has  reluctantly 
conceded  or  still  claims  over  Annam  and  Ton- 
<iuiu,  over  Siam,  over  Upper  ISurmah,  and  over 
Nejjaid,  may  become  matters  of  very  serious  dis- 
cuesion.  At  present  the  French  settlements 
arrest  the  e.vpansiou  of  China  in  the  direction 
most  dangerous  to  the  world.  Unfortunately, 
the  climate  of  Saigon  is  such  as  no  Europe.m 
cares  to  settle  in,  and  the  war  to  secure  Ton(ju.n 
was  so  unpopular  that  it  cost  a  French  premier 
his  tenure  of  oflice.  .  .  .  AVhatever,  however,  be 
the  fortune  of  China  in  this  direction,  it  is 
scarcely  doubtful  that  she  will  not  only  people 
up  to  the  furthest  boundary  of  her  recognised 
territory,  but  gradually  acquire  new  dominions. 
The  history  of  our  Straits  Settlements  will  afford 
a  familiar  instance  how  the  Chinese  are  spread- 
ing. They  already  form  half  the  population 
liredominating  in  Singapore  and  Perak,  and  the 
best  observers  arc  agreed  that  the  Malay  cannot 
hold  his  cwn  against  them.  They  arc  beginuing 
to  settle  in  Borneo  I'ud  Sumatra,  and  they  are 
supplanting  the  natives  in  some  of  the  small 
islands  of  the  Pacilic,  such  as  Hawaii.  The 
climate  of  all  these  countries  suits  them,  and  they 
conmieud  themselves  to   governments  and  em- 


ployers by  their  power  of  steady  industry;  nml 
they  intermarry  freely  up  to  a  .saf<r  i)oint  with 
the  women  of  the  "country,  getting  all  th« 
advantages  of  alliance,  yet  not  saerillcing  their 
nationality.  Several  eaus<'S  have  retarded 
their  spread  hitherto:  the  regions  enumeral<'d 
have  mostly  bei'ii  loo  insi'cun'  for  an  industrial 
people  to  tlourisli  in,  until  the  British  or  tho 
Dutch  established  order;  the  government  of 
China  has  hitherto  discouraged  enngralion; 
English  administrations  have  been  obliged  to  bo 
rather  wary  in  their  dealings  with  a  pi uph;  who 
•showed  at  "Si.rawak  and  Peiiang  that  tliey  were 
capable  of  combining  for  purposes  of  massacre; 
and  the  Chinese  superstition  about  burial  in  tho 
sacred  soil  of  the  Celestial  Empire  made  tho 
great  majority  of  the  emigrants  birds  of  i)assiigc. 
All  these  causes  are  disappearing.  .  .  .  Euro- 
peans cannot  tlourisli  under  the  tropics,  and  will 
not  work  with  the  hand  where  an  inferior  raoo 
works.  What  W(!  have  to  consider,  flierefore.  is 
the  probabilitv  tl.at  lli(!  natives  who  are  givinjj 
way  to  the  Chinese  in  tlie  Malay  Peninsula  will 
bo  able  to  make  head  against  them  in  liorneo  or 
Sumatra.  Borneo  is  nearly  si.\  times  as  big  as 
.lava,  and  if  it  were  peopled  like  .lava  would 
support  a  population  of  nearly  100,000,000.  .  .  . 
In  tlu:  long  run  tho  Chinese,  who  out-nund)er 
the  Malay,  as  si.\teen  to  one,  who  are  more 
detlucdly  industrial,  and  who  organise  where 
they  can  in  a  way  that  i)recludes  competition, 
are  tolerably  certain  to  gain  the  upjier  hand. 
They  may  not  destroy  tlie  early  settlers,  but 
they  will  reduce  them  to  the  positicm  of  the  Hill 
tribes  in  India,  or  of  the  Ainos  in  Japan. 
Assume  flfty  years  hence  that  China  has  taken 
its  inevitable  ptsition  as  one  of  the  great  powers 
of  tho  world,  and  that  Borneo  has  a  population 
of  10,000,000,  predominantly  Chinese,  is  it  ea.sy 
to  suppose  in  such  a  case  that  the  larger  part  of 
Borneo  would  still  bo  a  dependency  of  the 
Netherlands  V  or  that  the  A'hole  island  woidd  not 
have  passed,  by  arms  or  diplomacy,  into  the 
possession  of  Cliina  ?  .  .  .  There  are  those  who 
believe  that  tho  Chinaman  is  li.:ely  to  super.ede 
the  Spaniard  and  Indian  alike  in  parts  of  South 
America.  Without  assuming  that  all  of  these 
possibilities  arc  likely  to  be  realised,  there  is 
surely  a  strong  presumption  that  so  great  a 
people  as  the  Chinese,  and  possessed  of  such 
enormous  natural  resources,  will  sooner  or  later 
overflow  their  borders  and  spread  over  new 
territory,  and  submerge  weaker  races." — C.  H. 
Pearson,  National  Life  and  Character,  pp.  45-51. 


CIIINANTECS,  The.  See  A.muuican  Aaio- 
iiKiiNKs:  Zapotecs.  etc. 

CHING  OR  TSING  DYNASTY,  The. 
See  China:  A.  D.  1394-1883. 

CHINGIS  KHAN,  Conquests  of.  See  Mon- 
gols: A.  D.  1153-1337;  and  India:  A.  D.  077- 
1290. 

CHINOOK,  The.  See  Ameiucan  Ajsoui- 
aiNEs:  Ciiinookan  Family. 

CHIOGGIA,  The  War  of.  See  Venice: 
A.  D,  1379-1381. 

CHIOS. —  Tho  rocky  island  known  anciently 
as  Chios,  called  Scio  in  modern  times,  was  one  of 
Uie  places  which  claimed  Homer's  birth.  It  is 
situated  in  the  J5gean  Sea,  sepam.'ed  by  a  strait 
only  five  miles  wide  from  the  Asiatic  coast.  The 
wines  of  Chios  were  famous  in  anti<iuity  and 
have  a  good  reputation  at  tho  preen  I  day.    Tho 


island  was  an  important  member  of  the  Ionian 
confederation,  and  afterwards  subject  to  Athens, 
from  which  it  revolted  twice,  suffering  terrible 
barbarities  in  consequence.  See  Asia  Minok: 
TheGheek  Colonies. 

B.  C.  413.  — Revolt  from  Athens.  See 
Greece:  B.  C.  413-413. 

A.  D.  1346.— Taken  by  the  Genoese.  See 
Constantinople:  A.  I).  1348-13.>5. 

A.  D.  1681.— Blockade  and  attack  by  the 
French.   See  BauuaiivSt.\tes:  A.  I).  1(104-1084. 

A.  D.  1770. — Temporary  possession  by  the 
Russians.     See  Ti;kks:  A.  I).  1708-1774. 

A.  D.  1822.— Turkish  massacre  of  Chris- 
tians.    See  Gueece:  A.  I).  1831-1829. 


CHIPPEWA,  Battle  of.  See  United  States 
OF  Ml. :  A.  D.  1814  (.JuLV— Septembeu). 


429 


CniPPEWAS. 


CHIVALRY. 


CHIPPEWAS.  OR  OIIBWAS,  The.    Seo 

Amkkican  AiiDiiKiiNKs:  Ai.(ioN({Ui\N   Family, 

AM)  O.MIIWAM. 

CHIPPEWYANS,  The.  8«c  Amehican 
AiioiiKiiNKH:  Atiiai'ascan  Family. 

CHITON,  The.— "Thcrliitoii  [of  the  oncicnt 
Orccks]  wiis  an  dIiIomj;  pioi^c  of  cloth  iirniiiKL'd 
round  tUr  iHxIy  no  that  the  arm  was  |)ut  through 
a  hole  ill  the  iloscd  Hide,  the  two  ends  of  the  open 
side  iH'ing  fastened  over  tlic  opposite  slioulder 
liy  means  of  a  l>utton  or  elasp.  On  tliis  latter 
Hide,  therefore,  tlie  chiton  was  completely  open, 
at  least  as  far  as  the  thigh,  underneath  of  wliich 
the  two  ends  might  he  cither  pinned  or  stitched 
together,  UouikI  the  liips  the  chiton  was  fas- 
tciK'd  with  a  rlhhon  or  girdle,  and  the  lower  part 
could  lie  shortened  as  much  as  required  by  pull- 
ing it  through  this  girdle.  .  .  .  Freiiuently 
sleeves,  cither  shorter  and  covering  only  the 
upper  arm,  or  continued  to  the  wrist  were  adcU'd 
to  the  chiton.  .  .  .  The  short-.sleeved  chiton  is 
frequently  worn  by  women  and  children  on  inonu- 
mcuta.  Of  the  Hlecveless  chiton,  worn  by  men 
over  both  shouhlers,  it  is  stated  that  it  was  the 
sign  of  a  free  citizen.  Slaves  and  artisans  arc 
said  to  Iiavc  wo-n  a  chiton  witl  one  hole  for  the 
left  arm,  the  right  arm  and  half  the  chest  remain- 
ing (juitc  uncovered.  ...  It  apjiears  clearly 
that  the  whole  chiton  consists  of  (me  jiicce. 
Together  with  the  open  and  half-open  kinds  of 
the  chiton  we  al.so  find  the  clo.sed  double  chiton 
flowing  down  to  the  feet.  It  was  a  p!"ce  of 
cloth  considerably  longer  than  the  human  body, 
and  clo.sed  on  both  sides,  inside  of  which  the  per- 
son putting  it  on  stood  as  in  a  cylinder. " —  K.  Quid 
and  \V.  Koncr,  Life  of  the  Oivcht  (tiid  Ii/>maM, 
pt.  1,  nect.  41. —  "The  principal,  or  ratlier,  the 
sole  garment,  of  the  Dorian  maidens  was  the 
chiton,  or  himation  made  of  woolen  stutf,  and 
without  sleeves,  but  fastened  on  either  shouhh'r 
by  a  large  clasp,  and  gathered  on  the  breast  by 
a  kind  of  brooch.  This  sleeveless  robe,  which 
seldom  reached  mere  than  half  way  to  the  knee, 
was  moreover  left  open  up  to  a  certain  point  on 
both  sides,  so  that  the  skirts  or  wings,  tiying 
open  as  they  walked,  entirely  exposed  their 
limbs.  .  .  .  The  married  women,  however,  did 
not  make  their  appearance  in  public  '  en  che- 
mise,' but  when  going  abroad  donned  a  second 
garment  which  seems  to  have  resembled  pretty 
closely  their  luLsbauds'  himatia." — J.  A.  St.  John, 
T/ie  Itillciien.  bk.  8,  ch.  6. 

CHITTIM.     Sec  Kittim. 

CHIVALRY.— "The  primitive  sense  of  this 
well-known  word,  derived  from  the  Frencli 
Chevalier,  signifies  merely  cavalry,  or  a  body  of 
soldiers  serving  on  h'>rseback ;  and  has  been  used 
in  that  general  acceptation  by  the  best  of  our 
poets,  ancient  and  .nodern,  from  Milton  to 
Thomas  Campbell.  But  the  present  article 
respects  the  peculiar  meaning  given  to  the  word 
in  modern  Europe,  as  applied  to  the  order  of 
knighthood,  establLshed  in  almost  all  her  king- 
doms during  the  middle  ages,  and  the  laws, 
rules,  and  customs,  by  whici  it  was  governed. 
Tliose  laws  and  customs  have  ".ong  been  anti- 
quated, bu'o  their  cfTects  may  stili  be  traced  in 
European  manners;  and,  excepting  only  the 
change  which  flowed  from  the  introduction  of 
the  Christian  religion,  wo  know  no  cause  which 
has  produced  such  general  and  permanent  diflfer- 
encc  betwixt  the  ancients  and  modems,  as  that 
which  has  arisen  out  of  the  irstitutiou  of  chivalry. 


.  .  .  Prom  the  time  thnt  cavalry  hecomes  used 
In  war.  tin-  horseman  who  furnishes  and  supportH 
a  charger  arises,  in  all  countries,  into  a  person  of 
superior  importanee  to  the  mere  foot-soldier. 
.  .  .  In  various  militarv  nations,  therefore,  wo 
tlnd  that  horsemeu  arc  distingidshed  as  an  order 
in  the  state.  .  .  .  liut,  in  the  middle  ages,  thu 
distinction  ascribed  to  soldiers  serving  on  horse- 
back assumed  a  very  pecidiar  and  imposing 
character.  They  were  not  merely  respected  ou 
iiceount  of  their  wealth  or  military  skill,  but 
were  li<mnd  together  by  a  union  of  a  very 
peculiar  character,  which  monarehs  were  am- 
bitious to  sliare  with  the  poorest  of  their  subjects, 
and  govenK'd  by  laws  (firected  to  enhance,  Into 
enthusiasm,  the  military  spirit  and  the  sense  of 
personal  honour  associated  with  it.  The  aspir- 
ants to  this  dignity  were  not  permitted  to  assume 
the  sacred  ch.iracter  of  knighthood  until  after  <l 
long  and  severe  probation,  during  which  they 
I)i.'''tised,  as  acolytes,  tlie  virtues  necessary  to 
the  order  of  Cliivalry.  Knighthood  was  tho 
goal  to  which  tlie  ambition  of  every  noble  youth 
turned;  and  to  support  its  honours,  which  (in 
tlieory  at  least)  could  only  be  conferred  on  tho 
gallant,  tho  modest,  and  thu  virtuous,  it  was 
neccessary  he  shoultl  ^pend  a  certain  time  in  a 
subordinate  situation,  attendant  upon  somo 
knight  of  eminence,  oli.serving  the  conduct  of 
his  master,  as  what  must  in  future  be  the  model 
of  his  own,  and  practising  the  virtues  of  humility, 
modesty,  and  temperance,  until  called  upon  to 
display  those  of  a  higher  order.  ...  In  tlio 
general  and  abstract  deflnition  of  Chivalry, 
whether  as  compiising  a  body  of  men  whoso 
military  service  was  on  hoiseback,  and  who 
were  invested  with  peculiar  honoui's  and  privi- 
leges, or  with  reference  to  the  iikkIc  and  period 
in  which  tliese  distinctions  and  privileges  were 
conferred,  there  is  nothing  either  original  or 
exclusively  proper  to  our  Gothic  ancestors.  It 
was  in  the  singular  tenets  of  Cliivalry, — in  tho 
exalted,  enthusiastic,  and  almost  sanctimonious, 
ideas  connected  with  its  duties,  —  in  the  singular 
balance  which  its  institutions  offered  against  the 
evils  of  the  rude  ages  in  which  it  arose,  that  we 
are  to  seek  those  peculiarities  whicli  render  it  so 
worthy  of  our  attention.  .  .  .  The  education  of 
the  future  knight  began  at  an  early  period.  Tho 
care  of  the  mother,  after  tlie  llrst  years  of  early 
youtli  were  passecl,  was  deemed  too  tender,  and 
the  indulgences  of  the  paternal  roof  too  eliemi- 
nate,  for  tlie  future  aspirant  to  the  honours  of 
chivalry.  .  .  .  To  countenict  these  habits  of 
indulgence,  the  first  step  to  the  order  of  knight- 
hood was  the  degree  of  Page.  The  young  and 
noble  stripling,  gciicriilly  about  his  twelfth  year, 
was  transferred  from  his  father's  house  to  that  of 
some  baron  or  gallant  knight,  sedulously  chosen 
by  the  anxious  parent  as  that  which  had  the  best 
reputation  for  good  order  and  discipline.  .  .  . 
When  advancing  age  and  experience  in  the  use 
of  arms  had  qualified  the  page  for  the  hanlship? 
and  dangers  of  actual  war,  he  was  ivmoved, 
from  the  lowest  to  the  second  gradation  of 
chivaliy,  and  bcoame  an  Eseuycr,  Esquire,  or 
Squirr .  The  derivation  of  this  phrase  has  been 
much  contested.  It  has  been  generally  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  it ;  becoming  the  ofllcial  duty 
of  the  esquire  to  carry  the  shield  (Escu)  of  tho 
knight  his  master,  until  he  was  about  to  engage 
the  enemy.  Others  have  fetched  the  epithet 
(more  remotely  certainly)  from  Scuria,  a  stable. 


430 


cm    VLUY. 


CIIOCZIM. 


the  rhfirgcr  of  the  knight  being  under  the 
especial  care  of  the  s(iuiro.  Otiicrs,  again, 
UHcrilH!  the  derivation  of  tlie  word  to  tlie  riglit 
wliich  tlie  squire  himself  liad  to  carry  a  shield, 
and  to  blazon  it  witli  armorial  bearings.  Tliis, 
in  later  times,  became  almost  the  exclusive 
meiuiing  attJiclied  to  the  appellative  esquire; 
ami,  accordingly,  if  the  pliras(!  now  means  any- 
thing, it  means  a  genth'man  having  ii  riglit  to 
carry  arms.  There  is  reason,  jiowever,  to  think 
this  is  n  secondary  meaning  of  tlie  word,  for  wv 
do  not  find  tlie  word  Escuyer,  applied  as  a  title 
of  rank,  until  so  late  as  the  Ordonnance  of  Blois, 
in  1579,  ,  ,  .  In  actual  war  the  page  was  not 
expected  to  render  much  service,  but  that  of  the 
squire  was  important  and  indispensable.  Upon 
a  march  he  bore  the  helmet  and  shield  of  the 
knight  and  led  his  horse  of  battle,  a  tall  heavy 
animal  lit  to  hear  the  weight  of  a  man  in  armour, 
but  wliicli  was  led  in  haml  in  marching,  while 
the  knight  rode  an  ambling  hackney.  The 
squire  was  also  qualiticd  to  perform  the  part  of 
an  armourer,  not  only  lacing  his  master's  helmet 
ami  buckling  his  cuirass,  but  also  closing  with  a 
liammer  the  rivets  by  which  the  various  pieces 
were  united  to  each  other.  ...  In  the  actual 
shock  of  battle,  the  esquire  attended  closely  on 
the  banner  of  his  master,  or  on  liis  person  if  he 
were  only  a  knight  bachelor,  kept  pace  with  him 
during  tlie  melee,  and  was  at  hand  to  remount 
him  when  his  steed  was  slain,  or  relieve  him 
when  oppressed  by  numbers.  If  the  kniglit 
made  prisoners  they  were  the  charge  of  the 
esquire;  if  the  esquire  himself  fortuned  to  make 
one,  the  ransom  belonged  to  his  master.  ...  A 
youth  usually  ceased  to  be  a  page  at  14,  or  a  little 
earlier,  ond  could  not  regularly  receive  the 
honour  of  knighthord  until  he  was  oneand- 
twenty.  .  .  ,  Knighthood  was,  in  its  origin,  an 
order  of  a  republican,  or  at  least  an  oligarchic 
nature;  arising  ,  .  .  from  the  customs  of  the  free 
tribes  of  Germany  [see  Comitatus],  and,  in  its 
essence,  not  requiring  the  sanction  of  a  monarch. 
On  the  contrary,  each  knight  could  confer  the 
order  of  knlghtliood  upon  whomsoever  prepara- 
tory noviciate  and  probation  had  fitted  to  receive 
it.  The  highest  potentates  sought  the  accolade, 
or  stroke  which  conferred  the  honour,  at  the 
hands  of  the  worthiest  knight  whose  achieve- 
ments had  dignified  the  peritxl.  .  ,  ,  Though  no 
positive  regulation  took  place  on  the  subject, 
ambition  on  the  part  of  the  aspirant,  and  pride 
and  policy  on  that  of  the  sovereign  princes  and 
nobles  of  high  rank,  gradually  limited  to  the 
latter  the  power  of  conferring  knightlioo<l,  ,  ,  , 
Knights  were  usually  made  either  on  the  eve  of 
battle,  or  when  the  victory  had  been  obtained ; 
or  they  were  created  during  the  pomp  of  some 
solemn  warning  or  grand  festival.  .  ,  .  The 
spirit  of  chivalry  sunk  gradually  under  a 
combination  of  physical  au(I  moral  causes ;  the 
first  arising  from  the  change  gradually  introduced 
into  the  artof  var,  and  the  last  from  the  equal'y 
great  alteration  iiri.iuced  by  time  ?n  the  habits 
and  modes  of  thinking  in  modern  Europe, 
Chivalry  began  to  dawn  in  the  end  of  the  10th, 
ami  beginning  of  the  11th  century.  It  blazed 
fortli  with  high  vigour  during  the  crusades,  which 
indeed  may  be  considered  as  exploits  of  national 
kniglit-errantry,  or  general  wars,  undertaken  on 
the  very  same  principles  which  actuated  the  con- 
duct of  individual  knig'-ts  adventurers.  But  its 
most   brilliant    period     'as    during   the  wars 


between  J'rance  and  England,  anil  it  was  un- 
(|Ue8tionably  in  those  kingdoniH  tliat  the  habit  of 
constant  and  honourable  opposition,  iinemliittcred 
liy  rancour  or  personal  liatred,  gave  tlie  fairest 
opportunity  for  tlie  exercise  of  .lie  virtues 
reciuired  from  him  whom  (!liaueer  teriiiH  'a  very 
perfect  genth-  kniglit.'  Fniissart  fre(|uently 
makes  allusions  to  the  generosity  exercised  liy  the 
French  and  English  to  tlieir  prisoners,  and  con- 
trasts it  with  the  diingetms  lo  wliicli  eaptivefi 
taken  in  war  were  consign"d  both  in  Spain  and 
(lerniany.  Yet  both  tliese  countries,  and  indeed 
every  kingdom  in  Europe,  partook  of  the  spirit 
of  chivalry  in  a  greater  or  less  degree;  and  even 
the  Moors  of  Spain  caught  tlie  emiilati(m,  and 
had  their  oniers  of  KnighthoiKl  aa  well  as  the 
Cliristians,  Hut  even  during  this  splendid 
period,  various  causes  were  silently  operating 
tile  future  oxtinction  of  the  llame,  wliicli  blazed 
thus  wide  and  brightly.  An  important  di.scovi'ry, 
the  iuvenMon  of  gunpowder,  had  takeii  place, 
and  was  beginning  to  be  used  in  war,  even  when 
chivalry  was  in  its  higliest  glory,  ,  .  .  Another 
change,  of  vital  importance,  aro.se  from  the 
insti'  ution  of  the  bands  of  gens-d'armes,  or 
mer  at  arms  in  France,  constituteil  .  .  .  expressly 
as  1  sort  of  standing  army.  ...  A  more  fatal 
ca  ISO  had,  however,  been  for  some  time  operating 
in  England,  as  well  as  France,  for  the  destruction 
of  the  system  we  are  treating  of.  The  wars  of 
York  and  Lancaster  in  England,  and  those  of 
the  Huguenots  and  of  the  League,  were  of  a 
nature  so  bitter  anc'.  rancorous,  as  was  utterly 
Inconsistent  with  the  courtesy,  fair  play,  and 
gentleness,  proper  to  chivalry.  .  .  .  The  civil 
wars  not  only  operated  in  debasing  the  spirit  of 
chivalry,  but  in  exhausting  and  destroying  the 
particular  class  of  society  from  which  its  votaries 
were  drawn.  "—Sir  W.  Scott,  KHsay  on  Chimlry. 

Also  in;  G.  P.  R.  James,  llht.of  Chimlry. — 
H.  Hallam,  State  of  Europe  duriiir/  tfte  MiddU 
Atfei,  eh.  9,  pt.  2  (v.  3),— F.  P.  Ouizot,  Hist,  of 
Civilimtioii  in  France,  fSth  lect.,  id  course  (o.  4). — 
C.  Mills,  Hist,  of  Chivalry.— n.  Stebbing,  Jlifit. 
of  Chimin/  and  the  Crusades. — L.  Gautier, 
'Chivalry.  — K.  II.  Digby,  The  Broadatone  of 
Honour. — Dr.  Doran,  Knights  and  tlieir  Days. — 
See,  also,  Kniohtiiood,  Orders  op. 

CHLAMVS,  The.— "The  chlamys  [worn  by 
the  ancient  Greeks]  .  .  .  was  an  oblong  piece  of 
cloth  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder,  the  open  ends 
being  listened  across  the  right  slioulder  by 
means  of  a  clasp ;  the  comers  hanging  down  were, 
as  In  the  himation,  kept  straight  by  means  of 
weights  sewad  into  tbem.  The  chlamys  was 
principally  used  by  travellers  and  soldiers. " — E. 
Gulil  and  W.  Koner,  Life  of  the  Greeks  ami  Ro- 
mans, pt.  1,  sect.  43, 

CHOCIM.     See  Ciioczim, 

CHOCTAWS,  OR  CHA'HTAS,  The.  See 
A.MEUICAN  Atioukiinks:  Mi:fiKii<)(iE\N  Family. 

CHOCZIM  (KHOTZIM,  CHOTYN,  KHO- 
TIN,  CHOCIM,  KOTZIM):  A.  D.  1622.— De- 
feat of  the  Turks  by  the  Poles.  See  Poland: 
A.  D.  l.')90-1648. 

A.  D.  1672.- Taken  by  S.ibieska  and  the 
Poles.— Great  defeat  of  the  Turks.  See  Poland: 
A,  D,  16C8-1696. 

A.  D.  1739.— Captured  by  the  Russians  and 
restored  to  the  Turks.  See  Russia:  A,  I).  1725- 
1739. 

A,  D.  17  q. — Taken  by  the  Russians. — De- 
feat of  the  Turks,    bee  Turks:  A,  D.  1708-1774. 


431 


cnocziM. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


A.  D.  1790.— Defeat  of  the  Turki  by  the  Rui- 
■ians.     Hc.Tiukh:  A.  I).  177(l-l71»a. 

CHOLEl,  Battles  of.    Sui;  Fuanck:  A.  D. 

17l»lt  (.ll  I.V  — I)K(K.MIlKll). 

CHOLULA,  Pyramids  at.  See  Mkxico,  An- 
CIKnt;  Thk  Tki.tkc  I'.mi'IUk. 

A.  D.  1519.— The  Massacre  at.  Boo  Mextco: 
A.  I).  1510  (OcToiiKU). 

CHONTALS,  The.    Sec  Amkbican  Aiioiii- 
oini;h:  CiiDNTAi.s. 
CHONTAQUIROS,  OR  PIRU,  The.    Sif 

A.MKIIU  AN   AllOKKllNKM:    AM)I>IANH. 

CHORASMIA.     SiM'  Km  AiiK/.M. 

CHOREGIA.     Sec  LntiidiKH. 

CHOTUSITZ,  OR  CZASLAU,  Battle  of. 
80c  AfsTHiA:  A.  1).  1743  (Jan L-AiiY— May). 

CHOTYN.    Sio('ii()(Zi.M. 

CHOUANS.  — CHOUANNERIE.  Scu 
Fkance:  a.  1).  1704-17ra. 


CHOUT.— Thp  hlrtckmnll  levlrd  by  the  Miih 
rmtiiH.     Her  India;  a.  I).  IHCVIHUI. 
CHOWANS,   The.    Set!  Amkuican  Aiioiii 

(HNi:k:  liioijrDiM  TiiiiiKu  ok  tiik  .SdiTii. 

CHREMONIDEAN  WAR,  The.  Sto 
Atiiknh:  II.  ('.  ;.'HH->,>(i;i. 

CHRIST,  Knights  of  the  Order  of.  Hvu 
roUTiciAi,:  A.   I).  1 1 1.'.- 1 100. 

CHRISTIAN  I.,  Kineof  Denmark,  Norway 

and   Sweden,    A.    I>.    lllM-MHl Christian 

II.,  A,    I).    l.'^pUI-I.Wt Christian  III.,  King 

of  Denmark  and  Norway,  A.  i).  init^-l.'JriH 

Christian  IV.,   A.  1).   IftHH-UllH Christian 

v.,    A.I).    l«70-ltH)« Christian   VI.,  A.  1). 

17:10-174(1 Christian  VII.,  .\.  I>.  17mi-tH08. 

Christian  VIII.,  King  of  Denmark,  A.  I). 

lH;iU-lH4H Christian  IX.,  A.  I).  1H(|;1-. 

CHRISTIAN  COMMISSION,  The  United 

States.      Sec  SaNITAUY  t'oMMIHKION. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA.     See  Eiu,  Ciiuibtian. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


§; 


"  Historicftl  Kcogrnphv  has  of  late  years  be- 
come an  iutejjral  part  of  the  historical  science. 
Recent  inveHtigatioiis  have  opened  up  the  subject 
and  a  solid  beginning  has  been  made  —  b\it  It  is 
only  a  beginning.  It  is  clearly  recognized  that 
the  land  itself  as  it  appears  at  dillerent  i)eriod8 
is  one  of  those  invaluable  original  documents 
upon  which  history  is  built,  and  no  stone  is 
being  left  unturned  to  clear  away  my.steries  and 
to  bring  to  our  aid  a  realism  hitherto  unknown 
to  the  science.  .  .  .  But  the  special  branch  of 
this  vast  and  complicated  theme  of  historical 
;eograpliy  which  interests  us  most  and  which  I 
Icsire  briefly  to  bring  to  your  attention  is  that 
%.'hich  deals  with  the  Christian  Church.  .  .  .  Our 
eyes  lirst  rest  upon  that  little  group  at  Jerusalem 
that  made  up  the  Pentecostal  Church.  Its  spread 
was  conditioned  by  tho  extent  and  character  of 
the  lioman  Empire,  by  the  municipal  genius  of 
that  empire,  its  great  highways  by  land  and  sea; 
coudit'oned  by  the  commerciul  routes  and  the 
track  of  armies  outside  the  bounds  of  civiliza- 
tion;  conditioned  by  tho  spread  of  languages  — 
Aramaic,  Greek,  and  Latin, —  and,  most  import- 
ant of  all,  conditioned  by  the  whereabouts  of  the 
seven  million  Jews  massed  in  8yria,  Babylonia, 
and  Egypt,  and  scattered  everj  where  through- 
out the  Iiiinpire  and  far  beyond  its  boundaries. " — 
H.  W.  llulbert.  The  Historical  Oeixjraphy  of  the 
Christian  Church  (Am.  Soc.  Church  Ilist.,  v.  3). 
— "  When  we  turn  from  the  Jewish  '  dispersion  ' 
in  the  East  to  that  in  the  West,  we  seem  in  quite 
a  dillerent  iitmosphere.  Despite  their  Intense 
nationalism,  all  unconsciously  to  tliemseUes, 
their  mental  characteristics  and  tendencies  were 
in  the  opposite  direction  from  those  of  their 
brethren.  With  fIio.se  of  the  East  rested  the 
future  of  Judaism ;  with  them  of  the  West,  in  a 
sense,  that  of  the  world.  The  one  represented 
old  Israel  groping  back  into  the  darkness  of  the 

East ;  the  other  young  Israel,  stretching  forth  its 
ands  to  where  the  dawn  of  a  new  day  was  about 
to  break.  These  Jews  of  the  West  are  known 
by  the  term  Hellenists.  .  .  .  The  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  into  Greek  may  be  regarded 
as  the  starting  point  of  Hellenism.  It  rendered 
possible  the  hope  tha^  what  in  its  original  form 


had  been  confined  to  tho  few,  might  become  acces- 
sibU,  to  the  world  at  large.  ...  In  tho  account 
of  the  truly  representative  gathering  in  Jerusalem 
on  that  ever-memorable  Feast  of  Weeks,  the  divi- 
sion of  the  '  dispersion '  into  two  grand  sections 
—  the  Eastern  or  Trans-I^uphratic,  and  the  West- 
ern or  Hellenist  —  seems  clearly  marked.  In  this 
arrnngement  the  former  would  include  '  the 
Partliians,  Medes,  Elamites,  and  dwellers  in  Meso- 
potamia,' Judiea  standing,  so  to  speak,  in  the 
middle,  while  '  the  Cretes  and  Arabians '  would 
typically  represent  the  farthest  outrunners  re- 
spectively of  the  Western  and  Eastern  Diaspora. 
The  former,  as  wc  know  from  the  New  Testament, 
commonly  bore  in  Palestine  the  name  of  tho  '  dis- 
persion of  tho  Greeks  ',  and  of  '  Hellenists '  or 
'Grecians.'  On  the  other  hand,  the  Trans- 
Euphnitic  Jews,  who  '  inhabited  Babylon  and 
many  of  the  other  satrapies,'  were  included  with 
the  Palestinians  and  the  Syrians  under  the  term 
'  Hebrews,'  from  the  common  language  which 
they  spoke.  But  the  difference  between  tho 
'Grecians'  and  the  'Hebrews'  was  far  deeper 
than  merely  of  language,  and  extended  to  the 
whole  direction  of  thought." — A.  Edersheiin, 
The  JJfe  and  Times  of  Jentta  the  Messiah,  v.  1,  bk. 
1,  ch,  3-3,  and  1. — "  Before  Pentecost  an  assem- 
bly of  tho  believers  took  place,  at  which  the  post 
vacated  in  the  number  of  the  apostles  by  tho 
suicide  of  the  traitor  Judas  of  Keriotli,  was  filled 
up  by  the  electitm  of  Matthias  by  lot.  On  this 
occasion  the  number  of  the  assembled  brethren 
nmoimted  to  about  130  men.  ...  At  the  feast 
of  Peutecost  ...  a  very  considerable  accession 
was  made  to  the  formerly  moderate  baud  of  be- 
lievers in  Jerusalem  .  .  . ;  about  3,000  soids  re- 
ceived the  word  and  were  joined  to  the  Church 
by  baptism  (Acts  ii.  41).  We  must  iiot,  however, 
at  once  credit  the  Church  in  Jerusalem  with  this 
increase.  For  among  the  listeners  to  the  apos- 
tolic discourse  there  were  Israolitish  guests  and 
proselytes  from  near  and  distant  countries  (ii.  5, 
9-11,  14),  whence  we  m.ay  infer  that  of  those 
newly  converted  many  were  not  living  in  Jeru- 
salem itself,  but  partly  in  Judiea  and  Galilee, 
partly  in  countries  beyond  Palestine,  who  there- 
fore  returned   home  after  the  feast  days  were 


432 


D/XEr.OPMEXT  Mi\F> 

or 

CHRISTIANITY 

urnr  if  nnirriwrrr  <t  ntcaMiKiMiin 
or  TM  loarH  cn-njir    . . 

TtimiTaiT  camiriAwzED  «  ra[  SEvntii  md 
UUTV  coTuaru        _    . 


TtltfniIRrCilDlinAIIIZilllll  THtDJHmTBTH 

iMBiuvsinicinTuiiits        .   r         1 


Tm  nuiiiTOiT  smt  huthik  h  int  «•-' 
mcimn  Of  m  imrm  (onuiT  DiiHms 


rwcHuKic  or  rxt  urosroiic  nmoD 
ca-ioo)**  umnuiiu)  n\is .  .  na-jiirrn 

nKMon  niD«a[iiT  cHinuiEjgrrNE  post- 

tfOSTOUC  HHIODIIOO-llDAKCUNIKIIUIini 
THUS    .     -     -  .         ^Nif-oineclin . 


amaia  umai  nggiiE  «s  crwrncs  or  dif- 
ruuON  aiiTH  mm  unsTOUC  «ho  post  - 
ArasToiic  Kitnouirt  laoiCAns  n  tut 

OOUUE  UKDfKUIIC  THU         AnUocl, 

THE  jouimirs  ottkc  apostle  paul  adc 

WICKTBO  THUS .— --;.V., 

tITIO   or  THE  noiUN  PCRIOt)  IK  INDI  - 
CATCDINTVUTrPE     Medialaiiiini  . 
CITIES  or  THE  MEOIAEWinmoOAK  moid 
TED  IN  THIS  TTPC  Fuhia. 

TXE  DATU  ON  THE  MAP  An  IITTEXDED  fO 
INOICATC  TKE  APPROtlMATC  PERIODS 
OrCOHVEUION. 


■^RRtMtnrirvGCca  ui?ntv 


CIIRISTIANITV. 


Jewish 
Christianity. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


«nded.  Some  of  these  might,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, form  the  centre  of  a  small  Church 
in  the  diapcrsion,  so  that  gradually  Churches 
may  have  arisen  to  which  also  James  may  pos- 
sibly have  addressed  his  Epistle.  ...  So  abun- 
dantly did  God  bless  with  success  tlie  activity  oi 
the  early  ajiostles  though  limited  to  the  nation 
of  Israel  and  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  their  lidel- 
ity  within  a  ciiiuniseritied  sphere.  Hence  there 
existed  at  the  end  of  the  period  of  wliich  wc 
treat  numerous  Christiar  Churclies  in  Jerusalem 
and  tlie  whole  country  of  Judiea  ^eonip.  Oal.  i. 
22,  etc. ;  .LCts  xi.  1),  also  on  the  coast  (Acts  i,\. 
32-i55,  etc."  in  Sanjaria  and  Galilee,  and  finally 
in  Syria,  Plieuicia,  and  Cyprus,  '.\cts  ix.  2,  10, 
25,  xi.  10),  some  of  wliich  were  directly,  some  in- 
diri  tly,  founded  by  the  Tsvelve,  and  were,  in 
any  case,  governeil  and  guided  by  them.  In 
tli(^  above  named  districts  outf^ide  Palestine,  it 
might  not,  indeed,  have  been  easy  to  find  a 
Christian  Cliurch  consisting  exclusively  of  be- 
Jieving  Jews,  for  as  a  rule  they  consisted  of  be- 
lieving Jews  and  individual  Gentilej.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  shall  scarcely  be  wrong  in  re- 
garding the  Cliristian  Churclies  within  Palestine 
•itself  as  composed  entirely  of  believing  Israelitos. 
But  even  among  these  there  were  many  distinc- 
tions, e.  g.,  between  Palestinians  and  Hellenists." 
—  G.  V.  Lechler,  The  Apostolic  ami  Post-Apon- 
folic  Timen.  v.  1,  ;).  30-3,j.— "  We  find  the  early 
J^Jewish]  Ciiristians  observing  the  national  feasts 
and  holidays  (Acts  ii.  1;  xviii.  21;  xx.  6,  16; 
Uom.  xiv.  5).  They  take  part  in  tlio  worship  of 
tlip  temple  and  the  synagogue ;  they  pray  at  the 
customary  hours  (cliaps.  ii.  40;  iii.  1;  v.  42;  x. 
'J).  They  observe  the  fasts,  and  undergo  volun- 
tary abstinence,  binding  themselves  by  special 
vows  like  all  pious  Jews  (xiii.  2;  xvii.  18;  xxi. 
23).  They  scrupul  usly  avoid  unlawful  food, 
and  all  legal  defiler..ent  (x.  14).  They  have  their 
children  circumcised  (xv.  5;  xvi.  3;  Gal.  v.  2). 
.  .  .  This  scrupulous  piety  won  for  them  the 
esteem  and  admiration  ol  the  people  (chap.  t. 
18)."  At  first  their  creed  was  "comprised  in  a 
single  dogma:  '  Jesus  is  the  Messiah. ' .  .  .  Their 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  strictly  followed  the 
lines  of  Alessianic  tradition  (i.  7 ;  ii.  36 ;  iii.  20). 
.  .  .  But  in  reality  all  this  formed  or: y  the  out- 
side of  their  life  and  creed.  .  .  .  Herein  lies  the 
profound  significance  of  the  miracle  of  Pente- 
cost. Tliat  (lay  was  the  bii  ihda"'  of  tlie  Church, 
not  because  of  tlic  marvelous  'r  i,ss  of  Peter's 
preacliing,  but  because  tlie  Christian  principle, 
hitherto  existing  only  objectiv(dy  and  externally 
in  the  person  of  Jesus,  passed  from  lliat  moment 
into  the  souls  of  His  disciples.  .  .  .  And  thus  in 
the  very  midst  of  J.idaism  we  see  created  and 
unfolded  a  form  of  rcli.^ious  life  essentially  dif- 
ferent from  it  —  tlie  Christian  life." — A.  Sabatier, 
r/io  AiMftle  Paul,  pp.  35-36.— "By  the  two 
parables  of  the  Mustard  Seed  and  the  Leaven, 
Christ  marked  out  the  two  sides  or  aspects  of  His 
truth  —  its  external  growth  from  the  least  to  the 
greatest,  and  its  internal  action  on  society  at 
large  —  as  setting  up  a  ferment,  and  making  a 
new  lump  out  of  the  unkneaded  mass  of  the  old 
humanity.  With  tlieso  two  symbols  in  view  we 
may  gauge  what  the  gospel  was  designed  to  be 
and  to  do.  It  was  to  grow  into  a  great  outward 
society  —  tlie  tree  of  tlic  Churcli ;  but  it  was  also 
to  do  a  work  on  secular  society  as  such,  corre- 
sponding to  (he  action  of  leaven  on  flour.  Tlie 
history  of  Christianity  has  been  the  c:ir'*ying  out 


of  these  two  distinct  and  contrasted  conceptions : 
but  how  imperfectly,  and  under  what  draw- 
backs."—  IJev.  J.  H.  Heard,  AUxamlrian  ami 
Cartha'jiiiiiiii  T/ieolot/i/  Oinlniiitcil.  p.  186. — "The 
organic  connection  of  Jewi^li  Ciiristians  with  the 
synagogue,  wliidi  niii.st,  in  acconlancc  witli  tlii! 
facts  before  us,  be  reg.mled  as  a  rule,  is  certainly 
not  to  be  taken  as  a  mere  incidental  pbcnonienon, 
a  customary  liabit  or  arbitraiy  accommodation, 
but  as  a  moral  fact  resting  uiioii  an  internal 
necessity,  liaviiig  its  foundation  in  tlie  love  of 
Jcwisli  Christians  to  their  nation,  and  in  the  ad- 
hesion of  llieir  religious  consciousness  to  tlie  olil 
covenant.  To  mistake  tliis  would  be  to  under- 
rate the  wide  bearing  of  tlie  fact.  But  lest  we 
should  over-estimate  its  importance,  we  must  at 
once  proceed  to  another  consideration.  Within 
Judaism  we  must  distinguish  not  only  the  Ilab- 
binical  or  Pliarisaic  tradition  of  the  oriL'inal 
canonical  revelation,  but  also  withui  tlie  canon 
itself  we  .'lave  to  distinguish  the  Levilieal  ele- 
ment from  the  prophetic,  .  .  .  taking  the  latter 
not  in  a  close  but  a  wide  .sense  as  the  living 
spiritual  development  of  tlie  tlieocracy." — O.  V. 
Lecliler,  The  AjMistolie  ami  Post- AponUilic  Times, 
V.  1,  p.  54. — "  Moreover  the  law  had  claims  on  a 
Hebrew  of  Palestine  wholly  independent  of  his 
religious  obligations.  To  liim  it  was  a  national 
institution,  as  well  um  a  divine  covenant.  Under 
the  Gu '.pel  he  might  consider  his  relations  to  it 
in  this  latter  character  altered,  but  as  embodying 
the  decrees  and  usages  of  his  country  it  still  de- 
manded his  allegiance.  To  be  a  gixid  Christian 
he  was  not  reiiuired  to  be  a  bad  citizen.  On 
these  grounds  the  more  enlightened  members  of 
t'.ie  mother-church  would  justify  tlieir  continued 
adhesion  to  tiie  law.  Nor  is  there  any  reason  to 
supijoso  that  St.  Paul  himself  took  a  different 
view  of  their  ':l"'gation.s."-J.  B.  Lightfoot, 
Disstrtations  on  the  Apostolic  ^lye,  p.  67. — "The 
term  '  Jewish-Cliristianity '  is  applicable  exclu- 
sively to  those  Christians  wlio  really  retained, 
.'iitirely  or  in  the  smallest  part,  the  national  and 
political  forms  cf  Judaism  and  insisted  upon  tlie 
observance  of  the  Mosaic  Law  without  modiflc  a- 
tion  as  essential  to  Christianity,  at  least  to  the 
Christianity  o'  the  Jewish-born  converts,  o-  who 
indeed  rjjected  tliese  forms,  but  acknowlv:dgcd 
the  prerogative  of  the  Jewish  people  also  in 
Cliri.stianity." — A.  Harnack,  Outlines  of  the  Ilis- 
tofji  of  Dognw,  pi.  75. 

A.  "D.  33-100. — The  Rise  of  the  Churches. 
— Jerusalem. — "After  tlvj  miraculous  healing 
of  the  cripple  and  the  discourse  of  tlie  Apostle 
Peter  on  that  (  <  casion,  the  historiiui  goes  on  to 
say,  '  iMany  of  them  which  heard  the  word 
believed,  and  the  number  of  the  men  was  about 
5,000 '  (iv.  4).  It  seems  as  if  in  consequence  of 
this  event,  whicli  made  no  little  stir,  a  larger 
number  joined  tlicmselves  to  the  Church.  Nor 
is  it  ])robal)le  tliat  this  healing  took  plswc!  until  a 
long  time  after  tlie  beginning  of  the  Cliurch. 
The  miracle,  with  the  effect  which  it  had, 
serves  as  a  resting  place  at  which  the  result  of 
the  previous  growth  of  the  Church  may  be 
ascertained.  And  here  the  number  again  in- 
cidentally mentioned  refers  witliout  doubt  to  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem.  "—G.  V.  Lechh  r,  Th6 
Apostolic  and  Post- Apostolic  Times,  v.  1.  ;).  83. — 
The  early  history  of  the  Churches  "falls  into 
tliree  periods  wliicli  nio'k  three  distinct  stages  In 
its  progress:  (1)  The  Extension  of  the  Church 
to  the  Gentiles;  (2)  The  Kecognition  of  Gentile 


433 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Firtt 
ApoaloUc  MissioHi. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Liberty;  (3)  The  Emancipation  of  the  Jewisli 
Churches.  .  .  .  And  soon  enough  tlie  pressure 
of  events  began  to  be  felt.  The  dispersion  was 
the  link  which  connected  the  Hebrews  of  Pales- 
tine with  the  outer  world.  Led  captive  by  the 
pow'T  of  Greek  philosophy  at  Athens  and  T^irsus 
and  Alexandria,  attracted  by  the  fascinations  of 
Oriental  mysticism  in  Asia,  swept  along  with 
the  busy  whirl  of  social  life  in  the  city  and  court 
of  the  Ca'sars,  these  outlying  members  of  the 
chosen  race  had  inhaled  a  freer  spirit  and  con- 
tract<!d  wider  interests  than  their  fellow-country- 
men at  home.  By  a  series  of  insensible  grada- 
tions—  proselytes  of  the  covenant — proselytes 
of  the  gate  — superstitious  devotees  w^o  observed 
the  rites  witliout  accepting  the  faith  of  tlie 
Mosaic  dispensation — curious  Ixjkers-on  who 
interested  tlieniselves  in  the  Jewish  ritual  as  they 
would  in  the  worship  of  Isis  or  of  Astarte  —  the 
most  stubborn  zealot  of  the  law  was  linked  to 
the  idolatrous  heathen  whom  he  abhorred  an<l 
who  despised  him  iu  turn.  Thus  tlie  train  was 
uneonscioiisly  laid,  when  the  spark  fell  from 
heaven  and  tired  i',.  .  .  .  Mean  while  at  Jerusalem 
some  vears  p.issed  away  before  the  barrier  of 
Judaism  was  a.ssailed.  The  Apostles  still 
observed  the  Mosaic  ritual;  they  still  confined 
their  pleaching  to  Jews  by  birth,  or  Jews  by 
adoption,  the  proselytes  of  the  covenant.  At 
length  a  breach  was  made,  and  the  assailants  as 
might  be  e.\pected  were  Hellenists.  The  first 
step  towards  the  creation  of  an  organized  ministry 
wa'o  also  the  first  step  towards  the  emancipation 
of  the  Church.  Tne  Jews  of  Judrea,  '  Hebrews 
of  the  Hebrews'  had  ever  regarded  their 
Hellenist  brethren  with  suspicion  and  distrust; 
and  tliis  estrangement  reproduced  itself  In  the 
Christian  Clnu'ch.  The  interests  of  the  Hellenist 
widows  had  been  neglected  in  the  daily  distri- 
bution of  alms.  Hence  '  arose  a  murmuring  of 
the  Hellenists  against  the  Hebrews  '  (Acts  vi.  1), 
which  was  met  by  the  appointment  of  seven 
persons  specially  charged  with  providing  for  the 
wants  of  these  neglected  poor.  If  the  selection 
was  made,  as  St.  Luke's  language  seems  to 
imply,  not  by  the  Hellenists  themselves  but  by 
the  Chvirch  at  large  (vi.  2),  the  concession  when 
granted  was  carried  out  in  a  liberal  spirit.  All 
the  names  of  the  seven  are  Greek,  pomting  to  a 
Hellenist  rather  than  a  Hebrew  extraction,  and 
one  is  especially  described  as  a  proselyte,  being 
doubtless  chosen  to  represent  a  hitliLTlo  small 
but  growing  section  of  the  comnumlty.  By 
this  appointment  the  Hellenist  members  obtained 
a  status  in  the  Church ;  and  the  effects  of  this 
measure  soon  became  visible.  Two  out  of  the 
seven  stand  i)rominently  forward  as  the  cham- 
pions of  emancipation,  Stephen  the  preacher  and 
martyr  of  liberty,  and  Philip  tlio  practical 
worker." — J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Binnertations  on  the 
ApoHtoUc  Age,  pp.  50-52. — "The  IlelUmist 
Stephen  roused  deep-stirring  movements  cliietty 
in  Hellenist  circles.  .  .  .  The  persecution  of  the 
Jerusalem  community  —  perhaps  spec  il'y  of  its 
Hellenist  part  —  whicli  followed  tlie  ining  of 
Stephen,  became  a  means  of  promoting  the 
spread  of  the  Christinri  filth  to  .  .  .  Cyprus,  at 
last  to  so  important  a  centre  ns  Antioch,  the 
imperial  capital  of  the  E  ist.  To  the  winning  of 
the  Jews  to  faith  in  Jesus  there  i^  already  ailded 
the  reception  into  the  Christian  community  of 
the  pious  Gentile  Cornelius,  a  proselyte  of  the  gate. 
.  .  .  Though  this  appears  iu  tradition  as    an 


individual  case  sanctioned  by  special  Divine 
guidance,  in  the  meantime  Hellenist  Christians 
had  already  begun  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  born 
Greeks,  also  at  Antioch  in  Syria,  and  suecess- 
fiilly  (Acts  xi.  10-28),  Barnabas  is  sent  thither 
froir  Jerusnlem." — W.  Moeller,  Ilhtory  of  the 
Chrintidn  Church,  p.  53-54. —  "Philip,  driven 
from  Jerusalem  by  the  persecution,  preached 
Christ  to  the  Samaritans.  .  .  .  The  Apostles  who 
had  remained  at  Jerusalem,  hearing  of  the 
success  of  Philip's  preaching,  sent  two  of  their 
number  into  this  new  and  fruitful  field  of  labor. 
.  .  .  Peter  and  John  return  to  Jerusalem  while 
the  Deacon  Philip  is  called,  by  a  new  manifesta- 
tion of  the  will  of  God,  yet  further  to  extend  the 
field  of  Christian  missions.  It  is  not  a  Samari- 
tan but  a  pagan,  whom  he  next  in.struets  in  the 
truth.  .  .  .  He  was  an  Ethiopian  eunuch,  a  greot 
dignitary  of  the  court  of  MeroO,  treasurer  of  the 
Queen.  .  .  .  This  man,  a  pagan  by  birth,  had 
taken  a  long  journey  to  worehip  the  true  God  in 
the  temple  of  Jerusidem." — E.  DePressense,  T/ie 
Eiirly  Years  of  ChriHtianity,  pp.  71-74. — "For 
the  sake  of  the  popular  feeling  Herod  Agrippa 
laid  hands  on  members  of  the  community,  and 
caused  James  the  brother  of  John  (the  sons  of 
Zcbedee)  to  be  put  to  death  by  the  sword,  in  the 
yi^ar  44,  for  soon  thereafter  Herod  Agrippa 
died.  Peter  also  was  taken  prisoner,  but  miracu- 
lously escaped  and  provisionally  left  Jerusalem. 
From  this  time  on  James  the  brother  of  the 
Lord  appears  ever  more  and  more  as  really  bear- 
ing ranit  as  head  of  the  Jerusalem  community, 
viiile  Peter  more  and  more  devotes  himself  to 
the  apostolic  mission  abroad,  and  indeed,  more  . 
accurately,  to  the  mission  in  Israel. " —  VV.  l^Ioeller, 
History  of  the  Christian  Church,  p.  55. — "T'  e 
accounts  which  we  have  regarding  the  apostle 
Peter,  represent  him  as  preaching  the  gospel  from 
the  far  cast  to  distant  parts  of  the  west.  .  .  . 
According  to  his  own  words,  he  founded  churches 
in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithy- 
nia,  and  according  to  the  testimony  of  ancient 
historians  of  the  Church  in  the  east  also;  in 
Syria,  Babylon,  Mcsoiotamia,  Clialdaea,  Arabia, 
Phoenicia  and  Egyp',  and  in  the  west,  at  Rome, 
in  Britain,  Ireland,  Helvetia  and  Spain." — J.  E. 
T.  Wiltscli,  IlaiuJ.  Hook  of  the.  Geography  and 
Statistics  of  Tlie  Church,  v.  1,  pp.  19-20.— 
"Three  and  three  only  of  the  personal  disci- 
ples and  immediate  followers  of  our  Lord  hold 
any  prominent  place  in  the  Apostolic  records  — 
James,  Peter,  and  John;  the  first  the  Lord's 
brotlier,  the  two  latter  the  foremost  members  of 
the  Twelve.  Apart  from  an  incidental  refer- 
ence to  the  death  of  James  the  son  of  Zebedee, 
which  is  dismissed  in  a  single  sentence,  the  rest 
of  the  Twelve  are  mentioned  by  name  for  the 
last  time  on  the  day  of  the  Lord's  Ascension. 
Thenceforward  they  disappear  wholly  from  the 
canonical  writings.  And  this  silence  also 
extends  to  the  traditions  of  succeeding  ages. 
We  read  indeed  of  St.  Thomas  in  India,  of  St. 
Andrew  in  Scythia;  but  such  scanty  notices, 
even  if  we  accept  them  as  trustworthy,  show 
only  the  more  plainly  how  little  the  Church 
could  tell  of  her  earliest  teachers.  Doubtless 
they  laboured  zealously  and  effectively  in  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel ;  but,  so  far  as  we  know, 
they  have  left  no  impress  of  their  individual 
mind  and  character  on  the  Church  at  large. 
Occupying  the  foreground,  and  indeed  covering 
the  whole  canvas  of  early  ecclesiastical  history, 


434 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Advent 
of  f».  I-aul. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


npponr  four  figures  alone,  St.  Piiul,  nnd  the 
tlircu  Apostlea  of  the  Circumcision." — J.  U. 
Liglitfoot,  DiiaertatioHS  on  tite  Apostolic  Age,  p. 
46.— "Wliile  Peter  (ns  it  appears)  is  occupied 
with  tlie  worli  of  preaching  to  the  Jews  outside 
of  Palestine,  tlie  community  at  Jerusalem,  and 
Indeed  the  Palestinian  communities  in  general, 
stand  under  the  leadership  of  the  brother  of  the 
Lord,  James,  as  tlieir  recognised  head.  They 
remain  strictly  in  tli";  life;  of  the  law,  nnd  still 
hold  securely  to  the  hope  of  the  conversion  of 
the  whole  of  God's  people  (which  Paul  hail  for 
the  present  gi'en  up).  The  mission  to  tlie 
Gentiles  is  indeei,'  recognised,  but  the  manner  of 
its  conduct  by  Paul  anil  the  powerfid  increase  of 
Pauline  comr'.uiuties  excite  misgivings  and  dis- 
sensions. For  in  these  mi.xed  communities,  in 
the  presence  of  what  is  often  a  preponderating 
Gentile  elenr.ent,  it  becomes  ever  clearer  in  what 
direction  the  devel'>'iment  is  pressing;  that,  in 
iact,  for  the  sake  o  ilie  higher  Christian  com- 
munion the  lega  istoms  even  of  the  Jewish 
Christians  in  thesv  ommunities  must  inevitably 
be  broken  down,  and  general  Christian  freedom, 
on  principle,  frrm  the  commands  of  the  law, 
giiin  rcco^i^itiou." — Dr.  Wilhelm  Moeller,  Hist, 
of  the  Christian  Church,  p.  73.— "The  fall  of 
Jerusalem  occurred  in  the  Autumn  of  the  year 
70  [see  Jews:  A.  D.  66-70],  And  soon  the 
catastrophe  came  which  solved  the  difficult  prob- 
lem. .  .  .  Jerusalem  was  razed  to  the  ground, 
and  the  Temple-worship  ceased,  never  again  to 
be  revived.  The  Christians  foreseeing  the  calam- 
ity had  fled  before  the  tempest.  .  .  .  Before  the 
crisis  came,  they  had  been  deprived  of  the  coun- 
sel and  guidance  of  the  leading  apostles.  Peter 
had  fallen  a  martyr  at  Rome ;  John  had  retired 
to  Asia  Minor ;  Jam<;s,  the  Lord's  brother,  was  slain 
not  long  before  the  great  catastrophe.  ...  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  cousin  Symeon,  the  son  of 
Clopas  and  nephew  of  Joseph.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  Church  was  reformed  at  Pella.  Its 
history  in  the  ages  following  is  a  hopeless  blank. " 
—J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Dissertations  on  the  Apostolic 
Age,  p.  68. — "While  Cocsarea  succeeded  Jerusa- 
lem as  the  political  capital  of  Palestine,  Antioch 
succeeded  it  as  the  centre  of  Christendom." — A. 
Plummer,  Church  of  the  Early  Fathers,  ch.  8. 

Antioch. — "  Untfer  Macedonian  rule  the  Greek 
Intellect  had  become  the  leading  intellectual 
power  of  the  world.  The  great  Greek-speaking 
towns  of  the  Ea^-t  were  alike  the  strongholds  of 
intellectual  power,  the  battlefields  of  opinion 
and  systems,  and  the  laboratories  of  scientific 
research,  where  discoveries  were  made  and  liter- 
ary undertakings  requiring  the  combination  of 
forces  were  carried  out.  Such  was  Antioch  on 
the  Orontes,  the  meeting  point  of  Syrian  and 
Greek  intellect ;  such,  above  all,  was  Alexandria. " 
— J.  J.  v.:n  Diillinger,  Studies  in  European  His- 
tory, p.  165. — "  The  chief  lino  along  which  the 
new  religion  developed  was  that  which  led  from 
Syrian  Antioch  through  the  Cilician  Gates, 
across  Lycaonia  to  Ephesus,  Corinth,  and  Rome. 
One  subsidiary  line  followed  the  land  route  by 
Philadelphia,  Troas,  Philippi,  and  the  Egnatian 
Way  to  Brindisi  and  Rome;  and  another  went 
north  from  the  Gates  by  Tyana  and  Cscsarcia  of 
Cappadocia  to  Amisos  iu  Pontus,  the  great  har- 
bour of  tl'.e  Black  Sea,  by  which  the  trade  of 
Central  Asia  was  carried  to  Rome.  The  main- 
tenance of  close  and  constant  communication 
between  the  scattered  congregations   must  be 


presiipposcd,  as  necessary  to  explain  the  growtli 
of  the  Church  and  the  attitude  which  the  State 
assumed  towanls  it.  Such  communication  was, 
on  the  view  advocated  in  tlie  present  work, 
maintained  along  the  same  lines  on  which  the 
general  develo|)ment  of  the  Emi)ire  took  place ; 
and  politics,  education  and  religion  grew  side  by 
side." — W.  M.  Ramsay,  The  Church  in  the  lioman 
Empire,  p.  10.— "The  incitement  to  the  wider 
I)reaching  of  the  Gospel  in  the  Greek  world 
starts  from  the  Christian  community  at  Antioch. 
For  this  purpose  Barnabas  receives  Paul  as  a 
companion  (Acts  xiii. ,  and  xi  v.)  Saul,  by  birth  a 
Jew  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  born  ut  1  arsus  in 
Cilicia,  educated  as  a  Pharisee,  and  although 
indeed  as  a  Hellenist,  he  had  command  of  Greek 
and  had  come  into  contact  with  Greek  culture 
and  Greek  life,  yet  had  not  actually  pa.ssed 
through  the  diicipline  of  Greek  culture,  was 
introduced  by  Gamaliel  to  the  learned  study  of 
the  law,  and  hii,  whole  soul  was  seized  with  tiery 
zeal  for  the  Statutes  of  the  fathers.  .  .  .  After 
[his  conversion  and]  his  stay  in  Damascus  and  in 
Arabia  and  tlie  visit  to  Peter  (and  James)  at 
Jerusalem,  having  gone  to  Syria  and  Cilicia,  he 
was  taken  to  Antioch  by  Barnabas. " — W.  Moel- 
ler, History  of  the  Christian  Church,  p.  .57. — 
"The  strength  and  zeal  of  the  Antioch  (Christian 
society  are  sliown  in  the  sending  forth  of  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  with  Murk,  a  cousin  of  Barnabas, 
for  tlieir  companion  for  a  part  of  the  way,  on  a 
preaching  tour  in  the  eastern  districts  of  Asia 
Elinor.  First  they  visited  Cyprus,  where  Scrgius 
Paulus,  the  proconsul,  was  converted.  Thence 
they  sailed  to  Attalia,  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Pamphylia,  and  near  Perga;  from  Perga  they 
proceecled  to  Antioch  in  Pisiilia,  and  from  there 
eastward  to  Iconium,  and  as  far  as  Lystra  and 
Derbe  in  Lycaonia.  Retracing  their  steps,  they 
came  back  to  Attalia,  and  sailed  directly  to 
Antioch.  .  .  .  This  was  the  first  incursion  of 
Paul  into  the  domain  of  heathenism." — G.  P. 
Fisher,  Jlistoi-y  of  the  Christian  Church,  p.  23. — 
"  How  then  should  Paul  and  Barnabas  proceed  ? 
To  leave  Syria  they  must  go  first  to  Seleucciu,  the 
harbour  of  Antioch,  where  they  would  find  ships 
going  south  to  the  Syrian  coast  and  Egypt,  and 
west  either  by  way  of  Cyprus  or  along  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  western  route  led  toward 
the  Roman  world,  to  which  all  Paul's  subsequent 
history  proves  that  he  considered  himself  called 
by  the  Sjiirlt.  The  Apostles  embarked  in  a 
ship  for  Cyprus,  which  was  very  closely  con- 
nected by  commerce  and  general  intercourse  with 
the  Syrian  coast.  After  traversing  the  island 
from  east  to  west,  they  must  go  onward.  Ships 
going  westward  naturally  went  across  the  coast 
of  Pamphylia,  and  the  Apostles,  after  reaching 
Paphos,  near  the  west  end  of  Cyprus,  sailed  iu 
one  of  these  ships,  and  landed  at  Attalia  in  Pam- 
phylia."— W.  JI.  Riimsay,  The  Church  in  the 
lioman  Empire,  p.  60. — " 'The  work  starting  from 
Antioch,  by  which  access  to  the  faith  is  opened 
to  the  Gentiles,  the  formation  of  (prcponderat- 
ingly)  Gentile  Christian  communities,  now  intro- 
duces into  the  original  Christian  development  an 
important  problem,  which  (about  the  year  53, 
probably  not  later),  (Gal.  ii. ;  Acts  xv.)  leads  to 
discus.sions  and  explanations  at  tlie  so-called 
Apostolic  Council  [at  Jerusalem].  .  .  .  For 
Paul,  who  has  risen  to  perfect  independence  by 
the  eiier(;v  of  his  own  peculiar  stamp  of  gospel, 
there    now   begin    the    years    of  his  powerful 


436 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Journeys. 


CimiSTIANITy. 


activity,  in  wliicli  !ie  not  only  i\R(iin  visits  unci 
cxtc'n(is  liis  former  missionary  liclil  in  Asia  Minor, 
bnt  K"i>i»  "  linn  footing  in  MaciHionia  (I'liiiippi), 
Atlicns,  ami  Acliala  (Corintli);  then  on  tlic  so- 
caiiwi  tiilrii  missionary  jonrnt-y  iic  cxcri'iscs  a 
comprc'licnsivc  intincncc  durinL;  a  stay  of  neariy 
tlir(!(!  years  at  ICpliesus,  and  linally  looks  from 
Aclutia  towards  tlie  metropolis  of  I'lit;  world."— 
W.  Moellcr,  //(■*/.  of  the  (Jhiintidit  Vhnrch,  ]i/i. 
57-51).— "If  tli(!  lieathen  wliom  iw  (I'aid)  liad 
won  to  the  faith  and  received  into  the  Chnrcli 
were  to  be  pcrsimded  to  adopt  drcnmeision  and 
tlie  law  before  iiiey  coidd  attain  to  full  partici- 
pation in  the  Christian  salvation,  ids  prcachinj; 
liad  fallen  sliort  of  his  aim.  it  had  been  in  vain, 
.since  it  was  very  doubtfid  whether  tlie  (Jentiles 
gained  over  to  believe  in  the  .Messiaii  wonld  sub- 
mit to  the  condition.  I'aid  coidd  only  look  on 
tho.se  who  nuide  sucli  a  demand  a.s  false  bretliren, 
who  liaving  no  claim  to  ChrLstiau  brotherhood 
had  forced  themselves  into  tlie  Chnrcli  at  Antioch 
In  an  unauthorized  way  (Oal.  ii.  4),  and  was  i)er- 
suaded  that  neitlierthe  primitive  Cliurch  assndi, 
nor  its  rulers,  shared  tliis  view.  In  order  tlierc- 
fore  to  prevent  the  Gentile  Christians  from  being 
disturbed  on  this  point,  lie  determined  to  go  to 
Jcrusaluni  and  there  to  challenge  a  decision  in 
the  matter  that  shonld  ptit  an  end  to  tlie  strife 
(ii.  2).  The  Church  at  Antioch  also  recognized 
tills  necessity ;  hence  followed  the  i)rocceding8  in 
Jerusalem  [about  A.  D.  52],  whither  Paul  and 
Barnabas  repaired  with  other  associates  (Gal.  ii. 
1,  Acts  XV.  2  if).  ...  It  is  certain  tluit  when 
Paul  laid  ids  (free)  gospel  before  tlie  authorities 
in  Jerusalem,  tliey  added  notliing  to  it  (Gal.  ii. 
2-6),  i.  e.,  they  di(f  not  require  that  tlie  gospel  ho 
preached  to  tlie  Gentiles  should,  besides  the  solo 
condition  of  faith  which  he  laid  down,  impose 
Judaism  upon  them  as  a  condition  of  participa- 
tion in  salvation.  .  .  .  Paul's  stipulations  with 
the  authorities  in  Jerusalem  respecting  tlieir 
future  work  were  just  as  iraport«nt  for  him  us 
the  recognition  of  his  free  gospel  (Gal.  ii.  7-10). 
They  had  for  their  basis  a  recognition  on  the 
part  of  the  primitive  apostles  that  ho  was  en- 
trusted witli  the  gospel  of  the  imcircumcision,  to 
whicli  they  could  add  nothing  (ii.  6),  just  as 
Petei  (f.s  admittedly  the  most  prominent  among 
the  prii.iitive  apostles)  was  entrusted  with  that 
of  the  circumcision." — Bernhard  Weiss,  A  Man- 
iial  of  Introdiietion  to  the  New  Testament,  v.  1, 
;);).  172-175,  178.— "It  seems  clear  that  tlie  first 
meetings  of  tlie  Christians  as  a  community  apart 
—  mcetin(js  that  is  of  a  private  ratlier  than  a 
proselytising  (ilmracter  —  took  place,  ns  we  see 
from  Acts  1.  13-15,  in  private  apartments,  the 
upper  rooms  or  large  guest-chambers  in  the 
houses  of  individual  members.  Sucli  a  room  was 
doubtless  provided  by  the  liberality  of  Titus  Jus- 
tus (Acts  xviii.  7),  such  a  room  again  was  tlio 
upper  chamber  in  wliicli  St.  Paul  preaclied  at 
Troas  (Acts  xx.  7,  8);  in  such  assembled  the  con- 
verts saluted  by  the  Apostle  ns  the  church  wliicli 
is  in  the  house  of  Aquila  and  Prisca,  of  Nymphas 
and  of  Philemon.  .  .  .  The  primitive  Roman 
house  had  only  one  story,  but  as  tlie  cities  grew 
to  be  more  densely  populated  upper  stories  came 
into  use,  and  it  was  the  custom  to  place  in  these 
dining  apartments,  which  were  called  cenacula. 
Sucli  apartments  would  answer  to  the  '  upper 
rooms'  .  .  .  associated  with  the  early  days  of 
Christianity.  .  .  .  The  Christian  communities 
contained    from   an   early  period  members  of 


wealth  and  social  position,  who  could  accommo- 
date in  their  houses  larg(?  gatherings  of  the  faith- 
ful ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  rctlcct  that  while  some 
of  the  mansions  i/T  an  ancient  city  might  be  wit- 
nessing in  supi)ers  of  a  Trimalchlo  or  a  V'irro, 
scenes  more  revolting  to  modern  taste  than 
almost  anything  presented  by  the  pagan  world, 
others,  perhaps  in  the  same  street,  might  be  the 
seat  of  Christian  worsliip  or  of  the  simple 
Christian  meal." — G.  B.  Brown,  From  Se/iola  to 
Ciillinlrill.  /iji.  :(H-4;t. 

Asia  Minor  and  Greece. — "Our  knowledge 
of  the  Apostle  Paul's  life  is  far  from  bc'iig  com- 
plete. We  have  only  a  brief  sketcli  of  journeys 
and  toils  that  extended  over  a  period  of  thirty 
years.  Large  sjiaces  are  ])as.sed  over  in  silence. 
For  example,  in  the  catalogue  of  his  suflerings, 
incidentally  given,  he  refers  to  tlie  fact  that  ho 
had  been  sliipwreckcd  tlirec  times,  and  these  dis- 
asters were  all  prior  to  the  shipwreck  on  the 
Island  of  Malta  described  by  Luke.  Shortly 
after  the  conference  at  Jerusalem  he  started  on 
his  second  missionary  tour.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  Silas,  and  was  joined  by  Timothy  at 
Lystra.  He  revisited  his  converts  in  Eastern 
Asia  Minor,  founded  churches  in  Galatia  and 
Plirygia,  and  from  Troas,  obedient  to  a  heavenly 
summons,  crossed  over  to  Europe.  Having 
planted  at  Pliilippi  a  church  that  remained  re- 
markably devoted  and  loyal  to  him,  he  followed 
the  great  Roman  road  to  Thessalonica,  the  most 
important  city  in  Alacedonia.  Driven  from  there 
and  from  Berea,  he  proceeded  to  Athens  [sen 
Athens:  A.  D.  54  (?)J,  In  that  renowned  and 
cultivated  city  he  discoursed  on  Mars  Hill  to 
auditors  eager  for  new  ideas  in  philosophy  and 
religion,  and  in  private  debated  with  Stoic?  and 
Epicureans.  At  Corinth,  wliich  had  risen  from 
its  ruins  and  was  once  more  rich  and  prosperous, 
he  remained  for  a  j'ear  and  a  half.  It  was  there, 
probably,  tliat  ho  wrote  his  two  Epistles  to  the 
Thessalonian  Christians.  After  a  short  stay  at 
Ephesus  he  returned  to  Antioch  by  way  of 
Cesarea  and  Jerusalem.  It  was  not  long  before 
Paul — a  second  Alexander,  but  on  a  peaceful 
expedition  —  began  his  third  great  missionary 
journej'.  Taking  tlie  land  route  from  Antioch, 
he  traversed  Asia  Jlinor  to  Ephesus,  a  flourish- 
ing commercial  mart,  tlie  capital  of  ilic  Roman 
province  of  Asia.  Tliere,  witli  occa.-^ional  ab- 
sences, he  made  his  abode  for  upwards  of  two 
years.  From  Ephesus,  probably,  he  wrote  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  .  .  .  From  Ephesus 
Paul  also  wrote  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Cori.i- 
tliians.  The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 
he  probably  wrote  from  Pliilippi.  .  .  .  Coming 
down  through  Greece,  he  remained  tliere  three 
months.  There  lie  composed  his  Ephtle  to  the 
Romans.  .  .  .  The  untiring  Apostle  now  turned 
his  face  towards  Jerusalem.  He  desired  to  be 
present  at  the  festival  of  the  Pentecost.  In  order 
to  save  time,  he  sailed  past  Ephesus,  and  at 
Miletus  bade  a  tender  farewell  to  the  Ephcsiau 
elders.  Ho  had  fulfilled  his  pledge  given  at  the 
conference,  and  ho  now  carried  contributions 
from  the  Christians  of  Macedonia  and  Achaia  for 
the  poor  at  Jerusalem." — G.  P.  Fisher,  History 
of  the  Christian  Church,  pp.  27-28.— "Wo  may 
safely  say  that  if  Saul  had  been  less  of  a  Jew, 
Paul  the  Apostle  would  have  been  less  bold  and 
independent.  His  work  would  have  been  more 
superficial,  and  his  mind  less  unfettered.  God 
did  not  choose  a  heathen  to  be  the  apostle  for  the 


436 


CHRISTIANITY. 


iMbort  of  St.  Paul. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


heftthen ;  for  he  might  have  been  ensnared  by 
the  triuiitions  of  Jiuhiism,  by  its  priestly  liiur- 
archy  iind  the  splemloura  of  its  worsliip,  a.i  In- 
deed it  happened  witli  tlie  clmreh  of  tli(!  second 
century.  On  the  contrary  Oiid  cliose  a  Pharisee. 
But  this  Pharisee  lia<l  tlie  most  complete  e.K- 
perience  of  the  emptiness  of  external  ceremonies 
and  tlie  crushing  yoke  of  the  law.  Tliere  was 
no  fear  that  he  would  ever  look  back,  that  he 
would  be  tempted  to  setup  aHain  what  the  grace 
of  Oo()  had  justly  overthrown  (Oal.  ii.  18).  Juda- 
ism was  wholly  vancpiishcd  in  his  soul,  for  it 
was  wholly  displaced." — A.  '&i\ha.l{Kr,The  Apontle 
Paul,  p.  (ii). — "Notwithstanding  the  opposition 
he  met  from  his  countrymen,  in  spite  of  all  the 
liberal  and  the  awakened  sympathies  which  he 
derived  from  liis  work,  despite  the  necessity  of 
contending  daily  and  hourly  for  the  freedom  of 
the  Gospel  among  the  Gentiles,  ho  never  ceased 
to  be  a  Jew.  .  .  .  The  most  ardent  patriot  could 
not  enlarge  with  greater  pride  on  the  glories  of 
the  chosen  race  than  he  does  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  His  care  for  the  poor  in  Judica  is  a 
touching  proof  of  the  strengtli  of  this  national 
feeling.  His  attendance  at  the  great  annual  fes- 
tivals in  Jerusalem  is  still  more  significant.  '  I 
must  spend  the  coming  feast  at  Jerusalem.'  This 
language  becomes  the  more  s^rilcing  when  we 
remember  that  he  was  then  intending  to  open 
out  a  new  field  of  missionary  labour  in  the  far 
West,  and  was  bidding  perhaps  his  last  farewell 
to  the  Holy  City,  the  joy  of  the  whole  earth." — 
J.  B.  Liglitfoot,  Biblical  Essays,  pp.  209-210.— 
"The  Macedonian  Churches  are  honorabijr  dis- 
tinguished above  all  others  by  their  fidelity  to 
the  Gospel  and  their  affectionate  regard  for  St. 
Paul  himself.  While  the  C.aircli  of  Corinth 
disgraced  herself  by  gross  moral  delinquencies, 
while  the  Galatians  bartered  the  liberty  of  the 
Gospel  for  a  narrow  formalism,  while  the  be- 
lievers of  Ephesus  drifted  into  the  wildest 
speculative  errors,  no  such  stain  attaclies  to  the 
brethren  of  Philippi  and  Thessalonica.  It  is  to 
the  Macedonian  congregations  that  tlie  Apostle 
ever  turns  for  solace  in  the  midst  of  his  severest 
trials  and  sufferings.  Time  seems  not  to  have 
chilled  these  feelings  of  mutual  alfeetion.  The 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  written  about  ten 
years  after  the  Thessalonian  letters.  It  is  the 
mori  surprising  therefore  that  they  should  re- 
semble each  other  so  strongly  in  tone.  In  botli 
alike  St.  Paul  drops  his  official  title  at  the  outset, 
.  .  .  and  in  both  ho  adopts  throughout  the  same 
tone  of  confidence  and  affection.  In  this  inter- 
val of  ten  years  we  meet  with  one  notice  of  the 
Macedonian  Churches.  It  is  conceived  in  terms 
of  unmeasured  praise.  The  Macedonians  had 
been  called  upon  to  contribute  to  the  wants  of 
their  poorer  brethren  in  Judaia,  who  were  suffer- 
ing from  famine.  They  had  responded  nobly  to 
the  call.  Deep-sunk  in  poverty  and  sorely  tried 
by  persecution,  they  came  forward  with  eager 
joy  and  poured  out  the  riches  of  their  liberality, 
straining  their  means  to  the  utmost  in  order  to 
relieve  the  sufferers.  .  .  .  We  may  imagine  that 
the  people  still  retained  something  of  those 
simpler  habits  and  that  sturdier  character,  which 
triumphed  over  Greeks  and  Orientals  in  the  days 
of  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  thus  in  the  early 
warfare  of  the  Christian  Church  the  Macedonian 
phalanx  offered  a  sue  "ssful  resistance  to  the 
assaults  of  an  enemy,  Jore  which  the  lax  and 
enervated  ranks  of  Asia  and  Achaia  had  yielded 


ignominiously.  "—J.  B.  Lightfoot,  liihlicnl  Knsaiis, 
pp.  240-ar)().--At  Jerusalem,  "thi^  Apostle  was 
rescued  by  a  detachment  nf  the  liomuii  giirrison 
from  a  mob  of  Jewish  malignants,  was  liclil  in 
custody  for  two  years  at  Ccsarea,  and  was  finally 
enabled  to  iiccomplish  ii  longcherishcd  intention 
to  go  to  R<mie,  by  being  conveyed  there  as  a 
priscmer,  he  having  made  an  appeal  to  Ciusar. 
After  being  wreckei'  on  the  Mediterranean  anil 
cast  ashore  on  the  Island  of  Malta,  under  the  ci:- 
cumstances  rclateil  in  Luke's  graphic  and  accu- 
rate description  of  the  voyage,  ho  went  on  his 
way  ill  safety  to  the  capital." — 0,.P.  fM-nher,  Ili.i~ 
tun/of  tlie  Vhi-i.il  inn  C/iiii-rh,  p.  20. — "  Paul's  ajios- 
tolic  career,  as  known  to  iis,  lasted  .  .  .  twenty- 
nine  or  thirty  years;  and  it  falls  into  three 
distinct  periods  which  are  smnmarized  in  the 
following  chronological  table:  Fii-st  Period  —  Es- 
sentially Missionary;  35  A.  T).,  Conversion  of 
Paul.  —  .lourney  to  Arabia;  38,  Eirst  visit  to 
Jerusalem;  38-40,  Mission  in  Syria  and  C'ilieia  — 
Tarsus  and  Antioch;  r)0-r)l,First  missionary  jour- 
ney—  Cyprus,  PampliyliaandGalatia  (Acts  xiii., 
xiv.);  52,  Conference  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  XV. ;  Gal. 
ii.);  52-55,  Second  missionary  journey  —  Epistles 
to  the  Thesialonians  (from  Corinth).  Scconil 
Period  — The  Great  Conflicts,  and  the  Great  Epis- 
tles: 54,  Return  to  Antioch  —  Controversy  with 
Peter  (Gal.  ii.  12-22);  55-57,  Mission  to  Epliesus 
and  Asia ;  56,  Epistle  to  the  Galatians ;  57  or  58 
(Passover),  First  Epistle  to  the  CoWnthians 
(Epliesus);  57  or  58  (Autumn),  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  (Macedonia);  58  (Winter), 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Third  Period  —  The 
Captivity:  58  or  59  (Pentecost),  Paul  is  arrested 
at  Jerusalem;  58-60,  or  59-61,  Captivity  at  Cscs- 
area  —  Epistles  to  Philemon,  Colossians  and 
Ephesians;  60  or  61  (Autumn),  Departure  for 
Rome;  61  or  62  (Spring),  Arrival  of  Paul  in 
Rome ;  62-63,  Epistle  to  the  Philippians ;  63  or  64, 
End  of  the  narrative  of  the  Acts  of  tin  Apos- 
tles.'— A.  Sabatier,  T/ie  Aposi'e Paul, pp.  21-22. — 
"The  impression  that  we  get  from  Acts  is,  that  the 
evangelisation  of  Asia  Minor  originated  from  St. 
Paul ;  and  that  from  his  initiative  tlie  now  reli- 
gion gradually  spread  over  the  country  through 
the  action  of  many  other  missionaries  (Acts  xix. 
10).  Moreover,  missionaries  not  traincMl  by  him, 
were  at  work  in  South  Galatia  and  in  Ephesus  as 
early  as  54^56  A.  D.  (Gal.  v.  7-10;  Acts  xviii. 
25).  .  .  .  The  Cliristiau  Church  in  Asia  Minor 
was  always  opposed  to  the  primitive  native  char- 
acter. It  was  Christianity,  and  not  the  Imperial 
government,  which  finally  destroyed  the  native 
languages,  and  made  Greek  the  unlversrd  lan- 
guage of  A.'iia  Jlinor.  Tlie  new  religion  was 
strong  in  the  towns  before  it  liad  any  hold  of  the 
country  parts.  The  ruder  and  the  less  civilised 
any  district  was,  the  slower  was  Christianity  in 
permeating  it.  Cliristianity  in  the  early  centuries 
was  the  religion  of  the  more  advanced,  not  of  the 
'  barbarian  '  peoples ;  and  in  f "  ^t  it  seems  to  be 
nearly  confined  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman 
world,  and  practically  to  take  little  thought  of 
any  people  beyond,  though  in  theory,  '  Barbarian 
and  Scythian  are  included  in  it.  .  .  .  The  First 
Epistle  of  John  was  in  all  probability  '  addressed 
primarily  to  the  circle  of  Asiatic  Churches,  of 
which  Ephesus  was  the  centre.'" — W.  M.  Ram- 
say, The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire,  pp.  284, 
44,  303. — "  Unless  we  are  prepared  to  reject  with- 
out a  hearing  all  the  traditions  of  Christianity, 
we  cannot  refuse  to  believe  that  the  latest  years 


487 


CHIUSTIANITY. 


at.  JoAn, 


CnniSTIANITY 


of  the  Apogtlc  St.  John  were  spent  In  the  Ilomnn 
provlnro  of  Asin  nnd  clilctly  In  KphcHtitt  lt8  capi- 
tal. This  tniditioii  Ih  Hin>;iilarly  full,  coiiHlstciit 
and  well  uutliciiticntcd.     Here  he  Kutlirrcd  dlst'i- 

{)lo.s  about  liliii,  orj^aiilzcd  cliurclics,  appointed 
il.shopH  and  proHliytiTS.  A  whole  chorus  of 
voices  unite  in  bearing  teHliniony  to  its  truth. 
One  who  passed  his  earlier  life  in  these  parts  and 
had  heani  his  aged  master,  n  disciple  of  .St.  John 
himself,  recount  his  personal  reminiscences  of  tlie 
great  Apostle;  another,  who  held  this  very  sec 
of  Ephesus,  and  writing  less  than  a  century  after 
the  Apostle's  death  was  linked  with  the  past  bv  a 
chain  of  relatives  all  bishops  in  tlie  Christian 
Church;  a  third  who  also  flourished  about  the 
close  of  the  century  and  numbered  among  his 
teachers  nn  old  man  from  this  very  district — are 
the  principal,  because  the  most  dii'inct,  witnesses 
to  a  fact  which  is  implied  in  several  other  notices 
of  earlier  or  contempo  ..ry  writere.  As  to  the 
time  at  which  St.  John  left  his  original  home  and 
settled  in  this  new  abode  no  direct  account  is  pre- 
served ;  but  a  very  ])robable  conjecture  may  be 
hazarded,  Tlie  impending  fall  of  the  Holy  City 
was  the  signal  for  the  dispersion  of  the  followers 
of  Christ.  About  this  same  time  tlie  three  other 
great  Apostles,  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul  and  St.  James, 
(lied  a  martyr's  death ;  nnd  on  St.  John,  the  last 
Burvivini;  of  the  four  great  pillars  of  the  Church, 
devolvccl  the  work  of  developing  the  theology  of 
the  Gospel  and  completing  tlio  organization  of 
the  Church.  It  was  not  unnatural  that  at  siieli  ii 
crisis  he  should  fix  his  residence  in  the  centre  of 
a  large  and  growing  Christian  community,  which 
liad  been  planted  by  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles, 
nnd  watered  by  the  Apostle  of  the  Circumcision. 
The  missionary  l:.bours  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter 
in  Asia  Minor  were  confirmed  nnd  extended  by 
the  prolonged  residence  of  their  younger  con- 
temporary. At  all  events  such  evidence  ns  we 
possess  is  favourable  to  this  view  of  the  date  of 
St.  John's  settlement  at  Ephesus.  Assuming  that 
the  Apocalypse  is  the  work  of  tlie  beloved  Apos- 
tle, and  accepting  the  view  wliicli  assigns  it  to 
the  close  of  Nero's  reign  or  tlicreabouts,  we  find 
hiin  now  for  the  first  time  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  Asia  Minor  and  in  direct  com- 
munication with  Ephesus  and  the  neiglibouring 
Churches.  St.  John  howevM  was  not  alone. 
AVliether  drawn  thither  by  tlir  attraction  of  liis 
presence  or  acting  in  pursuance  if  some  common 
agreement,  the  few  surviving  pur-  mal  disciples 
of  tlie  I.ord  would  seem  to  have  chosen  Asia 
Elinor  as  their  permanent  abode,  or  at  all  events 
as  their  recognised  headquarters.  Here  at  least 
wo  meet  with  tlie  friend  of  St.  John's  youth  and 
perhaps  his  fellow-townsman,  Andrew  of  Beth- 
saida,  who  with  liiin  had  first  listened  to  John 
the  Baptist,  and  witli  him  also  luul  been  the  earliest 
to  recognise  Jesus  as  tlie  Christ.  Here  too  we 
encounter  Philip  tlic  Evangelist  with  his  daugh- 
ters, and  perlinps  also  Philip  of  Bethsaida,  the 
Apostle.  Here  also  was  settled  the  Apostle's 
namesake,  John  tlie  Presbyter,  also  a  personal 
disciple  of  Jesus,  and  one  Aristion,  not  other- 
wise known  to  us,  who  likewise  had  hea  d  the 
Lonl.  And  possibly  also  other  Apostles  whose 
traditions  Papias  recorded  [see  J.  B.  Lightfoot, 
Apogtolic  Fathers,  p.  537],  Matthew  and  Thomas 
and  James,  may  liuve  had  some  connexion,  tem- 
porary or  permanent,  with  this  distflct.  Thus 
surrounded  by  the  surviving  disciples  of  the 
Lord,  by  bishops  and  presbyters  of  his  own  ap- 


pointment, and  by  the  pupils  who  gathered 
alM)ut  him  and  looked  to  him  for  instruction,  St. 
John  was  the  focus  of  a  large  and  active  society 
of  lielievers.  In  tills  respect  he  holds  a  unhpie 
position  among  the  great  teachers  of  the  new 
faitli.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  converted  disciples 
and  organized  congregations;  St.  John  alone  wag 
the  centre  of  a  scliool.  Ills  life  prolong.^d  till 
the  close  of  the  century,  when  the  Church  was 
firmly  rooted  and  wiaelv  extended,  combined 
with  his  fixed  aliode  in  the  centre  of  an  estab- 
li.slied  community  to  give  a  certain  detlniteness 
to  his  personal  infiuence  which  would  be  wanting 
to  the  wider  labours  of  these  strictly  missionary 
preachers.  Hence  the  notices  of  St.  John  have  a 
more  solid  basis  and  claim  greater  attention  than 
stories  relating  to  the  other  Apostles." — J.  B. 
Lightfoot,  liiUicnl  EMayii,  pp.  51-.5!t. —  "In  the 
pnrnbic  of  Jesus,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  it  is 
said  that  '  the  earth  bringeth  forth  fruit  of  her- 
self;'—  that  is,  to  tmnsfer  tlio  Greek  term  into 
English,  '  automatically. '  That  epithet  is  chosen 
which  denotes  most  precisely  a  self-acting,  spon- 
taneous energy,  inherent  in  the  seed  which  Jesus, 
through  his  discourses,  his  acts  of  mercy  and 
power,  and  his  patience  unto  death,  was  sowing 
in  the  world.  This  grand  prophetic  declaration, 
uttered  in  a  figure  so  simple  and  beartiful,  in 
the  ears  of  a  little  company  of  Galileans  was  to 
be  wonderfully  verified  in  the  cominj"-  oges  of 
Christian  history." — G.  P.  Fisher,  The  Nature 
ami  Method  of  Uevelatiim,  p.  47. 

Alexandria. — "Plutarch  looked  upon  it  as 
the  great  mission  of  Alexander  to  transplant 
Greciim  culture  into  distant  countries,  ond  to 
conciliate  Greeks  and  barbarians,  and  to  fuse 
them  into  one.  He  says  of  him,  not  without 
reason,  that  ho  was  sent  of  God  for  this  purpose; 
though  the  historian  did  not  divine  that  this  end 
itself  was  only  subsidiary  to,  and  the  means  of, 
one  still  higher  —  the  making,  viz.,  the  united 
peoples  of  the  East  nnd  West  more  accessible  to 
the  new  creation  which  was  to  proceed  from 
Christianity,  and  by  the  combination  of  the  ele- 
ments of  Oriental  and  Hellenic  culture  the  pre- 
paring for  Christianity  a  material  in  which  it 
might  develop  itself.  If  we  overlook  this  ulterior 
end,  and  do  not  fix  our  regords  on  the  higher 
quickening  spirit  destined  to  reanimate,  for  some 
new  end,  that  combination  which  already  bore 
within  itself  a  germ  of  corruption,  we  might 
well  doubt  whether  that  union  was  really  a  gain 
to  either  party;  w^hcther,  at  least,  it  was  not 
everywhere  attended  with  a  correspondent  loss. 
For  the  fresh  vigour  which  it  infused  into  the 
old  national  spirit  must  have  been  constantly  re- 
pressed by  the  violence  which  the  foreign  ele- 
ment did  to  it.  To  introduce  into  that  combina- 
tion a  new  living  principle  of  development,  and, 
without  prejudice  to  their  original  essence,  to 
unite  peculiarities  the  most  diverse  into  a  whole 
in  which  each  part  should  be  a  complement  to 
the  other,  required  something  higher  than  any 
element  of  human  culture.  The  true  living  com- 
munion between  the  East  and  the  West,  which 
should  combine  together  the  two  peculiar  prin- 
ciples that  were  equally  necessary  for  a  complete 
exhibition  of  the  type  of  humanity,  could  first 
come  only  from  Christianity.  But  still,  as  pre- 
paratory thereto,  the  influence  which,  for  three 
centuries,  went  forth  from  Alexandria,  that  cen- 
tre of  the  intercourse  of  the  world,  was  of  great 
importance." — A.  Neander,  General  Jliat.  of  the 


438 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Thr  Kiirly  Oturch 
at  Hume. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Chrittinn  lirliginn  .iml  dhiirch,  r.  1,  intrml  — 
"Tlio  Gri'ck  virsion  [of  the  Old  TcHliunciit,  the 
Suptiiii^rint],  liko  IhuTiir^Miinof  tlic  I'lilt'stiiiiiuis, 
oriKinuti'd,  no  doubt,  in  tlic  llfHt  j>liu'c,  in  u  full 
national  wiint  on  the  piirt  of  the  lldlcnists,  who 
ns  a  body  wore  ignorant  of  Ilelni-w,  Hence  wo 
find  notices  of  very  early  Greek  vernion»  of  ut 
least  parts  of  tlie  Fentaleueh.  Hutlliis,  of  course, 
coulil  not  BUllice.  On  the  other  liaii(l,  there  ex- 
isted, as  we  may  suppose,  a  natuvil  curiosity  on 
the  part  of  the  students,  si)ecinlly  in  Alexandria, 
which  had  so  large  a  .lewish  population,  to  know 
the  suered  Ijooka  on  which  tlic  religion  and 
history  of  Israel  were  founded.  Kven  more  tlian 
this,  wu  must  tnl(o  into  account  the  literary 
tastes  of  tlie  first  three  I'tol.'inies  (successors  in 
Egypt  of  Alexander  the  Great),  and  the  eMcp- 
tioiial  favour  whicli  tlie  Jews  for  a  time  enjoyed. " 
—  A.  Edersheiin,  Life  and  Timet  of  Ji'iis  the 
Mentiiih,  V.  1,  ;).  24. 

Rome. — "Alongside  of  tlio  province  ul  Asia 
ISIinor,  Home  \c'ry  early  attains  to  an  outstnndinc 
Importance  for  young  Christianity.  If,  as  wu 
have  supposed,  the  community  liere  which  eman- 
cipated itself  from  the  synagogue  was  mainly 
recruited  from  among  the  proselyte  circles  which 
hurt  formed  themselves  around  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue, if  Taul  (luring  the  years  of  his  captivity, 
and  Peter  al.so,  influenced  this  preponderatingly 
Gentile-Christian  community,  we  must,  however, 
by  no  means  undervalue  for  the  Christian  com- 
munity the  continuous  influence  of  Judaism  on 
the  Roman  world,  an  influence  widch  was  not 
lessened  l)Ut  ratlier  increased  by  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  Many  thousards  of  Jewish  cap- 
tives Imd  arrived  liere  and  been  sold  as  slaves  — 
Rome  was  the  greatest  Jewish  city  in  the  Empire, 
.  .  .  and  in  part  it  wat'  an  enlightened  and  lil)eral 
Judaism.  Jewisli  Hellenism  liad  already  long 
availed  itself  of  the  weapons  of  Hellenic  philoso- 
phy and  science  ...  in  order  to  exalt  the  Jewish 
foitli.  .  .  .  Under  this  stimidus  tlicre  was  .  .  . 
developed  a  proselytism  wliich  was  indeed  at- 
tra  'ted  by  tliat  monotheism  and  the  belief  in 
pro\idence  and  prophecy  and  tlie  moral  ideas 
allieo  therewitli,  and  whicli  also  had  a  strong 
tendei.ey  to  Jewish  customs  and  festivals  —  es- 
pecially the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath  -  -  but  which 
remained  far  from  binding  itself  to  a  strictly 
legal  wa}'  of  life  in  circumcision,  etc.  We  may 
suppose  \liat  Roman  Cliristianity  not  only  ap- 
peorcd  in  \he  character  of  such  a  pro.selytism,  but 
also  retained  from  it  a  certain  Jewish  colouring." 
— W.  Moel.er,  History  of  the  Chri»tian  Gliurck: 
A.  D.  1-000,  pp.  83-84.— "The  last  notice  of  tlie 
Roman  Church  in  tlie  Apostolic  writings  seems 
to  point  to  /'vo  separate  communities,  a  Judaiz- 
Ing  Cliurcli  and  a  Pauline  Cliurch.  The  arrival 
of  the  Qentiie  Apostle  in  the  metropolis,  it  would 
appear,  was  the  signal  for  the  separation  of  the 
Judaizcrs,  who  had  hitherto  associated  with  their 
Gentile  bretlircn  coldly  and  distrustfully.  The 
presence  of  St.  Paul  must  have  vastly  strength- 
ened the  numbers  and  influence  of  the  more 
liberal  and  Catholic  party;  while  the  Judaizers 
provoked  by  rivalry  redoubled  their  efforts,  that 
in  making  converts  to  the  Gospel  they  miglit  also 
gain  proselytes  to  the  law."^J.  B.  Lightfoot, 
Dissertations  on  the  Apostolic  Age,  p.  94. — "  His- 
torical information  of  any  certainty  on  the  latter 
period  of  Paul's  life  is  entirely  wanting.  While 
the  epistles  require  this  unknown  period,  and  a 
second  captivity,  as  a  basis  for  their  apostolic 


origin,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hypothesis  of  a 
second  captivity  Hcarccly  tlnds  any  real  founda- 
tions except  In  the  three  Pastoral  iellers. " — A. 
Sabatier,  The  A/xisIl,'  I'aiit,  p.  ','01).  — It  only  re- 
mains f<ir  us,  ri'turning  to  the  close  of  the  apos- 
tle's life,  to  ])ut  together  the  slender  inilleatioiis 
that  we  liaveof  its  date.  He  embarked  for  Rome 
In  the  autumn  of  00  (or  01)  .\.  I>. ;  but  was  eoni- 
pelled  by  shipwreck  to  winter  in  the  island  of 
Malta,  aiid  only  ri  ..ilied  the  Klernal  City  in  the 
spring  of  01  ((('.!;  l,uke  adds  tliat  he  remained 
there  as  a  pri.viier  for  two  years,  living  in  a 
private  house  under  the  guard  of  a  soldier;  tlieu 
his  narrative  breaks  oil'  uhruplly,  and  we  are 
confronted  witli  the  unknown  (.Vets,  xxviii.  30). 
Caul  is  suppo.sed  to  have  perished  in  the  friglit- 
ful  persecution  caused  by  the  tUf  of  Rome  in 
July  04  A.  I).  All  that  is" certain  is  that  he  died 
a  martyr  at  Rome  under  Nero  (Sabatier). 

[The  puroo.se  of  what  follows  in  this  article  Is 
to  give  a  brief  history  of  Christiunity  in  some  of 
its  relations  to  general  history  by  the  method  of 
tills  wirk,  and  in  the  light  of  .some  of  the  best 
thoug'.l,  of  our  time.  The  article  as  a  combina- 
tion of  quotations  from  many  authors  attempts  a 
presentation  of  historic  facts,  and  also  a  positive 
and  representative  view,  so  far  as  this  may  bo 
obtained  under  the  guidance  of  ideas  common  to 
nany  of  the  books  used.  Some  of  tlie.se  books 
have  had  more  iiitlucnce  on  the  development  of 
the  article  than  others:  entire  liarinony  and  a  full 
presentation  of  any  author's  view  would  mani- 
festly be  impossible.  Nevertheless,  the  reader 
may  di.scover  in  the  article  principles  and  ele- 
ments of  unity  derived  from  the  literature  and 
representing  it.  Unfortunately,  (/no  of  the  es- 
sential parts  of  such  a  history  niu;it  be  omitted  — 
biography.] 

A.  D.  100-312.— The  Period  ■>t  Growth  and 
Struggle. —  "Christian  belief,  Ciiristian  moral- 
ity, the  Christian  view  of  tlie  world,  of  which 
the  church  as  a  religious  society  and  institution 
Is  the  focus,  as  fluid  spiritual  elements  iiermento 
humanity  as  it  becomes  Christian,  far  beyond  the 
sphere  of  the  church  proper;  while  conversely 
the  church  is  not  assured  against  tlie  (lossibility 
that  spiritual  elements  originally  ali(  n  to  her 
may  dominate  and  influence  her  in  their  turn. 
...  In  this  living  Interaction  tlie  peculiar  life 
of  the  church  is  unfolded,  in  accordance  with 
its  internal  principles  of  formation,  into  an  ex- 
traordinarily manifold  and  complicated  object  of 
historical  examination.  .  .  .  For  this  jiurpose  it 
is  necessary  to  elucidate  the  general  historical 
movement  of  the  church  by  the  relative  separa- 
tion of  certain  of  Its  aspects,  without  loosening 
the  bond  of  unity." — "W.  Moeller,  Hist,  of  the 
Christian  Church:  A.  IX  1-000,  ;*/>.  1-3. — "Such, 
in  fact,  has  been  the  history  of  the  Faitli:  a  sa(l 
and  yet  a  glorious  succession  of  buttles,  often 
hiirdly  fought,  and  sometimes  indecisive,  between 
the  new  life  and  the  old  life.  .  .  .  Tlie  Christian 
victory  of  c(miinon  life  was  wrought  out  in  silence 
and  patience  and  nameless  agonies.  It  was  the 
victory  of  the  soldiers  and  not  of  the  captains  of 
Christ's  army.  But  in  due  time  another  conflict 
had  to  be  sustained,  not  by  the  masses,  but  by 
great  men,  the  consequence  and  the  completion  of 
that  which  liad  gone  before.  .  .  .  The  discipline 
of  action  precedes  the  effort  of  reason.  ...  So 
it  came  to  pass  that  the  period  during  which  this 
second  conflict  if  the  Faith  was  waged  was, 
roughly  speaking',  from  the  middle  of  the  second 


489 


CHRISTIANITY. 


(Irrrk  I'hiloiinphrrt  dm/ 
Chrttluin  A}mUnii»ta. 


cnniSTIANITY. 


to  the  middle  (  f  llu'  third  ii-ntury."— R  F.  WcHt- 
cott,  KuKiji)  in  the  lli»tiirii  of  l{elii/ii>n»  'J'/imii/ht 
in  t/if  Wmt.  pp.  llM-t«7.— "I'hIloHophv  wi'iit 
on  ItH  Hiiy  uniong  thu  lii>;hcT  cliism.!i,  Itut  fiild  iih- 
wilutily  nr)  hold  on  nicn  iil  liir^fi,'.  Tho  refornm- 
tion  which  it  wrought  in  ii  few  elect  Kpirits 
failed  utterly  to  Hpreiid  downward  to  the  miuhh 
of  mankind.  The  poor  were  not  toiiehed  by 
it;  Bociety  wa.s  not  helped  by  it;  its  uobleHt 
men,  nnd  tliey  K''ew  fewer  and  fewer,  genera- 
tion by  generation,  bewailed  bitterly  the  univer- 
snl  IndilTerenee.  The  sehoolit  dwindled  into 
a  mere  university  Hystem  of  culture;  (-"hrisli- 
onity  developed  into  a  religion  for  the  cIvlliHed 
world.  .  .  .  New  Ideas  it  liad  in  abundance,  b';"; 
new  ideas  were  not  the  serrcit  of  its  power  The 
essential  mutter  iuthe  Qospel  was  that  it  was  the 
history  of  a  Life.  It  wa.s  a  tale  of  fact  t'lut  all 
could  luidcrstjuid,  that  all  could  believe,  that  all 
could  love.  ItdilTered  fundamentally  from  I'lil- 
losophy,  because  it  appealed  not  to  culture,  but 
to  life.  .  .  .  It  was  the  spell  of  substantial  facts, 
living  facts,  .  .  .  the  spell  of  aloyaltytoapersonai 
Lord;  and  those  who  have  not  mastered  thodllTer- 
enco  between  a  philosopher's  speculations  about 
life,  and  the  actual  record  of  a  life  which.  In  all 
that  makes  life  holy  and  beautiful,  transcended  the 
philosopher's  most  |)ure  and  lofty  dreams,  have 
not  underatocKl  yet  the  rudiments  of  the  reas<m 
why  the  Stoic  could  not,  while  Christianity  could 
anil  did,  regenerate  society." — J.  H.  Brown,  Stoics 
and  Hiintii,  pp.  85-88. — The  "period,  from  the 
accession  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (A.  I).  101)  to  the 
accession  of  Valerian  (A.  I).  25,3)  was  for  the  Gen- 
tile world  a  period  of  vinrest  and  exhaustion,  of 
ferment  and  of  indecision.  The  time  of  great 
hopes  and  creative  minds  was  gone.  The  most 
conspicuous  men  were,  with  few  exceptions, 
busied  with  the  past.  .  .  .  Local  beliefb  hud  lost 
their  power.  Even  old  Rome  ceased  to  exercise 
an  uncjuestioned  moral  supremacy.  Men  strove 
to  be  cosmopoliton.  They  strove  vaguely  after  a 
unity  in  which  the  scattered  elements  of  ancient 
experience  should  be  harmonized.  The  effect  can 
be  seen  both  in  the  policy  of  statesmoi;  and  In  the 
speculations  of  philosophe'-s,  in  Marcus  Aurelius, 
or  Alexander  Sevcrua,  or  Decius,  no  less  than  In 
Plotlnus  or  Porphyry.     As  a  necessary  consc- 

Suence,  the  teaching  of  tlie  Bible  accessible  in 
reek  begun  to  attract  serious  attention  among 
the  heathen.  The  assailants  of  Christianity, 
even  If  they  affected  contempt,  shewed  that  they 
were  deeply  moved  by  its  doctrines.  The  mem- 
orable saying  of  Numenius,  '  What  Is  Plato  but 
Moses  speaking  in  the  language  of  Athens  ? ' 
shews  at  once  the  feeling  after  spiritual  sympathy 
which  begun  to  be  entertained,  and  the  want  of 
spiritual  Insight  In  the  representatives  of  Qcntlle 
thought." — B.  P.  Westcott,  Esmys  in  the  Iliitory 
of  lidigious  Thought  in  the  West,  pp.  196-107.— 
' '  To  our  minds  It  appears  that  the  prepurutlon  of 
philosophy  for  Christianity  was  complete.  .  .  . 
The  time  was  ripe  for  that  movement  of  which 
Justin  Is  the  earliest  [complete]  representative." 
— G.  T.  Purves,  The  Testimony  of  Jvstin  Martyr, 
p.  135. — "The  writing  in  defense  of  Christi- 
anity is  called  the  apology,  and  the  writer  an 
apologist.  .  .  .  There  were  two  classes  of  apolo- 
gists, the  Greek  and  the  Latin,  according  to  the 
territory  which  they  occupied,  and  the  language 
In  which  they  wrote.  But  there  were  further 
differences.  The  Greeks  belonged  mostly  to  the 
second  century,  and  their  writings  exhibited  a 


profound  Intimacy  with  the  Greek  philosophy. 
Home  of  them  hud  studied  In  the  Greek  Nchools, 
and  entered  the  church  only  In  mutiire  llfi .  They 
endeavored  to  prove  that  Christianity  was  tho 
blossom  of  idl  that  was  valuable  In  every  »v8teni. 
They  stootl  largely  on  the  defensive.  The  Latins, 
on  the  other  hanif,  were  aggressive.  They  lived 
mostly  in  the  third  century.  .  .  .  The  principal 
Greek  apologists  I  were]  Aristo,  Quadratiia,  Arls- 
ti(h's  [A,  I),  nil],  .lUHtin  [A.  1).  100],  Melito  [A.  D. 
170],  Miltiades,  Ip'naeus,  Athenagorus  |A.  D. 
17H),  Tatian,  Clement  of  Alexandria  [A.  I).  200], 
llippolytus,  and  Origen  [A.  I).  8'i5]."— J.  P. 
Ilurst,  Short  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  p, 
83.  Light  foot  assigns  to  about  A.  D.  180  (?)  the 
author  of  the  Epistle  to  Dlogncti  "Times 
without  number  the  defenders  of  Christianity 
appeal  to  the  great  and  advantageous  "hunge 
wrought  by  the  Gospel  in  all  who  embraced  It. 
.  .  .  '  We  who  hated  and  destroyed  one  unotlier, 
and  on  u'-count  of  their  different  manners  would 
not  receive  Into  our  houses  men  of  a  different 
tribe,  now,  since  the  coming  of  Christ,  live  fa- 
miliarly with  them.  We  pray  for  our  enemies, 
we  enif'  avor  to  persuade  those  who  hate  us  un- 
justly to  live  conformably  to  the  beautiful  pre- 
cepts of  Chri;-t,  to  the  end  that  they  may  become 
partakers  with  ui  of  the  same  joyful  hope  of  a 
reward  from  God,  the  Ruler  ot  all.'  This  dis- 
tinction between  Christians  and  heathen,  this 
consciousness  of  a  complete  change  in  character 
and  life,  is  nowhere  more  beautifully  described 
than  In  the  noble  epistle  ...  to  DIognetus." 
— Gerhard  Uhlhorn,  TJie  Conflict  of  Christianity 
with  Heathenism,  p.  106. — "For  Christians  are 
not  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  mankind  either 
In  locality  or  in  speech  or  In  customs.  For  they 
dwell  not  somewhere  in  cities  of  their  own, 
neither  do  they  use  some  different  language,  nor 
practise  an  extraordinary  kind  of  life.  .  .  .  But 
while  tl  ey  dwell  In  cities  of  Greeks  ond  barba- 
rians ai  the  lot  of  each  is  casi,  and  follow  the 
native  i  istoms  In  dre.ss  and  food  and  the  other 
arrangen.  ntsof  life,  yet  tho  constitution  of  their 
own  citlzcish'p,  which  they  set  forth,  is  marvel- 
lous, and  i.onfcssedly  contradicts  expectation. 
They  dwell  in  their  ov^n  countries,  but  only  as 
sojourners;  they  bear  their  share  In  all  things 
as  citizens,  and  they  endure  all  hardships  as 
strangers.  Every  foreign  country  is  a  fatherland 
to  them,  and  every  fatherland  ir,  foreign.  .  .  . 
Their  existence  is  on  earth,  but  their  citizenship 
is  In  heaven.  They  obey  the  established  laws, 
and  they  surpass  the  laws  In  their  own  lives. 
They  love  all  men  and  they  are  persecuted  by 
oil.  .  .  .  AVur  is  urged  ngainst  them  as  aliens  by 
the  Jews,  and  persecution  Is  carried  on  against 
them  by  the  Greeks,  and  yet  those  that  hate  them 
cannot  tell  the  reason  of  their  hostility." — J.  B. 
Llghtfoot,  T^ans.  of  the  Epistle  to  Diognetus  {The 
Apostolic  Fathers,  pp.  505-506). — "Tliese  apolo- 
gists rise  against  philosophy  also,  out  of  which 
they  themselves  had  arisen.  In  the  full  conscious- 
ness of  their  faith  open  to  oil  and  not  only  to  the 
cultured  few,  the  certainty  of  which,  based  upon 
revelation,  cannot  be  replaced  by  uncertain  human 
wisdom,  which,  moreover,  is  self-contradictory  in 
its  most  Important  representatives.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  willingly  recognise  in  the  philosophy 
by  means  of  which  they  had  themselves  been 
educated,  certain  elements  of  truth,  which  they 
partly  derive  from  the  seed-corns  of  truth,  which 
the  divine  Logos  hud  scattered  among  the  heathen        « 


440 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Rnme 
and  Chrittinnily. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


ftlso,  partly  e.xtorniiPy  from  n  (It'pcndciu'o  r)f 
tircck  wiwloni  nii  tlio  inut'li  (ildiT  wiwloiii  of  tlio 
East,  1111(1  tlieriifori,'  from  the  um!  of  the  8crl|itiirt's 
of  tlio  Olil  Tcsliuiu'iit.  To  the  reproach  thjit  they 
hml  <lcsi'rtc'(l  the  relij^lon  which  Imd  been  himdcd 
down  from  their  iinceNtors  and  thereby  miule 
sacred,  tikey  oppose  llie  rl>;ht  of  recoj^nised 
truth,  tlie  right  of  freedom  of  coiisoienee;  re- 
ligion becomes  the  peeiiliiir  iilTiilr  of  Mersoniil 
conviction,  ngnlnst  wlilch  methmls  of  force  do  not 
gutnce:  QimI  la  to  be  obeyed  rnther  thiui  man." 
— W.  Moeller,  I'M.  of  the  Hhrintuin  Church: 
A.  D.  l-OOO, ;).  170.  — "Such  ii  morality,  os  Uomun 
greatness  was  passing  away,  tooli  possession  of 
the  ground.  Its  l)egliuiinga  were  scarcely  felt, 
scarcely  known  of,  in  the  vast  movement  of 
allairs  lu  the  greatest  of  empires.  By  and  by  Its 
presence,  strangely  austere,  strangely  gentle, 
strangely  tender,  strangely  inllexll)le,  began  to 
be  noticed.  But  its  work  was  long  only  a  work 
of  indirect  prcparatio.i.  Those  whom  It  charmed, 
those  wl.om  It  opposed,  those  whom  it  turned, 
know  not  whot  was  being  done  for  tlie  genera- 
tions which  were  to  follow." — U.  \V.  Church, 
T/ie  Gift*  of  Cieilizdtinn,  p.  1(30. — "The  more 
spiritual  and  profound  historians  of  the  Church 
recognize  it  as  a  manifestation  of  this  divine 
life  flowing  into  liuman  history.  But  this  is 
true  of  tlie  organized  church  only  'vith  important 
qualifications.  Tlie  life  must  manifest  itself  in 
an  organization ;  but  the  organization  is  neither 
the  only  nor  the  complete  exp  'lion  of  the  life. 
.  .  .  The  life  which  creates  e  organization 
penetrates  and  purities  also  the  ..miily  and  the 
state,  renovates  individuals,  and  blooms  and 
fructifies  in  Christian  civilizations;  and  these  are 
also  historical  manifestations." — S.  Harris,  The 
Kingdom  of  Christ  oil.  Earth,  p.  87. — It  was  tlie 
great  formative  period  of  the  world's  ne\v  life, 
and  all  streams  tended  to  How  together.  The  in- 
fluence of  Greek  thought  on  Komau  law  had  led, 
under  the  circumstances  of  Roman  commercial 
Uf.,  to  the  development  of  an  ideal  "jus  gen- 
Mum,"  a  kind  of  natural  law  discovered  by  the 
reason.  This  conception  transformed  the  Roman 
law  and  brought  it  into  touch  with  the  new  sense 
of  human  relations.  "It  was  by  means  of  this 
higher  conception  of  equity  which  resulted  from 
the  idcntitlcation  of  the  jus  gentium  with  the 
jus  naturale  —  that  tlie  alliance  between  law  and 
philosophy  was  really  nade  eflicient. " — W.  C. 
Morey,  Outlines  from  Roman  Licw,  p.  114. — 
"There  were  three  agencies  whose  influence  in 
working  simultaneously  and  successively  at  this 
identical  task,  tl  e  developing  and  importing  of 
the  jus  gentinM,  was  decisive  of  the  ultimate 
result.  These  were  the  praetorian  edict  [which 
reached  its  climax  under  the  Republic  and  was 
completed  under  lladrinn], Roman  scientiflc  juris- 
prudence [which  developed  its  greatest  ability 
about  A.  D.  200]  and  imperial  legislation." — 
R.  8o\im,  Inatiti.ites  of  Roman  Law,  p.  40. — "The 
liberal  policy  of  Rome  gradually  extended  the 
privileges  of  her  citizenship  till  it  included  all 
her  subjects;  and  along  with  the  'Jus  suffragii,' 
went  of  course  the  'Jus  honorum.'  Even  under 
Augustus  we  find  a  Spaniard  consul  at  Rome; 
and  uiuier  Galba  an  Egyi)tian  is  governor  of 
Egypt.  It  is  not  long  before  even  the  emperor 
himself  is  supplied  by  tlie  provinces.  It  is  easy 
to  comprehend  therefore  how  the  provincials 
forgot  the  fatherland  of  their  birth  for  the  father- 
land of  their  citizenship.     Once  win   the  fran- 

30 


cIiInc,  and  to  great  capacity  was  opened  a  great 
career.  The  Roman  Empire  cam"  to  be  u  homo- 
geneous mass  of  privileged  persons,  largely 
using  the  same  language,  aiming  at  the  same 
type  of  cIvillHatlon,  e(iual  among  themselves, 
but  all  alike  eoiiHcious  of  their  superiority  to  the 
Hiirrounding  barbarians."— \V.  T.  Ariulld,  The 
llouiiin  Sj/stcin  if  I'roriiirial  Ailmiiiist ration, 
p.  !17.  —  "As  far  as  she  could.  Koine  destroyed 
the  individual  genius  of  nations;  slie  .seems  to 
have  rendered  them  un(|iiulitlr(l  for  a  national  ex- 
istence. When  the  public  life  of  the  Empire 
ceased,  Italy,  Uaul,  and  Hpaiii  were  thus  unable 
to  become  nations.  Tlieir  great  historical  ex- 
istence did  not  coiiiniencc  until  after  the  arrival 
of  the  barbarians,  and  after  several  centuries  of 
experiments  amid  violence  and  <alaniity.  But 
how  does  it  happen  that  the  countries  which 
liomc  did  not  con(|uer,  or  dhl  not  long  have 
uilder  her  sway,  now  hold  such  a  prominent 
place  In  the  world — that  they  exhibit  so  much 
originality  and  such  complete  confidence  in  their 
future?  Is  It  only  becaime,  having  existed  a 
shorter  time,  they  are  eiititle(l  to  a  longer  future? 
Or,  perchaiKc,  did  Rome  leave  behind  lier  certain 
habits  of  mind,  intellectual  and  moral  <|iialities, 
which  impede  and  limit  activity?  "— E.  Lavissc, 
I'oHtiriil  Jlisl.  of  Einojie,  p.  6. —  Patriotism  was 
a  considerable  part  of  both  the  ancient  religion 
and  the  old  morality.  The  empire  weakened  the 
former  ..nd  deeply  Injured  the  latter  by  conquest 
of  the  individual  states.  It  had  little  to  offer  In 
place  of  these  e.vccpt  that  anomaly,  the  worship 
of  the  emperor;  and  a  law  and  justice  adminis- 
tered by  rulers  who,  to  say  'he  least,  grew  very 
ri.;h.  "The  feeling  of  pr'de  in  Roman  citizen- 
ship .  .  .  btcamo  much  weakeros  the  citizenship 
was  ^\idencd.  .  .  .  Uoinan  citizenship  Included 
an  ever  growing  j.roportlon  of  the  population  In 
every  land  round  the  Mediterranean,  till  at  last 
it  embraced  the  whole  Roman  world.  .  .  .  Chris- 
tianity also  created  a  religion  for  the  Empire, 
transcending  all  distinctions  of  nationality.  .  .  . 
Tlie  path  of  development  for  the  Empire  lay  in 
accepting  the  religion  offered  it  to  complete  Its 
organisation.  Down  to  the  time  of  Hadrian  there 
was  a  certain  progress  on  the  part  of  the  Empire 
towards  a  recognition  of  this  necessity." — W.  M. 
Ramsay.  The  Church,  in  tlie  Roman  Empire,  pp. 
373,  1»1-10'3.— The  relations  of  the  laws  of  the 
Empire  to  Christianity  may  be  briefly  atJited,  but 
there  are  differences  of  opinion  which  cannot  be 
noted  here :  "A.  D.  30  to  100,  Christians  treated 
as  a  sect  of  the  Jews  and  sharing  in  the  general 
toleration  accorded  to  them.  A.  D.  100  to  250, 
Christians  recognized,  .  .  .  and  rendered  liable 
to  persecution :  (1st)  For  treason  and  impiety. 
(2nd)  As  belonging  to  illegal  associations,  but  at 
the  same  time  protected  In  their  capacity  of 
members  of  Friendly  or  Burial  Societies  of  a  kind 
allowed  by  the  law.  A.  D.  2r)0  to  200,  Christi- 
anity recognized  as  a  formidable  power  by  the 
State.  Commencement  of  an  open  struggle  be- 
tween Christianity  and  the  secular  authority. 
.  .  .  The  cemeteries  of  tlie  Chris'tians  now  for 
the  first  time  interfered  with  and  become  places 
of  hiding  and  secret  assembly.  A.  D.  200  to  300, 
Persecutions  cease  for  a  time,  40  years  Peace  for 
the  Church.  Time  of  much  prosperity  wlien,  as 
Eusebius  writes,  '  great  multitudes  flocked  to  the 
religion  of  Christ. '  A.  D.  300  to  313,  Last  de- 
cisive struggle  under  Diocletian." — G.  B.  Brown, 
Pi-om  SchoUi  to  Cathedral.— ''The  judges  decided 


441 


CHRISTIANITY. 


The  Early 
Persecutions, 


CimiSTIANITY. 


simply  in  accordance  witli  tlic  laws,  and,  in  the 
great  majr.dfy  of  cases,  did  so  roolly,  calmly, 
without  piission,  as  men  who  were  simply  dis- 
charging their  duty.  .  .  .  Not  the  priests,  but 
the  Emperors  led  the  attack.  ...  It  is  true  tlie 
Christians  never  rebelled  ngain.stthe  State.  Tliey 
cannot  be  reproached  with  even  the  appearanci! 
of  a  rcvolutionarv  spirit.  Despised,  persecuted, 
abused,  they  still  never  revolted,  but  showed 
themselves  everywhere  obedient  to  tlio  laws,  and 
ready  to  pay  to  the  Emperors  the  honor  whic^li  was 
their  due.  Yet  in  one  particular  tliey  could  not 
obey,  the  worship  of  idols,  the  strewing  of  in- 
cense to  the  CtBsar-god.  And  in  this  one  thing 
it  was  made  evident  that  in  Christianity  lay  the 

ferm  of  a  wholly  new  political  and  social  order, 
his  is  the  character  of  the  conflict  which  we  are 
now  to  review.  T'-.  jg  ^  contest  of  the  spirit  of 
Antiquity  against  that  of  Christianity,  of  the 
ancient  heathen  order  of  the  world  against  the 
new  Christian  order.  Ten  persecutions  are  com- 
monly enumerated,  viz.,  under  Nero,  Domitian, 
Trajan,  Hadrian,  JIarcus  Aurelius,  Septimius 
Scvcrus,  Maximinus  the  Thracian,  Decius,  Va- 
lerian, and  Diocletian.  This  traditional  enumera- 
tion is,  however,  very  superficial,  and  leaves  en- 
tirely unrecognized  the  real  course  of  the  struggle. 
.  .  .  Though  times  of  relative  tranquillity  oc- 
curred, Christianity  remained,  notwithstanding, 
a  prohibited  religion.  This  being  the  case,  the 
simple  arrangement  of  the  persecutions  in  a  series 
makes  the  impression  that  they  were  all  of  the 
same  character,  while  in  fact  the  persecution 
under  Nero  was  wholly  different  from  that  under 
Trajan  and  his  successors,  and  this  again  varied 
essentially  from  those  under  Decius  and  Diocle- 
tian. The  first  pensecution  which  was  really 
general  and  Bystematically  aimed  at  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Church,  was  the  Decian  [see  Home: 
A.  D.  192-284].  That  under  Trajan  and  his  suc- 
cessors [see  Home:  A.  D.  00-138,  138-180,  and 
803-305]  consisted  merely  of  more  or  less  fre- 
quent processes  against  individual  Christians,  in 
which  the  established  methods  of  trial  were  em- 
ployed, and  the  existing  laws  were  more  or  Isss 
sharply  used  against  them.  Finally,  the  perse- 
cutions under  Nero  and  Domitian  [see  Rome: 
A.  D.  04-68,  and  70-96]  were  mere  outbreaks  of 
nersonal  cruelty  and  tyrar  icul  caprice.  .  .  . 
Christianity  is  the  growing  might;  with  the 
energy  of  youth  it  looks  the  future  in  the  face, 
and  there  sees  victory  beckoning  onward.  And 
how  changed  are  now  its  ideas  of  tliat  triumph  1 
The  earlier  period  had  no  thought  of  any  victory 
but  that  which  Christ  was  to  bring  at  his  coming. 
.  .  .  But  in  the  time  of  Cyprian  the  hopes  of  the 
Christians  are  directed  towards  another  victory : 
they  begin  to  grasp  the  idea  that  Christianity  will 
vanquish  heathenism  from  within,  and  become 
the  dominant  religion  in  the  Roman  Empire.  .  .  . 
It  is  true  that  the  Christians  were  still  greatly  in 
the  minority.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  they 
formed  aboutone-twelfth  of  the  whole  population 
in  the  Euat,  a^d  in  the  West  about  one-flfteenth. 
Even  this  is  jierhaps  too  hi^h  an  estimate.  But 
there  wtro  two  things  which  gave  a  great  im- 
portance to  thi."*  minority.  First,  tliat  no  single 
religion  of  the  much  divided  Heathenism  had  so 
many  adherents  as  the  Christian.  Over  against 
the  scattered  forces  of  Heathenism,  the  Chris- 
tians formed  a  close  phalanx ;  the  Church  was 
a  compact  and  strongly  framed  organization. 
Second,  the  Christians  were  massed  in  the  towns, 


while  the  rural  population  was  almost  ex- 
clusively devoted  to  Heathenism.  There  existed 
in  Antioch,  for  instance,  a  C'lristian  church  of 
fifty  thousand  souls."— G.  Ulilhorn,  The  Conflict 
of  Christianity  with  Ileatheniim,  bk.  3. — "The 
Encyclopedia  of  Missions  "  on  the  authority  of 
tlie  late  Prof.  H.  I).  Hitchcock  states  that  there 
are  on  record  "the  names  of  cliurches  existing 
at  this  period  [at  the  close  of  the  persecutions] 
in  525  cities:  cities  of  Europe  188,  of  Asia  214, 
of  Africa  123."  (See  Appendix  D.)  There  were 
tendencies  at  work  in  many  of  these  against  that 
toward  general  cathclic  (universal)  organization, 
but  in  sulTering  and  sympathy  the  Christian 
Churches  formed  a  vast  body  of  believers.  ' '  Such 
a  vast  organisation  of  a  perfectly  new  kind,  with 
no  analogy  in  previously  existing  institutions, 
was  naturally  slow  in  development.  .  .  .  The 
critical  stage  was  passed  when  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  annihilated  all  possibility  of  a  localised 
centre  for  Cliristianity,  and  made  it  clear  that  the 
centralisation  of  the  Church  could  reside  only  in  an 
idea — viz.,  a  processof  intercommunication, union 
and  brotlierhood.  It  would  be  hardly  possible 
to  exaggerate  the  share  which  frequent  inter- 
course from  a  very  early  stage  betwecm  the  sep- 
arate congregations  had  in  moulding  the  develop- 
ment of  tlie  Church.  Most  of  the  documents  In 
the  New  Testament  are  products  and  monuments 
of  this  intercourse ;  all  attest  in  numberless  details 
the  vivid  interest  which  the  scattered  com- 
munities took  in  one  another.  From  the  first  the 
Christian  idea  was  to  annihilate  the  separation 
due  to  space,  and  hold  the  most  distant  brother 
as  near  as  the  nearest.  A  clear  consciousness  of 
the  importance  of  this  idea  first  appears  in  the 
Pastoral  Epistles,  and  Is  still  stronger  in  writ- 
ings of  A.  D.  80-100.  .  .  .  The  close  relations 
between  different  congregations  is  brought  into 
strong  relief  by  the  circumstances  disclosed  in 
the  letters  of  Ignat'us:  the  welcome  extended 
everywhere  to  him;  the  loving  messotres  'tent 
when  he  was  writing  to  other  churches ;  the  depu- 
tations sent  from  churches  off  his  road  to  meet 
him  and  convoy  him ;  the  rapidity  with  which 
news  of  his  progress  was  sent  round,  so  that 
deputations  from  Ephesus,  Magnesia,  and  Tralles 
were  ready  to  visit  him  in  Smyrna;  the  news 
from  Antioch  which  reached  him  in  Troas,  but 
which  was  unknown  to  him  in  Smyrna;  the 
directions  which  he  gave  to  call  a  council  oi  the 
church  in  Smyrna,  and  send  a  messenger  to  con- 
gratulate the  church  in  An.ioch ;  the  knowledge 
that  his  fate  is  known  to  and  is  engaging  the 
efforts  of  the  church  in  Rome." — AV.  M.  Ramsay, 
The  Church  in  the  Roman  Minpire,  pp.  364-366. — 
"The  fellowship  .  .  .  thus  strongly  impressed 
by  apostolic  hands  on  the  infant  Church,  is  never 
wholly  lost  Right  of  throughout  all  the  ages,  and 
its  permanent  expression  is  found  in  the  synod, 
whether  oecumenic,  provincial,  or  diocesan.  This 
becomes  fainter  as  we  reach  the  age  in  which  a 
presbyter,  told  off  from  the  body  to  a  distinct 
parish,  attains  gradual  isolation  from  his  breth- 
ren. But  this  conies  some  centuries  later.  .  .  . 
Everywhere,  till  that  decline,  the  idea  is  that  of 
a  brotherhood  or  corporate  office,  a  unity  of 
function  pervaded  by  an  energy  of  brotljerly 
love.  ...  It  is  no  mere  confluence  of  units  be- 
fore distinct." — H.  Hayman,  Diocesan  Synod* 
(Contemp.  Rev.,  Oc<.,  1882). — "  It  is  the  age  when 
the  New  Testament  writings  begin  to  come  to- 
gether to  form  a  generally  recognized  canon. 


442 


CHRISTIANITY. 


The  Patistic 
Church. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


The  opposition  too  to  the  sovereign  spirit  of 
Montanist  prophecy  undoubtedly  increased  the 
need  for  it.  .  .  .  After  the  example  of  the 
Gnostics,  a  beginning  is  also  made  with  c.xe- 
getical  explanation  of  New  Testament  writings; 
Mellto  with  one  on  the  Revelation  of  John,  a  cer- 
tain Heraclitus  with  one  on  the  Apostles.  .  .  . 
Finally,  in  this  same  opposition  to  the  heretics, 
it  is  sought  to  secure  the  agreement  of  the  dif- 
ferent churches  with  one  another,  and  in  this  re-  | 
lation  importance  is  gained  by  the  idea  of  a  imi- 
vcrsnl  (Catholic)  Clmrch.  So-called  catliolie 
Epistles  of  men  of  repute  in  the  church  to  dilTer 
ent  comnumities  are  highly  regarded.  As  ilUr,- 
trntions  take  those  of  Ui.shop  Dionysius  of  Cjr- 
inth  to  Lacedajmon,  Athens,  Crete,  Paphlag'  nlii, 
Pontus,  Rome(Eu8eb.  4,  23)."— \V.  Jloeller,  Ilinl. 
of  (he  Chnstian  Church,  pp.  183-184.— "This 
period  [100-312]  may  be  divided  into  the  Post- 
Api'StoUc  Age  which  reaches  down  to  t  tie  middle 
of  the  second  century,  and  the  Age  of  the  Old 
Catholic  Church  which  ends  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Church  under  Constantine.  .  .  .  The 
point  of  transition  from  one  Age  to  the  other 
may  be  imhesitatingly  set  down  at  A.  D.  170. 
The  following  are  the  most  important  data  in  re- 
gard thereto.  The  death  about  A.  D.  165  of 
Justin  Martyr,  who  marks  the  high'^st  point 
reached  in  the  Post- Apostolic  Age  and  forms  also 
the  transition  to  the  Old  Catholic  Age  ;  and 
Irenaeus,  flourishing  somewhere  about  A.  D. 
170,  who  was  the  real  inaugurator  of  this  latter 
age.  Besides  these  we  come  upon  the  beginnings 
of  the  Trinitarian  controversies  about  the  year 
170.  Finally,  the  rejection  of  Montauism  from 
the  universal  Catholic  Church  was  effected  about 
the  year  170  by  means  of  the  synodal  institution 
called  into  existence  for  that  purpose." — J.  H. 
Kurtz,  Church  History,  v.  1,  p.  70. — "If  every 
church  must  so  live  in  the  world  as  to  be  a 
part  of  its  co'rieutivc  being,  then  it  must  always 
be  construed  in  and  through  the  place  and  time 
in  which  it  lives." — A.  M.  Fairbairn,  The  Place  of 
Christ  in  Modern  Tlieology. — "The  Church  of  the 
first  three  centuries  was  never,  except  perhaps 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  in  an  absolutely  ideal 
condition.  But  yet  during  the  ages  of  persecu- 
tion, the  Church  as  a  whole  was  visibly  an  un- 
worldly institution.  It  was  a  spiritual  empire 
in  recognized  antagonism  with  the  world-empire. " 
— F.  W.  Puller,  The  Primitive  /Saints  and  The  See 
of  Home,  p.  153. — All  the  greater  forces  of  the  at.", 
political  and  legal,  and  commercial,  ai'ed  those 
working  within  the  church  to  create  au  organic 
unity.  "Speaking  with  some  qualifications,  the 
patristic  church  was  Greek,  as  the  primitive 
church  had  been  Jewish,  and  the  mediojval  church 
was  to  be  Latin.  Its  unity,  like  that  of  the  Greek 
nation,  was  federative;  cacli  church,  like  each  of 
the  Gi'ecian  states,  was  a  little  commonwealth.  As 
the  Greece  which  resisted  the  Persians  was  one, 
not  by  any  imperial  organization,  but  by  com- 
mon ideas  and  a.  common  love  of  liberty,  so  the 
church  of  the  fatliei-s  was  one,  not  by  any  organic 
connection,  but  by  common  thoughts  and  sym- 

Sathies.  above  all  by  a  common  loyalty  to  Christ, 
[aturally  the  questions  which  agitated  such  a 
church  were  those  which  concern  the  individual 
soul  rather  than  society.  Its  members  made 
much  of  personal  beliefs  and  speculative  opinions ; 
and  so  long  as  the  old  free  spirit  lasted  they  al- 
lowed one  another  large  freedom  of  thought,  only 
requiring  that    -ommon  instinct  of  loyalty  to 


Christ.  Happily  for  the  world,  that  free  spirit 
did  not  die  out  from  the  Kast  for  at  least  two 
centuries  after  Paul  had  prorlaiined  the  individ- 
ual relationship  of  Ww.  soul  to  tjod.  .  .  .  The 
genius  of  the  Greek  expressing  it.se""  in  thought, 
of  the  Latin  in  ruling  power,  the  Christianity 
which  was  to  the  formera  body  of  truth,  became  to 
'he  hitter  a  system  of  government." — G.  A.  Jack- 
ton,  The  Fathers  of  the  Third  Century,  pp.  154- 

50. — The  Apostolic  ideal  was  set  fortli,  and 
it'ithin  a  few  generations  forgotten.     The  vision 

vas  only  for  a  time  and  then  vani.shed.  "The 
Kiu.gdom  of  Clirist,  not  beuig  a  kingdom  of  this 
world,  is  not  limited  by  the  restrictions  which 
fetter  other  societies,  political  or  religious.  It  is 
in  the  fullest  sense  free,  comprehensive,  univer- 
sal. ...  It  is  most  important  that  we  should 
keep  this  ideal  d-thiitely  in  view,  and  I  have 
therefore  stated  it  as  broadly  as  possible.  Yet 
the  broad  statement,  if  allowed  to  stand  alone, 
would  suggest  a  false  iiiipiessiou,  or  a;  least 
would  convey  only  a  half  truth.  It  must  be 
evident  that  no  societ;  of  men  could  hold  to- 
gether without  olUceis,  without  rules,  witlicut 
institutions  of  any  kind;  and  the  Church  of 
Christ  is  not  exempt  from  this  universal  law. 
The  conception  in  short  is  strictly  an  ideal,  which 
we  must  ever  hold  before  our  eyes.  .  .  .  Every 
member  of  the  human  family  was  potentially  a 
member  of  the  Church,  and,  as  such,  a  priest  of 
God.  ...  It  will  hardly  be  denied,  I  think,  by 
those  who  have  studied  the  history  of  modern 
civilization  with  attention,  that  this  conception 
of  the  Christian  Church  has  been  nuiiuly  instru- 
mental in  the  emancipation  of  the  degraded  and 
oppressed,  in  the  removal  of  artificial  barriers 
between  class  and  class,  and  in  the  ditlusion  of  a 
general  philanthropy  untrammelled  by  the  fet- 
ters of  party  or  race ;  in  short,  that  to  it  mainly 
must  be  attributed  the  most  important  advan- 
tages which  constitute  the  superiority  of  modern 
societies  over  ancient.  Consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously, the  idea  of  au  universal  priesthood,  of 
the  religious  equality  of  all  men,  which,  though 
not  untaught  before,  was  first  embodied  in  the 
Church  of  Christ,  has  worked  and  is  working  un- 
told blessings  in  political  institutions  and  in  social 
life.  But  the  careful  student  will  also  observe 
that  this  idea  has  hitherto  been  very  imperfectly 
apprehended;  ":it  throughout  the  history  of 
the  Church  it  has  been  struggling  for  recogni- 
tion, at  most  times  discerned  in  some  of  its 
aspects  but  at  all  times  wholly  ignored  in  others; 
and  that  therefore  the  actual  results  are  a  very 
inadequate  measure  of  its  efficacy,  if  only  it 
could  assume  due  prominence  and  were  allowed 
free  scope  in  action.  ...  It  may  be  a  general 
rule,  it  may  be  under  ordinary  circumstances  a 
practically  universal  law,  that  the  highest  acts 
of  congregational  worship  shall  be  performed 
through  the  principal  olli,.jrs  of  the  congrega- 
tion. But  an  emergency  may  arise  when  the 
spirit  and  not  the  letter  must  decide.  The 
Christian  ideal  will  then  .  .  .  interpret  our  duty. 
The  higher  ordinance  of  the  universal  priestliood 
will  overrule  all  special  limitations.  The  lay- 
man will  assume  functions  which  are  otherwise 
restricted  to  the  ordained  minister."— J.  B.  Light- 
foot,  Disstrtatione  on  the  AjMstolic  Aye,  pp.  137- 
140,  237. — "No  Church  now  existing  is  an  exact 
counterpart  of  the  Apostolic  Church.  .  .  .  Allu- 
sions bear  out  the  idea  that  the  Church  at  Corinth 
was  as  yet  almost  structureless  —  little  more  than 


443 


CnniSTIANITY. 


Rue  of 

the  Episcopate . 


CHRISTIANITY. 


an  aggregate  of  iudividuuls — with  no  bishop, 
presbyter  or  deacon. " — J.  W.  Cunuingliam,  The 
Grmcth  of  the  Church  in  its  Organization  ami  In- 
ttitutionn,  pp.  73,  18. — "Some  time  before  the 
middle  of  tlie  second  century  heresy  begun  sadly 
to  distract  tlie  Christian  community ;  and  to  avoid 
InuD'nent  danger  of  schism,  it  was  deemed  expe- 
dieni  in  a  few  great  towns  to  arm  the  chairman  of 
the  I'dership  with  additional  power.  A  modified 
form  of  prelacy  was  thus  introduced." — W.  I). 
Killea,  2VieOl(l  Catholic  Church,  p.  51.  — Respect- 
ing tlie  rise  of  the  Episcopate  as  a  distinct  otllcc 
there  j  a  difference  of  opinion  among  scholars, — 
some  holding  thatit  was  expressly  ordained  by  the 
Apostles,  others  that  it  arose  quite  independently 
of  them ;  a  third  class  think  that  it  was  developed 
gradually  out  of  the  eldership,  but  not  without 
the  sanction  of  one  or  more  of  the  Apostles. 
"For  the  Church  is  a  catholic  society,  that  is,  a 
society  belonging  to  all  nations  and  ages.  As  u 
catholic  society  it  lacks  the  bonds  of  the  life  of  a 
city  >T  a  nation  —  local  contiguity,  common  lan- 
guaf.e,  common  customs.  We  cannot  then  very 
■wel!  conceive  how  its  corporate  continuity  could 
have  been  maintained  otherwise  than  througli 
some  succession  of  persons  such  as,  bearing  the 
apostolic  commission  for  ministry,  should  be  in 
each  generation  the  necessary  centres  of  the 
Church's  life."— C.  Gore,  The  Mission  of  the 
Church,  pp.  10, 11. — "Jewish  presbyteries  existed 
alreiidy  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  dispersion, 
and  Christian  presbyteries  would  early  occupy  a 
no',  less  'vide  area.  .  .  .  The  name  of  the  presbyter 
thuc  presents  no  difficulty.  But  what  must  bo 
said  of  the  term  bishop?  .  .  .  But  these  notices, 
besides  establishing  the  general  prevalence  of 
episcopacy,  also  throw  considerable  light  on  its 
origin.  They  indicate  that  the  relation  suggested 
by  the  historyof  the  word  '  bishop '  and  its  trans- 
ference from  the  lower  to  the  higher  office  is  the 
true  solution,  and  that  the  episcopate  was  created 
out  of  the  presbytery.  .  .  .  They  leem  to  hint 
also  that,  so  far  as  this  development  was  affected 
at  all  by  national  temper  and  characteristics,  it 
■was  slower  where  the  prevailing  influences  were 
more  purely  Greek,  as  at  Corinth  and  Philippi 
and  Rome,  and  more  rapid  where  an  Oriental 
spirit  predominated,  as  at  Jerusalem  and  Antioch 
and  Ephesus.  Above  all,  they  establish  this  re- 
sult clearly,  that  its  maturer  forms  are  seen 
first  in  those  ref  'ons  where  the  latest  surviving 
Apootlcs  (more  especially  St.  John)  fixed  their 
abode,  and  at  a  time  when  its  prevalence  cannot 
be  dissociated  from  their  influence  or  their  sanc- 
tion."— J.  B.  lAghtioot,  Dissertations  on  the  A]M8- 
tolic  Age,  pp.  151,  190,  191. — "Since  then  in  the 
constitution  of  the  church  two  elements  met  to- 
gether —  the  aristocratic  and  the  monarchical — 
it  could  not  fail  to  be  the  case  that  a  conflict  would 
ensue  between  them.  .  .  .  Th_se  struggles  be- 
tween the  prcsbyterial  and  episcopal  systems 
belong  among  the  most  important  phenomena 
connected  with  the  process  of  the  develop- 
ment of  church  life  in  the  third  century.  Many 
gresbyters  made  a  capricious  use  of  their  power, 
urtful  to  good  discipline  and  order  in  tlie  com- 
munities."— A.  Neander,  General  History  of  tlie 
Christian  lieligion  and  Church,  v.  1,  sect.  2. — 
"As  4  rule  Christianity  would  get  a  footing  first 
in  the  metropolis  of  its  region.  The  lesser  cities 
would  be  evangelized  by  missions  sent  from 
thence ;  and  so  the  suffragan  sees  would  look  on 
themselves  as  daughters  of  the  metropolitan  see. 


The  metropolitan  bishop  is  the  natural  center  of 
unity  for  the  bishops  of  the  province.  .  .  .  The 
bishops  of  the  metropolitan  sees  acquired  certain 
rights  which  were  delegated  to  them  by  their 
brother  bishops.  Moreover,  among  the  most  im- 
portant churches  a  certain  or<ler  of  precedence 
grew  up  which  corresponded  with  the  civil  dig- 
nity of  the  cities  in  which  those  churches  existed ; 
and  finally  the  churches  which  were  founded  by 
the  apostles  were  treated  with  peculiar  rever- 
ence."—  F.  W.  Puller,  The  Primitii..  Saints  and 
the  See  of  litmie,  pp.  11  and  18. — "The  triumph 
of  the  episcopal  system  undoubtedly  promoted 
unity,  order,  and  tranquillity.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  was  unfavourable  to  the  free  development 
of  the  life  of  the  church;  and  while  the  latter 
promoted  the  formation  of  a  priesthood  foreign 
to  the  essence  of  that  development  of  the  king- 
dom of  God  which  the  New  Testament  sets 
forth,  on  the  other  liand  a  revolution  of  senti- 
ment which  had  already  been  prepared — an 
altered  view  of  the  idea  of  the  priesthood — had 
no  small  influence  on  the  development  of  the 
episcopal  system.  Thus  docs  this  change  of  the 
original  constitution  of  the  Christian  communi- 
ties stand  intimately  connected  with  another  and 
still  more  radical  change,  — the  formation  of  a 
sacerdotal  caste  in  the  t  mristiitn  church.  .  .  .  Out 
of  the  husk  of  Judaism  Christianity  had  evolved 
Itself  to  freedom  and  independence, — had  stripped 
off  the  forms  in  which  it  first  sprang  up,  and 
within  which  the  new  spirit  lay  at  first  concealed, 
until  by  its  own  inherent  power  it  broke  through 
them.  This  development  belonged  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  Paulino  position,  from  which 
proceecled  the  form  of  the  church  in  the  Gentile 
world.  In  the  struggle  with  the  Jewish  elements 
which  opposed  the  free  development  of  Christi- 
anity, this  principle  hud  triumphantly  made  its 
way.  In  the  churches  of  pagan  Christians  the 
new  creation  stood  forth  completely  unfolded; 
but  the  Jewish  principle,  which  had  been  van- 
quished, pressed  in  once  more  from  another 
quarter.  Humanity  was  as  yet  incapable  of 
maintaining  itself  at  the  lofty  position  of  pure 
spiritual  religion.  The  Jewish  position  was  bet- 
ter adapted  to  the  mass,  which  needed  first  to  be 
trained  before  it  could  apprehend  Christianity  in 
its  purity, — needed  to  be  disabused  from  pagan- 
ism. Out  of  Christianity,  now  become  indepen- 
dent, a  principle  once  more  sprang  forth  akin  to 
the  principles  of  the  Old  Testament, — a  new  out- 
ward shaping  of  the  kingdom  ox  God,  a  new 
discipline  of  the  law  which  one  day  was  to  serve 
for  the  training  of  rude  nations,  a  new  tutorship 
for  the  spirit  of  humanity,  until  it  should  arrive 
at  the  maturity  of  the  perfect  manhood  in  Christ. 
This  investiture  of  the  Christian  spirit  in  a  form 
nearly  akin  to  the  position  arrived  at  in  the  Old 
Testament,  could  not  fail,  after  the  fruitful  prin- 
ciple had  once  made  its  appearance,  to  unfold 
itself  more  and  more,  and  to  bring  to  light  one 
after  another  all  the  consequences  which  it  in- 
volved ;  but  there  also  began  with  it  a  reaction  of 
the  Christian  consciousness  as  it  yearned  after 
freedom,  which  was  continually  bursting  forth 
anew  in  an  endlets  variety  of  appearances,  until 
it  attuioed  its  triumph  at  the  Reformation." — A. 
Neander,  General  Uiiiory  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion and  Church,  v.  1,  sect.  3,  Ji. — "Though  the 
forms  of  [pagan]  religion  had  broken  -vway,  the 
spirit  of  religion  was  still  quick;  it  uad  even 
developed:   the    sense  of   sin,  an   almost   new 


444 


CHRIS!  lANITY. 


The  Sprenit  of 
the  faith. 


CIIKISTIANITY. 


phenomenon,  began  to  invade  Society  and  Philoso- 
phy ;  and  along  with  this,  au  almost  importunate 
cruving  after  a  revelation.  Tlie  changed  tone  of 
philosophy,  the  spread  of  mysticism,  tlio  rapid 
growtli  of  mystery-worship,  the  revived  Plato- 
nism,  are  all  articulate  expressions  of  this  need. 
The  old  Philosophy  begins  not  onlv  to  proach  but 
to  pray:  the  new  strives  to  catch  the  revealed 
voice  of  God  in  the  oracles  of  less  unfaithful 
days.  ...  In  the  teeth  of  an  organised  and  con- 
centrated despotism  a  new  society  had  grown 
up,  scIf-supporting,'self-regulated,  self-governed, 
a  State  within  tlio  State.  Calm  and  assured 
amid  a  world  that  hid  its  fears  only  In  blind  ex- 
citement, free -amid  the  servile,  sanguine  amid 
the  despairing.  Christians  lived  with  an  object. 
United  in  loyal  fellowship  by  socred  pledges 
more  binding  than  the  sacramentum  of  the  sol- 
dier, welded  together  by  a  stringent  discipline, 
led  by  trained  and  tried  commanders,  the  Church 
had  succeeded  in  attaining  tmlty.  It  had  proved 
Itself  able  to  command  self-devotion  even  to  the 
death.  It  had  not  feared  to  assimilate  the 
choicest  fruits  of  the  choicest  intellects  of  East 
and  West.  .  .  .  Yet  tlie  centripetal  forces  were 
stronger;  Tertullian  had  died  an  hercsiarch,  and 
Origan  but  narrowly  and  somewhat  of  grace 
escaped  a  like  fate.  If  rent  with  schisms  and 
threatened  with  disintegration,  the  Church  was 
still  an  undivided  whole."— G.  H.  Rendall,  The 
Emperor  Julian,  Paganism  and  Christianity,  pp. 
21-23.— "  The  designation  of  the  Universal  Chris- 
tian Church  as  Catholic  dates  from  the  time  of 
Irenaeus.  ...  At  the  beginning  of  this  age,  the 
heretical  as  well  as  the  non-heretical  Ebionism  may 
be  regarded  as  virtually  suppressed,  although 
some  scanty  remnants  of  it  might  yet  be  found. 
The  most  brilliant  period  of  Gnosticism,  too,  .  .  . 
was  already  passed.  But  in  Manichoiism  there 
appeared,  during  the  second  half  of  t)\e  third  cen- 
tury, a  new  peril  of  a  no  less  threatening  kind  in- 
spired by  Parseeism  and  Buddhism.  .  .  .  With 
Marcus  Aurclius,  Paganism  outside  of  Christi- 
anity as  embodied  in  the  Roman  State,  begins 
the  war  of  extermination  against  the  Church  that 
was  ever  more  and  more  extending  her  boun- 
daries. Such  manifestation  of  hostility,  however, 
was  not  able  to  subdue  the  Church.  .  .  .  During 
the  same  time  the  episcopal  and  synodal-hierarchi- 
cal organization  of  the  church  was  more  fully 
developed  by  the  Introduction  of  an  order  of 
Metropolitans,  and  then  in  the  following  period  it 
reached  its  climax  in  the  oligarchical  Pentarchy  of 
Patriarchs,  and  in  the  institution  of  oecumenical 
Synods." — J.  H.  Kurtz,  Church  Histori/,  v.  l,pp. 
72-73,  to  which  the  reader  is  also  referred  for  all 
periods  of  church  history.  See,  also,P.  Schafr,Ifi»- 
tory  of  tlie  Christian  Church;  ond,  for  biography, 
W.  Smith  and  H.  Wace,  A  Dictionary  of  ChrisUan 
Biography. — "  Missionary  effort  in  this  period  was 
mainly  directed  to  the  conversion  of  the  hea- 
then. On  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem,  Hadrian's 
colony  of  ^lia  Capitolina  was  planted ;  so  that 
even  there  the  Church,  in  its  character  and 
modes  of  worship,  was  a  Gentile  community. 
Christianity  was  early  carried  to  Edessa,  the 
capital  of  the  small  state  of  Osrhene,  in  Mesopo- 
tamia. After  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
the  Church  at  Edessa  was  sufflciently  flourishing 
to  count  among  its  members  the  king,  Abgar  Bar 
Manu.  At  about  this  time  the  gospel  was 
preached  in  Persia,  Media,  Parthia,  and  Bactria. 
We  have  notices  of  churches  in  Arabia  in  the 


early  part  of  the  third  century.  They  were 
vi.sit('<l  several  times  by  Origen.  the  celebrated 
AK'.Miiulriaii  Church  toucher  (185-254).  In  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century  a  missionary,  Thoo- 
philus,  of  Diu,  found  churches  in  India.  In 
E.irypt,  Christianity  niade  great  progress,  especi- 
ally at  Alexandria,  wlienco  it  spread  to  Cyrcne 
and  otlicr  neighboring  places.  In  upper  Egypt, 
wlicre  tli(!  Coptic  language  and  the  superstition 
of  the  ijcopie  were  obstacles  in  its  path,  Cliristi- 
auity  had,  nevertheless,  gained  a  foothold  as 
early  as  towards  tlie  close  of  tlu;  second  century. 
At  tliis  time  tlie  gospel  had  been  planted  in  pro- 
consular Africa,  being  conveyed  thitlier  from 
Rome,  and  there  was  a  llourislilng  church  at 
Carthage.  In  Gaul,  where  the  Druiilical  sy.stem, 
with  its  priesthood  and  sacrificial  worsliip,  was 
the  religion  of  the  Celtic  population,  several 
cliurclies  were  founded  from  Asia  Jlinor.  At 
Lyons  and  Vienne  there  were  strong  cliu'ches  in 
the  lust  quarter  of  the  second  century.  At  this 
time  Irenicus,  Bishop  of  Lyons,  speaks  of  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  in  Germany,  west 
of  the  Rhine,  and  Tertullian,  the  North  African 
presbyter,  speaks  of  Christianity  in  Britain.  The 
fatliers  in  tlic  second  century  describe  in  glowing 
terms,  and  not  without  rhetorical  exaggeration, 
tlio  rapid  conquests  of  the  Gospel.  The  number 
of  converts  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  must  have 
been  very  large.  Otherwise  we  cannot  account 
for  the  entliusiastic  language  of  Justin  Martyr 
respecting  the  multitude  of  professing  Christians. 
Tertullian  writes  in  a  similar  strain.  Irenajus 
refers  to  Barbarians  who  have  believed  without 
having  a  knowledge  of  letters,  through  oral 
teaching  merely." — Q.  P.  Fisher,  History  of  the 
Christian  Church,  pp.  45^6. 

Alexandria. — "Christianity  first  began  its 
activity  in  the  country  among  the  Jewisli  and 
Greek  population  of  the  Delta,  but  gradually 
also  among  the  Egyptians  proper  (the  Copts)  as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  Coptic  (Memphytic) 
translation  of  the  Now  Testament  (third  cen- 
tury). In  the  second  century.  Gnosticism  [see 
Gnostics],  which  had  its  chief  seat  here  as  well 
as  in  Syria,  and,  secondly,  towards  the  close  of 
the  century,  the  Alexandrian  Catechetical  School, 
show  the  importance  of  tliis  centre  of  religious 
movement  and  Cliristian  education." — W.  Moel- 
ler,  Ilist.ofthe  Ohriatian  Church, p.  105. — "Never 
perhaps  has  the  free  statement  of  the  Christian 
idea  had  less  prejudice  to  encounter  than  at 
Alexandria  at  the  close  of  the  second  century. 
Never  has  it  more  successfully  vindicated  by 
argument  its  right  to  be  the  great  interpreter  of 
the  human  spirit.  The  institutions  of  tlie  great 
metropolis  were  highly  favourable  to  this  result. 
The  Museum,  built  by  tlie  Ptolemies,  was  in- 
tended to  be,  and  speedily  became,  the  centre  of  an 
intense  intellectual  life.  The  Serapeum,  at  the 
other  end  of  the  town,  rivalled  it  in  beauty  of 
architecture  and  wealth  of  rare  JISS.  The  Sebas- 
tion,  reared  in  honour  of  Augustus,  was  no  un- 
worthy companion  to  these  two  noble  establish- 
ments. In  all  three,  splendid  endowments  and  a 
ricli  professoriate  attracted  the  talent  of  the  world. 
If  the  ambition  of  a  secured  reputation  drew 
many  eminent  men  away  to  Rome,  the  means  of 
se(;uring  such  eminence  were  mainly  procured  at 
Alexandria.  .  .  .  The  Christian  Church  in  this 
city  rose  to  the  height  of  its  grand  opportunity. 
It  entered  the  lists  without  fear  and  witliout 
favour,  and  boldly  proclaimed  its  competence  to 


445 


CHRISTIANITY. 


ne  AleJranilrinn 
Church. 


CIIIUSTIANITy. 


satisfy  the  intellectual  cravings  of  man.  Num- 
Dcrs  of  restless  and  iiuiiiiriiiK  Bpirits  eiiine  from 
till  |)arts  (if  the  worlil,  liopin.;  to  t1ii<l  ii  solution 
of  the  (loiihts  that  perple.'ied  them.  And  the 
Chureli,  which  hud  nlreiidy  hrou^ht  pence  to  th(^ 
soids  of  the  wontiin  and  tlie  slave,  nriw  fflrded 
herself  to  the  harder  task  of  c'onvincin;;  the 
trained  intelligence  of  the  man  of  letters  and  the 
pliilosopher." — C.  T.  C'ruttwell,  A  Litinin/  Ilin- 
ton/  of  Eiirlif  Chrintiiinitu,  hk.  4,  rh.  1  (c.  2). — 
"TluMiuestion  .  .  .  came  up  for  decision  towards 
the  close  of  the  mibapostolic  aije,  as  to  what 
shape  the  Church  was  tinally  to  take.  Two 
types  were  set  before  her  toclioose  from  —  one  the 
Hebrew-Latin  type,  as  \\v.  may  call  it,  into  which 
.  .  .  site  finally  settled  down;  the  otlier  the 
Hellenist  type  of  a  Demos,  or  commonwealth  of 
free  citizens,  all  equal,  all  alike  kings  and  priests 
unto  Qod,  and  whose  moml  and  spiritual  growth 
was  left  very  much  to  the  initiative  of  eacli  mem- 
ber of  the  community.  In  Alexandria,  as  the 
meeting-point  of  all  nationalities,  and  where 
Judaism  itself  had  tried  to  set  up  a  new  typo  of 
thought,  eclectic  between  Hebraism  and  Hellen- 
ism, and  comprehending  what  was  best  in  both, 
naturally  enough  tliere  grew  up  u  Christian  type 
of  eclecticism  corresponding  to  that  of  Philo.  .  .  . 
Into  this  seething  of  rival  sects  and  races  the 
Alexandrian  school  of  catechists  threw  them- 
selves, and  nnule  a  noble  attempt  to  rescue  the 
Church,  the  synagogue,  and  the  Stoics  alike  from 
the  one  bane  common  to  all  —  the  dangerous  delu- 
sion that  the  truth  was  for  tlu^m,  not  they  for 
the  truth.  Setting  out  on  the  assumption  that 
God's  purpose  was  the  education  of  the  whole 
human  faini'.y,  they  saw  in  the  Logos  doctrine  of 
St.  John  .le  key  to  harmonise  all  truth,  whether 
of  Chris -ian  sect,  Hebrew  synagogue,  or  Stoic 
philosophy.  ...  To  educate  all  men  up  to  this 
standard  seemed  to  tliem  the  true  ideal  of  the 
Church.  True  Gnosis  was  their  keynote;  and 
the  Gnostic,  as  Clemens  loves  to  describe  himself, 
was  to  them  the  pattern  philosopher  and  Chris- 
tian in  one.  Tliey  regarded,  moreover,  a  disci- 
pline of  at  least  three  years  as  imperative;  it 
was  the  preliminary  conditiou  of  entrance  into  the 
Christian  Church.  — J.  B.  Heard,  Alexandrian 
ami  Cartluiginian  Theology  Contrasted,  pp.  37-38. 
— The  two  great  Christian  writers  of  Alexandria 
were  Clement  and  Origen.  "The  universal  in- 
fluence of  Origen  made  itself  felt  in  the  third 
century  over  the  whole  field  of  Greek  theology. 
In  him,  as  it  were,  everything  whidi  had  hitherto 
been  striven  after  in  tlie  Greek  field  of  tlieology, 
had  been  gathered  tofjether,  so  as,  being  collected 
liere  in  a  centre,  to  give  an  impulse  in  the  most 
various  directions;  lienco  also  tlio  further  de- 
velopment of  theology  in  subsequent  times  is 
always  accustomed  to  link  itself  on  to  one  side 
or  the  other  of  his  rich  spiritual  heritage.  .  .  . 
And  wliilo  this  involves  that  Christianity  is 
placed  on  friendly  relations  with  the  previous 
philo.sophicul  development  of  the  highest  concep- 
tions of  God  and  the  world,  yet  on  the  other 
hand  Cliristian  truth  also  appears  conversely  as 
the  universal  truth  which  gatliers  together  in 
itself  all  the  hitherto  isolated  rays  of  divine 
truth.  ...  In  the  great  religious  ferment  of 
the  time  there  was  further  contained  the  ten- 
dency to  seek  similar  religious  ideas  amid  the 
different  mythological  religious  forms  and  to 
mingle  them  syncretistically.  This  religiotis  fer- 
ment was  still  further  increased  by  the  original 


content  of  Christianity,  that  mighty  leaven, 
which  anno'inced  a  religion  destined  to  the  re- 
demption and  ])crfectiug  of  the  world,  and  by 
this  means  a  like  direction  and  tendency  was  im- 
l)arted  to  various  other  religious  views  likewise. 
Tlie  exciting  and  moving  etfect  of  Gnosticism  on 
tlie  Chureli  depended  at  the  same  time  on  the 
fact,  that  its  re|)rcs<'ntatives  practically  appre- 
hended Christianity  in  the  manner  of  the  antique 
religiotis  mysteries,  and  in  so  doing  sought  to 
lean  tiixm  the  Christian  comnuinities  and  make 
themselves  at  home  in  them,  according  as  their 
religious  life  and  usages  seemed  to  invite  them, 
and  to  establish  in  them  a  community  of  the 
initiated  and  perfect;  an  cndeavfmr  wliidi  the 
powerful  ascetic  tendency  in  tlie  church  exploited 
and  augmented  in  its  own  sen.se,  and  for  which 
the  institution  of  prophecy,  wiiich  was  so  higlily 
respected  and  powerful  in  the  communities, 
afforded  a  handle.  In  this  way  the  initiated  were 
able  to  make  for  themselves  a  basis  in  tlie  com- 
munity on  which  tliey  could  depend,  while  the 
religiophilosophical  speculations,  which  arc 
always  intelligible  only  to  a  few,  at  the  same 
time  propagated  themselves  and  branched  out 
scholastically." — W.  Moeller,  Jlintoryofthe  Chris- 
uan  Church,  pp.  215,  213,  130-131.— "At  Alex- 
andria, Basilides  (A.  D.  12.'))  and  Valentine  ex- 
erted in  turn  an  extraordinary  influence;  the 
latter  endeavored  to  establish  Ins  school  at  Homo 
about  the  year  140.  The  Gnostics  of  Syria  pro- 
fessed a  more  open  dualism  than  those  of  Egypt. 
The  Church  of  Antioch  had  to  resist  Siiiurnin, 
that  of  Edessa  to  oppose  Dordesancs  and  Tatian." 
— E.  De  Pressense,  The  Early  Years  of  Christian- 
ity; The  Martyrs  and  Apologists,  p.  135. — "There 
was  something  very  imposing  in  those  mighty  sys- 
tems, wliich  embraced  lieaven  and  earth.  How 
plain  and  meagre  in  comparison  seemed  simple 
Christianity  1  There  was  something  remarkably 
attractive  m  the  breadth  and  liberality  of  Gnos- 
ticism. It  seemed  completely  to  have  reconciled 
Christianity  with  culture.  How  narrow  tlie 
Christian  Church  appeared  1  Even  noble  souls 
might  be  captivated  by  the  hope  of  winning  tlie 
world  over  to  Christianity  in  tliis  way.  .  .  . 
Over  against  tlie  mighty  systems  of  tlie  Gnostics, 
the  Church  stood,  in  sober  earnestness  and  child- 
like faith,  on  the  simple  Christian  doctrine  of  tlie 
Apostles.  This  was  to  be  sought  in  the  churches 
founded  by  the  apostles  themselves,  where  they 
had  defined  the  faitli  in  their  iireaching." — G. 
Uhlhorn,  7  he  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Ilea  then- 
-'sm,  bk.  2,  ch.  3. — "Greek  philosopliy  had  joined 
Hands  with  Jewish  theosophy,  and  the  Church 
knew  not  where  to  look  for  help.  So  serious  did 
the  danger  seem,  when  it  was  assailed  at  once  and 
from  opposite  sides  by  Jewish  and  Greek  tyjjes  of 
Grtostici'^m,  the  one  from  the  monotheistic  point  of 
view  in  ugning  the  Gotlhead,  the  other  for  the 
Docetic  side  explaining  away  [as  a  spiritual  illu- 
sion] the  manhood  of  Christ,  that  the  Church,  in 
despair  of  beating  error  by  mere  apology,  fell  back 
on  the  method  of  authority.  Tlie  Church  was  the 
only  safe  keeper  of  the  deposit  of  sacred  tradition ; 
whoever  impugned  that  tradition,  let  him  bo  put 
out  of  the  communion  of  saints."— Rev.  J.  B. 
Heard,  Alexandrian  and  Carthaginian  Theology 
Contrasted,  p.  41. — "  The  interest,  the  meaning,  of 
Gnosticism  rest  entirely  upon  its  ethical  motive. 
It  was  an  attempt,  a  serious  attempt,  to  fathom 
the  dread  mystery  of  sorrow  and  pain,  to  answer 
that  spectral  doubt,  which  is   mostly  crushed 


msF 


CHRISTIANITY. 


The  Si/rinn 
r*Aurr'u'«. 


ClIRISTIAXITY. 


down  by  force  —  Can  the  world  ns  wo  Vnow  it 
Imvo  been  made  by  God?  'Ceiwe,' sajji  Biisil- 
idcs.  'from  idle  anil  curious  variety,  and  let  us 
riitber  discuss  tlie  opinions,  wliicli  even  barbari- 
ans liave  lield,  on  tlie  sutgect  of  go(Kl  and  evil.' 
'  I  will  say  anytliing  ratlicr  tlmn  adndt  that 
Providence  is  wicked. '  Valentinus  describes  in 
till!  strain  of  an  ancient  prophet  the  woes  that 
alllict  mankind.  'I  durst  not  afllrin,'  he  con- 
<'ludes,  •  that  God  is  the  author  of  all  this.'  So 
Tcrtullian  says  of  Marcion,  'like  many  men  of 
our  time,  and  especially  the  heretics,  he  is  be- 
wildered by  the  question  of  evil.'  They  ap- 
jiroach  the  problem  from  a  non-Christian  point  of 
vi(^w,  and  arrive  therefore  at  a  non-Christian 
solution.  .  .  .  Many  of  thcnj,  especially  the 
later  sectaries,  accepted  the  whole  Christian 
Creed,  but  always  with  reserve.  The  teaching 
of  the  Churcli  thus  became  in  their  eyes  a  popu- 
lar exoteric  confession,  beneath  their  own  Gnosis, 
or  Knowledge,  <vhich  was  a  Mystery,  jealously 
guarded  from  all  but  the  chosen  few.  ' — C.  Bigg, 
T/if  C/iristiiiii  PliiiimintaofAlcriindna,  pp.  28-29. 

Czsarea. —  "The  chief  points  of  interest  in 
the  history  of  the  Church  of  Ctcsarea  during  this 
period  are  the  residence  of  Origen  there  (first 
between  A.  I).  31!)  and  219  and  again  after  his 
final  departure  from  Alexandria  in  2;!1),  the 
(■duration  of  Eu.sebius,  the  foundation  of  the 
great  library  by  Pamphilus,  and  the  martyrdoms 
il\iriiig  the  Diocletian  persecution.  Most  of 
these  will  come  before  us  again  in  other  con- 
nexions, but  they  require  mention  here.  It 
would  be  ditflcult  to  ovcr-e.stimato  the  effect  of 
what  they  imply  on  the  Churoh  at  large.  Had 
the  work  of  Origen,  Pamphilus,  and  Ensebius 
at  Cii'sarea  remainecl  unrecorded,  there  would  be 
a  huge  blank  in  ecclesiastical  history,  rendering 
much  that  is  otherwise  known  scarcely  intel- 
ligible. Had  that  work  never  been  done,  the 
course  of  ecclesiastical  history  would  have  been 
very  dilferent.  In  the  whole  of  the  second  and 
third  centuries  it  would  be  dilHcult  to  name  two 
more  influential  Christians  than  Origen  and 
Euscbius;  and  Panipliilus  laboured  earnestly  to 
preserve  and  circulate  the  writings  of  the  one 
and  to  facilitate  those  of  the  other.  It  was  from 
the  libraries  of  Pamphilus  at  Ctcsarea  and  of 
Alexander  at  Jerusalem  that  Eusebius  obtained 
most  of  his  material "  for  his  "  Ecclesinstical  His- 
tory," wliich  has  preserved  titles  a'  .i  quotations 
from  many  lost  books  of  exceeding  value. — A. 
Pluiuiner,  The  Church  of  the  JSarly  Fathers,  ch.  3. 

Edessa. — ' '  Edessa  (the  modern  Urf a)  was  from 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century  one  of  the 
cliief  centres  of  Syrian  Christian  life  and  theo- 
logical study.  For  many  years,  amid  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  theological  persecution,  a  series  of 
flourishing  theological  schools  \\  ;re  maintained 
there,  one  of  which  (the  'Persia"  school')  is  of 
great  importance  as  tlie  nursery  of  Nestorianism 
in  the  extreme  East.  It  was  as  bishop  of  Edessa, 
also,  that  Jacob  Baradaeus  organized  the  mono- 
pliysite  churches  into  that  Jacobite  church  of 
which  he  is  the  hero.  From  the  scholars  of 
Edessa  came  many  of  the  translations  which 
carried  Greek  thought  to  tlie  East,  and  in  the 
periods  of  exciting  controversy  Edessa  was  within 
the  range  of  the  theological  movements  that 
stirred  Alexandria  and  Constantinople.  The 
'  Chronicle  of  Edessa,'  as  it  is  called  because  the 
greater  number  of  its  notices  relate  to  Edessene 
affairs,  is  a  brief  document  in  Syriac  contained 


in  a  manusoript  of  six  leaves  in  the  Vatican 
library.  It  is  (me  of  the  most  important  funda- 
mental sources  for  tin?  history  of  Edessa,  c(m 
tains  a  long  otUcial  narrative  of  the  floinl  of  A.  I). 
2(11,  which  is  perhaps  the  only  existing  inonu- 
nieiit  of  lieathen  Hyriac  literature,  and  includes 
an  excellent  and  vcTy  carefully  dated  list  of  the 
bishops  of  Edessa  from  A.  I).  '.iV.i  to  54!}." — An- 
(lonr  Uiricw,  r.  19,  p.  374. — The  Syriac  Versions 
(of  the  Gospel)  form  a  group  of  which  mention 
should  undoubtedly  be  made.  The  Syria(r  ver- 
sions of  the  Bible  (Old  Testjiment)  are  among  the 
most  ancient  remains  of  the  language,  the  Syriac 
and  the  Chaldee  being  the  two  dialects  of  the 
Ammaean  spoken  in  the  North.  Of  versions  of 
the  New  Testament,  "the  'Peshito'  or  the 
'Simple,'  though  not  the  oldest  text,  has  been  the 
longest  known.  .  .  .  The 'Curetonian' .  .  .  was 
discovered  after  its  existence  had  been  for  a  ling 
time  8usi)ected  by  sagacious  scholars  [but  is  not 
much  more  than  a  series  of  fragiiiciitsl.  .  .  . 
Cureton,  Tregelles,  Alford,  Ewald,  BleeU,  and 
others,  believe  this  text  to  be  older  than  the 
Peshito  [which  speaks  for  the  Greek  text  of  the 
second  century,  though  itsowndate  is  doubtful]. 
.  .  .  Other  valuable  Syriac  versions  an;  'Phil- 
oxenian  "...  and  the  '  Jerusalem  Syriac  Lec- 
tionary  "...  a  service-book  with  lessons  from 
the  Gosjiels  for  Sundays  and  feast  days  tlirougli- 
out  the  y(!ar  .  .  .  written  at  Antioch  in  10!i()  in 
a  dialect  similar  to  that  in  use  in  Jerusalem  and 
from  a  Greek  text  of  great  antiquity."  A  recent 
discovery  renders  these  facts  and  statements  of 
peculiar  interests. — G.  E.  Merrill,  T/te  Story  of 
tlie  Miinunerlpts,  eh.  10. 

Rural  Palestine. — "  If  Eliionism  [.see  Eiuon- 
ismJ  was  not  ])riniitive  Christianity,  neither  was 
it  a  creation  of  the  second  century.  As  an  or- 
ganization, a  distinct  sect,  it  first  made  itself 
known,  we  may  suppose,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan: 
but  as  a  sentiment,  it  had  been  harboured  within 
the  Church  from  the  very  earli(!st  days.  Mod- 
erated by  the  personal  infiuenee  of  the  Apostka, 
soothed  by  the  general  practice  of  their  church, 
not  yet  forced  into  declaring  themselves  by  the 
turn  of  events,  though  scarcely  tolerant  of  others, 
these  Judaizers  were  tolerated  for  a  time  them- 
selves. The  beginning  of  the  second  century 
was  a  winnowing  season  in  the  Chnic.h  of  the 
Circumcision.  ...  It  is  a  probalile  conjecture, 
that  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  the  fugi- 
tive Christians,  living  in  their  retirement  in  the 
neiglibourhood  of  the  Essene  settlements,  re- 
ceived largo  accessions  to  their  numbers  from 
this  sect,  wliich  thus  inoculated  the  Cliurch  with 
its  peculiar  views.  It  is  at  least  worthy  of  notice, 
that  in  a  religious  work  emanating  from  this 
school  of  Ebionites  the  '  true  Gospel '  is  re-ported 
to  have  been  first  propagated  '  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  holy  place'  " — J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Dis- 
sertations on,  the  Apostolic  Age,  pp.  7y->S0. 

Carthage. — "If  the  world  is  indebted  to 
Rome  for  the  organisation  of  the  Church,  Rome 
is  indebted  to  Carthage  for  the  theory  on  which 
that  organisation  is  built.  The  career  of  Car- 
thage as  a  Christian  centre  exemplifies  the 
strange  vicissitudes  of  history.  The  city  which 
Rome  in  her  jealousy  had  crushed,  which,  not 
content  with  crushing,  she  had  obliterated  from 
the  face  of  the  earth,  had  at  the  bidding  of 
Rome's  greatest  son  risen  from  her  ashes,  and  by 
her  career  almost  verified  the  poet's  taunt  that 
the  greatness  of  Carthage  was  reared  on  the 


447 


CimiSTIANITV. 


Carlhaye  and 
Home. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


ruin  of  Itftly.  For  in  tnith  the  Afrirnn  capital 
was  In  all  but  political  i)()wor  no  unworthy  rival 
of  Home.  It  liad  stoadily  grown  in  comniiTcial 
prosperity.  Its  site  was  so  advantajjeoiis  as  to 
invite,  almost  to  compel,  the  inthix  of  trade, 
which  ever  spontaneously  moves  along  the  line 
of  least  resistance.  And  the  people  were  well 
abl(^  to  turn  this  natural  udvant^ige  to  account. 
A  mi.\ed  nationality,  in  which  the  original 
Italian  innnigration  lent  a  steadying  force  to  tlie 
native  I'unic  and  kindred  African  elements  that 
formed  its  basis,  with  its  intelligence  enriched 
by  large  accessions  of  Greek  settlers  from  Cyrene 
and  Alexandria  —  Cartilage  had  developed  in 
the  second  century  of  our  era  into  a  community 
at  once  wealthy,  enterprising  and  ambitious. 
...  It  was  no  longer  in  the  sphere  of  profane 
literature,  but  in  her  contributions  to  the  cause 
of  Christianity  and  the  spiritual  armoury  of  the 
Church,  that  the  proud  Queen  of  Africa  was  to 
win  her  second  crown  of  fame.  .  .  .  The  names 
of  Tertullian,  Cyprian  and  Augustine,  at  onco 
suggest  the  source  from  which  Papal  Rome 
drew  the  principles  of  Church  controversy, 
Church  orgaidsation,  and  Church  doctrine,  which 
have  consolidated  her  authority,  and  to  some 
extent  justified  her  prcteiLsions  to  rule  the  con- 
science of  Christendom." — C.  T.  Cruttwell,  A 
Literary  IlisUiry  of  Early  Christianity,  bk,  5,  ch. 
3  (».  2). — "At  the  end  of  the  second  century  th  ; 
African  Tertullian  first  began  to  wrestle  wi  i 
the  dilllculties  of  tlie  Latin  language  in  the  \- 
deavour  to  make  it  a  veliicle  for  the  expression  /f 
Christian  ideas.  In  reading  his  dogmatic  writ- 
ings the  struggle  is  so  apparent  that  it  seems  as 
though  we  beheld  a  rider  endeavouring  to  disci- 

Eline  an  unbroken  steed.  Tertullian's  doctrine 
I,  however,  still  wholly  Greek  in  substance,  and 
this  continued  to  be  the  case  in  the  church  of 
the  Latin  tongue  until  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  Hilary,  Ambrose,  even  Jerome,  are 
essentially  interpreters  of  Greek  philo.sophy  and 
theology  to  the  Latin  West.  With  Augus- 
tine learning  begins  to  assume  a  Latin  form, 
partly  original  and  independent  —  partly,  I  say, 
for  even  later  compositions  are  abundantly  inter- 
woven with  Greek  elements  ond  materials.  Very 
gradually  from  the  writings  of  the  African 
lathers  of  the  church  does  the  specific  Latin 
element  come  to  occupy  that  dominant  position 
in  Western  Christendom,  which  soon,  portly 
from  self-sufllcient  indifference,  partly  from 
ignorance,  so  completely  severed  itself  from 
Greek  influences  that  the  old  unity  and  harmony 
could  never  be  restored.  Still  the  Biblical  study 
of  the  Latins  is,  as  a  whole,  a  mere  eclio  and 
copy  of  Greek  predecessors  " — J.  I.  von  Di>l- 
linger,  Studies  in  European  History,  pp.  170-171. 
—  From  Carthage  which  was  afterward  the  resi- 
dence of  "  tlie  primate  of  all  Africa  .  .  .  tlie 
Christian  faith  soon  disseminated  throughout 
Numidia,  JIauritania  and  Getulia,  which  is 
proved  by  the  great  number  of  bishops  at  two 
councils  held  at  Carthage  in  250  and  308.  At 
the  latter  there  were  270  bishops,  whose  names 
are  not  given,  but  at  the  former  were  bishops 
from  (87)  .  .  .  cities."— J.  E.  T.  Wiltsch,  i/aHd- 
book  of  the  Geography  and  Statistics  oft/ie  Church, 
Rome. — "In  the  West,  Rome-remains  and  in- 
deed becomes  ever  more  and  more  the  '  sedes 
Apostolica,'  by  far  the  most  important  centre 
where,  alongside  of  the  Roman  element,  there 
are  to  be  found  elements  streaming  together  from 


all  points  of  the  Empire.  Orc(^k  names,  and  the 
long  la.sting  (still  dominant  in  the  second  century) 
maintenance  of  Greek  as  the  written  language  of 
Roman  Christianity  are  liere  noteworthy.  .  .  . 
Rome  was  the  point  of  departure  not  only  for 
Italy  and  the  Western  Provinces,  but  without 
doubt  also  for  Proconsular  Africa,  where  in  turn 
Carthage  becomes  the  centres  of  diffusion.  .  .  . 
Tlie  diffusion  in  tlie  Gncco-Roman  world  as  a 
whole  goes  first  to  the  more  important  towns  and 
from  tliese  gradually  over  tlie  country.  .  .  . 
The  instruments  however  of  this  mission  are  by 
no  means  exclusivelv  apostolic  men,  who  pursue 
mi.ssions  as  their  cafliiig  .  .  .  ;  every  Christian 
becomes  a  witness  in  liis  own  circle,  and  inter- 
course and  trade  bring  Christians  hither  and 
thither,  and  along  witli  them  their  Christian 
faith." — W.  Moeller,  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,  pp.  105-107. — "  It  has  been  contended, 
and  many  still  believe,  that  in  ancient  Rome  the 
doctrines  of  Christ  found  no  proselytes,  except 
among  the  lower  and  poorer  classes  of  citizens. 
.  .  .  The  gospel  found  its  way  also  to  the  man- 
1  'ons  of  the  masters,  nay,  even  to  the  palace  of 
tuL  Cn;sars.  The  discoveries  lately  made  on  this 
subject  are  startling,  and  constitute  a  new 
chapter  in  the  history  of  imperial  Rome.  ...  A 
ditficuity  may  arise  in  the  mind  of  the  reader: 
how  was  it  possible  for  these  magistrates,  gen- 
erals, consuls,  officers,  senators,  and  governors  of 
provinces,  to  attend  to  their  duties  without  per- 
forming acts  of  idolatry  ?  .  .  .  Tlie  Roman  em- 
perors gave  plenty  of  liberty  to  tlie  new  religion 
from  time  to  time;  and  some  of  them,  moved  by 
a  sort  of  religious  syncretism,  even  tried  to  ally 
it  with  tlie  official  worship  of  the  empire,  and  to 
place  Christ  and  Jupiter  on  the  steps  of  the  same 
■lararium.'.  .  .  We  must  not  believe  that  the 
transformation  of  Rome  from  a  pagan  into  a 
Cliristian  city  was  a  sudden  and  unexpected 
event,  which  took  the  world  by  surprise.  It 
'vas  the  natural  result  of  the  work  of  three  cen- 
turies, brought  to  maturity  under  Constantine  by 
an  inevitable  reaction  against  the  violence  of 
Diocletian's  rule.  It  was  not  a  revolution  or  a 
conversion  in  the  tnie  sense  of  these  words ;  it 
was  the  ofl[lcial  recognition  of  a  state  of  things 
wliich  had  long  ceased  to  be  a  secret.  The 
moral  superiority  of  the  new  doctrines  over  the 
old  religions  was  so  evident,  so  overpowering, 
tliat  the  result  of  the  struggle  had  been  a  fore- 
gone conclusion  since  the  ago  of  the  first  apolo- 
gists. Tlie  revolution  was  an  exceedingly  mild 
one,  tlie  transformation  almost  imperceptible. 
.  .  .  The  transformation  may  be  followed  stage  by 
stage  in  both  its  moral  and  material  aspect.  There 
is  not  a  ruin  of  ancient  Rome  that  does  not  bear 
evidence  of  the  great  change.  .  .  .  Rome  pos- 
sesses authentic  remains  of  the '  houses  of  prayer ' 
in  which  the  gospel  was  first  announced  in  apos- 
tolic times.  ...  A  very  old  tradition,  confirmed 
by  the  '  Liber  Pontiflcalis,'  describes  the  modern 
church  of  S.  Pudentiana  as  having  been  once 
the  private  house  of  the  same  Pudens  who  was 
baptized  by  the  apo.iitles,  and  who  is  mentioned 
in  tlie  epistles  of  S.  ?aul.  .  .  .  The  connection 
of  the  house  with  tlic  apostolate  of  S8.  Peter  and 
Paul  mide  it  very  popular  from  the  beginning. 
.  .  .  Remains  of  tlie  house  of  Pudens  were  found 
in  1870.  They  occupy  a  considerable  area  under 
the  neighboring  houses.  .  .  .  Among  the  Roman 
churches  whose  origin  can  be  n-aced  to  the  hall 
of  meeting,  besides  those  of  Pudens  and  Prisca 


448 


CHRISTIANITY. 


nniil  and 

Simin. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


nlrpftdy  mentioiipd,  (ho  best  pri^servrd  socins  to 
be  tbut  billlt  by  DemetriiiHUt  thetliini  mile-stone 
of  the  Via  Liitinn,  near  Ibc  '  piiiiited  tombs.' .  .  . 
Tlie  Cliristians  to.)lc  advantage  of  tlie  freedom 
accorded  to  funeral  colleges,  and  associated 
thcmsi'lvcs  for  tlie  same  purpose,  following  as 
closely  as  possible  their  rules  concerning  contri- 
butions, tlie  erecti(m  of  lodges,  the  meetings,  ami 
the  .  .  .  love  feasts;  and  it  was  largely  through 
the  niloption  of  these  well-understood  and  re- 
8]>eoted  customs  that  they  were  enabled  to  hold 
their  meetings  and  keep  together  as  a,  corporate 
bo<ly  througli  thi!  stormy  times  of  the  second  and 
third  centuries.  Two  excellent  specimens  of 
scholoe  connected  with  Christian  cejueteries  and 
with  meetings  of  the  faithful  have  come  down  to 
us,  one  above  the  Catacombs  of  Callixtus,  the 
other  above  those  of  Soter."  This  formation  of 
Christian  communities  into  colleges  is  an  import- 
ant fact,  and  connects  these  Christian  societies 
with  one  of  the  social  institutions  of  the  Empire 
which  may  have  influenced  the  church  as  an  or- 
ganization. "The experience  gained  in  twenty- 
tlve  years  of  active  exploration  in  ancient  Home, 
both  al)ove  and  below  ground,  enables  me  to 
state  that  every  pagan  building  which  was 
cai)able  of  giving  shelter  to  a  congregation  was 
transformed,  at  one  time  or  anotlier,  into  a 
church  or  a  chapel.  .  .  .  From  apostolic  times 
to  the  persecution  of  Domitian,  tlie  faithful  were 
buried,  separately  or  collectively,  in  private 
tombs  which  did  not  have  the  character  of  a 
Church  institution.  These  early  tombs,  whether 
above  or  below  ground,  display  a  sense  of  per- 
fect security,  and  an  absence  of  all  fear  or  solici- 
tude. This  feeling  arose  from  two  facts:  the 
small  extent  of  the  cemeteries,  which  .secured  to 
them  the  rights  of  private  property,  and  the  pro- 
tection and  freedom  which  the  Jewish  colony 
in  Rome  enjoyed  from  time  immemorial.  .  .  . 
From  the  time  of  the  apostles  to  the  first  persecu- 
tion of  Domitian,  Christian  tombs,  whether 
above  or  below  ground,  were  built  with  perfect 
impunity  and  in  defiance  of  public  opinion.  We 
have  l)ccn  accustomed  to  consider  the  catacombs 
of  Rome  as  crypts  plunged  in  total  darkness,  and 
penetrating  the  bowels  of  the  earth  at  unfathom- 
able deptlis.  This  is,  in  a  certain  measure,  the 
case  with  those  catacombs,  or  sections  of  cata- 
combs, which  were  excavated  in  times  of  perse- 
cution ;  but  not  with  those  belonging  to  the  first 
century.  The  cemetery  of  these  members  of 
Domitiau's  family  who  had  embraced  the  gospel 
—  such  as  Flavins  Clemens,  Flavia  Domitilla, 
Plautilla,  Petronilla,  and  others  —  reveals  a  bold 
example  of  iiublicity.  .  .  .  How  is  it  possible 
to  imagine  that  the  primitive  Church  did  not 
know  the  place  of  the  '".eath  of  its  two  leading 
apostles  V  In  default  cc  written  testimony  let  us 
consult  monumental  evidence.  There  is  no  event 
of  the  imperial  age  and  of  imperial  Rome  which 
is  attested  by  so  many  noble  structures,  all  of 
which  point  to  the  same  conclusion, — the 
presence  and  execution  of  the  apostles  in  the 
capital  of  the  empire." — R.  Lanciani,  Pagan  ami 
Christian  Itome,  ch.  1,  3  and!. — The  Church  at 
Rome  "gave  no  Illustrious  teachers  to  ancient 
Christianity.  .  .  .  All  the  greatest  questions 
were  debated  elsewhere.  ...  By  a  sort  of  in- 
stinct of  race,  [it]  occupied  itself  far  more  with 
points  of  government  and  organization  than  of 
speculation.  Its  central  position,  in  the  capital 
of  the  empire,  and  its  glorious  memories,  guar- 


anteed to  it  a  growing  authoritv. " — K.  He  Pres- 
sense,  The  Kiirlji  Viun  of  Vhriiitiiinity :  'Die 
Miiiii/rii  ami  Ajxiliif/iiilii,  p.  41. 

Gaul.— "Of  the  history  of  the  Galilean 
Churches  before  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
we  have  no  certain  information.  It  seems  fairly 
probable  indeed  that,  when  we  read  in  the 
Apostolic  age  of  a  mission  of  Crescens  to 
•Oalalia'  or  'Oa\il,'  the  western  country  is 
meant  rather  than  the  Asiatic  settlement  wliich 
bore  the  same  name;  and,  if  so,  this  points  to 
some  relati(m8  with  St.  Paul  himself.  But,  even 
though  this  explanati(m  should  be  accepted,  the 
notice  stands  (juite  alone.  Jjator  tradition  indeed 
supplements  it  with  legendary  matter,  but  it 
is  impossible  to  say  what  sulistratum  of  fact, 
if  any  underlies  these  comparatively  recent 
stories.  The  connection  between  the  southern 
parts  of  Gaul  and  the  western  distrii'ts  of  Asia 
Minor  had  '  'cn  intimate  from  very  remote 
limes.  Gaui  was  in(lebte<l  for  her  earliest  civil- 
ization to  her  Greek  settlements  like  Marseilles, 
which  ha<l  been  colonized  from  Asia  Minor  some 
six  centuries  before  the  Christian  era;  and  dose 
relations  ajipear  to  have  been  maintained  even 
to  the  latest  times.  During  the  Roman  period 
the  people  of  Marseilles  stdl  spoke  the  Greek 
language  familiarly  ahmg  with  the  vernacular 
Celtic  of  the  native  population  and  the  oflicial 
Latin  of  the  'dominant  power.  When  therefore 
Christianity  had  established  her  heachiuarters  in 
Asia  Jlinor,  it  was  not  umiat\iral  that  the  Gosi)el 
should  flow  in  the  same  channels  which  already 
conducted  the  civilization  and  the  commerce  of 
the  Asiatic  Greeks  westward.  At  all  events, 
whatever  we  may  think  of  the  antecedent  pro- 
babilities, the  fact  itself  can  hardly  be  disputed. 
In  the  year  A.  D.  177,  under  Marcus  Aurelius, 
a  severe  persecution  broke  out  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhone  in  the  cities  of  Vienne  and  Lyons  —  a 
jiersecution  which  by  its  extent  and  character 
bears  a  noble  testimony  to  tlie  vitality  of  the 
Churches  in  these  places.  To  this  incident  we 
owe  the  earliest  extant  historical  notice  of 
Christianity  in  Gaul." — .1.  B.  Lightfoot,  Emays 
on  the  work  entitled  Supernatural  lieliijion,  pp. 
2.')l-253. — "The  Churches  of  proconsular  Africa, 
of  Spain,  of  Italy,  and  of  Soutiiern  Gaul  consti- 
tute, at  this  period,  the  Western  Church,  so  dif- 
ferent in  its  general  type  from  tlie  Eastern. 
With  the  exception  of  Ircnaeus  [bishop  of  Lyons] 
and  Hippolytus  [the  first  celebrated  preacher  of 
the  West,  of  Italy  and,  for  a  i)eriod,  Lyons]  who 
represent  the  oriental  element  in  Gaul  and  at 
Rome,  the  AVestern  Fathers  are  broadly  distin- 
guished from  those  of  the  East.  .  .  .  They 
afflrm  rather  than  demonstrate;  .  .  .  they  pre- 
fer practical  to  speculative  questions.  The  sys- 
tem of  episcopal  authority  is  gradually  developed 
with  a  larger  amount  of  ])assiun  at  Carthage, 
with  greater  prudence  and  ])atience  in  Italy." — 
E.  I)e  Pressense,  1  he  Early  Years  of  Christi- 
anity: the  Martyrs  and  ApoUigists. 

Spain. — "Christians  are  generally  mentioned 
as  liaving  existed  in  all  parts  of  Spain  at  the 
close  of  tlie  second  century ;  before  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  there  is  a  letter  of  the  liomun 
bishop  Anterus  (in  237)  to  the  bishops  of  the 
provinces  of  Ba-tica  and  Toletana  .  .  .  ;  and 
after  the  middle  of  the  same  century  a  letter  of 
Cyprian's  was  addressed  to  .  .  .  people  ...  in 
the  north  ...  as  well  as  .  .  .  in  the  south  of 
that  country."— J.  E.  T.  Wiltsch,  Handbook  of 


449 


CIiniSTIANITY. 


of  tilt  (litlht. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


the  Oe/>qraphy  and  fUatittia  of  the  Church,  pi>. 
40-41. 

Britain. — "All  tlmt  wo  can  snfcly  nsaort 
Ih  tlijit  there  is  Hnme  rcnson  for  Ix'licvinp;  thiit 
tlicrc  were  (Miristiiins  in  Hritniii  boforo  A.  1). 
2(Mt.  ("crtnliily  there  was  a  Itritish  (Miiireh  with 
hisliops  of  its  own  soon  after  A.  I).  U0(),  and 
poHsilily  sonic  time  before  tlmt.  Very  little  can 
be  known  about  this  Celtic  (,'hiireli;  but  tli(> 
sciinly  evidence  tends  to  establish  tlireo  points, 
(1)  It  liad  its  ori||;ii'  from,  and  remained  largely 
uependent  upon,  llic  Gallic  Church.  (2)  It  was 
confined  almost  exclusively  .i>  Itoman  settle- 
ments. (U)  Itsiiiunbers  were  small  and  its  mem- 
bers were  poor.  .  .  .  That  lir'tiiin  may  have 
«lerived  its  Cliri.stianity  from  Asia  .Minor  cannot 
be  denied:  but  the  ])cculiar  lirilish  custom 
respecting;  Kaster  must  not  be  (piotcd  in  evidence! 
of  it.  Itsec^ms  to  hav(!  been  a  mere  blunder,  and 
not  a  contiiunilion  of  the  old  Quarta-decimim 
practice,  (laul  is  the  more  i)robabl(!  parent  of 
the  liritisli  Cluirch.  ...  At  the  (.'ouncil  of 
liimini  in  iWO  Constantius  olTered  to  Jiay  out  of 
the  trea.sury  the  travelling  e.\penses  of  all  the 
bishops  who  attended.  Out  of  more  than  four 
hundred  bishops,  tluee  from  Hritain  were  the 
only  clergy  who  availed  themselves  of  this  offer. 
Neither  at  Himini,  any  more  than  at  Arle.s,  do 
the  British  representatives  make  any  show:  they 
appear  to  be  tpiitu  witliout  iniluence. " — A. 
Plummer,  T/ie  Ckuvch  of  the  Eni'ly  Fatliem, 
eh.  8. 

Goths. — "It  has  been  observed  that  the  first 
indjspulalile  appearance  of  the  Ooths  in  European 
history  must  Ix^  ;lated  in  A.  1).  21(8,  when  they 
laid  waste  the  Soulh-Dunubian  province  of 
Moesia  as  far  as  the  HIack  Sea.  In  the  thirty 
years  (2;i8-2(i9)  that  followed,  there  took  place  no 
iew<'r  than  ten  such  inroads.  .  .  .  From  these 
expeditions  tlicy  returned  with  immen.se  booty, 
—  corn  and  cattle,  silks  anil  line  linen,  silver  and 
gold,  an<l  captives  of  all  ranks  and  ages.  It  is 
to  tliese  captives,  many  of  whom  were  Chris- 
tians, and  not  a  few  clergy,  that  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  among  the  Ooths  is  primarily 
due.  .  .  .  Tile  periixl  of  tlie  inroad",  wliicli  so 
strangely  formed  a  sowing-time  for  Ciiristianity, 
was  followed  by  a  long  perio<l  of  tniiiiiuiility, 
during  wliicli  the  new  faith  took  root  and  spread. 
...  It  is  to  the  faithful  work  and  ])Ui'e  lives  of 
[CliristianJ  men  .  .  .  wlio  had  tied  from  Uoman 
civilisation  for  conscience  sake,  to  the  example 
of  patience  in  misfortune  and  higli  Ciiristian 
cliaractcr  displayed  by  the  captives,  and  to  the 
instruction  of  the  presbyters  sprinkled  among 
thein,  that  we  must  look,  as  the  source  of 
Christianity  among  the  Goths.  .  .  .  The  fact  (to 
■which  we  shall  have  to  refer  later),  tiiat,  of  all  the 
sea  raids  undertaken  by  the  Goths  between  the 
years  238  and  209,  the  Visigoths  took  i)iirt  in 
only  two,  while  tlie  Ostrogoths,  wlio  were  settled 
in  Southern  Russia  along  the  coast  of  the  Euxine 
from  tlie  (-'rimea  to  tlic  Dneister,  were  engaged 
])robably  in  all  of  tliein,  makes  it  very  unlikely 
that  tlie  captives  mentioned  by  Plnlostorgius 
were  curried  nnywiicre  else  than  the  eastern 
settlements.  To  the  influence  of  these  Asian 
Ciiristinns,  exerted  mainly,  if  not  entirely  upon 
the  Ostrogoths,  must  be  added  tlie  ever-increas- 
ing intercourse  carried  on  by  sen  lietweeu  the 
Crimea  and  both  the  southern  siiore  of  the 
Euxine  and  Constantinople.  To  these  probabili- 
ties has  uow  to  be  added  the  fact  that  the  odI\ 


traces  if  an  organised  Qotliic  Church  existing- 
before  he  year  :141  are  clearly  to  be  referred  loiv 
commui  ity  in  tliis  neighbourhood.  Among  tlio 
bishops  ,"lio  were  present  at  the  Council  of 
Nicaca  (A.  I).  32.')),  and  who  signed  the  symlMd 
wliicli  was  tlien  approved,  we  find  a  certain 
Theophilus,  before  wliose  name  stand  tlie  words, 
'do  Oothis,'  an<l  after  it  the  word  '  Hospliori- 
tanus.'  Tiiere  can  be  little  doubi  that  tins  was 
a  bishop  representing  a  Gothic  Church  on  the 
Cimmerian  Rosphorus:  and  if,  following  the 
Paris  MSS.,  we  read  further  down  the  list  tlie 
name  Domnus  Rosphorensis  or  Rosplioranus,  wo 
mav  find  here  anotlier  l)isliop  from  this  (liocese, 
aiul  legaiil  Theophilus  as  chief  w  archbishop  of 
the  Crimean  churclies.  Tlie  undoubted  presence 
at  this  council  of  at  least  one  bishop  of  the 
Goths,  and  the  conclusion  drawn  therefrom  in 
favour  of  the  orthodoxy  of  tlie  Gothic  Churcli  ia 
general,  led  afterwards  to  the  greatest  confusion. 
Failing  to  distinguish  lietween  the  Crimean  and 
Danubian  communities,  th(>  historians  often  foiiml 
tlieir  information  contradietory,  and  altered  it 
ill  tlie  readiest  way  to  suit  tlie  condition  of  the 
(Miiircli  which  tliey  had  specially  in  view.  .  .  . 
Tlie  conversion  of  tliat  section  of  tlie  nation, 
wliich  beciime  the  Gothic  Ciiurcli,  was  due  to 
the  apostolic  labours  of  one  of  tlieir  own  race, 
—  tlie  great  missionary  bishop  Ultilas  [see 
GoTiis:  A.  D.  ;i41-;i81J.  Rut  to  him  too  was 
to  be  traced  the  heresy  in  wliicli  they  stopped 
short  on  the  wa>  from  lieatlienism  to  a  complete 
Christian  fjiitli." — C.  .V.  A.  Scott,  Ulfilitn.  AjMmtle 
of  tlie  (rot/is,  j)p.  19-;)0. — "The  suiierstitions  of 
tlie  barbarians,  who  had  found  homes  in  the 
empire,  had  been  exchanged  for  a  more  whole- 
some belief.  Rut  Christianity  had  done  more 
than  this.  It  liad  extended  its  infiuence  to 
the  distant  East  and  South,  to  Abyssinia, 
and  the  tribes  of  the  Syrian  and  Lybiaii 
deserts,  to  Armenia,  Persia,  and  Indiif. " — G.  P. 
Fisher,  J/ixt.  of  the  Ohrinddn  Chureh,  p.  98. — 
' '  We  have  bef(ue  us  many  significant  examples  of 
the  facility  witli  which  the  most  intelligem.  .'f  the 
Pagans  accepted  the  outward  rite  of  Chrisliui 
baptism,  and  made  a  nominiil  professlm  of  tin 
Faitli,  while  they  retained  and  openly  I'ractieed, 
without  rebuke,  witliout  remark,  >vitli  the 
indulgence  even  of  genuine  believers,  tlie  rites 
and  usages  of  tlie  Paganism  tliey  prel ended  to 
have  abjured.  We  find  abundant  records  of  the 
fact  that  personages  high  in  olllce,  such  as  con- 
suls and  other  magistrates,  while  admiuisteriag 
the  laws  by  wliicli  the  ohl  idolatries  were  pro- 
scribed, actually  performed  Pagan  rites  and 
even  erected  public  statues  to  Pagan  divinities. 
Still  more  did  men,  high  in  tlie  respect  of  tlieir 
fellow-Christians,  allow  themselves  to  cherish 
sentiments  utterly  at  variance  with  the  defini- 
tions of  the  Church." — C.  Mcrivale,  Four  leetnre* 
on  some  Epochn  of  Early  Church  IIi»tory,  p.  150. — 
'  We  loolt  back  to  the  early  acts  and  policy  of  the 
Church  towards  the  new  nations,  their  kings  and 
their  people;  the  ways  and  works  of  her  mission- 
aries and  lawgivers,  Ultilas  among  the  Goths, 
Augustine  in  Kent,  Remigius  in  Fmnce,  Roni- 
face  iu  Germany,  Anscliar  in  the  North,  the  Irish 
Coluinban  in  Rurgiindy  and  Switzerland, 
Benedict  at  llonte  Cassino;  or  the  reforming 
kings,  the  Arian  Theodoric,  the  great  German 
Charles,  the  great  English  Alfred.  Measured 
by  the  liglit  and  the  standards  they  have  heljicd 
'IS  to  attain  to,  their  methods  uo  doubt  surprise. 


4uU 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Conifriion  of 
CantUmiint. 


CIIKISTIANITY. 


(llsnpnoint  —  It  may  bo,  mvcilt  im;  iim' 
we    ((well    upon    Is    tlic    childlslincss, 


till  that 
or  till' 
liii|H'rfc<'t  moriillty,  of  their  iitteiiipts.  Hut  if 
there  in  iinythiiiK  ('crtaiii  in  liiHtory,  It  la  thut  in 
thcHe  rmi/h  cnniniuiiieittiiiiiM  of  tlin  (lettpest 
truths,  iu  iiiesf  [for  us|  often  ((uestionitble  niiMles 
of  rulinj?  niimls  and  souls,  the  seeds  were  sown  of 
all  that  was  to  make  the  hope  and  the  glory  of 
the  foremost  nations.  ...  I  have  spoken  of 
three  other  groups  of  virtues  which  are  'leld  In 
speeial  rejjard  and  respect  amonjr  us  —  those 
roimected  with  manliness  luid  hard  work,  witli 
reverenre  for  law  and  lilierty,  and  with  pure 
fanuly  life.  The  rudiments  and  tendencies  out 
of  which  tliesc'  have  grown  appear  to  have  been 
early  marked  in  the  (ierinHii  races;  but  they 
were  only  rudiments,  e.xistinn  in  company  with 
nuicli  wUder  and  stronger  elements,  and  liable, 
amid  the  changes  and  cliances  of  liarbariun 
existence,  to  Ix.-  paralysed  or  trampled  out.  No 
mere  barbarian  virtues  could  by  themselves  have 
KtxKxl  the  trial  of  having  won  by  coniiuest  the 
wealth,  the  lands,  the  power  of  Home.  IJut 
their  guardian  was  there.  What  Christianity 
(lid  for  these  natural  tendencies  to  good  was  to 
adopt  them,  to  watuh  over  them,  to  di.scipline, 
to  consolidate  them.  The  energy  which  warriors 
were  accu.slomed  to  put  forth  in  their  elTorts  to 
c(amuer,  the  mls.slonarics  and  ministers  of 
Christianity  exhibited  in  their  enler|)rises  of 
conversion  and  teaching.  Tlie  crowd  of  unknown 
saints  whose  iiantes  till  the  calendars,  and  live, 
8o;iie  of  them,  only  in  tlie  titK  f  our  churches, 
mainly  represent  the  age  of  heroic  spiritual 
ventures,  of  which  we  see  glimpses  in  liie  story 
of  St.  H(mifac(s  the  aposth;  of  Germany;  of  St. 
Coluniban  and  St.  Uidl,  wandering  from  Ireland 
to  reclaim  tlio  barbarians  of  the  Uurgundian 
deserts  and  of  the  shores  of  the  Swiss  lakes.  It 
was  among  men  like  these  —  men  who  were  then 
termed  emphatically  '  men  of  religion  ' —  tlnit  tlie 
new  races  saw  the  example  of  life  ruled  by  a 
great  and  serious  purpose,  which  yet  was  not 
one  of  ambition  or  the  excitement  of  war;  a  Hie 
of  deliberate  and  steady  industrv,  of  hard  and 
uncomplaining  labour;  a  life  as  full  of  activilv 
in  peace,  of  stout  and  brave  work,  as  a  warrior's 
was  wont  to  be  in  the  camp,  on  the  march,  in 
the  battle.  It  was  in  these  men  and  In  the 
Christianity  which  they  taught,  and  which 
inspired  and  governed  them,  that  the  fa  iters  of 
our  iiKHlern  nations  first  saw  exemplified  the 
sense  of  human  responsibility,  first  le  irned  the 
nobleness  of  a  ruled  and  disciplined  life,  first 
enlarged  their  thoughts  of  the  uses  of 
existence,  first  were  tauglit  the  dignity  and 
sacredness  of  lionest  toll,  riicse  great  axioms  of 
nuxlern  life  passed  silently  from  the  speciid 
homes  of  religams  employment  to  those  of  civil; 
from  tlie  cloisters  and  cells  of  men  who,  when 
they  were  not  engaged  In  worship,  were  engaged 
in  tleld-work  or  book-work, —  clearing  the  forest, 
extending  cultivation,  multiplying  manuscripts 
—  to  the  guild  of  the  craftsman,  the  shop  of  the 
trader,  the  study  of  the  scholar.  Religion  gener- 
ated and  fed  these  ideas  of  what  was  manly  and 
worthy  in  man." — R.  \V.  Church,  The  Gifts  of 
Civi'''mtion,  pp.  270-283. 

A.  D.  312-337.— The  Church  and  the  Em- 
pire.— "  Shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century  there  occurred  an  event  which,  had  it 
been  predicted  in  the  days  of  Nero  or  even  of 
Dcciua,  would  have  been  deemed  a  wild  fancy. 


It  was  nothing  less  than  the  conversion  of  the 
Roman  Kinpcror  to  the  Christian  faith.  It  was 
an  evinl  of  monicntoiis  iniporlance  In  tli'  history 
of  the  Christian  religion.  Tlic  Roman  empire, 
from  being  the  enemy  and  persecutor  of  the 
Church,  thenceforward  became  its  protector  and 
patron.  The  Church  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  the  State,  which  was  to  prove  fruitful  of 
consei)ueiices,  both  good  and  evil,  in  the  subse- 
(puiit  hisloiy  of  Kurope.  Chrisliaiilly  was  now 
to  reap  the  advantages  and  incur  the  dangers 
arising  from  the  friendship  of  earl  lily  rulers  and 
from  a  close  connection  with  the  civil  authority. 
C(Ui.stanlin(!  was  born  In  274.  lie  was  the  son  Iif 
Constaiitins  Chioriis.  His  mother,  Helena,  was 
of  obsenri!  birth.  She  became  a  Christian  — 
whether  before  or  after  his  conversion,  is  doubt- 
ful. .  .  .  After  the  death  of  Ccinslaiiline's  fallier, 
a  revolt  against  (ialerius  augmented  tlu^  niiniber 
of  emperors,  so  that.  In  !t(JH,  not  less  llian  six 
claimed  to  exercise  rule.  The  contest  of  Con- 
stantiiie  was  at  first  In  the  West,  against  the 
tyrannical  and  dissolute  Alaxentiiis.  It  was  just 
before  his  victory  over  tills  rival  at  the  .Mllvian 
Hridge,  near  Rome,  that  he  adopted  the  Christian 
faith.  That  there  mingled  in  this  deeisiiai.  as  In 
most  of  the  steps  of  his  career,  liolitieal  ainhilion, 
is  highly  prohable.  The  slrength  of  the  Chris- 
tian community  made  it  pulilic  for  hiiii  to  win 
its  united  support.  Hut  he  sincerely  believed  in 
the  (JimI  whom  tla;  Christians  worsliipped,  and  in 
tlie  help  which,  tliroui'h  his  providence,  he  could 
lend  to  his  servants.  .  .  .  Shortly  before  his 
victory  over  Maxenlius  there  occurred  what  he 
ii.s.serted  to  be  the  vision  of  a  fiaming  cro.ss  in  the 
sky,  seen  by  him  at  noonday,  on  wliicli  was  the 
iiiseriiition,  in  (ireek,  '  Hy  this  coiKiuer.'  It 
was,  jierhaps,  an  optical  illusion,  the  etfect  of  a 
parhelion  beheld  in  a  moment  when  the  imagin- 
ation .  .  .  was  strongly  excited.  He  adopted  the 
labarum,  or  the  standard  of  the  cross,  which  was 
afterwards  carried  in  his  armies.  [See  Ro.mk: 
A.  1).  !i2:}.]  In  later  contests  with  Licinius, 
the  ruler  in  tlie  East,  who  was  a  defender  of 
paganisni,  Constaiitine  became  more  distinctly 
the  champion  of  tlie  Christian  (.'ause.  The  final 
defeat  of  liicinius,  In  !t2;i,  left  him  the  master 
of  the  whole  Roman  world.  An  edict  signed 
by    Galerius,     Constaiitine,    and     Lieinins,     In 

311,  had  proclaimed  freedom  and  toleration  in 
matters  of  religion.     The  edict    of   Milan,    in 

312,  emanating  from  the  two  hitter,  established 
unrestricted  liberty  on  this  subject.  If  we 
consider  the  time  when  it  was  issued,  we  shall 
be  surprised  to  find  that  It  alleges  as  a  mo- 
tive for  tlie  edict  the  sacred  rights  of  con- 
science."— G.  P.  Fisher,  llidt.  of  the  Christian 
Chnreh,  pp.  87-88. — "Towanls  the  end  of  the 
year  Constantine  left  Rome  for  Jlilan,  where  \u: 
met  Licinius.  This  nieetinif  resulted  in  the  issiK 
of  the  famous  edict  of  Slilan.  Up  to  tliat  hour 
Christianity  had  been  an  '  illiclta  religio,'  and  It 
was  a  crime  to  be  a  Christian.  Even  in  Trajan's 
answer  to  Pliny  this  position  is  as.sume(I,  though 
it  forms  the  basis  of  liumane  regulations.  The 
edict  of  Milan  is  the  cliarter  of  Christianity;  it 
proclaims  absolute  freedom  in  the  matter  of 
religion.  Both  Cliristians  and  all  others  were  to 
be  freely  permitted  to  follow  whatsoever  religion  ' 
each  might  choose.  Moreover,  restitution  was  to 
be  made  to  the  Christian  body  of  all  churches 
and  other  buildings  which  had  been  alienated 
from  them  during  the  persecution.     This  was  in 


461 


CIIUISTIANITY. 


f/iiii'./i 

IfrffanixiiUitn. 


CIIUISTIANITY. 


818  A.  I).  .  .  .  Hilt  till'  cauw'H  of  (liHHcnHioii 
rcinaiiicil  lu'liiml.  Oiicr  inorr  (!t'J!))  llic  (|ii«'sll<>ii 
Im'Iwci'm  imKiuiixni  iiikI  Cliristiiiiilty  was  to  he 
trii'il  (III  till'  tti'lil  iif  Imtllc,  ami  tliri'r  aniilcH  con 
friiiitcil  one  aiiiitlirr  on  tlir  iiliiliiMiif  ii  ^''iitiioiilc. 
AkiiIii  till'  "I^Hl  of  CiiiiNtaiitlnr  anil  .lir  trained 
valour  of  his  tri>o|iN  jirovcd  siipi'iior  to  the  iiii- 
(U.srlliliiiril  li'vics  of  LicinldH;  wlillc  at  wa  Cri.s- 
pilH,  llic  <'lili-Ht  iinil  iil-t'atrd  son  of  CoiiHlantini', 
di'Htroyrd  tlii'  rnciny'H  lli'ct  in  tlir  rrowdrd 
waters  of  tile  llelli'spont,  sowillff  tlieretiy  llie 
seeds  of  liis  fatlier's  jealousy,  liy/.antiiiin  fell, 
)mt  not  witlioiit  a  vigorous  resistance;  and, 
aftiT  one  more  iriisliiiiK  defeat  on  llie  site  of  tlu; 
iniMlern  Hciitiiri,  IJciniiis  suliinitted  liiniself  to 
the  mercy  of  ('oiiHtantinu.  .  .  .  ^VIlat  we  notice 
iu  the  whole'  of  these  events  Is  the  enormous 
power  which  still  belonged  to  iiaKanisni.  The 
uitlaiice  still  wavered  between  paKiinlsm  and 
("hristianity.  ,  .  .  ('onstantine  had  now,  by  a 
marvellous  succession  of  victories,  iilaced  him- 
Hclf  in  a  position  of  supreme  and  undisputed 
power.  At  this  juncture  it  is  of  interest  to 
observe  that  .  .  .  the  divided  empire,  which 
followed  the  rei>;n  of  C,'oii*tuiitine,  served  to 
sustain  Calliolicity  at  least  in  one  half  of  the 
world.  .  .  .  The  foundation  of  Constant inople 
was  the  outward  symbol  of  the  new  monarcliy 
and  of  the  triumph  of  Christianity,  .  .  .  Tlic 
choice  of  tliis  incomparable  position  for  the  new 
ca])ital  of  the  world  remains  the  iastin);  i)roof  of 
Constantiue's  genius.  .  .  .  The  magnificence  of 
its  public'  buildings,  its  treasures  of  art,  its  vast 
endowments,  the  lieauty  of  its  situation,  the 
rapid  growtli  oC  its  eomnierce,  made  it  worthy  to 
l)c  'as  it  weiv  11  (laughter  of  Home  herself.' 
But  the  most  important  thought  for  us  is  the 
relation  of  Constantinople  to  the  advance  of 
Christianity.  Tliat  the  city  which  had  sprung 
into  supremacy  from  its  birth  and  had  become 
the  capital  of  the  conquered  world,  should  have 
excliKled  from  the  circuit  of  its  walls  all  public 
recognition  of  ])olytheism,  and  made  the  Cross 
its  most  conspicuous  ornament,  and  the  to!<en  of 
its  greatness,  gave  a  realitv  to  the  relij.'ious 
revolution.  .  .  .  The  imiu'rial  centre  of  the 
world  had  been  visibly  displaced." — A.  Carr, 
The  Church  and  the  linvutn  Jimpire,  rh.  4. — 
AVith  the  first  General  Council  of  the  Church, 
lield  at  Nicii'a,  A.  D.  325  (see  Nic/Ka),  "  the 
decisions  ...  of  which  received  the  force  of 
law  from  the  confirmation  of  "le  Emjieror,  a 
tendencv  was  entered  upon  winch  was  deci.sive 
for  tile  further  development :  decisive  also  by  the 
fact  that  the  Kmpcror  lu^d  it  to  be  his  duty  to 
compel  subordination  to  the  decisions  of  the 
council  on  penalty  of  banisliment,  and  actually 
carried  out  this  biinishment  in  the  case  of  Arius 
and  several  of  his  adherents,  Tlie  Emperor 
summoned  general  synods,  the  liseus  provided 
tile  cost  of  travel  and  subsistence  (also  at  other 
great  synods),  a  imperial  commissioner  opened 
them  by  rcailing  the  imperial  edict,  and  watched 
over  the  course  of  business.  Only  the  liishops 
and  their  ainiointed  representatives  had  votes. 
Dogmatic  jioints  ti.xed  .  .  .  were  to  be  the  out- 
come of  unanimous  agreement,  the  rest  of  tlie 
ordinances  (on  the  constitution,  discipline  and 
worship)  of  ii  majority  of  votes." — W.  Mocller, 
Hint,  if  Vie  ClirUtiiin  Church,  p.  337.— "The 
direct  influence  of  the  cmi)eror,  however,  does 
not  appear  until  the  Emperor  Marcian  procured 
from  the  Council  of  Chalccdou  the  completion  of 


the  Patriarchal  Hysti'iii,  Asouniing  that  Home, 
.Vlcxandrla,  and  Anlioch  were  I'atriarchates  bv 
the  recognition  of  their  privileges  at  the  Council 
of  Nica'a  (though  the  canon  of  that  (iiiincil  does 
not  really  admit  that  inference),  tlie  Council  of 
Chalccdon,  by  its  uinth,  seventeenth  and  twenty- 
eighth  canons,  enlarged  and  ti.xed  the  patriarclial 
jurisdiction  and  privileges  of  the  I'hurcli  of 
Constantinople,  giving  it  authority  over  the 
Dioceses  of  Thrace,  Asia  and  I'ontus,  with  the 
power  of  ordaining  and  reiiiiiring  canonical 
obedience  from  the  metropolis  of  tliose  Dioceses, 
and  also  tlie  right  to  adjiidi('at(!  appeals  in 
(iiuses  ecclesiastical  from  the  wholi-  Eastern 
Church.  The  iiisliopof  .Teriisalem  also  obtained 
in  this  council  ]>atriarclial  authority  over  Pales- 
tine. The  organization  of  the  Church  was  thus 
conformed  to  that  of  the  empire,  the  patriarchs 
corresponding  U>  the  I'netoriiin  Prefects,  the 
e.xarchs,  tothe  governors  of  tlie  Dioceses,  and  the 
luetroixililans  to  the  governors  of  the  provinces 
—  the  Bishop  of  I{onie  being  given  by  an  edict 
of  Valenliniaii  111.,  of  the  year  44.'),  supreme 
appellate  jurisdiction  in  the  West,  and  the 
Bishop  of  (.'oiistantinoplc,  liy  tliese  canons  of 
Chalcedon,  supreme  appellati;  jurisdiction  in  the 
East.  .  .  .  Dean  Milinan  remarks  that  the 
Episcopati^  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  was  the  last 
altem|)t  of  a  bishop  of  Constantinoph'  to  lie  inde- 
jicndent  of  tlie  political  power,  and  that  his  fato 
involved  the  freedom  of  the  Churdiof  thatcity." 
— J.  II.  Egar,  Chriiiteiuhim :  Krclcniniiticnl  and 
l'olitic4il,  from  ('nimtniitiiie  to  the  Kefonmttion, 
pp.  2.5-27.'— "The  name  of  patriarch,  probably 
borrowed  from  .riidaisni,  was  from  this  jii^iod 
the  appellation  of  the  highest  dignitari(.>s  of  the 
church,  and  by  it  were  more  immediately,  Imt 
not  e.xclusivelv,  designated  the  bishops  of  Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem. 
One  patriarch  accordingly  presided  over  several 
provinces,  and  was  distinguished  from  the  metro- 
politan in  this,  that  the  latter  was  subordinate 
to  him,  and  had  only  the  superintendence  of  one  • 
|)rovince  or  a  small  district.  However  the  desig- 
nation apidied  only  to  the  highest  rulers  of  the 
church  in  tlie  east,  and  not  to  those  in  the  west, 
for  here  the  title  of  i)atriarch  was  iiot  unfre- 
queutly  given,  even  in  later  tiniits,  to  the  metror 
politan.  The  first  mention  of  this  title  occurs  in 
the  Bccoud  letter  of  the  Uoman  bishop,  Anncle- 
tus  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  and 
it  is  ne.xt  spoken  of  by  Socrates;  and  after  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  m  451,  it  came  into  general 
use.  The  bishop  of  Constantinoiile  bore  the 
special  title  of  a'cumenical  bishop  or  patriarch  ; 
there  were  also  other  titles  in  tise  among  the  Nes- 
torians  and  Jacobites.  The  Primates  and  Metro- 
politans or  Archbishops  arose  contemporane- 
ously. The  title  of  Eparch  is  also  said  to  have 
been  given  to  jirimates  about  tlie  middle  of  the 
liftli  century.  The  metropolitan  of  Epliesus  sub- 
scribed himself  thus  in  the  year  680,  therefore  in 
the  succeeding  period.  There  was  no  particular 
title  of  long  continuance  for  the  Hoiuaii  bishop 
until  the  sixth  century  ;  but  from  the  year  536 
he  was  usually  called  Papa,  and  from  the  time 
of  Gregory  the  Great  he  styled  hiiiLself  Scrvus 
Servorum  Dei." — J.  E.  T.  Wiltsch,  Ilnndbook  of 
t/ie  Geography  and  Statistical  of  the  Church,  pp. 
70,  71  amlli. — "  Christianity  may  now  be  said  to 
have  ascended  the  imperial  tliroue:  with  the 
single  exception  of  Julian,  from  this  period 
the  mouarchs  of  the  Itomau  empire  professed 


452 


0IIIII8TIANITY. 


flury'lrlna 
I'uuanum, 


CnniSTIANITY. 


tho  religion  of  tlip  OoHpol.  This  Importiiiit  ciiHis 
In  tilt!  lilHtory  of  ('liristiniiily  iilinoNt  furrlbly 
am'MtN  the  iittcMtioii  to  coiitcmplute  tlu*  cliiuiKt' 
wrouKilt  III  (.'liriHtiiiiilty  )iy  IIm  iiilviiiicciucnt  Into 
II  (loiiilniiiit  power  In  the  Ntatc;  iinil  tlif('lmiiK<'  in 
th(!  I'oiitlitioii  of  iiiiinkiiul  up  to  this  pcrliHl, 
ttttillmtiiblf  to  the  dlri'ct  iiiitliority  or  liidiicct 
inlliit'iice  of  llic  iii'W  rclijjion.  Hv  criisin-  to 
vxl.Ht  iiM  itwpiu'iitiM'oiiiiiitiiilty,  iiiiil  iiy  iiilviiiicini; 
iti)  pri'triitloiiM  to  liiMiiciK'i'  the  f^i'iicriil  jjovcrii- 
meiit  of  iiiiiiikliKl,  ( 'liristlitiilty  to  u  ci'rtiiiii  extent, 
forfeited  Its  liiilepeiideiiee.  It  eoiild  not  lint 
suliiiilt  to  these  Ittws,  friinied,  its  It  iiilf;ht  m'ein, 
with  Its  own  concurn'nt  voice.  It  was  no  lonj^er 
II  republic,  ftovernt'd  exclusively  —  iis  fur,  iit 
least,  as  Its  rellgoiis  concerns —  bylts  own  Inter- 
nal polity.  The  Interference  of  the  civil  power 
in  801110  of  its  most  private  alTuIrs,  the  proniiilKa- 
tiou  (<.  Its  i;anons,  and  even,  In  sonic  cases,  the 
eluction  o''  Its  bishops  by  the  state,  was  the  price 
■,■  '''h  :t  must  Inevitably  pay  for  its  iissoeialioii 
with  the  rulinj?  power.  .  .  .  During;  the  reij;n  of 
Constantlne  Christianity  had  made  a  rapiil 
advance,  no  doubt.  In  the  number  of  its  prose- 
lyti's  as  well  as  in  Its  exU'rnal  position.  It  was 
not  yet  the  establLshed  reliKlon  of  tli^  empire. 
It  did  not  as  yet  stand  forward  as  the  new 
religion  adapted  to  the  new  onler  of  things,  as  a 
part  of  the  great  simultaneous  change  which 
gave  to  the  Roman  world  a  new  capital,  a  new 
system  of  government,  and.  In  some  Important 
Instances,  anew  jurisprudence.  .  .  .  The  religion 
of  the  emperor  would  soon  become  that  of  the 
court,  and,  by  somewhat  slower  degrees,  that  of 
the  empire.  At  present,  however,  as  we  have 
seen,  little  open  agression  took  place  upon  pagan- 
Ism.  The  few  temples  which  were  closed  were 
insulated  cases,  and  condemned  as  offensive  to 
public  morality.  In  general  the  temples  stood  in 
all  their  former  majesty,  for  as  yet  the  ordinary 
process  of  decay  from  neglect  or  suplneness 
could  have  produced  little  effect.  The  differ- 
ence was,  that  the  Christian  churches  began  to 
assume  a  more  stately  and  imposing  form.  In 
the  new  capital  they  surpassed  in  grandeur,  and 
probably  in  decoration,  the  pagan  temples, 
which  belonged  to  old  Byzantium.  The  im- 
munities granted  to  the  Christian  clergy  only 
placed  them  on  the  same  level  with  the  pagan 
priesthood.  The  pontifical  olBces  were  still  held 
by  the  distinguished  men  of  the  state:  the 
emperor  himself  was  long  the  chief  pontiff ;  but 
the  religio\is  offlce  had  become  a  kincl  of  append- 
ago  to  tho  temi>oral  dignity.  Tlie  Christian  pre- 
lates were  constantly  iwlmitted,  in  virtue  of  their 
office,  to  the  imperial  presence." — 11.  II.  Milman, 
Hist,  of  GhristiaiUty,  bk.  3,  ch.  4. — "As  early  as 
Constantino's  time  tho  punisliment  of  crucifixiou 
was  aliolished ;  immoral  practices,  like  infanti- 
cide, and  the  exhibition  of  gladiatorial  shows, 
were  discouraged,  the  latter  of  these  being  for- 
bidden in  Constantinople;  and  in  order  to 
improve  the  relation  of  the  sexes,  severe  laws 
were  passed  against  adultery,  and  restrictions 
were  placed  on  the  facility  of  divorce.  Further, 
the  bishops  were  empowered,  in  the  name  of 
religion,  to  intercede  with  governors,  and  even 
with  tho  emperor,  in  behalf  of  the  unfortunate 
and  opprcssetl.  And  gradually  they  obtained 
the  right  of  exercising  a  sort  of  moral  superin- 
tendence over  tho  discharge  of  their  offlcial 
duties  by  the  judges,  and  others,  who  belonged 
to  their  commumties.    The  supervision  of  the 


prisons,  in  purtii'iilar,  was  enlriisted  to  them; 
and,  whereas  in  the  llrst  inslani'e  llieir  power  of 
Interferniee  wjis  liiiilled  to  exhortations  addressed 
to  the  Judges  who  su|N'riiiten(le<l  them,  in  .liis- 
tiiiian's  ri'lgn  the  bisliops  were  conimiMsioiied  by 
law  to  visit  the  prisons  on  two  ilii\'S  of  eacli 
week  111  order  to  liKiiilrc  Into,  iiiiil.  If  necessiirv, 
report  upon,  Ihc-  trealini'iit  of  ill"  prisoners.  In 
all  these  and  ni'iiiy  other  ways,  the  inlliience  of 
the  Hlate  in  (•onlrnlliiin  and  iiiipn)vliig  society 
was  ailvaneed  by  its  aTllance  with  tlie  Chut  , 
—  11.  F.  To/er,  'till!  dhitirli  iinil  tl  •  Kimtifii  h'in- 
jiiiv,  pp.  M-^T. — "The  Cliristiuns  were  nIIU  a 
separate  people.  .  .  .  It  can  scureely  be  doubled 
that  the  stricter  moral  tone  of  ('onstaiitlne's  leg- 
islatifm  more  or  less  remotely  emanated  from 
Cliristianity.  .  .  .  During  the  reign  of  Constaii- 
tiiie  Christianity  coiitiiiued  to  advance  beyond 
the  lH)rtlersof  the  Uoniaii  empire,  and  In  some 
degree  to  indemnify  herself  for  the  losses  wliieli 
she  sustained  In  the  kingdom  of  Persia.  Tlio 
Kthlopians  appear  to  have  attained  some  degreo 
of  eivilizatlon;  a  considerable  part  of  the  Aral>iaii 
commerce  was  kept  up  with  l\u'  oilier  side  of  tho 
Hed  Hea  through  the  port  of  ..dulls;  and  (Ireek 
letters  appear,  from  Inscriptions  recently  ilis- 
covered,  to  have  made  considerabli'  progres,s 
among  this  barbarous  people.-  .  .  .  Tlie  theo- 
logical opinions  of  Christianity  naturally  inado 
more  rapid  progress  than  its  moral  Intluence. 
The  former  had  only  to  overpower  tho  resistance 
of  a  religion  which  had  already  lost  its  hold  upon 
tho  mind,  or  a  philosophy  t<K)  speculative  for 
ordinary  understandings  and  too  unsatisfactory 
for  the  more  curious  and  imiuiring;  It  had  only 
to  enter,  us  It  were,  into  a  vacant  place  in  tho 
mind  of  man.  But  the  moral  intliienco  had  to 
contest,  not  only  with  tho  natural  dispositions  of 
man,  but  with  the  barbarism  and  depraved 
manners  of  ages.  While,  then,  the  religion  of 
tlie  world  underwent  a  total  change,  the  Church 
rose  <m  the  ruins  of  the  temple,  and  the  pontifi- 
cal establishment  of  paganism  became  gradu- 
ally extinct  or  suffered  violent  suppression;  the 
moriil  revolution  was  far  more  slow  and  far  less 
complete.  .  .  .  Everywhorr  lliero  was  exagger- 
ation of  one  of  the  constituent  elements  of 
Christianity;  that  exaggeration  which  is  tho 
inovitable  consequence  of  a  strong  impulsi!  upon 
the  human  mind.  Wherever  men  feel  strongly, 
they  act  violently.  The  more  speculative  (Chris- 
tians, therefore,  who  were  more  inclined,  in  tho 
deep  and  somewhat  seltish  solicitude  for  tlieir 
own  salvation,  to  isolate  themselves  from  tho 
infected  class  of  mankind,  pressed  into  the  ex- 
treme of  asceticism;  the  more  practical,  who 
were  in  earnest  in  the  desire  of  dis.s<uniuating  tho 
blessings  of  religion  throughout  society,  scrupled 
little  to  press  into  tlieir  service  whatever  might 
advance  their  cause.  With  both  extremes  tho 
dogmatical  part  of  the  religion  predominated. 
.  .  .  In  pro)  rtion  to  the  admitted  importance  of 
tho  creed,  r.icn  became  more  sternly  and  exclu- 
sively wedded  to  their  opinions.  .  .  .  Wlillo 
they  swept  in  converts  indiscriminately  from  the 
palace  and  the  public  street,  while  tlie  emperor 
and  the  lowest  of  the  populace  were  alike 
admitted  on  little  more  than  the  open  profession 
of  allegiance,  they  were  satisfied  if  their  alle- 
giance in  this  respect  was  blind  and  complete. 
Hence  a  far  larger  admixture  of  human  passions, 
and  the  common  vulgar  incentives  of  action, 
were  infused  into  the  expanding  Christian  body. 


453 


t'lmiHTIANirY. 


Chunk. 


CHItlSTIANlTV. 


Men  iH-mmP  C'hriHtlunii,  ortlioilox  ClirlHllittiM, 
Mitli  llltli-  Hiuritlo'  of  tliiit.  wlilcli  CliriHlliiiiilv 
iiliiii'il  rliii'tlv  III  ixtirpiitr.  Vil,  iiflcr  iill,  lliis 
lMi|«Tfr(t  vfrw  of  CliriHliitrilty  Imil  |iri)liiil)ly 
Hoint'  I'tTcrt  ill  ciinci'iitntiiiiK  tlii'  CliriNtliiii  coin- 
tntiiiitv,  itiiil  liolililiK  it  toifi'lliiT  hv  II  lirw  ami 
iiiiirc  fmllHMiliililc  lioiiil.  'I'lii'  wiir''l  illviiliil  iiiln 
two  partlcH.  .  .  .  All,  liiiwcvcr,  wit<(  ciirolUMl 
uiiilrr  oiii' or  tli(>  iitlicr  Niaii.lanl.  inti  tlio  party 
wliirli  triiiiiiiilicil  I'vrntii  iMv  would  riilr  tlio 
wIkiIi'  CliriMlian  worlil."— if.  II.  Milniaii,  ///«/. 
of  (HiriHliiiiiitii.  Ilk.  ;),  c,'.  4-."i.  — "Of  tlii.s  ditrr 
iiirutiiiii  of  iiiomlM  we  ii.'Vi  aliiiiiilaiit  tiviiliiiii'. 
Krail  till'  Caiioimof  tlii>  viirin'mCouiicilMaiiil  yoil 
will  Irani  that  llir  Cliiirrl:  iiiiiiil  it  iifccHxary  to 
]iroliil)il  till!  (■iiiiiiniH.sioii  of  till'  iiioHt  liciiioiiH  ami 
aliomliialilr  I'riinrH  i.  >t  only  liy  the  laity,  but 
••veil  by  the  cli'rjty.  !><'ail  tlio  lioiiiilii's  of  hiicIi 
pri'iiclicrs  iiH  (HiryHo.'Stom  llaKil,  ami  (licf^orv', 
ami  you  may  infer  wliat  tlii'  inoriil  toiii-  of  a 
CliriHtlaii  ('oiiKri'xatloii  iiiUMt  liavr  Ihtii  to  wliicli 
NiK'li  rcpriKifs  coiilil  be  aiiil'cs.'U'il.  Ucail,  alnivc 
all,  till'  tri'iitisc  (III  Proviiicnci',  or  Di'  (lubrriia- 
lloiic  Dei,  written  at  tlie  close  of  our  period  by 
Salvian,  a  presbyter  of  .Marsellle.s.  The  bar- 
barians had  over-spread  the  West,  and  C'liris- 
tlans  hiid  siitTereil  ho  iiiaiiy  liiirdHliips  that  they 
be);au  to  doubt  wlictliir  there  was  any  Divine 
governinent  of  buiiian  affairs.  Salvian  retorted 
that  the  fait  of  llieir  sulTeriiij;  was  tlie  best  evi- 
clenee  of  llie  (loetriin'  o!'  I'lovideliee,  for  the 
miseries  they  endured  were  tlio  effects  of  the 
Divine  displeasun^  provoked  by  the  debauchery 
«)f  the  Church.  And  then  he  proceeds  to  draw 
up  an  imiictiuenl  and  to  lend  priKif  wliicli  I 
prefi'r  not  to  >?ive  in  detail.  After  making  every 
iilliiwance  for  rhetorical  exajjKeration,  enough 
remains  to  sliow  that  the  niorah'y  af  the  Church 
had  i^rievoiisly  deeliiied,  and  that  tlie  declensiuu 
was  duo  to  the  inroads  of  J'agan  vice.  .  .  . 
Under  this  head,  had  space  permitted,  some 
nccoiinl  would  liavo  been  jtiveii  of  the  Krowth  of 
the  Cliristian  literature  of  tliis  iktIixI,  of  the 
great  writers  uml  preachers,  and  of  tlie  opposinj^ 
scIkmiIh  of  interpretation  which  divided  Cliristeu- 
dom.  Ill  the  Eastern  Church  we  should  have 
had  to  notice  [at  greater  length  the  work  of| 
Eusebius  of  Cii'.sarea,  tlie  father  of  Church 
History  and  the  friend  of  Constiuitine ;  Ephreiu 
the  Syrian,  the  poet -preacher;  the  three  Cappii- 
docians,  IJasil  of  Ciesarea,  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
ond  Gregory  of  Nii/.iiinzus,  each  great  in  his 
own  way,  the  first  as  a  preacher  and  adm'uis- 
trator,  the  second  as  a  thinker,  the  third,  us  a 
poet  and  panegyrist;  (;iiry.so,stom,  theorotorand 
cxegete ;  Theixlore  of  >Iopsuestia  and  Theodoret 
of  Kyros,  along  with  Chrysostom  the  most  in- 
fluential representatives  of  the  School  of  Antioch. 
In  the  Western  Church  we  should  have  liiul  to 
speak  of  Ambrose,  the  eloquent  prenclicr  and 
voluminous  writer;  of  Jerome,  tne  biblical 
critic;  and  of  Augustine,  the  philosopher  nnil 
controversialist,  whose  thoughts  live  among  us 
even  at  the  present  day."— W.  Stewart,  The 
Churc/i  of  the  Ath  ami  ath  Centuries  (St.  Qileii' 
Lecturefi,  4th  xerieii). — See  RoMK:  A.  D.  323,  to 
8111-305. — "Hitherto  Christian  asceticism  had 
been  individualistic  in  its  character.  ...  In  the 
third  century  hermits  began  to  form  a  class  by 
themselves  in  the  East  and  in  Africa;  in  the 
fourth  they  liegan  to  be  organized  into  communi- 
ties. After  the  institution  of  monastic  societies, 
this  development  of  Christian  asceticism  spread 


far  agil  wide  from  the  dPHort*  of  thcThobnld  anil 
'Aiwer  Kgypt;  liasil,  .leroine,  AthanaHliis.  Aii- 
gilNline,  Aliibnise,  were  foieinost  among  its 
earliest  advoeateM  and  pn>paK'>'<"°'<;  CasHian, 
Coiumbaiius,  lii'iiediet,  and  otiiers,  crowned  the 
labourH  of  their  predei'essorH  by  a  nioie  elalKirato 
orgiinl/.iilion." — I.  Gri'gory  Smith,  Chnntian 
Mimiintirimii,  pp.  'i'A-m. 

A.  D.  318-335.— The  Arian  Controversy  and 
the    Councir  of    Nicca.     See  Auiamsm,    and 

Nir.KA.   TlIK  FinsT  ColMII.  OK. 

A.  D.  330-105^.— The  £aatern  (Greek,  or 
Orthodox)  Church.— " 'The  KasU'rn  Church,' 
says  a  well-known  writer,  'was  iikir  the  Kast, 
Htiitlonary  and  lininiitable;  the  Western,  like  the 
West,  progressive  and  llexible.  This  distinction 
is  the  more  remarkable,  iM'cause  at  certain  iM^riixIs 
of  their  course,  then^  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
civili/.ation  of  the  Kastt  ni  Churili  wa;f  far  higher 
than  that  of  the  Western.'"— G.  !•'.  Maeh'iir,  The 
Slum,  p.  'J.'i.  — It  is  the  more  reniarkabh'  lie- 
cause  this  lung  continuing  iiiilforniity,  while 
peculiarly  adapted  to  a  people  and  a  chiufh 
wlileh  slioiild  retjiin  and  tninsnitt  an  ir'heritiince 
of  faith  and  culture,  stands  in  singiil'ir  "ciiti'Uit 
to  the  reputed  character  of  the  Greeli-speaking 
peoples  of  the  East.  The  word  Grei  k,  however, 
lias,  as  an  iidjeeiive,  niaiiy  meanings,  ami  there 
is  danger  of  wrong  infeienee  through  inattentiim 
to  these;  some  of  its  ilistinctive  cliaracters  are 
therefore  indicated  in  brackets  in  various 
places  in  the  following  matter.  "The  New 
lioine  at  the  time  of  its  foundation  was  Hoinan. 
.  .  .  IJiit  from  tliiMlrNt  it  was  destined  to  iR'come 
Greek;  for  tlie  Grii'ks,  who  now  iK'gan  to  call 
theiiLSi'lves  Uoinans  —  an  ap|M'llatioii  which  they 
have  ever  since  retained  — held  fast  to  their 
language,  inanners,  and  prejudices,  wliile  they 
availed  them.selves  to  the  full  of  their  rights  as 
Homau  citizens.  The  turning-point  in  this  re- 
siH'ct  was  the  separation  of  the  einpircH  of  the 
East  and  the  West  in  tlie  time  of  Arcadlim  and 
llonoriua;  and  in  Justinian's  time  we  tind  all  the 
higliest  olllccH  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  and 
(ireek  was  the  pri^vailing  language.  But  the 
people  whom  we  call  by  this  naiiv  were  not  the 
1  lelleiies  of  Greece  proper,  but  tlie  Macetlonian 
Greeks.  This  distinction  arose  with  the  estnb- 
lisliment  of  Greek  colonies  with  municipal  gov- 
ernment thioughout  Asia  by  Alexander  the 
Great  and  his  liuccessors.  The  tyiie  of  character 
which  was  developed  in  them  and  among  those 
who  were  Ilelleniiiwl  by  their  intlucnce,  (liffenKl 
in  many  respt^cts  from  that  of  the  old  Greeks. 
The  res»'inblancc  between  them  wius  iniU^'il  main- 
tained by  similarity  of  education  and  social 
feelings,  by  the  posp-'ssion  of  a  common  lan- 
guage and  literature,  iiiu!  by  their  exclusive- 
ness,  which  caused  them  t<)  look  down  on  less 
favoured  races;  but  while  the  inhabitants  of 
Greece  retained  more  of  tlie  iudeix'ndcnt  spirit 
and  of  the  moral  character  and  patriotism  of 
their  fort-fathers,  the  Macedoniati  Greeks  were 
more  cosmopolitan,  more  subservie.'it,  and  more 
ready  to  take  the  impri'ss  of  those  among  whom 
they  were  tlirown:  and  the  astuteness  iind  versa- 
tility which  at  all  times  luul  formed  one  element 
in  the  Hellenic  character,  in  tltcm  became  the 
leading  characteristic.  'The  influence  01  this 
type  is  traceable  in  the  ixJicy  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  varying  in  intensity  in  different  ages  in 
proportion  to  the  power  exercised  by  the  Greeks: 
until,  during  the  later  period  of  the  history  —  in 


454 


CHIIWTIANITY 


TTie  ChHtHimitrit 
Urrrka, 


ClIltlSTIANITY. 


tli«  timi!  nf  the  (?omni>ir,,  iinil  Rtlll  mnni  In  Hint 
of  the  I'iilii'ol(i({l  — It  Utii  •  priMliitiiiniinl  fi'iitiin'." 
— II.  F.  To/.cr,  The  C/iiirr/i  ami  llw  h'liiittrii 
Kin/iiiv,  }i)).  1)-10.  — "  Wliiii  !iav<!  Imtii  tlicclIi'cN 
of  CliriHrlaiilty  on  wimt  wr  citll  imlioiiiil  rlmritc'- 
tcr  iti  KiiHlcni  ('lirlHtc'iiili)iiiV  .  .  .  'I'lic  OrrckH  of 
tho  l,owiT  ICiil|>lrt'  arc  liikcii  iis  the  lyi)i('al 
cxitiiipic  of  tlicHc  rac'i'H,  anil  tlic  OrcckM  of  tlii^ 
LowiT  Kni|)iri'  have  Iutoiiil'  a  l)y\V(iril  fiirt'vcry- 
tiling;  IliJit  H  falHt'  atJil  bani'.  TIk^  Itvaiitlni'  waH 
profoiiiiiliv  tlii'ol(i)(|ral,  wi'  arc  tolil,  anil  pro- 
foiiMilly  vlli'.  .  ,  .  'I'lioHi!  will)  wIhIi  to  III'  Just  to 
[It  I  .  .  .  will  pass  ...  to  thii  .  ,  .  I'liiiitalili) 
mill  coiisrii'Mllous,  lint  hy  no  niraiis,  Inilnlgrnt, 
JiiilKnii'nts  of  Mr.  Finlay,  Mr.  Krrcinan,  ami 
IK'an  Staiilry.  Oni^  fact  aloni-  Is  Hiilllrii'nt  to 
onKiiKt'  '"ir  ilrrp  Inlcri'st  In  I  Ills  raro.  It  was 
Ori'i'KS  llli'llrnist  ,lfWH|  anil  projilr  liiilinril  wllli 
On'ik  lilnis  who  llrst  wi-lcoinril  ('lirlstlaiilty.  It 
was  in  llirlr  JaiiKUaKi'  that  it  first  spoki;  to  t'.i- 
woriil,  anil  its  tirst  lioiiif  was  in  Oii'rk  hoiiHi>- 
lioiils  anil  In  Ori'i'k  citii's.  It  was  In  Uri'i'k 
[Ili'lii-nistii'l  atmosiilii'ri!  tliat  tlin  Divinu  Stran- 
iiT  friini  till-  Kii.Hl,  in  niaiiy  ri'spccts  ho  wlilrly 
uKIerent  from  all  that  Qri^^ks  were  aornHtoini-il 
to,  first  >{n!W  up  to  strength  anil  shapi';  tirst 
hIiiiwciI  lt.s  power  of  assimiiutlng  anil  rccoiiriiing ; 
llrst  hIiowviI  what  It  was  to  lie  In  human  sorirty. 
Its  I'ariii'st  nursiings  were  Greeks;  Greeks  [Hel- 
lenist Jews]  II  r.st  took  in  tile  meaning;  anil  mea- 
sure of  Itsamii/ing  and  eventful  aniiouneements; 
Greek  sympathies  llrst  awoke  anil  vllinited  to  its 
appeals:  Greek  olieiiienee,  Greek  courajfe,  Greek 
guiieriug  llrst  lllu.strateil  its  new  les.sons.  Hail  it 
not llrst,;aiiie(l  ov.tr  Greek  iiiiiul  anil  Greek  lielief. 
It  Is  liai'd  to  see  how  It  would  have  made  its  fur- 
ll'erway.  .  .  .  The  Roman  comiuest  of  the  world 
fou:id  the  Gri'ek  raee,  and  the  Kastern  nations 
whicli  It  had  Intluuueed,  in  a  low  and  deeliii- 
ing  stai't  —  morally,  H'>cially,  politleally.  Tlie 
lioinau  Gn:|iire,  when  It  Tell,  left  them  In  the  same 
diseourii'ln).^  eonditlon,  and  sulTerlng  besides 
from  tile  degr.Mliilioij  and  inl'ichlef  wrought  on 
all  Its  subjects  by  its  clironlc  anil  relentless  flscal 
oppression.  .  .  .  These  were  the  men  in  whose 
cliildish  eonccit,  childish  frivolitv,  childish  self- 
assertion,  St.  Paul  saw  such  (laugers  to  the 
growth  of  C'hristian  manliness  and  to  the  unity 
of  the  Clirlstiau  biMly  —  the  Idly  curious  and  gos- 
siping men  of  Athens;  the  va'n  and  shamelessly 
ostentatious  Corinthians,  men  in  mtellect,  but  In 
inonil  seriousness  liabus;  the  £|iheslans,  'like 
children  carried  away  with  every  Must  of  vain 
teachinif,'  tlie  victims  of  every  impostor,  and 
sport  of  every  deceit;  the  Cretans,  pro.'erbially, 
'ever  liars,  evil  beasts,  slow  bellies;'  the  pas- 
sionate, volatile,  Greek-speaking,  Celts  of  Asia, 
the  '  foolish '  Galatians.  .  .  .  The  Greek  ot  the 
Roman  times  is  portrayed  in  the  special  wan- 
ings  ot  the  Apostolic  Epistles.  After  Apostoliu 
times  he  is  portrayed  in  the  same  way  by  the 
heathen  satirist  Lucian,  and  by  the  Christian 
preacher  Chrysostom ;  and  such,  with  all  liis  bad 
tendencies,  aggmvated  by  almost  uninterrupted 
misrule  and  oppression,  the  Empire,  when  it 
broke  up,  left  him.  The  prospects  of  such  a 
people,  amid  the  coming  storms,  were  dark. 
Everything,  their  gifts  and  versatility,  as  well 
as  their  faults,  threatened  national  decay  and 
disintegration.  .  .  .  These  races  whom  the  Em- 
pire of  the  Coesars  left  like  scattered  sheep  to 
the  mercy  of  the  barbarians,  lived  through  a 
succession  of  the  most  appalling  storms,  and 


kept  Ihi'mM'lveN  together,  holding  fiiHl,  rcMiliitn 
ami  unwavering,  amid  all  their  iiilwrirH  and  all 
tlii'ir  ili'liaM'inent,  to  the  failh  of  their  nallimal 
briillierliood,  .  .  .  This,  it  seeiiiM  lo  ine,  Clirit 
liiuiity  dill  for  a  raie  wlileli  had  npparenlly  lived 
its  time,  and  had  no  future  before  It  —  Ilie'Greek 
rare  in  tile  days  of  the  Cie.sars.  It  created  In 
lliein,  in  a  new  and  ehaniileristie  degree, 
national  enduraiiie,  iiatinnal  felluwhlilp  and 
HVinpathy,  natlniial  Impe.  .  .  ,  It  gave  thein  an 
I'.inpire  of  tlieirnwn,  wliltli,  undervalueil  n*  It  is 
by  lliiise  fiiinillar  with  the  ultimate  ri'siills  of 
U'esterii  liisliiry,  yet  witlisliMKi  the  assaults  be- 
fore whli'li,  fur  the  niiinient,  Western  elvillHa- 
tlon  sank,  and  whiili  had  the  strength  to  last  a 
life— II  stirring  and  eventful  life  —  of  ten  cen- 
turies. The  Greek  Kinpire,  with  all  s  evils 
and  weaknes,seH,  was  yet  in  its  time  tlie  only 
existing  image  in  the  world  of  a  civilised  Htate. 
.  .  .  The  lives  of  great  men  priifouniily  aiiii  per- 
miinently  inlliienee  national  eharaeter;  and  the 
great  men  of  later  (Jnek  memory  are  siiints. 
Tliey  belong  to  the  people  more  than  emperors 
and  warriors;  for  tlie  Clinreh  Is  of  tlie  penple, 
.  .  ,  The  mark  which  siieh  men  left  on  Greek 
society  and  Greek  cliaracter  has  not  been  elTaced 
to  this  day,  even  by  the  nielanelioly  examples  of 
many  degenerate  succes.s'>r,..  .  .  .  Why,  if 
Christianity  alTected  Greek  chariu'ler  .so  pro- 
foundly, did  it  not  do  more?  Why,  if  it  cured 
It  of  much  of  its  instaliillly  and  trilling,  did  it 
not  also  cure  It  of  its  falselioiil  and  dissimula- 
tion? Why,  If  It  Impressed  the  Greek  mind  so 
deeply  with  the  n'ality  of  tlie  objects  of  faltli, 
did  it  not  also  check  the  vain  lni|iiisltiveness  and 
spirit  of  disjiulaiiousness  and  sophistry,  wMcU 
lllleil  Greek  Cliurcli  history  Avitli  furious  wran'j 
lings  about  the  most  lioiieless  problems?  Why, 
if  It  could  raise  such  r.diniration  for  imselllsli- 
ness  and  heroic  nobleness,  haa  not  this  admiratton 
borne  more  cong'^ninl  fruit?  Why,  if  heaven 
was  felt  to  be  so  great  and  so  near,  was  there  in 
real  life  such  coarse  and  mean  worldlincss? 
Why,  Indeed?  .  .  .  Profoundly,  permanently, 
as  Christianity  affected  Greek  character,  tliero 
was  much  in  that  character  whiili  Christianity 
failed  to  reach,  much  that  it  failed  to  cnrrect, 
much  that  was  obstinately  refractory  to  iiillu- 
ences  which,  elsewhere,  were  so  fruitful  of  good- 
ness and  greatness.  The  East,  as  well  as  the 
West,  hi' .  .  ''11  much  to  lea.ii  from  that  religion, 
which  acii  too  e.xolusively  claims  to  umler- 
s»  '  to  ap  reciate,  and  to  defend." — R.  V. 
oliiirch,  The'Hfts  of  Cimlimtion,  pp.  1HH-'J1«. 
— "The  types  oi  character  that  were  developed 
in  the  Eastern  Church,  as  might  be  expected, 
were  not  of  the  very  highest.  There  was  among 
them  no  8t.  Francis,  no  St.  Louis.  The  uni- 
formity which  pervades  everything  Byzantinu 
prevented  the  development  of  such  salient 
characters  as  are  found  in  the  West.  It  is  dllH- 
cult,  no  doubt,  to  form  a  true  estimate  of  tlio 
li.lluence  of  religion  on  men's  lives  in  Eastern 
coi:utries,  just  as  it  is  of  tlieir  domestic  relations, 
and  'tveu  of  the  condition  of  the  lower  classes, 
becaui  e  such  matters  are  steadily  ignored  by  tlio 
contemiMirary  historians.  But  all  the  evidence 
tends  to  bhow  that  individual  rather  than  heroic 
piety  was  fostered  by  the  system  which  pre- 
vailed there.  That  at  certain  iieriods  a  high 
tone  of  spiriMiallty  prevailed  among  certain 
classes  is  suffltiently  proved  by  the  beautiful 
hymns  of  the  Eusteru  Church,  many  of  which, 


455 


CHRISTIANITY. 


JCcclPnifiMtical 
Jiome. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


thanks  to  Dr.  Noale's  singular  felicity  in  trans- 
lation, are  in  use  ainonj;  ourselves.  Hut  the 
loftier  development  of  their  spirit  took  the  form 
of  asceticism,  and  the  scene  of  tliis  wius  rather 
the  scciiuled  monastery,  or  the  pillar  of  tlie 
Btyiite,  tlian  human  society  at  large.  But  if  the 
Eastern  C'iiur('h  did  not  rise  as  high  as  her  sister 
of  the  West,  slie  never  sjink  as  low." — II.  F. 
Tozer,  The  Okurch  and  the  Eastern  Empire,  pp. 
45-40.— "The  Greek  Cliurch,  or,  as  it  calls 
itself,  the  Holy  Orthodox,  Catholic,  Apostolic, 
Oriental  Clnireh.  has  a  venerahle  if  not  an  event- 
ful history.  Unlike  the  Church  of  the  West,  it 
has  not  been  moidded  by  great  political  move- 
ments, the  rise  and  fall  of  kingdoms,  and  tlie 
convidsions  which  have  passed  over  the  face  of 
mcKlern  society.  Its  course  has  been  out  of  the 
siglit  of  European  civilisation,  it  has  grown  up 
among  peoples  who  have  been  hut  slightly 
ttlfccted,  if  tliey  have  been  aflected  at  all,  by  the 
progressive  movements  of  mankind.  It  has  no 
middle  ages.  It  has  no  renaissance.  It  has  no 
Ileformation.  It  has  given  birth  to  no  great 
universities  and  schools  of  leaminj'  It  has  no 
Protestantism.  It  remains  very  .luch  as  tlie 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries  left  it.  .  .  .  When  tlie 
royal  throne  in  the  days  of  tlie  first  Christian 
Emperor  was  removed  from  Rome  to  Constanti- 
nople, there  arose  at  once  a  cause  of  strife 
between  the  bisliops  of  old  and  new  Rome,  as 
Byzantium  or  Constantinople  was  named.  Eacli 
claimed  pre-eminence,  and  each  alternately  re- 
ceived it  from  the  governing  powers  in  Churcli 
and  State.  One  Council  decreed  (A.  D.  381)  that 
the  Bishop  of  the  new  Rome  should  be  inferior 
only  to  that  of  the  old ;  another  declared  (A.  D. 
451)  the  equality  of  both  prelates.  The  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  at  the  close  of  the  aixtli 
century  claimed  suiieriority  over  all  Christian 
Churches, — a  claim  which  might  have  developed, 
had  circumstances  favoured  it,  into  an  Eastern 
Papacy.  The  assumption  was,  however,  but 
short-lived,  and  the  Bishop  of  Ron-  Boniface, 
obtained  lii^m  the  Emperor  Phoci.  in  606  the 
much-coveted  position.  The  Eastern  Church 
submitted,  but  from  this  time  looked  with  a  jeal- 
ous eye  on  her  Western  sister.  She  noted  and 
magnified  every  point  of  divergence  between 
them.  Differences  or  apparent  differences  in 
doctrine  and  ritual  were  denounced  as  heresies. 
Excommunications  fulminated  between  the  East- 
em  and  Western  city,  and  ecclesiastical  bitter- 
ness was  intensified  by  political  intrigue.  .  .  . 
In  the  ninth,  century  the  contest  grew  very 
fierce.  The  holder  of  the  Eastern  see,  Photius, 
formulated  and  denounced  the  terrible  doctrinal 
and  other  defections  of  the  Western  prelate  and 
his  followers.  The  list  is  very  formidable. 
They,  tlie  followers  of  Rome,  deemed  it  proper 
to  fast  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  —  that  is 
on  the  Jewish  Sabbath;  in  the  first  week  of 
Lent  they  permitted  the  use  of  milk  and  cheese ; 
they  disapproved  wholly  of  the  marriage  of 
priests;  they  thought  none  but  bishops  could 
anoint  with  the  holy  oil  or  confirm  the  bap- 
tized, and  that  they  therefore  anointed  a  second 
time  those  wlio  had  been  anointed  by  presby- 
ters; and  fifthly,  they  had  adulterated  the  Con- 
stantinopolitan  Crectl  by  adding  to  it  tlie  words 
Filioque,  thus  teaching  that  the  Holy  Spirit  did 
not  proceed  only  from  the  Father,  but  also  from 
the  Son.  This  last  was  deemed,  and  has  always 
been  deemed  by  the  Greek  Church  the  great 


heresy  of  the  Romaa  Church.  .  .  .  The  Greek 
Church  to-day  in  all  its  branches  —  in  Turkey, 
Greece,  in('  Russia — professes  'o  hold  firmly  by 
the  formulas  and  decisions  of  e  seven  (Ecu- 
menical or  General  Councils,  regarding  with 
special  honour  that  of  Nice.  The  Niceiie  and 
Athanasiau  Creeds  are  the  symbols  of  its  faith, 
the  Filioqae  clause  being  omitted  from  the 
former,  and  the  eighth  article  reading  thus: 
'  And  in  the  Holy  Oliost,  the  Lord  and  Giver  of 
life,  who  proceedeth  from  the  Father,  and  with 
the  { Father  and  Son  togetlier  is  worshipped 
and  glorified.'  .  .  .  The  Greek  Church,  unlike 
the  Latin,  denounces  the  use  of  images  as  objects 
of  devotion,  and  holds  in  abhorrence  every  form 
of  what  it  terms  'image  worsliip.'  Its  position 
in  this  munner  is  very  curious.  It  is  true,  no 
figures  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Virgin,  or  saints,  such 
as  one  s<;es  in  cliurches,  wayside  chapels,  and  in 
the  open  fields  in  countries  where  the  Roman 
Church  is  powerful,  arc  to  be  seen  in  Russia, 
Greece  «r  ai.y  of  those  lands  where  the  Eastern 
Church  is  supreme.  On  the  other  hand,  pictures 
of  the  plainest  kind  everywhere  take  their  place, 
and  are  regarded  with  the  deepest  veneration. " 
— J.  C.  Lees,  T/te  Greek  Church  (in  the  Churcfies 
of  Christendom),  lect.   4. — See,   also,   Filioque 

CONTUOVKKSY. 

A.  D.  337-476.— The  fall  of  Imperial  Rome. 
— The  rise  of  Ecclesiastical  Rome. — The  poli- 
tical and  religious  history  of  the  Empire  from 
the  death  of  Constantine  is  so  fully  narrated 
under  Rome  that  mere  mention  here  of  a  few 
events  will  suffice,  viz. :  the  revival  of  Paganism 
under  the  Emperor  Julian;  the  reascendency  of 
Christianity ;  the  formal  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity as  the  religion  of  the  Romans,  by  the  suf- 
frages of  the  senate ;  the  final  division  of  the  Em- 
pire into  East  and  West  between  the  sons  of 
Theodosius ;  the  three  sieges  and  the  sacking  of 
Rome  by  Alaric;  the  legal  sepamtion  of  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Empires;  the  pillage  of 
Rome  by  the  Vandals  and  its  final  submissicm  to 
the  barbarians.  See  Rome:  A.  D.  337-361,  to 
445-476.  For  an  account  of  tlie  early  bishops 
of  Rome,  see  Papacy.  "A  heathen  historian 
traces  the  origin  of  the  calairities  which  he  re- 
cords to  the  abolition  of  sacrifice  by  Theodosius, 
and  the  sack  of  Rome  to  the  laws  against  the  an- 
cient faith  passed  by  his  son.  This  objection  of 
the  heathens  that  the  overthrow  of  idolatry  and 
the  ascendency  of  Christianity  were  the  cause  of 
the  misfortunes  of  the  empire  was  so  wide  spread, 
and  had  such  force  with  those,  both  Pagans  and 
Christians,  who  conceived  history  to  be  the  out- 
come of  magical  or  demonic  powers,  that  Augus- 
tine devoted  twelve  years  of  his  life  to  its  refuta- 
tion. His  treotise,  '  De  Civitate  Dei,'  was  begun 
in  413,  and  was  not  finished  till  426,  within  four 
years  of  his  death.  Rome  had  once  been  taken ; 
society,  consumed  by  inward  corruption,  was 
shaken  to  its  foundations  by  the  violent  onset  of 
the  Teutonic  tribes;  men's  hearts  were  failing 
them  for  fear;  the  voice  of  calumny  cried  aloud, 
and  laid  these  woes  to  the  charge  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  A.  gustine  undertook  to  refute  the 
calumny,  and  to  restore  the  courage  of  his  fel- 
low-Christians. Taking  a  rapid  survey  of  his- 
tory, he  asks  what  the  gods  had  ever  done  for 
tlie  well-being  of  the  state  or  for  public  morality. 
He  maintains  that  the  greatness  of  Rome  in  the 
past  was  due  to  the  virtues  of  her  sons,  and  not 
to  the  protection  of  the  gods.     He  shows  that. 


46^ 


CimiSTIANITY. 


Weniern  Empire 
anti  Church. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


long  before  the  rise  of  Cliriatiiinity,  her  ruin  Iiml 
be;j;un  with  the  introduction  of  foreign  viees 
lifter  the  destruction  of  Curtlmge,  nnd  declares 
that  much  in  the  ancient  worship,  instead  of  pre- 
venting, had  haiitened  that  niin.  Ho  rises  above 
the  troubles  of  the  present,  and  amid  the  vanish- 
ing glories  of  the  city  of  men  he  proclaims  tlie 
Stability  of  the  city  of  God.  At  a  time  when 
the  downfall  of  Home  was  thought  to  presage 
ai)proacliing  doom,  Augustine  regarded  the  dis- 
asters around  liim  as  the  birth-throes  of  a  new 
world,  as  a  necessary  moment  in  the  onward 
movement  of  (,'liristianity." — W.  Stewart,  The 
Church  of  the  Ath  and  Tith  Centuries  (St.  Giles' 
Lectures,  Ath  series). — "  There  is  as  little  groimd 
foi  discovering  a  miraculous,  as  there  is  for  dis- 
owning a  providential  clement  iu  tlie  course  of 
events.  Tlic  institutions  of  Roman  authority 
and  law  had  been  planted  regularly  over  all  the 
territory  which  the  conquermg  hordes  coveted 
and  seized;  alongside  of  every  magistrate  was 
now  placed  a  nunister  of  Christ,  and  by  every 
Hall  of  Justice  stood  a  Hou.se  of  Pniyer.  The 
Representative  of  Cicsar  lost  all  his  power  and 
dignity  when  the  armies  of  Cicsar  were  scattered 
in  flight;  the  minister  of  Clirist  felt  that  beliim' 
him  was  an  invisible  force  \  't':  which  the  hosts 
of  the  alien  could  not  cope,  und  his  behaviour  im- 
pressed the  barbarian  with  the  conviction  that 
there  was  reality  here.  That  beneficent  mission 
of  Leo,  A.  D.  452,  of  which  Oibbon  says :  '  The 
pressing  eloquence  of  Leo,  his  majestic  aspect 
and  sacerdotal  robes,  excited  the  veneration  of 
Attila  for  the  spiritual  father  of  the  Christians ' 
— would  be  but  an  inst^ince  of  what  many  name- 
less priests  from  provincial  towns  did,  '  not  count- 
ing their  lives  dear  to  them.'  The  organisation 
of  the  Latin  state  vitalised  by  a  new  spiritual 
force  vanquished  the  victors.  It  was  the  method 
and  the  discipline  of  this  organisation,  not  the 
subtlety  of  its  doctrine,  nor  the  fervour  of  its 
ofllcials,  that  beat  in  detail  one  chief  with  his 
motley  following  after  another.  Hence  too  it 
came  about  that  the  Christianity  which  was 
adopted  as  the  religion  of  Europe  was  not  modi- 
fled  to  suit  the  tastes  of  the  various  tribes  that 
embraced  it,  but  was  delivered  to  each  as  from 
a  common  fountain-head.  ...  It  was  a  social 
triumph,  proceeding  from  religious  motives  which 
we  may  regard  with  unstinted  admiration  and 
gratitude."— J.  Watt,  The  iMtin  Church  {St. 
Oiles'  Lectures,  Ath  series. — "The  temporal  fall 
of  the  Imperial  inctrr^^olis  tended  to  throw  a 
brighter  light  upon  her  ecclesiastical  claims.  The 
separation  of  the  East  and  the  West  had  already 
enhanced  the  religious  dignity  of  the  ancient 
capital.  The  great  Eastern  patriarcliates  of  An- 
tioch,  Alexandria,  and  Jerusalem  had  up  to  that 
time  all  held  themselves  equal,  if  not  superior  to 
Rome,  Constantinople  had  even  assuuieil  certain 
airs  of  supremacy  over  nil.  The  General  Coun- 
cils which  had  defined  the  Faith  at  Nicrea  and 
Constantinople  had  been  composed  almost  wholly 
of  Orientals.  The  great  Doctors  of  the  Church, 
the  men  who  had  defended  or  diffused  the  com- 
mon Faith,  had  been  mostly  Greeks  by  origin 
and  language.  None  had  been  Ronuuis,  and  it 
was  rarely,  till  the  fourth  century,  that  any  of 
them  had  written  in  the  Latin  tongue.  When 
Atlianasius,  exiled  from  Alexandria,  came  to 
Italy  and  Gaul,  it  was  three  years  before  he 
could  learn  enough  of  the  language  of  the  West 
to  address  its  congregations  in  public.     But  this 

''  457 


curious  fact  .shows  that  the  Western  Christians 
were  now  no  longer  the  little  Greek  colony  of  the 
first  and  second  centuries.  Christianity  had  be- 
come the  national  religion  of  the  native  races. 
The  liomans  might  now  feel  that  they  were  be- 
coming again  a  people;  that  their  glorious  career 
was  assuming,  as  it  were,  a  new  point  of  depart- 
ure. .  .  .  For  at  tliis  moment  the  pojiuliir  in- 
stinct could  not  fail  to  perceive  how  strongly  the 
conscience  of  the  barbarians  ha<l  been  affected  by 
the  spiritual  majesty  of  Christian  Home.  The 
Northern  hordes  liad  beaten  down  all  armed  re- 
sistance. They  had  made  a  deep  impression  upon 
the  strength  of  the  Eastern  Empire;  they  had, 
for  a  moment  at  least,  actually  overconu;  the 
Western;  they  had  overrun  many  of  the  fairest 
provinces,  and  had  effected  a  permanent  lodge- 
ment in  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  still  more  recently 
in  Africa.  Yet  in  all  these  countries,  rude  as 
they  still  were,  they  had  sul)mitted  to  accept  the 
creed  of  the  Gospel.  There  was  no  such  thing 
as  a  barbarian  Paganism  established  within  the 
limits  of  the  Empire  anywIuTe,  except  perhaps 
in  furthest  Britain." — C.  Merivale,  Four  lectures 
on  some  Kixichs  of  Eu  rly  Ch  u  rch  History,  pp.  1 HO- 
136. — "  When  the  surging  tides  of  barbarian  in- 
vasion swept  over  Europe,  tlio  Christian  organi- 
zation was  almost  the  only  institution  of  the  past 
which  survived  the  flood.  It  remained  as  a  visi- 
ble monument  of  what  had  been,  and,  by  so  re- 
maining, was  of  itself  an  antithesis  to  the  present. 
The  chief  town  of  the  Roman  province,  whatever 
its  status  under  barbarian  rule,  was  still  the 
bishop's  see.  The  limits  of  the  old  'province,' 
though  the  boundary  of  a  new  kingdom  might 
bisect  them,  were  still  the  limits  of  his  diocese. 
The  bishop's  tribunal  was  the  only  tribunal  in 
which  the  laws  of  the  Empire  could  be  pleaded 
in  their  integrity.  The  bishop's  dress  was  the 
ancient  robe  of  "a  Roman  magistrate.  Tlie  an- 
cient Roman  language  which  was  used  in  the 
Church  services  was  a  standing  protest  against 
the  growing  degeneracy  of  the  '  vulgar  tongue.' 
...  As  the  forces  of  the  Empire  became  less 
and  less,  the  forcesof  the  Church  became  more  and 
more.  The  Churches  preserved  that  which  had 
been  from  the  first  the  secret  of  Imperial  strength. 
For  underneath  the  Empire  which  changed  and 
passed,  beneath  the  shifting  pageantry  of  Em- 
perors who  moved  across  the  stage  and  were 
seen  no  more,  was  the  abiding  empire  of  law 
and  administration,  —  which  changed  only  as 
the  deep  sea  changes  beneath  the  windswept 
waves.  That  inner  empire  was  continued  in  the 
Christian  Churches.  In  the  years  of  transition 
from  the  ancient  to  the  modern  world,  when  all 
civilized  society  seemed  to  be  disintegrated,  the 
confederation  of  the  Christian  Churches,  by  the 
very  fact  of  its  existence  upon  the  old  imperial 
lines,  was  not  only  the  most  powerful,  but  ilie 
only  powerful  organization  in  the  civilized  world. 
It  was  so  vast,  and  so  powerful,  that  it  seemed 
to  be,  and  there  werg  few  to  question  its  being, 
the  visible  realization  of  that  Kingdom  of 
God  which  our  Lord  Himself  had  preached." — 
E.  Hatch,  The  Urr/nni^ittion  of  the  Christian 
Churches,  pp.  100-178. 

A.  D.  347-412.— The  Syrian  Churches. — 
"St.  Chry.sostom  was  born  there  A.  1).  !MT;  and 
it  was  in  his  time  that  Antioeli,  with  its  hundred 
thousand  Christians,  became  the  leading  Church 
in  Asia,  especially  in  the  Arian  contn-ersy  [see 
Auianism],    for  Arianibm   was   very  prevalent 


CmUSTIANITY. 


Cnnvemion 
of  the  frank*. 


CIIIIISTIANITY. 


then'.  But  all  tliis  lies  outsido  our  period.  The 
s(i  (iillcil  '  School  of  Antioch  '  1ms  itH  origin  just 
before  .  .  .  our  i)eri(Hl  [8U,  WiltschJ.  Doro- 
theus,  .  .  .  luid  the  iimrtyr  Luciaii  may  be  re- 
garded as  its  founders.  In  contrast  to  the  allegor- 
ising inysliciMn  of  the  School  of  Alexandria,  it 
was  tlistinguislicd  liy  a  more  sober  and  erill<  ill  in- 
terpretation (if  Scripture.  It  looked  to  grammar 
and  history  for  its  principles  of  e.xegesis.  IJut 
we  must  not  suppose  that  there  was  at  Antioeh 
an  educational  eslablishnient  like  the  Catechetical 
School  at  Alexandria,  which,  bv  a  succession  of 
great  teachers,  kept  up  a  traditional  mode  of 
exegesis  and  instruction.  It  was  rather  an  in- 
tellectual tendency  which,  begirniing  with 
LiU'ian  and  Dorotheus,  developed  in  a  definite 
direction  in  Anlioch  and  other  Syrian  Churches. 
.  .  .  Thes(' notices  of  the  Churches  of  Jerusalem, 
Ca'siirea  in  I'idestino,  and  Antioeh  must  sufflee 
as  representative  of  the  Syrian  Cluirches.  The 
number  of  these  Churches  was  considerable  even 
in  the  second  century,  and  by  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  was  very  large  indeed,  as  is  .seen  by 
the  inind)er  of  bishops  who  attend  local  Coun- 
cils."— A.  Plummer,  T/ie  Church  <if  the  Early 
Fathen,  ch.  3. — "  It  has  ofteu  astonished  me  that 
no  one  has  ever  tr;inslated  the  letters  of  St. 
Jerome.  The  letters  of  St.  Atigtistine  have  been 
translated,  and  are  in  many  parts  very  enter- 
taining reading,  but  they  are  nothing  in  point  of 
living  interest  when  compared  with  St.  Jerome'.s. 
These  letters  illustrate  life  about  the  year  400  as 
nothing  else  can.  They  show  us,  for  instance, 
what  education  then  w;as,  what  clerical  life  con- 
sisted in;  they  tell  us  of  modes  and  fashions,  and 
they  teach  us  how  vigorous  and  constant  was 
the  commtmication  at  tliat  same  period  between 
the  most  distant  parts  of  the  Uoman  empire. 
We  are  apt  to  think  of  the  fifth  century  as  a  time 
when  there  was  very  little  travel,  and  when  most 
certainly  the  East  and  West  —  Ireland,  England, 
Gaid  and  Palestine  —  were  much  more  widely 
and  conijiletely  separated  than  now,  when  steam 
has  practically  annihilated  time  and  space.  And 
yet  such  an  idea  is  very  mistaken.  There  was  a 
most  lively  intercourse  existing  between  these 
regions,  a  constant  Church  correspondence  kept 
up  between  them,  and  the  most  intense  and  vivid 
interest  maintained  by  the  Gallic  and  Syrian 
churches  in  the  minutest  details  of  their  re- 
spective liistories.  Mark  now  liow  this  happened. 
St.  Jerome  at  IJethlehem  was  the  centre  of  this 
intercourse.  His  position  in  the  Christian  world 
in  tlie  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  can  only  he 
compared  to,  but  was  not  ut  all  equalled  by,  that 
of  John  Calvin  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
Men  from  the  most  distant  parts  consulted  him. 
Bishops  of  highest  renown  for  sanctity  and 
learning,  like  St.  Augustine,  and  Exuperius  of 
Toulouse  in  southern  France,  deferred  to  his 
authority.  The  keen  interest  he  took  in  the 
churches  of  Gaul,  and  the  intimate  knowledge 
he  possessed  of  tlie  most  petty  local  details  and 
religious  gossip  therein,  can  only  t)e  understood 
by  one  wlio  has  studied  his  very  abusive  treatise 
against  Vigilantius  or  his  correspondence  with 
Exuperius.  .  .  .  Hut  how,  it  may  he  asked,  was 
this  correspondence  carried  on  when  there  was 
no  postal  system  ?  Here  it  was  that  tlu 
eanization  of  nionasticisin  supplied  a  ■  ; 
Jerome's  letters  tell  us  the  very  name  of  his 
postman.  He  was  a  monk  nanied  Sy.jinniu.-i. 
He  was  perpetually  on  the  roud  between  Mar- 


seilles and  Ilethlehem.  Again  and  again  does 
Jerome  mention  his  coming  and  his  going.  His 
a|)peanince  must  indeed  have  been  tlie  great  ex- 
citement of  life  at  Bethlehem.  Tnwelling 
probably  via  Sanlinia,  Hemic,  Greece,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Adriatic,  he  gathered  up  all  kin<is 
of  clerical  news  on  the  way— i  piece  of  conduct 
on  his  part  which  .seems  to  liave  had  its  usual 
residt.s.  Ai  a  tale-bearer,  !)<■  not  oidy  revealed 
secrets,  but  also  separated  chief  friends,  and  this 
monk  Sysinnius  with  his  gossips  seems  to  have 
lic<'n  the  original  cause  of  the  celebrated  (pnirrel 
between  Augustine  and  Jerome." — G.  T.  Stokes, 
Ircliind and  the  Celtic  Church,  pp.  170-173. 

A.  D.  496-800.— The  Prankish  Church  to 
the  Empire  of  Charlemagne. — "The  baptism 
of  Chlo(lovech  [Clovis— see  Fiianks:  A.  1).  481- 
.'illl  was  followed  by  the  wholesale  c(mversion 
of  the  Franks.  No  compulsion  was  used  to 
bring  the  heathen  into  the  Church.  As  a  heathen, 
Chlodovech  had  treated  the  Church  with  for- 
bearance; he  was  eeiually  tolerant  to  heathenism 
when  he  was  a  Christian.  But  his  example 
worked,  and  thousands  of  noble  Franks  crowded 
to  the  water  of  regeneration.  Gregory  of  Tours 
reckons  the  Franks  as  Christians  after  the  bap- 
tism of  their  king,  which  took  place  at  Christmas, 
A.  D.  496.  His  conversion  made  no  alteration 
in  the  policy  and  conduct  of  Chlodov(!ch;  ho 
remained  the  same  mixture  of  cunning  and 
audacity,  of  cruelty  and  sensimlity,  that  he  was 
before.  .  .  .  Btit,  tliough  his  baptism  was  to  him 
of  no  moral  import,  its  consequences  were  wide 
spreading.  When  Gregory  of  Tours  compares 
the  conversion  of  Chlodovech  with  that  of  Con- 
stantino the  Great,  he  was  fully  in  the  right. 
.  .  .  And  the  bajitism  of  Chlodovech  declared  to 
the  world  that  the  new  blood  being  poured  into 
the  veins  of  the  old  and  expiring  civilization, 
had  been  quickened  by  the  same  elements,  and 
would  unite  with  the  old  in  the  new  development. 
.  .  .  That  many  of  those  who  were  baptized  car- 
ried with  them  into  their  new  Christianity  their 
old  heathen  superstitions  as  well  as  their  barbarism 
is  certain ;  and  the  times  were  not  those  in  which 
the  growth  of  the  great  Christian  graces  was 
encouraged;  the  f^erms,  however,  of  a  new  life 
were  laid." — S.  Baring-Gould,  The  Church  in 
Germany,  ch.  3. — "The  details  of  the  history  of 
the  Merovingian  period  of  Fnuikish  history  are 
extraordinarily  complicated ;  happily,  it  is  not  at 
all  necessary  for  our  purpose  to  follow  them. 
...  In  the  earlier  years  after  the  conquest,  all 
ranks  of  the  clergy  were  filled  by  Qallo-Komans. 
The  Franks  were  the  dominant  race,  and  were 
Christian,  but  they  were  new  converts  from  a 
rude  heathenism,  and  it  would  take  some  genera- 
tions to  raise  up  a  '  native  ministry '  among 
them.  Not  only  the  literattire  of  the  (Western) 
Church,  but  all  its  services,  and,  still  more,  the 
conversational  intercourse  of  all  civilized  and 
Christian  people,  was  in  Latin.  Besides,  the 
Franks  were  warriors,  a  conquering  caste,  a 
sei)arate  nation ;  and  to  lay  down  the  battle-axe 
and  spear,  and  enter  into  the  peaceful  ranks  of 
the  Komano-Gallic  Cluirch,  would  have  seemed 
to  them  like  changing  their  nationality  for  that 
of  the  more  highly  cultured,  perhaps,  but,  in 
their  eyes,  subject  race.  The  Frank  kings  did 
not  ignore  the  value  of  education.  Clovis  is  said 
to  have  established  a  Palatine  school,  and  encour- 
aged his  yoimg  men  to  qualify  themselves  for 
the  positions  which  his  conquests  hud  opened  out 


458 


CnmSTIANITY. 


^fiMilmlt  to 
the  (it'ntuina. 


CIIUISTIANITY. 


to  them.  Ilis  grandsons,  we  liiivc  seen,  prilled 
tlicmsclvesontlieirLiitiu culture.  Afterii  while, 
Franks  aspired  to  the  ninRnilieeiit  i)ositioii9  whieh 
the  ^'cat  sees  of  the  Chureh  olTere.l  to  their 
ambition ;  and  we  find  men  with  Teutonic  names, 
and  10  doiiht  of  Teutonic  race,  among  the 
bishOj-'S.  .  .  .  For  a  still  longer  period,  few 
Franks  entered  into  the  lo\v<'r  ranks  of  the 
Cliiireh.  Not  only  did  the  priesthood  offer  little 
temptation  to  them,  but  also  the  policy  of  the 
kings  and  nobles  opposed  the  diminution  of  their 
military  strength,  bj-  refusing  leave  to  their 
Franks  to  enter  into  holy  orders  or  into  the  mon- 
r.sterics.  Tlie  cultured  families  of  the  cities 
would  afford  aiv  ample  supply  of  men  for  the 
clergy,  and  promising  youths  of  a  lower  class 
seem  already  not  infrequently  to  have  been  edu- 
cated for  the  service  of  the  Church.  It  was  only 
in  the  later  period,  when  some  approach  had 
been  made  to  a  fusion  of  tlie  races,  that  we  tind 
Franks  entering  into  the  lower  ranks  of  the 
Ohurch,  and  simultaneously  wc  tind  Gallo- 
liomans  in  the  ranks  of  the  armies.  .  .  ,  ]\Iouks 
wielded  a  powerful  spiritual  inlluence.  But  the 
name  of  not  a  single  priest  appears  in  the  history 
of  the  times  as  exercising  any  influence  or 
authorit}-.  .  Under  the  gradual  secularization 
of  the  Cliu  in  the  Merovingian  period,  the 
monasteries  I  tlie  greatest  sliarc  in  keeping 
alive  a  remnant  of  vital  religion  among  the 
people;  and  in  the  gradual  decay  of  learning  and 
art,  the  monastic  institution  was  the  ark  in  which 
the  ancient  civilization  survived  the  deluge  of 
barbarism,  and  emerged  at  length  to  spread  itself 
over  the  modern  world." — E.  L.  Cutts,  Charle- 
magne, ch.  5  and  7. — "  Two  Anglo-Saxon  monks, 
St.  Wilfrid,  bishop  of  York,  and  St.  Willibrord 
undertook  the  conversion  of  the  savage  fisher- 
men of  Friesland  and  Holland  at  the  end  of  the 
seventh  and  beginning  of  the  eighth  century; 
they  were  followed  by  another  Englishman,  the 
most  renowned  of  all  these  missionaries,  AVin- 
frith,  wliose  name  was  changed  to  Boniface, 
perhaps  by  the'Pope,  in  recognition  of  his  active 
and  beneficent  apostleship.  AVhcn  Gregory  II. 
appointed  him  bishop  of  Germany  (723),  he  went 
through  Bavaria  and  established  tliere  the  dio- 
ceses of  Frisiugcn,  Passau,  and  Ratisbon.  AVhen 
Pope  Zaclmrias  bestowed  the  rank  of  metro- 
politan upon  the  Clmrch  of  Mainz  in  748,  he 
entrusted  its  direction  to  St.  Boniface,  who  from 
that  time  was  iirimate,  as  it  were,  of  all  Ger- 
many, under  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See.  St. 
Boniface  was  assassinated  by  the  Pagans  of  Fries- 
land  in  755." — V.  Duruy,  Ilist.  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  bk.  3,  ch.  8. — "Boniface,  whose  original 
name  was  AVinfrid,  was  of  a  noble  Devonshire 
family  (A.  D.  680),  educated  at  the  monastery  of 
Nutcelle,  in  Hampshire,  and  at  the  age  of  thirtj'- 
five  years  had  obtained  a  high  reputation  for 
learning  and  ability,  when  (in  A.  I).  716),  seized 
with  the  prevalent  missionary  enthusiasm,  ho 
abandoned  his  prospects  at  home,  and  set  out 
with  two  companions  to  labour  among  the  Fris- 
ians. .  .  .  AVinfrid  was  refused  permission  by 
the  Duke  to  preach  in  his  dominions,  and  he 
returned  home  to  England.  In  the  following 
spring  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  remained  for 
some  months,  and  then,  with  a  general  authori- 
zation from  the  i)ope  to  preach  the  gospel  in 
Central  Europe,  he  crossed  the  Alps,  passed 
through  Bavaria  into  Thuringia,  where  lie  began 
his  work.      AVhilc  here  the  death  of  Radbod, 


A.  I).  710,  and  the  coniiuest  of  Frisia  by  Cliarles 
Martcl,  opened  up  new  prospects  for  the  evau- 
gelizaticjii  of  that  country,  and  Boniface  went 
thither  and  laboured  for  three  years  among  the 
missionaries,  under  Willil)r()nl  of  I'lredit.  Then, 
following  in  the  track  of  tlie  victorious  forces  of 
Charles  Alartel,  he  i)liiiiged  into  the  wilds  of 
Ilessia,  eonverted  two  of  its  chiefs  whose  exaiii])lo 
was  followed  by  niultiludes  of  the  Hessians  and 
Saxons,  and  a  monastery  arose  at  Amllneburg  as 
the  liead-(piarters  of  the  mission.  The  Bishop 
of  Rome  being  informed  of  this  success,  sum- 
moned Boniface  to  Home,  A.  1).  723,  and  con.se- 
crated  him  a  regionarv  bislio]!,  with  a  general 
jurisdiction  over  all  wliom  he  should  win  from 
paganism  into  the  Christian  fold,  reipiiriiig  from 
him  at  the  same  time  the  oath  which  was  usually 
required  of  bishops  within  the  patriarchate  of 
Rome,  of  obedience  to  the  see.  .  .  .  Boniface 
was  not  only  a  zealous  missionary,  an  earnest 
preacher,  a  learned  scholar,  but  he  was  a  stati'S- 
man  and  an  able  administruior.  1I(>  not  only 
s|)read  the  Gospel  among  the  heathen,  but  he 
organized  the  Church  among  the  newly  converted 
nation^  if  Germany;  he  regulated  the  disorder 
which  1  \isted  in  the  Frankish  Churcli,  and  estab- 
lished the  relations  between  Church  and  State  on 
a  settled  basis.  The  mediaeval  analysts  tell  us 
that  Boniface  crowned  Pepin  king,  and  modern 
writers  have  usually  reproduced  tlie  statement. 
'  Rettberg,  and  the  able  writer  of  the  biography 
of  Boniface  in  Ilerzog  (Real  Ecyk,  s.  v.),  argue 
satisfactorily  from  Boniface's  lett<'rs  that  he  took 
no  part  in  Pepin's  coronation.'  AVhen  Boniface 
withdrew  from  the  active  supervision  of  the 
Frankish  Churches,  it  is  j)robable  that  his  place 
was  to  some  extent  supplied  in  the  councils  of 
the  mayor  and  in  the  synods  of  the  Church  by 
Chrodegang,  Bishop  of  Metz,  a  man  whose 
character  and  inlluence  in  the  ..Istcry  of  the 
Frank  Church  have  hardly  hitherto  bee:!  appre- 
ciated."— E.  L.  Cutts,  Charlemagne,  eh.  12. — 
"Both  Karlmann  and  Pippin  tried  to  reform 
certain  abuses  that  had  crept  into  the  Church. 
Tv.'o  councils,  convoked  by  Karlmann,  the  one  in 
Germany  (742),  the  otlier  in  the  following  year 
at  Lestines  (near  Charleroi,  in  Belgium),  drew  up 
decrees  which  abolished  superstitious  rites  and 
certain  Pagan  ceremonies,  still  remaining  in 
force;  they  also  authorized  grants  of  Church 
lands  by  the  '  Prince '  for  military  purposes  on 
condition  of  a  payment  of  an  annual  rent  to  the 
Church;  they  reformed  the  ecclesiastical  life, 
forbade  the  priests  to  hunt  or  to  ride  through  the 
woods  with  dogs,  falcons,  or  sparrow-hawks; 
and,  finally,  made  all  iiricsts  subordinate  to  their 
diocesan  bishops,  to  whom  they  were  obliged  to 
give  account  each  year  of  their  faith  and  their 
ministry  —  all  of  which  were  necessary  jirovisions 
for  the  organization  of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy 
and  for  the  regulation  of  church  government. 
Similar  measures  were  taken  by  the  Council  of 
Soissons,  convok(!d  by  l'ii)i)in  in  744.  In  747, 
Karlmann  renounced  the  world  and  retired  to 
the  celebrated  Italian  monastery  of  Monte  ^Cas- 
sino.  As  he  left  he  entrusted  his  children  to 
the  care  of  their  uncle,  Pippin,  wlio  robbed 
them  of  their  inheritaiiee  and  ruled  alone  over 
the  whole  Frankish  Empire.  .  .  .  Cliarlemagne 
enlarged  and  coini)leted  the  work  which  had 
only  been  begun  by  Charles  JIartel  and  Pippin. 
.  .  .  The  Middle  Ages  acknowledged  two 
Masters,  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor,  nnd  these 


459 


CIIIUSTIANITY. 


Chnrli'mnijnc 
and  the  church. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


two  powrrs  came,  the  one  from  Rome,  nnd  the 
other  from  Aiistnisiiin  Pmnre.  .  .  .  The  mayors 
of  Austrasiii,  I'ippin  of  Ileristal,  iiiul  Cliarh's 
Murtcl,  rclmilt  the  Krankish  monarchy  and  pre- 
[Hirvil  the  way  for  tlic  empire  of  (JliarleniHKne ; 
.  ,  .  th<'  Koinan  poiitilTs  ,  .  ,  feathered  around 
thcni  all  the  ehurchcs  of  the  West,  and  placed 
themselves  at  the  head  of  the  jrreat  Catholic 
society,  over  which  one  day  Gregory  VII.  and 
Innocent ' '  I.  should  claim  to  have  sole  dominion. " 
—V.  Durv.y,  J/ixt.  ,if  the  MkhUe.  AfftK,  pp.  110- 
',  KIH.  — See  M.wons ok  tiik  Pai.ack  ;  Fiianks : 
A.  n.  7(1W-H14;  and  Papacy:  A.  D.  T.W-TTt,  and 
774. — The  coronation  of  Charlemagne  at  l{ome 
by  Pope  L('o  III.  (see  Roman  E.mi'Iki;,  A.  D. 
8('H))  gave  tlii^  Western  Church  the  place  in  the 
state  it  had  held  under  the  earlier  Roman  emper- 
ors. The  character  of  so  great  n  man,  the  very 
books  he  read  and  all  tluit  fed  the  vigorous  ideal 
element  in  so  powerful  a  spirit  are  worthy  of 
Interest;  for  this  at  least  he  sought  to  accomplish 

—  to  give  order  to  a  tumultuous  and  barbarian 
world,  and  to  e.stjiblish  learning,  and  purify  the 
church:  "While  at  table,  he  liked  to  hear  a 
recital  or  a  reading,  and  it  was  histories  and  the 
great  deeds  of  past  times  which  were  usually 
re;'.d  to  him.  He  took  great  pleas\ire,  also,  in  the 
works  of  St.  Augustine,  and  especially  in  that 
whose  title  is  I)e  (,'ivitato  Dei.'.  .  .  He  prac- 
ticed the  Christian  religion  in  all  its  jiurity  and 
with  great  fervnir.  whose  principles  had  been 
taught  him  from  his.  infancy.  .  .  .  He  diligently 
attended  .  .  .  church  in  ihe  evening  and  morn- 
ing, and  even  at  night,  to  assist  at  the  olllccs 
and  at  the  holy  sacritice,  as  much  as  his  health 
permitted  him.  He  watched  with  care  that 
nothing  should  he  done  bui  with  the  greatest 
propriety,  constantly  orde'.mg  the  guardians  of 
the  chureli  not  to  allow  anytliing  to  be  brought 
there  or  left  there  inconsistent  with  or  imworfliy 
of  the  sanctity  of  the  place.  .  .  .  He  was  always 
ready  to  help  the  poor,  and  it  was  not  only  in 
his  own  country,  or  within  his  own  dominions 
that  he  dispensed  those  gratuitous  liberalities 
which  the  Greeks  call  'alms,'  but  beyond  the 
Beas — in  Syria,  in  Egypt,  in  Africa,  at  Jerusalem, 
at  Alexandria,  at  CJarthage,  everywhere  whore 
lie  learned  that  Christians  were  living  in  jioverty 

—  he  pitied  their  misery  and  loved  to  send  them 
money.  If  he  sought  with  so  much  care  the 
friendship  of  foreign  sovereigns,  it  was,  above 
nil,  to  procure  for  the  Christians  living  under 
their  rule  help  and  relief.  Of  all  the  holy 
places,  he  had,  above  all,  a  great  veneration  for 
the  Church  of  ,,he  Apostle  St.  Peter  at  Rome." — 
Eginhard,  Life  of  Charkmagnc. — "The  religious 
side  of  Charles'  character  is  of  the  greatest  inter 
est  in  the  study  of  his  remarkable  character  as  a 
whole  nnd  his  religious  policy  led  to  the  most 
important  and  durable  results  of  his  reign.  He 
inherited  an  ecclesiastical  policy  from  his  father; 
the  policy  of  regulating  and  strengthening  the 
influence  of  the  Church  in  his  dominions  as  the 
chief  agent  of  civilization,  and  a  great  means  of 
binding  the  various  elements  of  the  empire  into 
one ;  the  policy  of  accepting  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
as  the  head  of  Western  Christianity,  with  patri- 
archal autliority  over  all  its  Churches." — E.  L. 
Cutts,  CharUmnonc,  ch.  23. — The  following  is  a 
noteworthy  passage  from  Charlemagne's  Capitu- 
lary of  787 :  "  It  is  our  wish  that  you  may  be  what 
it  behoves  the  soldiers  of  the  church  to  be, — 
religious  in  heart,  learned  in  discourse,  pure  in 


act,  eloquent  in  speech ;  so  that  all  who  appr"  ich 
your  house  in  order  to  invoke  the;  Divine  M;  r, 
or  to  behold  the  excellence  of  the  religious  ,ae, 
may  be  editied  in  beholding  you,  and  instructed 
in  hearing  you  discourse  or  chant,  and  may 
return  home  rendering  thanks  to  Gwl  most  High. 
Fail  not,  as  thou  regardest  our  favour,  to  send  a 
copy  of  this  letter  to  all  thy  suffragans  and  to  all 
the  monasteries;  and  let  no  monk  go  beyond  his 
monastery  to  administer  justice  or  to  enter  the 
assemblies  and  the  voting-places.  Adieu." — J. 
U.  Mullinger,  Tlu  ffchooU  of  Chiiiicx  the  Great. 

Sth-7th  Centuries. — The  Nestorian,  Mono- 
physite  and  Monothelite  Controversies.    See 

iS'KSTOUIAN  and  .MoNOlMlVHITK,  alld  MoNOTHE- 
I.ITK. 

Sth-^th  Centuries. — The  Irish  Church  and 
its  missions. —  The  story  of  the  conversion 
of  Ireland  by  St.  Patrick,  and  of  the  missionary 
labors  of  the  Church  which  he  founded,  is  briefly 
told  elsewhere  —  see  luEiiAND:  5tli-8th  Ckn- 
Ti:uiES.  "The  early  Church  worked  her  way, 
in  the  litenil  sense  of  the  word,  'underground,' 
uii'ler  camp  and  palace,  under  senate  and  forum. 
Put  turn  where  we  will  in  these  Celtic  missions, 
■,ve  notice  how  diiferent  were  the  features  thai 
marked  them  now.  In  Dalaradia  St.  Patrick 
obtains  the  site  of  his  earliest  church  from  the 
chieftain  of  the  country,  Dichu.  At  Tara,  he 
ol>tains  from  King  Laoghaire  a  reluctant  toler- 
ation of  his  ministry.  In  Connaught  he  addresses 
himself  first  to  the  chieftains  of  Tirawle)',  and  in 
Alunster  baptizes  Angus,  the  king,  at  Cashel, 
the  scat  of  the  kings.  What  he  did  in  Ireland 
reproduces  itself  in  the  Celtic  missions  of  Wales 
and  Scotland,  and  we  cannot  but  take  note  of 
the  important  influence  of  Welsh  and  Pictish 
chiefs.  .  .  .  '  The  people  may  not  have  adopted 
the  actual  profession  of  Christianity,  which  was 
all  perhaps  that  in  the  first  instance  tliey  adopted 
from  any  clear  or  intelligent  appreciation  of  its 
superiority  to  their  former  religion.  But  to 
olitain  from  the  people  even  an  actual  profession 
(if  Christianity  was  an  important  step  to  ultimate 
success.  It  secured  toleration  at  least  for  Chris- 
tian institutions.  It  enabled  the  missionaries  to 
plant  in  every  tribe  their  churches,  schools,  and 
monasteries,  and  to  establish  among  the  half 
pagan  inhabitants  of  the  country  societies  of 
holy  men,  whose  devotion,  usefulness,  and  piety 
soon  produced  an  effect  on  the  most  barbarous 
and  savage  hearts.'  " — G.  F.  Maclear,  Conversion 
of  the  We»t:  The  Celts,  ch.  11.— "  The  Medieval 
Church  of  the  West  found  in  the  seventh  century 
an  immense  task  before  it  to  fulfil.  .  .  .  The 
missionaries  who  addressed  themselves  to  the 
enormous  task  of  the  conversion  of  Germany 
may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three  groups 
— the  British,  the  Frankish,  and,  entering  some- 
what later  into  an  honourable  rivalry  with  these, 
the  Anglo-Saxon.  A  word  or  two  upon  each  of 
these  groups.  The  British  —  they  include  Irish 
and  Scotch  —  could  no  longer  find  n  field  for  the 
exercise  of  their  ministry  in  England,  now  that 
there  the  Roman  rule  and  discipline,  to  which 
they  were  so  little  disposed  to  submit,  had  every- 
where won  the  day.  Their  own  religious  houses 
were  full  to  overflowing.  At  home  there  was 
little  for  them  to  do,  while  yet  that  divine 
hunger  and  thirst  for  the  winning  of  souls, 
which  had  so  possessed  the  heart  of  St. 
Patrick,  lived  on  in  theirs.  To  these  so  minded, 
pagan    Germany    offered    a  welcome   field   of 


460 


CimiSTIANITY. 


MiMiwuiriea. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


labour,  and  one  in  which  there  was  ample  rooni 
for  all.  Then  tlicro  were  the  Frankisli  mission- 
aries, wlio  enjoyed  tlio  siipport  of  tlic  Franliish 
kings,  whicli  sometimes  served  tliem  in  good 
Btead;  while  at  otlier  times  tliis  protection  was 
very  far  from  a  recommendation  in  tlieir  eyes  who 
were  easily  iiersuaded  to  sec  in  tlicH(!  missionaries 
the  emissaries  of  a  foe.  Aiid  to  tlicso  the  Anglo- 
Saxons;  these  last,  mindful  of  the  source  from 
which  they  had  received  tlieir  own  Christianity, 
making  it  a  point  to  attacli  their  converts  to 
Rome,  even  as  they  were  themselves  hound  to 
lier  hy  the  closest  ties.  Tlie  language  which 
these  spoke  —  a  language  which  as  yet  can  have 
diverged  very  little  from  tlie  Low  German  of 
Frisia,  must  have  given  to  them  many  facilities 
whicli  tlie  Frankish  missionaries  possessed  in  a 
far  slighter  degree,  the  British  not  at  all;  and 
this  may  help  to  account  for  a  success  on  their 
parts  far  greater  than  attended  the  labours  of  the 
others.  To  them  too  it  was  mainly  due  that  the 
battle  of  the  Creeds,  which  had  been  fought 
and  lost  by  the  Celtic  missionaries  in  England, 
and  was  presently  renewed  in  Qermnny,  hail 
finally  the  same  issues  there  as  in  England. 
...  At  the  same  time,  there  were  dilTerences  in 
the  intensity  and  obstinacy  of  resistance  to  the 
message  of  truth,  which  would  be  olTercd  by 
different  ti  'les.  There  was  ground,  whictli  at 
an  early  day  had  been  won  for  the  Gospel,  Imt 
which  m  the  storms  and  confusion  of  the  two 
preceding  centuries  had  been  lost  again;  the 
whole  line,  that  is,  of  the  Danube  and  tlio  Rhine, 
regions  fair  and  prosperous  once,  but  in  every 
sense  wildernesses  now.  In  these  we  may  note 
a  readier  acceptance  of  the  message  than  found 
place  in  lands  which  in  earlier  times  that  mes- 
sage had  never  reached;  as  though  obscure 
reminiscences  and  traditions  of  tlie  past,  not 
wholly  e-xtinct,  had  helped  to  set  forward  the 
present  work.'" — R.  C.  Trench,  Lectures  on 
Medieml  Church llintorj/,  led.  H. — "From  Ireland 
cameGallus,  Fridolin,  Kilian,  Trutbert  and  Levin. 
.  .  .  The  order  in  which  these  men  succeeded  one 
another  cannot  always  be  established,  from  the 
uncertainty  of  the  accounts.  We  know  thus  much, 
that  of  all  those  above-mentioned,  Gallus  was  the 
first,  for  his  labours  in  Helvetia  (Switzerland)  were 
continued  from  the  preceding  into  the  period  of 
which  we  are  now  treating.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  uncertain  as  to  Fridolin  whether  he  had  not 
completed  his  work  before  Gallvis,  in  the  sixtli 
century,  for  in  the  opinion  of  some  he  closed  his 
career  in  the  time  of  Clodoveus  I.,  but,  accord- 
ing to  others,  he  is  said  to  have  lived  under 
Clodoveus  II. ,  or  at  another  period.  His  labours 
extended  over  the  lands  on  the  Moselle,  in  the 
Vosges  Mountains,  over  Helvetia,  Rhtetia  and 
Nigra  Silva  (the  Black  Forest).  He  built  the 
monastery  of  Sekkinga  on  the  Rhine.  Trutbert 
was  a  contemporary  and  at  the  same  time  a 
countryman  of  Gallus.  His  sphere  of  action  is 
said  to  have  been  Brisgovia  (Breisgau)  and  the 
Black  Forest.  Almost  half  a  century  later  Kil- 
ian proclaimed  the  gospel  in  Franconia  and 
Wirtzburg,  with  two  assistants,  Colonatus  and 
Totnanus.  In  the  latter  place  they  converted 
duke  Qozbert,  and  were  put  to  death  there  in 
388.  After  the  above  mentioned  missionaries 
trom  Ireland,  in  the  seventh  centurj',  had  built 
churches  and  monasteries  in  the  southern  Ger- 
many, the  missionaries  from  Britain  repaired 
with  a  similar  purpose,  to  the  northern  countries. 


.  .  .  Men  from  other  nations,  as  Willericus, 
bishop  of  Brenia,  preached  in  Vransalbingia  at 
the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  Almost  all 
the  missionaries  from  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks 
selected  southern  Ocrniaiiy  as  their  sphere  of 
action:  Emmeran,  about  040,  Ratisbona,  Uud- 
bert,  about  C9(t,  IJajoaria  (iJavaria),  Corbinian  tho 
country  around  Frisinga,  Otliert  the  Hrelsgau 
and  Black  Fiacst,  and  I'irniiiiius  the  lircisgau, 
Uajoaria,  Franconia,  Helvetia,  and  Alsatis." — 
.1.  E.  T.  Wiltsch,  lliimllKi'ik  tifihe  (leor/fii/i/iy  <iii(l 
Stiitinlics  of  tlie  Church,  r.  1,  ;)/).  iiO.'i-UOT. 

A.  D.  553-800.— The  Western  Church.— Rise 
of  the  Papacy. — "Though  kindly  treated,  the 
Cliun^h  of  Rome  did  not  make  any  progress 
under  the  Ostrogoths.  But  when  their  power 
had  been  broken  (r).");!),  and  Rome  had  been  placed 
again  under  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  of 
Constantinople  [see  Rome:  A.  I).  SILl-.^.i;}],  the 
very  remoteness  of  her  new  master  insuo'd  to 
the  Church  a  more  i)rosperous  future.  The  in- 
vasi(m  of  the  Loinbanls  drove  a  great  many 
refugees  into  her  territory,  and  the  Roman  popu- 
lation showed  a  slight  return  of  its  old  energy  in 
its  double  hatred  toward  them,  as  barbarians  and 
as  Arians.  ...  It  was  at  this  favorable  point  in 
the  state  of  affairs,  though  critical  in  some  re- 
spects, that  Gregory  the  Great  made  his  appear- 
ance (590-604).  1I(;  was  a  descendant  of  tli(!  noble 
Anicia  family,  and  added  to  his  advantages  of 
liirtli  and  position  the  advantages  of  a  well- 
endowed  body  and  mind.  He  was  prefect  of 
Rome  when  less  than  thirty  years  old,  but 
after  holding  tliis  olHce  a  few  months  he 
abandoned  the  honors  aiul  cares  of  worldly  things 
for  the  retirement  of  the  cloister.  His  reputation 
did  not  allow  him  to  remain  in  the  obscurity  of 
that  life.  Toward  579  he  was  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople by  Pope  Pelagius  II.  as  secretary  or  p;,pal 
nuncio,  and  he  rendered  distinguislicid  services 
to  the  Holy  See  in  its  relatiais  with  the  Empire 
and  in  its  struggles  agains^,  the  Lombards.  In 
590  the  clergy,  the  senate,  and  the  people  raised 
him  with  one  accord  to  the  .sovereign  pontificate, 
to  succeed  Pelagius.  As  it  was  still  necessary 
for  every  election  to  be  confirmed  by  the  Em- 
peror at  Const^intinople,  Gregory  wrote  to  him 
to  beg  him  not  to  sanction  this  one;  but  the 
letter  was  intercepted  and  soon  orders  arrived 
from  Slaurice  ratifying  the  election.  Gregory 
hid  himself,  but  he  was  discovered  and  led  back 
to  Rome.  When  once  Pope,  though  against  his 
will,  he  used  his  power  to  strengtlien  the  papacy, 
to  propagate  Christianity,  and  to  improve  the 
discipline  and  organization  of  the  Church.  .  .  . 
Strengthened  thus  by  his  own  efforts,  he  under- 
took the  propagation  of  Christianity  and  ortho- 
doxy both  within  and  without  the  limits  of  the 
old  Roman  Empire.  Within  those  limits  there 
were  still  some  who  clung  to  paganism,  in  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  and  even  at  the  very  gates  of  Rome,  at 
Terracina,  and  doubtless  also  in  Gaul,  as  there 
is  a  constitution  of  Childebert  still  extant  dated 
554,  and  entitled:  'For  the  abolition  of  tho  re- 
mains of  idolatry. '  There  were  Arians  very  near 
to  Rome  —  namely,  tho  Lombards;  but  through 
the  intervention  of  Theudalinda,  tlieir  queen, 
Gregory  succeeded  in  having  Adelwald,  tho  heir 
to  the  throne,  brought  up  in  the  Catholic  faith; 
as  early  as  587  the  "Visigoths  in  Spain,  under 
Rcccared,  were  converted.  .  .  .  The  Roman 
Empire  had  perished,  and  the  barbarians  had 
built  upon  its  ruins  many  slight  structures  that 


461 


CHRISTIANITY. 


fiiite  of  the 
Pajmcy, 


CHRISTIANITY. 


wore  soon  overthrown.  Not  ovrn  Imd  the 
FriinkH,  wlio  were  destined  to  Iks  perpettmted  as 
a  nation,  as  yet  siiceeeded  in  foiindin);  a  Hoeial 
state  of  any  strengtli;  tlieir  laek  of  experience 
led  tlieni  from  one  attempt  to  anotlier,  all  ecpnUly 
vain;  even  tlie  attcm|)t  of  C'lmrlemaj;ne  met 
witli  no  morn  permanent  suecess.  In  tlie  midst 
of  these  siieeessive  failure.^  one  institution  alone, 
developinK  slowly  and  steadilv  through  the  cen- 
turies, followiiig  out  the  spirit  of  its  principles, 
continued  to  grow  and  gain  in  power,  in  extent 
and  in  imity.  .  .  .  The  Pope  had  now  become, 
in  truth,  the  nder  of  Christendom.  He  was, 
however,  still  a  subject  of  the  Greek  Emperor; 
but  a  rupture  was  inevitable,  as  his  authority, 
on  the  one  hand,  was  growing  day  by  day,  and 
the  emperor's  on  the  contrary,  was  declining." — 
V.  Duruy,  Jfint.  of  the  Miililh  Agm,  pp.  114-115, 
108-109,  117. — "'^he  real  i)ower  which  advanced 
the  credit  of  the  Roman  see  during  these  ages 
was  the  reaction  against  the  Byzantine  despotism 
over  the  Eastern  Church;  and  this  is  the  expla- 
nation of  the  fact  that  although  the  new  map  of 
Europe  had  been  marked  out,  in  outline  at  least, 
by  the  year  500,  the  Roman  see.  clung  to  the 
eastern  connection  until  the  first  half  of  the 
eighth  centtiry.  ...  In  the  political  or  diplo- 
matic struggle  between  the  Church  and  the  Em- 
perors, in  which  the  Emperors  endeavored  to 
make  the  Church  subservient  to  the  imperial 
policy,  or  to  adjust  the  situation  to  the  neces- 
sities oi  the  empire,  and  the  Church  strove  to 
retain  its  autonomy  as  a  witness  to  the  faith  and 
a  legislator  in  the  affairs  of  religion,  the  Bisliop 
of  Rome  became,  so  to  speak,  the  constitutional 
head  of  the  opposition;  and  the  East  was  willing 
to  exalt  his  authority,  as  a  counterpoise  to  that 
of  the  Emperor,  to  any  extent  short  of  acknowl- 
edging that  the  primacy  implied  a  supremacy." 
— J.  II.  Egar,  ChriiitcmUym :  Ecclestatitical  and 
Politirnl,  from  Cnnstantiiie  to  tlie  licformation,  p. 
99. — "The  election  system  was  only  used  for 
one  degree  of  the  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  for  the 
bishopric.  The  lower  dignitaries  vvere  chosen 
by  the  bishop.  They  were  divided  into  two 
categories  of  orders  —  the  higher  and  the  lower 
orders.  There  were  three  higher  orders,  namely, 
the  priests,  the  deacons,  and  the  sub-deacons, 
and  four  lower  orders,  the  acolytes,  the  door- 
keepers, the  exorcists,  and  the  readers.  The 
latter  orders  we.-e  not  regarded  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  clerg^',  as  their  members  were  the 
servants  of  the  otiiors.  As  regards  the  territorial 
divisions,  the  bishop  governed  the  diocese, which 
at  a  much  later  date  was  divided  into  parishes, 
whoso  spiritual  welfare  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
parish  priest  or  curate  (curio).  The  parishes, 
taken  together,  constituted  the  diocese ;  the  united 
dioceses,  or  suffragan  bishoprics,  constituted  the 
ecclesiastical  province,  at  whose  head  stood  the 
metropolitan  or  archbishop.  When  a  provin- 
cial council  was  held,  it  met  in  the  metropolis 
and  was  presided  over  by  the  metropolitan. 
Above  the  metropolitans  were  the  Patriarchs,  in 
the  East,  and  the  Primates  in  the  West,  bishops 
who  held  the  great  capitals  or  the  apostolic  sees, 
Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Rome, 
Jerusalem,  Cesarea  in  Cappadocia,  Carthage  in 
Africa,  and  Heraclius  in  Thrace;  among  them 
Home  ranked  higher  by  one  degree,  ond  from 
this  supreme  position  exercised  a  supreme  author- 
ity acknowledged  by  all  the  Church." — V. 
Duruy,  Uiit.  of  t>ie  Middle  Ages,  pp.  100-110.— 


"The  divergence  of  the  two  Churches,  Eastern 
and  Western,  was  greater  in  reality  than  it 
appears  to  be  from  a  superficial  view.  It  was 
based  on  essential  varijitions  in  tlx^  character  and 
disposition  of  the  people  in  the  Kast  and  in  the 
West,  on  the  nature  of  their  civilization,  and  on 
theditTerenl,  almost  antagonistic,  development  of 
the  Christian  idea  in  on(!  Cliurch  and  in  tlic  other. 
.  .  .  The  Ea.stern  Church  rejoiced  in  its  direct 
alllliation  with  apostolic  times,  in  its  carefid  pre- 
servation of  traditions,  and  was  convinced  of  its 
especial  right  to  be  considered  the  true  heir  and 
sncces.s()r  of  Christ.  .  .  .  The  letter  of  the  law 
superseded  the  spirit ;  religion  stiffened  into  for- 
malism; piety  consisted  in  strict  observance  of 
ceremonial  rites ;  external  holiness  replaced  sin- 
cere and  heortfelt  devotion.  .  .  .  Throughout 
the  West  the  tendency  was  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion—  towards  the  practical  ai)plication  of  the 
religious  idea.  The  effete,  worn-out  civilization 
of  the  past  was  there  renovated  by  contact  and 
admixture  with  young  and  vigorous  races,  and 
gained  new  strength  and  vitality  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  The  C'lurch,  freed  from  control, 
became  independent  and  self -asserting ;  the  re- 
sponsibility of  government,  the  preservation  of 
social  order,  devolved  upon  it,  and  it  rose 
proudly  to  tlie  task." — A.  F.  Heard,  The  lius- 
Htaii  Church  and  Ruman  Jh'ssent,  pp.  0-10. — 
"On  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire,  and 
the  demonstration,  rendered  manifest  to  all,  that 
with  the  complete  triumph  of  the  new  world  of 
secular  polities  a  new  spiritual  development,  a 
new  phase  of  Divine  guidance,  was  opening, 
the  conscience  of  the  believers  was  aroused  to  a 
sense  of  the  sinfulness  of  their  cowardly  inac- 
tivity. 'Go  ye  into  all  nations,  and  baptize 
them,'  had  been  the  last  words  of  their  blessed 
Master.  ...  It  is  to  this  new  or  revived  mis- 
sionary spirit  which  distinguished  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, of  which  I  would  place  Pope  Gregory  the 
First,  or  the  Great,  as  the  central  figure,  that  I 
desire  now  to  introduce  you.  Itcmcmber  that 
the  Empire,  which  had  represented  the  unity  of 
niankiid,  had  become  disintegrated  and  broken 
into  iiagments.  Men  were  no  longer  Romans, 
but  Goths  and  Sueves,  Burgundians  and  Van- 
dals, and  beyond  them  Huns,  Avars,  Franks, 
and  Lombards,  some  with  a  slight  tincture  of 
Christian  teaching,  but  most  with  none.  .  .  . 
Let  but  the  Gospel  be  [jroclaiined  to  all,  and 
leave  the  issue  in  God's  hands  I  Such  was  the 
contrast  between  the  age  of  Leo  and  the  age  of 
Gregory  I  .  .  .  The  conversion  of  Clovis  and  the 
Franks  is,  I  suppose,  the  earliest  instance  of  a 
Christian  mission  curried  out  on  a  national  scale 
by  the  common  action  of  the  Church  represented 
by  the  Pope  and  See  of  Rome.  It  becomes 
accordingly  a  great  historical  event,  deserving 
the  earnest  consideration  not  of  Churchmen  only, 
but  cf  all  political  enquirers. " — C.  Merivale,  Four 
Lectures  on  sonie  Epochs  of  Early  Church  Hist., 
pp.  172-177. — "Christianity  thus  renewed  its 
ardor  for  proselytisin,  and  Gregory  contributed  to 
its  success  most  wisely  by  enjoining  precepts  of 
moderation  upon  his  missionaries,  and  by  the 
skillful  manner  in  which  ho  n\ade  the  transition 
to  Catholicism  easy  to  the  pagans ;  he  wrote  to 
Augustine :  '  Be  careful  not  to  destroy  the  pagan 
temples ;  it  is  only  necessary  to  destroy  the  idols, 
then  to  sprinkle  the  edifice  with  holy  water,  and 
to  build  altars  and  place  relics  there.  If  the 
temples  arc  well  built,  it  is  a  wise  and  useful 


462 


CHRISTIANITY. 


ConvrritiitH 
of  the  KnglUh. 


fliniSTIANITY. 


thinR  for  tlipm  to  priss  from  the  worship  of 
demons  to  the  worship  of  the  true  (}o<l :  for 
wliile  Ihe  iiiition  sees  its  old  phiees  of  worship 
gtil!  standing,',  it  will  \w.  the  more  ready  to  go 
there,  by  force  of  lial)it,  to  worship  the  true 
0<hI.'  In  the  interior  Gregory  sucreeded  in 
arninfrinj;  the  different  degrees  of  power  in  the 
Church,  and  in  forcing  the  recognition  of  tlu^ 
supreme  power  of  the  Holy  See.  W'e  find  liini 
granting  the  title  of  Vicar  of  Oaul  to  the  bishop 
of  Aries,  and  corresponding  witii  Augustine, 
arclibishop  of  Canterbury,  in  regard  to  Great 
Britain,  with  the  archbishop  of  Seville  in  regard 
to  Spain,  with  tlio  archbishop  of  Thessalonica  in 
regard  to  Greece,  and,  finally,  sending  legates 
'a  latere'  to  Constantinople.  In  his  Pastoral, 
wliich  he  wrote;  on  tlie  occasion  of  his  election, 
and  which  became  an  established  precedent  in 
tlie  West,  he  prescril)cd  to  the  bishops  their 
several  duties,  following  the  decisions  of  many 
cbimcils.  Ho  strengthened  the  hierarchy  by 
preventing  the  encroachments  of  the  bishops 
upon  one  another:  'I  have  given  to  you  the 
spiritual  direction  of  Britain,'  he  wrote  to  the 
ambitious  Augustine,  'and  not  that  of  the  Gauls.' 
He  rcarnuiged  the  monasteries,  made  discipline 
the  object  of  his  vigilant  care,  reformed  Church 
music,  and  substituted  the  cliant  that  bears  his 
name  for  tlie  Ambrosian  chant,  'which  re- 
sembled,' according  to  a  contemporary,  '  the  far- 
ofl  noise  of  a  chariot  rumbling  over  pebbles.' 
I{ome,  victorious  again  with  the  help  of  Gregory 
the  Great,  continued  to  push  her  conquests  to 
distant  coimtries  after  his  death." — V.  Duruy, 
Hist,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  116. — See,  above: 
A.  I).  496-800,  and  Rcme:  A.  D.  590-640. 

A.  D.  597-800.— The  English  Church.— "It 
siH'ms  right  to  add  a  word  of  caution  against  the 
common  confusion  between  the  British  Church 
and  the  English  Church.  They  were  quite  dis- 
tinct, and  had  very  little  to  do  with  one  another. 
To  cite  the  British  bishops  at  the  Councils  of 
Aries  and  Uimini  as  evidence  of  the  antiquity  of 
the  English  Church  is  preposterous.  There  was 
then  no  England ;  and  the  ancestors  of  English 
Churchmen  were  heathen  tribes  on  the  continent. 
The  history  of  the  Church  of  England  begins 
with  the  episcopate  of  Archbishop  Theodore 
(A.  D.  668),  or  at  the  very  earliest  with  the  land- 
ing of  Augustine  (A.  D.  507).  By  that  time  the 
British  Church  had  been  almost  destroyed  by 
tlie  heathen  English.  .  .  .  Bede  tells  us  that 
down  to  his  day  the  Britons  still  treated  English 
Christians  as  pagans. " — A.  Plunimer,  Tlie  Church 
of  the  Early  Fathers,  eh.  8. — "About  the  year 
580,  in  the  pontificate  of  Pelagius,  Gregory  occu- 
pied the  rank  of  a  deacon  among  the  Roman 
clergy.  He  was  early  noted  for  his  zeal  and 
piety ;  coming  into  large  possessions,  as  an  off- 
shoot of  an  ancient  and  noble  family,  he  had  ex- 
pended his  wealth  in  the  foundation  of  no  less 
than  seven  monasteries,  and  had  become  himself 
the  abbot  of  one  of  them,  St.  Andrew's,  at  Rome. 
Devoted  as  he  was  from  the  first  to  all  the  good 
works  to  whicli  the  religious  profession  might 
best  apply  itself,  his  attention  was  more  par- 
ticularly turned  to  the  cause  of  Christian  mis- 
sions by  casually  remarking  a  troop  of  young 
slaves  exhibited  for  sale  in  the  Roman  market. 
Struck  with  the  beauty  or  fresh  complexion  of 
these  strangers,  lie  asked  whether  they  were 
Christians  or  Pagans.  They  wore  Pagans,  it 
was  replied.    How  sad,  he  exclaimed,  that  such 


fair  countenaces  should  lie  under  the  power  of 
lii'nions.  '  Whence  came  they  Y' — '  From  Anglia. ' 
—  'Truly  they  art^  Angels,  What  is  tlie  name 
of  their  country?' — '  Deira.' — "I'ritly  they  are 
Niiliject  to  the  wrath  of  God:  ira  Dei.  Ami  their 
king?' — 'Is  named  .Klla.' — '  I.et  them  learn  to 
sing  Allelujah.'  Britain  had  lately  fallen  under 
the  sway  of  the  heatlien  Angles,  Throngliout 
the  eastern  section  of  Ww.  isliind,  Ihc;  faith  of 
Christ,  which  Imd  Imm'U  established  there  fnmi 
early  limes,  had  been,  it  seems,  utterly  extirpated. 
The  British  church  of  Lucius  and  Albanus  still 
lingered,  but  was  chielly  confined  within  the 
ruder  districts  of  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Cumbria. 
The  reported  destruction  of  the  people  witli  all 
their  churches,  and  all  their  culture,  begun  by 
the  Picts  and  Scots,  and  carried  on  by  the 
Angles  and  their  kindred  Saxons,  had  miule  a 
profound  iMipres.sion  upon  Christendom.  Tlie 
'Groans  of  the  Britons' had  terrified  all  man- 
kind, and  discouraged  even  the  lirave  mis- 
sionaries of  Italy  and  Caul.  .  .  .  Gregory  <le- 
termined  to  make  the  sacrifice  liimself.  Ho 
prevailed  on  the  Pope  to  sanction  his  enter- 
prise ;  but  the  people  of  Rome,  with  whom  he  was 
a  favourite,  interposed,  and  he  was  constrained 
reluctantly  to  forego  the  peril  and  the  blessing. 
But  the  sight  he  had  witnessed  in  the  market- 
place still  retained  its  impression  upon  him.  He 
kept  the  fair-haired  Angles  ever  in  view;  and 
when,  in  the  year  592,  he  was  himself  elevated 
to  the  popedom,  he  resolved  to  send  a  mission, 
and  fling  upon  tlie  obscure  shores  of  Britain  the 
full  beams  of  the  sun  of  Christendom,  as  they 
then  seemed  to  shine  so  conspicuously  at  Rome. 
Augustine  was  the  preacher  chosen  from  among 
the  inmates  of  one  of  Gregory's  monasteries,  for 
the  anluous  task  thus  imposed  upon  him.  He 
was  to  be  accompanied  by  a  select  band  of 
twelve  monks,  together  with  a  certain  number  of 
attendants.  .  .  .  There  is  something  very  re- 
markable in  the  facility  with  which  the  fierce 
idolaters,  whose  name  had  struck  such  terror 
into  tlie  Christian  nations  far  and  near,  yielded 
to  the  persuasions  of  tliis  band  of  peaceful 
evangelists." — C.  Alerivale,  Four  lectures  on  some 
Epochs  of  Eirly  Church  Jfistory,  pp.  19'3-198. — 
See  Enoland:  A.  D.  507-685.  — The  Roman 
missionaries  in  England  landed  in  Kent  and  ap- 
pear to  have  had  more  influence  with  the  petty 
courts  of  tlie  little  kingdoms  than  with  the  people. 
The  conversion  of  the  North  of  England  must 
be  credited  to  the  Irish  monastery  on  the  island 
of  lona.  "At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury these  Irish  Christians  were  seized  with  an 
unconquerable  impulse  to  wander  afar  and 
preach  Christianity  to  the  heathen.  In  563 
Columba,  with  twelve  confederates,  left  Ireland 
and  founded  a  monastery  on  a  small  island  off 
the  coast  of  Scotland  (lona  or  Hy),  through  the 
influence  of  which  the  Scots  and  Picts  of  Britain 
became  converted  to  Christianity,  twenty-three 
missions  among  the  Scots  and  eighteen  in  the 
country  of  the  Picts  having  been  established  at 
the  death  of  Columba  (597).  Under  his  third 
successor  the  heathen  Saxons  were  converted; 
Aedan,  summoned  by  Osward  of  Northumbria, 
having  labored  among  them  from  635  to  651  as 
missionary,  abbot,  and  bishop.  •  His  successors, 
Finnan  and  Colnian,  worthily  carried  on  his 
work,  and  introduced  Christianity  into  other 
Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  near  East  Anglia, 
Mercla,    and   Essex."- H.  Zimmer,    The  Irish 


463 


CHUISTIANITY. 


The  llulynrian 
t'ltunh. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


JBtmsnt  in  Medimnl  Culture,  pp.  10-21.— "Two 
bands  "f  di'votcd  nici  hud  hllliiTto  iM'cn  cm- 
|)li)y('<l  in  llit'convrrMioiiof  KukIiimiI,  tlip  l^)nlltIl, 
iimmlt'd  liy  tlicir  ((invtTl.s  iiikI  Mmu\  tciirlicrs 
from  Fnincc,  and  tli(^  lriH)i,  who  were  pliihily 
thu  liir^iT  l)ody.  Hcl  ween  the  two  thcru  were 
tho  old  ditrcrciicos  iih  to  thr  time  of  Iteoping 
Kuster  luid  tlii^  form  of  tile  clerical  tonsure.  .  .  . 
Tims,  while  ()8wy  [Kiiiff  of  Mcrcia]  was  cele- 
hratin^;  Kustcr  accordinj.^  to  the  custom  he  had 
learnt  at  lona,  his  (jueen  Karlleda  observed  it 
aeeordiuK  to  the  rule  which  slu;  had  learnt  in 
Kent,  and  was  still  jiraetisinK  th(>  austerities  of 
Lent.  Thes('  dilTerences  were  tolerated  during 
the  Kpiscopate  of  Aidun  and  Finan,  but  when 
Kinan  died  and  was  succeeded  by  ('olman,  the 
controversy "  was  terminated  by  Oswy,  after 
much  debate,  with  the  words  — "  'I  will  hold  to 
8t.  I'eter,  lest,  when  I  present  myself  at  the 
gates  of  Heaven,  he  should  close  them  against 
me.'  .  .  .  Colman,  with  all  his  Irish  brethren, 
and  thirty  Northundirians  who  had  joined  the 
monastery,  uultted  Lindisfarnc  and  sailed  to 
lona." — O.  F.  Madear,  Cimreritiiin  of  the  UW.' 
The  Fnfflia/i,  jip.  Sl-S."). — The  imj)artial  historian 
to  whom  we  owe  all  the  early  histr)ry  of  the 
English  Church,  thus  records  the  memory  of 
these  devoted  men  as  it  remained  in  the  minds 
of  Englishmen  long  after  llu'ir  (lei)arture.  It 
is  a  brief  passage,  one' like  those  in  the  greater 
Ecclesiatical  History  of  Eusebius,  which  mi;st 
stand  for  much  wo  <lo  not  know.  Iteferriug  to 
their  devoted  lives — "T-^r  this  reason  the  relig- 
ious habit  was  at  that  time  in  great  veneration; 
80  that  wheresoever  any  clergyman  or  monk 
hupiiened  to  come,  he  was  joyfully  received  by 
all  persons,  as  God's  servant;  and  if  they  chanced 
to  meet  him  upon  the  way,  they  ran  to  him,  and 
bowing,  were  glad  to  be  signed  with  his  hand, 
or  blessed  with  his  mouth.  Great  attention  was 
also  paid  to  their  exhortations;  and  on  Sundays 
they  flocked  eagerly  to  tho  church,  or  the 
monasteries,  not  to  feed  their  bodies,  but  to  licar 
tho  wonl  of  God;  and  if  any  priest  happened  to 
come  into  a  village,  the  inhabitants  flocked 
together  to  hear  from  him  the  word  of  life ;  for 

'  le  priests  and  clergymen  went  into  the  village 
on  no  other  account  than  to  preach,  baptize,  visit 
the  sick,  and,  in  few  words,  to  take  care  of 
soids ;  and  they  were  so  free  from  worldy  avarice, 
that  none  ■  I  hem  received  lands  and  possessions 
for  building  monasteries,  unless  they  were  com- 
pelled to  do  so  by  the  temporal  authorities; 
which  custom  was  for  some  time  after  observed 
in  all  the  churches  of  tho  Northumbrians.  But 
enough  has  now  been  said  on  this  subject." — T!te 

Venerable  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  England; 
ed.  by  J.  A.  Giles,  bk.  3,  ch.  26.— Tho  English 
Church  passed  through  several  stages  during 
tills  period.  A  notable  one  was  the  rise  and  fall  of 
a  loose  monastic  system  which  attracted  men 
and  women  of  the  better  classes,  but  for  lack 
of  a  strict  rule  brought  itself  into  disrepute. 
Another  was  the  development  of  classical  learning 
and  the  foundation  of  the  school  at  Jarrow  in 
Northumberland  resulting  in  making  England 
the  intellectual  centre  of  the  world.  Venerable 
Bede,  who  wrote  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  tlio 
English  Church,  was  the  greatest  teacher  of  this 
epoch ;  and  Alcuin,  a  Northumbrian  by  birth, 
and  of  the  school  at  York,  of  the  next.  Invited 
bv  Charlemagne  to  the  Frankish  Court,  he  curried 
English  learning  to  the  Continent,  and  although 


h(.'  died  at  tlic  time  of  the  foundation  of  tlui 
P^mpire,  left  his  influence  In  many  ways  on  tho 
(li'velopment  of  Kuropean  culture.  A  single 
fact  of  interest  will  siifllce,  to  show  the  close 
connection  of  this  early  history  with  tliot  of 
Home  and  the  continent  —  viz.,  to  Alruin  we  arc 
largely  indebted  for  the  parent  script  which 
formed  our  Uoman  letters.  (I.  Taylor,  TIte 
Alpha/jei,  r.  3,  /).  IMO.)  Nortliumlirian  learning 
and  the  rich  libraries  of  ancient  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  literature  were  destroyed  by  the  Danes, 
who,  in  their  incursions,  showed  for  a  long  time 
peculiar  animosity  to  monks  and  monasteries. 
Although  the  service  of  this  early  Anglo-Saxon 
Church  was  partly  in  the  vernuculnr,  and  largo 
portions,  if  not  all,  of  the  Gospels  had  been 
translated,  little  remains  to  us  of  its  early  relig- 
ious literature  The  translations  of  the  Gospel 
into  Anglo-Saxon  that  have  come  down  to  us  aro 
to  be  attrilmted  to  a  late  period. 

9th  Century. — The  Bulgarian  Church.— "In 
the  beginning  of  this  9tli  (;entury,  a  sister  of  the 
reigning  Bulgarian  king,  Bogoris,  had  fallen 
as  a  captive  into  the  keeping  of  the  Greek  em- 
peror. For  thirty -eight  years  she  lived  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  was  there  instructed  in  the  doc- 
trines of  tile  Christain  Faith.  Meanwhile,  the 
administration  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  cm- 
press  Kegent,  Theodora.  She  was  interested  in 
a  certain  monk  named  Cupharas,  who  had  been 
taken  prisoner  by  tho  Bulgarians,  and  with  a 
view  to  his  redemption,  she  opened  negotiations 
with  Bogoris.  An  exchange  of  prisoners  was 
Anally  elfected.  The  sister  of  Bogoris  was  re- 
stored to  him,  while  Cupharas  was  iiermitted  to 
return  to  Constantinople.  iJefore  the  release  of 
the  iiious  monk,  however,  he  had  striven,  though 
(luito  uimvailingly,  to  win  the  Bulgarian  prince 
to  the  service  of  the  Cross.  These  fruitless  en- 
deavors were  supplemented  by  the  entreaties  of 
the  king's  sister,  on  her  return  from  Constanti- 
nojile.  ...  At  last,  fear  snapped  the  fetters 
which  love  had  failed  to  disengage.  .  .  .  His 
baptism  was  celebrated  at  midmglit  with  pro- 
foundest  secrecy.  The  rite  was  administered  by 
no  less  a  personage  than  the  patriarch  Photius. 
lie  emphasized  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion  by 
jircsentinfj  the  neophyte  with  a  lengthy  treatise 
on  Christianity,  theoretical  and  practical,  con- 
sidered mainly  in  its  bearings  on  tlie  duties  of  a 
inonurch.  Tlie  emperor  jMichael  stood  sponsor 
by  proxy,  and  the  Bulgarian  king  received,  as 
his  Clinstian  name,  that  of  his  imperial  god- 
father. .  .  .  The  battle-cries  of  theology  rang 
over  Christendom,  and  the  world  was  regaled 
with  the  spectacle  of  a  struggle  between  the  rival 
Churches  for  the  possession  of  Bulgaria,  a  country 
till  recently  so  conspicuously  destitute  of  dogma 
of  any  kind.  The  Bulgarians  themselves,  doubt- 
less much  astonished  at  the  uproar  for  their  sake, 
and,  surely,  more  perplexed  than  ever  by  the 
manners  and  customs  of  Christianity,  begun  to 
waver  in  their  adherence  to  the  Western  Cliuich, 
and  to  exhibit  symptoms  of  an  inclination  to  trans- 
fer their  allegiance  to  Constantinople.  The 
strife  went  on  for  years.  At  last,  A.  D.  877, 
tho  Latin  clergy  liaving  been  dismissed  from  the 
country.  Pope  John  VIII.  solemnly  expostulated, 
protesting  against  the  Greek  proclivities  of  the 
Bulgarians,  and  predicting  dire  results  from  their 
identity  with  a  Church  which  was  rarely  free 
from  heresy  in  one  form  or  another.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Byzantine  leanings  of  Bulgaria  did  cul- 


464 


CHRISTIANITY. 


Ulavt  and 
Northmen. 


CimiSTIAN[TY. 


jninato  in  union  witli  tlio  Kustorn  Cliurcli.  A 
Oruolc  nrchl)lMlio|)  luul  ))i.slio|)s  of  tliu  Hitme  com- 
munion, Ht'ttlnl  111  Iho  coimtry.  .  .  .  '  Tlio  Eiist- 
em  bnincli '  of  tlio  Hlavonlc;  fiiM>iuiiKi'«.  properly 
lociillcii,  'comprclifiuiMllic  Husslaii,  witli  viirious 
locui  (iiiiicctH,  till!  liiilKiiriiui,  and  tlio  Illyriari. 
Tli(!  most  luu'iciit  (liK'iuticrit  of  this  EiisU'ni 
bnmcli  is  tlie  no-cuIIciI  (•(•(•Icslastical  Slavonic, 
1.  L'.,  till!  ancient  Hiilj;iiHaii,  into  wliicli  Cyrilliis 
t  ml  Metliodins  tniiislateil  tlii!  Iiil)le  in  the  miiidic 
oi  tlie  i>tli  eenturv.  This  is  still  the  authorized 
version  of  tliu  Hililo  for  the  whole  .-ilavonic  race, 
anil  to  the  student  of  the  Slavonic  lanKuaKea  it 
is  what  Gothic  is  to  the  student  of  Oerinan. '  — O. 
F.  Maclear,  t'untergion  i>f  the  Went:  The  Slam, 
pp.  r>4-09. 

9th  Century.— Conversion  of  Moravia. — "  In 
tlie  opening  years  of  the  Ktli  century,  Moravia 
stretched  from  the  Uavarian  borders  to  the  Hun- 

farian  river  Drina,  and  from  the  banks  of  the 
)anul)e,  beyond  the  ('nrpathian  mountains,  to 
the  river  Stryi  in  Hoiithern  I'oland.  Into  this 
territory  (Jhristianity  had  been  ushered  as  early 
lis  A.  i).  801,  by  Charh'inaKne,  who,  as  his  cus- 
tom was,  enforced  baptism  at  the  jioint  of  the 
sword,  at  least  as  far  as  the  kinj;  was  concerned. 
Ellorts  were  8ubse(|iiently  madi^  by  the  arch- 
bishops of  Saizbiirff  and  I'assaii  to  fan  this  first 
feeble  tlickcr  into  somethinK  like  a  tlanic.  iiiit 
no  .wccess  attended  their  exertions.  Paganism 
was  overpoweringlv  strong;,  and  (.'hristianity  not 
only  veak,  but  rude  and  uncouth  in  type.  .  .  . 
Tlie  story  of  this  country,  during;  tlie  process 
of  emancipation  from  paganism,  is  but  a  re|)eti- 
tion  of  tlie  incidents  witli  which,  in  neighbouring 
states,  we  have  already  become  familiar.  Kami- 
flcations  of  the  work  of  (Jyril  and  Metliodius  ex- 
tended into  Servia.  The  Slavonic  alphabet  made 
way  there,  as  in  Bohemia  and  .Moravia,  for 
Christianity.  Tlic  Servians  '  enjoyed  the  advant- 
age of  a  liturgy  which  was  intelligible  to  them ; 
and  we  find  that,  early  in  the  10th  century,  a 
considerable  number  of  Slavonian  priests  from 
all  the  dioceses  were  ordained  by  the  bishop  of 
Nona,  who  was  himself  a  Slavonian  by  descent. ' " 
— G.  P.  >Iaclear,  Conversion  of  the  We»t:  The 
Slats,  eh.  4. 

9th-ioth  Centuries. — The  Eastern  Church 
as  a  missionary  Church. — "  If  the  missionary 
spirit  is  tlic  best  evidence  of  vitality  in  a  church, 
it  certainly  was  not  wanting  in  the  Eastern  Church 
during  the  nintli  and  tenth  centuries  of  our  era. 
Tliis  period  witnessed  the  conversion  to  Cliris- 
tianity  of  the  principal  Slavonic  peoples,  whereby 
they  arc  both  linked  witli  Constantinople,  and 
bound  together  by  those  associations  of  creed,  as 
well  as  race,  wliicli  form  so  important  a  factor 
In  the  European  politics  of  tlie  present  day.  The 
Moravians,  the  Bulgarians,  and  tlie  Russians 
were  now  brought  witliin  the  fold  of  the  Church ; 
and  the  way  was  prepared  for  tliat  vast  exten- 
sion of  the  Greek  communion  by  -wliicli  it  has 
spread,  not  only  throughout  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula and  the  lands  to  the  north  of  it,  but  wlier- 
cver  Russian  intiueiice  is  found  —  as  far  as  tlio 
White  Sea  on  the  one  side,  and  Kamtchatka  on 
the  other,  and  into  the  heart  of  Central  Asm. 
The  leaders  in  tliis  great  work  were  the  two 
brothers,  Cyril  and  Methodius,  wlio  in  conse- 
quence of  tills,  have  since  been  known  as  tlie 
Apostles  of  the  Slavonians.  What  Mezrop  did 
for  the  Armenians,  what  Ulfllas  did  for  the 
Ooths,  was  accomplished  for  that  race  by  Cyril 


In  the  Invention  of  a  Slavonic  alphnhrt,  which 
from  this  cause  is  still  known  by  the  name  of  tlie 
Cvrillic.  The  same  teacher,  by  his  translittloii 
of  the  Scriptures  into  their  tongue,  pnivhicd  them 
with  a  literary  language,  tliercliy  priKliicIng  the 
same  result  wliicli  Luther's  Bible  siil)se(nicntly 
cITected  for  (Jermany,  and  Dante's  Divina  Coni- 
niedia  for  Italy.  It  is  no  matter  for  surprise  that, 
throughout  the  whole  of  this  great  branch  of  the 
human  race  —  even  amongst  the  Uussians,  who 
owed  their  Christianity  to  anotlicr  source  —  the 
names  of  these  two  brothers  should  occupy  the 
foremost  places  in  the  calendar  of  Saints.  It  is 
not  less  signitlcant  that  their  names  art;  not  I'Ven 
mcntioiicii  by  the  Byzantine  historians." — II.  F. 
Tozer,  The  Church  and  the  Kunlern  Kinpire, 
ch.  7. 

9th-iith  Centuries.— The  Western  Church 
asa  missionary  Church. — TliecarlicrinisslnMsof 
tlie  Western  (Miiircli  have  been  described,  but  it 
is  notewortliy  tliat  again  and  again  missions  to 
tlie  same  regiims  are  necessary.  It  reiniiressucli 
a  map  as  the  one  accompanying  tlds  artlcli'  to 
maki!  plain  tlie  slowness  of  its  dilTusions  and  the 
long  period  needed  to  produce  even  a  nomi- 
nally (Miristian  Europe.  "The  views  of  Cliarlo 
magne  for  the  con(|ue.st  and  convcrsicui  of  tliu 
Northern  heathens  [see  Saxons:  A.  1).  773-H04], 
were  not  confined  to  the  limits,  wide  as  they 
were,  of  Saxony.  The  final  paeiticalion  elTeeted 
at  Salz,  seemed  to  open  liis  ev<'-S  to  more 
extensive  enterpris<'s  in  prospect.  Political  may 
have  combined  witli  religious  motives  in  i'i'',iic- 
ing  him  to  secure  the  peace  of  his  new  frontii  i.s, 
by  enlisting  the  tribes  of  Denmark  under  the 
banner  of  the  Cross,  and  he  conceived  tlie  idea 
of  planting  a  church  in  tlio  neighbourhood  of 
Hamburg,  whidi  should  become  a  missionary 
centre.  This  plan,  though  interrupted  by  his 
death,  was  not  neglected  by  liis  snii  Louis  lo 
Debonnaire,  or  'the  Pious.'.  .  .  But  it  is  easier 
to  propose  sucli  a  plan  than  find  one  willing  to 
carry  it  out.  The  well-known  ferocity  of  the 
Northmen  long  deterred  any  one  from  offering 
himself  for  such  a  duty.  At  length  he  received 
intelligence  from  Wala,  the  abbot  of  Corbey, 
near  Amiens,  tliat  one  of  his  monks  was  not 
unwilling  to  undertake  the  perilous  enterprise. 
Tlie  intrejiid  volunteer  was  Anskar." — O.  F. 
Maclear,  Conversion  of  the  Wei^t :  The  Northmen, 
eh.  2.— "In  822,  Harold,  the  king  of  Jutland, 
and  claimant  of  tlie  crown  of  Denmark,  came  to 
seek  the  help  of  Louis  tlie  Pious,  tlie  son,  and 
one  of  the  successors,  of  Charlemagne.  ...  On 
Harold's  return  to  Denmark  he  was  accompanied 
by  Anskar,  who  well  deserves  to  be  called  the 
apostle  of  Scandinavia.  .  .  .  Tlius  An.skar  and 
Autbert  set  out  in  the  train  of  Iliirold,  and 
during  tlie  journey  and  voyage  a  kindly  feeling 
sprang  up  between  the  royal  and  the  missionary 
families.  Harold  got  no  cordial  greeting  from 
liis  proud  heatlum  subjects  when  he  announced 
to  them  that  he  had  done  homage  to  the  emperor, 
and  tliat  he  had  embraced  tlie  gospel.  He  seems 
to  have  been  very  sincere  and  very  earnest  in  his 
endeavours  to  induce  his  nobles  and  subjects  to 
abandon  idolatry  and  embrace  C'hristianity.  To 
expect  that  he  was  altogether  judicious  in  these 
efforts  would  lie  to  suppose  that  ho  liiul  those 
views  regarding  flic  relation  that  ouglit  to  sub- 
sist between  rulers  and  subjects,  .  .  .  views 
regarding  liberty  of  conscience  and  the  right  of 
private   judgment.  .  .  .  The    result    was   that 


465 


CIIRISTIANITV. 


Thr  liuwian 
f'hurrh. 


CHRISTIANITY. 


afUT  two    yporii,  in   828,  he  wiw  compollpd  to 
nlHlicutctlu^tlircitic.  .   .  .  Tin- ixmltlimor  AiiMkiir, 

(lilliclllt    IIH     it      WIIN      Wllilc      Unroll!       WIIH     DM    llll' 

tliroiu',  l)pciiini!  Htill  iniirc  lillllcnlt  after  liis 
alKliciitioii.  .  .  ,  liiit  JuHtitt  tliK  tiiiii' wlicri  till' 
door  wiwj*liut  HKiiinst  liim  in  I>riiiniirl<,  iiiiutlirr 
witH  opi'iK'il  ill  Hwi'ilcn,  wliicli  proinisi'il  to  hr. 
wilier  iinil  morn  clTrctim!.  .  .  .  Iln  wiis  kinilly 
rt'coivcil  by  tlio  HwimIIhIi  kllin,  who  K"ve  him 
{M'rmiHMiim  to  preach,  iiiiil  IiIh  Hiibjeetx  fn'eilom 
to  iitri'pt  mill  profess  the  gospel  of  ('lirlst.  As 
Aimkiirhiiil  iM'eii  leil  to  expert,  so  he  fouiiil,  miiiiy 
('hristliin  captives,  wlio  liiiil  been  hroiiKht  from 
other  countries, —  Fnmce,  (Jermiiny,  Hritnln, 
Ireland, — and  wlio,  having;  been  as  slieep  with- 
out II  Hheplierd,  gladly  received  from  Aiiskar 
those  consolations  and  exhortations  wliidi  were 
fltte<l  to  alleviate  tlie  sorrows  of  tlieir  captivity. 
.  .  .  After  a  year  and  a  hnlf's  stay  in  Hweilen, 
Anskar  nttiimed  home,  and  Klaildened  the  heart 
of  the  >(immI  emperor,  and  lioiibtless  of  many 
others,  by  the  cheering  prospect  lie  was  able  to 
present  of  the  acceptance  of  the  gospel  by  the 
bwedes.  lie  was  now  made  nominally  bisliop  of 
Hamburg,  but  with  the  special  design  of  super- 
intending  and  conducting  missionary  operations 
both  in  Denmark  and  Hwe<len.  .  .  .  Ilorik, 
king  of  IDenmark,  who  had  driven  Harold  from 
his  throne,  .  .  .  had  been  hitiicrto  an  uncom- 
promising enemy  of  the  gospel.  Anskar  under- 
took the  management  of  some  political  negoti- 
ations with  him,  and  in  the  conduct  of  them 
made  so  favourable  an  impression  on  him  that 
he  refused  to  have  any  other  negotiator  or 
ainbas.sailor  of  the  German  king  at  his  court. 
He  treated  him  as  a  personal  friend,  niid  gave 
him  full  liberty  to  conduct  missionary  operations. 
These  operations  he  conducted  wltli  his  usual 
zeal,  and  by  Qixl's  blessing,  wltli  much  success. 
Alaiiy  were  baptized  The  Christiana  of  Ger- 
many and  Holland  traded  more  freely  with  the 
Danes  than  before,  and  tlio  Danes  resorted  in 
larger  numbers  as  traders  to  Holland  and 
Germany ;  and  in  these  and  otlicr  ways  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  gospel,  and  some  apprehension  of 
the  blessings  wliich  it  brings  with  it,  were 
diffused  among  the  people.  .  .  .  Although  the 
Norwegians  were  continually  coming  into  con- 
tact, in  the  varying  relations  of  war  and  peace, 
with  tlio  Swedes  and  the  Danes,  tiie  French  ancl 
the  Germans,  the  English  and  the  Irish,  and 
although  in  tiiis  way  some  knowledge  of  the 
Christian  system  must  have  been  diffused  among 
them,  yet  tlie  formal  introduction  of  it  into  their 
country  was  a  full  century  later  tlian  its  intro- 
duction into  Denmark  and  Sweden." — Thomas 
Smith,  Medittml  Mimons,  pp.  123-138.— "The 
conversions  in  Denmark  were  confined  to  the 
mainland.  Tlie  islands  still  remained  pagan, 
while  human  victims  continued  to  be  offered  till 
the  Emperor  Henry  I.  extorted  from  Gorm,  the 
first  king  of  all  Denmark,  in  A.  D.  934,  protection 
for  tlie  Christians  throughout  his  realm,  and  the 
abolition  of  human  sacrifices.  In  Sweden,  for 
seventy  years  after  Anskar's  death,  the  nucleus 
of  a  Chnstiau  Church  continued  to  be  restricted 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  Birka,  and  the  country 
•was  hardly  visited  by  Christian  missionaries." — 
G.  F.  Jlaclcar,  Contersion  of  the  West:  The 
Northmen,  eh.  2. — "It  is  very  remarkable  that. 
In  the  wliole  history  of  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Norway  and  Iceland,  extending 
over  a  period  of  u  century  and  a  half,  we  meet 


not  with  the  name  of  any  noted  hloliop,  or  eccleiil- 
astic,  or  mlsMionary.  Tliere  were,  no  doiilit, 
eerlesiaHtlis  I'liiployed  in  the  worit,  and  themj 
would  appear  to  iiave  been  generally  Knglish- 
men;  liut  they  occupied  a  secondary  jilace, 
almost  tiieir  only  province  being  to  bapti/.e  those 
wliom  tlie  kings  compelled  to  Niibmit  to  tliat 
onlinance.  The  kings  were  tlie  real  missionaries; 
and  one  cannot  help  feeling  a  kind  of  admiration 
for  the  ferocious  zeal  which  one  and  another  of 
them  manifested  in  the  undertaking,  —  even  as 
tlic  Lord  comnicnileil  the  unjust  steward  because 
he  had  done  wisely,  altlioiigh  his  wisdom  was 
wholly  niisilirected.  Tlie  most  persistent  and  tlio 
most  successful  of  these  missionary  kings  was 
Olaf  tlie  Thick,  wlio  came  from  England  in  1017, 
and  set  himself  with  lieart  and  soul  to  the  work 
of  the  demolition  of  heathenism,  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  (Christianity  as  the  national  re- 
ligion."— Thomas  Smith,  .Afe<li(Friil  Afimonn,  pp. 
140-141. 

loth  Century.— The  Russian  Church.— "In 
the  middle  of  the  10th  century,  tlie  widowed 
Princess  Glga,  lately  released  from  the  cares  of 
regency,  travelled  from  Kief  to  Constantinople. 
Whether  her  visit  had  political  objects,  or 
whether  she  was  protuptcd  to  pay  it  solely,  as 
some  say,  by  a  desire  to  know  more  of  the  holy 
faith  of  which  only  glimpses  had  been  vouch- 
safed her  at  home,  cannot  be  positively  dechled. 
IJut  her  sojourn  in  the  imperial  city  was  a  turn- 
ing-point In  her  career.  Haptism  was  adminis- 
tered to  her  by  the  patriarch  Polyeuetes,  the 
emperor  Constantino  Porphyrogcnitus  officiating 
as  sponsor.  Polyeuetes  then  solemnly  addressed 
tlie  princess,  predicting  that  through  her  instru- 
mentality Uussia  should  be  richly  blessed. 
'Olgii,'  writes  M.  Mouravieff,  'now  become 
Helena  by  baptism,  tluit  she  miglit  resemble  both 
in  name  and  deed  the  mother  of  Constontine  the 
Great,  stowl  meekly  bowing  down  her  head,  and 
drinking  in,  as  a  sponge  that  is  thirsty  of  moist- 
ure, the  instructions  of  the  pi;'latc. '  .  .  .  Some 
latent  Impressions  favourable  to  Chi-istianity  her 
youngest  grandson,  Vladimir,  doubtless  owed  to 
her.  Nevertheless  when,  at  the  death  of  his 
brother  Yarapolk,  for  which  indeed  he  was  held 
responsible,  he  mounted  the  throne,  no  signs  of 
a  grocious  character  revealed  themselves.  He 
was,  on  the  contrary,  a  bitter  and  bigoted  pagan. 
...  It  seems  to  have  occurred  to  many  mission- 
aries of  varying  types,  tliat  a  chief  of  such  mark 
should  not  be  left  at  the  mercy  of  his  own  violent 
passions.  The  spiritual  well-being  of  Vladimir 
accordingly  became  the  object  of  laborious  jour- 
neys, of  much  exertion,  and  of  redundant  elo- 
quence. .  .  .  Last  of  nil  came  a  Greek  emissary. 
He  was  neither  '  a  priest  nor  a  missionary,  but  a. 
philosopher.'  .  .  .  Like  Bogorid,  the  wild  Rus- 
sian chief  was  greatly  moved.  .  .  .  The  follow- 
ing year  the  king  laid  before  the  elders  of  his 
council  the  rival  pleas  of  these  variously  recom- 
mended forms  of  faith,  and  solicited  their  advice. 
Tlie  nobles  mused  awhile,  and  then  counselled 
their  master  to  ascertain  how  each  religion 
worked  at  home.  This,  they  thought,  would  be 
more  practical  evidence  than  the  plausible  repre- 
sentations of  professors.  On  this  suggestion 
Vladimir  actetl.  Envoys  were  chosen, —  pre- 
sumably, for  their  powers  of  observation, — and 
the  embassy  of  inquiry  started.  '  This  public 
agreement,  says  the  historian  of  the  Russian 
Church,  'explains  in  some  degree  the  suddeii 


466 


nimaTiANiTY. 


CTirUCH  OP  KNOLAND. 


and  noiiprii'  luccptiincf  of  ClirlHtlnnity  which 
Hhortly  iiflcr  .'ollowcil  in  KuhmIii.  It  in  |)r()lmbl() 
thnt  nnt  only  tlin  chii^rx,  l)Ut  tho  coniinoii  people 
bIso,  were  expecting  and  ready  for  tlu-  elnuiKO.' 
A  report,  far  from  encoiiraKlnK,  was  In  due  time 
received  from  the  umbiiSHiutorK.  Of  the  (lerman 
nnil  Itoinan,  an  well  as  the  .lewiHli,  rellKlonH  in 
dally  life,  they  Hpoke  in  very  diHpaniKdn);  lerins, 
while  they  (h'clared  the  MiiHHulinan  creed,  when 
reduced  lopractice,  to  Ih'  utterly  outof  the  iiuch- 
tion.  Disuppointed  in  all  tlu'w  (piarters,  they 
now  proceeded,  by  c<miniand,  to  (.'oiiHtantinople, 
or,  aH  tlu^  UuHtilanH  railed  it,  T/araKoriMl.  .  .  . 
Singularly  enough,  the  UuHxian  envoys,  nccuH- 
tnnie<l,  M  we  inUHt  HuppoHC  them  to  Imvo  been, 
only  to  the  ban-Ht  Himplicity  of  life,  had  roni- 
plained  not  otdy  of  the  paucity  of  decoration  in 
the  Latin  cliurclicH,  but  of  a  laclc  of  beauty  in 
their  nppointmentx.  Thux  the  preparations  of 
tlio  patriarch  were  accurately  fitted  to  their  ex- 
pectant frame  of  ndnd.  They  were  U^d  into  the 
church  of  S.  Sophia,  gleaming;  with  variegated 
marbles,  and  porphyries,  and  Jasper,  at  thnt  timo 
'  the  ma.Hterpie<'e  of  Ohrislian  architecture.'  Tho 
building  glittered  with  gold,  and  rich  mosaics. 
The  service  was  that  of  a  high  fcstivid,  either  of 
St.  John  Olirysostom,  or  of  the  Deatli  of  the 
Virgin,  and  wiw  conducted  by  the  patriarch  In 
person,  clad  In  his  most  gorgeous  vestments. 
...  On  their  return  to  Vladimir,  tlicy  dilated 
with  eager  delight  on  the  wonders  they  had  seen. 
The  king  listened  gravely  to  tbi'ir  glowing  ac- 
count of  'the  tcmi)le,  like  which  tliero  was  none 
upon  earth.'  After  sweetness,  they  protested,  bit- 
ternes.s  would  l)o  unbearable,  so  that  —  whatever 
others  might  do  —  they  at  all  events  should  at 
onco  abandon  heathenism.  While  the  king  hesi- 
tated, his  boyers  turned  tho  scale  by  reminding 
him  that  if  tlio  creed  of  tho  Oreeks  had  not  in- 
deed had  much  to  recommend  it,  his  pious  and 
sagacious  gnindmother.  Princess  Olga,  would 
not  have  loved  and  obeyed  it.  Her  name  acte<l 
like  a  talisman.  Vladimir  resolved  to  conform 
to  Chiistianity.  Hut  still,  fondly  clinging  to  the 
habits  of  his  forefathers,  he  cherislied  tho  idea  of 
wooing  and  winning  his  now  n^ligion  by  the 
sword.  .  .  .  Under  the  auspices  of  the  sovereign, 


the  stately  church  of  St.  Itasil  soon  arose,  im  the 
very  spot  recently  occupied  by  the  ti-mplo  of 
Perun.  Kief  iM'came  the  centre  of  ('hristlan  In- 
lluence,  whence  evangell/.ltigencrgies  nidiatcd  In 
idl  directions.  Schools  and  churches  were  built, 
while  .Michael,  th(>  first  Pii'tropolitan,  attended 
by  his  bislKips,  'man.'  progresses  into  1  hi' interior 
of  KuHsia,  everywhere  oapll/.ing  and  instructing 
the  people.'  The  Orcek  c.uioii  law  came  Into 
force,  and  llic  use  of  the  scj-vicebook  anil  choral 
music  of  the  (Ireek  communion  iH-camc  general, 
wlule.  In  llie  Slavoid(!  Scriptures  and  Liturgy  of 
('yril  and  MetlKulius,  a  road  was  discovered 
which  led  Htraight  to  the  hearts  of  th(^  native 
population.  'Cyril  and  .MetlKHliiis,  if  anyone, 
must  be  considered  by  antlclpalioi.  as  the  (Irst 
Christian  teachers  of  Russia;  their  rude  alphabet 
first  instructed  the  Russian  nation  in  letters,  and, 
by  Its  quaint  Oreek  cjiaractcrs,  still  tcslilles  In 
every  Uussian  book,  and  on  every  Russian  house 
or  shop,  tlie  (Ireck  source  of  the  religion  and  lit- 
erature of  the  empire. '" — (J.  F.  .Maclear,  Cnnrer- 
»ioHofthe  We»t :   T/te  Slam,  eh.  5. 

"As  in  the  first  centuries  it  was  necessary 
tliat  the  leaven  of  Christianity  sbouM  gradually 
pcnctrat(!  the  entire  intelieefual  life  of  the  culti- 
vated nations,  befont  a  new  spiritual  creation, 
striking  its  root  in  the  forms  of  tho  (Irecian  an(l 
Roman  (•ulture,  which  Chrisfianily  appropriated, 
coidd  in  tliese  forms  completely  \infold  itself;  so 
after  the  same  i  tanner  it  was  necessary  that  tho 
Icnvon  of  Chrisuan.ly  which  .  .  .  had  been  intro- 
duced into  the  masses  of  the  tuifutored  nations, 
sliould  gradually  iii'netrate  their  whole  inward 
life,  before  u  new  and  peculiar  spiritual  creation 
couhl  spring  out  of  it,  which  shouli!  go  on  to 
unfold  itself  through  the  entire  i>eri(Ml  of  tho 
middle  ages.  And  tho  period  in  which  we  now 
aro  must  bo  regarded  as  still  belonging  to  the 
epoch  of  transition  from  tliat  old  spiritual  crea- 
tion which  flourished  on  tlie  basis  of  (Irecian  and 
Roman  culture  to  tho  new  one." — A.  Neandcr, 
(teneral  lli»t.  of  the  ('hrintian  IMif/ioii,  niid 
Vhurfh,  V.  3,  p.  456. — Wo  leave  tho  author's  sen- 
tence incomplete,  that  it  may  express  tlie  more 
fully  all  tho  subsequent  history  of  Christianity. 


CHRISTINA,  Queen-regent  of  Spain,  A.  D. 

1833-1841 Christina,    Queen    oi    Sweden, 

A.  I).  163J5-1054. 

CHRISTINOS.  The.  See  Spain:  A.  I). 
1833-1846. 

CHRISTOPHER    I.,    King-  of   Denmark, 

A.   D.    1253-1259 Christopher    II.,   A.    1). 

1819-1834 Christopher  III.,  King  of  Den- 
mark, Sweden  and  Norway,  A.  D.  1430- 
1448. 

CHRYSE. — Vague  reports  of  a  region  called 
Chryso  (tho  Golden),  somewhere  beyond  tho 
Ganges,  and  of  an  isl  ind  bearing  tho  sumo  name, 
off  llio  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  as  well  as  of 
another  island  called  Argyro  (tho  Silver  Island), 
were  prevalent  among  the  early  Roman  geo- 
graphical writers.  'They  probably  all  had 
reference  to  tho  Malay  peninsula,  which  Ptolemy 
called  the  Golden  Chersonese. — E.  11.  Bunbury, 
HiH.  of  Aneient  Gcog.,  eh.  25. 

CHRYSLER'S  FARM,  Battle  of.  Sec 
United  Statks  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1813  (Octobek — 

NOVEMBEU). 

CHRYSOBULUM.  See  GoujBaj  Bull, 
Byzantine.         -,.■■■■    -  ,  .  . 


CHRYSOPOLIS.— Modern  Scufjiri,  opposite 
Constantinople ;  originally  tho  port  of  the  city  of 
Chalccdon. 

CHRYSOPOLIS,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  323). 
See  Home:  A.  I).  30.')-323. 

CHUMARS.     See  Caste  Svste.m  or  India. 

CHUMASHAN  FAMILY,  The.  See 
Ameuican  AiiouiQiNEs:  Chimasiian  Family. 

CHUR,  The  Bishopric  of.  Sco  Tyuoi,,  and 
Switzehi.and:  A.  D.  13IW-1490. 

CHURCH,  The  Armenian.  Sen  Akmeman 
Ciiuncii. 

CHURCH  OF  BOHEMIA,  The  Utraquist 
National.     SccHoiikmia:  .V.  1).  1134-1457. 

CHURCH  IN  BRAZIL,  Disestablishment 
of  the.     SeeBuAZii.:  A.  1).  1889-1891. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND:  Origin  and 
Establishment.  See  Knol.vnd:  A.  D.  1527- 
1534;  1531-1.563;  and  1535-1539. 

The  Six  Articles.  See  Esoland:  A.  I). 
1539. 

The  completed  Church-reform  under  Ed- 
ward VI.     See  Enoi.and:  A.  D.  1547-1553. 

The  doubtful  conflict  of  religions.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  D.  1553. 


467 


CHURCH  OP  ENOLANO. 


CILK^IAN  GATES. 


Romaniim  reitored  by  Mary.  Sci>  Enoi.and  : 
A.  I).  I.Vm-I.mM. 

Recovery  of  Proteitantiim  under  Eliiabeth. 

Bvi'  KN"I.AM);  a.   I).   l.V)M-l.')HH. 

The  Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity. 
8.-I'  K.Noi.AMi:  A.  I).  I.V)1I. 

Riie  of  Puritanitm.  Siie  Enoi^nu:  A.  I>. 
irL^u-iNMi;  i:>()i-ir»<n(Y). 

The  Deipotiam  of  Laud.  8vc  Enulanu: 
A.  I».  in;i:i-i((i(i. 

Riie  of  the  Independents.  Hm  Enoland: 
A.  1>.  Hl:tH  Itmi. 

The  Root  and  Branch  Bill.  Hvv.  Enoland: 
A.  I).  Kill  (Maui  II  — May). 

The  Westminster  Asiembly.  See  Eniii.and: 
A.  I).  llUlK.li  i.v),  ami  DMlKMAm  ii). 

The  Solemn  League  and   Covenant.     Sou 

EN(11.A.NI».    .V.    1).    Ittl!)  (.Ii:i.Y— Sl:|-TKMI1KU) 

The  Restoration.— The  Savoy  Conference. 

Hi'c  KNdi.AM);  A.  1).  lltOl  (Ai'uii.— .hi.v). 

The  Act  of  Uniformity  and  persecution  of 
Nonconformists.    .Sec  K.n<ii./.m>:    A.   I).    UWi- 

uwr,. 

Charles'  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  and  the 
Test  Act.  Hee  Enoi.anu:  A.  1).  1073-1073,  luid 
10H7. 

James'  Declaration  of  Indulgence.— Trial  of 
the  seven  Bishops.  .Sec  En(ii.ani);  A.  I).  10H7- 
10«8. 

The  Church  and  the  Revolution. — The  Non- 
Jurors.     See    En(1I,anii:    A.    I).    tOHU   (AlMllL — 

AlIUUHT). 

A.  O.  1704.— Queen  Anne's  Bounty.  Sec 
Qukkn  Annk'h  Hoi  nty. 

A.  D.  1711-1714. — The  Occasional  Conform- 
ity Bill  and  the  Schism  Act.  Hov.  Emii.anii: 
A.  I).  1711-1714. 

A.  D.  1833-1845.— The  Oxford  or  Tract- 
arian   Movement.      Si'O    Oxfoiid    oil    Tuact- 

AlllAN  .MoVE.\lliNT. 

♦ 

CHURCH   OF   FRANCE.    Seo  Gallican 

CiiiJiicir. 

CHURCH,  The  Greek  or  Eastern.  Suu 
CiiiiiHTiANnY:  A.  D.  mO-um. 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND,  Disestablish- 
ment of  the.     See  Enoi.and:  A.  1).    1808-1870. 

CHURCH  OF  LATTER  DAY  SAINTS. 
.See  M0UMONI8.M;  A.  I).  18'.>-18;tO. 

CHURCH  OF  ROME.    See  Papacy. 

CHURCH,  The  Russian.— The  great  schism 
known  as  Raskol.  Hce  Uuhhia  :  A.  D.  lOS.'i- 
1059, 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.— Its  birth. 
SeeScciTi  and;  A.  1).  1.547-1.')57. 

The  1  J rst  Covenant.  Seo  Scotland:  A.  1). 
1557. 

Rebellion  and  triumph  of  the  Lords  of  the 
Congregation.  See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1558- 
1500. 

Restoration  of  Episcopacy.  Sec  Scotland  : 
A.  I).  1573. 

The  First  National  Covenant.  See  Scot- 
land; A.  I).  1.581. 

The  Black  Acts.   See  Scotl.\nd:  A.  D.  1584 

Appropriation  of  Church  lands.  Sec  Scot- 
land: A.  I).  1587. 

The  Five  Articles  of  Perth.  Sec  Scotland: 
A.  I).  1018. 

Laud's  liturgy  and  Jenny  Geddes'  stool. 
Sec  Scotland:  A.  I).  1037. 

The  signing  of  the  National  Covenant.  Sec 
Scotland:  A.  D.  1038. 


The  First  Bishops'  War.  See  H<;otlani>: 
A.  I).   I0;!8-10»0, 

The  Second  Bishops'  War.  See  Enoland: 
A.  I).  1010, 

The  Westminster  Assembly.  Sees  England: 
A.  I).  |0.»3(,)ii,v). 

The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  See 
Eniii.anI):  .V.  I).   1043  (.lll.Y— Ski-ikmiikk). 

Montrose  and  the  Covenanters.  Seo  Scot- 
land: A.  I>.  HM4-1045, 

The  restored  king  and  restored  prelacy.  Seo 
Siori.AND;   A,  l»,    IftOO   1000. 

Persecutions  of  the  Covenanters.  See  Scot- 
I.A.nd:   a.  I).   100»-1071»;    10711;   IOMl-iri81t. 

The  Revolution  and  re-establishment  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  Sec  Scotland:  A.  I). 
1088-101M>. 

The  Disruption. — Formation  of  the  Free 
Church.     See  S<(>Ti.AND;  A.  I).  184:1. 

CHURUBUSCO,  Battle  of.  See  Mkxico: 
A.  I).  1847  (.Maiicii— Ski'tk.miikk). 

CIBALIS.  Battle  of  (A.  D.  313).  See  Home: 
A.  I).  305-33)). 

CIBOLA,  The  Seven  Cities  of.  See  Amkui- 
cAN  Aiiiiukiinkh:  Pijkhi.on. 

CICERO,  and  the  last  years  of  the  Roman 
Republic.     See  Uomk:  H.  V.  OU-03,  1. 1  44-13. 

CILICIA.— KILIKIA.— An  luuient  distriet 
ill  the  soiitlieiiHterii  corner  of  A«lii  Minor,  border- 
ing on  Syriii.  It  wuh  11  siitrupy  of  llie  Persian 
Empire,  then  i\  part  o.'  the  kingdom  of  the  Sc- 
liieidie,  iind  iifterwiird.s  a  Uoiimn  province.  The 
chief  city  ot  Cilicia  was  Tarsus,  a  very  ancient 
eoniinercial  eniporiuin,  whime  peo|)lo  were  noted 
for  mental  acuteness.  The  ApoHtle  Paul  is  to  Im) 
counted  among  the  d!stingui.shed  natives  of  Tar- 
sus, and  a  (plite  rtimarkalile  number  of  eminent 
leaclu^rs  of  philosophy  were  from  the  same  birth- 
place. 

CILICIA,  Pirates  of.— DuringtheMithridatic 
wars  ])inuy  was  developed  to  alarming  propor- 
tions 111  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  Distracted  by  civil  conflicts  and  occupied 
by  foreign  ones,  simultaneously,  the  Uomaiis,  for 
a  considerable  period,  gave  uo  proper  heed  to  the 
growth  of  this  lawli'.ssness,  until  they  found 
their  commerce  half  destroyed  and  Home  and 
Italy  actually  threatened  with  starvation  by  the 
intercepting  of  their  supplies  from  abroad.  The 
pirates  flourished  under  the  protection  and  en- 
couragement of  the  king  of  Pontus,  at  whoso 
instance  they  established  their  chief  head- 
quarters, their  docks,  arsenals  and  magazines,  at 
various  points  on  the  coast  of  Cilfria.  Hence  the 
name  Cilician  came  to  be  applied  to  all  the 
pirates  of  the  time.  This  era  of  piracy  was 
brought  to  an  end,  at  last,  by  Pompey,  who  was 
sent  against  them,  B.  C.  67,  with  extraordinary 
powers  conferred  by  the  law  known  as  the  Lex 
Qabinia.  He  proceeded  to  his  undertaking  with 
remarkable  energy  and  ability,  and  his  hunting 
down  of  the  freebooters  which  lie  accomplished 
effectually  within  three  months  from  the  day  his 
operations  begun,  was  really  the  most  brilliant 
exploit  of  his  life.— U.  G.  Liddell,  Hist,  uf 
Jiome,  bk.  7,  eh.  03. 

Also  in  :  C.  Merivule,  Hist,  of  the  liomant, 
eh.  1. — O.  Long,  Deeline  of  the  Roman  Repxiblie, 
V.  3,  ch.  0-7. 

CILICIAN  GATES.— A  pass  through  the 
Taurus  range  of  mountains,  opening  from  Cap- 
padocia  into  Cilicia,  was  anciently  culled  the 


468 


CILICIAN  OATKS. 


CIMnill  AND  TKUTONKS. 


Pylm  rr.lrlio  or  Clllrliwi  (IiiUh,  Tin-  city  of 
Tyikiin  witn  HitiiiiU'd  ut  tlic  I'litriincc  to  llin  pimi. 
Ilotli  XtMioiilioii  iiikI  Alrxiuuirr,  wlir>  trikvcrm'il 
It,  fU'om  to  liavi*  ri'KiirilciI  the  \mnn  im  our  whit'li 
iionriiiy  coiilil  fonuilf  propi'rlyiU'ffliKliMl.  — K.  II. 
liiinltuVy,  Uiiil.  iif  Aneifitt  (lemj.,  eh.  10,  iiecl.  2, 
ami  rli.  \'i.  mrt.  1. 

CILURNUM.— A  Koinnn  city  In  Hrltnlii. 
"  tin'  cxIciikIvc  riilim  of  wlilcli,  well  (IcHcrllicil  iiH 
n  MritiMli  I'otnpt'il,  iin;  vIhIIiIc  iiciir  tin-  iiKidcrn 
liiunlctH  of  ClicHtcrH." — T.  Wright,  Celt,  Human 
antf  Stiroii,  r/i.  5. 

CIMARRONES,  The.  SrcAMKitiCA:  A.  D. 
tr)Ti-\r,m,  hihI  .Iamaua;  a.  I).  i()r)5-l7u«. 

CIMBRI  AND  TEUTONES,  The.— "For 
II  coiislilcral)!)'  period  [second  century,  B.  (',]  nn 
'  iinwttleil  people '  Imd  been  wiinderlnjf  alon^ 
the  northern  vcrife  of  the  country  oc(!upied  hy 
the  Cell!*  on  hollisldcH  of  the  Diirnihc.  They 
I'lilled  theinMclves  the  t.'Inihrl.  thiit  l«,  the  C'hein- 
nho,  Iho  chitniplotm,  or,  hh  their  enemies  tranH- 
lilted  It,  the  robbers;  ii  dcHlKniitlon,  however, 
which  to  all  iippeiinince  hiid  become  the  niimo  of 
th(^  people  even  before  their  mljfriitlon.  They 
came  from  the  north,  and  the  llntt  Celtic  pcoph; 
with  whom  they  canii^  In  contact  were,  so  far  as 
Is  known,  the  lioil,  probably  In  liohenda.  More 
exact  details  as  to  the  cause  and  the  direction  of 
their  mlKi'iitlon  have  not  iK'cn  recorded  by  con- 
tcniponiries  and  cannot  be  supplied  by  C(mjecture. 
.  .  .  Hut  th('  hypothesis  that  the  Chnbri,  us  well 
as  the  similar  horde  of  the  Teutones  which  after- 
wards joined  them,  belonged  In  the  main  not  to 
the  (y'eftic  nation,  to  which  the  Uonians  at  first 
assigned  them,  but  to  the  Germanic,  Is 
supported  by  the  most  dctlnlte  facts:  viz.,  by 
the  existence  of  two  small  tribes  of  the  same 
name  —  remnants  left  behind  to  all  appearance 
In  their  primitive  seats — the  C'Imbri  In  the 
mfslern  Denmark,  the  Teutones  in  the  north-east 
of  Germany  in  the  neighlwurluMxl  of  the  IJaltlc. 
where  .fythcas,  a  contwnporary  of  Alexander 
the  QreuL,  makes  mention  of  them  thus  curly  in 
j'oiinoction  with  the  umlx'r  trude;  by  the 
insertion  of  the  CImbri  and  Teutones  in  the  list 
of  the  Germanic  peoples  among  the  Ingfcvones 
niongside  of  the  Chanel;  by  the  judgment  of 
Ciesar,  who  first  made  tlio  Romans  acquainted 
with  the  distinction  between  the  Germans  and 
the  Celts,  and  who  includes  the  CImbri,  many  of 
whom  he  must  himself  have  seen,  among  the 
Germans;  and  lastly,  by  the  very  names  of  the 
peoi)le  and  the  statements  as  to  their  physical 
appearance  and  habits.  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  conceivable  enough  that  such  a  liorde,  after 
having  wandered  perhaps  for  many  years,  and 
having  doubtless  welcomed  every  brother-in- 
arms who  joined  it  in  its  movemeii's  near  to  or 
within  the  land  of  the  Celts,  would  include  a 
certain  amount  of  Celtic  elements.  .  .  .  When 
men  afterwards  began  to  trace  the  chain,  of 
which  this  emigration,  the  first  Germanic  move- 
ment which  touched  the  orbit  of  -.ncient  civili- 
zation, was  a  link,  the  direct  and  living  knowledge 
of  it  had  long  passed  away." — T.  Mommsen, 
ITi/it.  of  Rome,  hk.  4,  ch.  5. — "The  name  Kymri, 
or  Cymri,  still  exists.  It  is  the  name  that  the 
Welsh  give  themselves,  but  I  •\,m  not  aware  that 
any  other  people  have  called  iiicm  by  that  name. 
These  Kymri  are  a  branch  of  the  great  Celtic 
peonle,  and  this  resemblance  of  the  words  Kymri 
and  Cimbri  has  led  many  modern  writers  to 
assume  that    the   Cimbri    were   also   a   Celtic 


people,  as  many  of  the  ancient  writers  namo 
them.  liut  these  ancient  writers  an-  principally 
tlie  later  Greeks,  who  are  no  authority  at  all 
on  such  a  mailer.  .  .  .  Th<'  nami-  Clinbrl  hait 
perished  in  Germany,  wliUetlmt  of  the  Teutones, 
iiy  some  strange  aeeldent.  Is  now  the  tiameof  Iho 
whole  Germanl(!  population." — G.  Long,  AWi'/io 
i>f  Ihi'  Itiimitii  lliim/ilii;  r.  3,  r/i,   t. 

Al.Ho  IN:   W.  Ihne,  Ifinl.  if  li,imi\  hk,  7,  <•//.  It. 

B.C.  1 13-103.— Battle*  with  the  Romani. 
— The  CImbri  and  the  Teutones  made  tlii'lr  llrst 
nppeitrancu  on  the  Itoman  horl/.on  In  the  year 
118  IJ.  C.  when  Ihey  eiilired  .Noricum.  The 
Norlcans  were  an  independent  people,  as  yet, 
but  accepted  a  lertiiln  protect  Ion  from  Itoine, 
and  the  latter  sent  her  eon  ul,  Carbo,  with  an 
I'rmy,  to  defend  them.  Carbo  inaile  an  unfortu- 
nate attirmpt  to  di'id  Ireaeherouslv  with  Iho 
invaders  and  siilTered  an  appalling  defeat. 
Then  the  migraling  barbarians,  Invtead  of  press- 
ing into  Italy,  on  the  heels  lA  the  tlying  Itomans, 
turned  westward  through  Helvetia" to  (hiul,  and 
occupied  themselves  for  four  yeiirs  In  ravaging 
that  unhappy  country.  In  100  H.  ('.,  having 
gathered  tiielr  plunder  Into  the  forlilled  town  of 
Aduatuca  and  left  It  well  protectiMl,  they 
advanced  into  the  Iloman  province  of  Narbo, 
.Southern  Gaul,  and  demanded  land  to  settlii 
upon.  The  Romans  reslst<'d  and  were  agniti 
overwhelmingly  beaten.  Rut  even  now  thu 
victorious  host  did  not  venture  to  enter  Italy, 
and  nothing  is  known  of  Its  movements  until  10,5 
R.  ('. ,  when  a  third  Roman  army  was  defeated  in 
Roman  Gaul  an<l  Its  commaniler  taken  prisoner 
and  slain.  The  alTrighted  l^)muns  sent  strong 
recnfo.'-cemcnts  to  the  Rhone;  but  jealousy 
between  the  consul  who  commandeil  the  new 
army  and  the  proconsul  who  retained  command 
of  the  f)ld  delivered  both  of  them  to  destruction. 
They  were  virtually  annlhilateil,  Oct.  fl,  B.  C. 
10.'),  at  Arausio  (Orange),  on  the  left  bank  of  Iho 
Rhone.  It  Is  said  that  8U,(MX)  Roman  soldiers 
perished  on  tluit  dreadful  field,  liesides  half  as 
many  more  of  camp  followers.  "This  much 
is  certain,"  says  Mommsen,  "  that  only  a  few  out 
of  the  two  armies  succeeded  in  escaping,  for  tho 
Romans  had  fought  with  the  river  in  their  rear. 
\*  was  a  calamity  which  materially  and  morally 
f.  •  surpas8t!d  the  day  of  Canine."  In  the  panic 
wliich  tills  disaster  cn'\sed  at  Rome  the  consti- 
tution of  tho  Republic  was  broken  down. 
Marius,  conqueror  of  Jugurtha,  was  recalled 
from  Africa  and  not  only  re-ehiclcd  to  tho  Consul- 
ship, but  invested  with  the  otlice  for  five 
successive  years.  He  took  command  In  Gaul  and 
found  that  the  formit'able  Invaders  had  moved 
off  into  Spain.  This  gave  him  time,  fortunately, 
for  the  organizing  and  disciplining  of  his  demoral- 
ized troops.  When  the  barbarians  reappeared 
on  t!ie  Rhone,  in  the  summer  of  103  I).  C. ,  ho 
faced  them  with  an  army  worthy  of  earlier 
Roman  times.  They  had  now  resolved, 
apparently,  to  force  their  way,  at  all  hazards, 
into  Italy,  and  had  divided  tlieir  incrt'iising  host, 
to  move  on  Rome  by  two  routes.  The  Cimbri, 
reinforced  by  the  TIgorini,  who  had  joined  them, 
made  a  circuit  to  tlio  Eastern  Alps,  while  tho 
Teutones,  with  Ambrones  and  TougenI  for  con- 
federates crossed  tho  Rlione  and  attacked  tho 
defenders  of  the  western  passes.  Failing  to 
make  any  impression  on  the  fortified  camp  of 
Marius  the  Teutones  rashly  passed  it,  marching 
straight  for  the  coast  road  to  Ituiy.      Mariuii 


469 


CIMBRI  AND  TEUT0NE8. 


CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OP  THE. 


cautiously  followed  nnd  after  some  days  gave 
battle  to  the  barbarians,  in  the  distrint  of  Aqiiic 
Scxtiie,  a  few  miles  nortli  of  Massilia.  Tlic 
Uomans  that  day  t<iok  revenj^e  for  Arausio  with 
a\vf\il  int<^rest.  The  whole  barbaric  horde  was 
antiiliilated.  "So  great  was  tlic  number  of 
dead  bo<iie8  that  the  land  in  tlie  neighborlioo<l 
was  made  fertile  by  them,  and  the  people  of 
Massilia  used  the  Ixmes  for  fencing  tlieir  vine- 
yards." Meantime  tlie  Cimbri  nnd  their  fellows 
had  reached  and  penetrated  the  Brenner  pass  and 
were  in  the  valley  of  the  Adige.  The  Roman 
army  stationed  there  had  given  way  before  them, 
and  Marius  was  needed  to  roll  the  invasion  back. 
lie  did  so,  on  the  30th  of  July  B.  C.  101,  when 
the  Cimbr;  were  destroyed,  at  a  ba'tle  fought  on 
the  Raudine  Plain  near  VerccUa;,  :  is  completely 
as  the  Tcntones  had  been  destroyed  at  Aqua; 
Bcxtiffi. — T.  Mommsen,  Hint,  of  Rome,  bk.  4, 
eh.  5. 
Ai-BO  IN :  W.  Ihne,  Hut.  of  Rome,  bk.  7,  ch.  0. 


CIMBRIAN  CHERSONESUS.— The  mod- 
ern Danish  promontory  of  tlutland;  believed  to 
have  been  the  liomo  of  the  Cimbri  before  they 
migrated  southwards  and  invaded  Gaul. 

CIMINIAN  FOREST,  The.— The  moun- 
tains ol  Viterbo,  which  formed  anciently  the 
frontier  of  Rome  towards  Etruria,  were  then 
covered  with  a  thick  forest — "the  'silvaCim- 
Inia'  of  which  Livy  gives  so  romantic  a  descrip- 
tion. It  was,  however,  nothing  but  a  natural 
division  between  two  nations  which  were  not  con- 
nected by  friendship,  and  wished  to  have  little  to 
do  with  each  other.  .  .  .  This  forest  was  by  no 
means  like  the  'silva  Ilercynia'  with  which  Livy 
compares  it,  but  was  of  just  such  an  extent  that, 
according  to  his  own  account,  the  Romans  only 
wanted  a  couple  of  hours  to  march  through  it." 
— B.  Q.  Niebuhr,  Leets.  on  the  IlUt.  of  Rome, 
leet.  44. 

CIMMERIANS,  The.— "The  name  Cim- 
merians appears  in  the  Odyssey, — the  fable 
describes  them  as  dwelling  beyond  the  ocean- 
stream,  immersed  in  darkness  and  unblessed  by 
the  rays  of  Helios.  Of  this  people  as  existent 
we  can  render  no  account,  for  they  had  passed 
away,  or  lost  their  Identity  and  become  subject, 
previous  to  the  commencement  of  trustworthy 
authorities :  but  they  seem  to  have  been  the  chief 
occupants  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese  (Crimea)  and 
of  the  territory  between  thr.c  peninsula  and  tlie 
river  Tyras  (Dneister)  at  th  :  time  when  the  Greeks 
first  commenced  their  permanent  settlements 
on  those  coasts  in  the  sevcntli  century  B.  C. 
Th'i  numerous  localities  which  bore  their  name, 
even  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  after  they  had 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  nation, — as  well  as  the  tombs 
of  the  Cimmerian  kings  then  shown  near  the 
Tyras, — sufficiently  attest  the  fact;  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  they  were  —  like  their  con- 
querors and  successors  tlie  Scythians  —  a  nomadic 
people,  mare-milkers,  moving  about  with  their 
tents  and  herds,  suitably  to  the  nature  of  those 
unbroken  steppes  which  their  territory  pre- 
sented, and  which  offered  little  except  herbage 
in  profusion.  Strabo  tells  us  —  on  what  autliority 
we  do  not  know  —  that  tlicy,  us  well  as  the 
Trflres  and  other  Thracians,  had  desolated  Asia 
Jlinor  more  tlian  once  before  the  time  of  Ardys 
[King  of  Lydia,  seventh  century  B.  C]  and  even 
earlier  than  Homer." — G.  Grote,  JIM.  of  &reece, 
pt.  2,  ch.  17. — See,  also,  CuMiE. 


CIMON,  Career  of.  Sec  Atkens:  B,  C.  477- 
463,  to  .'30-449. 

CIMON,  Peace  of.  See  Athens:  B.  C.  400- 
440, 

CINCINNATI :  A.  D.  1788.— The  founding 
and  naming  of  the  city. — In  1787  "an  offer  was 
made  to  Congress  by  Jolm  Clevc  Sj  .nines  [after- 
wards famous  for  his  theory  that  the  earth  is 
hollow,  with  openings  at  the  poles],  to  buy  two 
millions  of  acres  betwf  anthe  Little  and  the  Great 
Miamis.  Symmes  was  a  .Terseyman  of  wealth, 
had  visitet'  the  Shawanese  country,  had  been 
greatly  pleased  with  its  fertility,  and  had  come 
away  declaring  that  every  acre  in  the  wildest 
part  was  worth  a  silver  dollar.  It  was  too,  he 
thought,  only  a  question  of  time,  and  a  very 
short  time,  when  this  value  would  be  doubled 
and  tripled.  Thousands  of  immigrants  were 
pouring  into  this  valley  each  j'ear,  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  acres  were  being  taken  up,  and  the 
day  would  soon  come  when  the  rich  land  along 
the  Miamis  and  the  C'hio  would  be  in  great  de- 
mand. There  was  therefore  a  mighty  fortune  in 
store  for  the  lucky  speculator  who  should  buy 
land  from  Congress  for  five  shillings  an  acre  and 
sell  it  to  immigrants  for  twenty.  But  .  .  .  his 
business  lagged,  and  though  his  offer  to  pur- 
chase was  made  in  August,  1787,  it  was  the  15th 
of  May,  1788,  before  the  contract  was  closed. 
In  the  meaatime  he  put  out  a  pamphlet  and  made 
known  his  terms  of  sale.  A  copy  soon  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Matthias  Denman.  He  became  in- 
terested in  the  scheme  and  purchased  that  section 
on  which  now  stands  the  city  of  Cincinnati.  One 
third  he  kept,  one  third  he  sold  to  Robert  Patter- 
son, and  the  remainder  to  Jolm  Filson.  The  con- 
ditions of  the  purchase  from  Symmes  gave  them 
two  years  in  which  to  begin  making  clearings 
and  building  huts.  But  the  three  determined  to 
lose  no  time,  and  at  once  matle  ready  to  lay  out 
a  city  directly  opposite  that  spot  where  the 
waters  of  the  Licking  mingled  themselves  with 
the  Ohio.  Denman  and  Patterson  were  no 
scholars.  But  Filson  had  once  been  a  school- 
master, knew  a  little  of  Latin  and  something  of 
history,  and  to  him  was  assigned  the  duty  of 
choosing  a  name  for  the  town.  .  .  .  He  determined 
to  make  one,  and  produced  a  word  that  was  a 
most  absurd  mixture  of  Latin,  Greek  and  Frenoh. 
He  called  the  place  Losnntiville,  which,  being 
interpreted,  means  the  city  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Licking.  A  few  weeks  later  the  Indians 
scalped  him.' — J.  B.  McMaster,  Hist,  of  the  Peo- 
ple of  the  U.  S.,  V.  1,  p.  516. —  The  name  given 
a  little  later  to  Filson's  settlement  was  conferred 
on  it  by  General  St.  Clair,  Governor  of  the  Ter- 
ritory, in  honor  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati. 
See  Northwest  Teruitory  of  the  U.  S.  :  A.  D. 
1788-1802. 

Ai-soiN:  F.W.  Miller,  Cincinnati's  BeginntTms. 

A.  D.  1863. — Threatened  by  John  Morgan's 
Rebel  Raid.  See  United  States  op  Am.  ; 
A.  D.  1883  (July:  Kentucky). 

CINCINNATI,  The  Society  of  the.— "Men 
of  the  present  generation  who  in  childhood  rum- 
maged in  their  grandmothers'  cosy  garrets  can- 
not fail  to  have  come  across  scores  of  musty  and 
worm-eaten  pamphlets,  their  yellow  pages 
crowded  with  italics  and  exclamation  points,  in- 
veighing in  passionate  language  against  the 
wicked  and  dangerous  Society  of  the  Cincinnati. 
Just  before  the  army  [of  the  American  Revolu- 


470 


CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OF  THE. 


CINQUE  PORTS. 


tion]  was  disbanded,  the  oflicers,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  General  Knox,  formed  themselves  [April. 
17831  into  a  secret  society,  for  the  purpose  of 
kcepuig  up  their  friendly  intercourse  and  cher- 
ishing the  heroic  memories  of  the  struggle  iu 
whicli  they  had  taken  part.  With  the  fondness 
for  classical  analogies  which  characterized  that 
time,  they  likened  themselves  to  Cincinnatus, 
V,  ho  was  taken  from  the  plow  to  lead  an  army, 
and  returned  to  his  quiet  farm  so  soon  as  his 
warlike  duties  were  over.  They  were  modern 
Cincinnati.  A  constitution  and  by-laws  were 
established  for  tlie  order,  and  Washington  was 
unanimously  chosen  to  be  its  president.  Its 
branches  in  the  several  states  were  to  hold  meet- 
ings each  Fourth  of  July,  and  there  was  to  be 
a  general  meeting  of  tlie  whole  society  every 
year  in  the  month  of  May.  French  officers  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  war  were  admitted  to 
membership,  and  the  order  was  to  be  perpetu- 
ated by  descent  through  the  eldest  male  repre- 
sentatives of  the  families  of  tlie  members.  It 
was  furflier  provided  tliat  a  limited  membersliip 
should  from  time  to  time  be  granted,  as  a  dis- 
tinguished honour,  to  able  and  worthy  citizens, 
without  regard  to  the  memories  of  tlie  war.  A 
golden  American  eagle  attached  to  a  blue  ribbon 
edged  with  white  was  tho  sacred  badge  of  the 
order ;  and  to  this  emblem  especial  favour  was 
shown  at  the  French  court,  where  th^  insignia  of 
foreign  states  were  generally,  it  is  said,  regarded 
witii  jealousy.  No  political  purpose  was  to  be 
subserved  by  this  order  of  the  Cincinnati,  save 
in  so  far  as  the  members  pledged  to  one  another 
their  determination  to  promote  and  clierisli  the 
union  between  the  states.  In  its  main  intent  the 
society  was  to  be  a  kind  of  masonic  brotherliopd, 
charged  with  the  duty  of  aiding  the  widows  and 
the  orpl.an  children  of  its  mi  mbers  iu  time  of 
need.  Innocent  as  all  this  was,  however,  the 
news  of  the  establishment  of  such  a  society  was 
greeted  with  a  howl  of  indignation  all  over  the 
country.  It  was  thought  that  its  founders  were 
inspired  by  a  deep-laid  political  scheme  for 
centralizing  the  government  and  setting  up  a 
hereditary  aristocracy.  .  .  .  The  absurdity  of  tlie 
situation  was  quickly  realized  by  Washington, 
and  he  prevailed  upon  the  society,  in  its  first 
annual  meeting  of  May,  1784,  to  abandon  the 
principle  of  hereditary  membership.  The  agita- 
tion was  thus  allayed,  and  in  the  presence  of 
graver  questions  the  inuch-dreaded  brotherhood 
gradually  ceased  to  occupy  popular  attention." — 
J.  Fiske,  The  Critical  Period  of  Am.  Hist.,  cli.  3. 
—J.  B.  McMaster,  lEd.  of  tlve  People  of  the  U.  S., 
V.  1,  ch.  3. — "Tlie  hereditary  succession  was 
never  abandoned.  A  recommendation  to  tliat 
effect  was  indeed  made  to  tlie  several  State 
Societies,  at  the  first  General  Meeting  in  Phila- 
delphia. .  .  .  But  tlie  proposition,  unwillingly 
urged,  was  accepted  in  deprecatory  terms  by 
some,  and  by  others  it  was  totally  rejected.  .  .  . 
At  the  second  General  Meeting,  it  was  resolved 
'  that  the  alterations  could  not  take  effect  until 
they  had  been  agreed  to  by  all  the  State  Societies. ' 
They  never  were  so  agreed  to,  and  consequently 
the  original  Institution  remains  in  full  force. 
Those  Societies  that  accepted  the  proposed  alter- 
ations unconditionally,  of  course  perished  with 
their  own  generation." — A.  Johnston,  Some  Ace'', 
of  thi  Sac.  of  the  Cincinnati  (Penn.  Hist.  Soc. 
Memoirs,  v.  6,  pp.  51-53). — "The  claim  to  mem- 
bership has  latterly  been  determined  not  by  strict 


primogeniture,  but  by  a  'just  elective  preference, 
especially  in  the  line  of  tlie  tlrst-born, '  who  has 
a  moral  but  not  an  absolutely  indisputable  right; 
and  membership  has  always  been  renewed  by 
election.  .  .  .  Si.\  only  of  the  original  thirteen 
states  —  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  South  Carolina  — 
are  still  [in  1873]  represented  at  tlie  General 
Meetings.  Tlie  largest  society,  that  of  Jlassa- 
chusetts,  consisting  originally  of  343  members, 
now  [1873]  numbers  less  than  80;  that  of  New 
York,  from  230  had  in  1858  decrcaseil  to  73;  the 
368  of  Pen.isylvania  to  about  «0;  the  110  of 
New  Jersey,  in  1860,  to  60;  and  the  131  of  South 
Carolina  was,  in  1849,  reduced  to  71." — F.  S. 
Drake,  Meriuirials  of  the  Soc.  of  the  CinHimati  of 
Mass.,  p.  37. 

CINCO  DE  MAYO,  Battle  of  (1862).  See 
Mexico;,  A.  D.  1861-1867. 

CINE,  The.— Kinsfolk  of  the  head  of  the 
tribe,  among  the  ancient  Iribh. 

CINQ  MARS,  Conspiracy  of.  See  France: 
A.  D.  1641-16;3. 

CINQUE  PORTS,  The.-"  Hastings,  Sand- 
wich, Dover,  Romuey,  Ilythe  —  this  is  the  order 
in  which  the  Cinque  Ports  were  ranked  in  the 
times  when  they  formed  a  nourishing  and 
important  confederation.  Winchelsca  and  Rye 
were  added  to  these  live  .  .  .  soon  after  the  Nor- 
man Conquest.  .  .  .  The  new  comers  were 
ofHcially  known  as  'the  two  Ancient  Towns.' 
Wlien  therefore  we  wish  to  speak  of  this  famous 
corporation  with  strict  accuracy  wo  say,  '  Tlio 
live  Cinque  Ports  and  two  Ancient  Towns. '  Tlie 
repetition  of  the  number  '  five '  in  this  title  proba- 
bly never  struck  people  so  much  a.s  we  might 
expect,  since  it  very  soon  came  to  be  merely  a 
technical  term,  tlie  French  form  of  the  word 
being  pronounced,  and  very  often  spelt  '  Synke ' 
or  '  Sinke,'  just  as  if  it  was  the  English  '  Sink  ' 
.  .  .  The  difference  between  the  Cinque  Ports 
and  the  rest  of  the  English  coast  towns  is  plainly 
indicated  by  mcdiaival  custom,  since  tlicy  were 
generally  spoken  of  collectively  as  '  The  Ports. ' 
.  .  .  Most  writers  upon  this  subject  .  .  .  have 
been  at  pains  to  connect  tlie  Cinque  Ports  by 
some  sort  of  direct  descent  with  the  Ave  Roman 
stations  and  fortresses  whicli,  under  the  Comes 
Littoris  Saxonicl  [see  Saxon  Siioiie,  Count  of], 
guarded  the  soutli-eastern  shores  of  Britain." 
— M.  Burrows,  The  Cinque  Ports,  eh.  1-3. — "Our 
kings  have  thought  them  [the  Cinque  Ports] 
wortliy  a  peculiar  regard ;  and,  in  order  to  secure 
them  against  inv;isions,  have  granted  tlieni  a 
particular  form  of  government.  They  are  under 
a  keeper,  who  has  the  title  of  Lord  Warden  of 
the  Cinque  Ports  (an  officer  first  appointed  by 
William  the  Conqueror),  who  has  lie  i- uthority 
of  an  admiral  among  them,  and  issues  out  writs 
in  his  own  name.  The  privileges  anciently 
annexed  to  these  ports  and  tlieir  dependents 
wen!  [among  others]:  An  exemption  from  all 
taxes  and  tolls.  ...  A  power  to  punish  foreign- 
ers, as  well  as  natives,  for  theft.  ...  A  power 
to  raise  mounds  or  banks  in  any  man's  land 
against  breaches  of  tlie  sea.  ...  To  convert  to 
their  own  use  such  goods  as  tliey  found  floating 
on  the  sea;  those  thrown  out  of  ships  in  a  storm; 
and  those  driven  ashore  when  no  wreck  or  ship 
was  to  be  seen.  To  be  a  guild  or  fraternity,  and 
to  be  allowed  the  franchises  of  court-leet  and 
court-baron.  A  power  to  assemble  and  keep  a 
portmote  or  parliament  for  the  Cinque  Ports, 


17J. 


CINQUE  PORTS. 


CISTERCIAN  ORDER. 


.  .  .  Their  bnrona  to  have  the  privilege  of  gup- 
porting  the  cnnopy  over  tlie  king's  liead  at  liis 
coronation.  In  return  for  tlicse  privilege.s  the 
Cinrjue  Port.s  were  required  tr  Hi  o>it  57  ships, 
cacli  niiinned  witli  21  men  and  a  boy,  witli 
whicli  they  were  to  attend  the  king's  service  for 
15  days  at  tlieir  own  expensf  ;  but  if  the  state 
of  affairs  reiiuired  tlieir  assistance  any  longer 
they  were  to  be  paid  by  the  crown.  ...  As  the 
term  baron  occurs  continually  throughout  all  the 
charters  of  the  Ports,  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
inform  our  readers  that  it  is  of  the  same  imiiort 
as  burge.ss  or  freeman.  .  .  .  The  representatives 
of  the  Ports  in  |)arliament  are  to  this  day  styled 
barons."  The  post  of  Warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports,  "  formerly  considered  of  so  much  honour 
and  consequence,  is  now  converted  into  a  patent 
sinecure  place,  for  life;,  with  a  sjilary  of  £4,000  a 
year." — llint.  of  the  Jloroufflui  of  Ore/it  Britain; 
tof/et/ier  with  the  Cinque  Ports,  v.  3. — The  olHceof 
Warden  of  the  Cincpie  Ports  has  been  held 
during  the  present  century  bv  Mr.  Pitt,  the  Earl 
of  Liverpool,  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  the  Enri 
of  Dalhousie,  Viscount  Palmcrston,  and  Earl 
Granville. 

CINTRA,  Convention  of.  See  Spain:  A.I). 
1808-1809  (August— .I.VNu.\Hv). 

CIOMPI,  Tumult  of  the.  See  Florence: 
A.  D.  1378-1427. 

CIRCARS,  OR  SIRKARS,  The  northern. 
See  lNr>i.\:  A.  D.  1758-1761. 

CIRCASSIANS.    See  CJaucasus. 

CIRCLES  OF  GERMANY,  The.  See 
Gekmanv:  a.  I).   149:^1519. 

CIRCUMCELLIONES,  The.     See  Dona- 

TISTS. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATION  OF  THE 
WORLD:  A.  D.  1519-1522.— Magellan's  voy- 
age :  the  first  in  history,  ^ee  America  : 
A.  D.  1519-1524. 

A.  D.  1577-1580. — Drake  voyage.  See 
A.m:HiCA:  A.  O.  1572-1580. 

CIRCUS,  Factions  of  the  Roman.—"  The 
race,  iu  its  tirst  institution  [among  the  Romans], 
was  a  simple  contest  of  two  chariots,  whose 
drivers  were  distinguished  by  white  and  red 
liveries:  two  additional  colours,  a  light  green 
and  a  cerulian  blue,  were  afterwards  introduced ; 
and  as  the  races  were  repeated  twenty-five  times, 
one  hundred  chariots  contributed  m  the  same 
day  to  the  pomp  of  the  circus.  The  four  fac- 
tions soon  acquired  a  legal  establishment  and  a 
mysterious  origin,  and  their  fanciful  colours 
were  derived  from  the  various  appearances  of 
nature  in  the  four  seasons  of  the  year.  .  .  . 
Another  interpretation  preferred  the  elements  to 
the  seasons,  and  the  struggle  of  the  green  and 
blue  was  supposed  to  represent  the  conflict  of 
the  earth  and  sea.  Their  respective  victories 
announced  either  a  plentiful  harvest  or  a  pros- 
perous navigation,  and  the  hostility  of  the  hus- 
bandmen and  mariners  was  somewhat  less  absurd 
than  the  blind  ardour  of  the  Roman  people,  who 
devoted  their  lives  and  fortunes  to  the  colour 
which  they  had  espoused.  .  .  .  Constantinople 
adopted  the  follies,  though  not  the  virtues,  of 
ancient  Rome ;  and  the  same  factions  which  had 
agitated  the  circus  raged  with  redoubled  fury  in 
the  hippodrome.  Under  the  reign  of  Anastasius 
[A.  D.  491-518J  this  popular  frenzy  was  intlamed 
by  religious  zeal;  and  the  greens,  who  had 
treacherously  concealed  stones  and  daggers  under 


baskets  of  fruit,  massacred,  at  a  solemn  festival, 
3,000  of  their  blue  adversaries.  From  the  capital 
this  pestilence  was  diffused  into  the  proviilces 
and  cities  of  the  East,  and  the  sportive  distinction 
of  two  colours  produced  two  strong  and  irrecon- 
cilable factions,  which  shook  the  foundations  of 
a  feeble  government.  ...  A  sedition,  which 
almost  laid  Constantinople  in  ashes,  w  as  excited 
by  the  mutual  hatred  and  momentary  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  two  factions. "  This  fearful  tumult, 
which  ac(iuired  the  name  of  the  Nika  scditi  m, 
from  the  cry,  "  Nika  "  (vanquish),  adopted  by  tho 
rioters,  broke  out  in  connection  with  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  festival  of  the  Ides  of  January,  A.  D. 
532.  For  five  days  the  city  was  given  up  to  tho 
mob  and  large  districts  in  it  were  burned,  in- 
cluding many  churches  and  other  stately  edi- 
fices. The  emperor  Justinian  would  have 
abandoned  his  palace  and  throne,  but  for  tho 
hen  ic  "pposition  of  his  consort,  Theodora.  On 
the  sixth  ■  lay,  the  imperial  authority  was  re-estab- 
lished  by  the  great  soldier,  Iielisarius,  after 
30,000  citizens  had  been  slain  in  the  hippodrome 
and  in  tlu  streets. — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  lio  lUtii  Empire,  ch.  40. 

CIRC  JS  MAXIMUS  AT  ROME,  The.— 
"The  races  and  wild  beast  shows  in  the  circi 
were  amon^;;  the  most  ancient  and  most  favourite 
Roman  iinusements,  and  the  buildings  dedicated 
to  these  miwrts  were  numerous,  and  nearly  equal 
in  inagiiilicence  to  the  ninphitheatrcs.  The  '^ir- 
ons Maxim  JS,  .which  was  first  provided  with 
permanent  f.cats  for  the  spectators  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Taiquinius  Priscus,  was  successively  re- 
stored and  ornamented  by  the  republican  govern- 
ment in  327  and  174  U.  C.  and  by  Julius  CfEsar, 
Augustus,  Claudiiw,  Domitian  and  Trajan.  Tho 
result  was  a  building  which,  in  dimensions  and 
magniflcei.^e,  rivalled  the  Coliseum,  but  has, 
unfortunately,  prove(\  far  less  durable,  scarcely 
a  vestige  of  it  now  being  left. " — R.  Burn,  Rome  and 
tlie  Campngnn,  int.  and  ch.  12. — See,  also,  FounM 

BOARIUM. 

CIRENCESTER,  Orign  of.    See  Corinium. 

CIRRHA.    See  Deli-iii. 

CIRRHiEAN,  OR  KIRRHiEAN  WAR, 
The.    See  Athens:  V..  C.  010-580,  and  Delphi. 

CIRTA. — A-n  ancient  Numidian  city.  Tho 
modem  town  of  Constantina  in  Algeria  is  on  it» 
site.     See  Numipians. 

CISALPINE  GAUL  (GALLIA  CISAL- 
PINA).    See  Rome:  B.  C.  390-347. 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  See  France: 
A.  D.  i. 796-1 797  (October— April);  1797  (May 
— October);  1799  (April — SeptemiJer);  and 
1801-1803. 

CISLEITHANIA.  See  Austria:  A.  D. 
1866-1807. 

CISPADANE  GAUL.— Cisalpine  Gaul  south 
of  the  Padus,  or  Po.     See  Padus. 

CISPADANE  REPUBLIC,  The.  Sec 
France:  A.  D.  1796-1797  (October— ^Vpril), 
and  1797  (May— Octoiser). 

CISSIA  (KISSIA).     See  Ela.m. 

CISTERCIAN  ORDER.— The  Monastery 
of  Citeaux. —  "Harding  was  an  Englishman 
who  spent  his  boyhood  in  the  monastery  of  Sher- 
borne in  Dorset,  till  he  was  seized  with  a  passion 
for  wandering  and  for  study  which  led  him  first 
to  Scotland,  then  to  Gaul,  and  at  last  to  Rome. 
It  chanced  that  on  his  return  thence,  passing 
through  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  ho  stopped  at 
the  abbey  of  Mol6mes.     As  he  saw  the  ways  and 


472 


CISTERCIAN  ORDER. 


CITIES,  IMPERIAL  AND  FREE. 


hnbits  familiar  to  his  cliildhood  reproduced  in 
tliose  of  tlie  monlis,  the  wanderer's  lieart  yearned 
for  tlie  peaceful  life  which  he  had  forsaken ;  he 
took  the  vows,  and  Lecame  a  brother  of  the 
house.  But  when,  with  the  zeal  of  a  convert^  ho 
began  to  look  more  closely  into  his  monastic 
obligations,  he  perceived  that  the  practice  of 
MolCmes,  and  indeed  of  most  other  monasteries, 
fell  very  far  short  of  the  strict  rule  of  8.  Benedict. 
He  remonstrated  with  his  brethren  till  they  had 
no  rest  in  their  minds.  At  last  after  long  and 
anxious  debates  in  the  chapter,  the  abbot  deter- 
mined to  go  to  the  root  of  the  matter,  and  ap- 
pointed two  brethren,  whose  learning  was 
equalled  by  their  jiiety,  to  examine  diligently 
the  original  rule  and  decla'e  what  they  found  in 
it.  The  result  of  tlieii  investigations  justified 
Hai-ding's  reproaches  and  caused  u  schism  in  the 
convent.  The  majoritj'  refused  to  alter  their 
1  ecustomcd  ways;  tlnding  they  were  not  to  be 
reformed,  the  zealous  minority,  consisting  of 
Robert  the  abbot,  Harding  himself  (or  Stephen  as 
he  was  called  in  religion)  and  sixteen  others 
equally  '  stilf -necked  in  their  holy  obstinacy,'  left 
MolCmes,  and  sought  a  new  abode  in  the  wilder- 
ness. The  site  which  they  eho.se  —  in  the  diocese 
of  Ohalon-sur-Saone,  not  far  from  Dijon  —  was 
no  happy  valley,  no  '  green  retreat '  such  as  the 
earlier  Benedictine  founders  had  been  wont  to 
select.  It  was  a  dismal  swamp  overgrown  with 
brushwood,  a  forlorn,  dreary,  unhealthy  spot, 
from  whose  marshy  character  tlie  new  house  took 
its  name  of  '  the  Cistern  ' — Cistellum,  commonly 
called  Citeaux.  There  the  little  band  set  to 
work  in  1098  to  carry  into  practice  their  views 
of  monastic  duty.  .  .  .  Three-and-twenty  daugh- 
ter houses  were  brought  to  completion  during 
his  [Harding's]  life-time.  One  of  the  earliest 
was  Pontigny,  founded  in  1114,  and  destined  in 
after-days  to  become  inseparably  associated  witli 
the  name  of  another  English  saint.  Next  year 
there  went  forth  anotlicr  Cistercian  colony, 
whose  glory  was  soon  to  eclipse  that  of  the 
mother-house  itself.  Its  leader  was  a  young 
monk  called  Bernard,  and  the  place  of  its  settle- 
ment was  named  Clairvaux.  From  Burgundy 
and  Champagne  the  'White Monks,'  as  the  Cis- 
tercians were  called  from  the  colour  of  their 
habit,  soon  spread  over  France  and  Normandy. 
In  1128  they  crossed  the  sea  and  made  an  en- 
trance Into  their  founder's  native  land." — K. 
Norgate,  England  under  the  Angevin  Kings,  v.  1, 
eh.  1. 

Also  in:  S.  R.  aiaitland,  Tlie  Bark  Ages,  21. 

CITEAUX,  The  Monastery  of.  See  Cister- 
cian Order. 

CITIES,  Chartered.  See  Com.mtjne;  also 
BoRouoiis,  and  Guilds. 

CITIES,  Free,  of  Italy.  See  Italy:  A.  D. 
1056-11.52,  and  after. 

CITIES,  Imperial  and  Free,  of  Germany. — 
"The  tenitorial  disintegration  of  Germany  [see 
Germany:  13th  Century]  had  introduced  a 
new  and  beneficial  element  into  the  national  life, 
by  allowing  the  rise  and  growth  of  the  free 
cities.  These  were  of  two  ehisses :  those  which 
stood  in  immediate  connection  with  the  Empire, 
and  were  practically  independent  republics;  and 
those  which,  while  owning  some  dependence 
vipon  spiritual  or  temporal  jirinces,  had  yet  con- 
querc!^  for  themselves  a  large  measure  of  self- 
government.  The  local  distribution  of  the 
former,  which  is  curiously  unequal,  depended 

31 


upon  the  circumstances  which  attended  the  dis- 
solution of  the  old  tribal  dukedoms.  Wherever 
some  powerful  house  was  able  to  seize  upon  tlie 
inheritance,  free  cities  were  few :  whenever  the 
contrary  was  the  case,  they  sprang  up  in  abund- 
ance. In  Swabia  and  on  the  Rhine  there  were 
more  than  a  himdrcd:  Franconia  on  the  contrary 
counted  only  N'.^rnberg  and  five  smaller  cities: 
Westphalia,  Dortmund  and  Ilerford:  whil(^  in 
Bavaria,  Regensburg  stood  alone.  .  .  .  The  Im- 
perial free  cities  .  .  .  were  self-governed,  under 
constitutions  in  which  the  aristocratic  and  the 
democratic  elements  mingled  in  various  propor- 
tions: they  provided  for  their  own  defence:  they 
were  republics,  in  the  midst  of  States  where  the 
personal  will  of  the  ruler  counted  for  more  and 
more.  ...  In  these  cities  the  refined  and 
luxurious  civilization,  to  which  the  princes  were 
indifferent,  and  on  which  the  knights  wagi'd 
predatory  war,  found  expression  in  the  pursuit 
of  letters  and  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  of  life. 
Tliere,  too,  the  Imperial  feeling,  which  was  else- 
wliere  slowly  dying  out  of  the  land,  retained 
much  of  its  force.  The  cities  held,  so  to  speak, 
directly  of  the  Empire,  to  which  they  looked  for 
protection  against  powerful  and  lawless  neigh- 
bours, and  they  felt  that  their  liberties  and 
privileges  were  bound  up  with  the  maintenance 
of  the  general  order.  ...  In  them,  too,  as  we 
might  natunilly  expect,  religious  life  put  on  a 
freer  aspect." — C.  Beard,  Martin  Lnlher  and  the 
Jicformation,  p.  16. — "  Prior  to  the  peace  of 
Luneville  [1801],  Germany  possessed  133  free 
cities,  called  Reiclistildte.  A  Reichstadt  ('  civitas 
imperii ')  was  a  town  under  the  immediate 
authority  of  the  Emperor,  who  was  represented 
by  an  imperial  oflicial  called  a  Vogt  or  ScliulHieis. 
The  first  mention  of  the  term  '  civitas  imperii ' 
(imperial  city)  occurs  in  an  edict  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  [1214-12r)0],  in  which  Lubeck  was 
declared  a  '  civitas  imperii '  in  perpetuity.  In  a 
later  edict,  of  the  year  1287,  we  tind  tliat  Kiiig 
Rudolf  termed  the  following  places  'civitales 
regni '  (royal  cities),  viz.,  Frankfort,  Friedberg, 
Wetzlar,  Oppenheim,  Wesel,  and  Boppart.  All 
these  royal  cities  subsequently  became  imperial 
cities  in  consequence  of  the  Kings  of  Germany 
being  again  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Emperors. 
During  tlie  reign  of  Louis  tlie  Bavarian  [1314- 
1347]  Latin  ceased  to  be  the  official  language, 
and  the  imperial  towns  were  designated  in  the 
vernacular  'Richstat.'  In  course  of  time  the 
imperial  towns  acquired,  either  by  purchase  or 
conquest,  their  independence.  Besides  the 
Reichstildte,  there  were  Freistttdte,  or  free  towns, 
the  principal  being  Cologne,  Basle,  Mayence, 
liatisbou.  Spires,  and  Worms.  The  free  towns 
appear  to  have  enjoyed  the  following  im- 
munities:— 1.  They  were  exempt  from  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  Emperor.  2.  They  were 
not  bound  to  furnish  a  contingent  for  any  ex- 
pedition beyond  the  Alps.  3.  They  were  free 
from  all  imperial  taxes  and  duties.  4.  They 
could  not  be  pledged.  !>.  They  were  dis- 
tinguished from  the  imperial  towns  by  not  hav- 
ing the  imperial  eagle  emblazoned  on  the  muni- 
cipal escutclieon. "  Subsequently  "the  free 
towns  were  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  the 
Reichstttdt,  and  the  term  '  Freistadt, '  or  free  town, 
was  disused.  The  government  of  the  imperial 
towns  was  in  the  hands  of  a  military  and  civil 
governor.  ...  On  the  imperial  towns  becoming 
independent,  the  adrliii'tration  of  the  town  wa» 


473 


CITIES,  IMPERIAL  AND  FREE. 


CIVIL  RIGHTS  BILL. 


entrusted  to  a  collecc  of  from  four  to  twenty- 
four  persons,  ncconlin);  to  the  population,  and 
the  nienil)ers  of  this  liind  of  town  eounci!  were 
called  either  liiitlismimn.  Uiithsfreiind,  or  Rnths- 
Lerr,  whieh  means  couneilinan  or  adviser.  The 
town  councillors  appear  to  have  si^lected  one  or 
more  of  their  number  ns  presidents,  with  the 
title  of  Rathsmeister,  Burgermoister,  or  St4»dt- 
meister.  .  .  .  -Many  of  the  imperial  towns  gained 
their  autonomy  either  by  i)urchase  or  force  of 
arms.  In  lilie  manner  we  tind  that  others  either 
lost  their  privileges  or  voluntarily  became  sub- 
jects of  some  burgravo  or  ecclesiastical  prince, 
e.  g.,  Cologne,  Worms,  and  Spires  placed  them- 
selves under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  respective 
archbishops,  whereas  Altcnburg,  Chemnitz  and 
Zwickau  were  seized  by  Frederick  the  Quarrel- 
some in  his  war  with  the  Emperor;  whilst 
othei-s,  like  Hagenau,  Colmar,  Landau,  and 
Strasburg,  were  annexed  or  torn  from  the 
German  Empire.  As  the  Imperial  towns  in- 
creased iu  wealth  and  power  they  extended  the 
circle  of  their  authority  over  the  surrounding 
districts,  and,  in  order  to  obtain  a  voice  in  the 
affairs  of  tlie  empire,  at  length  demanded  that 
the  country  imder  their  jurisdiction  should  be 
represented  at  the  Ileielmtag  (Imperial  Diet). 
To  accomplish  this,  they  formed  themselves  into 
Bunds  or  confederations  to  assert  their  claims, 
and  succeeded  in  forcing  the  Emperor  and  the 
princes  to  allow  their  representatives  to  take  part 
in  the  deliberations  of  the  Diet.  The  principal 
confederations  brought  into  existence  by  the 
struggles  going  on  in  Germany  were  the  Rhenish 
and  Suabiau  Bunds,  and  the  llansa  [see  Hansa 
Towns].  ...  At  the  Diet  held  at  Augsburg  in 
1474,  it  appears  that  almost  all  the  imperial 
towns  were  represented,  and  in  1648,   on  the 

Beace  of  Westjihalia,  when  their  presence  in  the 
'let  was  formally  recognized,  they  were  formed 
into  a  separate  college.  ...  By  the  peace  of 
Luneville  four  of  the  imperial  towns,  viz.,  Aix- 
l»Chapelle,  Cologne,  Spires,  and  Worms,  were 
ceded  to  France.  In  1803,  all  the  imperial  towns 
lost  their  autonomy  with  the  exception  of  the 
following  six: — Augsburg,  Nuremberg,  Frank- 
fort, Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen;  and  in 
1800  the  first  three,  and  in  1810  the  others, 
shared  the  same  fate,  but  iu  1815,  on  the  fall  of 
Napoleon,  Bremen,  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  and 
Frankfort,  recovered  their  freedom,  and  were 
admitted  as  members  of  the  German  Bund, 
which  they  continued  to  be  up  to  the  ye.ir  1866." 
— AV.  J.  Wyatt,  JIM.  of  Pruasia,  v.  3,  pp.  427- 
433. — "  According  to  the  German  historians  the 
period  of  the  greatest  splendour  of  these  towns 
was  during  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.  ...  In 
the  10th  century  they  still  enjoyed  tlio  same 
prosperity,  but  the  period  of  their  decay  was 
come.  The  Thirty-Yeare  War  hastened  their 
fall,  and  scarcely  one  of  them  escaped  destruc- 
tion and  ruin  during  that  jieriod.  Nevertheless, 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  mentions  them  posi- 
tively, and  asserts  their  position  as  immediate 
states,  that  is  to  say,  states  which  depended  im- 
mediately upon  the  Emperor;  but  the  neigli- 
bouriug  Sovereigns,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the 
other  the  Emperor  himself,  the  exercise  of  whose 
power,  since  the  Thirty-Years  War,  was  limited 
to  the  lesser  vassals  of  the  empire,  restricted 
their  sovereignty  within  narrower  and  narrower 
limits.  In  the  18th  century,  51  of  them  were 
still  iu  existence,  they  tilled  two  benches  at  the 


diet,  and  had  an  independent  vote  there ;  but,  in 
fact,  they  no  longer  exercised  any  intluence  upon 
the  direction  of  gen(!ral  affairs.  At  liome  they 
were  all  heavily  burthened  with  debts,  partly  bo- 
eau.se  they  continued  to  bo  charged  for  the  Im- 
perial taxes  at  a  rate  suited  to  their  former 
splendour,  and  partly  because  their  own  ad- 
ministration was  extremely  bad.  It  is  very  re- 
markable that  this  '>ad  administration  seemed  to 
be  the  result  of  so'.ne  secret  disease  which  was 
common  to  thera  all,  whatever  might  l)e  the 
form  of  their  constitution.  .  .  .  Their  popula- 
tion decreased,  and  distress  prevailed  in  them. 
Thej/^  were  no  longer  the  abodes  of  German 
civilization;  the  arts  left  them,  and  went  to 
shine  in  the  new  towns  created  by  the  Sovereigns, 
and  representing  modern  society.  Trade  forsook 
them  —  their  ancient  energy  and  patriotic  vigour 
disappc  »red.  Hamburg  almost  alone  still  re- 
mained a  great  centre  of  wealth  and  intelligence, 
but  this  was  owing  to  causes  quite  peculiar  to  her- 
self."— A.  de  Tocqueville,  State  of  Society  in 
France  before  1789,  mte  0. — See,  also,  IIanba 
Towns. — Of  the  48  Free  Cities  of  the  Empire  re- 
maining in  1803,  43  were  then  robbed  of  their 
franchises,  under  the  exigencies  of  the  Treaty  of 
Luneville  (see  Geiimany:  A.  D.  1801-1803). 
After  the  Peace  of  Pressburg  only  three  sur- 
vived, namely,  Hamburg,  Lubeck  and  Bremen 
(see  Geumanv:  A.  D.  1805-1806).  These  were 
annexed  to  France  by  Napoleon  in  1810. — See 
France:  A.  D.  1810  (Febuuaky — Decembeu). 
The  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  restored  fiee- 
dom  to  them,  and  to  Frankfort,  likewise,  and 
they  became  members  of  the  Germanic  Coa- 
fcderation  then  formed. —  See  Vienna,  Tfik 
CoNGiiEss  OP. — Lubeck  gave  up  its  privileges  as 
a  free  city  in  1866,  joining  the  Prussian  Customs 
Union.  Hamburg  and  Bremqn  did  the  same  in 
1888,  being  absorbed  in  the  Empire.  This  extin- 
guished the  last  of  the  "free  cities."  See  Ger- 
many: A.  D.  1888. 

CITY.     See  Bououoh. 

CITY  OF  THE  VIOLET  CROWN.— 
"Ancient  poets  called  Athens  'The  City  of  the 
Violet  Crown,'  with  an  unmistakable  play  upon 
the  name  of  the  Ionian  stock  to  which  it  belonged, 
and  which  called  to  mind  the  Greek  word  for 
violet." — Q.  SchOmann,  Antiq.  of  Greece:  T/ie 
State,  pt.  3,  (•/(.  3. 

CITY  REPUBLICS,  Italian.  See  Italy: 
A.  D.  1056-1153. 

CIUDAD  RODRIDGO:  A.  D.  i8lo-i3l2.— 
Twice  besieged  and  captured  by  the  French  and 
by  the  English.     See  Spain:  A.  1).  1810-1813. 

CIVES  ROMANI  AND  PEREGRIN!.— 
"Before  the  Social  orMarsic  war(B.  C.  90)  tliere 
were  only  two  classes  within  the  Roman  domin- 
ions who  were  designated  by  a  political  name, 
Cives  Romani,  or  Roman  citizens,  and  Peregrini, 
a  term  which  comprehended  the  Latini,  the  Socii 
and  the  Provinciales,  such  as  the  inhabitants  of 
Sicily.  The  Cives  Itoinani  were  the  citizens  of 
Rome,  the  citizens  of  Itoman  colonies  and  the 
inliabitants  of  the  Municipin  niiich  had  received 
the  Roman  citizenship." — 0  mg,  Decline  of  the 
li/)man  Republic,  ch.  17.—  Iso,  Rome:  B.C. 

90-88. 

CIVIL   RIGHTS  Bli  The  First.    See 

United  States  of  Am.:  ..  I).  1866  (April). — 
The  Second,  and  its  declared  unconstitution- 
ality. See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1875. 


474 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM:  ENGLAND. 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM:  ENGLAND. 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM  IN  ENG- 
LAND.—•' It  was  not  till  loMK  lifter  lH3a  tlmt 
the  itiluTcnt  mischief  of  tliii  piirtisiiii  system  [of 
appointments  in  the  national  civil  service]  l)ecan\e 
manifest  to  the  great  body  of  thinking  people. 
When  that  result  was  attained,  the  final  struggle 
■with  patronage  in  the  hands  of  members  of  Par- 
liament began  on  a  large  scale.  It  seems  to  have 
been,  even  then,  foreseen  by  the  best  informed 
that  it  could  not  be  removed  by  any  partisan 
agency.  They  began  to  sec  the  need  of  some 
method  by  which  fitness  for  the  public  service 
could  he  tested  otherwise  than  by  the  fiat  of  a 
member  of  Parliament  or  the  vote  of  the  Cal)inet 
or  the  Treasury.  What  that  metliod  should  be 
was  one  of  the  great  problems  of  the  future. 
No  government  had  then  solved  it.  That  there 
must  be  tests  of  fitness  independent  of  any 
political  action,  or  mere  ottlcial  influence,  became 
more  and  more  plain  to  thinking  men.  The 
leaders  of  the  great  i)urties  soon  began  to  see 
that  a  public  opinion  in  favor  of  sucli  U'sts  was 
being  rapidly  developed,  which  seriously  threat- 
ened their  power,  uidess  the  [larty  system  itself 
could  be  made  more  acceptable  to  the  people. 
.  .  .  There  was  an  abundance  of  fine  promises 
made.  But  no  member  gave  up  his  patronage 
—  no  way  was  opened  by  which  a  person  of 
merit  could  get  into  an  ofiice  or  a  place  except 
by  the  favor  of  the  party  or  the  condescension 
of  a  member.  The  jiartisan  blockade  of  every 
port  of  entry  to  the  pul)lic  service,  which  made 
It  tenfold  easier  for  a  decayed  butler  or  an  in- 
competent cousin  of  a  member  or  a  minister, 
than  for  the  promising  son  of  a  poor  widow,  to 
pa.ss  the  barrier,  was,  after  the  Reform  Bill  as 
before,  rigidly  maintained.  Fealty  to  the  party 
and  work  in  its  ranks  —  subserviency  to  mem- 
bers and  to  ministei's  —  and  electioneering  on 
their  behalf  —  these  wore  the  virtues  before 
which  the  ways  to  office  and  the  doors  of  the 
Treasury  were  opened.  Year  by  year,  the  public 
discontent  with  the  whole  system  increased. 
.  .  .  During  the  Melbourne  administration, 
between  1834  and  1841,  a  demand  for  examina- 
tions, as  a  condition  for  admission  to  the  service, 
came  from  two  very  different  quarters.  One 
was  the  higlier  officials,  who  declared  that  they 
could  not  do  the  public  work  with  such  poor 
servants  iis  the  partisan  system  supplied.  The 
other  was  the  more  independent,  thoughtful 
portion  of  the  people,  who  held  it  to  be  as  un- 
just as  it  was  demoralizing  for  members  of 
Parliament  and  other  officers  to  monopolize  the 
privilege  of  saying  who  might  enter  the  public 
service.  Lord  Melbourne  then  yielded  so  far  as 
to  allow  pass  examinations  to  bo  instituted  in 
some  of  tlie  larger  offices ;  and  he  was  inclined 
to  favor  competitive  examinations,  but  it  was 
tliought  to  be  too  great  an  innovation  to  attempt 
at  once.  Tliese  examinations  —  several  of  them 
being  competitive  —  introduced  by  public  officers 
in  self-defence  many  years  previous  to  1853,  had 
before  thi\t  time  produced  striking  results.  In 
the  Poor  Law  Con:  lission,  for  example,  they 
had  brought  about  a  reform  that  arrested  public 
attention.  Under  the  Comnuttee  on  Education, 
they  had  caused  tlie  selection  of  teachers  so 
much  superior  '  that  higlier  salaries  were  bidden 
for  tliem  for  private  service.'  .  .  .  These  ex- 
aminations were  steadily  extended  from  office  to 
office  down  to  the  radical  change  made  in  1853. 
...  It  had  been  provided,  long  before  1853, 


that  those  de8igne<l  for  the  civil  service  of  India, 
should  not  only  be  subjected  tc  a  piuss  examina- 
tion, but  should,  before  entering  the  service,  be 
subi('<ted  to  a  course  of  speci.:'  instruction  at 
llaileybury  College,  a  .sort  of  civil  West  Point. 
Tins  College  was  abolished  in  18.54,  but  e<iuiva- 
Icnt  instruction  was  elsewhere  provided  for. 
The  directors  had  the  patronage  of  nonnnation 
for  such  instruction.  .  .  .  If  it  seems  strange  that 
a  severe  cour.se  of  study,  for  two  years  in  such 
a  college,  was  not  sufficient  to  weed  out  the  in- 
competents wliich  patronage  forced  into  it,  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  the  same  influence  wliieh 
sent  them  there  was  used  to  keep  them  there. 
.  .  .  Both  the  Derby  and  the  Aberdeen  aundnis- 
tratlon.s,  in  1853  and  1853,  took  notice  tliat  the 
civil  service  was  in  a  condition  of  peril  to 
British  India;  and,  without  distinction  of  i)arty, 
it  was  agreed  that  radical  reforms  nuist  be 
jiromptly  made.  There  was  corruption,  there 
was  incflicieuey,  there  was  disgraceful  ignorance, 
there  was  a  humiliating  failure  in  the  govern- 
ment to  command  the  respect  of  the  more  intelli- 
gent [jortion  of  the  people  of  India,  and  there 
was  a  still  more  alarnnng  failure  to  overawe  the 
unndy  classes.  It  was  as  bad  in  the  army  iis  in  the 
civil  offices.  .  .  .  There  was,  in  short,  a  hotbed 
of  abuses  prolific  of  those  influences  which 
caused  the  fearful  outbreak  of  1857.  It  was  too 
late  when  reform  was  decided  upon,  to  prevent 
the  outbreak,  but  not  too  lute  to  save  British 
supremacy  in  India.  A  change  of  system  was 
entered  upon  in  1853.  The  30th  and  3Tth  cla\ises 
of  the  India  act  of  that  year  priividcd  '  that  all 
powers,  rights,  and  privileges  of  the  court  of 
directors  of  the  said  India  Company  to  nominate 
or  appoint  persons  to  be  adnntted  as  students 
.  .  .  shall  cease ;  and  that,  subject  to  such  regu- 
lations as  miglit  be  made,  any  person,  being  a 
natural  born  subject  of  her  Alajesty,  who  might 
be  desirous  of  presenting  himself,  should  be 
admitted  to  be  exannned  as  a  candidat<'.'  Thus, 
it  will  be  seen,  Indian  patronage  received  its 
death-blow,  and  the  same  blow  opened  the  door 
of  study  for  the  civil  service  of  India  to  every 
British  citizen.  ...  In  1853,  the  British  Govern- 
ment had  reached  a  final  decisicm  that  the 
partisan  system  of  appointments  coidd  not  be 
longer  tolemted.  Substantial  control  of  nondua- 
tionsby  members  of  Parliament,  however  guarded 
by  restrictions  and  improved  by  mere  pass 
examinations,  had  continued  to  be  demoralizing 
in  its  effect  upon  elections,  vicio\is  in  its  intluence 
upon  legislation,  and  fatal  to  economy  and 
efficiency  in  the  (lepartments.  .  .  .  The  adminis- 
tration, with  Lord  Aberdeen  at  its  head,  promptly 
decided  to  undertake  a  radical  and  systematic 
reform.  ...  It  was  decided  that,  in  the  outset, 
no  application  should  be  made  to  Parliament. 
The  reform  should  be  imdertakeu  by  the  Eng- 
lish Executive  .  .  .  for  the  time  being.  The 
first  step  decided  upon  was  an  inquiry  into 
the  exact  condition  of  tlie  public  service.  Sir 
Stafford  Northcote  (the  present  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer)  and  Sir  Cliiirles  Trevelyan  were 
appointed  in  1853  to  make  such  inciuiry  and  a 
report.  They  submitted  their  report  in  Novem- 
ber of  the  same  year.  ...  A  system  of  com- 
petitive examinations  .  .  .  [was]  recommended. 
.  .  .  The  report  was  accoinpanieilwitli  a  scheme 
for  carrying  the  examinations  into  effect,  from 
which  1  quote  the  following  passages.  .  .  . 
'  Such  a  measure  will  exercise  the  happiest  inllu- 


475 


CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM:  ENGLAND. 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM:  THE  U.  8. 


cuce  in  tlio  education  of  tlie  lower  diissps 
througliout  KnKlniul,  acting  l)y  the  surest  of  all 
motives  —  tlie  ifeaire  a  man  liasof  bettering  liiiu- 
self  in  life.  .  .  .  Tliey  will  have  attained  their 
situations  in  an  independent  manner  througli 
their  own  merits.  The  sense  of  tliis  conduct 
cannot  but  induce  self-respect  and  dilfuse  a 
wliolesonie  respect  among  tlie  lower  no  less  than 
the  liiglier  clas.ses  of  offleial  men.  .  .  .  Tlie 
elTect  of  it  in  giving  a  stimulus  to  the  education 
of  tlie  lower  classes  can  hardly  be  overestimated.' 
Such  was  ihe  spirit  of  the  report.  This  was  the 
theory  of  the  merit  system,  then  first  approved 
by  an  English  administration  for  the  home 
government.  I  hardly  need  repeat  that  the 
examinations  referred  to  as  existing  were  (witli 
small  exception)  mere  pass  examinations,  and 
that  the  new  examinations  proposed  were  open, 
competitive  examinations.  .  .  .  But  the  great 
feature  of  the  report,  which  made  it  really  a  pro- 
posal for  the  introduction  of  a  new  system,  was 
its  advocacy  of  open  competition.  Except  the 
experiment  just  put  on  trial  in  India,  no  nation 
had  adopted  that  system.  It  was  as  theoretical 
as  it  was  radical.  ...  A  chorus  of  ri<iicule, 
indignation,  lamentation,  and  wrath  arose  from 
all  the  ollicial  and  partisan  places  of  politics. 
The  government  saw  that  a  further  struggle  was 
at  hand.  It  appeared  more  clear  than  ever  that 
Parliament  was  not  a  very  hopeful  place  in 
which  to  trust  the  tender  years  of  such  a 
refortn.  .  .  .  The  executive  caused  the  report 
to  be  spread  broadcast  among  tlie  people,  and 
also  requested  the  written  opinions  of  a  large 
number  of  persons  of  worth  and  distinction  both 
in  and  out  of  office.  The  report  was  sent  to 
Parliament,  but  no  action  upon  it  was  requested. 
.  .  .  About  the  time  that  English  public  opinion 
had  pronoimced  its  first  judgment  upon  the 
oftlcial  report,  and  before  any  final  action  had 
been  taken  upon  it,  the  Aberdeen  administration 
went  out.  .  .  .  Lord  Palmerston  came  into  power 
early  in  1855,  than  whom,  this  most  practical  of 
nations  never  produced  a  more  hard-headed, 
practical  statesman.  .  .  .  Upon  his  administra- 
tion fell  the  duty  of  deciding  the  fate  of  the 
new  system  advocated  in  the  report.  .  .  .  He 
had  faith  in  his  party,  and  believed  it  would 
gain  more  by  removing  grave  abuses  than  by 
any  partisan  use  of  patronage.  .  .  .  Making  no 
direct  appeal  to  Parliament,  and  trusting  to  the 
higher  public  opinion,  Lord  Palmerston's  ad- 
ministration advised  that  an  order  should  bo 
made  by  the  Queen  in  Council  for  carrying  the 
reform  into  etiect;  and  such  an  order  was  made 
on  the  21st  of  May,  1855."— I).  B.  Eaton,  Civil 
Service  in  Oreat  Britain. 

CIVIL-SERVICE  REFORM  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES.— "The  question  as  to 
the  Civil  Service  [in  the  United  States]  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  president  has  the  power 
of  appointing  a  vast  number  of  petty  officials, 
chielly  postmasters  and  officials  concerned  with 
the  collection  of  the  federal  revenue.  Such 
officials  have  properly  nothing  to  do  with  poli- 
tics, they  are  simply  the  agents  or  clerks  or 
servants  of  the  national  government  in  conduct- 
ing its  business;  and  if  the  business  of  the 
national  government  is  to  be  managed  on  sucli 
ordinary  principles  of  prudence  as  prevail  in  tiie 
management  of  private  business,  such  servants 
ought  to  bo  selected  for  personal  merit  and  re- 
tained for  life  or  during  good  behaviour.     It  did 


not  occur  to  our  earlier  presidents  to  regard  the 
management  of  tlu^  public  business  in  any  other 
light  tlian  tills.  But  as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
tlie  jiresent  century  a  vicious  system  was  grow- 
ing up  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  In  those 
states  the  appointive  offices  came  to  be  u.sed  as 
bribes  or  as  rewards  for  partisan  services.  By 
securing  votes  for  a  successful  candidate,  a  man 
with  little  in  his  pocket  and  notliing  in  particular 
to  do  could  obtain  some  office  with  a  comfortable 
salary.  It  would  be  given  to  him  as  a  reward, 
and  some  other  man,  jierhaps  more  competent 
than  himself,  would  have  to  be  turned  out  in 
order  to  make  room  for  him.  A  more  eflectivo 
method  of  driving  good  citi/i^ns  '  out  of  politics' 
could  hardly  be  devised.  It  called  to  the  front 
a  large  class  of  men  of  coarse  moral  fibre.  .  .  . 
The  civil  service  of  these  states  was  seriously 
damaged  in  quality,  politics  degenerated  into  a 
wild  scramble  for  ofilces,  salaries  were  paid  to 
men  who  did  little  or  no  public  service  in  return, 
and  tlie  line  which  separates  taxation  from  rob- 
bery was  often  crossed.  About  tlie  same  time 
tliLre  grew  up  an  idea  that  there  is  something 
especially  democratic,  and  therefore  meritorious, 
about  'rotation  in  office.'"  On  tlie  change  of 
party  which  took  place  upon  the  election  of 
■lackson  to  the  presidency  in  1828,  "  tlie  methods 
of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  were  applied  on 
a  national  scale.  Jackson  cherished  the  absurd 
belief  that  the  administration  of  his  predecessor 
Adams  had  been  corrupt,  and  he  turned  men  out 
of  office  witli  a  keen  zest.  During  the  forty 
years  between  Washington's  first  inauguration 
and  Jackson's  the  total  number  of  removals  from 
office  was  74,  and  out  of  this  number  5  were  de- 
faulters. During  tlie  first  year  of  Jackson's  ad- 
ministration the  number  of  changes  made  in  the 
civil  service  was  about  2,000.  Such  was  tho 
abrupt  inauguration  upon  a  national  scale  of  tlio 
so-called  Spoils  System.  The  phrase  originated 
with  W.  L.  3Iarcy,  of  New  York,  who,  in  a 
speech  in  the  senate  in  1831  declared  tliat '  to  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils.' .  .  .  In  the  canvass  of 
1840  the  Whigs  promised  to  reform  the  civil 
service,  and  the  promise  brought  them  many 
Democratic  votes ;  but  after  they  had  won  tho 
election  they  followed  Jackson's  example.  The 
Democrats  followed  in  the  same  way  in  1845,  and 
from  that  time  down  to  1885  it  wa.i  customary  at 
each  change  of  parly  to  make  a  '  clean  sweep '  of 
the  offices.  Soon  after  the  Civ'il  War  the  evils  of 
the  system  began  to  attract  serious  attention  on 
the  part  of  thoughtful  people." — J.  Fiske,  Civil 
Gov't  in  the  U.  8.,  pp.  261-264.— "It  was  not 
until  1867  that  any  important  move  was  mado 
[toward  a  reform].  .  .  .  This  was  by  Mr.  Jencks, 
of  Rhode  Island,  who  introduced  a  bill,  made  an 
able  report  and  several  speeches  in  its  behalf. 
Unfortunately,  death  soon  put  an  end  to  his 
labors  and  deprived  tho  cause  of  an  able  advocate. 
But  the  seed  he  had  sown  bore  good  fruit.  At- 
tention was  so  awakened  to  the  necessity  of  re- 
form, that  President  Grant,  in  his  message  in 
1870,  called  tho  attention  of  Congress  to  it,  and 
that  body  passed  an  act  in  March,  1871,  which 
authorized  the  President  to  prescribe,  for  admis- 
sion to  tho  Civil  Service,  such  regulations  as 
would  best  promote  its  efficiency,  and  ascertain 
the  fitness  of  each  candidate  for  the  position  he 
sought.  For  this  purpose,  it  says,  he  may  '  em- 
ploy suitable  persons  to  conduct  such  inquiries, 
and  may  prescribe   their  duties,  and  establish 


476 


CIVIL-SERVICE  REFOKM;  THE  U.  8, 


CLAIRVAUX. 


TC'guliitions  for  ttie  conduct  of  persons  who  miiy 
receive  appointments  in  the  Civil  Service.'  In 
accordiinco  wltii  tills  act,  President  Oriint  ap- 

Solnted  a  Civil  Service  Commission,  of  wliich 
eorgo  William  Curtis  was  made  chairman,  after- 
wards succeeded  by  Dorman  B.  Eaton,  and  an 
Bi)propriatlon  of  $25,000  was  made  by  ConKr<'ss 
to  defray  its  expenses.  A  like  sum  was  voted 
ne.vt  year;  but  after  that  notlilng  was  granted 
untilJune,  1882,  when,  instead  of  §2.'),  000  asked 
for  by  the  President,  S1.'),0()()  was  grudgingly 
appropriated.  It  is  due  to  Mr.  Silas  W.  Burt, 
IJaval  Officer  in  New  York,  who  had  long  been 
greatly  interested  in  the  8ul)ject  of  Reform,  to 
say  tliat  he  deserves  tlie  credit  of  having  been  tlie 
first  to  introduce  open  competitive  examinations. 
Before  the  appointment  of  Grant's  committee,  he 
]iad  held  sucli  an  examination  in  his  oltice.  .  .  . 
Under  Grant's  commission,  open  competitive  ex- 
aminations were  intnKluced  in  the  departments 
at  Wasliington,  and  Customs  Service  at  New 
York,  and  in  part  in  the  New  York  Postofflcc. 
Although  tills  commission  labored  under  many 
disadvantages  in  trying  a  new  experiment,  it  was 
able  to  make  a  very  satisfactory  report,  which 
was  approved  by  the  President  and  liis  cabinet. 
.  .  .  'file  rules  adopted  by  Grant's  commission 
were  prepared  by  the  chairman,  Sir.  Curtis. 
They  were  admirably  adapted  for  their  purpose, 
and  have  served  as  the  basis  of  similar  rules  since 
then.  The  great  interest  taken  by  Mr.  Curtis  at 
that  time,  and  the  practical  value  of  his  work, 
entitled  him  to  be  regartled  as  the  leader  of  the 
Reform.  .  .  .  Other  able  men  took  an  active  part 
in  the  movement,  but  tlie  times  were  not  pro- 
pitious, public  sentiment  did  not  sustain  them, 
and  Congress  refused  any  further  appropriation, 
although  the  President  asked  for  it.  As  a  con- 
sequence, Competitive  Examinations  were  every- 
where suspended,  and  a  return  made  to  'pass 
examinations.'  And  this  method  continued  in 
use  at  Washington  until  July,   1883,   after  the 

{lassage  of  the  Civil  Service  Reform  Act.  .  .  . 
'resident  Hayes  favored  reform  of  the  Civil 
Service,  and  strongly  urged  it  in  his  messages  to 
Congress;  yet  he  did  things  not  consistent  witli 
his  professions,  and  Congress  paid  little  attention 
to  his  recommendations,  and  gave  him  no  ef- 
fectual aid.  But  we  owe  it  to  liim  that  an  order 
was  passed  in  March,  1870,  enforcing  the  use  of 
competitive  examinations  in  the  New  York  Cus- 
tom House.  The  entire  charge  of  this  work  was 
given  to  Mr.  Burt  by  the  Collector.  ...  In  1880, 
Postmaster  James  revived  tlie  competitive 
methods  in  some  parts  of  his  ollicc.  .  .  .  When 
the  President,  desiring  that  these  examinations 
sliould  be  more  general  and  uniform,  asked  Con- 
gress for  an  appropriation,  it  was  refused.  But, 
notwitlistanding  this,  competitive  examinations 
continued  to  be  held  in  the  New  York  Custom 
House  and  PostotBce  until  the  passage  of  the 
Reform  Act  of  1883.  Feeling  that  more  light 
was  needed  upon  the  methods  and  progress  of 
reform  in  other  countries,  President  Hayes  had 
formally  requested  Mr.  Dorman  B.  Eaton  to 
visit  England  for  the  purpose  of  making  such  in- 
quiries. Mr.  Eaton  spent  several  months  in  a 
cjireful,  thorough  examination;  and  his  report 
was  transmitted  to  Congress  in  December,  1879, 
by  the  President,  in  a  message  wliicli  described 
it  as  an  elaborate  and  comprehensive  history  of 
the  whole  subject.  This  report  was  afterwards 
embodied  in  Mr.  Eaton's  '  Civil  Service  in  Great 


Britain.'.  .  .  For  this  invaluable  service  Mr. 
f^aton  received  no  <:onipensation  from  the  (Jovem- 
ment,  not  even  his  personal  expenses  to  England 
having  been  paid.  And  to  Mr.  Eaton  is  due, 
also,  the  credit  of  originating  Civil  Service  Re- 
form Associations." — H.  Laniliert,  T/ii<  I'rogrcus 
iif  t'ieil  firciee  Jltfuriit,  in  the  Unitid  Sldti'n,  pp. 
O-IO.— "The  Na't'onal  Civil  Service  Reform 
League  was  organized  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  on  tlio 
Utli  of  August,  1881.  It  was  the  res\iU  of  a 
conference  among  members  of  civil  service  reform 
associations  that  had  spontaneously  arisen  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  for  the  purpose  of 
awakening  public  interest  in  the  question,  like 
the  clubs  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty  among  our 
fathers,  and  tlie  anti-slavery  societies  among 
their  cliildren.  The  first  act  of  the  League  was 
a  resolution  of  hearty  approval  of  the  bill  then 
pending  in  Congress,  known  as  the  Pendleton 
bill.  Within  less  than  two  years  afterward  the 
Civil  Service  law  was  passed  in  Congress  by  a 
vote  in  the  Senate  of  38  yeas  to  5  nays,  33  Sen- 
ators being  absent,  and  in  the  House  only  a  week 
later,  by  a  vote  of  155  yeas  to  47  nays,  87  mem- 
btrs  not  voting.  In  the  House  t:ie  bill  was  put 
upon  its  passage  at  once,  the  Speaker  permitting 
only  thirty  minutes  for  debute.  This  i  wift  en- 
actment of  righteous  law  was  due,  undoubtedly, 
to  the  panic  of  the  party  of  administration,  a 
panic  whicli  saw  in  the  disastrous  result  of  the 
recent  election  a  demand  of  the  country  for 
honest  politics;  and  it  was  due  also  to  the  exult- 
ing belief  of  the  party  of  opposition  that  the  law 
would  essentially  weaken  the  dominant  party 
by  reducing  its  patronage.  The  sudden  and  over- 
whelming vote  was  tliat  of  a  Congress  of  which 
probably  the  members  had  very  little  individual 
knowledge  or  conviction  upon  the  subject.  But 
the  instinct  in  regard  to  intelligent  public  opinion 
was  UL'doubtedly  sure,  and  it  is  intelligent  public 
opinion  which  always  commands  the  future. 
.  .  .  Tlie  passage  of  the  law  was  the  first  great 
victory  of  the  ten  years  of  tlie  reform  movement. 
The  second  is  the  demonstration  of  the  complete 
practicability  of  reform  attested  by  the  heads  of 
the  largest  offices  of  auministration  in  the  country. 
In  the  Treasury  and  Navy  departments,  the  New 
York  Custom  House  and  Post  Office,  and  other 
important  ■  ustom  houses  and  post  offices,  without 
the  least  regard  to  the  wishes  or  the  wrath  of  that 
remarkable  class  of  our  fellow -citizens,  known  as 
political  bosses,  it  is  conceded  by  officers,  wholly 
beyond  suspicion  of  party  independence,  that,  in 
these  chief  brandies  of  the  public  service,  reform 
is  perfectly  practicable  and  the  reformed  system 
a  great  public  benefit.  And,  although  as  yet 
these  offices  are  by  no  means  tlioroughly  reorgan- 
ized upon  reform  principles,  yet  a  ((uartcr  of  the 
wliole  number"  of  places  in  the  public  service  to 
which  the  reformed  methods  apply  are  now  in- 
cluded within  those  methods."— G.  W.  Curtis, 
Address  at  Annual  Meeting  of  t!ui  Xational  Cinl- 
Servi-,  Reform  League,  18i)l. 

CIVILIS,  Revolt  of.  See  Batavians:  A.  D. 
69. 

CIVITA-CASTELLANA,  Battle  of  (1798). 
SeeFu.\NCE:  A.  D.  1798-1799  (Aikiust—Ai'iul). 

CIVITELLA,  Siege  of  (1557).  See  Fuance: 
A.  D.  1547-1559. 

CLAIR-ON-EPTE,  Treaty  of.  See  Non- 
manb:  a.  1).  876-911. 

CLAIRVAUX,  The  Monastery  of.— St.  Ber- 
nard, "the  greatest  reformer  of  the  abuses  of 


477 


CLAIRVAUX. 


CLANS. 


tho  monastic  life,  If  not  the  gn'ut<!gt  monk  In 
history  FA.  I).  1001-1153]  .  .  .  revived  the  priic- 
tice  In  tlie  monastery  of  Clteiiux,  wliicli  he  llrst 
rntereil,  and  in  tliut  of  Clairvaux,  wliieli  Im; 
ufUTwards  founded,  of  llie  Nternest  diseii)iine 
wliicli  liiid  l)een  enjoined  liy  St.  Heuediet.  lie 
iK'cumc!  tlie  Ideal  type  of  the  perfect  monl(.  .  .  . 
lie  was  not  a  I'opi',  but  he  was  greater  than  any 
I'op<!  of  his  day,  and  for  nearly  half  a  century 
t\w  history  of  tiie  Chrislian  Cliurch  is  the  history 
of  the  Intliienee  of  one  monk,  the  Abbot  of 
Clairvaux. " — C.  J.  Stille,  Studies  in  Meiliirral 
Hint,,  eh.  12.  —  "The  convent  of  Citeaux  was 
found  too  small  for  tlie  number  of  persons  who  de- 
sired to  join  the  society  which  could  boast  of  so 
eminent  a  saint.  Finding  his  influence  beneticial, 
Bernard  proceeded  to  founil  a  new  monastery. 
The  spot  wlii<'h  he  chose  for  his  purpose  was  ni 
a  wild  and  gloomy  vale,  formerly  known  as  the 
Valley  of  Wormwood.  .  .  .  The  district  i)er- 
taineil  to  the  bishopric  of  Laugres;  and  here 
Uernard  raised  his  far  famed  abbey  of  Clair- 
vaux."— II.  Stebbing,  Hint,  of  C'hriat's  Unie. 
Church,  ch.  2«. 

AiiHO  IN ;  A.  Butler,  Lireii  of  the  Saints,  v.  8. — 
W.  P.  Hook,  KcdeHimtinil  liioy.,  v.  2.— J.  C. 
Morison,  Life  and  Times  of  St.  Bernard. — See, 

also,  CiSTKllCIAN  Okueu. 

CLANS,  Highland.—"  The  word  Clan  signi- 
fies simply  cliildren  or  descendants,  and  the  clan 
name  thus  implies  tliat  the  members  of  it  are  or 
were  suppo.sed  to  be  descended  from  a  common 
ancestor  or  eponymus,  and  they  were  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  their  patronymics, 
the  use  of  surnames  In  the  proper  sense  being 
unknown  among  them.  [SccGenh,  Ro.man.]  .  .  . 
In  considering  the  genealogies  of  the  Highland 
clans  we  must  bear  In  mind  that  in  the  early 
state  of  the  tribal  organisjition  the  pedigree  of 
tlie  8ei)t  or  clan,  and  of  each  member  of  the 
tribe,  had  a  very  important  meaning.  Their 
rights  were  derived  through  the  common  ancestor, 
and  their  relation  to  him,  and  through  him  to 
each  other,  indicutcd  their  position  in  the  suc- 
cession, as  well  as  their  place  In  the  allocation  of 
the  tribe  land.  In  such  a  state  of  society  the 
pedigree  occupied  the  same  position  as  the  title- 
deed  of  tlie  feudal  system,  and  the  Scnnachics 
were  as  much  tin;  custodiers  of  the  rights  of 
families  as  the  mere  panegyrists  of  the  clan. 
.  .  .  During  the  16th  century  the  clans  were 
brought  into  direct  contact  with  tlie  Crown,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  it  serious  efforts  were  made 
by  the  Legislature  to  establish  an  eflicient  control 
over  tliem.  These  gave  rise  to  the  Acts  of  1587 
and  1504  .  .  .  ;  but  they  were  followed  in  a  few 
years  by  an  important  Statute,  which  had  a 
powerful  effect  upon  the  position  of  the  clans, 
and  led  to  another  great  change  iU  the  theory  of 
their  descent.  .  .  .  Tlie  chiefs  of  ,  ..e  clans  thus 
found  themselves  compelled  to  defend  their 
rights  upon  grounds  wliicli  could  compete  witli 
the  claims  of  their  eager  opponents,  and  to 
maintain  an  equality  of  rank  and  prestige  with 
them  in  the  Heralds'  Ollice,  which  must  drive 
them  to  every  device  necessary  to  effect  their 
purpose ;  and  they  would  not  hesitate  to  manu- 
facture titles  to  the  land  when  they  did  not 
exist,  and  to  put  forward  spurious  pedigrees 
better  calculated  to  maintain  their  position  when 
a  native  descent  had  lost  its  value  and  was  too 
weak  to  serve  their  purpose.  From  this  period 
MS.  histories  of  the  leading  Highland  families 


began  to  lie  complied,  in  which  these  pretensions 
were  advanced  and  spurious  charters  Inserted. 
.  .  .  Tlie  form  which  these  pretentious  genealo- 
gies took  was  tliat  of  making  the  eponymus  or 
male  ancestor  of  the  clan  a  Norwegian,  Dane,  or 
Norman,  or  a  cadet  of  some  distinguished  family, 
who  succeeded  to  the  clilefship  and  to  the  terri- 
tory of  the  clan  by  marriage  with  the  daughter 
ana  heiress  of  the  last  of  the  old  Celtic  line,  thus 
combining  the  advantage  of  a  descent  which 
could  compete  with  that  of  the  great  Norman 
families  with  a  feudal  succession  to  their  lands ; 
and  (he  new  form  of  the  clan  genealogy  wouUl 
have  the  greater  tendency  to  assume  this  form 
wliere  the  clan  name  was  derived  not  from  a 
|)ers()iial  name  or  patronymic  but  from  a  personal 
epithet  of  its  founder.  .  .  .  The  conclusion,  then, 
to  which  [an]  analysis  of  the  clan  pedigrees 
which  have  been  popularly  acc(!pted  at  <llfferent 
times  has  brought  us.  Is  that,  so  far  as  they  pro- 
fess to  show  the  origin  of  tlie  different  clans, 
they  are  entirely  artlllclal  and  untrustworthy, 
but  that  the  older  genealogies  may  be  accepted 
as  showing  the  descent  of  the  clan  from  its 
eponymus  or  founder,  and  within  reasonable 
limits  for  some  generations  beyond  him,  while 
the  later  spurious  pedigrees  must  be  rejected 
altogether.  It  may  seem  surprising  tliat  such 
spurious  pedigrees  and  fabulous  origins  should 
be  so  readily  credited  by  the  Clun  families  as 
genuine  traditions,  and  receive  such  prompt 
acceptance  as  the  true  fount  from  wliicli  they 
sjjrung ;  but  we  must  recollect  that  the  fabulous 
history  of  Hector  Uik'cc  was  as  rapidly  and 
universally  adopted  as  the  genuine  annals  of  the 
national  history,  and  became  rooted  in  those 
parts  of  the  country  to  which  its  flctitious  events 
related  as  local  traditions.  AVlien  Hector  Boeco 
invested  the  ob.scure  usurper  Grig  with  the  name 
and  attributes  of  a  fictitious  king,  Gregory  the 
Great,  and  connected  him  with  the  royal  line  of 
kings,  the  Clan  Gregorat  once  recognised  him  as 
their  eponymous  ancestor,  and  their  descent  from 
him  Is  now  implicitly  believed  In  by  all  the 
JlacGregors.  It  is  possible,  however,  from  these 
genealogies,  and  from  other  Indications,  to  dis- 
tribute the  clans  in  certain  groups,  as  having 
apparently  a  closer  connection  with  each  other, 
and  these  groups  we  hold  in  the  main  to  repre- 
sent the  great  tribes  Into  which  the  Gaelic  popu- 
lation was  divided  before  they  became  broken 
up  into  clans.  The  two  great  tribes  which 
possessed  the  greater  part  of  the  Highlands  were 
the  GttUgaldheal  or  Gael  in  the  west,  who  had 
been  under  the  power  of  the  Norwegians,  and 
the  great  tribe  of  the  Moravians,  or  Jlen  of 
Moray,  in  the  Central  and  Eastern  Highlands. 
To  the  former  belong  all  the  clans  descended  of 
the  Lords  of  the  Isles,  the  Campbells  and  Mac- 
leods  jirobably  representing  the  older  inliabitants 
of  their  respective  districts;  to  the  latter  belong 
in  the  main  the  clans  brought  In  the  old  Irish 
genealogies  from  the  kings  of  Dalriada  of  the 
tribe  of  Lorn,  among  whom  the  old  Mormacrs 
of  Moray  appear.  The  group  containing  the 
Clan  Andres  or  old  Rosses,  the  !Mackcnzies  and 
Mathesons,  belong  to  the  tribe  of  lloss,  the  Clan 
l)onnachy  to  Atliole,  the  Clan  Lawren  to  btrat- 
herne,  and  the  Clan  Pharlane  to  Lennox,  while 
the  group  containing  the  MacNabs,  Clan  Gregor, 
and  Mackinnons,  appear  to  have  emerged  from 
Glcndochart,  at  least  to  be  connected  with  the 
old  Columban  monasteries.    The  Clans,  properly 


m 


CLANS. 


CLIVE  IN  mniA. 


w  cnllcil,  were  thus  of  niitivo  origin;  the  §ur- 
nnmci*  partly  of  niitlvc  jtiid  partly  of  fori'lpn 
dcwcnt."— W.  F.  Skene,  Crltie  S;,ll,iii(l.  M:  M, 
ell.  1)  (r.  H). 

CLARENDON,  The  Constitutions  and  the 
Assize  of.     See  KNdi.ANO;  A.  I).  UfW-U70. 

CLARIAN  ORACLE,  The.    See  Ohacles 

OK  TIIK  (JllKKKH. 

CLARK,  George  Rogers,  and  the  conquest 
of  the  Northwest.  See  Uniti:i>  Statics  ok  .Vm.  : 
A.  I).  I77H-I77i». 

CLAUDIUS,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  41-54. 
....Claudius  IL,  A.  I).  i(lK-j7(l. 

CLAVERHOUSE  AND  THE  COVE- 
NANTERS. Se<' Scotland;  A.  D.  1079;  1081- 
10H»,  mill  l'!Hi)(.h-i,Y). 

CLAY,  Henry,  and  the   war  of  l8l2.     ^co 

Fnitko   St.vtks  ok  Am.:  A.  D.  1810-1812 

Negotiation  of  the  Treaty  of  Ghent.  See 
UnitiodStatksok.Vm.  :  A.  1).  1814(I)ECK.\tliK!0. 

And    the    Tariff   question.      Bee    Taiukp 

Lk(iihi,ation(Unitki>  Statics):  A.  I).  1810-1821. 
and  18;)3;  uml  Unitkd  Statics  ok  Am.:  A.  I). 

1828-1833 And  the  Missouri  Compromise. 

Sec  U.NiTici)  Statics  ok  Am.:  .V.  I).  1818-1H21. 

In  the  Cabinet  of  President  John  Quincy 

Adams.  See  Unitkd  Statics  ok  Am.  :  A.  I). 
182.'V-1828 Defeat  in  the  Presidential  elec- 
tion.    See  Unitici)  Statks  ok  Am.  :  A.  I).  1844. 

The  Compromise  Measures  of  1850.     See 

L'nitkd  States  ok  A.m.  :  A.  1).  18.")0. 

CLAYBANKS  AND  CHARCOALS.— 
During  IIh;  American  civil  war  the  (loiiservative 
and  liiulicnl  factions  in  Missouri  were  sonietiiuos 
called  Claybanks  and  (Jliareoals. — .1.  O.  TCicolay 
and  .1.  Hav,  Ahni/niin,  l.iiicnln,  >\  8,  /».  204. 

CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY,  The. 
See  Nicauaoua:  A.  D.  1850. 

CLEAR  GRITS.  See  Canada:  A.  D.  1840- 
1807. 

CI  EISTHENES,  Constitution  of.  Sec 
Athens:  B.  C.  r)10-507. 

CLEMENT  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1046-1047 

Clement  III.,  Pope,  A.  I).  1187-1191 Clem- 
ent IV.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1205-1208 Clement  V., 

Pope,  A.  D.  1305-1314 Clement  VI.,  Pope, 

A.  D.  1342-1353 Clement  VII.,  Pope,  A.  I). 

1378-1394  (Antipopc   at  Avignon) Clement 

VII.,  Pope,  A.  1).  1523-1534 Clement  VIII., 

Pope,  A.  D.  1591-1605 Clement  IX.,  Pope, 

A.  D.  1667-1609 Clement  X.,  Pope,  A.  I). 

1670-1676 Clement  XI.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1700- 

1731 Clement    XII.,    Pope,    A.    D.    1730- 

1740 Clement   XIII.,  Pope,   A.    D.     1758- 

1709 Clement  XIV.,  Pope,  A.  1).  1769-1774. 

CLEOMENIC  (KLEOMENIC)  WAR, 
The.     See  Queece:  B.  C.  280-146. 

CLEOPATRA  AND  CiESAR.    See  Alex- 

ANDiuA:    B.  C.   48-47 And  Mark  Antony. 

See  Rome:  B.  C.  31. 

CLEOPATRA'S  NEEDLES.— "The  two 
obelisks  known  as  Cleopatra's  Needles  were 
originally  setup  by  Tbothmes  III.  at  Heliopolis. 
Augustus  transferred  them  to  Alexandria,  where 
they  remained  until  rccetjtlv.  At  present  (July, 
1880)  one  ornamenta  the  "Thames  Embankment 
[Loudon]  while  the  other  is  on  its  way  to  the 
United  States  of  America. " — G.  Itivwlinson,  Hist, 
of  Ancient  Egypt,  ch.  20,  note. — The  obelisk  last 
mentioned  now  stands  in  Central  Park,  New 
York,  having  been  brought  over  and  erected  by 
Commander  Gorringe,  at  the  expense  of  the  late 
William  H.  Vanderbilt.- 11.  II.  Gorringe,  Egyp- 


tian Ohfli»k». — 8<H!,  also,  Eoytt:  AnotTT  B.  C. 
17(H)-M(M). 

CLEPHES,  King  of  the  Lombards,  A.  D. 
r)73-5H(t. 

CLERGY,  Benefit  of.  See  Bk.nkkit  ok 
('i.icmiY. 

CLERGY  RESERVES.  See  Canada: 
A.  I).  1837. 

CLERMONT.     See  (m.kgovia  op  tub  Au- 

VEUNI. 

CLERMONT,  The  Council  of.— Speech  of 
Pope  Urban.     S<'c  CiirsADKs:  .\.  I).   lOilt. 

CLERUCHI.     See  Ki.iciiK  lis. 

CLEVELAND,  Grover  :  First  Presidential 
election    and     administration.      See    I'mtki) 

St.vtesok  .\m.  ;  A.  I).   1884  to  1889 De'eat 

in  Presidential  election.     Sec  United  Statics 

OP  Am.:   a.  I).   1888 Second   Presidential 

election.  See  United  Statics  ok  A.m.  :  \.  I). 
18112. 

CLEVELAND:  The  founding  and  naming 
of  the  City  (1796).    See  Ohio;  .V.  I),   178(I-I7!M1. 

CLICHY  CLUB.  — CLICHYANS,  The. 
See  FitANCE;  A.  D.  1797  (Ski-ticmiieu). 

CLIENTES,  Roman.— "To  fihe  Homanl 
family  or  bou-sehold  united  uiiilcr  the  eoiitrol  of 
a  living  ma.ster,  and  tlie  claii  which  originated 
out  of  the  breaking  up  of  such  liousehiilds,  lliere 
furthiT  belonged  the  dependents  or  'listeners' 
(elientes,  from  'cluere').  Tliis  term  denoted  not 
theguest.s,  tiiat  is,  the  ineinbers  of  similar  circles 
who  wcr(!  temporarily  sojourning  in  another 
household  than  their  own,  and  still  less  the 
slaves  who  were  looked  upon  iu  law  as  the  prop- 
erty of  the  household  and  not  as  nieinhers  of  it, 
but  those  individuals  who,  while  they  were  not 
free  burges.ses  of  any  commonwealth,  y<'t  lived 
within  one  in  a  condition  of  protected  freedom. 
The  class  included  refugees  who  hud  found  a  re- 
ception with  a  foreign  protector,  and  those  slaves 
in  respect  to  whom  their  master  had  for  the  time 
being  waived  the  exercise  of  his  rights,  and  so 
conferred  on  them  practical  freedom.  Tliis  rela-. 
ti<m  had  not  properly  the  character  of  a  relation 
'  de  jure,'  like  the  relation  of  a  man  to  his  guest 
or  to  his  slave:  the  client  remained  non-free, 
although  good  faith  and  use  and  wont  alleviated 
in  his  case  the  condition  of  non-frcedoin.  Hence 
'  the  '  listeners '  of  the  household  (elientes)  together 
with  the  slaves  strictly  so-called  formed  the 
'  body  of  servants '  ('  familia ')  dependent  on  the 
will  of  the  'burgess'  ('patronus,'  like  '  patri- 
cius')." — T.  Mommscn,  Jliat.  of  li/nne,  bk.  1, 
ch.  5. 

Also  in:  Pastel  De  Coulanges,  Tlie  Ancient 
City,  bk.  4,  ch.  1  and  6. 

CLINTON,  Dewitt,  and  the  Erie  Canal. 
SeeNEW  Yoiik:  A.  D.  1817-1825. 

CLINTON,  George,  The  first  Governor  of 
New  York.     See  New  Youk:  A.  1).  1777. 

CLINTON,  General  Sir  Henry,  and  the 
war  of  the  American  Revolution,  Sec  United 
States  OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  1775(Ai'Hii.— .May);  1776 
(June),  (August);  1778  (June);  1778-1779;  1780 
(Februauy— AuousT);  1781  (Januauy). 

CLINTONIANSAND  BUCKTAILS.  See 
New  Youk:  A.  I).  1817-1819. 

CLISSAU  OR  CLISSOW,  Battle  of  (1703). 
See  Scandinavian  Statics  (Sweden);  A.  1). 
1701-1707. 

OLIVE'S  CONQUESTS  AND  RULE  IN 
INDIA.  See  Indl^:  A.  D.  1743-1752,  to  1757- 
1773. 


479 


CLOACA  MAXIMA. 


CLuns. 


CLOACA  MAXIMA  OF    ROME,  The.— 

"  Kvni  III  till'  ptTwiil  iliiy  llirrc  HtiindH  uiiclmiiKcil 
tli«  Krciit  wwcr,  the  'cloiicii  iiiiixiiiia,'  tlic  olijcct 
of  wlilrli,  it  limy  lie  iiltscrvi'd,  wild  iKit  iiicri'ly  to 
curry  iiwiiy  tlin  rcfiiw-of  tli<?  clly,  Init  cliiclly  Id 
ilniiii  the  liirt'c  lake  wlilcli  wiiH  foriricil  liy  I  lie 
TIImt  liclwccn  the  Ciipiloliiii',  Avciilliic  iinil  I'jilii- 
liiir.  tlii'ii  cMi'iuli'd  liclwccii  the  I'alatiiit'  and 
('apitdliiic,  anil  rrailii'd  iih  a  Nwanin  iih  far  iiMtlic 
district  lictwi'i'ii  the  (jiiiriniil  and  Viiniiial.  Tills 
worii,  consisting;  of  tliri'C  scnilrlrrlcs  of  iiniiii'iiso 
Hqiiaii'  blocks,  uliicli,  tliouKli  willioiit  mortar, 
liavu  not  to  this  day  niovcil  ii  knife's  lirciidtli 
from  oiii'  anotluT  .  .  .  c<iualliiiff  the  pyramids 
in  cvtcnt  and  niassivcncss,  far  surpasses  llicm  in 
tlit'dilllciilty  of  its  execution.  It  Is  so  gigantic, 
tliiit  the  more  one  examines  it  tlic  more  liieon- 
celvalile  it  iM'comes  liow  even  a  large  and  power- 
ful state  could  have  excKiuted  It.  .  .  .  Whether 
the  cloaca  nia.xima  was  actually  executed  by 
Taniuiniis  IVisciis  or  by  his  son  Superbiis  is  a 
()Uestlon  about  wliicli  the  ancients  themselves  are 
not  agreed,  and  respecting  whicli  true  historical 
criticism  cannot  presume  to  decide.  Hut  thus 
much  may  lie  said,  that  the  structure  must  have 
been  completed  before  tile  city  encompassed  tlie 
space  of  the  seven  lillls  and  formed  a  compact 
whole.  .  .  .  But  such  a  work  cannot  possilily 
have  been  executed  by  the  powers  of  a  state  such 
as  Home  is  said  to  have  been  in  those  times." — 
B.  O.  Niebulir,  LccU.  on  the  JIM.  of  Home,  leeta. 
6  anil  8. 

CLODOMIR,  King  of  the  Franks,  at  Or- 
leans, A,  1).  riii-,wt. 

CLONARD,  Monastery  of. — .V  great  monas- 
tery founded  in  Aleath,  Ireland,  b^'  St.  Finuian, 
in  the  sixth  century,  "  which  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained no  fewer  than  3,000  monks  and  which  be- 
cameu  great  training-school  in  the  monastic  life." 
Tlie  twelve  principal  <lisciple8  of  FInnian  were 
called  the  "Twelve  Apostles  of  Ireland,"  St. 
Columba  being  the  chief.— W.  F.  Skene,  Celtic 
Scotldiitl.  U:  2,  eh.  2. 

CLONTARF,  Battle  of.  SeeliiEL.VND:  A.D. 
1014. 

CLONTARF  MEETING,  The.  8eo  Ihe- 
LANl):  A.  I).  1841-1848. 

CLOSTER-SEVEN,  Convention  of.     See 
Qeu.manv:   A.  I).  1757  (July— Dkckmueu),  and  < 
1758. 

CLOTHAIRE  I.,  King  of  the  Franks,  A.  D. 

511-5(11 Clothaire  II.,  King  of  the  Franks 

(Neustria),  A.  1).  .584-028 ;  (Austrasia),  613-822; 

Burgundy,  «13-«28 Clothaire  III.,  King  of 

the  Franks  (Neustria  and  Burgundy),  A.  I). 

660-070 Clothaire  IV.,  King  of  the  Franks 

(Austrasia),  A.  I).  717-719. 

CLOVIS,  King  of  the  Franks,  A.  D.  481- 
511 Clovis  II.,  King  of  the  Franks  (Neus- 
tria), A.  D.  038-654;  (Austrasia),  650-654 ;  (Bur- 
gundy), 638-654 Clovis   III.,  King  of  the 

Franks  (Neustria  and  Burgundy),  A.  D.  601- 
605. 

CLUBS,  Ancient  Greek.  Sec  Lesche,  IIbt- 
.iKBiKs,  Eit.\Ni  and  Tiiiasi. 

The  Beefsteak. — "  In  1735  there  was  formed 
in  the  capital  [London]  the  celebrated  Beefsteak 
Club,  or  '  Sublime  Society  of  Beef  Steaks,'  us  its 
membei-s  always  desired  to  be  designated.  The 
origin  of  this  club  is  singular,  and  was  in  this 
wise.  Rich,  a  celebrated  harletiuin,  and  patentee 
of  Covent  Garden  Theatre  in  the  time  of  George 
II.,  while  engaged  during  the  daytime  iu  direct- 


ing and  controlling  the  nrmngcmcntfi  of  the  stago 
scenery  was  often  visited  by  his  friends,  of  wlioni 
he  had  a  very  numerous  circle.  One  (lay,  whilo 
the  Karl  of  Peterborough  was  present,  Hieli  felt 
the  pangs  of  hunger  so  keenly  that  he  cooked  a 
beef  steak  and  invited  the  earl  to  partake  of  it, 
which  he  did,  relishing  It  so  greatly  that  lie  ciimu 
again,  bringing  some  friends  with  him  on  iiurposu 
to  taste  tile  same  fare.  In  priK'css  of  time  tliu 
beef-steak  dinner  became  an  institution.  Homo 
of  the  chief  wits  and  greatest  men  of  tlu^  nation, 
to  the  number  of  24,  formed  themselves  Into  ii 
society,  and  took  as  their  motto  'Steaks  and 
Liberty. '  Among  its  early  celebrities  wore  Hiibb 
Doddington,  Aaron  Hill,  Dr.  Iloadley,  Itiehard 
(ilover,  the  two  Colmans,  Oarriek  and  .lohn 
Beard.  The  number  of  the  'steaks'  remained  at 
its  original  limit  until  178.'),  when  it  was  aug- 
mented liy  (me,  in  order  to  secure  the  admisHion 
of  the  Ileir- Apparent." — W.  C.  Sydney,  Kiiy- 
liind  (tnd  tlie  KnyU»h  in  t?ie  18</»  Centiivy,  ch.  6 
(».  1). 

The  Brothers'.— In  1711,  a  political  club  which 
took  this  name  was  founded  in  London  by 
Henry  St.  ,Iohn,  afterwards  Lord  Bollngbroke, 
fo  counteract  the  "extravagance  of  the  Kit  Cut  " 
and  "  the  drunkenness  of  the  Beefsteak."  "This 
society  .  .  .  continued  for  some  time  to  restrain 
the  outburst  of  those  elements  of  disunion  with 
which  tlie  llarloy  ministry  was  so  rife.  To  be  a 
member  of  this  club  was  esteemed  a  distinguished 
honour.  They  addressed  each  other  as  '  brother'; 
and  \v(f  find  their  ladies  In  their  corre.spondenco 
claiming  to  be  enrolled  a.s  sisters,  llie  mem- 
bers of  this  club  were  the  Dukes  of  Oniiimd, 
Shrewsbury,  Beaufort;  the  Earls  of  Oxfonl, 
Arran,  Jersey,  Orrery,  Bathurst;  Lonla  llarley, 
Duplin,  Masliam;  Sir  Robert  Raymond,  Sir 
William  Windham,  Col.  Hill,  Col.  Desney,  St. 
John,  Granville,  Arbuthnot,  Prior,  Swift,  antl 
Friend." — O.  W.  Cooke,  Memoirs  of  Bolinijbroke, 
V.  1,  ch.  10. 

TheClichy.    See  Fuance:  A.D.  1797  (Sep- 

TE.MHKU). 

The  French  Revolutionary.  Sec  Fhancb: 
A.  I).  1700. 

The  Hampden.  See  England:  A.  D.  1816- 
1820. 

Dr.  Johnson's. — "During  his  literary  career 
Dr.  Johnson  assisted  in  the  foundation  of  no 
fewer  than  three  clubs,  eacli  of  which  was  fully 
deserving  of  the  name.  In  1740  he  established 
a  club  at  a  house  in  Ivy  Lane,  Paternoster  How, 
and  only  the  year  before  he  died  he  drafted  a 
code  of  rules  for  a  club,  of  which  the  members 
should  hold  their  meetings,  thrice  in  each  week, 
at  the  Essex  Head  iu  the  Strand ;  an  establish- 
ment which  was  then  kept  by  a  former  servant 
of  his  old  friends  the  Thrales.  Those  members 
who  failed  to  put  in  an  appearance  at  the  club 
were  required  to  forfeit  the  sum  of  two  pence. 
There  is  an  interesting  account  of  one  of  the 
meetings  of  the  Ivy  Lane  Club,  at  which  .lolmson 
presided,  in  Sir  John  Hawkins's  biography  of 
him.  .  .  .  The  next  club  with  which  Johnson 
became  acquainted  wnS  the  most  influential  of 
them  all,  and  was  the  one  which  is  now  chietly 
remembered  in  connection  with  his  name.  It 
was,  however,  a  plant  of  slow  and  gradual 
growth.  The  first  meeting  of  its  members,  wlio 
exulted  in  the  designation  of  'The  Club,'  was 
held  in  1763  at  a  hostelry  called  the  Turk's 
Head,  situated  in  Gerard  Street,  Soho.     'The 


im 


CLUBS. 


COAMTIONS. 


Cliil) '  retained  that  title  \iiitil  nfter  the  funeriil 
of  (Inrriek,  when  It  wiw  iilwiiyH  known  im  'Tlie 
Llteriiry  Club, '  As  ItH  nunil)erH  were  Hnmll  iiiul 
limited,  the  lidtnlHsion  to  it  was  an  honour  Kreutly 
coveteil  in  politleal,  leKal,  and  literary  eireies. 
'The  Cluh'  originated  with  8ir  Joshua  Heynoldh, 
then  i'resident  of  the  Hoyal  Academy,  wlio  at 
llrnt  restrleted  ItM  nunilMTH  to  nine,  these  beinn 
IteynoIdH  hiiiiHelf,  Kaniuel  .TohuNon,  Kilmund 
linrke.  Dr.  CliriHtophcr  Nugent  (an  aeeomplii*hed 
lionian  Catholie  i)hyNlelan),  Hennet  Langton, 
Tonliam  ileauelerk,  'Hir  Jolui  llawkhm,  Oliver 
Ooldsniith,  and  M.  (Mianiier,  Secretary  in  the 
SVar  Ollice.  The  niendierx  asiKMnhled  every 
Monday  evening  piinctually  at  seven  o'clock, 
and,  having  partaken  of  an  inexpensive  supper, 
conversed  on  literary,  scientillc  and  artistic 
topics  till  the  clock  in<licale(l  the  hour  of  retir- 
ing. The  nundiers  of  tlu^  Literary  Clul)  were 
Hnl)se(|ueiitly  augmented  by  the  enrolment  of 
Garrick,  Kdward  Giblion,  Lord  Gharlemont,  BIr 
William  .lones.  the  enunent  Oriental  linguist,  and 
James  Hoswell,  of  hiographical  fame.  OtlxTS 
were  adnutted  from  time  to  tiuK!,  until  in  ITDl  it 
niunhered  35.  In  Deeendicr,  1773,  tlu;  day  of 
meeting  was  altered  to  Friday,  and  the  weekly 
8up|)ers  were  coniuuiled  to  fortnightly  dliuiers 
4luruig  the  sitting  of  parliament.  <)wing  to  tin; 
conversion  of  the  original  tavern  into  a  private 
house,  the  clul)  moved,  in  I7H3,  first  to  Prince's,  in 
Hackvillc  Street;  next  to  Le  Teller's  in  Dover 
Street;  then,  in  llO'i,  to  Parsloe's  in  St.  James's 
Street;  and  lastly,  in  February,  1709,  to  the 
Thatched  House  Tavern  in  St,  James's  Street, 
where  it  reniain<'d  until  long  after  18-W. " — W.  (-'. 
Sydney,  Eiuilniid  utid  the  Enyliah  in  Vie  \Hth 
Century,  ch.  0  (i\  1). 

The  King's  Head.  See  Enoland:  A.  D. 
1678-10711. 

The  Kit  Cat.— "  The  Kit  Cat  Club  was  Insti- 
tuted In  1091).  Its  most  illustrious  members 
•were  Cougreve,  Prior,  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  the 
Earl  of  Orrery,  and  Lord  Somers;  but  the 
members  becoming  more  numeroiis,  the  most 
violent  party  obtained  the  majority,  and  the 
Earl  and  his  friends  were  less  regvdar  in  their 
attendance.  .  .  .  The  Kit  Cat  took  its  name 
from  a  jiastry-cook  [Christopher  Katt],  whose 
pies  formed  a  regular  dish  at  the  suppers  of  the 
club." — Q.  W.  Cooke,  Memoirs  of  Jiolimjbroke,  v. 
1,  ch.  10,  fuot-/iote. 

Also  in:  J.  Timbs,  C'liihH  and  Club  Life  in 
London,  pp.  47-53. — VV.  C.  Sydney,  England  and 
the  Ent/linh  in  the  i%th  century,  ch.  6. 

The  Mohocks.     See  JIoiiocks. 

The  October  and  the  March.— "The October 
•Club  came  first  into  importance  in  the  latest  years 
of  Anne,  although  it  had  existed  since  the  last 
decade  of  the  17th  century.  The  stout  Tory 
squires  met  togetlier  in  tlie  '  Bell '  Tavern,  in 
narrow,  dirty  King  Street,  Westininst(T,  to 
drink  October  ale,  under  Dahl's  portrait  of 
Queen  Anne,  and  to  trouble  with  tlieir  tierce 
uueompromising  Jacobitism  tlic  fluctuating  pur- 
poses of  Harley  and  the  crafty  counsels  of  St. 
John.  The  genius  of  Swift  tempered  their  liot 
zeal  with  tlie  cool  air  of  his  'advice.'  Then  the 
wilder  spirits  .seceded,  and  formed  the  March 
Club,  which  retained  all  the  angry  Jacobitism  of 
the  parent  body,  but  lost  all  its  importance. " — J. 
McCarthy,  Uiat.  of  tlie  Four  Georf/en,  v.  1,  ch.  5. 

Also  in:  W.  C.  Sydney,  England  and  tlie 
English  in  the  18th  century,  ch.  6. 


CLUBMEN.      H«!e   England:    A.   D,    1045 
(Jri.Y— .Vi  oisT). 
CLUGNY.OR  CLUNY.The  Monastery  of. 

—  The  famous  monastery  of  Clugny,  or  t'liiny, 
WHS  founded  \.  D.  010,  at  Cluiiy,  iii'ar  .Macon,  in 
Hurgundy,  by  the  abbot  Count  H"-rno,  who  had 
previously  established  and  ruled  ilie  monastery 
of  Oignl,  near  Lyons,  It  was  founded  under 
the  auspices  and  at  the  e,\pense  of  William, 
Count  of  .Vuvergne,  eoinnionly  called  William 
the  Pious.  "  In  the  disastrous  times  which 
followed  the  death  of  Charles  the  Great  anil  the 
failiirct  of  his  scheme  to  reorganize  the  Western 
world  iinilcr  a  single  head,  the  discipline  of  the 
religious  houses  fell  with  everything  el.se;  fell, 
not  perhaps  quite  so  soon,  vet  by  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century  hail  fallen  atinost  as  low  us  it  was 
possible  to  fall.  Hut  here  symptoms  of  a  moral 
reaction  showed  themselves  earlier  than  el.se- 
where.  The  revival  dales  from  010,  the  year  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Monastery  of  Cliigny  in 
Hurgundy,  which  was  destined  to  exercise  an 
enormous  Inlluence  on  the  future  of  the  Church. 
While  matters  at  Home  were  at  their  worst,  there 
were  silently  training  there  the  men  who  should 
inaugurate  a  new  state  of  things  [notably  Ililde- 
lirand,  afterwards  Pope  Gregory  V  II.]  Already, 
so  one  .siud  at  the  time,  the  whole  house  of  tlu! 
C'hiirch  was  tilled  witli  the  sweet  savour  of  the 
ointment  there  poured  out.  It  followed  that 
wherever  in  any  religious  house  tliere  were  any 
aspirations  after  a  higher  life,  any  longings  for 
reformation,  that  house  atllliated  itself  to  Clugny; 
thus  beginning  to  constitute  a  Congregation, 
that  is  a  cluster  of  religious  houses,  scattered  it 
might  be  over  all  Christendom,  but  owning  one 
rule,  acknowledging  the  superiority  of  o'le 
mother  house,  and  receiving  its  abbots  and 
priors  from  thence.  In  the  C^iigni.in  Congrega- 
tion, for  example,  there  were  about  two  thousand 
houses  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  — 
these  mostly  in  France;  the  Abbot,  or  Aieh- 
Abbot,  as  he  was  called,  of  Clugny,  being  a  kind 
of  Pope  of  Monasticism,  and  for  a  long  time,  the 
Pope  excepted,  quite  the  most  influential  Church- 
ruler  In  Christendom." — U.  C.  Trench,  Lect's  on 
Medi(fml  Oh,  Hist.,  ch.  8. 

Also  in:  8.  R.  Maitland,  The  Dark  Ages,  ch, 
18-26.— A.  F.  Vfllemain,  Life  of  Gregory  VI L,  hk. 
1. — S.  K.  Gardiner  and  J.  11.  Mulllnger.  Int.  to 
the  Study  of  Eng.  Hist.,  ch.  3,  sect.  8.— E.  F. 
Henderson,  iklect  Hist.  Docs,  of  tlie  Middle  Ages, 
bk.  3,  no.  4. 

CLUNIAC  MONKS.    See  Cluony. 

CLUSIUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  83).  See 
Uomk:  H.  C.  88-78. 

CLYPEUS,  The.— The  round  iron  shield  of 
the  Uomaiis. — E.  Gtild  and  W.  Koner,  Life  of 
the  Greek.1  and  Romans,  sect.  107. 

CNOSSUS.    See  Cuetk. 

CNUT.    Sec  Can-utk. 

CNYDUS,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  394).  See 
GiiEECK:  B.  C.  399-387. 

COAHUILTECAN    FAMILY,  The.    See 

A.MERICAN  AliOltlia.NEB:  COAIIUILTECAN  FAMILY. 

COAJIRO,  The.  See  Ameiucvjj  Auoui- 
oiNES:  Co.uino. 

COALITION  MINISTRY  OF  FOX  AND 
LORD  NORTH.  See  Enolam):  A.  I).  178'-'- 
1783;  and  1783-1787. 

COALITIONS  AGAINST  NAPOLEON. 
See  FitANCE;   A.  D.   1805  (Januahy— AruiL); 


481 


COALITIONS. 


COLCIIIAN8. 


Ok.hmanv.   a.  I).  IHtS-lHia.  iukI    1H18  (May— 
AiMii  KT),  iitid  FuAN<  k:   a.  I).  IHlt-IHl.V 

COALITIONS  AGAINST  REVOLU- 
TIONARY FRANCE.  Scr  KiiAMK  \.  I). 
ITlCt  (.Maucii— Ski-tkmiiku);  17UH-17I)1)  (Aiiiiht 

—  .\l'HII,». 

COBBLER'S   LEAGUE,   The.    Sec  Gku 

M\ny:   a    I).  lWJ-l.Vr». 

COBDEN,  Richard,  and  the  Free  Trade 
movement.  Sec  Taiiikk  I,i;(iini.ati()n  (Kmi- 
LAND):  A.  I).  1H;)«-IH;1U;  1H4'.';  1M4.')-1H»0;  imd 
llicHiiMic(KnAN(K.):   A.  1).   la-.H-lKHO. 

COBDEN-CHEVALIER  COMMERCIAL 
TREATY,  The.  Sec  Tauii'k  I,i;(iiki.ati<>n 
(KllANiK);   A.  I).  1H.-)H-IH(10. 

COBURG,  OriKination  of  the  Dukedom  of. 
Hrc  Saxony:  A.  1).  11H((-1,-.,W. 

COCCIUM. — All  iniportuiit  Udiiihii  town  in 
Itritaiii,  the  rcmiiiim  of  which  iirc  supjxiMcil  to  ho 
found  lit  llilx  lu'HttT.— T.  VHght,  CHI,  llotnan 
mill  Siij'oii,  fli.  .1. 

COCHIBO,  The.       8ce    Ameiiican  Abori- 

OI.Nl'.H-    AnKIXANH. 

COCHIQUIMA,  The.  See  Ahkkican  Adohi- 

(iiNKs:  Aniimsians. 

COCO  TRIBES.  Sec  Amkuican  Anoiii- 
(iinkh:  (ir(  k  <ir  Coco  Gliofl'. 

COCONOONS,  The.  Hoc  Amf.uicak  Ahoki- 
(iinkh;  Maiiii'oha.n  Family. 

COCOSATES,  The.    Sec  Aqiitaine,   The 

ANCIl'.NT  TkMIKM. 

COD,  Cape:  A.  D.  1602.— Named  by  Bar- 
tholomew Gosnold.     .Sec  Amkhica:  a.  D.  KIO'J- 

100."). 

A.  D.  1605.— Called  Cap  Blanc  by  Cham- 
plain.  S<c Canada  (Xkw  Fuanck):  A.  I).  WWA- 
Kfor.. 

A.  D.  1609.— Named  New  Holland  by  Hud- 
son.    Sec  Amkuua;  a.  I).  KlOtl. 

CODE  NAPOLEON,  The.  See  France: 
A.  1).  lHOl-1804. 

CODES.    Sco  Laws,  &c. 

CODS,  The.  Sec  Netherlands  (II0L1..VND): 
A.  I).  134,')-1354;iiua  1483-149:1 

CCELE- SYRIA.— "Hollow  Syria"— the 
long,  broud,  fertile  and  bcimtiful  valley  which 
lies  bclwccn  the  Lilmnus  and  AntilibaniiH  ranges 
of  mountains,  and  is  watered  by  the  Orontcs  and 
the  Leontes  or  Littany  rivers.  "Few  places  in 
the  wo''d  are  more  remarkable,  or  have  a  more 
stirring  history,  than  this  wonderful  vale." — Q. 
Rawlinson,  Fiee  Great  Monarchicg :  Babylonia, 
eh.  1. 

C(E  N  OBI  U  M.— CCENOBITES.  -"The 
word  '  Ca'uobiuni '  is  e(iuivalent  to  '  moiuistc- 
rium '  in  the  later  sense  of  that  word.  Cussian 
distinguishes  the  word  thus.  'Monastcrium,' 
he  says,  '  may  be  the  dwelling  of  a  single  monk, 
Ccenobium  must  be  of  several;  the  former  word,' 
he  adds,  '  expressed  only  tlie  place,  the  latter  the 
manncrof  living.'" — I.  G.  Smith,  Christian Mon- 
atticism,  p.  40. 

Also  in;  J.  Bingham, -4n<i'y.  of  the  Christ.  Ch., 
bk.  7,  eh.  2,  sect.  3. 

COFAN,  The.  Sec  American  AuoRiarNEg: 
Anijesianh. 

COGNOMEN,  NOMEN,  PRiENOMEN. 
See  Gens.  Uoman. 

COHORTS.    See  Leoion,  Roman. 

COIMBRA:  Early  history.  See  Portugal; 
Early  history. 


COLBERT,  The  System  of.— Colbertism. 

Se<'  Taiiikk  I,e<iihi,atio.n  :  \.  I>  1(M14-1««7 
(FllANCE).     AImo.  Fhanie;  A.  I).   Ultll    HWM. 

COLCHESTER,  Origin  of.-Wlien  Cusar 
tlrxt  opened  to  the  UciiiiaiiH  homic  knowledge  of 
liritain,  the  slti' of  ino<lern  ColclK'ster  was  (H'eii- 
pied  by  an  "oppidiini,"  or  fastness  of  the  Trlno- 
liantcM.  which  the  Homaimcalled  CaniuhMlunum. 
.V  little  later.  Cainuloilunuin  acquired  sonie  re- 
nown as  the  royal  town  of  the  Trinobuntlne 
king,  or  prince,  Cunobellii,  — the  Cyinbclliie  of 
Shakespeare.  It  was  after  the  death  of  Cunobe- 
llii, and  when  his  son  CaractacUM  was  king, 
(luring  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  that 
the  Hoiimns  began  their  actual  con<(Uest  of  liri- 
tain. Claiidii.  was  present.  In  pirson,  when 
Cainulodiinuin  was  taken,  and  he  founded  there 
the  first  Honiiin  colony  in  the  island,  calling  it 
Claiidiana  Vletrlcensls.  That  name  was  too  cum- 
brous to  be  preserved;  but  the  ■  lonial  character 
of  the  town  caused  it  toliecallcii  '  i>|onia-ceaster, 
the  Colonia  fortress.  —  abbreviat'  1.  In  time,  to 
Colne-icasler,  and,  llnally,  to  Colchester.  The 
colony  was  deslroycd  by  "the  Iceni,  at  the  time 
of  their  rising,  under  Hoadicca,  lilt  was  recon- 
Htltiilcil  and  grew  into  an  important  Uoman 
town,— C.  I,.  Ciitts.  CiilrhcHtn;  eh.  I-<I, 

A.  D.  1648.— The  Roundhead  siege  and  cap- 
ture.— On  tile  collapse  of  the  Uoyalist  rising  of 
1(14M,  which  prixliiced  what  is  called  the  Second 
Civil  War  of  the  I'liritaii  revolutionary  jieriod, 
Colchester  received  tlie  "wreck  of  the  insurrec- 
tion," so  far  as  London  and  the  surrounding 
country  hail  lately  been  threatened  by  it.  Troops 
of  cavaliers,  under  Sir  Charli's  Lucas  and  Ijord 
Capel,  having  collected  in  the  town,  were  sur- 
rounded and  beleaguered  there  by  Fairfax,  and 
held  out  against  their  besiegers  from  .Iiinc  until 
late  in  August.  "After  two  months  of  the  most 
desperate  n'sistance,  Colchester,  conquered  by 
famine  and  sedition,  at  last  surrendered  (Aug. 
27);  and  the  next  day  a  court-martial  cimc^mned 
to  death  three  of  its  bravest  defenders.  Sir 
Cliarles  Lucas,  Sir  George  Lisle,  and  Sir  Bernard 
Gascoign,  as  an  example,  it  was  said,  to  future 
rebels  who  might  be  temi)ted  to  imitate  them. 
In  vain  did  the  other  i)rlsoner8,  Lord  Capel  at 
their  head,  entreat  Fairfax  to  suspend  the  execu- 
tion of  the  sentence,  or  at  least  that  they  should 
all  undergo  it,  since  all  were  alike  guilty  of  the 
of  ice  of  these  three.  Fairfax,  excited  by  the 
long  struggle,  or  rather  intimidated  bv  Ireton, 
made  no  answer,  and  the  condemned  olBcers 
were  ordered  to  be  shot  on  the  spot."  Gascoign, 
however,  was  reprieved  at  the  last  moment. — 
F.  P.  Guizot,  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Revolution,  bk.  8. 

Also  in:  C.  It.  Markham,  Life  of  the  Great 
Lord  Fail  fur,  eh.  26-27. 

COLCHIANS,  The.— "The  Colchions  ap- 
pear to  have  been  in  part  independent,  in  part 
subject  to  Persia.  Their  true  home  was  evidently 
that  tract  of  country  [on  the  Euxine]  about  the 
river  Phasis.  .  .  .  Here  they  first  became  known 
to  the  commereial  Greeks,  whose  early  dealings 
in  this  quarter  seem  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
jioetic  legend  of  the  Argonauts.  The  limits  of 
Colchis  vnried  ut  different  times,  but  the  natural 
bounds  were  nei-er  greatly  depart(;d  from.  They 
were  the  Euxine  on  the  "east,  the  Caucasus  on 
the  north,  the  mountain  range  which  forms  the 
watershed  between  the  Phasis  (Uioti)  and  the 
Cyrus  (Kur)  ou  the  west,  and  the  high  ground 


482 


COLCniANS. 


COLOMBIAN  STATES.  l.Wft-t7.11 


botwoon  ni\tn\im  ami  Kiirs  (tlii'  Mofirhi.in  moiin- 
UiluM)  on  till'  Hoiitli.  .  .  .  Tlii>  inimt  irilcri'HtiiiK 
question  connciti'il  with  tin-  Cnlcliittim  Ih  tlntt 
cnnncclt'il  witli  tlicir  niitioimliiy.  Tlirv  wcru  ii 
Murk  nici'  ilwrlUnj?  In  llic  tnlcUt  of  wdllc-t,  and 
In  a  country  which  i1(hm  not,  tend  to  make  im 
inhabltanl.H  ilark  coniiilcxioiicd.  That  they  wcrx 
comparatively  recent  immli;riintM  from  a  hotter 
climate  Heenm  therefore  to  lie  certain.  The  notion 
cntertalneil  Ity  lli'rodotus  of  their  K)jy|)tian 
extraction  appears  lo  have  been  a  conjecture  of 
liiH  own.  .  .  .  I'erhapH  the  nKHlcrn  theory  that 
the  OolchlanH  were  lmini)f rants  from  India  is 
entitled  to  some  sliare  of  our  attention.  ...  If 
the  true  Colchi  were  a  colony  of  lilacks,  thi-y 
must  have  l)ecome  (fradually  al)Horl>ed  in  tlic 
white  populati<m  proper  to  the  country." — (}. 
Hawlinson,  lli'tori/ nf  llrri»liitu»,  lik\  7,  upp.  1. — 
See.  also,  Al..Mloi)l.\SS. 

COLD  HARBOR,  First  and  second  battles 
of.  Hei  Unitki)  Htatkh  uk  Am.;  A.  I).  lM6a 
(.It'NK— .Ilii.v:  VimiiNiA).  and  1M(I4 (May— Junk; 

VllKlI.NIA). 

COLDEN,  Cadwallader,  The  lieutenant- 
l^overnorship  of.  See  Nkw  Youk;  A.  i>.  I77:t- 
17^4  lo  177r(  (.Vi-nii.— Ski'Iumeikii). 

COLIGNY,  Admiral  de,  and  the  religious 
wars  in  France.  See  Khanck;  A.  I).  ITittO- 
ITitCi    to     \'u'i American     Colonies.      See 

Fu.hida;  a.  1).  iMa-moa,  \rM\-\rm,  and 
\ms. 

COLLAS,  The.  See  Pehu;  The  Ahokkiinai, 

IMIAniTANTS. 

COLLEGIA. — Numerous  associations  called 
"oolleftia"  cxi.sted  in  ancient  Kome,  havlni? 
various  jiurposes.  Some  were  relitrious  associa- 
tions (colleffia  templorum);  some  were  orpitd/.a- 
tlons  of  clerks  or  scribes;  some  were  j^uilds  of 
workmen;  some  ap[)ear  to  \uwv  had  a  political 
character,  althoujrh  tlic  political  clubs  were  more 
commonlv  called  "sodalitates. " — U.  Lon^,  De- 
cline of  Oie  liiiiuiiu  Uepiihlie,  r.  ii,  e/i.  11. 

COLLINE  GATE,  Battle  of  the  (B.  C.  83). 
See  HoMK:   H.  ('.  HH-7H. 

COLLOT  D'HERBOIS,  and  the  French 
Revolutionary  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 
Sue  KiiANci-:;  A.  1).  nilii  (Junk— Octobek),  to 
17«+-17i(r>  (July— Apkii.). 

COLMAR,  Cession  to  France.  Sec  Ger- 
many; A.  I).  UUS. 

COLMAR,  Battle  of  (1674).  See  NETireu- 
1.AND8  (Holland) :  A.  I).  1674-1678. 

COLOGNE:  Origin.    See  Colonia  Aorippi- 

NENSIS. 

The  Electorate.    Sec  Germany:  A.  D.  1125- 
1153. 
In    the    Hanseatic    Leag^ue.       See    Hanba 

Towns. 


COLOMAN.     See  Koloman. 
COLOMBEY-NOUILLY,    OR     BORNY, 

Battle  of.     See  France:   A.  D.  1870  (July— 

AUOUST). 

COLOMBIA,  United  States  of.    See  Col- 

OMIHAN  StATKS. 

COLOMBIAN  STATES,  The.— This  gen- 
eral title  will  be  used,  for  convenience,  to  cover, 
for  considerable  jieriods  of  their  history,  the 
territory  now  divided  between  the  republics  of 
Venezuela,  Ecuador,  and  the  Unite(i  States  of 
Colombia  (formerly  New  Granada),  the  latter 
embracing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  history 
of  these  countries  being  for  a  long  time  substan- 


tially identical  In  the  main,  and  only  illHtlnKiiish- 
able  at  intervals,  it  si'cms  to  be  illtllcult  to  <1(> 
olherwiM-  than  hold  it,  somewhat  arbitrarily, 
under  one  heading,  until  the  s<>veral  currents  of 
events  part  company  ilistinctly. 

The  aboriginal  inhabitants.  See  Amkhican 
.Vnoiiioi.NKH:  CiiinciiA. 

A.  D.  1536-1731.— The  Spaniiih  conquest  of 
New  Granada.— Creation  of  the  new  vice- 
royalty.— "  For  some  time  after  the  disiistroiis 
failure  of  the  attempt  of  l.as  (asas  to  found  11 
colony  on  the  I'earl  coast  of  Ciimana,  the  norlh- 
em  portion  of  Spanish  South  America,  from  the 
(irinoco  westwards,  is  almost  lost  to  hlslorv. 
The  powers  working  for  iiihA  had  siif:ialU" 
falli'd,  and  the  powers  of  evil  seemed  to  have  tt 
almost  all  their  o>vn  wav.  .  .  .  l.yiii);  behind 
these  extensive  coasts  to  tlie  westward  in  the  in- 
terior, is  the  region  to  which  the  Spaniards  )ravo 
the  name  of  the  kingdom  of  New  (iranada,  the 
name  beini;  applied  in  consei|ueiice  of  a  rescm- 
li!i..ice  which  WHS  detected  between  the  idaiti 
around  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota  and  thi'  royal  Vega 
which  adjoins  the  historical  .Moorish  cap'tal. 
New  Granada  was  a  most  extensive  reiiloii.  com- 
prising as  ii  dill  the  entire  country  from  sea  to  si'ii 
In  the  north,  Iving  between  flD'  and  "H  longi- 
tude, and  from  6'  to  15^  of  latitude."  The 
Spanish  connuest  of  New  Granada  was  achieved 
in  till'  main  by  Xiniencs  de  (jiicsada.  who  in- 
vaded the  eoiintiy  from  the  north,  ,'  Ithoiigh  the 
governor  of  t^u  to,  IJcnalea/ar,  cut  Ted  it  like- 
wise from  the  south.  "Ximcne,  de  (^iiesaila 
came  to  America  about  the  year  l.");t,">,  in  the 
suite  of  tlie  (Jovernor  of  Santa  .Miirta,  by  whom 
he  was  selected  to  lead  an  expedition  against  the 
('hibchas,  who  dwelt  on  the  plain  of  Hogotil  and 
around  the  headwaters  of  the  .Magdaleiia.  Set- 
ting out  in  Aiuil  ir>;)6  with  HIM)  men,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  pushing  his  way  through  the  forest 
and  acoss  imiumerable  streams  lie  contrived 
to  subsist  for  eight  months,  during  which  he 
traversed  450  ndlcs,  enduring  meanwhile  the 
very  utmost  exertions  and  privations  that  human 
nature  coidd  support.  .  .  .  When  he  had  sur- 
mounted the  natuntl  ditlieulties  in  his  jiath.  his 
remaining  force  consisted  of  but  166  men,  with 
60  horsi's.  On  MiU'  2d,  1537,  he  resumed  his 
advance;  nnd,  as  tiMially  happened,  the  mere 
sight  of  his  horsemen  territied  the  Indians  into 
submission.  At  Tunja,  according  to  the  Spanish 
historians,  he  was  treacherously  attacked  whilst 
resting  in  the  palace  of  one  of  the  chiefs.  ...  In 
any  case,  tlie  chief  was  taken,  and,  after  much 
slaughter,  Ximenes  found  liimsclf  the  ah.solute 
jjossessor  of  immense  riches,  one  golden  li  ntern 
alone  being  vali:cd  at  6,000  ducats.  From 
Tunja  Ximenes  marched  tipon  the  sacred  city  of 
Iraca,  where  two  Spanish  soldiers  accidentally 
set  tire  to  the  great  Temple  of  the  Sun.  The 
result  was  that,  after  a  contlagration  which 
lasted  several  days,  both  th"  city  and  the  temple 
were  utterly  destroyed.  ...  On  the  Uth  of 
August,  1538,  was  founded  the  city  of  Bogota. 
Ximenes  was  soon  here  joined  by  Frederman, 
a  subject  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  with  160 
soldiers,  with  whom  he  had  been  engaged  in 
conquering  Venezuela;  and  likewise  by  Benal- 
civzar,  the  conqueror  of  Quito.  This  hitter 
warrior  had  crossed  tlie  continent  in  trium|)li 
at  the  head  of  150  Spaniards,  together  with  a 
multitude  of  native  followers."  In  the  intrigues 
and  jealous  rivalries  between  the  three  which 


483 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1536-1731. 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1810-1819. 


followed,  Ximencs  de  Qiiesada  was  pushed 
aside!,  at  tlrst,  and  even  lined  and  banished  by 
the  Emperor;  but  in  the  end  he  triumphed  and 
was  appiiiiited  marshal  of  tlic  kingdom  of  New 
Granada.  "On  his  return  to  Bogota  in  1551, 
he,  to  his  credit,  exhibited  an  energy  in  pro- 
tecting the  people  of  the  country  against  their 
invaders,  e(jual  to  that  which  he  liad  displayed 
in  elTecting  tlieir  conepiest.  Ten  years  later  he 
conimaniled  a  force  organized  to  repel  an  attack 
from  the  ruler  of  Venezuela;  shortly  after  which 
he  was  apiminted  Adehintado  of  the  Kingdom  of 
New  Granada.  He  devoted  three  years,  and  an 
enormous  amount  of  toil  and  money,  to  an  absurd 
expedition  in  ipiest  of  the  fabled  lOl  Dorado  [.see 
El  Douado].  "  CJuesada  died  of  leprosy  in  1572. 
Until  1718  the  kingdom  of  New  Grannda  re- 
mained subject  to  the  Viceroy  of  Peru.  In  that 
year  the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru  "  was  divided  into 
two  portions,  the  northern  region,  from  the 
frontiers  of  jSIexico  as  far  as  to  the  Orinoco,  and 
on  the  Southern  Sea  from  Veragua  to  Tumbcz, 
forming  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Gninada,  of 
which  the  capital  was  Bogota.  To  this  region, 
likewise,  was  assigned  the  inland  province  of 
Quito.  The  Viceroyalty  of  New  Granada,  in 
fact,  comprised  what  now  [1884]  forms  the 
Republic  of  Venezuela,  the  United  States  of 
Columbia,  and  the  Republic  of  Equador."  In 
1731  "it  was  deemed  expedient  to  detach  from 
the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Granada  the  provinces 
of  Venezuela,  Maracaibo,  Varina.s,  Cumana,  and 
Spanish  Guyana,  and  to  form  them  into  a  sepa- 
rate Captain-Generalship,  the  residence  of  the 
ruler  being  fixed  at  Caracas  in  Venezuela." — 
R.  G.  AVatson,  Spanish  and  Portuguese  South 
Americn,  t>.  2,  ch.  0. 

A.  D.  1810-1819.— The  strugrJc  for  inde- 
pendence and  its  achievement,— Miranda  and 
Simon  Bolivar. — The  Earthquake  in  Vene- 
zuela.— The  founding^  of  the  Republic  of 
Colombia. —  "The  Colombian IStates  occupy  the 
first  place  in  the  history  of  South  American 
independence.  .  .  .  The  Colombian  States  were 
first  in  the  struggle  because  they  were  in  many 
ways  nearest  to  Europe.  It  was  through  them 
that  intercourse  between  the  Pacific  coast  and 
Etirope  was  mainly  carried  on :  Porto  Bello  and 
Carthagena  were  thus  the  main  inlets  of  European 
ideas.  V  'des,  there  was  here  constant  com- 
municat'  with  the  AVest  Indies;  and  govern- 
ment, pi  ulation  and  wealth  were  less  centralised 
than  in  the  more  important  viceroyalties  of 
Mexico  and  Peru.  The  Indians  of  New  Granada 
had  always  been  a  restless  race,  and  the  increase 
of  taxation  which  was  resorted  to  for  the  defence 
of  the  coast  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain  (1777- 
1788)  produced  discontents  among  the  whole 
population,  both  red  and  white.  .  .  .  The 
French  I{evolution,  coming  soon  afterwards, 
was  another  link  in  the  chain  of  causes.  ...  In 
Venezuela,  which  the  industry  of  its  inhabitant^ 
liad  nuscd  from  a  poor  mission  district  to  a 
thriving  commercial  ])rovince,  the  progress  of 
nuxlern  ideas  was  yet  faster.  .  .  .  The  concpiest 
of  Trinidad  by  Eugknd  in  1707  gave  a  new 
turn  to  the  movement.  ...  It  was  from 
Trinidad  that  the  first  attempts  were  made  to 
excite  the  Spanish  colonists  to  revolution. 
Francis  Miranda,  by  whom  this  was  done,  was  a 
type  of  many  other  men  to  whom  is  due  the 
credit  of  leading  the  South  American  peoples  to 
indepuudeuce.     He  was   a  native  of  Caraccas, 


and  when  a  young  man  had  held  a  French  com- 
:iussion  in  the  American  War  of  Independence. 
On  his  return  to  Venezuela  in  1783  he  found  the 
populace,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  in  an 
excited  state,  and  finding  that  he  was  suspected 
of  designs  for  liberating  his  own  country,  ho 
went  to  Europe,  and  again  attacht'd  himself  to 
the  French  service.  .  .  .  Being  proscribed  by 
the  Directory,  he  turned  to  England,  and  .  .  . 
when  the  war  [between  England  and  Spain] 
broke  out  afresh  in  1804,  and  England  sent 
out  an  expedition  to  invade  Buenos  Ayres, 
Miranda  believed  that  his  opportunity  was  come. 
In  1800,  by  English  and  American  aid,  he  sailed 
from  Tjimdad  and  landed  with  500  men  on  the 
coast  of  Venezuela.  But  the  'Colombian  Army,' 
as  Miranda  named  it,  met  with  a  cool  reception 
among  the  people.  His  utter  inability  to  meet 
the  Spanish  forces  compelled  him  to  retreat  to 
Trinidatl,  nor  did  he  reappear  on  the  continent 
until  after  the  revolution  of  1810.  The  iirincipal 
inhabitants  of  Caraccas  had  been  meditating  the 
formation  of  a  provisional  government,  on  the 
model  of  the  juntas  of  Spain,  ever  since  the 
abdication  of  the  king  [see  Spain  :  A.  D.  1807- 
1808] ;  but  it  was  not  until  1810,  when  the  final 
victory  of  Napoleon  in  Spain  appeared  certain, 
that  they  made  a  decisive  movement  in  favour  of 
independence.  Spain,  for  the  time  at  least,  was 
now  blotted  out  of  the  list  of  nations.  Acting, 
therefore,  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  they 
deposed  the  Spanish  colonial  officers,  and 
elected  a  supreme  junta  or  council.  Similar 
juntas  were  soon  established  in  New  Granada, 
at  Santa  Fe,  Quito,  Carthagena,  and  the  other 
chief  towns  of  the  Viceroyalty  .  .  .  and  the 
fortune  of  the  patriot  party  in  new  Granada, 
from  their  close  neighbourhood,  was  closely 
linked  with  that  of  the  Venezolans.  The 
Regency  of  Cadiz,  grasping  for  itself  all  the 
rights  and  powers  of  the  Spanish  nation, 
determined  to  reduce  the  colonists  to  subjection. 
They  therefore  declared  the  port  of  Caraccas  in 
a  state  of  blockade,  as  the  British  government 
had  done  in  the  previous  generation  with  that  of 
Boston ;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  Boston,  this  reso- 
lution of  the  Regency  amounted  to  a  declaration 
of  war.  ...  A  congress  of  all  the  provinces  of 
Venezuela  now  met  at  Caraccas,  and  publislied 
a  declanition  of  independence  on  the  5th  of 
July,  1811,  and  those  of  Mexico  and  New 
Granada  soon  followed.  .  .  .  'Ihe  powers  of 
nature  seemed  to  conspire  with  the  tyranny  of 
Europe  to  destroy  the  young  South  American 
Republic.  On  the  26Hi  of  March,  181"^,  Vene- 
zviela  was  visited  by  !  ;arful  earthouiu  0,  which 
destroj'cd  the  capitjil  [Caraccas]  aiil  .several 
other  towns,  together  with  20,000  people,  and 
many  others  jjerished  of  hunger  and  in  other  ways. 
This  day  was  Holy  Thursday ;  and  the  super- 
stitious people,  prompted  by  their  priests, 
believed  this  awful  visitation  to  be  a  judgment 
from  God  for  their  revolt.  The  Spanish  troops, 
iinder  Montevcrde,  now  began  a  fresh  attack  on 
the  disquieted  Venezolans.  Miranda,  who  on  his 
return  bad  been  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army, 
had  in  the  meantime  overrun  New  Granada,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  United  States 
of  Colombia.  But  the  face  of  affairs  was 
changed  by  the  news  of  the  earthquake.  Smitten 
with  despair,  his  soldiers  now  deserted  to  the 
royalists;  he  lost  ground  everywhere;  the  for- 
tress  of    Puerto   Cavello,  commanded   by  the 


484 


COLOMBIAN  aXATES,  1810-1819. 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1819-1830. 


great  Bolivar,  then  a  colonel  in  the  sorvict!  of  the 
Republic,  was  surrendered  through  treachery. 
On  the  25th  of  June  iMimnda  himself  capitu- 
lated, witli  all  his  forces;  and  Venezuela  fell 
once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  royalists. 
Miranda  himself  was  arrested,  in  defiance  of  the 
terms  of  the  surrender,  and  perished  in  an 
European  dungeon,  as  Toussaint  had  perished  a 
few  years  b'.rore.  .  .  .  Monteverde  emptied  the 
prisons  of  taeir  occupants,  and  tilled  them  with 
the  families  of  the  principal  citizens  of  the 
republic;  and  Caraccas  became  the  scene  of  a 
Ueign  of  Terror.  After  Miranda's  capitulation, 
Bolivar  had  gone  to  New  Granada,  which  still 
maintained  its  independence,  and  entered  into 
the  service  of  that  republic.  Bolivar  now 
reappeared  in  a  new  character,  and  earned  for 
himself  a  rep\itation  in  the  history  of  the  new 
world  which  up  to  a  certain  point  ranks  with 
that  of  Washington.  Simon  Bolivar,  like 
Miranda,  was  a  native  of  Caracci\s.  .  .  .  Like 
Miranda,  he  had  to  some  e.xt'jpt  learned  modern 
ideas  by  visiting  tlie  old  worlu  and  the  United 
States.  When  the  cruelties  of  Monteverde  had 
made  Venezuela  ripe  for  a  new  revolt,  Bolivar 
reappeared  on  his  native  soil  at  the  head  of  a 
small  body  of  troops  from  the  adjacent  repub- 
lic. The  successes  which  he  gained  so  incensed 
the  royalists  that  they  refused  quarter  to  th(  ir 
prisoners,  and  war  to  the  death  ( '  guerra  u  muertc ') 
was  proclaimed.  All  obstacles  disappeared 
before  Bolivar's  generalship,  and  on  the  4th  of 
August,  1813,  he  publicly  entered  Caraccas,  the 
fortress  of  Puerto  Cavello  being  now  the  only  one 
in  the  possession  of  the  royalists.  Bolivar  was 
hailed  with  the  title  of  the  liberator  of  Vene- 
zuela. Ho  was  willing  to  see  the  republic 
restored;  but  the  inhabitants  very  properly 
feared  to  trusr.  at  this  time  to  anything  but  a 
militarj^  govcriiment,  and  vested  the  supreme 
power  in  him  as  dictator  (1814).  The  event 
mdeed  proved  the  necessity  of  a  nulitary  govern- 
ment. The  defeated  royalists  raised  fresh 
troops,  many  thousands  of  whom  were  negro 
slaves,  and  overran  the  whole  country ;  Bolivar 
was  beaten  at  La  Puerta,  and  forced  to  take 
refuge  a  second  time  in  New  Granada ;  and  the 
capital  fell  again  into  tlie  hands  of  the  royalists. 
.  .  .  The  War  of  Independence  had  been  under 
taken  against  the  Regency ;  and  had  Ferdinand, 
on  his  restoration  to  the  throne  in  1814,  shown 
any  signs  of  conciliation,  he  might  yet  have 
recovered  his  American  provinces.  But  the 
government  persisted  in  its  course  of  absolute 
repression.  .  .  .  New  Granada,  where  Bolivar 
was  general  in  chief  of  the  forces,  was  the  only 
part  where  the  insurrection  survived;  and  in 
1815  a  fleet  containing  10,000  men  under  General 
Morillo  arrived  off  Carthagona,  its  principal  ])ort. 
.  .  .  Carthagena  was  only  provisioned  for  a 
short  time :  and  Bolivar,  overpowered  by  num- 
bers, quitted  the  soil  of  the  continent  and  went 
to  the  West  Indies  to  seek  help  to  relievo 
Carthagena,  and  maintain  the  contest  for 
liberty."  Obtaining  assistance  in  Hayti,  he 
fitted  out  an  expedition  "  which  sailed  in  April 
from  the  port  of  Aux  Cayes.  Boll  var  landed  near 
Cumana,  in  the  eastern  extremity  of  Venezuela, 
and  from  this  point  he  gradually  advanced 
westwards,  gaining  strength  by  slow  degrees. 
In  the  meantime,  after  a  siege  of  1 16  days, 
Carthagena  surrendered ;  5,000  of  its  inhabitants 
had  perished  of  hunger.    Both  provinces  were 


now  in  Morillo's  hands.  Fancying  himself  com- 
pletely master  of  the  country,  he  proceeded  to 
wreak  a  terrible  vengeance  on  the  Granadines. 
But  at  the  news  of  Bolivar's  rcai)p('araMce, 
though  yet  at  a  distance,  the  face  of  alTairs 
chanijed.  .  .  .  Ills  successes  in  the  year  1817 
were  sure,  though  slow:  in  1818,  after  he  had 
been  joined  bv  European  volunteers,  they  wi  re 
brilliant.  Bolivar  beat  the  royalists  in  o  le 
pitched  battlj  after  another  [Sagamoso,  July  1, 
1819,  and  Pantano  de  Bargas,  July 'J.')]:  anil  at 
length  a  decisive  victory  was  won  by  his  lieuten- 
ant, Santander,  at  Boyaea,  in  New  (iranada, 
August  1,  1819.  This  battle,  in  which  some 
hundreds  of  British  and  French  auxillari' 
fought  on  the  side  of  liberty,  com])letely  freed 
the  two  countries  from  the  yoke  of  Spain." — 
E.  J.  Payne,  Ilist.  of  European  Colonien,  cIl  10. 

Also  in  :  C.  S.  Cochrane,  Jourixd  of  a  UeKUknm 
in  Colombia,  v.  1,  ch.  6-8. — II.  Brownell,  X.  <ind 
S.  America  lUuKtrated,  pp.  310-334. — V.  Cusldng, 
Simon  Bolivar  (jV^.  Am.  Jiev.,  Jan.,  1839,  amlJan., 
1830).— II.  L.  V.  D.  Ilolstein,  Memoirs  of  liolimr, 
ch.  3-20.— .Major  Flintner,  Hist,  of  the  Item- 
liition  of  Caraccas. 

A.  b.  1819-1830.— The  gloiy  and  the  fall 
of  Bolivar. — Dissolution  of  the  Colombian  Fed- 
eration.— Tyranny  under  the  Liberator,  and 
monarchical  schemes. — Three  davs  after  the 
battle  of  Boyaea,  Bolivar  entered  Bogota  in 
triumph.  "  A  congress  met  in  December  anil 
('ecided  that  Venezuela  and  Nueva  Granada 
Fliould  form  one  republic,  to  be  called  Colombia. 
Morillo  departed  for  Europe  in  1820,  and  the  vic- 
tory gained  by  Bolivar  at  Carabobo  on  Jime  24, 
1821,  decided  the  fate  of  Colombia.  In  the  fol- 
lowing January  General  Bolivar  assenil)k'd  an 
army  at  Popayan  to  drive  the  Spaniards  out  of 
the  province  of  Quito.  His  second  in  conunand, 
General  Sucre,  led  an  advanced  guard,  which  was 
reinforced  by  :i  contingent  of  volunteers  from 
Peru,  under  Santa  Cruz.  The  Spanish  General 
Ramirez  was  entirely  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Pichincha,  and  Quito  was  incori)orated  with  tlie 
new  republic  of  Colombia." — C.  R.  Jlarkham, 
Colonial  Hist,  of  S.  America  (Narrative  and  Crit- 
ical Hist,  of  Am.,  V.  8,  ch.  5). — "The  provinces 
of  New  Granad  and  Venezuela,  together  with 
the  Presidency  of  Quito,  now  sent  delegates  to 
the  convention  of  Cueuta,  in  1831,  and  there  de- 
creed the  unifm  of  the  three  countries  as  a  single 
state  by  the  name  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia. 
The  first  Colombian  federal  constitution  was  con- 
cocted by  the  united  wisdom  of  the  delegates ;  and 
the  result  might  easily  have  been  foreseen.  It 
was  a  farrago  of  crude  and  heterogeneous  ideas. 
Some  of  its  features  were  imitated  from  the 
American  political  system,  some  from  the  Eng- 
lish, some  from  the  French.  .  .  .  Bolivar  of 
course  became  President:  and  the  Republic  had 
need  of  him.  The  task  of  liberation  was  not  yet 
completed.  Carthagena,  and  ni'uiy  other  strong 
places,  remained  in  Spanish  hands.  Bolivar  re- 
duced these  one  by  one,  and  the  second  decisive 
victory  of  Carabobo,  in  1822,  finally  secured  Col- 
ombian freedom.  Tlie  English  claim  the  chief 
share  in  tlie  battle  of  Carabobo:  for  the  British 
legion  alone  carried  the  main  Spanish  position, 
losing  in  the  feat  two-thirds  of  its  numbers.  The 
war  now  fast  drew  to  its  close.  The  republic 
was  able  to  contest  w'ith  the  invaders  the  do- 
minion of  the  sea:  General  Padllla,  on  the  23rd 
of  Ju.y,  1823,  totally  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet: 


485 


COLOMBIAN  8TAT£S,  1819-1830. 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1826. 


and  the  Spanish  commander  Anally  cnpitiilatrd 
at  Puerto  Cavello  in  December.  All  these  hnrd- 
won  successe.'i  were  mainly  owinj;  to  the  hnivery 
and  reKolution  of  Bolivar.  Bolivar  deserves  to 
the  full  the  reputation  of  an  able  and  patriotic 
soldier.  He  was  now  set  free  .  .  .  to  render  im- 
portant services  to  the  rest  of  South  America :  and 
among  the  heroes  of  independence  perhaps  liis 
name  will  always  stand  flret.  But  Bolivar  the 
statesman  was  a  man  very  different  from  Bolivar 
the  general.  He  was  alternately  timid  and  arbi- 
trary. He  was  indeed  afraid  to" touch  the  prob- 
lems of  statesmanship  which  awaited  him:  but 
instead  of  leading  the  Colombian  peojde  through 
independence  to  liberty,  he  stubbornly  set  his 
face  against  all  measures  of  political  or  social  re- 
form. His  fall  may  be  said  to  liavo  begun  with 
the  moment  when  his  military  triumphs  were 
complete.  The  disaiTection  to  the  constitution 
of  the  leading  people  in  Venezuela  and  Ecuador 
[the  new  name  given  to  the  old  province  of  Quito, 
indicating  its  position  at  the  equator]  in  1820  and 

1827,  was  favoured  by  the  Provincial  governors, 
Paez  and  Mos(iuera ;  and  Bolivar,  instead  of  re- 
sisting the  disintegration  of  the  state,  openly 
favoured  the  military  dictatorsliips  which  Paez 
and  Jlosqucra  established.  This  policy  fore- 
shadowed the  reign  of  absolutism  in  New  Granada 
itself.  Bolivar  .  .  .  had  now  become  not  only 
the  constitutional  head  of  the  Colombian  federa- 
tion, but  also  the  military  head  of  the  Peruvian 
republics  [see  Pkiht:  A.  I).  1820-1826,  1825- 
1826,  and  1826-1870] :  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
tint  he  intended  tlie  Colombian  constitution  to 
be  reduced  to  the  Peruvian  model.  As  a  first 
step  towards  reuniting  nil  the  South  American 
nations  under  a  military  government,  Paez,  be- 
yond reasonable  doubt,  with  Bolivar's  connivance, 
prool. limed  the  independence  of  Venezuela,  April 
80th,  ;826.  This  practically  broke  up  the  Col- 
ombian federation:  and  the  destruction  of  the 
constitution,  so  far  as  it  regarded  New  Granada 
itself,  s.Kin  followed.  Bolivar  had  already  re- 
sorted to  the  usual  devices  of  military  tyranny. 
The  terrorism  of  Sbirri,  arbitrary  arrests,  the  as- 
sumption of  additional  executive  powers,  and, 
finally,  the  suppression  of  the  vice-presidency, 
all  pointed  one  way.  ...  At  length,  after  the 
practical  se<ession  of  Venezuela  and  Ecuador 
under  their  jnilitary  rulers,  Congress  decreed  a 
summons  for  ;'.  Convention,  which  met  at  Ocaiia 
in  March,  1828.  .  .  .  The  liberals,  who  were  bent 
on  electoral  reform  and  decentralization,  were 
paralyzed  by  the  violent  bearing  of  the  Bolivian 
leaders:  and  Bolivar  quartered  himself  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  threatened  the  Convention 
at  the  head  of  an  army  of  3,000  veterans. 
He  did  not,  however,  resort  to  open  force. 
Instead  of  tliis,  he  ordered  his  party  to  recede 
from  the  Convention:  and  this  left  the  Conven- 
tion without  the  means  of  making  a  quorum. 
From  this  moment  the  designs  of  Bolivar  were 
unmistakable.  The  dissolution  of  the  Conven- 
tion, and  the  appointment  of  Bolivar  as  Dictator, 
by  a  junta  of  notables,  followed  as  a  matter  of 
course ;  and  by  the  '  Organic  decree '  of  August 

1828,  Bolivar  assumed  the  absolute  sovereignty 
of  Colombia.  A  reign  of  brute  force  now  fol- 
lowed: but  the  triumph  of  Bolivar  was  only 
ephemend.  .  .  .  The  Federation  was  gone :  audit 
became  a  question  of  securing  military  ride  in 
the  separate  provinces.  A  portentous  change 
now  occurred  in  Ecuador,    Tlie  democratic  party 


under  Flores  triumphed  over  the  Bolivians  tmdcr 
Mosfpiera :  and  Paez  assured  his  chief  that  no 
help  was  to  be  e.vpccte<l  from  Venezuela.  At 
the  Convention  of  Bogota,  in  1830,  though  it  was 
packed  with  Bolivar's  nominees,  it  became  clear 
that  the  liberator's  star  had  set  at  last.  .  .  .  This 
convention  refused  to  vote  him  President.  Boli- 
var now  withdrew  from  public  life:  and  a  few 
months  later,  December  17,  1830,  he  died  broken- 
hearted at  San  Pedro,  near  Santa  ^Martha.  Boli- 
var, though  a  patriot  as  regarded  the  struggle 
with  Spain,  was  in  the  end  a  traitor  to  his  fellow 
citizens.  Recent  discoveries  leave  little  doubt 
that  he  intended  to  found  a  monarchy  on  the 
ruins  of  the  Spanish  dominion.  England  and 
France,  both  at  this  time  strongly  conservative 
powers,  were  in  favour  of  such  a  scheme ;  and  a 
Prince  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  had  already  been 
■"-.minated  to  be  Bolivar's  successor." — E.  J. 
Payne,  HM.  of  JHuropeaii  Colonies,  ch.  16. — 
"  About  one  month  before  his  death.  General 
Bolivar,  the  so-called  '  Liberator  '  of  South  Amer- 
ica, wrote  a  letter  to  the  late  Oenend  Flores  of 
Ecuador,  in  which  tlie  following  renuirkable 
passages  occur,  which  have  never  before  been 
published  in  the  English  language:  'I  have 
oeen  in  power  for  nearly  20  years,  from  which  I 
have  gathered  only  a  few  definite  results:  1. 
America,  for  us,  is  ungovernable.  2.  He  who 
dedicates  his  services  to  a  revolution,  plows  the 
sea.  3.  The  only  thing  that  can  be  done  in 
America,  is  to  emigrate.  4.  This  country  will 
inevitably  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  unbridled 
rabble,  and  little  by  little  become  a  prey  to  petty 
tyrants  of  all  colors  and  races. ' " — F.  Has-saurek, 
Four  Yearn  nmomj  Sp<tnish-Ameriettiis,  eh.  12. 

Also  IN:  J.  M.  Spence,  The  Lniul of  Bolirar, 
V.  1,  ch.  7. — E.  B.  Eastwick,  Venezuela,  ch.  11 
{Battle  of  CaraMw). 

A.  D.  1821-1854. — Emancipation  of  slaves. 
— The  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  three  republics 
of  New  Grenada,  Venezuela  and  Ecuador  was 
initiated  in  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  while  it 
embraced  them  all.  "By  a  law  of  the  21st  of 
July,  1821,  it  was  provided  that  the  children  of 
slaves,  born  after  its  publication  in  the  principal 
cities  of  the  republic,  should  be  free.  .  .  .  Cer- 
tain revenues  were  appropriated  to  the  creation 
of  an  emancipation  fund  in  each  district.  .  .  . 
Aside  from  a  certain  bungling  looseness  with 
which  almost  all  Spanish-American  laws  are 
drawn,  it  [the  act  of  1821]  contains  some  very 
sensible  regulations,  and  served  to  lay  a  solid 
foundation  for  the  work  of  emancipation,  since 
completed  by  the  three  republics  which  then 
constituted  Colombia."  In  Ecuador  the  comple- 
tion of  emancipation  was  reached  in  1854. — F. 
Hassaurck,  Four  Tears  among  Spanish- Ameri- 
cans, pp.  830-383. 

A.  D.  1826. — The  Congress  of  Panama. — 
"The  proposition  for  assembling  this  body  eman- 
ated from  Bolivar,  who,  in  1823,  as  president  of 
Colombia,  invited  the  governments  of  Mexico, 
Peru,  Chile,  and  Buenos  Ayres,  to  form  a  con- 
federacy of  the  Spanish-American  states,  by 
means  of  plenipotentiaries  to  be  convened,  in  the 
spirit  of  classic  analogy,  in  the  isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama. To  this  inv;t)»tion  the  governments  of 
P"ru  and  Mexico  promptly  acceded,  Chile  and 
Buenos  Ayres  neglecteel  or  declined  to  be  repre- 
sented in  the  assembly,  for  the  reasons  which  we 
shall  presently  state.  This  magniticcnt  idea  of  a 
second  AchKan  League  seized  on  the  imagina- 


486 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1826. 


COLOiMBIAN  STATES,  1830-1886. 


tions  of  miiiiy  speculative  and  of  some  practical 
men  in  America  and  Europe,  us  destined  to 
create  u  new  era  in  the  political  liistor/  of  the 
world  by  originatinj^  a  ])urcr  system  of  public 
law,  and  almost  realizing  Bernardin  dc  Saint 
Pierre's  league  of  the  m(Klern  nations.  In  its 
original  shape,  it  was  professedly  a  plan  of  a  bel- 
ligerent nature,  having  for  its  main  object  to 
combine  the  revolutionized  states  against  the 
conunou  enemy.  But  time  was  re(iuired  for 
carrying  it  into  effect.  Meanwhile  the  project, 
magnitled  by  the  course  of  events,  began  to 
change  its  complexion.  The  United  States  were 
invited  to  participate  in  the  Congress,  so  as  to 
form  an  American  policy,  and  n  rallying  point 
for  American  interests,  m  opposition  to  those  of 
Europe ;  and,  after  the  discussions  which  are  so 
familiar  to  all,  the  government  of  the  United 
States  accepted  the  invitation,  and  despatched 
its  representatives  to  Panama.  ...  In  the  in- 
terval, between  the  proposal  of  the  plan  and  its 
execution,  Centnd  America  was  added  to  the 
family  of  American  nations,  and  agreed  to 
take  part  in  the  Congress.  At  length,  after 
many  delays,  this  modern  Amphictyonic  Coun- 
cil, consistmg  of  plenipotentiaries  from  Colombia, 
Central  America,  Peru  and  Jlexico,  a.sscmbled 
in  the  city  of  Panama,  June  23,  1826,  and  in  a 
session  of  three  weeks  concluded  various  treaties ; 
one  of  perpetual  union,  league,  and  confedera- 
tion; others  relating  to  the  contingents  which 
the  confederates  should  contribute  for  the 
common  defence;  and  another  for  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  Congress  in  time  of  war.  Hav- 
ing th\i3  promptly  despatched  their  private 
affairs,  the  assembly  adjourned  to  Tacubaya  in 
Mexico,  on  account  of  the  insalubrious  climate 
of  Panama,  before  the  delegation  of  the  United 
States  had  arrived;  since  when  it  has  justly  ac- 
<iuircd  the  epithet  of  'introuvable,'  and  probably 
never  will  reassemble  in  its  original  form.  Is 
there  not  a  secret  liistory  of  all  this  ?  AVhy  did 
Chile  and  Buenos  Ayres  refuse  to  participate  in 
the  Congress  ?  Why  has  it  now  vanished  from 
the  face  of  the  earth?  The  answer  given  in 
South  America  is,  that  Bolivar  proposed  the 
assembly  as  part  of  a  grand  schf.'me  of  ambition, 
—  ascribed  to  him  by  the  republican  party,  and 
not  witliout  some  countenance  from  his  own 
conduct, —  for  establishing  a  military  empire  to 
embrace  the  whole  of  Spanish-America,  or  ut 
least  an  empire  uniting  Colombia  and  the  two 
Perus.  To  give  the  color  of  plousibility  to  the 
projected  assembly,  the  United  States  were  in- 
vited to  be  represented;  and  it  is  said  Bolivar 
did  not  expect,  nor  very  graciously  receive,  their 
accep^nce  of  the  invitation." — C.  Gushing,  Bo'i- 
var  and  the  Bolimaii  Constitution  (N.  A.  Hev., 
Jan.,  1830). — In  the  United  States  "no  question, 
in  its  day,  excited  more  heat  and  intemperate 
discussion,  or  more  feeling  between  a  President 
and  Senate,  than  this  proposed  mission  to  the 
Congress  of  American  nations  at  Panama;  and 
no  heated  question  ever  cooled  off  and  died  out 
so  suddenly  and  completely.  .  .  .  Though  long 
since  sunk  into  oblivion,  and  its  name  almost 
forgotten,  it  was  a  master  subject  on  the  political 
theatre  during  its  day;  and  gave  rise  to  ques- 
tions of  national  and  of  constitutional  law,  and  of 
national  policy,  the  importance  of  which  survive 
the  occasion  from  which  they  sprung;  and  the 
solution  of  which  (as  then  solved),  may  be  some 
guide  to  future  action,  if  similar  questions  again 


occur.  Besides  the  gnivc  ijuestions  to  which  the 
subject  gave  rise,  the  subjec^t  itself  became  one 
of  unu.sual  and  |>ainful  excitcnu-nt.  It  agitated 
tlie  people,  mad(!  a  violent  (h  bate  in  the  two 
Houses  of  Congress,  inllamed  the  passions  of 
parties  and  individuals,  rai.sed  a  tenii)est  before 
which  Congress  l)ent,  made  bad  feeling  between 
the  President  [Jolm  Quincy  Adams]  and  tlie 
Senate;  and  le(l  to  the  duel  between  Mr.  Ran- 
dolph and  Mr.  Clay.  It  was  an  adminlstnition 
measure,  and  pressed  by  all  the  means  known  to 
an  administration.  It  was  evidently  relied  ui)on 
asameansof  acting  upon  the  i)ei)ple  —  asa  popu- 
lar movement  wliich  might  have  the  elfect  of 
turning  the  tide  which  was  then  running  high 
against  Mr.  Adams  and  Mr.  Clay.  .  .  .  Now, 
the  chief  benefit  to  be  clerived  froiii  its  retrospect 
—  and  that  indeed  is  a  real  one  —  is  a  view  of 
the  firmness  with  which  was  then  maintained,  by 
a  minority,  the  old  policy  of  tlie  United  States,  to 
avoid  entangling  alliances  and  interference  with 
tlie  affairs  of  other  nations;  —  and  the  exjiosition 
of  the  ^lonroe  doctrine,  from  one  so  competent 
to  give  it  as  Mr.  Adams." — T.  H.  Benton,  Thirty 
Yeam'  View,  eh.  25  (s.  1). 

Also  in  :  O.  F.  Tucker,  The  ^fonroe  Doctrine, 
ch.  3. — C.  Schurz,  Life  of  Henry  Clay,  ch.  11  (v.  1). 
— International  Am.  Conference  (of  1%%^):  liepts. 
and  DiHCumoM,  v.  4,  Hist.  ap]iendix. 

A.  D.  1830-1886.  — Revolutions  and  civil 
wars. — The  New  Confederation  (1863)  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia. — The  Republic  of 
Colombia. — *"  New  Granada  was  obliged  in 
1830  to  recognize  the  disruption  of  Colombia, 
which  had  long  been  an  accom|)lished  fact. 
From  this  date  the  three  states  have  a  separate 
history,  which  is  very  much  of  a  piece,  though 
Venezuela  was  for  some  years  preserved  from 
the  intestine  commotions  which  have  from  the 
beginning  distracted  New  Granada  and  Ecuador. 
.  .  .  Mosquera,  who  had  won  the  election  which 
decided  the  fate  of  Bolivar  did  not  long  occupy 
the  presidency.  .  .  .  Mosquera  was  soon  driven 
out  by  General  Urdanete,  who  was  now  at  the 
head  of  the  conservative  or  Bolivian  party.  But 
after  the  death  of  their  leader,  this  party  suffered 
a  natural  relapse,  and  Urdanete  was  overthrown 
early  in  1831.  Tlie  history  of  New  Granada  may 
be  siiid  really  to  commence  with  the  presidency 
of  Bolivar's  old  rival  and  companion  in  arms, 
Santandcr,  who  was  elected  under  the  constitu- 
tion of  1832.  .  .  .  His  presidency  .  .  .  was  a 
coni))aratively  bright  episode:  and  with  its 
termination  in  1830  begins  the  dark  and  troubled 
period  which  the  Granadines  emphatically  desig- 
nate by  the  name  of  the  'Twelve  Years.'  The 
scanty  measure  of  liberalism  which  Santander 
had  dealt  out  to  the  people  was  now  withdrawn. 
Marquez,  his  successor,  was  a  sceptic  in  politics 
and  a  man  of  infirm  will.  .  .  .  Now  began  the 
ascendancy  of  clericalism,  of  absolutist  oligarchy, 
and  of  government  by  the  gallows.  This  same 
system  continued  under  President  Herran,  who 
was  elected  in  1841 ;  and  tlien  appeared  on  the 
scene,  as  his  chief  minister,  the  famous  Dr. 
Ospina,"  who  brought  back  the  .Jesuits  and  cur- 
tailed the  constitution.  Liberalism  again  gained 
ground,  electing  General  Lopez  to  the  presidency 
m  1849  and  once  more  expelling  the  Jesuits.  In 
April  1854  a  radical  revolution  overturned  the 
constitution  and  President  Obando  was  declared 
dictator.  "The  conservatives  rallied,  howevcir, 
and  regained  possession  of  the  government  before 


487 


COLOMBIAN  STATES,  1830-1886. 


COLORADO. 


tlie  close  of  the  year.  In  1857  Ospina  ontorod  on 
tlic  prcsidpncy  and  civil  war  soon  raged  tliroiigli- 
oiil  the  country.  "After  n  hundred  tights  the 
revolution  triumphed  in  July,  1801.  .  .  .  Mos- 
qucra,  who  wiw  now  in  posacdsion  of  the  Held, 
was  a  true  pupil  of  Uoliviir'H,  and  he  thought  the 
time  had  come  for  reviving  Holivar's  plans.  .  .  . 
In  18(!H  Moscpicra's  new  Federal  (Jonstitution 
was  proclaimed.  Henceforth  each  State  [of  the 
eight  federal  States  into  which  the  44  pr'-.vinces 
of  New  Granada  were  divided]  became  practi- 
cally independent  under  its  own  President;  and  to 
mark  tlie  change  the  title  of  the  nation  was 
altered.  At  first  it  was  called  the  Qranadine 
Confedcratir)n :  but  it  afterwards  took  the  name 
of  Colombia  [the  United  States  of  Colombia], 
■which  Inul  formerly  been  the  title  of  the  larger 
Confedenition  under  Bolivar.  Among  the  most 
important  facts  in  recent  Colombian  history 
is  the  independence  of  the  State  of  Panama, 
which  has  become  of  great  importance  through 
the  construction  of  the  railway  connecting  the 
port  of  Colon,  or  Aspinwall,  as  it  was  named  by 
the  Americans,  on  the  Atlantic,  with  that  of 
Panama  on  the  Pacific.  This  railway  was  opened 
in  IHnS;  and  in  the  same  year  Panama  declared 
itself  a  sovereign  state.  The  State  of  Panama, 
after  many  years  of  conservative  domination, 
has  now  perhaps  the  most  democratic  govern- 
ment in  the  world.  Tlie  President  is  elected  for 
two  years  only,  and  is  incapable  of  re-election. 
Panama  has  had  many  revolutions  of  its  own ; 
nor  has  the  new  Federal  Constitution  solved  all 
the  difficulties  of  the  Qranadine  government.  In 
1867  Mosquera  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  a 
coup  d'etat,  and  declared  himself  dictator,  but 
he  was  soon  ofterwards  arrested ;  a  conservative 
revolution  took  place ;  Mosquera  was  banished ; 
and  Gutierrez  became  President.  The  liberalb, 
however,  came  back  the  next  year,  under  Ponce. 
Since  1874  [the  date  of  writing  being  1879] 
General  Perez  has  been  President  of  Colombia. 
— E.  J.  Payne,  Hist,  of  European  Colonien,  ch. 
16. — "The  federal  Constitution  of  1863  was 
clearly  formed  on  the  model  of  ihe  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  It  remained  in 
force  until  1886,  wlien  it  was  superseded  by  a 
law  whicli  gave  the  State  a  centralized  organiza- 
tion and  named  it  the  'Republic  of  Colombia.'  " 
— Const,  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  with  Hist. 
Introd.  by  B.  Moses  (Sup,  to  Annals  of  Am.  Acad, 
of  Pol.  and  Sac.  Science,  Jan.,  1893). 

A.  D.  iSS^-iSpx.— The  Revolution  of  1885. 
— The  constitution  of  1886. — The  presidency  of 
Dr.  Nunez. — "Cartagena  is  virtually  the  centre 
of  political  power  in  Colombia,  for  it  is  the  resi- 
dence of  President  Nuilez,  a  dictator  without  the 
name.  Before  the  revolution  of  1885,  during 
which  Colon  was  burned  and  the  Panama  Rail- 
way protected  by  American  marines,  tlie  States 
cvjoyed  a  large  measure  of  home  rule.  The 
insurgents  who  were  defeated  in  that  strtjggle 
were  Radicals  and  advanced  Liberals.  They 
were  making  a  stand  against  centralized  govern- 
ment, and  they  were  overthrown.  When  the 
followers  of  Dr.  NuSez  were  victorious,  they 
transformed  the  constitutional  system  of  the 
country.  .  .  .  Dr.  Nui^cz,  who  had  entered 
public  life  as  a  Radical  agitator,  swung  completely 
around  the  circle.  As  the  leader  of  the  National 
party  he  became  the  all^  of  Clericalism,  and  the 
defender  of  ecclesiastical  privilege.  Being  a 
man  of  unrivalled  capacity  for  directing  public 


affairs  and  enforcing  party  discipline,  he  has 
established  a  highly  centralized  military  govern- 
ment without  incurring  unpopularity  by  remain- 
ing constantly  in  sight  and  openly  exercising 
authority.  .  .  .  Strong  government  has  not 
been  without  its  advantages;  but  the  system  can 
hardly  be  considered  either  republican  or  demo- 
cratic. ...  Of  all  the  travesties  of  popular 
government  which  have  been  witnessed  in  Spanish 
America,  the  political  play  enacted  in  BogotA 
ni.'.  Cartagena  is  the  most  grotesque.  Dr. 
Nufiez  is  known  os  the  titular  President  of  the 
Republic.  His  practice  is  to  go  to  the  capital  at 
the  beginning  of  the  presidential  term,  and  when 
he  has  taken  the  oath  of  office  to  remain  there  a 
few  weeks  until  all  matters  of  policy  and 
discipline  are  arranged  among  his  followers.  He 
then  retires  to  his  country-seat  in  Cartagena, 
leaving  the  vice-President  to  bear  the  burdens  of 
state." — I.  N.  Ford,  Tropical  America,  ch.  12^ 

A.  D.  1892, — Re-election  of  President  Nunez. 
—  In  1892,  Dr.  Rafael  Nunez  was  elected  Presi- 
dent for  a  fourth  term,  the  term  of  ofllce  being 
six  years. — Statesman's  Year-hook,  1893. 

COLONI.    See  Dedititius. 

COLONIA      AGRIPPINENSIS.  — Agrip- 

pina,  the  daughter  of  Germaiiicus  and  the  mother 
of  Nero,  founded  on  the  Rhine  the  ColoniaAgrip- 
pinensis  (modern  Cologne)  —  probably  the  only 
colony  of  Roman  veterans  ever  established  under 
female  auspices.  The  site  had  been  previously 
occupied  by  a  village  of  the  Ubii.  "It  is 
curious  that  this  abnormal  colony  has,  alone,  of 
all  its  kindred  foundations,  retained  to  the 
present  day  the  name  of  Colonia." — C.  Merivale, 
Ilist.  of  the  liomanr,  ch.  50. 

COLONIA,  URUGUAY.  See  Aiiokntine 
Repuhlic:  a.  D.  1580-1777. 

COLONIZATION  SOCIETY,  The  Ameri- 
can.    See  Slavery,  Neoro:  A.  D.   1816-1847. 

COLONNA,  The.  See  Rome:  13Tn-14TJi 
Centuries,  and  A.  D.  1347-1354;  also  Papacy: 
A.  D.  1294-1348. 

COLONUS,  The.  See  SLA\-EnY,  Medleval  : 
Germany. 

COLORADO:  A.  D.  1803-1848.— Acquisi- 
tion of  the  eastern  part  in  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase and  the  western  part  from  Mexico. 
See  Louisiana:  A.  D.  1798-1803;  and  Mexico: 
A.  D.  1848. 

A.  D.  1806-1876.— Early  explorations. — 
Gold  discoveries. — Territorial  and  state  or- 
g^anization. — The  first  American  explorer  to 
penetrate  to  the  mountains  of  Colorado  was 
Lieutenant  Zebulon  Pike,  sent  out  with  a  small 
party  by  General  Wilkinson,  in  1806.  He  ap- 
proached within  15  miles  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Peak  which  bears  his  name.  A  more  extensive 
official  exploration  of  the  country  was  made  in 
1819  by  Major  Stephen  H.  Long,  whose  report 
upon  the  whole  region  drained  by  the  Missouri, 
Arkansas  and  Platte  rivers  and  their  tributaries 
was  unfavorable  and  discouraging.  Fremont's 
explorations,  which  touched  Colorado,  were 
TT.r.ie  in  1843-44.  "The  only  persons  encoun- 
tered in  the  Rocky  mountains  by  Fremont  at  this 
time  were  the  few  remaining  traders  and  their 
former  employes,  now  their  colonists,  who  lived 
with  their  Mexican  and  Indian  wives  and  half- 
breed  children  in  a  primitive  manner  of  life, 
usually  under  the  protection  of  some  defensive 
structure  called  a  fort.      The    first  American 


488 


COLORADO. 


COMITATUS. 


families  in  Colorado  wore  a  pnrt  ot  the  Monnon 
biittulion  of  1840,  wlio,  witli  tlicir  wives  and 
cliiliiren,  resided  at  Piiebio  from  September  to 
tlie  spring  and  summer  of  tlie  following  year, 
when  tliey  joined  tlic  >Iornion  emigration  to  Salt 
Lake.  .  .  .  Jleusures  wen;  taken  early  in  Mareli, 
1847,  to  select  locations  for  two  United  States 
forts  bc'tween  the  llissoiiri  and  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, tlie  sites  selected  being  those  now  occupie<l 
by  Kearney  City  and  Port  Ijiramie.  ...  Up  to 
18.5!}  Colorado's  scant  population  still  lived  in  or 
near  some  defensive  establishment,  and  had  been 
decreasing  rather  tlian  increasing  for  the  past 
decade,  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  Indians."  In 
1838  the  first  organized  searching  or  prospecting 
for  gold  in  the  region  was  begun  by  a  party  of 
Cherokee  Indians  and  whites.  Other  parties 
soon  followed;  the  search  succeeded;  and  the 
Pike's  Peak  mining  region  was  speedily  swarm- 
ing with  eager  advcnttirers.  In  the  fall  of  1858 
two  rival  towns  were  laid  out  on  the  opposite; 
sides  of  Cherry  Creek.  They  were  named 
respectively  Auraria  and  Denver.  The  struggle 
for  existence  between  them  was  bitter,  but  brief. 
Auraria  succumbed  and  Denver  survived,  to 
liecomc  the  metropolis  of  the  llountjiins.  The 
first  attempt  at  political  organization  was  tmide 
at  the  Auraria  settlement,  iu  November,  18.58, 
and  took  the  form  of  a  provisional  territorial 
organization,  under  tlie  name  of  the  Territory  of 
Jefifersoii;  but  the  provisional  government  did 
not  succeed  in  establishing  its  autiiority,  opposed 
as  it  was  by  conflicting  claims  to  territorial  juris- 
diction on  the  part  of  Utah,  New  Slexico, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Dakota.  At  length,  on 
the  28th  of  February,  1861,  an  act  of  Congress 
became  law,  by  which  the  proposed  new  territory 
was  duly  created,  but  not  bearing  the  name  of 
Jefferson.  "  The  name  of  Colorado  wasgiventoit 
at  tlu'  suggestion  of  the  man  selected  for  its  first 
governor.  .  .  .  '  Some,' says  Gilpin,  'wanted  it 
called  Jefferson,  some  Arcadia.  ...  I  said  the 
p(!ople  have  to  a  great  extent  named  the  States 
after  the  great  rivers  of  the  country  .  .  .  and 
the  great  feature  of  that  country  is  the  great 
Colorado  river. '  "  Remaining  in  the  territorial 
condition  until  July  1876,  Colorado  was  then 
admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  state. — II.  H.  Bancroft, 
Hist,  of  the  Pacific  Staten,  v.  20:  Colorado,  ch.  2-6. 


COLOSSEUM,  OR  COLISEUM,  The.— 

"  The  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  or  Colosseum,  was 
built  by  Vespasian  and  Titus  in  the  lowest  part 
of  the  valley  between  the  Cwlean  and  Esquillne 
Hills,  which  was  then  occupied  by  a  large  arti- 
ficial pool  for  naval  fights  ('Nauniachia').  .  .  . 
The  exact  date  of  the  commencement  of  the 
Colosseum  is  doubtful,  but' it  was  opened  for  use 
in  A.  D.  80.  .  .  .  As  built  by  the  Flavian  Em- 
perors the  upper  galleries  ('  ma;niani ')  wore  of 
wood,  and  these,  as  in  the  case  of  tlie  Circus 
Maximus,  at  many  times  caught  fire  from  light- 
ning and  other  causes,  and  did  much  damage  to 
the  stone-work  of  the  building."— J.  II.  Middle- 
ton,  Ancient  Home  «» 188.5,  c/i.  10. 

Also  IN:  J.  II.  Parker,  Airfiafolor/i/of  Jiome,  pt. 
7. — R.  Burn,  Home  and  the  (Janipogtui,  ch.  9,  pt. 
2.— See,  also,  Rome:  A.  D.  70-96, 

COLOSSUS    OF  RHODES.    See  Rhodes. 

COLUMB  AN  CHURCH.The.- The  church, 
or  the  organization  of  Christianity,  in  Scotland, 
wliieli  resulted  from  the  labors  of  the  Irish  mis- 
sionary, Columba,  in  the    sixth   century,  and 

^*  489 


which  spread  from  tlie  great  monastery  that  he 
founded  on  the  little  island  of  lona.  or  la,  or 
Ilil,  near  the  greater  Island  of  iMull.  The  church 
of  Coluinba,  "not  only  for  a  time  enibrace<l 
within  its  fold  the  whoUiof  Scotland  north  of  the 
Firllis  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  and  was  for  a  ecntury 
and  a  half  the  national  church  of  .Scotland,  but 
was  destined  to  give  to  the  Angles  of  Northum- 
bria  the  sa-'ie  form  of  Clu'istlanity  for  a  period 
of  thirty  years. "  It  represented  some  differences 
from  the  Roman  church  whi-.'h  two  centuries  of 
isolation  liad  produced  In  tlu;  Irish  church,  fnmi 
which  it  sprang.— W.  F.  Skene,  Vellic  fkotland, 
hk.  2,  ch.  3. 

Ai.so  I.N :  Count  de  Alontalembert,  The  Monks 
of  the  WiKt,  bk.  9  (».  ii).— C.  F.  Madear,  Conver- 
nionof  the  West:  The  Clin,  ch.  7-10.— See  Ciima- 
tianity:  .5tii-9tii  ('KNTriiiKs,  and  .597-^00. 

COLUMBIA,  The  District  of.  See  Wash- 
INOTON  (Crrv) :  A.  I).  1791. 

A.  D.  1850.— Abolition  of  slave-trade  in. 
See  United  States  ok  A.m.  :  A.  1).  is.")i). 

A.  D.  1867. — Extension  of  suffrage  to  the 
Neeroes.  See  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A .  I). 
1867  (Januauy). 

♦ 

COLUMBIA,  S.  C,  The  burning  of.  See 
United  States  op  A.m.  :  A.  D.  1865  (Fehuuauy 
— Maiicii:  The  Cauoi.inas). 

COLUMBIA,  Tenn.,  Engagement  at.  See 
United  States  OK  Am.  :  A.  1).  1864(NovE.MnEu: 
Tennessee). 

COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION,  The 
■World's.     See  Chicaoo:  A.  D.  1892-1803. 

COLUMBIAN  ORDER,  The.  See  Tam- 
many Society. 

COLUMBUS,  'Voyages  of.  See  America: 
A.  D.  1484-1492;  1492;  1493-1406;  1498-1.505. 

COM  AN  A. —  Comana,  an  ancient  city  of  Cap- 
padocia,  on  the  river  Sams  (Silioon)  was  the  seat 
of  a  priesthood,  in  the  temple  of  Euyo,  or  Bel- 
lona,  so  venerated,  so  wealthy  and  so  powerful 
that  the  chief  priest  of  Comana  counted  among 
the  great  Asiatic  dignitaries  in  the  time  of  Ca-sar. 
—  G.  Long,  Decline  of  the  Itoman  Rep.,  v.  5, 
ch.  22. 

COMANCHES,  The.  See  American  ^Vbo- 
uioiNEs:  SiiosiiONEAN  Fa-mily,  and  Kicwan 
Family,  and  Apache  Ouour. 

COMANS,  The.  See  Kipchaks;  Patchi- 
NAKs;  Cossacks,  and  IIunoahy:  A.  D.  1114- 
1301. 

COMBAT,  Judicial.   See  W.uiEU  ok  B.\ttle. 

COMES  LITTORIS  SAXONICI.  See 
Saxon  Shore,  Count  ok. 

COMES  PALATII.   See  Palatine  Counts. 

COMITATUS.— COMITES.—GESITHS. 
— THEGNS. —  Comitatus  is  the  name  given  by 
Tacitus  to  a  body  of  warlike  conii)anious  among 
the  ancient  Germans  "who  attached  themselves  in 
the  closest  manner  to  the  chieftain  of  their  choice. 
They  were  in  many  cases  the  sons  of  the  nobles 
who  were  ambitious  of  renown  or  of  a  perfect 
education  in  arms.  The  princeps  provided  for 
them  horses,  arms,  and  such  rough  e(iuipineiit  as 
they  wanted.  These  and  plentiful  entertainment 
were  accepted  instead  of  wages.  In  time  of  war 
the  comites  fought  for  their  chief,  at  once  his 
defenders  and  the  rivals  of  his  jn-owess.  ...  In 
the  times  of  forced  and  unwelcome  rest  they 
were  thoroughly  idle;  they  cared  neither  for 
farming  nor  for  hunting,  but  siient  the  time  in 
feasting  and  in  sleep.  .  .  .  Like  the  Frank  king,. 


COMITATUS. 


COMITIA  CENTURIATA. 


the  Anglo-Saxon  king  seems  to  linve  entered  on 
the  full  possession  of  wimt  hiid  been  the  right  of 
the  eli'i.'tive  principcs  [to  nominates  and  maintain 
u  eomilatns,  to  wliieli  heeoidd  give  territory  and 
politieal  power]:  hut  the  very  prineiple  of  the 
4'oinitatus  hud  iinilergonu  n  change  from  what  it 
was  in  the  time  of  Tacitus,  when  it  r(Mip|)ears  in 
our  historians,  and  it  seems  to  have  had  in  Kng- 
hiiid  a  pecMiliar  deveh)pment  and  a  hearing  of 
special  irnp(>rtanc(t  on  the  constitution.  In  Taci- 
tus the  comiti's  are  the  personal  following  of  the 
priiici^ps;  they  live  in  his  house,  are  maintained 
by  his  gifts,  light  for  him  in  the  Held.  If  there 
is  little  dilTeren'^e  between  companions  and  ser- 
vants, it  is  because  civilizathm  luis  not  vet  intro- 
<luced  voluntary  helplessness.  .  .  .  Now  the 
king,  the  perpetiud  princeps  and  representiitive 
of  the  ra<'e,  conveys  to  his  personal  following 
public  dignity  and  importance.  His  gesiths  and 
thegns  are  among  the  great  and  wise  men  of  the 
land.  Th(!  right  of  having  such  dependents  is 
not  restricted  to  liim,  but  tlie  gesith  of  the  eal- 
4lorman  or  bi.shop  is  simply  a  retainer,  a  pupil  or 
i\  ward :  the  free  househohl  servants  of  the  ceori 
are  in  a  certain  sense  Ins  gesitlis  also.  ]I>'t  the 
gesiths  of  the  king  are  liis  guard  and  private 
council ;  they  muy  be  endowed  by  him  from  the 
folkland  an('  ".'.Imitted  by  him  to  the  witenage- 
niot.  .  .  .  The  Danish  husearls  of  Canute  are  a 
late  reproduction  of  wlnit  the  familia  of  the 
Northumbrian  kings  must  have  been  in  the  eighth 
century.  .  .  .  The  development  of  the  comitjitus 
into  a  territorial  nobility  seems  to  bo  a  featun; 
peculiar  to  English  history.  .  .  .  The  Lombard 
gasiud,  and  tlie  Bavarian  sindman  were  originally 
the  .same  thing  as  the  Anglo-!Sax(m  gesith.  But 
they  sank  into  tlie  general  mass  of  vassalage  as 
it  grew  up  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
.  .  .  Closely  connected  with  the  gesith  is  the 
thegii;  so  closely  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to 
see  the  difference  except  in  the  nature  of  the  em- 
ployment. Tlie  tliegii  seems  to  be  primarily  the 
warrior  gesith ;  in  this  idea  Alfred  uses  the  word 
as  translating  the  '  miles '  of  Hede.  He  is  prob- 
ably the  gesith  who  has  a  particular  military 
duty  in  liis  master's  service.  But  he  also  appears 
lis  a  landowner.  The  ceorl  who  has  acquired 
live  hides  of  land,  and  a  siiecial  appointment  in 
the  king's  hall,  with  other  judicial  rights,  be- 
comes tliegn-worthy.  .  .  .  And  from  tills  point, 
the  time  of  Athelstan,  the  gesitli  is  lost  sight  of, 
except  very  occasionally;  the  more  important 
members  ot  the  class  having  become  thegns,  and 
the  le.sser  sort  sinking  into  the  ranks  of  mere 
servants  to  the  king.  The  cla.ss  of  thegns  now 
widens;  on  tlie  one  hand  the  name  is  given  to  all 
wliopo.ssess  the  proper  quantity  of  land,  whether 
or  no  they  stand  in  the  old  reliitinn  to  the  king; 
on  the  other  the  remains  of  the  ■  •  1  nobility  place 
them.selves  in  tlie  king's  service.  The  name  of 
tliegn  covers  the  wliolc  class  which  after  the 
€on(iuest  appears  uo'lcr  the  name  of  knights, 
with  the  same  qualirication  in  land  and  nearly 
the  same  obligations.  It  also  carried  so  much  of 
nobility  as  is  implied  in  hereditary  privilege. 
The  thegn-born  are  contrasted  with  the  ceorl- 
born;  and  arc  perhaps  much  the  same  as  the 
gesitlicund.  .  .  .  Under  the  name  of  thegn  are 
included  however  various  grades  of  dignity. 
The  ela.ss  of  king's  thegns  is  distinguished  fnmi 
that  of  the  medial  thegns,  and  from  a  residuum 
that  falls  in  rank  below  the  latter.  .  .  .  The  very 
name,  like  that  of  the  gesith,  has  different  senses 


in  different  ages  and  kingdimis;  but  the  original 
idea  of  military  service  runs  through  all  the 
meanings  of  thegn,  as  that  of  (lersonal  associa- 
tion is  traceable  in  all  the  applications  of  gesith." 
—  W.  Htubbs,  CiiiiMt.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  ch.  2,  »ect.  14 
anil  di.  6,  xcct.  Ort-Ori. 

Al.so  IN:  T.  Hodgkin,  Tlidi/ and  Jler  Invaders, 
hk.  4.  di.  7. —  See,  also,  CofNT  AND  DliKK. 

COMITIA  CENTURIATA.—"  Under  the 
original  eonstituti<m  of  Home,  the  jiatricians 
alone  .  .  .  enjoyed  political  rights  in  the  state, 
but  at  the  .sanu^  time  they  were  forced  to  bear 
the  whole  burden  of  political  duties.  In  these 
last  were  included,  for  example,  the  tilling  of  the 
king's  fields,  the  construction  of  pulilic  works 
and  buildings  .  .  .  ;  citizens  alone,  also,  were 
liable  to  service  in  the  army.  .  .  .  The  political 
burdens,  especially  those  connected  with  the 
army,  grew  heavier,  naturally,  as  tlu!  jiower  of 
Home  increased,  and  it  was  seen  to  be  an  injus- 
tice that  one  part  of  the  people,  and  that,  too,  the 
smaller  part,  should  alone  feel  their  weight. 
This  led  to  the  first  important  modification  of 
the  Roman  constitution,  which  was  made  even 
before  the  close  of  the  regal  period.  According 
to  tradition,  its  author  was  the  king  ServiusTul- 
lius,  and  its  general  object  was  to  make  nil  men 
who  held  hind  in  the  state  liable  to  military  ser- 
vice. It  thus  conferred  no  ])olitieal  rights  on 
tlie  plebeians,  but  assigned  to  them  their  sliare  of 
nolitical  duties.  .  .  .  According  to  tradition,  all 
'le  freeholders  in  the  city  between  tlio  ages  of 
17  and  60,  with  some  exceptions,  were  divided, 
without  distinction  as  to  birth,  into  five  classes 
('ela.ssis,'  'a  8ummoniu„  '  'calo')  for  service  in  the 
infantry  according  to  the  size  of  their  estates. 
Tliose  who  were  excepted  served  as  horsemen. 
These  were  selected  from  among  the  very  richest 
men  in  tlie  state.  .  .  .  (.)f  the  live  classes  of  in- 
fantry, the  first  contained  the  richest  men.  .  .  . 
The  members  of  tin*  first  class  were  recjuired  to 
come  to  the  battle  array  in  complete  armor,  while 
less  was  demanded  of  the  other  four.  Each  class 
was  subdivided  into  centuries  or  bodies  of  a  hun- 
dred men  each,  for  convenience  in  arranging  the 
army.  There  were  in  all  198  centuries.  .  .  . 
TliLs  absolute  number  and  this  apportionment 
were  continued,  as  tlie  jiopulation  increased  and 
the  distribution  of  wealth  altered,  until  the  name 
century  came  to  have  a  purely  conventional  mean- 
ing, even  if  it  had  any  other  iu  the  begirning. 
Henceforth  a  careful  census  was  taken  every 
fourth  year,  and  all  freeholders  were  made 
subject  to  the  'tributum.'  The  arrangement 
of  the  people  thus  described  was  primarily 
made  simply  for  military  purposes.  .  .  .  Grad- 
ually, however,  this  organization  came  to 
have  political  significance,  until  finally  these 
men,  got  together  for  what  is  the  cliief  politi- 
cal duty  in  a  primitive  state,  enjoyed  what 
political  privileges  there  were.  .  .  .  In  the 
end,  this  '  exercitus '  of  Servius  Tullius  formed 
anot  her  popular  assembly,  the  Comitia  Centuriata, 
which  supplanted  the  comitia  curiata  entirely, 
except  in  matters  connectf'd  with  the  religion  of 
the  family  and  very  soon  of  i)urely  formal  signi- 
ficance. This  organization,  therefore,  became  of 
the  highest  civil  importance,  and  was  continued 
for  civil  purposes  long  after  tlie  armv  was  mar- 
shalled on  quite  another  plan. " — A.  "Tighe,  Dc- 
V4:lopment  ofllie  Roman  Const.,  eh.  4. 

Also  in:  W.  Iline,  Hist,  of  Jiome,  hk.  6,  eh.  1. 
— W.  Ramsay,  Manual  of  Roman  Antiq.,  ch.  4. 


490 


COMITIA  CURIATA. 


COMMUNE. 


COMITIA  CURIATA.— "  In  tlio  bopinnlriR, 
(iny  iiicniliiT  of  any  one  of  tlic  rliins  which  wen; 
included  in  the  tlircc  original  Uonian  trilics,  was 
a  Roman  cili/cn.  So,  too,  were  his  children 
born  in  lawful  wedlock,  an<l  iliose  who  were 
n<lo|)ted  hy  liini  according  to  the  forms  of  law. 
Illegitimate  children,  on  the  other  hand,  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  nund)er  of  citizens.  These 
earliest  Romans  called  themselves  patricians 
(patricii,  'children  of  their  fathers'),  for  some 
reason  about  which  we  cannot  he  sure.  Perhaps 
it  was  in  order  to  distinguish  tliemselves  from 
their  illegitimate  kinsmen  and  from  such  other 
people  as  lived  about,  having  no  pretense  of 
l)l()od  connection  with  them,  unci  who  were,  there- 
fore, incapable  of  contracting  lawful  marriages, 
according  to  the  patrician's  view  of  this  religious 
ceremony.  The  patrcians  .  .  .  were  grouped 
togetlier  in  families,  clans  and  tribes,  partly  on 
the  basis  of  blood  relationship,  but  cliietly  on  the 
basis  of  common  religious  worship.  Besides 
the.se  groups,  tlierc  was  still  another  in  the  state, 
the  curia,  or  '  ward,'  which  stood  between  tlie 
clan  and  the  tribe.  In  the  earliest  times,  tradi- 
tion said,  ten  families  formed  a  clan,  ten  clans  a 
curia  and  ten  curiic  a  tribe.  These  n"n'bers,  if 
they  ever  had  any  historical  existence,  could  not 
have  sustained  themselves  for  any  length  of  time 
in  tlie  case  of  the  clans  and  families,  for  such  or- 
ganisms of  necessity  would  increase  and  decrease 
quite  irregularly.  About  the  natun'of  the  curia 
we  have  practically  uo  direct  information.  The 
organization  had  become  a  mere  name  at  an  early 
period  in  the  city's  liistory.  Whether  the  mem- 
bers of  a  curia  thought  of  themselves  as  having 
closer  kinship  with  one  another  than  with  mem- 
bers of  other  curio)  is  not  clear.  We  know,  how- 
ever, that  the  curiae  were  definite  political  sub- 
divisions of  the  city,  perhaps  like  modern  wards, 
and  that  each  curia  had  a  common  religious  wor- 
sliip  for  its  members'  participation.  Thus  much, 
at  any  rate,  is  significant,  because  it  has  to  do 
with  the  form  of  Rome's  primitive  popular  as- 
sembly. When  tlie  king  wanted  to  harangue  the 
people  (' populus,' cf.  'populor,'  '  to  devastate ') 
ho  called  them  to  a  '  contio'  (compounded  of  'co' 
and  '  venio ').  But  if  he  wanted  to  propose  to 
them  action  which  implied  a  change  in  the  or- 
ganic law  of  the  state,  he  summoned  them  to  a 
comitia  (compounded  of  'con'  and  'eo').  To 
this  the  name  comitia  curiata  was  given,  becaui  •> 
its  members  voted  by  curisc.  Each  curia  had  one 
vote,  the  character  of  which  was  determined  by 
a  majority  of  its  members,  and  a  majority  of  the 
curiiE  decided  tlie  matter  for  the  comitia." — A. 
Tighe,  Development  of  the  Itonuin  Const.,  ch.  3. 

Ai.soiN:  T.  Mommscn,  JIM.  of  Home,  bk.  1, 
ch.  5. — P.  De  Coulanges,  The  Ancient  City,  bk. 
3,  ch.  1,  and  bk.  4  ch.  1.— See,  also,  CoMlTlA  Cen- 
Tcm.vTA,  and  Contiones. 

COMITIA  TRIBUTA,  The.  See  Ro.me: 
B.  C.  4T'.J-471. 

COMMAGENE,  Kingdom  of.— A  district  of 
northern  Syria,  between  Cilicia  and  the  Euphra- 
tes, which  acquired  independence  during  the  dis- 
orders which  broke  up  the  empire  of  the 
Seleucida;,  and  was  a  separate  kingdom  during 
the  last  century  B.  C.  It  was  afterwards  made 
a  Roman  province.     Its  capital  was  Samosata. 

COMMENDATION.     See  Beneficium. 

COMMERCIUM.     See  MuNicii'ruM. 

COMMITTEE  OF  PUBLIC  SAFETY, 
The    French    Revolutionary.      See    Fkance: 


A.  D.  1793  (March- .luNE),  and  (JtrwE- Octo- 

BEIl). 

COMMITTEE  ON  THE  CONDUCT  OF 

THE  WA".,  The.  Se(^  I'mted  .States  ok 
Am.:  A.  1).  1801-1HO'3  (Decemueii— .Maucii: 
ViniiiNiA). 

COMMODUS,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  180- 
192. 

COMMON  LAW,  English.  -"The  munici- 
pal law  of  England,  or  tlie  rule  nf  civil  conduct 
prescribed  to  th(^  inhabitants  of  lids  king<lom, 
may  with  sullicient  propriety  be  divided  into 
two  kinds;  the  'lex  non  scrip'la,'  the  unwritten 
or  common  law;  and  the  'lex  scripla,'  tlu'  writ- 
ten or  statute  law.  The  'lex  non  scripta,'  or 
unwritten  law,  inclmles  not  only  general  cus- 
toms, or  the  commim  law  properly  so  called,  but 
also  the  particular  custcmis  of  certain  parts  of 
the  kingdom;  and  likewi.se  those  particular  laws 
that  are  by  custom  observed  only  in  certain 
courts  and  jurisdictions.  Wlien  I  call  these 
parts  of  our  law  'leges  non  scriptic,'  I  would  not 
be  understood  as  if  all  those  laws  were!  at  present 
merely  oral,  or  communicated  from  th(^  former 
ages  to  the  present  solely  by  word  .)i  mouth. 
.  .  .  But,  with  us  at  present,  the  monuments 
and  evidences  of  our  legal  customs  are  contained 
in  the  records  of  the  several  courts  of  justice, 
in  books  of  reports  and  judicial  decisions,  and  in 
the  treatises  of  learned  sages  of  the  profession, 
preserved  and  handed  down  to  us  from  the  times 
of  highest  antiijuity.  However,  I  therefore 
style  these  parts  of  our  law  'leges  non  .scriptie,' 
because  their  original  institution  and  authority 
are  not  set  down  in  writing,  as  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment are,  but  they  receive  their  binding  power, 
and  the  force  of  "laws,  by  long  and  immemorial 
usage,  and  by  their  universal  reception  through- 
out the  kingdom. " — Sir  W.  Blackstone,  Commen- 
taries on  the  Tmws  of  Eng.,  int.,  sect.  3. 

Also  IN:  H.  S.  Maine,  Ancient  Law,  ch.  1. — 
J.  N.  Pomeroy,  Int.  to  Municipal  Law,  sects. 
37-42. 

COMMON  LOT,  OR  COMMON  LIFE, 
Brethren  of  the.  See  Bketiiren  of  the  Com- 
mon Lot. 

"COMMON  SENSE"  (Paine's  Pamphlet), 
The  influence  of.  See  United  States  of  A.m.  : 
A.  D.  1770  (.Januahy — June). 

COMMONS,      The.    See     Estates,     The 

TllUEE. 

COMMONS,  House  of.  Sec  Pahliamext, 
The  Enoi.ish,  and  Kniohts  of  the  Shike. 

COMMONWEALTH  OF  ENGLAND, 
Establishment  of  the.  See  Engl.\nd:  A.  U. 
1649  (FEniiiTAUY). 

COMMUNE,  The.— The  commonalty;  the 
commons.  In  feudal  usage,  the  term  .signified, 
as  defined  by  Littre,  the  body  of  the  bourgeois 
or  burghers  of  a  town  who  had  received  a 
charter  which  gave  them  rights  of  self-govern- 
ment. "In  Prance  the  communal  constitution 
was  during  this  period  (12tli  century)  encouraged, 
although  not  very  heartily,  by  Lewis  VI.,  who 
saw  in  it  one  iiK^ans  of  fettering  the  action  of  the 
barons  and  bisliojis  and  securing  to  himself  the 
support  of  a  strong  portion  of  his  iieojile.  In 
some  cases  the  commune  of  France  is,  like  the 
guild,  a  voluntary  association,  but  its:  objects  are 
from  the  first  mou  distinctly  political.  In  some 
parts  of  the  kingdom  the  towns  had  risen 
against  their  lords  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eleventh  century,  and  had  retained  the  fruits  of 


491 


COMMUNE. 


COMPASS. 


their  liiirdwon  vict()ri<'H.  In  others,  they  pos- 
flcHsi'd,  in  tlic  rcniuiniug  fragments  (if  tlic 
Kiirolinf^ian  (constitution,  Honiu  or);iiniHiiti(in  tliiit 
formed  a  liasis  for  new  lil)crtie8,  Tluc  great 
number  of  eliarters  granted  in  tli(!  twelftli  century 
bIiows  tliat  Uw.  policy  of  encouraging  tlio  tliird 
estate  was  in  fuli  Hway  in  tlie  royal  councils,  and 
the  king  by  ready  recognition  of  the  popidar 
riglit-s  gained  the  afTeclions  of  the  people!  to  an 
extent  whicli  has  few  parallels  in  French  history. 
The  Frendi  charters  are  in  both  style  and  sub- 
stance very  differeni  from  tlio  Knglish.  The 
liberties  winch  are  bestowed  arc  for  the  most 
part  the  same,  exemption  from  arbitrary  tax- 
ation, therijuhtto  local  jurisdiction,  the  privilege 
of  enfranchising  the  villein  wlio  has  been  for  a 
year  and  a  day  received  within  the  walls,  and 
the  power  of  eh'cting  the  otlicers.  I5ut  whilst 
all  the  Knglish  charters  contain  a  conlirmation  of 
free  and  good  customs,  th"  French  are  filled  with 
an  enumeration  of  bad  ones.  .  .  .  The  English 
have  an  ancient  local  constitution  the  members 
of  which  are  the  recipients  of  the  new  grant,  and 
guilds  ()f  at  least  sulllcient  anti(iuity  to  render 
their  confirmation  typical  of  the  freedom  now 
guaranteed;  French  comnuinia  is  a  new  boily 
which,  by  the  action  of  a  sworn  confederacy,  lias 
wrung  from  its  oppressors  a  deliverance  from 
hereditary  bondage.  .  .  .  The  commune  lacks 
too  the  ancient  element  of  festive  religious  or 
mercantile  association  which  is  so  conspicuous  in 
the  hi.story  of  the  guild.  The  idea  of  the  latter 
is  English,  that  of  the  former  is  French  or 
Gallic.  Yet  notwitlistanding  tliese  differences, 
the  substantial  identity  of  the  privileges 
secured  by  these  charters  se(,'ins  to  prove  the 
cxi.stence  of  much  international  sympatliy. 
The  ancient  liberties  of  the  English  were 
not  unintelligible  to  the  townsmen  of  Nor- 
mandy; the  rising  freedom  of  the  German 
cities  roused  a  corresponding  amliition  in  tlie 
towns  of  Flanders;  and  the  struggles  of  the 
Italian  inun'ciDalities  awoke  tlie  energies  of  the 
cities  of  Provence.  All  took  different  ways  to 
win  the  siuuc  liberties.  .  .  .  Tlie  German  liansa 
may  have  been  derived  from  England ;  the  com- 
muna  of  London  was  certainly  derived  from 
France.  .  .  .  The  communa  of  London,  and  of 
those  other  English  towns  which  in  the  twelfth 
century  aimed  at  such  a  constitution,  was  the 
old  English  guild  in  a  new  French  garb:  it  was 
the  ancient  association,  but  directed  to  tlie  attain- 
ment of  municipal  rather  than  mercantile  privi- 
leges."— W.  Stubbs,  Const.  Jlist.  of  Eiif/.,  ch.  11. 
— "  Oppression  and  insurrection  were  not  the  sole 
origin  of  the  communes.  .  .  .  Two  causes,  quite 
distinct  from  feudal  oppression,  viz.,  Koman 
traditions  and  Christian  sentiments,  had  their 
share  in  the  formation  of  the  communes  and  in 
the  bcneticial  results  thereof.  The  Roman 
municipal  regimen,  whicli  is  described  in  JI. 
Quizot's  '  Essais  sur  I'llistoire  de  Prance '  (1st 
Essay,  pp.  1-44),  [also  in  'Hist,  of  Civilization,' 
V.  3,  lect.  2]  did  not  every  where  perish  with  the 
Empire ;  it  kept  its  footing  in  a  great  number  of 
towns,  especially  in  those  of  Southern  Gaul. " — 
F.  P.  Guizot,  Popular  JIM.  of  Pranec,  ch.  19. 

Also  in:  Sir  J.  Stephen,  IjeeU.  on  the  Hint,  of 
France,  lect.  5.— See  France:  A.  D.  1070-1135; 
also,  Cuni.\,  Municipal,  and  Guilds  of  Flan- 

DKHS. 

COMMUNE,  The  Flemish.     See  Guilds  of 

FIlAHDEUS. 


COMMUNE  OF  PARIS,  The  Revolution- 
ary, of  1793.  See  Fuanck:  A.  I).  1703  (Au- 
(irsT). 

The  rebellion  of  the.  Sec  Fhamch::  A,  D, . 
1871  (Maucii— May). 

♦ 

COMMUNE,  The  Russian.    See  Mm. 

COMMUNE,  The  Swiss.  See  Switzeu- 
l,A.Ni>;  A.  1).  1H4H-U«U0. 

COMMUNEROS,  The.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1814-1H37. 

COMNENIAN  DYNASTY.— The  dynasty 
of  Hj'/.antine  emperors  founded,  A.  I).  1081,  by 
Alexius  Comnenos,  and  consisting  of  Alexius  I., 
.John  II.,  Manuel  I.,  AlexiusII.,  and  Androuicus 
I.,  who  was  murdered  A.  D.  1185.  See  Con- 
stantinoplk:  A.  1).  1081. 

COMPAGNACCI,  The.  See  Flouence: 
A.  I).  14!HI-14i)8. 

COMPASS,  Introduction  of  the  Mariner's. 
—  "It  is  perhaps  impossible  to  ascertain  the 
epoch  when  the  polarity  of  the  magnet  was  lirst 
known  in  Europe.  The  coinnion  opinion  which 
ascribes  its  discovery  to  a  citizen  of  Amalfl  In 
the  14lh  century,  is  undoubtedly  erroneous. 
Guiot  de  Provins,  a  French  jioet  who  lived  about 
the  year  1200,  or,  at  the  latest,  under  St.  Louis, 
describes  it  in  the  most  une((uiv()cal  language. 
James  de  Vitry,  a  bishop  in  Palestine,  before 
tlie  middle  ot  the  13th  century,  and  Guido 
Guinizzelli,  an  Italian  poet  of  tlie  same  time,  are 
e(iually  explicit.  The  French,  as  well  as  Italians, 
claim  the  discovery  as  their  own;  but  whether 
it  were  due  to  either  of  these  nations,  or  rather 
learned  from  their  intercourse  with  the  Saracens, 
is  not  easily  to  be  ascertained.  .  .  .  It  is  a  singu- 
lar circuinstance,  and  only  to  be  explained  by 
the  obstinacy  with  which  men  are  apt  to  reject 
improvements,  that  the  magnetic  needle  was  not 
generally  adopted  in  navigation  till  very  long 
after  the  discovery  of  its  properties,  and  even 
after  their  peculiar  importance  had  been  per- 
ceived. The  writers  of  the  13th  century,  who 
mention  the  polarity  of  the  needle,  mention  also 
its  use  in  navigation;  yet  Capmany  has  found 
no  distinct  jiroof  of  its  employment  till  1403,  and 
does  not  believe  that  it  was  frequently  on  board 
^Mediterranean  ships  at  the  latter  part  of  the 
preceding  age. " — II.  Hallam,  The  Middle  Ages, 
eh.  9,  pt.  3,  with  note. — "Both  Cliaucer,  the 
English,  am'  'Barbour,  the  Scottish,  poet,  allude 
familiarly  .^  the  compass  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  14th  century." — G.  L.  Craik,  Hist,  of  British 
Commerce,  c  1,  p.  138: — "AVe  have  no  certain 
information  of  the  directive  tendency  of  the 
natural  magnet  being  Icnown  eorlicr  than  the 
middle  or  end  of  the  11th  century  (in  Europe,  of 
course).  .  .  .  Tliat  it  was  known  at  this  date  an(l 
its  practical  value  recognized,  is  shown  by  & 
passage  from  an  Icelandic  historian,  quoted  by 
llanstien  in  his  treatise  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism. 
In  this  extract  an  expedition  from  Norway  to 
Iceland  in  the  year  868  is  described ;  and  it  is 
stated  that  three  ravens  were  taken  as  guides, 
for,  adds  the  historian,  'in  those  times  seamen 
had  no  loadstone  in  the  northern  countries.' 
This  history  was  written  about  the  year  A.  D. 
1068,  and  the  allusion  I  have  quoteil  obviously 
shows  that  the  author  was  aware  of  natural 
magnets  liaving  been  employed  as  a  compass. 
At  the  same  time  it  fixes  a  limit  of  the  discovery 
in  northern  countries.  We  find  no  mention  of 
artificial  magnets  being  so  employed  till  about  a 


492 


COMPASS. 


C;ON0O  FREE  STATE. 


century  Inter."  —  Sir  W.  Thompson,  quoted  hi/ 
It.  F.  liiirttm  ill  Ultima  Thiili\  n.  1,  p.  !11'2. 

COMPIEGNE  :  Capture  of  the  Maid  of 
Orleans  (1430).     Sci'  Kh.v.nck.  A.  I).  I  '  'l-tWl. 

COMPOUND  HOUSEHOLDER,  The. 
Sec  KNcit.ANi):  A.  I).  IHO.V-IHIW, 

COMPROMISE,  The  Crittenden.  Sec 
Uniti:ii  Statios  (IK  Am.  :  -V.  I).  IHtio  (Deckmuku). 

COMPROMISE,  The  Flemish,  of  1565.  Sic 
Nktmi-.ui.andm:  A.  1).  I.")tl2-1.-)(HI. 

COMPROMISE,  The  Missouri.  See  United 
ST.vri-.HoK  Am.  :  A.  1).  1H1H-1821, 

COMPROMISE  MEASURES  OF  1850, 
The.     Sc('  Umtki)  Statkw  dk  Am.  :  A.  1).  18.50. 

COMPROMISE  TARIFF  OF  1833,  The. 
Sir  UnitkdStatkhok  Am.  :  A.  I).  1828-18;!:}. 

COMPURGATION.— Among  tho  Teutonic 
and  other  peoples,  in  early  times,  one  accused  of 
a  crime  might  clear  himself  by  his  own  oath, 
supported  by  tin;  oaths  of  certain  compurgators, 
who  bore  witness  to  his  trustworthiness.  Sec 
Wa<ikii  i)f  Law. 

COMSTOCK  LODE,  Discovery  of  the. 
8e(^  Nkvada:  A.  1).  18I8-18(!4. 

COMUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  196).  See  Ho.me: 
IJ.  ('.  2i».')-lill. 

CONCIONES,  The  Roman.  See  Co.ntiones, 
The. 

CONCON,  Battle  of  (1891).  See  Chile: 
A.  1).  1885-1801. 

CONCORD.— Beginning  of  the  War  of  the 
American  Revolution.  See  United  States  of 
Am.  :  A.  1).  177.5  (Ai'Kil,). 

CONCORDAT  OF  BOLOGNA,  The.  See 
FiiANCK;  A.  I).  1.51.5-1.51H. 

CONCORDAT  OF  NAPOLEON.The.  See 
Fuance:  a.  I).  1801-1804. 

CONCORDAT  OF  1813,  The.  See  Papacy: 
A.  1).  1809-1814. 

CONDE,  The  first  Prince  Louis  de,  and  the 
French  wars  of  religion.  Sec  Fu^vnce  :  A.  1). 
1 500- 1 .5(!3   and  1 ,503- 1 ,570. 

CONDE,  The  Second  Prince  Louis  de 
(called  The  Great). — Campaigns  in  the  Thirty 
Years  War,  and  the  war  with  Spain.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1642-1043;  1043; Geu.many:  A.  D. 

1640-1045;  1043-1644 In  the  wars   of  the 

Fronde.     SeeFiiANCE:  A.  D.  1047-1648;  1049; 

1650-1051;   1051-1053 Campaigns    against 

France  in  the  service  of  Spain.  Sec  Fkance  : 
A.  I).  1053-1056,  and  1655-1658 Last  cam- 
paigns. Sec  Netherlands  (Holland):  A.  D. 
1672-1674,  and  1074-1678. 

COND^,  The  House  of.  See  Bouiibon,  The 
House  of., 

CONDE :  A.  D.  1793.— Siege  and  capture 
by  the  Austrians.  See  France:  A.  D.  1793 
(■July — December). 

A.  D.  1794.— Recovery  by  the  French.  See 
France:  A.  I).  1794  (IIarcu— July). 

CONDORE,  OR  KONDUR,  Battle  of  (1758). 
See  India:  A.  I).  1758-1761. 

CONDOTTIERE.— In  the  general  meaning 
of  tlie  word,  a  conductor  or  leader;  applied 
specially,  in  Italian  history,  to  the  professional 
military  leaders  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, 
who  made  a  business  of  war  very  much  as  a 
modern  contractor  makes  a  business  of  railroad 
construction,  and  who  were  open  to  engagement, 
with  the  troops  at  their  command,  by  any  prince, 
or  any  free  city  whose  offers  were  satisfactory. 

CONDRUSI,  The.    See  Belg^. 


CONESTOGAS,  The.    See  Ameiucan  Abo- 

iimiNEs:  Si's^uehannas. 

CONFEDERACY  OF  DELOS,  OR  THE 
DELIAN.  See  (iuKECE;  li.  ('.  478-477,  and 
.Vthe.ns:  li.  ('.  4(l(;4.54,  iiiid  after 

CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AM.— 
Constitution  and  organization  of  the  govern- 
ment. See  Umtei)  .Spates  of -Vm:  .\.  1).  1861 
(Feiuuaryi. 

CONFEDERATION,  Articles  of  (U.  S.  of 
Am.)  See  United  States  of  Am.;  A.  I).  1777- 
1781. 

CONFEDERATION,  Australian.  Sec 
-ViHTiiALiA:  A.  1),  1HH5-1892. 

CONFEDERATION,    The    Germanic,    of 

1814.      See  Oermany;  A.   I).   1814-1820 Of 

1870.     See  Germany;  A.  I).  1870  (Septemheh 

— I)ECE.MI1ER). 

CONFEDERATION,  The  North  German. 
See  Germany:  A.  I).  18(10. 

CONFEDERATION,  The  Swiss.  See 
Switzerland. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  iHr  BRITISH 
AMERICAN  PROVINCES.  Sec^  Canada: 
A.  I).  1867. 

CONFEDERATION  OF  THE  RHINE, 
The.  See  Germany:  A.  I).  180.5-1806;  ISO6 
(.January— Auoust);  and  1813  (Octoiier— 1)e- 
CEMRER);  also,  France:  A.  I).  1814  (January- 
March). 

CONFESSION  OF  AUGSBURG.  See 
Pai'ACY:  A.   1).  15;!0-15;il. 

CONFLANS,  Treaty  of.  See  France: 
.V.  I).  1401-1468. 

CONFUCIANISM.     See   Ciiina:  Tue  Rk- 

LKIIONS. 

CONGO  FREE  STATE,  The  Founding  of 
the. — "Since  Leopold  II. 's  accession  to  the 
throne  [of  lielgium],  his  great  object  has  been  to 
secure  colonial  possessions  to  B('lgiuiu  for  her 
excess  of  population  and  prodnctlon.  To  this 
end  he  founded,  in  (Jctober,  1876,  with  tlie  aid 
of  eminent  African  e.\plorers,  the  luternatioual 
African  .iVssociation.  Its  ooject  was  to  form 
committees  in  several  countries,  with  a  view  to 
the  collection  of  funds,  and  to  the  establishment 
of  a  chain  of  stations  across  Africa,  passing  by 
Lake  Tanganyika,  to  assist  future  explorers. 
Accordingly  committees  were  formed,  whose 
presidents  wore  us  follows:  in  England,  the 
Prince  of  Wales;  in  Germany  the  (Jrown  Prince; 
in  Italy  the  King's  brother;  in  Fnince,  M.  de 
Lesseps;  and  in  Belgium,  King  Leopold.  Sums 
of  money  were  subscribed,  and  stations  were 
opened  from  Bagomoyo  (just  south  of  Zanzibar) 
to  Lake  Tanganyika;  but  when  toward  the  close 
of  1877,  Stanley  reappeared  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
and  revealed  the  immense  length  of  the  mar- 
velous Congo  liiver,  King  Leopold  at  once 
turned  his  attention  in  that  direction.  That  ho 
might  not  put  himself  forward  prematurely, 
he  acted  under  cover  of  an  association  and  a 
committee  of  exploration,  which  were  in  reality 
formed  and  entirely  supported  by  the  King's 
energy  and  by  the  large  sums  of  money  that  he 
lavished  upon  them.  Through  this  association 
King  Leopold  maintained  Stanley  for  five  years 
on  the  Congo.  During  this  time  a  road  was 
made  from  the  coast  to  Stanley  Pool,  where  the 
navigable  portion  of  the  Upper  Congo  com- 
mences; and  thus  was  formed  the  basis  of  the 
future  empire.  During  this  period  Stanley 
signed  no  less  than  four  thousand  treaties  or 


493 


CONGO  FREE  STATE. 


CONGREGATION  OF  THE  ORATORY. 


conordiilori  of  U-rritory,  on  which  upwnnl  of  I 
two  thouHiiiHl  chicfN  hail  plitccil  their  iiiiirkH  li  I 
Hi);ii  of  uiUu'Nioii.  At  II  coNt  of  niJiii^v  laonthH  of 
triiiiHportiilioii,  ncccHsitjitliij?  the  t'Mi|iloyni('iit  of 
thoiisniicis  of  porters,  ll^ht  HteamerM  wen^  phiced 
on  the  upper  river  whicli  was  expioreii  as  far 
as  Htaiiiey  Falls,  Its  nuineroim  triliiitaries  also 
were  followed  up  as  far  as  tlie  rapiils  that  inter- 
rupt their  roursi'S.  ilany  young  lielgian  olllei  rs 
ami  otiier  adventiirous  e.xplon'rs  estaldished 
themselves  on  the  hanks  of  tlie  Congo  and  tlie 
ndjoiniiii,'  river,  the  Kouilio\i,  ami  founded  a 
series  of  stations,  each  oeeupied  l)y  on(!  or  two 
Europeans  and  by  a  fi'W  soldiers  from  Zanzibar. 
In  this  way  the  <'ountrj'  was  insensibly  taken 
possession  of  in  thi^  most  jiaeilio  manner,  witii- 
out  II  strnjigie  and  witli  no  l)loodslied  whatever; 
for  the  natives,  wlio  are  of  a  very  gentle  dispo- 
sition, olTered  no  resistanci  Th';  Senate  of  the 
United  States,  wliieli  was  eailee  upon,  in  1HH4, 
to  give  an  opinion  on  tlie  rights  of  the  Afri(  an 
Assoeiation.  made  a  careful  e.tamination  of  the 
matter,  and  recognized  tlie  le.gality  of  tlie  claims 
nml  title  deeds  submitted  to  them.  A  little 
later,  in  order  to  mark  the  formation  of  a  state, 
the  Congo  Assoeiation  adopted  as  its  Hag  a  g<ild 
star  on  a  blue  ground.  A  French  lawyer,  M. 
Delounii',  in  a  very  well-written  ))ampfilet  en- 
till'd  '  Le  Droit  des  Gens  dans  rAfriipie  Eipia- 
toriale,'  has  proveil  that  this  proceeding  was  not 
only  legitimate,  but  necessary.  The  Qinbryo 
state,  however,  lacked  one  essential  thing, 
namely,  recognition  by  the  civilized  powers.  It 
existed  only  as  a  private  association,  or,  as  a 
hostile  publicist  expressed  it,  ii.s  'a  state  in 
shares,  indulging  in  pretensions  of  sovereignty.' 
Great  difHculties  stood  in  tlie  way  of  realizing 
this  cs.sential  condition.  Disputes,  on  tlio  one 
hand  with  France  ami  on  tlic  other  with  Portu- 
gal, appeared  inevitable.  .  .  .  King  Leopold 
did  not  lose  heart.  In  1883  ho  obtained  from 
the  French  government  an  assurance  that,  wliilo 
maintaining  its  rights  to  the  north  of  Stanley 
Pool,  it  would  give  support  to  tlie  International 
Association  of  the  Congo.  Witli  Portugal  it 
seemed  very  difflcult  to  come  to  an  understand- 
ing. .  .  .  Prince  Bismarck  took  part  in  tlie 
matter,  and  in  the  German  Parliament  praised 
highly  tlie  work  of  the  African  Association.  In 
April,  1884,  he  proposed  to  Franco  to  come  to  an 
understanding,  and  to  settle  all  difHculties  by 
general  agreement.  From  this  proposition 
sprang  the  famous  Berlin  conference,  the  re- 
markable decisions  of  which  we  shall  mention 
later.  At  the  same  time,  before  tlie  conference 
opened,  Germany  signed  an  agreement  with  tlio 
International  Association  of  the  Congo,  in  which 
sho  agreed  to  vecognizo  its  flag  as  that  of  a  state, 
in  exc!;ango  for  an  assurance  that  her  trade 
should  be  free,  and  that  Gennan  subjects  should 
enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  the  most  favored 
nations.  Similar  agreements  were  entered  upon 
with  nearly  all  the  other  countries  of  the  globe. 
The  delegates  of  the  Association  were  accepted 
at  the  conference  on  the  same  footing  as  tliose  of 
the  different  states  tliiit  were  represented  there, 
and  on  February  26,  the  day  on  which  the  act 
was  signed,  Bismarck  expressed  himself  as  fol- 
lows: '  The  new  State  of  the  Congo  is  destined 
to  be  one  of  the  chief  .safe-guards  of  tlie  work 
we  have  in  view,  and  I  sincerely  trust  that  its 
development  will  fulfill  the  noble  aspirations  of 
its  august  founder.'    Thus   the   Congo  Inter- 


nntlonnl  Association,  hltlierto  only  a  prlviito 
enterprise,  Meenied  now  to  be  recognized  iis  u 
sovereign  state,  without  having,  however,  as  yet 
a-ssumed  tlie  title.  Hut  where  were  the  limits  of 
its  territory,  .  .  ,  Thanks  to  the  interference  of 
Friincc,  after  prolonged  negotiations  an  under- 
standing was  arrived  at  on  Febriiarj'  IS,  1885, 
by  whicli  both  parties  were  satisfied.  They 
agreed  that  Portugal  slioiild  take  possesslonof  tin; 
•southern  bank  of  tlie  Congo,  up  to  its  Junction 
with  the  little  stream  Uango,  above  Nokki,  and 
also  of  the  district  o'  Kabimla  forming  a  wedge 
timt  extends  into  the  French  territory  on  tlie 
Atlantic  Ocean,  Tlie  International  Congo  Asso- 
ciation—  for  sucii  was  still  its  title  —  was  to  liave 
access  to  the  sea  by  a  strip  of  land  cxti'iiding 
from  Manyiinga  (west  of  Lcopoldville)  to  the 
ocean,  north  of  Banana,  and  comprising  in  addi- 
tion to  this  port,  Boma  and  the  important  station 
of  Vivi.  Tiicse  treaties  granted  tlic  association 
0:11,28.')  sipiiire  miles  of  territory,  that  is  to  say, 
a  domain  eighty  times  the  size  of  Belgium,  witli 
more  than  7,500  miles  of  navigable  rivers.  The 
limits  fixed  were,  (m  the  west,  the  Kuango,  an 
important  tributary  of  I  lie  Congo;  (m  tlie  soutli, 
the bourcei  of  the  Zambesi ;  on  tlie  east,  tlio  Lakes 
Bangweolo,  Moero,  and  Tanganyika,  and  a  lino 
pa8.sTng  through  Lake  Albert  Edward  to  the 
river  Ouelle;  on  tlie  north,  a  line  following  the 
fourth  degree  of  latitude  to  tlie  Mobangi  River 
on  the  French  frontier.  The  whole  forms  one 
eleventh  part  of  the  African  continent.  Tlie 
association  became  transformed  into  a  state  in 
August  1885,  wlien  King  Leopold,  witli  the 
authorization  of  the  Belgian  Cliambers,  notified 
tho  powers  that  he  should  assume  the  title  of 
Sovereign  of  the  Independent  State  of  tho  Congo, 
tho  union  of  which  with  Belgium  was  to  be 
exclusively  personal.  The  Congo  is,  therefore, 
not  a  Belgian  colony,  but  nevertheless  the  Bel- 
gian Chambers  have  recently  given  valuable 
aasistance  to  tlie  King's  work;  firs',  in  taking, 
on  July  26,  1889,  10,000,000  franr:8'  wortli  of 
shares  in  the  railway  which  is  to  co.inect  the  sea- 
port of  Matadi  witli  the  riverpo-.t  of  Lcopold- 
ville,  on  Stanley  Pool,  and  scconJly  by  granting 
a  loan  of  25,0()0,000  francs  to  the  Independent 
State  on  August  4,  1890.  The  King,  in  a  will 
laid  before  Parliament,  bequeaths  oil  his  Afri- 
can possessions  to  the  Belgian  nation,  author- 
izing the  country  to  take  possession  of  tliem 
after  a  lapse  of  ten  years." — E.  do  Laveleye, 
The  DMifion  of  Africa  {  The  Forum,  Jan.,  1891). 

Also  in:  II.  il.  Stanley,  7'!ie  Congo,  and  the 
Foundinq  of  its  Free  t^tdte. 

CONGREGATION  OF  THE  ORATORY, 
The. — "Philip  of  Neri,  a  young  Florentine  of 
good  birth  il.')15-1.593;  canonised  1633)  ...  in 
1,548  instituted  at  Rome  tho  Society  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  to  minister  to  the  wants  of  tho  pilgrims 
at  Rome.  But  the  operations  of  his  mission 
gradually  extended  till  they  embraced  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  the  Roman  population  at 
largo,  and  the  reformation  of  the  Itoman  clergy 
in  particular.  No  figure  is  more  serene  and 
more  sympathetic  to  us  in  the  history  of  tho 
Catholic  reaction  than  that  of  this  latter-day 
'  apostle  of  Rome.'  From  his  assoeiation,  which 
followed  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  sprang  in 
1575  the  Congregation  of  the  Onitory  ut  Rome, 
famous  as  the  seminary  of  much  that  is  most 
admirable  in  the  labours  of  tho  Catholic  clergy. " 
—A.  W.  Ward,  The  Counter- Information,  p.  30. 


494 


CONOUEOATION  OF  THE  ORATOHY. 


coNNAUonr. 


— "In  tlu)  V'lir  1*"<V  there  were  iilioveu  Iniiiilred 
CoiiKrexiitloim  i)f  tlie  Onitory  of  S.  I'liilip  in 
£urii|)e  iiiiil  the  KiiHt  IntlieH;  but  Hhiei;  the  revii- 
liitiotw  of  the  liiHt  wventy  years  nmny  of  theite 
imve  eeiiHetl  to  exist,  while,  on  the  eontniry, 
withhi  the  litHt  twelve  years  two  have  been 
established  In  KnKlaud."— Mrs.  Hope,  Life  of  S. 
I'hilip  Xeri,  ch.  24. 

Also  in:  1[.  L.  H.  Lear,  PrieMly  Life  in 
Friiiii'f,  fh.  4. 

CONGREGATIONALISM.     See  Indkpen- 

DKNTS. 

CONGRESS,  Colonial,  at  Albany.  Sec 
Unitkii  SiATKs  (IK  .Vm.  ;  A.  I).  1754. 

CONGRESS,  Continental,  The  Firit.  Sec 
I'MTKi)    ST.vrios   OF   A.>i.:    A.    1).    1774    (Ski-- 

TKMiiKii),  and  (Ski'Tkmiiku— OcTouKU) The 

Second.  See  Unitku  Statkh  ok  Am.:  A.  D. 
177.'>  (.May— AidUST). 

CONGRESS,  The  First  Ai  "rican.  8eo 
L'ni'iki)  St.m'kh  OK  Amkuica:  A  1(11)0. 

CONGRESS,  The  Pan-American.  See 
Umtkd  Statks  ok  A.m.  :  A.  I).  l«««-18l)0. 

CONGRESS,  The  Stamp  Act.  Sec  United 
Statks  OK  Am.:  A.  I).  1705. 

CONGRESS  OF  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 
The.  See  Aix-la-Ciiapki-le,  The  Conokkbu 
AND  Thkatv. 

CONGRESS  OF  BERLIN.  8co  Tckkh: 
A.  1).  1H78. 

CONGRESS  OF  PANAMA.  8co  Colom- 
iiiAN  Statks:  A.  I).  182(1. 

CONGRESS  OF  PARIS.  See  RiiwiA: 
A.  I).  1854-1850,  and  Deci.aiiation  op  Pahim. 

CONGRESS  OF  RASTADT,  The.  See 
Fuanck:  a.  I).  1709  (AiMdi,— Sk.i-temhku). 

CONGRESS  OF  VERONA,  The.  S^-e 
Vkuona,  The  CIonouesb  ok. 

CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA.    See  Vikhma, 

CoNOItKSS  OK. 

CONGRESS    OF    THE     UNITED 

STATES.— "The  Constitution  ereaU'dCoUKrcHK 
and  conferred  upon  it  i)owers  of  legislation  for 
national  purposes,  but  made  no  provision  as  to 
the  method  by  which  these  powers  should  be 
exercised.  In  conseciuenco  Congress  has  itself 
developed  a  method  of  tnuisacting  its  business 
by  means  of  committees.  The  Federal  Leglslii- 
ture  con.sists  of  two  Houses  —  the  Senate,  or 
Upper  and  less  numerous  branch,  and  tlie  House 
of  lU'presentatives,  or  the  Lower  and  more 
numerou.s  popular  branch.  The  Senate  is  com- 
posed of  two  members  from  each  StJite  elected 
by  the  State  legislatures  for  a  term  of  six  years, 
one  third  of  wTiom  retire  every  two  years.  The 
presiding;  officer  is  the  Vice-President.  Early  iu 
each  session  the  Senate  chooses  a  President  pro 
tempore,  so  as  to  provide  for  any  ab.sence  of  the 
Vice-President,  whether  caused  by  death,  sick- 
ness, or  for  other  reasons.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives is  at  present  [1801]  composed  of  332 
members  and  four  delegates  from  the  Territories. 
These  delegates,  however,  have  no  vote,  though 
they  may  speak.  The  House  is  presided  over  by 
a  Speaker,  elected  at  the  beginning  of  each 
[Congress].  A  quorum  for  business  is,  in  either 
House,  a  majority.  Congress  meets  every  year 
in  the  beginning  of  December.  Each  Congress 
lasts  two  years  and  holds  two  sessions  —  a  long 
and  a  short  session.  The  long  session  lasts  from 
December  to  midsummer  [or  until  the  two  Houses 
agree  upon  an  adjournment].     The  short  session 


lasts  from  December,  when  Congress  meets  again, 
until  the  tlh  of  .Mjireli.  The  term  of  olliee  then 
ixpires  ff)r  all  the  inemlM'rs  of  the  House  and  for 
one  third  of  the  Senators.  The  long  S4'Sslon  ends 
in  even  years  (1880  :inil  1882,  et<'.),  and  the  short 
W'ssion  "in  odd  year.-i  (1881  and  t8H:i).  Extra 
si'ssions  may  be  eidli  d  by  llii'  President  for 
urgent  business.  In  llie  eiirly  part  of  the  Nov- 
ember preceding  the  end  of  the  short  session  of 
Congress  (leciirs  the  eleellon  of  Representatives. 
Congressmen  then  elected  do  not  take  their  seats 
until  thirteen  months  later,  that  is,  at  the  re- 
assembling of  Congress  in  DeeeinlHT  of  the  year 
following,  unU'.ss  an  extra  s<'ssion  is  called.  The 
Senate  frecpiently  holds  secret,  or,  as  they  aro 
called,  executiv<"  sessions,  lor  liii'  eonsidefation 
of  treaties  and  nominations  of  the  President,  in 
which  the  House  of  Representatives  has  no 
voice.  It  is  then  said  to  sit  with  closed  doors. 
An  immense  amount  of  business  must  neeessarily 
bo  transacted  by  n  Congress  that  legislates  for 
nearly  0IMH)O,0()O  of  people.  .  .  .  Lack  of  time, 
of  course,  prevents  a  consideration  of  each  bill 
separately  by  the  whole  legislature.  To  provide 
a  means  by  which  each  subject  may  receive 
investigation  and  consideration,  a  plan  is  used  by 
which  the  inenil)er8  of  both  branches  of  Congress 
are  divided  into  committees.  Each  .ommitteo 
busies  itself  with  u  certain  class  of  business,  and 
bills  wlien  introduced  are  referred  to  this  or  that 
committee  for  consideration,  according  to  the 
subjects  to  which  the  bills  relate.  .  .  .  The 
Seiitttt^  is  now  divided  between  50  and  00  com- 
mittees, but  the  numlK'r  varies  from  session  to 
WHsion.  .  .  .  Tlie  House  of  Representatives  is 
organized  into  (M>  committees  [appointed  by  tlio 
S|M'aker|,  niiiging,  in  their  number  rf  members, 
from  thirt<'en  down.  .  .  .  "Tbe  Committee  of 
Wavs  and  Means,  which  regulates  customs 
duties  and  excise  faxes,  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
|K.>rtant.  .  .  .  Congress  ordinarily  a.ssembles  at 
iKKin  and  remains  in  session  until  4  or  5  P.  M., 
though  towards  the  end  of  the  term  it  frequently 
remains  in  session  until  late  in  the  niglit.  .  .  . 
There  is  still  one  feature  of  Congressional  govern- 
ment which  needs  explanation,  and  that  is  the 
caucus.  A  caucurj  is  the  meeting  of  the  members 
of  one  party  in  private,  for  the  discussion  of  the 
attitude  and  line  ot  policy  which  members  of 
that  party  are  to  take  on  questions  which  are 
expected  to  arise  in  the  legislative  halls.  Thus, 
in  Senate  caucus,  is  decided  who  shall  be  mem- 
bers of  the  various  committees.  In  these  meet- 
ings is  frecjuently  discussed  whether  or  not  the 
whole  party  shall  vote  for  or  against  this  or  that 
important  bill,  and  tlius  its  fate  is  decided  before 
it  has  even  come  up  for  debate  in  Congress." — 
W.  W.  and  W.  F.  Willoughby,  QoH.  and  Ad- 
ministration  of  the  U.  K  (Johns  Hopkins  Univ. 
Studies,  series  ix.,  nos.  1-2),  ch.  9. 

Also  in:  W.  Wilson,  Conyresaional  Ootern- 
7nent,  eh.  2-4.— J.  Bryce,  T/i€  Am.  Common- 
wealth, pt.  1,  ch.  10-21  (c.  1).— A.  L.  Dawes,  How 
we  are  Oonerned,  ch.  2. — The  Federalist,  nos.  51- 
05.— J.  Story,  Commentaries  on  the  Const,  of  the 
U.  8.,  bk.  3,  ch.  8-31  (r.  2-3). 

CONL— Sieges  (1744 and  1799).  SccItaly: 
A.  D.  1744;  and  Filvnce:  A.  D.  1799  (Auqobt 
— Decembeu). 

CONIBO,  The.  See  American  Aborioinks: 
Andebians. 

CONNAUGHT,  Transplantation  of  the 
Irish  people  into.    See  Ireland  :  A.  D.  1653. 


495 


C0NNE(;TI(:1!T 


77ic  Fimnderi. 


CONNECTICUT,  lfliM-1687. 


CONNECTICUT:  The  River  and  the 
Name. — "'\'\iv  tIrNt  iliMCdvcricN  inuili'of  this  |)itrt 
of  Ni'W  EiiKliinil  wcrr  <if  Its  iiriii('i|iitl  river  mid 
the (liic  in<iiilowH  lyliiK  iipini lis  bank.  Whctlicr 
tlif  Diilcli  lit  New  Nctlicrlanils,  or  llic  pciiplc  of 
New  I'lyiixmlh,  wcri'  the  llrsi  (llsciivcri'rH  of  llii' 
river  is  mil  eerlain.  Ilotli  the  KiikHkIi  h'kI  the 
Dutch  claiiiiecl  to  l>e  the  llrsl  dlscovererM,  and 
both  purchased  luid  iiiaih'  a  Hettleineiit  of  the 
lands  upon  it  nearly  at  the  Kaiiie  time.  .  .  ,  From 
this  line  river,  widcli  tlie  Iiuiiuns  <'all  (juonelita- 
cut,  or  Connecticut,  (in  Knulisli  the  lonj;  river) 
till!  colony  oriL'inally  tooli  its  name."— II.  Trum 
bull,  lli.i  iifVonii.,  ell.  2.— According  to  Dutch 
BccounLs,  the  river  was  entered  by  Adriaen 
Block,  a,HCended  to  latitude  41''  4H',  and  named 
Fresh  Ulvcr,  in  Kill.  See  Nkw  YoilK:  A.  1). 
KIlO-KUl. 

The  Aboriginal  inhabitants.  Sen  Amehicvn 
AnoiiioiNKs;  Ai.ooMjri.vN  K.VMii.v. 

A.  D.  1631.— The  grant  to  Lord  Say  and 
Sele,  and  others.— In  Kllll,  the  Karl  of  War- 
wick granted  to  LonI  Say  and  Sele,  l>ord  llrooUe, 
Sir  Uichard  Sallouatull,  and  others,  "tho  territory 
between  NarniRan.sctt  Hivcr  and  soutliwest  *o- 
■wurds  New  York  for  120  miles  ami  west  to  the 
Pucillc  Ocean,  or,  according  to  the  words  of  Presi- 
dent Clap  of  Yule  College,  '  from  Point  .ludith  to 
New  York,  and  from  theni'c  a  west  line  to  the 
South  Sea,  and  if  we  take  Narragansett  Ulvcr  in 
Its  whole  length  the  tract  will  extend  as  far  north 
us  Worcester.  It  comprehends  the  wliole  of  \\w. 
colony  of  C(>nn(!Cticut  and  more.  This  was  called 
the  old  patent  of  Connecticut,  and  had  been 
granted  the  previous  year,  lllliO,  by  the  Council 
of  Plymouth  [or  ('ouncil  for  New  Knglandl  to 
the  Earl  of  Warwick.  Yet  before  Ww  English 
had  planted  settlements  in  ConnectiiMit  tlie  Dutch 
had  purchased  of  the  Pecjuots  land  where  llart- 
fonl  now  stands  and  erected  a  small  trading  fort 
called  'The  House  of  Good  Hope.' "—C\  W. 
Bowen,  liiiunthii fi  Disimten  of  Conn.,  p.  lH. — In 
16't5,  four  years  after  the  Connecticut  grant,  said 
to  have  been  derived  originally  from  the  Council 
for  New  England,  in  1030,  had  been  transferred  by 
the  Earl  of  Warwick  to  liord  Hay  and  Seal  and 
others,  tlie  Council  made  an  attempt,  in  conni- 
Tanco  with  the  English  court,  to  nullify  all  its 
grants,  to  regain  possession  of  the  territory  of 
New  England  and  to  parcel  it  out  by  lot  among 
its  own  memlicrs.  In  this  attempted  parcelling, 
which  proved  ineffectual,  Connecticut  fell  to  tho 
lot  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  the  Duke  of  Lennox, 
and  the  Duke  of  Hamilton.  Modern  investiga- 
tion seems  to  have  found  the  alleged  grant  from 
the  Council  of  Plymouth,  or  Council  for  New 
England,  to  tlie  Earl  of  Warwick,  in  16,10,  to  bo 
iiiythical.  "  No  one  has  ever  seen  it,  or  has 
heard  of  any  one  who  claims  to  have  seen  it. 
It  is  not  mentioned  even  ie  the  grant  from  War- 
wick to  the  Say  and  Sele  patentees  in  1631.  .  .  . 
The  deed  is  a  mere  quit-claim,  which  warrants 
nothing  and  does  not  even  a,ssert  title  to  the  soil 
transferred.  .  .  .  Why  the  Warwick  tran.saction 
took  this  peculiar  shape,  why  Warwick  trans- 
ferred, without  showing  title,  a  territory  which 
the  original  owners  granted  anew  to  other  pat- 
entees in  163,';,  are  questions  which  are  beyond 
conjecture." — A.  Johnston,  Connecticut,  ch.  3. — 
See  New  Enoi,and:  A.  D.  1035. 

A.  D.  1634-1637.— The  pioneer  settlements. 
— "In  October,  1634,  some  men  of  Plymouth, 
led  by  William  Holmes,  sailed  up  the  Connecti- 


cut river,  and,  after  bnndying  thrcatN  with  a 
party  of  Dutch  who  had  built  a  rude  fort  on  the 
site  of  Hartford,  passed  on  and  fortltled  them 
selves  on  the  site  of  Windsor.  Next  year  (lover 
nor  V^aii  Twiller  siiit  a  <  innpany  of  seventy  men 
Id  drive  awiiy  tlie.ne  ii)'.;ders,  but  after  recon- 
iioilerltig  the  situation  Ihe  Dutchmen  thought  It 
best  not  to  make  an  attack.  Tlieir  little  strong- 
hold at  Hartford  remained  uninolested  by  the 
English,  and,  in  orih'r  to  secure  the  eominiinica- 
lion  between  this  advanced  outpost  and  New 
.Vinsterdam,  Van  Twiller  decided  to  builil  an- 
other fort  at  the  moiitli  of  the  river,  but  this 
lime  the  English  were  befondiand.  Humours  of 
Dutch  designs  may  have  reached  the  I'ars  of 
Lord  Say  and  Sele  and  Lord  Hrooke — 'fanatic 
Brooke,  as  Scott  calls  him  in  '  .Marndon  '  —  who 
had  obtained  from  the  Council  for  New  England 
u  grant  of  terrilorv  on  the  shores  of  Ihe  Sound. 
'I'liese  iiolilemeii  chose  as  their  agent  the  younger 
.liihn  Winthrop,  son  of  the  .Massachusetts  gover- 
nor, and  tills  new-comer  arrived  upon  the  sc'cno 
just  in  tiiiK!  to  drive  away  Van  Twiller's  vessel 
and  build  an  English  fort  which  in  honour  of 
h'.h  two  ]mtrons  he  calle<l  'Say-Brooke.'  Had  It 
not  been  for  seeds  of  discontent  already  sown  in 
Alassiiehusetts,  thc!  English  hold  ujion  the  (!on- 
nccticut  valley  might  perhaps  have  been  for  u 
few  years  confined  to  these  two  military  outposts 
at  Windsor  and  Saybrookc;.  But  there  were 
Jicople  In  Massachusetts  who  did  not  look  with 
favour  upon  the  aristocniti(!  and  theocratic 
features  of  its  polity.  Tlie  provision  that  none 
but  church-members  should  vote  or  hold  offlco 
wius  by  no  means  unanimously  npproviid.  .  .  . 
Cotton  declared  that  democracy  was  no  fit 
government  either  for  church  or  for  common- 
w(!aUh,  and  the  majority  of  the  ministers  agreed 
with  liim.  Cliief  among  those  who  did  not  was 
till!  learned  and  ehxiiient  Thomas  Hooker,  pastor 
of  the  church  at  Newtown.  .  .  .  There  were 
many  in  Newtown  wlio  took  Hooker's  view  of 
the  matter;  and  there,  as  also  in  Watertown  iind 
Dorchester,  which  in  1633  took  the  initiative  in 
framing  town  governments  witli  selectmen,  a 
strong  disposition  was  shown  to  evade  tho  re- 
strictions upon  the  suffrage.  While  such  things 
were  talketl  about,  in  tlie  summer  of  1633,  tho 
adventurous  .lohn  Oldham  was  making  his  way 
through  the  forest  and  over  the  mountains  into 
the  Connecticut  valley,  and  when  he  returned  to 
the  coast  his  glowing  accounts  set  some  people 
to  thinking.  Two  years  afterward,  a  few  pio- 
neers from  Dorchester  pushed  through  the  wil- 
derness as  far  as  the  Plymouth  men's  fort  at 
Windsor,  while  a  party  from  Watertown  went 
farther  and  came  to  a  halt  upon  the  site  of 
Wethersfl(!ld.  A  larger  party,  bringing  cattle 
and  such  goods  as  they  could  carry,  set  out  in 
the  autumn  and  succeeded  in  reacliing  Windsor. 
...  In  the  next  June,  1636,  the  Newtown  con- 
gregation, a  hundred  or  more  in  number,  led  by 
their  sturdy  pastor,  and  bringing  with  them  160 
head  of  cattle,  made  tlie  pilgrimage  to  the  Con- 
necticut valley.  Women  and  children  took  part 
in  this  pleasant  summer  journey ;  Mrs.  Hooker, 
the  pastor's  wife,  being  too  ill  to  walk,  was 
carried  on  a  litter.  Thus,  in  the  memorable  year 
in  which  out  great  university  was  born,  did 
Cambridge  become,  in  the  true  Greek  sense  of  a 
much-abused  word,  the  metropolis  or  'mother 
town'  of  Hartford.  The  migration  at  once  be- 
came   strong   in   numbers.      During    the    past 


496 


CONNECTICIT,  Iflai-1(W7. 


nr  Ml  Ill/a- 
mentnl  ttrtUn, 


coxNEcTiruT,  iflnn-ifl30 


twolvpmontli  It  Hcorr'  of  Nlilps  hml  liroiiirlit  from 
KiikIi^ixI  to  MiiMNiu'liUM'ttH  iiioro  tliitii  :t.00<)  houIm, 
imd  HO  f^rcnt  iin  iiccrHNloii  niitili'  fiirtliiT  imovc' 
nicnt  cnHy.  IIiMikfr's  iiD^friiim  were  soon  followed 
by  till'  DorclicHlcr  iind  Wiilrrlowiicoiinri'ttiitloiiK, 
Hml  tty  till'  next  Miiy  H(M)  iicoplc  were  llvlii^f  Iti 
Wliiilsor,  Iliirtfonl,"  iiiiil  XVfllierHllelil.  An  wo 
mill  of  thi'Mi'  iiiovi'inriils,  not  of  indlvlilimlH,  hut 
of  orKiinIr  roniniuiiitli'K.  iiiiitrd  In  iillrKlniici'  to 
ft  rhiirrli  niid  ItH  piiHlor,  mid  frrvld  with  the 
liiHtlrirt  of  Hi'lfKovi'miiH'iil,  we  si-cm  to  si'i' 
(Irrrk  hintory  ri'iii'wi'il,  liul  with  ci'iiturli's  of 
Hililrd  polltlriil  training.  l'\)r  our  ycitr  ii  lioiird 
of  roiiiiiilHslonrrH  from  MuHsiicliii.sctt.s  K"vi'riiiMl 
till'  iii'W  towim,  but  lit  till'  riid  of  timt  tliiir  thi> 
towim  rliosi'  ri'prrHi'iitiitlvi'K  and  lirlil  a  Ornrral 
Court  lit  llarlf/rd,  iind  thus  llir  si'parati' I'xist- 
■'ncii  of  Connrrtlrut  \viin  bi'jiun.  As  forSprinj?- 
tltl,!,  ivlil';li  WHS  Krttli'd  iiliout  tlir  sanii' limi!  by 
n  party  from  lloxbury,  it  ri'iiiainril  for  sonu: 
vi'iirs  cioiibtful  ti.  which  statu  it  l«'loii>ti'd  " — J. 
Viski',  The  Jle /iiiiiiiir/ii  of  Afir  Kiii/.,  rh.  U. 

Ai.soin:  J.  O.  I'alfrcy,  //(W.  '/A'.  Hitij.,  r.  1, 
fh.  11.— O.  L.  WalkiT,  IIM.  nfthe.  Fimt  Chiirdi 
ill  Ilartford,  eh.  4-5. — M.  A.  Ori'i'ii,  Si>riiiiifi<lil, 
ltt!W-l»H(i,  rh.  1. 

A.  D.  1636-1639. — The  constitutional  evolu- 
tion.— "  It  must  111' iiotril  that  |tlii'|  Ni'wtown, 
Watfrlown,  and  Dorrhrstrr  mif?rations  hud  not 
Im'I'Ii  alloKethi'r  a  simplo  transfer  of  individual 
ftottlors  from  oiii-  rolony  to  another.  In  each  of 
these  migrations  a  part  of  the  people  was  left  be- 
iiind.  so  that  the  Mii.ssaehuselts  towns  did  not 
<!ease  to  exist.  And  yet  each  of  them  brouf^ht  its 
Mas.saeliu.setts  niajristratcs,  its  ministers  (except 
Watertown),  and  all  the  political  and  ecclesias- 
tical machinery  of  the  town;  and  at  least  one  of 
them  (DorclK'Hter)  hail  hardly  changed  its  struct- 
ure since  its  members  lirst  organized  in  16;i()  at 
Dorchester  in  Kngland.  The  lirst  settlement  of 
Connecticut  was  thus  the  migriition  of  three  dis- 
tinct and  individual  town  organi/atlons  out  of  tho« 
jurisdiction  of  Mas.sachiisi'tts  and  into  iib.solute 
freedom.  It  was  the  Massachu.setts  town  system 
set  ioo.sc  in  the  wilderness.  At  first  the  three 
towns  retained  even  their  Mas-sacliusetts  names; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  eighth  court  meeting, 
February  21  1030  (7),  that  it  was  decided  that 
'  the  plantacon  nowc  called  Newtowne  slialbe 
<alled  (Si  nnmed  by  the  name  of  Ilartefordc 
Towne,  likewise  tlie  pluntacon  nowe  called  Wator- 
towne  slialbo  called  &  named  Wythersfciijl,'  and 
'till'  pla' tacon  called  Dorchester  slialbe  called 
Windsor.'  (Jn  the  same  day  the  boundaries  be- 
tween the  tlirec  towns  were  '  agreed  '  upon,  and 
thus  the  germ  of  the  future  State  was  the  agree- 
ment and  union  of  tlie  three  towns.  .Vccordingly, 
the  siiliseiiuent  court  meeting  at  Ilartford,  May 
1,  1637,  for  the  first  time  took  the  name  of  the 
'  Qenrall  Corte,' and  was  composed,  in  addition 
to  the  town  magistrates  wlio  had  previously  held 
it,  of  '  comittecs '  of  three  from  each  town.  So 
simply  and  naturally  did  the  migrated  town  sys- 
tem evolve,  in  tliis  binal  assembly,  the  .seminal 
principle  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Represen- 
tatives of  the  future  State  of  Connecticut.  Tlie 
Assembly  further  showed  its  consciousness  of 
separate  existence  by  declaring  '  an  offensive 
warr  ag'  the  Pequoitt,'  assigning  the  proportions 
of  its  miniature  army  and  supplies  to  each  town, 
and  ajipointiug  a  commander.  ...  So  complete 
are  the  features  of  State-hood,  that  we  may  fairly 
assign  May  1,  1637,  aa  the  proper  birthday  of 


Coiinectlctil.  No  king,  no  f'ongroiw,  pri'sldeil 
over  llie  birth:  lis  seed  was  In  the  towns.  ,lan- 
uary  II.  lti:iH(U).  the  little  ('ommonuealth  formed 
till'  llrsl  .Vmerican  Constitution  at  llarlford.  .So 
far  as  its  provisions  are  concerned,  the  King,  the 
I'arllami'iit,  the  I'lymoulh  ('oiiiicil.  the  Warwick 
gram,  the  Say  and  Sele  grant .  might  as  well 
have  been  lion  existent :  not  one  of  tliiiii  Is  min 
tioiied.  .  .  .  This  consllnition  was  not  only  lln 
eiirliesi  1,  it  the  longest  in  coiiliiiuance  of  .Viiieri- 
III  I  documeiilsof  the  kind,  unless  we  except  the 
Itlioile  Island  charter.  It  was  not  essentially 
altered  by  the  cliiirler  of  1(MI'.>,  which  was  prac- 
tieiilly  a  royal  eoiillriiiiitiiiii  of  it;  and  it  was  not 
untiriHlH  ihiit  the  charter,  that  is  the  constitu- 
tion of  1031),  was  superseded  by  the  presi'iit  con- 
stiliition.  Connecticut  was  us  alisolulely  a  slatj 
in  1030  as  in  1770."— ,V.  .lohnsinii,  Tlw  Uiiitiit 
of  (I  Srw  Kiiij.  Sliili(./ti/iiiit  l/i>ii/,iiiM  I'liir.  Stiiilif.\ 
110.  II). — The  following  is  the  text  of  those 
"  Fuiidamental  Orders"  lulopliil  by  the  |)eoplo 
dwelling  on  Coniicillciil  Itlver,  Jamiary  14, 
1038(U),  which  formed  the  llisl  of  wrilliii  consll- 
tutions:  "  Koil.VHMlcil  "'>  it  hath  pleased  the 
AUmiglity  (tod  by  Ilie  wise  ilispositioii  of  his 
diuyne  p'oiilince  so  to  Dnler  and  disiiose  of 
tilings  that  we  the  Inbubiliints  and  Itesiilenls  of 
Windsor,  lliirleford  and  Wcllierslield  ari'  now 
cohabiting  and  dwelling  in  and  vppoii  the  liiver 
of  Conecti'cotte  anil  the  Lands  thereunto  adioyne- 
ing;  And  well  knowing  where  a  people  are 
gathered  togatlier  Wiv  word  of  (tod  rcijiiires  that 
to  mayntayne  the  ]>eace  and  vnioii  of  such  a 
people  there  should  be  an  orderly  and  decent 
Gouerment  eslablislied  aceordiiig  to  Ood,  to 
order  and  dispose  of  the  airayres  of  the  people  at 
all  seasons  as  occalion  sliiill  rei[uiri';  doe  there- 
fore assotiate  and  conioyne  our  seines  to  tie  as 
one  I'ublike  State  or  Comonwclth ;  and  doe,  for 
our  .seines  and  our  Successors  and  such  as  shall 
be  adioyneil  to  vs  att  any  tyiiie  hereafter,  enter 
into  Combination  and  ('oiifederiition  togatlier,  to 
mayntayne  and  p'scarue  the  liberty  iind  purity 
of  ilie  ffospell  of  our  Lord  .lesiis  w"  we  now 
p'fesse,  as  al.so  the  diseiplyne  of  the  (.'hurchcs, 
w"'  according  to  the  truth  of  the  said  gospell  is 
now  practised  amongst  vs;  As  al.so  in  o' Ciuell 
AtTiiiri's  to  lie  guided  iinil  goiieriied  according  to 
such  Lawes,  Kules,  Orders  and  decrees  as  shall 
lie  made,  ordered  &  decreed,  as  followeth:  — 
1.  It  is  Ordered,  sentenced  and  decreed,  tliat 
there  shall  be  yerely  two  generall  As.seniblies  or 
Courts,  tlic  on  Hie  second  thiirsduy  in  Aprill,  tlie 
other  the  second  tluirsday  in  Sejitcmlier  follow- 
ing; the  tirst  shall  be  called  the  Courte  of  Elec- 
tion, wherein  shall  be  yerely  Chosen  frO  tyme  to 
tyme  soe  many  Slagestrats  and  other  publiko 
Olllcers  as  shall  be  found  requisitte:  Whereof 
one  to  be  chosen  Goueniour  for  the  yeiire  ensiieing 
and  vntill  another  tic  clio.sen,  iind  iioe  other 
Magestmtc  to  be  chosen  for  more  than  one  y care; 
p'uided  ullwayes  there  be  sixe  chosen  besids  the 
Gouernour;  W  bi'ing  chosen  and  sworiie  accord- 
ing to  an  Oath  recorded  for  that  purpose  shall 
liaue  power  to  administer  lust  ice  according  to 
the  Lawes  here  establislied,  and  for  want  thereof 
according  to  the  rule  of  the  word  of  God;  W 
clioise  Bliall  be  made  by  all  llmt  are  adinittcd 
freemen  and  huue  taken  the  Oath  of  Fidellity, 
and  doe  cohabitte  w'in  this  ■lurisdiction,  (liauing 
beene  admitteil  Inhabitants  by  the  maior  ji't  of 
the  Towne  wherein  tiiey  line.)  or  the  mayor  p'to 
of  such  as  shall  be  then  p'seut.   3.    It  is  Ordered, 


497 


CONNECTICUT,  1636-1630. 


The  Funiln- 
mental  Orders. 


CONNECTICUT,  1630-1639. 


sentenced  and  decreed,  thnt  tlie  Election  of  the 
iiforcsaid  Mnccstriits  shall  be  on  this  manner: 
eucry  p'son  p'seiit  iind  (luallitii  d  for  clioyse  shall 
hriiijr  in  (to  the  p'soiis  deputed  to  reeeaue  the) 
one  single  pap'  w"  the  name  of  him  written  iu 
yt  whom  he  desires  to  hauo  Gouernour,  and  lie 
that  hath  the  greatest  nfiber  of  papers  shall  he 
Gouernor  for  that  yeare.  And  the  rest  of  the 
Magestrats  or  jtiibli'ke  OfWcers  to  be  chosen  in 
this  manner:  The  Secretary  for  the  tyme  being 
shall  first  read  the  names  of  all  that  are  to  bo  put 
to  clioi.se  and  then  shall  seuerally  nominate  tliem 
di.stinctly,  and  enery  one  that  would  liaue  the 
p'son  nominated  to  be  chosen  shall  bring  in  one 
single  paper  written  vppon,  and  he  that  would 
not  haiie  him  chosen  shall  bring  in  a  blankc:  and 
(tuerv  one  that  hath  more  written  ])ai)ers  then 
blanks  shall  be  a  Magistral  for  that  yeare;  W' 
paiiers  sha'l  be  receaiied  and  told  by  one  or  more 
that  shall  be  then  chosen  by  the  court  and  swf)rne 
to  be  faythfull  therein:  but  in  ca.so  there  should 
not  be  si.xe  chosen  as  aforesaid,  besids  the  Gouer- 
nor, out  of  those  W  are  nominated,  then  he  or 
they  W'  hauc  the  most  written  pai)'s  shall  be  a 
Magestrato  or  >Iagcstrats  for  the  ensueing  yeare, 
to  make  vp  the  foresaid  nnber.  3.  It  is  Ordered, 
sentenced  and  decreed,  that  the  Secretary  shall 
not  nominate  any  p'son,  nor  shall  any  p'son  be 
chosen  newly  into  the  Magestracy  w'  was  not 
p'po.vnded  in  some  Generall  Courte  before,  to  be 
nominated  the  ne.xt  Election;  and  to  that  end  yt 
shall  be  lawful!  for  cell  of  tlio  Townes  aforesaid 
by  their  deputyes  to  nominate  any  two  wh"  tliey 
conceauo  fitte  to  be  put  to  election;  and  the 
Courte  ni'i.y  a'l  so  i.niny  more  as  tliey  iiuige 
requisitt.  4.  It  is  Ordered,  sentenced  and  de- 
creed that  noe  p'son  be  chosen  Gouernor  abouo 
once  in  two  yeares,  and  that  the  Gouernor  be 
always  a  meb'.r  of  some  approved  congregation, 
and  formerly  of  the  JIagestracy  w"in  this  Juris- 
diction ;  an(l  all  the  Slagestrats  Freemen  of  this 
Comonweltli:  and  that  no  Magestrato  or  other 
publiko  offlcer  sludl  execute  any  p'te  of  his  or 
their  OITlee  before  they  arc  seuerally  sworne, 
W'  shall  be  done  in  the  face  of  the  Courte  if  they 
be  p'sent,  and  in  case  of  absence  by  some  deputed 
for  that  purpose.  5.  It  is  Ordered,  sentenced 
and  decreed,  that  to  the  aforesaid  Courte  of 
Election  the  seu'all  Townes  shall  send  their  depu- 
tyes, and  wlien  the  Elections  '  ended  tliey 
may  p'ceod  in  any  publike  sea;  as  at  other 

Courts.  Also  the  other  Generall  Courte  in  Sep- 
tember shall  be  for  nuikeing  of  lawes,  and  any 
other  publike  occation,  w'  conseriis  the  good  of 
the  Comonweltli.  0.  It  is  Ordered,  sentenced 
and  decreed,  that  the  Gou'nor  shall,  ether  by  him- 
selfo  or  by  the  secretary,  send  out  sumons  to  the 
Constables  of  eu'  Towne  for  the  cauleing  of  these 
two  standing  Courts,  on  month  at  lest  before 
their  seu'all  tyines:  And  also  if  tlie  Gou'nor  and 
the  gretest  p'te  of  the  Magestrats  see  cause  vppon 
any  spel.'al.  occation  to  call  a  generall  Courte, 
they  may  giiie  order  to  tlie  secretary  soe  to  doe 
w'Mn  fowerteene  dayes  warneing;  and  if  vrgent 
necessity  so  require,  vjipon  a  shorter  notice,  glue- 
ing sufflcient  grownds  for  y  t  to  the  deputyes  when 
they  meete,  or  els  bo  questioned  for  tlie  same ; 
And  if  the  Gou'nor  and  Jilayor  p'te  of  Magestrats 
shall  ether  neglect  or  refuse  to  call  the  two  Gen- 
eral! standing  Courts  or  ether  of  the,  as  also  at 
other  tymes  when  the  occatious  of  the  Comon- 
weltli n^quire,  the  Freemen  thereof,  or  the  Mayor 
p'te  of  them,  shall  petition  to  them  soe  to  doe:  if 


then  yt  be  ether  denyed  or  neglected  the  said 
Freemen  or  the  Mayor  p'te  of  tlieni  shall  haue 
power  to  giue  order  to  the  Constables  of  tho 
seuerall  Townes  to  doe  the  same,  and  so  may 
meete  togather,  and  cliu.so  to  tliemselues  a  JIocl- 
enitor,  and  may  p'ceetl  to  do  any  Acte  of  power, 
w"'  any  other  Generall  Courte  may.  7.  It  is 
Ordered,  sentenced  and  decreed  that  after  tliere 
are  warrants  giuen  out  for  any  of  the  said  Gen- 
erall Courts,  tile  Constable  or  Constables  of  ecli 
Towne  shall  forthw"  give  notice  distinctly  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  same,  in  some  I'ublike  As- 
sembly or  by  goeing  or  sending  frfi  liowse  to 
liowse,  that  at  a  pla(X'  and  tyme  by  him  or  them 
lymited  and  sett,  they  meet  and  assemble  the 
seines  togathci  to  elect  and  chuse  certen  depu- 
tyes to  be  att  the  Generall  Courte  then  following 
to  agitate  the  afay  res  of  tlie  comonweltli;  w'  said 
Deputyes  shall  bo  chosen  by  all  that  are  admitted 
Inhabitants  in  the  seu'all  Townes  and  haue  taken 
the  oath  of  tidollity ;  p'uided  that  non  be  chosen  ii 
Deputy  for  any  Generall  Courte  w"''  is  not  a 
Freeman  of  tliis  Comonweltli.  The  foresaid 
deputyes  shall  be  chosen  in  manner  following: 
euery  p'son  tliat  is  p'sent  and  quallified  as  before 
exp'ssed.  shall  bring  the  names  of  such,  written 
in  seu'rall  papers,  as  they  desire  to  haue  chosen 
for  that  Imployment,  and  these  3  or  4,  more  or 
lessc,  being  the  ndber  agreed  on  to  be  chosen  for 
that  tyme,  that  haue  greatest  nClber  of  papers 
written  for  tlie  shall  be  deputyes  for  that  Courte; 
whose  names  shall  be  endorsed  on  the  backe  side 
of  the  warnuit  and  returned  into  the  Courte,  w"  the 
Constable  or  Constables  hand  vnto  the  same.  8.  It 
is  Ordered,  sentenced  and  decreed,  that  Wyndsor, 
Hartford  and  AVethersfleld  shall  liaue  power, 
cell  Towne,  to  send  fower  of  their  freemen  as 
deputyes  to  euery  Generall  Courte ;  and  wliatso- 
euer  other  Townes  shall  be  hereafter  added  to 
this  Jurisdiction,  they  shall  send  so  many  depu- 
tyes as  the  Courte  shall  Judge  meete,  a  reason- 
able p'portion  to  the  nClbei  of  Freemen  that  are 
in  the  said  Townes  being  to  be  attended  therein ; 
W  deputyes  sliall  have  tho  power  of  the  wliole 
Towne  to  giue  their  voats  and  alowance  to  all 
such  lawes  and  orders  as  may  be  for  the  publike 
good,  and  unto  W  the  sjvid  Townes  are  to  be 
bownd.  9.  It  is  ordered  and  decreed,  that  tlie 
deputyes  thus  chosen  shall  haue  power  and 
liberty  to  appoynt  a  tyme  and  a  place  of  meeting 
togather  before  any  Generall  Courte  to  aduise 
and  consult  of  all  such  things  as  may  concerne 
the  good  of  the  publike,  as  also  to  examine  their 
owne  Elections,  whether  according  to  tlie  order, 
and  if  they  or  the  gretest  p'te  of  them  find  any 
election  to  be  illegall  they  may  sc  jlud  such  for 
p'sent  frO  their  meeting,  and  returne  tlio  same 
and  their  resous  to  tlie  Courte ;  and  it  yt  proue 
true,  the  Courte  may  fyne  tlie  p'ty  or  p'tj'"?  so 
intruding  and  tlie  Towne,  if  they  see  cause,  and 
giue  out  a  warrant  to  goe  to  a  newe  el'iction  in  a 
legall  way,  either  in  p'te  or  in  whole.  Also  the 
said  deputyes  shall  hauo  power  to  fyne  any  that 
shall  bo  disorderly  at  their  meetings,  or  f<i  not 
coming  in  due  tyme  or  place  according  to  ap- 
poyntment;  and  tliey  may  returne  the  said  fynes 
into  the  Courte  if  yt  bo  refused  to  be  paid,  and 
the  tresurer  to  take  notice  of  yt,  and  to  estreete 
or  levy  the  same  as  ho  doth  other  fynes.  10.  It 
is  Ordered,  sentenced  and  decreed,  that  euery 
Generall  Courti  ;cept  such  as  through  neglecte 
of  the  Gou'nor  and  the  greatest  p'te  of  Magestrats 
the  Freemen  themselves  doe  call,  shall  consist  of 


498 


CONNECTICUT,  lCaO-1030. 


Xew  Haven 
Colouv. 


CONNECTICUT,  1639. 


the  Qouernor,  or  some  one  chosen  to  moderate 
the  Court,  iiud  4  other  .Mii^estriits  at  lest,  w" 
tlie  mayor  p'te  of  tlie  deputyes  of  the  seuerall 
Towiiea  legally  chosen ;  aiul  in  case  the  Freemen 
or  mayor  p'te  of  the,  tlirough  neglect  or  refusall 
of  the  Qouernor  ami  mayor  p'te  of  the  mnges- 
tnits,  sliall  call  a  Courte,  y'  slmll  consist  of  tlie 
mayor  ji'le  of  Freemen  that  are  p'sent  or  their 
deputyes,  w"  a  Mmlerator  cliosen  by  tliu:  In  W 
said  Oenerall  Courts  sliall  consist  the  supreme 
power  of  the  Comonweltli,  and  tliey  only  shall 
haiie  power  to  make  laws  or  rcpeale  the,  to 
graunl  leuyea,  to  admitt  of  Freemen,  dispose  of 
lands  vndisiiosed  of,  to  seuendl  Towncs  or  p'sons, 
and  also  shall  haue  power  to  call  ether  Courte  or 
JIagestrate  or  any  other  p'son  whatsoeuer  into 
(picstion  for  any  misdemeanour,  and  may  for  just 
causes  displace  or  deale  otherwise  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  ofTence ;  and  also  may  dealo  in 
any  other  matter  that  concerns  the  good  of  this 
comou  welth,  excepte  election  of  JIagestrats, 
W'  shall  be  done  by  the  wliole  boddy  of  Freemen. 
In  w'  Courte  the  Gouernour  or  Moderator  shall 
haue  power  to  order  the  Courte  to  giuc  liberty 
of  spech,  and  silence  vnceasonabic  and  disorderly 
speakeings,  to  put  all  things  to  voate,  and  in 
case  the  voate  be  equalltohauc  the  casting  voice. 
But  non  of  these  Courts  shall  be  a<liorned  or  dis- 
solued  w"out  the  consent  of  the  maior  p'te  of  the 
Court.  11.  It  is  ordered,  seutence<l  and  decreed, 
that  when  any  Qenerall  Courte  vjjpon  the  occa- 
tioiis  of  the  Comonweltli  haue  agreed  vppon  any 
same  or  somes  of  mony  to  be  leuycd  vppon  the 
seuerall  Townes  ■w'Mn  this  Jurisdiction,  that  a 
Comittec  be  chosen  to  sett  out  and  appoynt  w' 
shall  be  the  p'jjortion  of  euery  Towno  to  pay  of 
the  said  leuy,  p'vided  the  Comittees  be  made  vp 
of  an  eciimll  ntlber  out  of  each  Tov  .:e.  14""  Jan- 
uary, 1038,  the  11  Orders  abouesaid  are  voted." 
—  Public  Itecoi'tls  of  the  Colony  of  Connecticut, 
v.  1. 

A.  D.  1637.— The  Pequot  War.  See  New 
Enoland:  a.  D.  1037. 

A,  D.  1638.— The  planting  of  New  Haven 
Colony. — "  In  the  height  of  the  Hutchinson  con- 
troversy [sc'3  Massachusetts:  A.  1).  1636-1038], 
John  Davenport,  an  eminent  nonconformist  min- 
ister from  London,  had  arrived  at  Boston,  and 
with  him  a  wealthy  company,  led  by  two  mer- 
chants, Theophilus  Eaton  and  Edward  Hopkins. 
Alarmed  at  the  new  opinions  and  religious  agita- 
tions of  whicli  Massachusetts  was  the  seat,  not- 
witlistimding  very  advantageous  offers  of  settle- 
ment there,  they  preferred  to  establish  a  separate 
community  of  their  own,  to  be  forever  free  from 
the  innovations  of  error  and  licentiousness. 
Eaton  and  others  sent  to  explore  the  coast  west 
of  tlic  Connecticut,  selected  a  place  for  settle- 
ment near  the  head  of  a  spacious  bay  at  Quina- 
piaek  lor  Quinnipinck],  or,  as  the  Dutch  called 
it,  Ucd  Hill,  where  they  built  a  hut  and  spent 
the  winter.     They   were  joined   in  the   spring 

t April,  1638]  by  the  rest  of  their  company,  and 
)avenport  ijreached  his  first  sermon  under  the 
shade  of  a  spreading  oak.  Presently  they  entered 
into  what  they  called  a  'plantation  covenant,' 
and  a  communication  being  opened  with  the 
Intiians,  who  were  but  few  in  that  neighborhood, 
the  lands  of  Quinapiack  were  purchased,  except 
a  sniiill  reservation  on  the  east  side  of  the  bay,  the 
Indians  receiving  a  few  presents  and  a  promise 
of  iirotection.  A  tract  north  of  the  bay,  ten 
miles  in  one  direction  and  thirteen  in  the  other, 


was  purchased  for  ten  coats ,  and  the  colonists 
proceeded  to  lay  out  in  sijuarcs  the  ground-plan 
of  a  spacious  city,  to  which  tlu-v  iirescutly  gave 
the  name  of  New  Haven." — H.  llildreth,  }lt«t.  of 
the  U.  S.,v.  1,  ch.  9.  — "They  formed  their  politi- 
cal as.sociation  by  what  they  called  a  'plantation 
covenant,'  '  to  distinguish  it  from  a  church  cov- 
enant, which  could  not  at  that  time  be  made.' 
Ill  this  coiii])act  they  resolved,  'that,  as  in 
matters  that  concern  the  gathering  and  ordering 
of  a  church,  .so  likewise  in  all  i)ublic  olllces 
which  concern  civil  order,  as  choice  of  magis- 
trates and  olUcei's,  making  and  repealing  of 
laws;  dividing  allotments  of  iiiluritance,  and  all 
tilings  of  like  nature,'  they  would  '  be  ordeied  tiy 
the  rules  which  the  Scriptures  hold  forth.'  It 
had  no  external  sanction,  and  comprehended  no 
acknowledgment  of  the  government  of  England. 
The  company  consisted  mostly  of  Londoners, 
who  at  home  had  been  engaged  in  trade.  lu 
proportion  to  their  numbers,  they  were  the 
richest  of  all  the  iilantations.  Like  the  settlers 
on  Narragansett  Bay,  they  had  no  other  title  to 
their  lands  than  that  which  they  obtained  by 
purchase  from  the  Indians. " — J.  O.  Palfrey,  Hist, 
of  New  Kiid.,  v.  1,  ch.  13. 

Also  in:  C.  H.  Levermore,  The  Itepuhlie  of 
JVefO  Ilntcn,  ch.  1. 

A.  D.  1639. — The  Fundamental  Agreement 
of  New  Haven. — "In  June,  ^039,  the  wliolo 
body  of  settlers  [at  Quinnipiack,  tt  New  Haven] 
came  together  to  frame  a  constitution.  A  tra- 
dition, seemingly  well  founded,  days  that  the 
meeting  was  held  in  a  large  b;ii  n.  According  to 
the  same  account,  the  purpose  for  which  they 
had  met  and  the  principles  on  which  they  ought 
to  proceed  were  set  forth  by  Davenport  in  a  ser- 
mon. '  Wisdom  hath  builded  her  house,  sliu 
hath  hewn  out  seven  pillars,'  was  the  text. 
There  is  an  obvious  connection  between  this  an  I 
the  subsequent  choice  of  seven  of  the  chief  men 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  constitution.  .  .  . 
Davenport  set  forth  the  general  system  on  which 
the  constitution  ought  to  be  framed.  The  two 
main  principles  which  he  laid  down  were,  that 
Scripture  is  a  perfect  and  sulBcient  rule  for  the 
conduct  of  civil  affairs,  and  that  church-member- 
ship must  be  a  condition  of  citizenship.  In  this 
the  colonists  were  but  imitating  the  example  of 
Massachusetts.  .  .  .  After  the  sermon,  live  reso- 
lutions [followed  by  a  sixth,  constituting  together 
what  was  called  the  '  fundamental  agreement ' 
of  New  Haven  Colony],  formally  introducing 
Davenport's  proposals,  were  carried.  If  a 
church  already  existed,  it  was  not  considered  '  "■■ 
to  form  a  basis  for  the  state.  Accordingly  a 
fresh  one  was  framed  by  a  curiously  complicated 
process.  As  a  first  step,  twelve  men  were  elected. 
These  twelve  were  instructed,  after  a  due  inter- 
val for  consideration,  to  choose  seven  out  of 
their  own  number,  who  should  serve  as  a  nu- 
cleus for  the  church.  At  the  same  time  an  oath 
was  ti'.ken  by  the  settU^rs,  which  may  be  looked 
on  as  a  sort  of  preliminary  and  provisional  test 
of  citizenship,  pledging  them  to  accept  the 
principles  laid  down  by  Davenport  Sixty-three 
of  the  inhabitants  took  the  oath,  and  their 
example  was  soon  followed  by  fifty  more.  By 
October,  four  months  after  the  original  meeting, 
the  seven  formally  established  the  new  common- 
wealth. They  granted  the  rights  of  a  freeman 
to  all  who  joined  them,  and  who  were  recognized 
members  either  of  the  church  at  New  Haven  or 


499 


CONNECTICUT,  1630. 


The 
Royal  Charter. 


CONNECTICUT,  1663-1664. 


of  ony  other  ui)provt'(l  diurcli.  The  fn^emen 
thus  chosen  entered  into  nu  agreement  to  the 
same  effect  as  the  oath  already  taken.  They 
tlien  elected  n  Governor  and  four  Magistrates,  or, 
as  tlicy  were  for  tlie  jiresent  called,  ii  Magistrate 
and  four  Deputies.  .  .  .  Tlic  functions  of  llie 
Governor  and  Magistrates  were  not  detined. 
Indeed,  l)Ut  one  formal  resolution  was  passed  as 
to  tlie  conslitulion  of  tlie  colony,  namely,  '  tliat 
the  Word  of  Ood  sliall  be  tlie  only  rule  attended 
>uito  in  ordering  the  affairs  of  government.'  " — 
J.  A.  Doyle,  T//e  KnuUnh  in  Am.:  The  Puritnii 
ColoniiH,  V.  1,  e!i.  0. — "Of  all  the  New  England 
colonies,  New  Haven  was  most  purely  a  govern- 
ment hy  compact,  by  social  contract.  .  .  .  Tlie 
free  i)lauters  .  .  .  signed  each  their  names  to 
their  voluntary  compact,  and  ordered  tliat  '  all 
planters  hereafter  received  in  this  plantation 
should  submit  to  the  said  foiindamentiill  agree- 
ment, and  testilie  the  same  l)y  subscriliing  their 
names.'  It  is  believed  that  this  is  the  sole 
insuinec  of  the  formation  of  an  independent  civil 
government  by  a  general  compact  wherein  all 
the  parties  to  the  agreement  were  legally  required 
to  be  actual  signers  thereof.  AVhen  tli.i  cMiit 
occurred,  Jolm  Locke  was  in  his  seventh  \  ^  iir, 
and  Uousseau  was  a  century  away." — C.  II. 
Levermore,  I'/ie  liijinlilii'  i>f  JS'tin  Ifnren,  p.  23. 

A.  D.  1640-1655.  — The  attempted  New 
Haven  colonization  on  the  Delaware. — Fresh 
quarrels  with  the  Dutch.  See  New  Jeusey: 
A.  I).  i04()-lC.j,-). 

A.  D.  1643. — The  confederation  of  the  colo- 
"ies. — The  progress  and  state  of  New  Haven 
and  the  River  Colony.  See  New  En<il.\ni): 
A.  D.  1643. 

A.  D.  1650. — Settlement  of  boundaries  with 
the  Dutch  of  New  Netherland.  See  New 
Youk:  a.  D.  1050. 

A.  D.  1656-1661.  —  The  persecution  of 
Quakers.  See  Massachusetts:  A.  D.  1650- 
1001. 

A.  D.  1660-1663. — The  beginning  of  bound- 
ary conflicts  with  Rhode  Island.  See  Hiioue 
Island:  A.  I).  1000-1003. 

A.  D.  1560-1664. — The  protection  of  the 
regicides  at  New  Haven. — "  Against  the  colony 
of  New  Haven  the  king  had  a  special  grudge. 
Two  of  'the  regicide  judges,  who  had  sat  in  the 
tribunal  which  condemned  his  father,  escaped 
to  New  England  in  1060  and  were  well  received 
there.  They  wore  gentlemen  o''  high  position. 
Edward  Wlialley  was  a  cousin  of  Cromwell  and 
Hampden.  .  .  .  The  other  regicide,  William 
Goffe,  as  a  riajnr-general  in  Cromwell's  army, 
had  won  such  distinction  that  there  were  some 
who  pointed  to  him  as  the  ))ropcr  person  to 
succeed  the  Lord  Protector  on  the  death  of  the 
latter.  He  had  married  Whalley's  daughter. 
Soon  after  the  arrival  of  these  gentlemen, 
a  royal  order  for  their  arrest  was  sent  to 
Boston.  .  .  .  The  king's  detectives  hotly  pur- 
sued them  tlirough  the  woodland  i)athsofNew 
England,  aud  they  would  soon  have  been  taken 
but  for  tlie  aid  they  got  from  the  people.  Many 
are  the  stories  of  their  hairbreadth  escapes. 
Sometimes  they  took  refuge  in  a  cave  on  a 
mountain  near  New  Haven,  sometimes  they  hid 
in  friendly  cellars ;  and  or.ce,  being  hard  put  to 
it,  they  skulked  under  a  wooden  bridge,  whilo 
their  pursuers  on  horselmck  galloped  by  over- 
head. After  lurking  about  New  Ilavcn  and 
Milford  for  two  or  threo  years,  on  hearing  of  the 


expected  arrival  of  Colonel  Nichols  and  liis  com- 
mission [the  royal  commission  appointed  to  take 
possession  of  the  American  grant  lately  made  by 
tlie  king  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  "iorkj,  they 
soughta  more  secluded  hiding  place  near  Hadley, 
It  village  lately  settled  far  up  the  Connecticut 
river,  within  tlie  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts. 
Here  the  avengers  lost  the  trail,  the  pursuit  was 
alviiidoned,  and  the  weary  regicides  were 
lucse'ntly  forgotten.  The  people  of  New  Haven 
had  been  especially  zealous  in  shielding  the 
fugitives.  .  .  .  The  colony,  moreover,  di(l  not 
nllicially  recognize  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
to  the  throne  until  that  event  had  been  commonly 
known  in  New  Englmd  for  more  than  a  year. 
For  these  reasons,  the  wrath  of  the  king  was 
s))ecially  roused  agiMnst  New  Haven." — J.  Fiske, 
TIte  Jiei/iiiniiif/a  of  New  Enrj.,  pp.  193-194. 

At.so  in:  G.  H.  Hollister,  IIM.  of  Conn.,  v,  1, 
c/i.  11. 

A.  D.  1662-1664.— The  Royal  Charter  and 
annexation  of  New  Haven  to  the  River  Colony. 
— "The  Restoration  in  England  left  the  New 
Haven  colony  under  a  cloud  in  the  favor  of  the 
new  government:  it  had  been  tardy  and  un- 
gracious in  its  proclamation  of  Charles  II. ;  it 
had  been  especially  remiss  in  searching  for  the 
regicide  colonels,  Gofle  and  Wlialley ;  and  any 
application  for  a  charter  would  have  come  from 
New  Haven  with  a  very  ill  grace.  Connecticut 
was  under  no  such  disabilities;  and  it  had  in  its 
Governor,  John  AVinthrop  [tlio  younger,  son  of 
the  first  governor  of  Massachusetts],  a  man  well 
calculated  to  win  favor  with  the  ne^v  King.  .  .  . 
In  March,  1660,  the  General  Court  solemnly  de- 
clared its  loyalty  to  Charles  II. ,  sent  the  Gov- 
ernor to  Englaiui  to  offer  a  loyal  address  to  the 
King  and  ask  him  for  a  charter,  and  laid  aside 
i'oOO  for  his  exi)enses.  Winthrop  was  successful, 
and  the  charter  was  granted  April  20, 1602.  The 
ac(juisition  of  the  charter  rai.sed  the  Connecticut 
leaders  to  the  seventh  heaven  of  satisfaction. 
And  well  it  might,  for  it  was  a  grant  of  privileges 
with  hardly  a  limitation.  Practically  the  King 
had  given  Winthrop  'carte  blanche,'  and  allowed 
him  to  frame  the  charter  to  suit  himself.  It  in- 
corporated the  freemen  of  Connecticut  as  a  '  body 
corporate  and  pollitique,' by  the  name  of  'The 
Governor  and  Company  of  the  English  CoUony 
of  Conectic'ut  in  New  Euglaud  in  America.' 
.  .  .  The  people  were  to  have  all  the  liberties 
and  immunities  of  free  and  natural  subjects  of 
the  King,  as  if  born  within  tiie  realm.  It  granted 
to  the  Governor  and  Company  all  that  part  of 
New  England  south  of  the  Massachusetts  line 
and  west  of  the  '  Norroganatt  River  com- 
monly called  Norroganatt  Bay '  to  the  South 
Sea,  with  the  '  Islands  thereunto  adioyneinge. ' 
...  It  is  difficult  to  see  more  than  two  jioints 
in  which  it  [the  charter]  altered  the  constitution 
adopted  by  the  towns  in  1039.  Tliere  were  now 
to  be  two  deputies  from  each  town;  and  the 
bounuaries  01  J  1  Commonwealth  now  embraced 
the  rival  colony  of  New  Haven.  .  .  .  New  Haven 
did  not  submit  witliout  a  struggle,  for  not  only 
her  pride  of  separate  existence  but  the  supremacy 
of  her  ecclesiastical  system  was  at  stake.  For 
three  years  a  succession  of  diplomatic  notes 
passed  between  tiie  General  Court  of  Connecticut 
and  '  our  honored  friends  of  New  Haven,  Mil- 
ford,  Branford,  aud  Guilford.'  ...  In  October, 
1664,  the  Connecticut  General  Court  appointed 
the  Nei-  Haven  magistrates  commissioners  for 


500 


CONNECTICUT,  1662-1664. 


The  Hiding 
of  the  Charter. 


CONNECTICUT,  1685-1687. 


their  towns,  'with  mftgistraticnll  powers,'  es- 
tftblislied  till!  New  Iltivcn  local  olUcers  in  tlieir 
places  for  tlu!  time,  and  declared  oblivion  for 
any  past  resistance  to  the  laws.  In  Decenil)er, 
Milford  having  already  8\ibmitted,  the  remnant 
of  the  New  Haven  General  Court,  representing 
New  Haven,  Guilford,  and  Uranfonl,  held  its 
last  meeting  and  voted  to  submit,  '  with  a  salvo 
jure  of  our  former  rights  and  claims,  as  a  people 
who  have  not  yet  been  Iieard  in  point  of  ph-a.' 
The  next  year  the  hiws  of  New  Iliivcn  rtere  laid 
aside  forever,  and  her  towns  sent  deputies  to  the 
General  Court  at  Hartford.  ...  In  I'lOl  the 
General  Court  .  .  .  voted  that  its  annual  Octo- 
ber session  should  thereafter  be  held  at  New 
Haven.  This  provision  of  a  double  capital  was 
incorporated  into  the  constitution  of  1818,  and 
continued  until  in  1873  Hartford  was  made  sole 
capital." — A.  Johnston,  The  Genesis  of  a  JVeu) 
Enij.  State,  pp.  25-38. 

Also  in:  B.  Trumbull,  Hist,  of  Conn.,  v.  1,  <•//. 
18. — Public  Records  of  the  Colony  of  Conn.,  1605- 
78. 

A.  D.  1664. — Royal  irrant  to  the  Duke  of 
York,  in  conflict  with  tne  charter.  See  New 
Youk:  a.  I).  1664. 

A.  D.  1666. — The  New  Haven  migration  to 
Newark,  N.J.  See  Nkw  Jkuskv:  A.  D.  1664- 
10(17. 

A.  D.  1674-1675.— Long  Island  and  the 
western  half  of  the  colony  granted  to  the 
Duke  of  York. — In  1674,  after  the  momentary 
recovery  of  New  York  by  the  Dutch,  and  its 
re-surrender  to  the  English,  "tlie  king  issued  a 
new  patent  for  the  province,  in  which  he  not 
only  in'^luded  Long  Island,  but  the  territory  up 
to  the  Connecticut  River,  which  liad  been 
assigned  to  Connecticut  by  the  royal  commis- 
sioners. The  assignment  of  Long  Island  was 
regretted,  b. it  not  resisted;  and  tlic  island  which 
is  the  natural  sea-wall  of  Connecticut  passed,  by 
royal  deiTce,  to  a  province  whose  only  natural 
claim  to  it  was  that  it  barely  touched  it  at  one 
corner.  The  revival  of  the  duke's  claim  to  a 
part  of  tlic  mainland  was  a  different  matter,  and 
every  preparation  was  made  for  resistance.  In 
July,  1075,  just  as  Kii.  j  Philip's  war  had  broken 
out  in  Plymoutli,  hasty  word  was  sent  from  the 
authorities  at  Ilartfonl  to  Captain  Thomas  Bull 
at  .Saybrook  that  Governor  Andros  of  New 
York  was  on  his  way  through  the  Sound  for  the 
purpose,  as  he  avowed,  of  aiding  the  people 
against  the  Indians.  Of  the  two  evils,  Connecti- 
cut rather  preferred  the  Indians.  Bull  was 
instructed  to  inform  Andros,  if  he  sliould  call  at 
Saybrook,  that  the  colony  liad  taken  all  pre- 
cauMons  against  the  Indians,  and  to  direct  liim 
to  tlie  actual  scene  of  conllict,  l)ut  not  to  permit 
the  landing  of  any  armed  soldiers.  '  And  you 
are  to  keep  the  king's  colors  standing  there, 
under  his  majesty's  lieutenant,  the  governor  of 
Connecticut ;  and  if  any  other  colors  be  set  up 
there,  you  arc  not  to  sulfer  them  to  stand.  .  .  . 
But  yo\i  are  in  his  majesty's  name  re(iuired  to 
avoid  striking  tlie  first  blow;  but  if  they  begin, 
then  you  ere  to  defend  yourselves,  and  do  your 
best  to  secure  his  majesty's  interest  and  the 
I)eace  of  the  wliole  colony  of  Connecticut  in  our 
l)ossc8sion. '  Andros  came  and  landed  at  Say- 
brook, but  confined  his  proceedings  to  leading 
the  duke's  patent  against  tlie  protest  of  Bull  and 
the  Connecticut  representatives. " — A.  Johnston, 
Connecticut,   ch.   12.— liept.  of  liegents   of  tlie 


University    on  the  Boundaries    of  the  State  of 
iV..r.,;).  21. 

Also  in;  C.W.  Bowen,  T  lie  Boundary  Disputes 
of  Conn.,  pp.  70-73. 

A.  D.  1674-1678.— King  Philip's  War.  See 
New  Enol.\m);  A.  1).  1671-1675;  1075;  1670- 
1078. 

A.  D.  1685-1687.— The  hostile  ki.ag  and  the 
hidden  charter.— Sir  Edmund  Andius  in  pos- 
session of  the  government. — "  During  tlic  latter 
years  of  tlie  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  king  had 
become  .so  recklc-^s  of  his  pledges  and  his  faith 
that  lie  did  not  s(  1  ujile  to  set  the  dangerous  ex- 
ample of  violating  the  charters  that  had  been 
granted  \>y  the  crown.  Owing  to  the  friendsliip 
that  the  king  entertained  for  Winthrop,  we  have 
seen  that  Coniu'cticut  was  favored  by  liim  to  a 
degree  even  after  tlie  death  of  that  great  man. 
But  no  sooner  had  Charles  demise<l  and  the 
sceptre  passed  into  the  liands  of  his  bigoted 
brother.  King  James  II.,  than  Connecticit  was 
called  upon  to  contend  against  lier  sovereign  for 
liberties  that  had  been  alllr'icd  to  hei  by  the 
most  solemn  muniments  known  to  the  i:uv  of 
England.  The  accession  of  James  II.  took 
place  on  the  0th  day  of  February  1085,  and  such 
was  his  haste  to  violate  the  honor  of  the  crowa 
that,  early  in  the  sunimer  of  1685,  a  quo  warranto 
was  issued  against  the  governor  and  company  of 
Connecticut,  citing  them  to  appear  before  the 
king,  within  eij.  it  days  of  St.  Martiu'.s,  to  show 
by  wliat  right  a  li  tenor  thej^  exercised  certain 
powers  and  privileges."  This  was  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  two  other  writs,  conveyed  to  Hartford 
by  Edward  Ilandolph,  the  implacable  enemy 
of  the  colonics.  "The  day  of  appearance 
named  in  them  was  passed  long  before  the  writs 
were  served."  Mr.  Wiiiting  was  sent  to  England 
as  the  agent  of  the  colony,  to  exert  such  intlu- 
ences  as  might  be  brought  to  bear  against  the 
plainly  hostile  and  unscrupulous  intentions  of 
the  king;  but  his  errand  was  f"uitless.  "On  the 
28th  of  December  another  writ  of  quo  warranto 
was  served  upon  tlie  governor  and  company  of 
the  colony.  This  writ  bore  date  the  23d  of 
October,  and  required  tlie  defendants  to  appear 
before  the  king  '  within  eight  days  of  the  purifi- 
cation of  the  Blessed  Virgin.'  ...  Of  cour.se, 
the  day  nam^d  was  not  known  to  the  English 
law,  and  was  therefore  no  day  at  all  ir-  legal  con- 
templation." Already,  the  other  New  England 
colonies  had  been  brought  under  a  iirovisional 
general  government,  by  comniissioiu^rs,  of  whom 
Joseph  Dudley  was  named  president.  President 
Dudley  "addrcsfied  a  loiter  to  the  governor  and 
council,  advising  them  to  resign  the  charter  into 
tlie  king's  hands.  Should  they  do  so,  he  under- 
took to  use  his  influence  in  belialf  of  the  colony. 
Tliey  did  not  deem  it  advisable  to  comply  with 
the  request.  Indeed  they  lia<l  hardly  time  to  do 
so  before  the  old  commission  was  broken  up, 
and  a  new  one  granted,  superseding  Dudley 
and  naming  Sir  Edmund  Andros  governor  of 
New  England.  Sir  Edmund  arrived  in  15o.ston 
on  tlie  19th  of  December,  1686,  and  tlie  next  (hiy 
he  published  his  commission  and  took  the  govern- 
ment into  his  hands.  Scarcely  had  lie  establislied 
liiiHself,  when  he  sent  a  letter  to  the  governor 
and  company  of  Connecticut,  ac(iuainting  them 
with  his  appointment,  and  informing  tliem  that 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  king  to  receive 
their  charter  if  they  would  give  it  up  to  him."— 
0.  H.  Hollister,  Ilist.  of  Conn.,  v.  1,  ch.  14.— On 


501 


CONNECTICUT,  1685-1687. 


The  Keinttated 
Cluirler. 


CONNECTICUT,  1689-1701. 


receipt  of  the  comrminicntion  from  Andros,  "the 
General  Court  wiis  nt  once  convened,  and  l)y  its 
direetion  u  letter  was  addressed  to  the  EngUsh 
Secretary  of  State,  earnestly  pleading  for  the 
preservation  of  the  jjrivileges  that  had  been 
granted  to  them.  For  the  first  time  they  admit- 
ted the  po.ssibility  that  tlieir  peli'ion  might  be 
ilenied,  and  in  that  case  reepiested  to  be  united 
to  iMa-ssachusetts.  This  was  construed  by  Sir 
Edmund  as  a  virtual  surrender;  hut  as  the  days 
went  by  he  saw  that  he  had  mistaken  the  spirit 
and  purpose  of  the  colony.  Andros  finally  de- 
cided to  go  in  person  to  Connecticut.  He  arrived 
at  Ilartfor  1  the  last  day  of  October,  attended  by 
a  retinue  of  CO  oflicers  and  soldiers.  The  Assem- 
bly, then  in  session,  received  liim  with  every 
outward  mark  of  respect.  After  this  formal  ex- 
change o'  courtesies.  Sir  Kdmund  publicly  de- 
manded Mo  charter,  and  declared  tlie  colonial 
government  dissolved.  Tradition  relates  that 
Governor  Treat,  in  cnlm  hut  earnest  words,  re- 
monstrated against  this  action.  .  .  .  The  flebate 
was  continued  until  tlie  sha<lows  of  the  early 
autumnal  evening  liad  fallen.  After  candles  were 
lighted,  the  -jovernor  and  his  council  seemed  to 
yield ;  and  the  bo.x  supposed  to  contain  the  char- 
ter was  brought  into  the  room,  and  placed  upon 
the  table.  Suddenly  the  lights  were  extin- 
guished. Quiet  reigned  in  the  room,  and  in  the 
dense  crowd  outside  the  building.  Tiie  candles 
were  soon  relighted;  but  the  charter  had  dis- 
appeared, and  after  the  most  diligent  search 
could  not  be  found.  The  common  tradition  has 
been,  that  it  was  taken  imdcr  cover  of  the  dark- 
ness by  Captain  Joseph  Wadsworth,  and  hidden 
by  him  in  the  liollow  trunk  of  a  venerable  and 
noble  oak  tree  standing  near  the  entrance-gate  of 
Governor  AVyllys's  mansion.  The  charter  taken 
by  Captain  Wadsworth  was  probably  the  dupli- 
cate, and  remained  safely  in  his  possession  for 
several  years.  There  is  reason  to  believe  tliat, 
some  time  before  the  coming  of  Andros  to  Hart- 
ford, the  original  charter  liad  been  carefully 
secreted,  and  the  tradition  of  later  times  makes 
it  probable  that,  while  the  duplicate  charter  that 
was  tiikcn  from  the  table  was  hidden  elsewhere, 
the  original  charter  found  a  safe  resting  place  in 
the  heart  of  the  tree  that  will  always  be  remem- 
bered as  The  Charter  Oak.  This  tree  is  said  to 
have  been  preserved  by  the  early  settlers  at  the 
request  of  the  Indians.  'It  hi) s  been  the  guide 
of  our  ancestors  for  centuries,' ihey  said,  'as  to 
the  time  of  planting  our  corn.  iVhen  the  leaves 
are  the  size  of  a  mouse's  ears,  then  is  the  time 
to  put  it  in  the  ground.'  The  record  of  the 
Court  briefly  states  that  Andros,  having  been 
conducted  to  the  governor's  seat  by  the  gov- 
ernor himself,  declared  that  he  had  been  com- 
missioned by  his  Majesty  to  take  on  him  the 
government  of  Connecticut.  The  commission 
having  been  read,  he  said  that  it  was  his 
Majesty's  pleasure  to  make  the  late  governor 
ami  Captain  John  Allyn  members  of  his  council. 
The  secretary  handed  their  common  seal  to  Sir 
Edmund,  and  afterwards  wrote  these  words  in- 
closing the  recor' :  _  ' His  Excellency,  Sir  Ed- 
mund Andros,  Knight,  Captain-General  and 
Governor  of  his  Majesty's  Territory  and  Domin- 
ion in  New  England,  bv  order  from  his  JIajesty, 
King  of  England,  Scotland  and  Irelaiid,  the  81st 
of  October,  1687,  took  mto  his  hands  the  govern- 
ment of  this  colony  of  Connecticut,  it  being  by 
Lis  Majesty  annexed  to  the  Massachusetts  and 


other  colonics  under  his  Excellency's  government. 
Finis.'  Andros  soon  disclosed  a  hand  of  steel 
beneath  the  velvet  glove  of  plausible  words  and 
fair  promis's." — E.  B.  Sanford,  Hist,  of  Conn., 
ch.  10. 

Also  in:  J.  G.  Palfrey,  Hist,  of  New  En//.,  bk. 
■S,  ch.  13  (v.  3).— Sec,  also,  New  Enol.vnd:  A.  D. 
1080,  and  JIassaciiusetts:  1071-1080. 

A.  D.  1689-1697.— King  William's  War. 
See  Canada  (NewFkance):  A.  D.  1089-1090; 
and  1093-1097. 

A.  D.  1689-1701.— The  reinstatement  of  the 
charter  government. — "April,  1089,  came  at 
last.  The  jicople  of  Boston,  at  tlie  first  news 
of  the  English  Revolution,  clapped  Andros  into 
custody.  Alay  9,  tlie  old  Connecticut  authorities 
(piietly  resumed  their  functions,  and  called  the 
assembly  together  for  the  following  month. 
Willianj  and  Mary  were  proclaimed  with  great 
fervor.  Not  a  word  was  said  about  the  dis- 
appearance or  reappearance  of  the  charter;  but 
the  charter  government  was  put  into  full  effect 
again,  as  if  Andros  had  never  interrupted  it. 
An  address  was  sent  to  the  king,  asking  that  the 
charter  he  no  further  interfered  with ;  but  ojier- 
ations  under  it  went  on  as  before.  No  decided 
action  was  taken  by  the  home  government  for 
some  years,  except  that  its  appointment  of  the 
New  York  governoi-,  Fletcher,  to  the  command 
of  the  Connecticut  militia,  implied  a  decision 
tliat  the  Connecticut  charter  had  been  super- 
.seded.  Late  in  1693,  Fitz  John  Wiuthrop  was 
sent  to  England  as  agent  to  obtain  a  confirmation 
of  the  charter.  Ho  secured  an  emphatic  legal 
opinion  from  Attorney  General  Somers,  backed 
by  those  of  Treby  and  Ward,  that  the  charter 
was  entirely  valid,  Treby's  concurrent  opinion 
taking  this  shape :  '  I  am  of  the  same  opinion, 
and,  as  this  matter  is  stilted,  there  is  no  ground 
of  doubt.'  The  basis  of  the  opinion  was  that 
the  charter  had  been  granted  under  the  great 
seal ;  that  it  Iiad  not  been  surrendered  under  the 
common  seal  of  the  colony,  nor  had  any  judg- 
ment of  record  been  entered  against  it;  tliat  its 
operation  had  merely  been  interfered  with  by 
overpowering  force;  that  the  charter  therefore 
remained  valid ;  and  that  the  peaceable  submission 
of  the  colony  to  A'.idros  was  merely  an  illegal  sus- 
pension of  lawful  authority.  In  other  words,  the 
passive  attitude  of  the  colonial  government  had 
disarmed  Andros  so  far  as  to  stop  the  legal  pro- 
ceedings necessary  to  forfeit  the  charter,  and 
their  prompt  action,  at  the  critical  moment, 
secured  all  that  could  he  secured  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. William  was  willing  enough  to 
retain  all  possible  fruit  of  James's  tyranny,  as  he 
sliowed  by  enforcing  the  forfeiture  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts charter ;  but  the  law  in  this  case  was 
too  plain,  and  he  ratified  the  lawyers'  opinion  in 
April,  1694.  The  clip.rter  had  escaped  its 
enemies  at  last,  and  its  escape  is  a  monument  of 
one  of  the  advantages  of  a  real  democracy.  .  .  . 
Democracy  had  done  more  for  Connecticut  than 
class  influence  had  done  for  Massachusetts  " — A. 
Johnston,  Connecticut,  ch.  12. — "The  decisions 
which  established  the  rights  of  Connecticut 
included  Rhode  Island.  These  two  common- 
wealths were  the  portion  of  the  British  empire 
distinguished  above  all  others  by  the  largest 
liberty.  Each  was  a  nearly  peri'ect  democracy 
under  the  shelter  of  a  monarchy.  .  .  .  The 
crown,  by  reserving  to  itself  the  right  of  appeal, 
had  still  a  method  of  interfering  in  the  internal 


502 


CONNECTICUT,   1089-1701.         The  Revolution. 


CONNECTICUT,  1776. 


affairs  of  the  two  rppiiblica.  Both  of  tliptn  wore 
Included  among  the  colonies  in  which  tlic  lords 
of  »~uie  advised  a  complete  restonition  of  tlie 
preroKiii'ves  of  the  crown.  Both  wen;  niimcd  in 
tlie  bdl  winch,  in  April,  1701,  was  introduced 
into  parliament  for  the  ai)rogation  of  all  Ameri- 
can clmrters.  The  journals  of  the  house  of  lords 
relate  that  Connecticut  was  publicly  heard 
against  the  measure,  and  contended  tliat  its 
liberties  were  held  by  contract  in  return  for 
services  tliat  had  been  performed;  that  the 
taking  away  of  so  many  charters  would  destroy 
all  contldenco  in  royal  promises,  and  would  afford 
a  precedent  dangerous  to  all  the  chartered  cor- 
porations of  England.  Yet  the  bill  was  read  iv 
second  time,  and  its  i.'rinciple,  as  applied  to 
colonies,  was  advocated  by  the  mercantile 
interest  and  Ic  '  great  men '  in  England.  The 
impending  w  with  the  French  postponed  the 
purpose  till  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Han- 
over."—G.  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (Autlwr't 
last  Tension),  pt,  3,  ch.  3  (r.  2). 

A.  D.  1690. — The  first  Colonial  Congress. 
See  Unitici)  Status  of  Am.  :  A.  1).  1G90. 

A,  D.  1702-1711. — Queen  Anne's  War.  See 
New  Enol.\ni>:  A.  1).  1702-1710;  and  Canad.v. 
(NkwFhanck):  A.  1),  1711-1713. 

A.  D,  1744-1748.— King  George's  War  and 
the  taking  of  Louisbourg.  Hci;  New  Englano  : 
A.  1).  1744;  174r);  and  1745-1748. 

A.  D.  1753-1799. — Western  territorial  claims. 
— Settlements  in  the  Wyoming  Valley. — Con- 
flicts with  the  Penn  colonists.  See  Pennsyl- 
vania: A.  I).  17r)3-179i). 

A.  D.  1754. — The  Colonial  Congress  at 
Albany,  and  Franklins  plan  of  union.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  I).  17i)4. 

A.  D.  1755-1760.— The  French  and  Indian 
War,  and  conquest  of  Canada.  See  Canada 
(New  France):  A.  D.  17r)0-17o3;  1755;  1750; 
17)0-1757;  1758;  1759;  1700;  Nova  Scotia: 
A.  D.  1749-1755;  1755;  Ohio  (Valley):  A.  D. 
1748-1754;  1754;  1755;  C.U'e  Breton  Island: 
A.  I).  1758-1700. 

A.  D.  1760-1765^— The  question  of  taxation 
by  Parliament. — The  Sugar  Act. — The  Stamp 
Act.— The  Stamp  Act  Congress.  See  United 
States  OP  Am.:  A.  D.  1700-1775;  1703-1704; 
1705;  and  1700. 

A.  D.  1765. — The  revolt  against  the  Stamp 
Act. — "The  English  government  understood 
very  well  that  the  colonies  were  earnestly 
opposed  to  the  Stamp  Act,  but  they  had  no 
thought  of  the  storm  of  wrath  and  resistance 
whicli  it  would  arouse.  It  was  a  surprise  to 
many  of  the  leaders  of  public  affairs  in  America. 
.  .  .  Governor  Fitch  and  Jared  Ingersoll,  with 
other  prominent  citizens  who  had  done  all  in 
their  power  to  oppose  the  scheme  of  taxation 
.  .  .  counsolk"?  submission.  They  mistook  the 
feeling  of  the  people.  .  .  .  The  clergy  were  still 
the  leaders  of  public  opinion,  and  they  were 
united  in  denunciation  of  the  great  wrong. 
Societies  were  organized  under  the  name  of  the 
Sons  of  Liberty,  the  secret  purpose  of  which 
was  to  resist  the  Stamp  Act  by  violent  m(  sures 
if  necessary.  .  .  .  Mr.  Ingersoll,  who  had  done 
all  in  his  power  to  oppose  the  bill,  after  its  pas- 
sage decided  to  accept  the  position  of  stamp 
agent  for  Connecticut.  Franklin  urged  him  to 
take  the  place,  and  no  one  doubted  his  motives 
in  accepting  it.  The  people  of  Connecticut, 
however,  were  not  pleased  with  this  action.  .  .  . 


He  was  vi.sited  l)v  a  crowd  of  citizens,  who 
incpiired  impatiently  if  he  would  resign. "  Inger- 
soll put  them  off  with  evasive  rei)lies  for  some 
time;  but  tinally  there  was  a  gathering  of  a 
thousand  men  on  horseback,  from  Norwich, 
New  Lond(m,  Windham,  Lebanon  and  other 
towns,  each  armed  with  a  heavy  peeled  dub, 
who  surrounded  tlie  obstinate  stamp  agent  at 
Wethtrsliehl  and  made  him  understand  that  tliey 
were  in  deadly  earnest.  "'The  cause  is  not 
worth  dying  for,'  said  the  intrepid  man,  wlio 
would  never  have  Hinched  had  he  not  felt  tluit, 
after  all,  this  band  of  earnest  men  were  in  the 
right.  A  formal  resignation  was  given  him  to 
sign.  .  .  .  After  he  had  signed  his  name,  tlic 
crowd  cried  out,  'Swear  to  it!'  He  begged  to  be 
excused  from  taking  an  oath.  '  Then  shout 
Liberty  and  Property, 'said  the  now  good-natured 
company.  To  this  he  had  no  objection,  and 
waved  his  hat  enthusiastically  as  he  repeated  the 
words.  Having  given  three  cheers,  the  now 
hilarious  party  dined  together."  Ingersoll  was 
then  escorted  to  Hartford,  where  he  read  his 
resignation  publicly  at  the  court-house. — E.  B. 
Sanford,  Hist,  of  Coiuurtifiit,  ch.  29. 

A.  D.  1766. — The  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act. 
— The  Declaratory  Act.  See  United  States ov 
Am.:  a.  I).  1700. 

A.  D.  1766-1768.— The  Townshend  duties.— 
The  Circular  Letter  of  Massachusetts.  See 
United  States  of  A.m.  :  A.  1).  1700-1707,  and 
1707-1708. 

A.  D.  1768-1770. — The  quartering  of  troops 
in  Boston. — The  "  Massacre  "  and  the  removal 
of  the  troops.  See  Boston:  A.  D.  1708,  and 
1770. 

A.  D.  1769-1784. — The  ending  of  slavery. 
See  Slavery,  Neoro:  A.  I).  1709-1785. 

A.  D.  1770-1773. — Repeal  of  the  Townshend 
duties  except  on  tea. — Committees  of  Corres- 
pondence instituted. — The  tea  ships  and  the 
Boston  Tea-party.  Sec  United  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  I>.  1770,  and  1773-1773;  and  Boston:  A.  1). 
1773. 

A.  D.  1774.— The  Boston  Port  Bill,  the 
Massachusetts  Act,  and  the  Quebec  Act. — 
The  First  Continental  Congress.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1774. 

A.  D.  1775. — The  beginning  of  the  War  of 
the  American  Revolution. — Lexington. — Con- 
cord.— New  England  in  arms  and  Boston 
beleagured.  —  Ticonderoga.  —  Bunker  Hill. — 
The  Second  Continental  Congress.  See  United 
States  op  Am.  :  A.  I).  1775. 

A.  D.  1776.— Assumes  to  be  a  "  free,  sover- 
eign and  independent  State." — "  In  Jlay,  1770, 
the  people  had  been  formally  released  from  their 
allegiance  to  the  crown;  and  in  October  the 
general  assembly  passed  an  act  assuming  the 
functions  of  a  State.  The  important  section  of 
the  act  was  the  first,  as  follows:  'Tliat  the 
ancient  form  of  civil  government,  contained  in 
the  charter  from  Charles  the  Second,  King  of 
England,  and  adopted  by  the  people  of  this 
State,  shall  be  and  remain  the  civil  Constitution 
of  this  State,  under  the  sole  authority  of  the 
people  thereof,  independent  of  any  king  or  prince 
whatever.  And  that  this  Republic  is,  and  shall 
forever  be  and  remain,  a  free,  sovereign  and 
independent  State,  by  the  name  of  the  State  of 
Connecticut.'  The  form  of  the  act  speaks  what 
was  doubtless  always  the  belief  of  the  people, 
that  their  charter  derived  its  vrlidity,  not  from 


603 


CONNECTICUT,  1776. 


CONSTABLE. 


tbe  will  of  the  crown,  but  from  the  assent  of  the 
people.  And  ^the  curious  laiiKuugc  of  the  lust 
sciitt'iice.  in  wliich  '  tliis  Uepublic '  declares  itself 
to  be  'u  free,  sovereign,  and  independent  Slate,' 
nmy  serve  to  indicate  sonietliinj;  of  the  appear- 
ance wlii'h  state  sovereignty  do\ibtless  presented 
to  the  Americans  of  177(>-80." — A.  jolniston, 
ConnicticHt,  eh.  10. — See,  also.  United  Status 
OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  177»-1771). 

A.  D.  1776-1783.— The  war  and  the  victory. 
— Independence  achieved.  See  Lnitkd  States 
OF  Am.:  a.  I).  ITT(>  to  ITm;!. 

A.  D.  1778. — The  massacre  at  the  Wyoming 
settlement.  See  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  \). 
1778  (.III  i.Y). 

A.  D.  1779. — Tryon's  marauding  expeditions. 
See  I'mted  States  OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  I7i8-1771>. 

A.  D.  1786. — Partial  cession  of  western 
territorial  claims  to  the  United  States. — The 
Western  Reserve  in  Ohio.  See  United  States 
OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  1781-1786;  Pennsylvania:  A.  D. 
175:1-1709;  and  Ohio:  A.  I).  1786-1790. 

A.  D.  1788.— Ratification  of  the  Federal 
Constitution.  See  United  States  ok  Am.  : 
A.  1).  1787-1789. 

A.  D.  1814.— The  Hartford  Convention. 
See  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.   1814  (De- 

CEMUEIt). 

♦ 

CONNECTICUT  TRACT,  The.  See  New 
Youk:  a.  I).  1780-1799. 

CONNUBIUM.     See  Municipium. 

CONON,  Pope,  A.  D.  080-687. 

CONOYS.    See  A.MEUICAN  AnonionjEs:  Al- 

GONliUIA.N  Fa.MII,Y. 

CONRAD  I.,  King  of  the  East  Franks 
(Germany),  (the  first  of  the  Saxon  line),  A.  D. 

911-919 Conrad  II.,  King  of  the  Romans 

(King  of  Germany),  A.  I).  I()i4-1(«9;  King  of 
Italy,  1020-10:59 ;  King  of  Burgundy,  10;i2-1039: 

Emperor,  1027-1039 Conrad  III.,  King  of 

Germany  (the  first  of  the  Swabian  or  Hohen- 

stauffen  dynasty),   1137-1152 Conrad  IV., 

King  of  Germany,  1250-1254. 

CONSCRIPT  FATHERS.— The  Roman 
senators  were  so  called, — "Patres  Conscripti." 
The  origin  of  the  designation  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed, and  tlie  explanation  whicli  has  found 
most  acceptance  is  this:  tliatwhen,  at  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Republic,  there  was  a  new  creation 
of  senators,  to  till  tlie  ranks,  the  new  senators 
were  called  "conscripti"  ("added  to  the  roll") 
while  the  older  ones  were  called  "patres" 
("fathers"),  as  before.  Then  the  whole  senate 
was  addressed  as  "  Patres  et  Conscripti,"  which 
lapsed  finally  into  "Patres-Conscripti." — H.  G. 
Liddell,  Ilut.  of  Home,  bk.  1,  ch.  4. 

CONSCRIPTION,  The  first  French.  Sec 
France:  A.  D.  1798-1799  (August— Apiul). 

CONSCRIPTION  IN  THE  AMERICAN 
CIVIL  WAR.  See  United  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  D.  1863  (MAiicn). 

CONSERVATIVE  PARTY,  The  English. 
— The  name  "Conservative,"  to  replace  that  <>•' 
Tory  (sec  Enoi.and:  A.  D.  1680  for  the  origin  (ji 
the  latter)  as  a  party  designation,  was  first  in- 
troiluced  in  1831,  by  Mr.  John  Wilson  Croker, 
in  an  article  in  the  Quarterly  Review.  ' '  It  crept 
slowly  into  general  favour,  although  some  few 
there  were  who  always  held  out  against  it,  en- 
couraged l)y  the  example  of  the  late  leader  of 
tlie  party,  Lord  Beaconsfield,  who  was  not  at  all 
likely  to  extend  a  welcome  to  anything  which 


camo  with  Mr.  Croker's  mark , upon  it."— L.  J 
Jennings.  The  Croker  Pitprm,  r.  3,  p.  198. 

CONSILIO  DI  CREDENZA.  See  Italy: 
A.  I).  10-.6-1I52. 

CONSISTORY,  The  Papal.  See  CuniA, 
Papal. 

CONSISTORY  COURTS  OF  THE 
BISHOPS.—"  Thedutiesot  tlieolIlcialsottlie.se 
courts  resembled  in  theory  the  duties  of  the  cen- 
sors under  the  Roman  Republic.  In  the  middle 
ages,  a  lofty  ellort  had  been  made  to  overpass 
llie  common  linntiitions  of  government,  to  intro- 
duce punishment  for  sins  as  well  as  crimes,  and 
to  visit  V  ith  temporal  penalties  the  breach  of  the 
moral  l.'iw.  .  .  .  The  adniinistratio.i  of  such  a 
discipline  fell  as  a  matter  of  course,  to  the  clergy. 
.  .  .  Thus  arose  throughout  Europe  a  system  of 
spiritual  surveillance  over  the  habits  and  conduct 
of  every  man,  extending  from  tbe  cottage  to  the 
castle,  taking  note  of  all  wrong  dealing,  of  all 
oppression  of  man  by  man,  of  all  licentiousness 
and  prolligacy,  and  representing  upon  earth,  in 
the  principles  by  which  it  was  guided,  the  laws 
of  the  great  tribunal  of  Almiglity  God.  Sueli 
was  the  origin  of  the  church  courts,  perhaps  the 
greatest  institutions  yet  devised  by  man.  But 
to  aim  at  these  high  ideals  is  as  perilous  as  it  is 
noble;  and  weapons  which  may  be  safely  trusted 
in  the  hands  of  saints  become  fatal  implements 
of  mischief  when  saints  have  ceased  to  wield 
them.  .  .  .  The  Consistory  Courts  had  continued 
into  the  .sixtceuthcentury  with  unrestricted  juris- 
diction, although  they  had  been  for  generations 
merely  perennially  flowing  fountains,  feeding 
the  ecclesiastical  exchequer.  The  moral  conduct 
of  every  English  man  and  woman  remained  sub- 
ject to  them.  .  .  .  But  between  the  original  de- 
sign and  the  degenerate  counterfeit  there  was 
this  vital  difference, —  that  the  censures  were  no 
longer  spiritual.  Tliey  were  commuted  in  var- 
ious gradations  for  pecuniary  fines,  and  each 
offence  a.'^ainst  morality  was  rated  at  its  specific 
mouej'  value  in  the  Episcopal  tables.  Suspen- 
sion and  excommunication  remained  as  ultimate 
I)enalties ;  but  they  were  resorted  to  only  to  com- 
I)el  unwilling  culprits  to  accept  the  alternative. 
The  misdemeanours  of  which  the  courts  took 
cognizance  were  'offences  against  chastity,' 
'lieresy,'or  '  matter  sounding  thereunto,'  'witch- 
craft,' 'drunkenness,'  'scandal,'  'defamation,' 
'  impatient  words,'  '  broken  promises,"  untruth,' 
'absence  from  church,'  '  speaking  evil  of  saints,' 
'non-payment  of  offerings,'  and  other  delin- 
quencies incapable  of  legal  definition." — J.  A. 
Eroude,  Jlist.  of  EngUiml,  ch.  3. 

CONSPIRACY  BILL,  The.  SeeENoi-AUD: 
A.  I).  1858-1859. 

CONSTABLE,  The.—"  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  '  conies  stabuli '  of  the  Byzantine  court, 
and  appears  in  the  west  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Gregory  of  Tours.  The  duties  of  the  constables 
of  France  .  .  .  and  those  of  the  constables  of 
Naples  .  .  .  are  not  exactly  parallel  with  [those 
of  J  the  constables  of  England.  In  Naples  the  con- 
stable kept  the  king's  sword,  commanded  tlie 
army,  appointed  the  quarters,  disciplined  the 
troops  and  distributed  the  sentinels ;  the  marshals 
and  all  other  officers  being  his  subordinates.  The 
"rench  office  wiis  nearly  the  same.  In  England, 
However,  the  marshal  was  not  subordinate  to 
the  constable.  Probably  tlie  English  marshals 
fulfilled  the  duties  which  liad  been  in  Normandy 
discharged  by  the  constables.     The  marshal  fa 


504 


CONSTABLE. 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  380. 


more  distinctly  an  ofHcer  of  tlio  court,  the  con- 
gtiible  one  of  tlie  castle  or  army.  ....  Tho  con- 
stable .  .  .  exercised  tlie  odlce  of  (luarterinaster- 
general  of  the  court  and  army  and  succeeded  to 
the  duties  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  stuller." — VV. 
Stubbs,  Const.  Hist,  of  Eiig.,  cli.  11,  sect.  123, 
ami  note. 

CONSTABLE  OF  FRANCE.-"  No  other 
dignity  in  Hie  world  has  been  held  Ijy  such  a 
succession  of  great  soldii.'rs  as  tlio  olUce  of  Con- 
stable of  France.  The  Constable  was  originally 
a  mere  otUccr  of  the  stables,  but  his  power  had 
increased  by  tlie  suppression  of  the  olllce  of 
Grand  Seneschal,  and  by  the  time  of  Philip 
Augustus  he  exercised  control  over  all  the  mili- 
tary forces  of  the  crown,  lie  was  the  gi^ieral  in 
chief  of  th(!  army  and  the  highest  military 
autliority  in  the  Ivingdom.  Tho  constables  had  for 
four  centuries  been  leaders  in  the  wars  of  France, 
and  they  had  experienced  strange  and  varied 
fortunes.  Tlu;  odice  had  been  bestowed  on  the 
son  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  he  for  this  lionor 
had  granted  to  the  liing  of  France  his  rights 
over  tliose  vast  domains  which  had  been  given 
his  father  for  his  pious  con(iuests.  [See  Ai,ni- 
QEN8E8:  A.  D.  1317-1229.]  It  had  been  be- 
stowed on  llaoul  de  Nesle,  who  fell  at  Courtrai, 
where  the  French  nobility  sulferi'd  its  first 
defeat  from  Flemish  boors;  on  IJertrand  do 
Quesclin,  tlie  last  of  the  great  warriors,  Avhose 
deeds  were  .sung  with  tliose  of  tho  pala.lins  of 
Charlemagne;  on  Cli.sson,  the  victor  of  Kooso- 
beeii  [or  Itosebecque] ;  on  Armagnac,  whose 
name  has  a  bloody  preeminence  among  the 
leaders  of  tlie  fierce  soldiery  who  ravaged  Franco 
during  tlie  Englisli  wars;  on  Buchan,  whose 
Scotch  valor  and  fidelity  gained  him  this  great 
trust  among  a  foreign  people ;  on  Uichemont,  the 
companion  of  Joan  Dare;  on  Saint  Pol,  the  ally 
of  Charles  the  Bold,  the  betrayer  and  tlie  victim 
of  Louis  XI. )  on  the  Uuke  of  Bourbon,  who  won 
the  battle  of  Pavia  against  his  sovereign,  and  led 
his  soldiers  to  that  saelc  of  liome  wliich  made 
the  ravages  of  Qenseric  and  Alaric  seem  mild; 
on  Anne  of  Jlontmorenci,  a  prominent  actor  in 
every  great  event  in  France  from  the  battle  ef 
Pavia  against  Charles  V.  to  that  of  St.  Denis 
against  Coligni;  on  his  son,  the  companion  of 
Henry  IV.  in  his  youth,  and  his  trusted  adviser 
in  his  age.  .  .  .  Tlie  sword  borne  by  such  men 
had  been  bestowed  [1631]  on  Luines,  the  hero  of 
an  assassination,  who  could  not  drill  a  company  of 
infantry;  it  was  now  [1633]  given  to  tlie  hero  of 
many  battles  [the  Dulcoof  Lesdeguiires],  and  the 
great  offlce  was  to  expire  in  the  hands  of  a  great 
soldier." — J.  B.  Perkins,  Fra)ice  uiuUir  Mazarin, 
v.  1,  /).  94. 

CONSTANCE.The  Council  of.  SeePxPACS': 
A.  D.  1414-1418. 

CONSTANCE,  Peace  of  (i  183).  See  Italy: 
A.  D.  1174-1183. 

CONSTANS  I.,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D.  337- 
850 Constans  II.,  Roman  Emperor  (East- 
ern), A.  I),  641-668. 

CONSTANTINA,  The  taking  of  (1837). 
See  B,vHU.\r.Y  States:  A.  I).  1830-1846. 

CONSTANTINE,  Pope,  A.  D.  708-715 

Constantme   I.   (called   The    Great),   Roman 

Emperor,  A.  D.  306-337 .The  Conversion. 

SeeRcME:  A.  D.  333 The  Forged  Dona- 
tion of.  Sec  P.vpACv:  A.  D.  774  (?) Constan- 

tine  II,,  Roman  Emperor,  A.   I).  33V-340 

Constantine  III.,  Roman  Emperor  in  the  East, 
33 

505 


A.  D.fill Constantine  IV.  (called  Pogona- 

tus),  Roman  Emperor  in  the  East,  .V.  1).  t!68- 

6H."j Constantine  V.  (cr.lled  Copronymus), 

Emperor  in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek), 

A.    1).    741-77.") Constantine  VI.,  Empemr 

in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A,    I).   780- 

797 Constantine  VII.  (called  Porphyrogeni- 

tus).   Emperor  in    the    E-st    (Byzantine,    or 

Greek),  A.   I).  911-i).-)() Constantine   VIII. 

(colleague  of  Constantine  VII.),    Emperor  in 

the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  1).  944 

Constantine  IX.,  Emperor  in  the  East  (Byzan- 
tine, or  Greek),  A.  1),  96;i-lil28 Constantine 

X.,  Emperor  in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),. 

A.  I).  1043-10.")4 Constantine  XL,  Emperor 

in  the  East  (Byzantine,  or  Greek),  A.  1).  lO.-iO- 
1067 Constantine  XII.,  nominal  Greek  Em- 
peror in  the  East,  about  A,  1),  li)71 Con- 
stantine XIII.  (Polxologus),  Greek  Emperor 
of  Constantinople,  A.  1).  144H-14.")3 Con- 
stantine the  Usurper.  See  I5uit\[\:  A.  I).  407. 
CONSTANTINOPLE:  A.  D.  330.— Trans- 
formation of  Byzantium. —  "Constantine  liad 
for  some  time  contemplated  the  ereetion  of  a 
new  capital,  The  experience  of  nearly  half  a. 
century  had  confirmed  the  sagacity  of  Diocle- 
tian's selection  of  a  site  on  the  confines  of  Europe 
and  Asia  [Xicomedia]  as  the  whereabouts  in 
which  the  political  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
Empire  rested.  At  one  time  Constantine  thought 
of  adopting  the  site  of  ancient  Troy,  and  is  said 
to  have  actually  commenced  building  a  new  city 
there.  .  .  .  More  prosaic  reasons  ultimately  pre- 
vailed. Tlie  practical  genius  of  Constantine 
recognized  in  the  town  of  Byzantium,  on  the 
European  side  of  the  border  line  between  the 
two  continents,  the  site  best  adapted  for  his  new 
capital.  All  subsequent  ages  have  applauded 
his  discernment,  for  experience  has  endorsed  the 
wisdom  of  the  choice.  By  land,  witli  its  Asian 
suburb  of  Chrysopolis  [modern  Scutari],  it 
practically  spanned  the  narrow  strait  and  joined 
Europe  and  Asia:  by  sea,  it  was  open  on  one 
.side  to  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria; 
on  the  other  to  the  Euxinc,  and  .so  by  the  Danube 
it  had  easy  access  to  the  wliole  of  that  important 
frontier  between  the  Empire  and  the  barbarians ; 
and  round  all  the  northern  coasts  of  the  e"a  it 
took  the  barbarians  in  flank.  .  .  .  The  city  was 
solemnly  dedicated  witli  religious  ceremonies  on 
tho  11th  of  May,  330,  and  the  occasion  was  cele- 
brated, after  the  Roman  fasliion,  by  a  great 
festival,  largesses  and  games  in  the  hippodrome, 
wliich  lasted  forty  days.  The  Emperor  gave  to- 
tlio  city  institutions  modelled  after  those  of  the 
ancient  Rome." — E.  L.  Cutts,  Constiintine  the 
Great,  ch.  29. —  'The  new  walls  of  Constantine- 
stretched  from  the  port  to  the  Propontis  ...  at 
tlic  distance  of  fifteen  stadia  from  the  ancient 
fortification,  and,  with  the  city  of  Byzantium, 
they  enclosed  five  of  tho  seven  hills  which,  to 
ilie  eyes  of  those  who  approach  Constantinople, 
appear  to  rise  above  each  other  in  beautiful 
order.  About  a  century  after  the  death  of  the 
founder,  tlio  new  buildings  .  .  .  already  covered 
the  narrow  ridge  of  the  sixtli  and  the  broad 
summit  of  the  seventh  hill.  .  .  .  The  buildings 
of  tho  new  city  were  executed  by  such  artificers 
as  tlio  reign  of  Constantine  could  all'ord;  but 
they  were  decora  ed  by  the  hands  of  the  most 
celebrated  masters  of  "the  ago  of  Pericles  and 
Alexander.  .  .  .  By  his  commands  the  cities  of 
Greece  andJAsia  were  despoiled  of   their  most 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  330. 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  088-075. 


vnlimblo  omiimcnts." — E.  Oibbon,  Dedine  and 
Fnllofthc  li'iiiKtn  Kiiijiirf,  eh.  17. — "Tlin  now 
city  WHS  mi  exiict  copy  of  old  Hoint'.  ...  It 
wiislnliiibitcd  by  soiiiitors  from  Home.  Wcaltliy 
individiml.s  from  the  proviiici's  were  likowiso 
conipclU'd  to  keep  up  bcnisus  lit  Constantinople, 
pensions  were  conferred  upon  them,  and  a  rijiht 
to  n  c(^rtuin  amount  of  provisions  fromtlic  public 
stores  was  annexed  to  tlu'se  dwellin>?s.  Eifflity 
thousand  loaves  of  bread  were  distriliuted  daily 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Constantinople.  .  .  .  The 
tribute  of  grain  from  Egypt  wasapproprialeil  to 
supply  Constantinople,  and  that  of  Africa  was 
left  for  the  consumption  of  Home." — O.  Finlay, 
Oreere  iiiiiler  the  Ii>man»,  eh.  2. 

Also  in:  ,1.  B.  Bur}",  Iliot.  of  the  later  Roman 
Empire,  hk.  1,  eh.  T)  (c.  1). 

A.  D.  363-518.— The  Eastern  Court  from 
Valens  to  Anastatius. — Tumults  at  the  capital. 
See  HoMli;  A.  D.  UliH-IiTl*  to  •lOO-.'ilH. 

A.  D.  378.— Threatened  by  the  Goths. 
See  OoTus:  A.  I).  :(;i)-;i.S'3, 

A.  D.  400. —  Popular  rising  against  the 
Gothic  soldiery.^Thdir  expulsion  from  the 
city.     See  Uomk:  A.  I).  -lOO-rjlH. 

A.  D.  511-512. — Tumults  concerning  the 
Trisagion. — During  the  reign  of  Aimstatms,  nt 
Coustaiitiiiojjle,  the  tierce  controversy  which  bad 
raged  for  many  years  throughout  the  empire, 
between  the  Monopbysitep  (who  maintained  that 
the  divine  and  the  human  natures  iu  Christ  were 
one),  and  the  adherents  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (which  declared  that  Christ  po.ss( used 
two  natures  in  one  person),  was  embittered  aitho 
imperial  ca))ital  by  opposition  between  the 
emperor,  who  favored  the  iMoiiojjhysites,  and  the 
patriarch  who  was  strict  in  Chalcedonian  ortho- 
doxy. In  511,  and  again  in  512,  it  gave  rise  to 
two  alarming  riots  at  Constantinople.  On  the 
first  occasion,  a  3Ionopliysite  or  Eutychian  party 
"burst  into  the  Chajjel  of  the  Archangel  in  the 
Imperial  Palace  and  dared  to  chant  the  Te  Deum 
with  the  addition  of  the  forbidden  words,  the 
war-cry  of  many  an  Eutychian  mob,  '  Who  wast 
crucified  for  us. '  The  Trisagiou,  as  it  was  called, 
the  thrice-repeated  ciy  to  the  Holy  One,  whicli 
Isaiph  in  liis  vision  lieard  uttered  by  the  sera- 
phim, became,  by  the  addition  of  these  words, 
as  em|)hatic  a  statement  as  the  Slonophysite 
party  could  desire  of  their  favourite  tenet  that 
God,  not  man,  breathed  out  his  soul  unto  death 
outside  the  gates  of  Jerusalem.  ...  On  the 
next  Sunday  the  Monophysites  sang  tlie  verse 
which  was  their  war-cry  in  the  great  Basilica 
itself."  The  riot  which  ensued  was  quieted  wiih 
difficulty  by  the  patriarch,  to  whom  the  emperor 
humbled  himself.  But  in  the  next  year,  on  a 
fast-day  (Nov.  6)  the  Monophysites  gave  a 
similar  challenge,  singing  the  Trisagion  with  the 
prohibited  words  added,  and  "again  jjsalmody 
gave  place  to  blows;  men  wounded  and  dyiug 
lay  upon  the  floor  of  the  church.  .  .  .  The 
orthodox  mob  streamed  from  all  parts  into  the 
great  forum.  There  they  swarmed  and  swayed 
to  and  fro  all  that  ilay  and  all  that  night, 
shouting  forth,  not  the  greatness  of  the  Ephesian 
Diana,  but  '  Holy,  Holy,  Holy,'  without  the 
words  '  Who  wast  cruciticd.'  They  liewed  down 
the  monks, — a  minority  of  their  class, —  who 
were  on  the  siile  of  the  imperial  creed,  and 
burned  their  monasteries  with  Are."  After  two 
days  of  riot,  the  aged  emperor  humbled  himself 
to  the    mob,  in   the    great   Circus,   offered    to 


abdicate  the  throne  and  made  peace  by  promises 
to  respect  the  decrees  of  Chalceclon. — T.  llodgkin, 
Itnly  (iikd  ller  IiiFiiders,  hk.  4,  eh.  10. — See,  also, 

NesTOUIAN  A.VD  MoNOIMIVSITK.  CONTIIOVKIISY. 

A.  D.  532.— The  Sedition  of  Nilca.  See 
CiucuH,  Factions  ok  thk  Uom.vn. 

A.  D.  542. — The  Plague.  See  Plaock: 
A.  I).  512-5W. 

A.  D.  553.— General  Council.     See  Tiihke 

ClI.M'TI'.IlS,  'rili;  DlsriTKOK  TUB. 

A.  D.  626.— Attacked  by  the  Avars  and 
Persians.     Sc(^  Komi::  A.  I).  .505-02S 

A.  D.  668-675.— First  siege  by  the  Sara- 
cens.— "Forty-six  years  after  the  flight  of  .Ma- 
homet from  Mecca  his  disciples  ajjoeared  in 
arms  under  the  walls  of  Constantinople.  They 
were  animated  by  a  genuine  or  flctitious  saying 
of  tlie  prophet,  that,  to  the  first  army  which 
besieged  the  city  of  the  Ciesars,  their  sins  were 
forgiven.  .  .  .  I^o  sooner  had  the  Caliph  Moa- 
wiyali  [the  first  of  the  ()mniia<le  caliphs,  seated 
at  Damascus,]  suppres.sed  his  rivals  and  estab- 
lished his  throne,  than  he  aspired  to  expiate  the 
guilt  of  civil  l)lood  by  the  success  of  this  holy 
expedition;  his  preparations  by  sea  and  land 
were  ade(iuate  to  the  importance  of  the  object; 
his  standard  was  entrusted  to  Sophian,  a  veteran 
warrior.  .  .  .  The  Greeks  had  little  to  hope,  nor 
had  their  enemies  any  reasons  of  fear,  from  the 
courage  and  vigilauce  of  the  reigning  Emperor, 
who  disgraced  the  name  of  Constantiiie,  and 
imitated  only  the  inglorious  years  of  his  grand- 
father Heraclius.  Without  delay  or  opposition, 
the  naval  forces  of  the  Saracens  passed  through 
the  unguarded  channel  of  the  Hellespont,  which 
even  now,  under  the  feeble  and  disorderly  gov- 
ernment of  the  Turks,  is  maintained  as  the 
natural  bulwark  of  the  capital.  The  Arabian 
fieet  cast  anchor  and  the  troops  were  disembarked 
near  the  palace  of  Hebdomon,  seven  miles  from 
the  city.  During  many  days,  from  the  dawn  of 
light  to  the  evening,  the  line  of  c'wault  was  ex- 
tended from  the  golden  gate  to  the  Eastern 
promontory.  .  .  .  But  the  besiegers  had  formed 
an  insufficient  estimate  of  the  strength  and  re- 
sources of  Constantinople.  The  solid  and  lofty 
walls  wt;re  guarded  by  numbers  and  discipline; 
the  spirit  of  the  Uomans  was  rekindled  by  the 
last  danger  of  their  religion  and  empire;  the 
fugitives  from  the  conquered  provinces  more 
successfully  renewed  the  defence  of  Damascus 
and  Alexandria;  and  the  Saracens  were  dismayed 
by  the  strange  and  prodigious  effects  of  artificial 
fire.  This  firm  and  effectual  resistance  diverted 
their  arms  to  the  more  easy  attempts  of  plunder- 
ing the  European  and  Asiatic  coastH  of  the  Pro- 
pontis;  and,  after  keeping  the  se,\  from  the 
month  of  April  to  that  of  September,  on  the 
ai)proach  of  winter  they  retreated  four  scoro 
miles  from  the  capital,  to  the  isle  of  Cyzicus,  in 
which  they  had  established  their  magazine  of 
spoil  and  provisions.  So  patient  was  their  per- 
severence,  or  so  languid  were  their  operations, 
that  they  repeated  in  the  six  following  summers 
the  same  attack  and  retreat,  with  a  gradual 
abatement  of  hojie  and  vigour,  till  the  mischances 
of  shipwreck  aud  disease,  of  the  sword  and  ot 
fire,  compelled  them  to  relincjuish  the  fruitless 
enterprise.  They  might  bewail  the  loss,  or  com- 
memorate the  martyrdom,  of  30,000  Moslems 
who  fell  in  the  siege  of  Constantinople.  .  .  .  Tlie 
event  of  the  siege  revived,  both  in  the  East  and 
West,  the  reputation  of  tlie  Roman  arms,  aud 


506 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  668-678. 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  I).  007-1048. 


cast  a  momcntiirr  shade  over  tlio  jrlorics  of  tlii! 
Huriiccns.  ...  A  pciico,  or  truce  of  tliirty  yi'iirs 
WHS  nititled  hctwet'ii  the  two  Empire.s;  iiiul  the 
Htipiilutiou  of  nil  minimi  tribute,  llfty  horses  of  ii 
noble  lireed,  llfty  slaves,  iind  3,000  pleees  of 
({old,  deftraded  the  majesty  of  the  commander  of 
the  faithful," — E.  Gibbon,  Ikdine  and  Fall  of 
the  lliiiiKiii  Kininiv,  rh.  .'53. 

A.  D.  68o.— General  Council,  l  .-e  Monotiik- 
i.iTK  CoNruovniisv. 

A.  D.  717-718. — The  second  siege  by  the 
Saracens.—"  When  Leo  [the  IsaurianJ  was  raised 
to  llie  I  Byzantine]  throne  [A.  I).  717),  the  empire 
was  threatened  with  immediate  ruin.  Six  em- 
perors Inul  been  dethroneil  within  the  space  of 
twenly-one  years.  .  .  .  The  Hul);arians  and 
.Sclavonians  wasted  Europe  up  to  the  walls  of 
('(iiislanlinople;  the  Saracens  ravaji^ed  the  whole 
of -Vsia  .Minor  to  the  shores  of  the  Bosplioru.s.  .  .  . 
The  t'aliph  Suleiman,  who  had  seen  one  private 
udventurer  succeed  the  other  in  (juick  succession 
on  the  imperial  throne,  deemed  the  moment 
favourable  for  the  linal  concpiest  of  the  ("hris- 
liaiis;  and,  reinforcinj;  his  brotlier's  army  [in 
Asia  .Minor],  he  ordered  him  to  lay  siep  1.  Con- 
slanlinople.  Tlie  Saracen  empire  ha  i  now 
reached  its  greatest  extent.  From  the  banks  of 
the  Sihun  and  the  Indus  to  the  shores  of  the 
.Vtlantie  in  Mauretania  anil  Spain,  the  order  of 
SuliMinan  was  implicitly  obeyed.  .  .  .  The  army 
.Moslcmah  led  against  Constantinople  was  the 
tiestappoinied  that  had  ever  attacked  the 
(Hiristians:  it  consisted  of  80,000  warriors.  The 
<'alipli  announced  his  intention  of  takinjr  the 
field  in  person  with  additional  forc(!s,  sliould  the 
capital  of  the  Cliristians  oiler  a  protracted  re- 
sistance to  the  arms  of  Islam.  The  whole  expe- 
ililioii  is  said  to  have  employed  180,000  men. 
.  .  .  Moslemali,  after  capturing  Pergamu.s, 
laurelled  to  Abydos,  where  he  was  joined  by  the 
Saiacen  fleet.  lie  then  transported  his  army 
across  the  Helle.'ipont,  and  inarching  along  the 
sliore  of  the  Proxontis,  invested  Leo  in  his  capital 
both  by  land  aid  sea.  The  strong  walls  of  ('on- 
.staiitiiioi)le,  th'  engines  of  defence  witli  which 
Hoinan  and  Greek  art  had  covered  the  ramparts, 
and  tlie  skill  of  the  Byzantine  engineers,  rendered 
■every  attempt  to  carry  the  place  by  assault  hope- 
less, so  that  the  Saracens  werecomiielled  to  trust 
to  the  effect  of  a  strict  blockade  for  gaining  pos- 
ses.siiai  of  the  city.  .  .  .  The  besiegers  encamped 
liefore  Constantinople  on  the  1,5th  Avgust  717. 
Till!  Caliph  Suleiman  died  before  he  was  abi:i  to 
send  any  reinforcements  to  his  brotlier.  The 
winter  proved  nnusiially  severe."  Great  nuiii- 
bersof  the  warriors  from  tlie  south  were  destroyed 
by  the  inclemency  of  a  climate  to  which  they 
had  not  become  inured;  many  more  died  of 
famiiK!  in  the  Moslem  cam]),  while  the  besieged 
city  was  plentifully  supplied.  The  whole  under- 
taking was  disastrous  from  its  beginning  to  its 
close,  and,  exactly  one  year  from  the  pitcliing  of 
his  camp  under  the  Byzantine  walls,  "on  the 
15th  of  August  718,  Moslcmah  raised  the  siege, 
after  ruining  one  of  tlie  finest  armies  the  Saracens 
ever  assembled.  .  .  .  Few  military  details  con- 
cerning Leo's  defence  of  Constantinople  have 
been  preservi'd,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  exploits  of  a 
warlike  age.  .  .  .  The  vanity  of  Gallic  writers 
has  magnified  tlie  success  of  Charles  llartel  over 
a  plundering  expedition  of  the  Spanish  Arabs 
into  a  marvellous  victory,  and  attributed  the  de- 


liverance of  Europe  from  the  Saracen  yoke  to 
the  valour  of  the  Franks.  A  veil  has  been 
thrown  over  the  talents  and  courage  of  Leo,  u 
soldier  of  fortune,  just  seated  on  the  imperial 
throne,  who  defeated  the  longplaniieil  schemes 
of  conipiest  of  the  Caliphs  Welid  anil  Siileiinun. 
It  is  unfortunate  tliat  we  have  no  Isaiirian  litera- 
ture. .  .  .  The  war  was  langiiiilly  carried  on 
for  some  years  and  the  Saraciiis  were  gradually 
expelled  from  'iiost  of  their  c(ini|iicsls  lieyiind 
.Mount  Tauris,"—0.  Kiiilnv.  Hint,  nf  the  ifyzan- 
tine  EiiijiiiYfrtim  7H1  ^<  IO.')T,  e/i.  I. 

A.  D.  747".— The  Great  Plague.  See  Plaiiue: 
A.  1).  7^1-748, 

A.  D.  754.— The  Iconoclastic  Council.  See 
I(i)NiKi..\sric  CoNriiovKiisv. 

A.  D.  865.— i~irst  attack  by  the  Russians.— 
"In  the  year  HO."),  a  nation  hitliirln  unknown 
made  its  first  appearance  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  where  it  was  deslined  foact  no  unimport- 
ant part.  Its  entrance  into  the  )ioliliial  systi  lU 
of  the  European  nations  was  marked  by  an 
attempt  to  take  Coiislantlnople,  a  project  which 
it  has  often  revived.  .  .  .  In  theyearHOJ,  Uurik, 
a  Scanilinavian  or  Varangian  chief,  arrived  at 
Novgorod,  and  laid  the  first  foiiiidatioii  of  the 
state  which  has  grown  into  the  Uiissiau  empire. 
Tile  Russian  people,  under  Varangian  doinina- 
tioii,  rapidly  increased  in  jiower,  and  reduced 
many  of  their  neighbours  to  sultmission.  .  .  . 
From  what  ])arlii'ular  circiimslaiice  the  Unssians 
w(!re  led  to  make  their  daring  attack  on  Cou- 
stantiiiople  is  not  known.  The  Einpeior  .Michael 
[HI.]  Iiail  taken  the  command  of  an  army  to 
act  against  tlie  Saracens,  and  Oryphas,  admiral 
of  the  fleet,  acted  as  governor  of  the  capital 
during  his  absence.  Before  the  Emperor  had 
eomnienccd  his  military  operations,  a  fleet  of  200 
Uiissian  vessels  of  small  size,  taking  advantage 
of  a  favourable  wind,  suddenly  passed  through 
the  Bosphorus,  and  anchored  at  the  mouth  of' 
the  Black  Kiver  in  the  Propontis,  about  18  miles 
from  Constantinople.  This  Hussian  expedition 
had  already  phinilered  the  slioiis  of  the  Black 
Sea,  and  from  its  station  within  the  Bosphorus  it 
ravaged  the  country  about  Constantinople,  and 
plundered  the  Prince's  Islands,  pillaging  the 
monasteries  and  slaying  the  monks  as  well  as  the 
other  inhabitants.  Tlie  Einiieror,  inforineil  by 
Oryphas  of  the  attack  on  his  capital  hastened  to 
itsdefeiice.  .  .  .  Itreipiircd  nogreatexertioiisott 
tlie  part  of  the  imperial  ollicers  to  equip  a  force 
snillcient  to  attack  and  put  to  flight  these 
invaders;  but  the  horrid  cruelty  of  the  bar- 
barians and  the  wild  daring  of  their  Varangian 
leaders,  made  a  iirofoiiiid  impression  on  'he 
people  of  Constantinople." — G.  Finlay,  Hint,  of 
the  Byzantine  Empire,  hk.  1,  eh.  'i,  met.  'i. 

A.  D.  907-1043. — Repeated  attacks  by  the 
Russians. — Notwithstaiuliiig  an  active  iuiil  in- 
creasing cominereial  intercourse  between  tliu 
Greeks  and  the  Hus.siaiis,  Constantinople  was  ex- 
posed, during  the  tenth  century  and  part  of  the 
eleventh,  to  repeated  attacks  from  the  masterful 
Varan  w  and  their  subjects.  In  the  year  t)07, 
a  fleet  '10  Hussian  vessels  or  boats  swarmed 

into  the  irus,  and  laid  waste  the  shores  in 

the  neighlKii  nl  of  Constantinoiile.  "It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  expedition  was  undertaken  to 
obtain  indemnity  for  some  commercial  losses  sus- 
tained by  iiniierial  negligence,  monopoly  or 
oppression.  The  subjects  of  the  emperor  were 
murdered,  and  the  Russians  amused  themselves 


507 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  907-1048. 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  A.  D.  ISOl-H.W. 


witli  torturing  their  rnptivpi  in  tlio  moHt  Imr- 
ImrouH  MiiiliniT.  At  IcMKth  Leo  I VI.  |  purcliiim'il 
tlicir  rotrt'iit  liy-  the  iiiiynicnt  oi  a  liirKr  Kuin  of 
nidiicy.  .  .  .  ThcHc  lupstililicH  were  tirtiiiniitcd 
liy  II  ciiinnicriiiil  trr.ily  in  lUi."  'I'licrc  was 
jH'nrc  under  thin  trciity  until  Itll,  when  a  tliiril 
ntliick  (in  Constantiniiplo  was  led  by  Itfiir,  the 
Hon  of  Kurik.  Diit  it  ended  most  disjistrously 
for  the  liuHsians  ami  If;<>r  eseaped  with  only  a 
few  l>oats.  Tlu^  result  was  another  important 
treaty,  nejr'Hiated  in  1)45.  In  970  the  liy/.antine 
Empire  was  more  seriously  threatened  by  an 
iittemiit  on  the  part  of  the  Hussians  to  subdue 
the  kingdom  of  Hulfiaria;  which  would  have 
brought  them  into  the  same  ilangerous  neighbor- 
hofxl  to  Constantinople  that  the  Uussia  of  our 
own  day  has  labored  so  hard  to  reac^h.  Itut  the 
ablu  soldier  .lolui  Zunisees  happeneil  to  occupy 
the  Hy/.antitie  throne;  the  Hussian  invasion  of 
Bulgaria  was  repelled  and  Hulgaria,  it.self,  was 
reaiuiexed  to  the  Empire,  wliich  pushed  its 
boundaries  to  the  Damdw,  once  more.  For  more 
than  half  a  century,  Constantinoi)le  was  tuidis- 
turbed  by  the  covetous  ambition  of  her  Russian 
fellow  Christians.  Then  they  invaded  i\u'.  IJos- 
phorua  agaiii  with  a  formidable  armament;  but 
the  expedition  was  wholly  disastrous  and  they 
retreated  with  a  loss  of  15,()(H)  men.  "Three 
years  elaps«'d  before  peace  was  re-established ; 
but  a  treaty  was  then  concluded  and  th<'  trade 
at  Constantinople  .placed  on  the  old  footing. 
From  tlds  period  the  alliance  of  the  Hussians 
with  the  llyzantine  Empin!  was  long  tininter- 
rupted;  and  as  tlu!  Greeks  became  more  dceidy 
imbued  with  ecclesiastical  ])rejudices,  and  more 
hostile  to  the  Latin  nations,  the  Eastern  Church 
became,  in  their  eyes,  the  symbol  of  their 
nationality,  and  the  bigoted  attachment  of  tlu^ 
Uussians  to  the  same  religious  formalities  ob- 
tained for  them  from  the  IJyzantinc'  Greeks  the 
appellation  of  the  most  Christian  nation." — G. 
Finlay,  Jlixt.  of  the,  lii/zdntine  Empire,  from  710 
to  10r)7,  hk.  3,  (•/(.  3,  mrt.  2. 

A.  D.  loSi.— Sacked  by  th?  rebel  army  of 
Alexius  Comnenus. —  Alexius  Comnenus,  the 
emperor  who  occupied  the  Byzantine  throne  at 
the  time  of  the  First  Crusade,  and  who  became 
historically  proininent  in  that  connection, 
nc(iuircd  his  crown  by  a  successful  rebellion. 
Ho  was  collaterally  of  the  family  of  Lsaac 
Comnenus,  (Isaac  I.)  who  had  reigned  briefly  in 
1057-101)9, —  he,  too,  having  been,  in  his  im- 
perial oflicc,  tlu;  product  of  a  revolution.  But 
the  interval  of  twenty-two  years  had  seen  four 
emperors  come  and  go  —  two  to  the  grave  and 
two  into  monastic  secUision.  It  was  the  last  of 
tliese  —  Nicophorus  III.  (Botancitcs)  that  Alexius 
displaced,  with  the  support  of  an  army  whicli 
he  had  previously  commanded.  One  of  the 
gates  of  the  capital  was  betrayed  to  him  by  a 
German  mercenary,  and  he  gained  the  city 
almost  without  a  blow.  "The  old  Emperor 
consented  to  resign  his  crown  and  retire  into  a 
monastery.  Alexius  entered  the  imperial  palace, 
and  the  rebel  army  conmienccd  plundering 
every  quarter  of  the  city.  Natives  and  mer- 
cenaries vied  with  one  another  in  license  and 
rapine.  No  class  of  society  was  sacred  from 
their  lust  and  avarice,  and  the  inmates  of  mon- 
asteries, churches,  and  palaces  were  alike  plun- 
dered and  insulted.  This  sack  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Sclavoniaus,  Bulgarians,  and  Greeks  in 
the  service  of  the  families  of  Comnenus,  Ducas, 


and   Paleologos,    wlio  crept  treacherously  into 

the  city,  was  a  tit  prologue  to  Its  sulferings 
when  it  was  stormed  by  the  Crusa<lcrs  in  1304. 
From  this  disgraceful  coti((U<'8t  of  Constantinopln 
by  Alexius  Comnenus,  we  must  date  the  dei'ay 
of  its  wealth  and  civic  suprennicy,  both  as  a 
capital  and  a  commercial  city.  .  .  .  The  power 
which  was  thus  established  in  rapine  terminated 
about  a  century  later  in  a  bliMxly  vengeance 
intlieted  by  an  itifuriated  populace  rai  tlie  last 
Emperor  of  tin;  Conmenian  family,  Andronicus 
I.  Const'intinople  was  taken  on  the  Ist  of 
April,  lOHl,  and  Alexius  was  crowned  in  St. 
Sophia's  next  day."  —  G.  Finlay,  Hint,  of  the 
/li/ziinliiie  and  (treek  Kntiiirin,  front  710  to  1458, 
!.k.  ;t,  rh.  1. 

A.  D.  1204.— Conquest  and  brutal  sack  by 
Crusaders  and  Venetians.  See  ('uiisadkh: 
A.  I).  1301-l-'o;(;  amlBvzA.snNKEMi'iHK:  A.  I). 
130ii-1304. 

A.  D.  1204-1261.— The  Latin  Empire  and  its 
fall.—  Recovery  by  the  Greeks.  See  I{<>.mama, 
Till';  E.mi'ihk  ok,  and  Bvzantink  Emi-iuk:  A.  D. 
121)4-1205. 

A.  D.  1261.— Great  privileges  conceded  to 
the  Genoese.— Pera  and  its  citadel  Galata 
given  up  to  them.  See  Gk.noa:  A.  I>.  1201- 
1299. 

A.  D.  1261-1453.— The  restored  Greek  Em- 
pire.—On  the  25tli  of  .Fidy,  A.  I).  12(11,  Constan- 
tinople was  surpris(;<l  and  the  last  Latin  emperor 
expelled  by  the  fortunate  arms  of  Michael  Palie- 
ologus,  the  Greek  usurper  at  Niciea.  (See  GltF.KK 
E.Mi'iKE  OF  Nic.ka.)  Twenty  days  later  AIi(;hae> 
made  his  triumphal  entry  info  the  aiu'ient  capi- 
tal. "But  after  the  lirst  transport  of  devotion 
anil  pride,  he  sighed  at  the  dreary  prospect  of 
solitude  and  ruin.  The;  palace  was  detlled  with 
smoke  an<l  dirt  and  the  gross  intemperance  of 
the  Franks;  whole  streets  liad  been  consumed  by 
(ire,  or  were  decayed  by  the  injuries  of  time ;  the 
sacred  and  profane  edilices  were  stripped  of 
their  ornaments;  and,  as  if  they  were  conscious 
of  their  approa<;hing  exile,  the  industry  of  the 
Latins  had  been  confined  to  the  wcnk  of  ])illago 
and  destruction.  Trade  had  expired  under  the 
])ressure  of  anarchy  and  distress,  and  the  numbers 
of  inhabitants  had  decreased  with  the  opulence 
of  the  city.  It  was  the  first  care  of  the  Greek 
monarch  to  reinstate  the"  nobles  in  the  palaces  of 
their  fathers.  .  .  .  He  repeopled  Constantinople 
by  a  liberal  invitation  to  the  iirovinces,  and  the 
brave  'volunteers'  were  seated  in  the  capital 
which  had  been  recovered  by  their  arms.  Instead 
of  banishing  the  factories  of  the  Pi.sans,  Vene- 
tians, and  Oenoe.se,  the  prudent  conqueror  ac- 
cepted their  oaths  of  allegiance,  encouraged  their 
industry,  confirmed  their  privileges  and  allowed 
them  to  live  under  the  jurisdictiou  of  their  proper 
magistrates.  Of  these  nations  the  Pi.sans  and 
Venetians  preserved  their  respective  quarters  in 
the  city ;  but  the  services  and  power  of  the  Gen- 
oese [who  had  assisted  in  the  recon(iucst  of  Con- 
stantinople] deserved  at  the  same  time  the  grati- 
tude and  the  jealousy  of  the  Greeks.  Their 
independent  colony  was  first  planted  at  the  seaport 
town  of  Ileraelea  in  Thrace.  They  were  speedily 
recalled,  and  settled  in  the  exclusive  possession 
of  the  suburb  of  Galatji,  an  advantageous  post, 
in  wliich  they  revived  the  commerce  and  insulted 
the  majesty  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Tlie  re- 
covery of  Constantinople  was  ceU^brated  as  the 
era  of  u  new  Empire. "    The  new  empire   thus 


508 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  1201-1458. 


CONSTANTINOPLK,  11M8-1355. 


CHtJtliliHlu'il  in  till!  itiii'iriit  Itoniiui  ciipiliil  of  tlit- 
I'lisl  iniuli'  some  sliow  of  vijjcpr  iit  llrst.  Micliiirl 
I'lilii'olojfiis  "  wrested  from  llie  Friiiiks  wverul 
of  the  noblest  isliuids  of  the  Ar(lii|ielni(o — Les- 
bos. CliioH,  and  UIkhIi'S.  His  lirotlier  Coiistiin 
tine  wiM sent  toeomnmiid  in  Malviisiii  anil  Sparta: 
and  tlie  Kastern  side  of  tin  Morea,  from  Ar^'os 
iind  Napoli  to  ('a|)e  Tienanis.  was  repossessed 
liy  tlie  (Ireeks.  .  .  .  Hut  In  llie  proseitution  of 
tliese  Western  eoiniiiests  tlie  eoiintries  beyond 
tlie  Hellespont  Were  left  naki^d  to  tlie  Turks; 
and  tlieir  depredations  veritl(Ml  the  proplieey  of 
a  dvinij  senator,  that  tho  recovery  of  (Jonstanti- 
nojile  would  be  the  ruin  of  Asia."  Not  only  was 
Asia  Minor  abandoned  to  the  n(-w  raee  of  Tur- 
kish eon(|Uerors —  tlie  Ottomans  —  but  those  most 
ttj{j;re.ssi V(?  of  the  proselyte."  of  Islam  wiTe  in- 
vited in  the  next  j;eneration  to  eross  the-  Bos- 
plionis,  and  to  enter  Thraei^  as  parti.Hans  in  a 
Greek  civil  war.  Their  footinj;  in  Kurope  oik'c 
gained,  they  devoured  tlie  distracti'd  and  feidde 
empire  piece  by  piece,  until  little  remained  to  It 
bi^yond  tlie  capital  itself.  Lonj;  before  the  latter- 
fell,  the  empire  was  a  sliadow  and  a  name.  In 
the  very  suburbs  of  Constantinople,  the  Genoese 
pcMlesta,  at  I'era  or  Gal'ita,  had  more  power  tliaii 
the  Greek  Kmperor;  and  the  rival  Italian  traders, 
of  Genoa,  Venice  and  I'isa,  foii>;lit  tlieir  battles 
under  the  eyes  of  tlie  Byzantines  witli  iiidilTer- 
encu,  almost,  to  the  will  or  wislies,  the  opposi- 
tion or  the  help  of  tlie  latter.  "  The  weight  of 
the  Uoimiu  Kmpire  was  scarcely  felt  in  tlie 
balance  of  these  opulent  and  powerful  repulilie.s. 
.  .  .  Tlie  Uoman  Kmpire  (I  smile  in  transcriliiii); 
tlie  iiume)  miglit  soon  have  sunk  into  a  province 
of  Genoa,  if  tlie  ambition  of  tlie  repiiliiic  had 
not  been  checked  by  the  ruin  of  lier  freedom  and 
naval  power.  A  long  ccmlest  of  liiO  years  was 
determined  by  the  triumph  of  Venice.  .  .  .  Yet 
tlie  spirit  of  commerce  survived  that  of  conquest ; 
and  the  c(dony  of  Pera  still  awed  the  capital  and 
navigated  tlio  Eu.xine,  till  it  was  involved  by 
the  Turks  ill  the  final  servitude  of  Constantinople 
itself." — !•;.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fdll  of  the  liDinmi 
Kiay.irc,  eh.  d'i-iV.i. 

Al-so  in:  G.  Finlay,  Jlint.  of  the  ni/nintine  and 
Orcfk  Kinpires,  bk.  4,  ch.  'i. — See,  also,  Ti'iiKs 
(TllK  Ottcmans):  A.  1).  1340-1326;  1320-13r.«; 
1360-1389;  1380-1403,  &c. 

A.  D.  1348-1355.— Wir  with  the  Genoese.— 
Alliance  with  Venice  and  Aragon. — Joliii 
(-'aiitaeuzenos,  v/lio  usurped  the  tlirone  in  1347, 
"had  not  reigned  a  year  before!  he  was  involveil 
in  liostilities  with  tlie  Genoese  colony  of  Galata, 
which  liad  always  coutaine<l  many  warm  par- 
tisuna  of  tlic  house  of  Paleologos  [dispiaceif  by 
Cantacuzenos].  This  factory  liad  grown  into  a 
tiourisliing  town,  and  commanded  a  largo  por- 
tion of  tho  Qohlen  Horn.  During  the  civil  war, 
the  Genoese  capitalists  liad  supplied  the  regency 
with  money,  and  tliey  now  formed  ahiiost  every 
biiinchof  tlie  revenue  which  tlie  imperial  govern- 
ment derived  from  tlie  port.  .  .  .  Tlie  linancial 
measures  of  tlie  new  emperor  reduced  their 
profits.  .  .  .  Tho  increased  industry  of  tlie 
Greeks,  and  tlie  jealousy  of  the  Genoese,  led  to 
open  hostilities.  The  colonists  of  Galata  com- 
menced the  war  in  a  treaclierous  manner,  with- 
out any  authority  from  tlie  republic  of  Genoa 
(1348).  Witli  a  fleet  of  only  eiglit  large  and 
some  small  galleys  they  attacked  Constantinople 
while  Cantacuzenos  was  absent  from  tlie  capital, 
and  burned   several  buildings  and  the  greater 


iiart  of  the  fleet  he  was  then  constructing.  The 
kmpress  Irene,  who  ailministere<l  the  govern- 
ment in  I  he  absence  of  her  husband,  behaved 
with  great  prudeiice  and  courage  and  repulsed  a 
bold  attack  of  the  GeniM'se.  CantaiuzenoH 
liast<'ned  to  tlie  capital,  where  he  spent  the 
winter  in  repairing  the  loss  his  fleet  hiiil  sus- 
tained. As  soon  as  it  was  ready  forai'li<ai,  ho 
engageil  the  Genoese  in  llii'  port,  where  hi'  hoped 
that  their  naval  skill  would  Ite  of  no  avail,  and 
wliert!  the  mimerical  superiority  of  Ids  sliipM 
would  insure  him  a  victory,  lie  expected, 
moreover,  to  gain  possession  of  (ialata  itself  by 
an  attack  on  the  land  side  while  the  (ieiiiM'su 
were  occupied  at  sea.  Tlie  cowardly  conduct  of 
the  Greeks,  botli  by  sea  and  land,  rendered  his 
plans  abortive.  The  greater  part  of  his  sliips 
were  taken,  and  Ids  army  retrialid  without 
making  a  serious  attack.  Kortunalily  for  Can- 
tacuzenos, the  colonists  of  (ialata  receiveil  an 
order  from  the  Senate  of  Genoa  to  conclude 
peace.  .  .  .  Their  victory  enabled  them  to 
obtain  favourable  terms,  and  to  keep  possession 
of  some  land  they  bad  seized,  and  on  wliiih  tliey 
soon  completed  the  conHtriiction  of  a  new  citadel. 
The  friendly  ilisposilioii  uianifisted  by  tlie 
government  of  (ienoa  induced  Cantacuzeniis  to 
send  amliassadors  to  the  Senate  to  demand  the 
restoration  of  the  island  of  Chios,  which  liad 
been  cimiinered  by  a  band  of  Genoese  exiles  in 
134(1.  A  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  the 
Genoese  were  to  restore  the  island  to  the  Kmperor 
of  Omstantinople  in  ten  years.  .  .  .  But  tills 
treaty  was  never  carried  into  execution,  for  llie 
exiles  at  Chios  set  liolli  the  rei)ublic  of  (Jenoa  and 
the  Greek  Kmpire  at  defiance,  anil  retained  their 
con(|Uest."  Tlie  peace  with  (Jenoa  was  of  short 
dm  'ion.  Cantacuzenos  was  bent  upim  oxpell- 
inn  ''"  Genoese  from  Gidata.  and  as  they 
were  now  involved  in  the  war  with  tlie  Venetians 
whidi  is  known  as  the  war  of  Calla  he  hoped  to 
accomplish  liis  purpose  liy  joining  the  latter. 
"The  Genoese  liad  drawn  into  their  liands  tho 
greater  part  of  the  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  town  of  Tana  or  Azof  was  then  a  place  of 
great  commercial  importance,  as  many  of  tlie 
liroductions  of  India  and  China  found  their  way 
to  western  Kuropo  from  its  wareliouses.  The 
Oeiioeso,  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  witli  the 
Tartars,  had  been  compelled  to  suspend  their 
intercourse  with  Tana,  and  the  Venetians,  avail- 
ing tliemselves  of  thi^  opportunity,  liad  extended 
their  trade  and  increased  their  prolils.  Tlie  envy 
of  the  Genoese  led  tliem  to  obstruct  the  Viiie- 
tiun  trade  and  capture  Venetian  ships,  until  at 
lengtli  the  disputes  of  the  two  republics  broko 
out  in  open  war  in  i;548.  In  tlie  year  Vi'A, 
Cantacuzenos  entered  into  an  alliance  witli 
Venice,  and  joined  liis  forces  to  those  of  tho 
Venetians,  wlio  had  also  concluded  an  alliance 
with  Peter  the  Ceremonious,  king  of  Aragon. 
Nicholas  Pisani,  one  of  the  ablest  ;idmirals  of 
the  age,  ajipeared  before  Constantinople  witli  tho 
Venetian  fleet ;  but  Ids  sliips  liad  sulTered  severely 
from  a  storm,  and  his  priiicii)al  object  was 
attaini'd  wlien  he  had  convoyed  tlie  merchant- 
men of  Venice  safely  into  tlie  Black  Sea.  Can- 
tacuzenos, however,  had  no  object  but  to  take 
Galata:  and,  expecting  to  receive  important  aid 
from  Pisani,  he  attacked  the  Genoese  colony 
by  sea  and  land.  His  a.ssault  was  defeated  in 
conse<iuenee  of  the  weakness  of  tlie  Greeks  and 
the  lake warmness  of  tho  Venetians.  Pisani  retired 


509 


CONSTANTINOPLK.  t!M8-iaW. 


CONSTANTINOPLK,  14.W-14H1. 


toNrgnniont,  to  cfTrrt  II  Junction  witli  tlirfntitlim 
ticrt ;  and  l'iiK»nn  |><irhi.  who  liiid  iiiii'mui'iI  liiin 
witli  II  Nii|ii'rinr  forir,  in  icluniinK  to  (iiiliitit  to 
piiHH  the  wintiT,  Htorincil  tlir  town  of  lli'riirlciii 
on  tlic  Sen  of  Miirinorii,  where  Ciinliieiizi-noH  hiiil 
eolleeteil  larp'  niiiKa/ini'M  of  proviHionH,  iiiiil 
citrrieil  olT  II  rich  l>iH>ly,  with  niiiny  wealthy 
Ori'ckH,  who  were  ninipelled  to  ransom  them- 
wives  hy  paying  larjre  siiniH  to  these  eiiplors. 
Cantaeiixenos  wiih  now  liesieKeil  in  Conslanti 
nople,  .  .  .  The  (ieiioese,  iinalile  to  nnike  any 
InipreMMion  on  the  eity,  indeinnilied  themselves 
liy  ravaginK  the  Oreek  territory  on  the  lUaek 
Hca.  .  .  .  Karly  in  the  year  liri'J,  I'isanI  returned 
to  Coimtanlinople  with  the  Catalan  fleet,  under 
Pon/.io  da  Santapaee.  and  a  ^reat  lialtli-  was 
fought  Ixlween  the  allies  and  the  (lenoese.  in 
full  view  of  Constaiilinople  and  (iaiiila.  The 
scene  of  the  ronibat  Wi.-iolTthe  island  of  I'rote, 
and  it  received  the  iianu-  of  V'rachophagos  from 
Home  sunken  rocks,  of  which  the  (ieniiese  availed 
themselves  ill  their  manii'uvrcs.  The  honour  of 
n  (hailitful  and  liloody  day  rested  with  tlie 
OeiKK'se.  .  .  .  I'isani  soon  ((uitled  the  neiglilxiur- 
liood  of  Constanlinopli',  and  Canlacu/enos, 
Iniviiijj  nothinj;  more  to  hope  from  tlie  Venetian 
alllaiicc  .  .  .  concluded  a  peace  with  the  rcputi 
lie  of  Genoa.  In  this  war  he  had  exposed  the 
weakness  of  the  (Jreek  empire,  aial  the  decline  of 
the  maritime  force  of  (irecce,  to  all  the  states  of 
Kurope.  The  treaty  coiillrmed  all  the  ))revious 
privileiri'S  and  encroachments  of  the  colony  of 
(Jalata  and  other  (ienoese  eslalilisliments  in  the 
Kmpirc." — (!.  Kiiilav.  Hint,  of  t/ic  lliizniitiin'  imtl 
(link  KmiiiriH,  7 Id- 1  in;).  Iik.  4.  eli.  'i.  n<rt.  4.— 
The  retirenieiil  of  the  (Jreeks  from  the  contest 
did  not  check  the  war  between  Genoa  and 
Venice  and  the  other  allies  of  the  latter,  which 
was  coiitin\uil  until  1!).').').  The  Genoese  were 
defeated,  August  29,  11)5!),  by  the  Venetians  and 
Catalans,  in  a  (;reat  battle  foufjht  near  Lojera, 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Harilinia,  losing;  41 
galleys  and  4.")<M)  or  5,001)  men.  They  obtained 
their  reveui;!'  the  ne.\t  year,  on  the  4th  of 
November,  when  Paganino  Doria  surprised  the 
Venetian  admiral,  Pisaiii,  at  I'orlolongo,  opposite 
the  island  of  Sajiienza,  as  he  was  prejairing  to  gi) 
into  winter-ipiarters.  "The  Venetians  siistaiiie<l 
not  so  much  a  defeat  as  a  total  discomliture;  4.')0 
were  killed;  an  enormous  number  of  prisoners, 
loosely  calculated  at  0,(M)0,  and  a  highly  valuable 
booty' in  prizes  and  stores,  were  taken."  In 
June,  lii'M,  the  war  was  ended  by  a  treaty  which 
excluded  Venice  from  all  HIack  Sea  ports  except 
Calfa.— W.  C.  Ilazlitt,  Jlist.  of  the  Vcnctimt 
Jlepiihlir.  ch.  18-19  (/'.  !i). 

Also  in:  F.  A.  Parker,  The  FleeUofthe  World, 
pp.  88-94. 

A.  D.  1453.— Conquest  by  the  Turks.— 
Mahonu't  II.,  son  of  Amuratli  II.  came  to  the 
Ottoman  throne,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  mt 
14.J1.  "The  con(iuest  ol  Conslanlinople  was 
the  tir.st.  object  on  which  his  thoughts  were  ti.xed 
at  the  opening  of  his  reign.  The  resolution 
with  which  he  had  formed  this  purpose  expressed 
itself  in  his  .stern  reply  to  the  ambassadors  of  the 
Kmperor,  olTering  him  tributi^  if  he  would 
renoimeo  the  project  of  building  a  fort  on  the 
EuroiH'an  shore  of  the  Bosporus,  which,  at  the 
dis  uice  of  only  live  miles  from  the  capital, 
woulil  give  him  the  command  of  the  Ulack  Sea. 
lie  ordered  the  envoys  to  retire,  and  threatened 
to  fluy  ulive  any  who  should  dare  to  briug  him  a 


flimilar  ineitsage  again.  The  fort  was  llnished  in 
three  inontliH  and  garrlNoned  with  400  JaidzaricH; 
a  tribute  was  cxacled  of  all  vess4'ls  that  passed, 
and  war  was  fornudly  declared  by  the  Hultan. 
CoiiHlantine  |Ci.nstantine  Palieologus,  the  last 
Greek  F'.m[ieror|  nnide  the  best  preparations  In 
his  power  for  defence;  but  he  could  muster  only 
(KM)  (Jreek  soldiers, "  In  order  to  secure  aid  from 
tile  Pope  and  the  Italians,  Constanline  united 
himself  with  the  Koman  Church.  A  few  hundred 
troops  were  then  sent  to  his  assistance;  Init,  at 

the  most,  he  had  only  siici ded  in  manning  tliii 

many  ndles  of  the  city  wall  with  9,000  men, 
wlK'n,  in  April,  14.'>;t,  tlie  Sultan  invested  It. 
The  Turkish  army  was  said  to  number  'J.IO.OOO 
men,  and  420  vessels  were  counted  in  the  accom- 
panying licet.  A  summons  to  surrender  was 
answered  with  indignant  refusal  hy  ('onstantine, 
"  who  had  calmly  resolved  not  lo  survive  the 
fall  of  the  city,"  anil  the  final  assault  of  the 
furious  Turks  was  made  on  the  29th  of  May,  145!!. 
The  heroic  Kmperor  was  slain  among  the  last 
defenders  of  thi^  gate  of  St.  Uomanos,  and  the 
janizaries  rode  over  his  dead  body  as  I  hey 
charged  into  tht^  streets  of  the  fallen  Koman 
capital.  "The  despairing  jieople  —  senators, 
priests,  monks,  nuns,  hiisbanils,  wives  and 
children  —  sought  safely  in  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia.  A  propliecv  had  been  circulated  that 
here  the  Turks  W(]uld  be  arrested  by  an  angel 
from  heaven,  witli  a  drawn  sword;  and  hillier 
the  miserable  mulliliide  crowded,  in  liu!  expec- 
tation of  siipcrnalund  help.  The  coni|uei'ors 
followed,  sword  in  liand,  slaughtering  those 
whom  they  encountered  in  the  street.  They 
broke  down  the  (Iimhs  of  the  church  with  axes, 
and,  rushing  in,  commit  led  every  act  of  atrocity 
that  a  frantic  thirst  for  blood  and  the  inllanied 
passions  of  demons  could  .suggest.  All  the 
unhappv  victims  were  divided  as  slaves  among 
the  soldiers,  without  regard  to  blood  or  rank, 
and  hurried  oft  to  tlie  camp;  and  the  mighty 
cathedral,  so  long  the  glory  of  the  Christian 
world,  .soon  presented  only  traces  of  the  orgies 
of  hell.  The  other  ipiarii'rs  of  tlii!  city  were 
|)lundercd  by  other  divisions  of  the  army.  .  .  . 
About  noon  the  Sidtan  made  his  triumphal  entry 
by  the  gate  of  St.  Uomanos,  pas.sing  by  the  body 
of  the  Kmperor,  which  lay  concealed  among  the 
slain.  Kntering  the  church,  he  ordered  a  moolah 
to  ascend  the  bema  and  announce  to  the  Mussul- 
mans that  St.  Sophia  was  now  a  mos(iue,  con- 
secrated to  the  prayers  of  the  true  believers.  He 
ordered  the  body  of  tlu;  Kmperor  to  be  sought, 
his  head  to  l)e  exposed  to  the  jn'ople,  and  after- 
wards to  be  sent  as  a  trophy,  to  be  seen  by  the 
(ireeks,  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  Ottoman 
Kmpirc.  For  three  days  the  city  was  given  up 
to  the  indescribable  horrors  of  pillage  and  the 
license  of  the  Mussulman  soldiery.  Forty 
thousand  perished  diiring  the  sack  of  the  city 
and  lifty  thi)u.sand  wore  reduced  to  slavery." — 
O.  C.  Felton,  (Ireeee,  Ancient  ami  Modern ; 
Fourth  coii/sc,  left.  0. 

Also  in  ;  G.  Finlav.  IIi»t.  of  the  Byzantine  and 
Greek  Fmpirenfrom  710  to  1453,  bk.  4,  ch.  3.— E. 
Gibbon,  l)eeline  and  Full  of  the  Human  I'^mpirf, 
ch.  68. 

A.  D.  i453-i<|8i. — The  city  repopulated  and 
rebuilt. — Creation  of  the  Turkish  Stamboul.— 
"  It  was  neccs.sary  for  Mohammed  II.  to  rcpeople 
Constantinople,  in  order  to  render  it  the  capital 
of  the  Othoinan  Empire.     The  installation  of  au 


510 


C'ONHTANTINOI'LE,  im!H481. 


rONSTITUTION:  AROKNTINE  REI'UHLIC. 


itrtlindox  Piitrinrrli  cnlmrd  tlic  iiiintlH  of  the 
Ori'i'kH,  mill  Miiiiiy  w)ii)  liiid  i'iiii)rmtr(l  lirfun'  tin- 
Hii'Ki'  Kriiiliially  ri'tiiriircl,  uiul  wrri'  iillowcil  to 
cliiiiii  11  poitliiii  iif  llii'lr  pnipiTly.  Hut  the  slow 
llicrnisc  iif  piipiiliilliin,  riiiiMril  by  a  wilst'  iif 
MruHly  mill  the  liiipr  of  ;;iiiii,  iliil  luit  siitUfy  llir 
Hilltmi,  wliii  wiiM  ili'trriiilnril  to  hci'  IiIh  nipilal 
iiiH'  iif  tlir  Kf"'!''''**''  I'llli't  "f  II"'  KiiMt,  mill  Willi 
kiirw  thai  It  hull  fnniu'rly  i-m'I'ciIi'iI  DmiiaiKMiM, 
Mai;ilail  miil  Cairo,  in  wimiIIIi,  ixtriit  anil  piipil- 
liilliiii.  I'rum  MiosI  of  his  siilisi'iiii'iit  roni|iU'.MtM 
Miiliaimiiiil  roliipi'ilril  thi'  wnillh' "Sl  o'  tlir  iu- 
lialiitaiitN  to  riiilKratr  to  ('oiiHtaiiliiiopli',  whrri- 
III'  f^ntntcii  thrill  plots  of  Imiil  to  liiiilil  tlii'ir 
liiiiiw'H.  .  .  .  Tiirl<K,  Ori'i'ks,  Scrvlmis,  lliilKari- 
aiis,  AllianlmiH,  anil  I.a/.i's,  follownl  onr  anothrr 
in  ipiirk  Hiii'ci'HHioii,  anil  lon^'  lirfori'  tlir  ciiil  of 
his  ri'l^n  ('onHtaiiliiiiiiili'  wan  rrowilrd  liy  a  niuii- 
iTousanihu'tivr  popiilntion,  anil  pri'scntril  ii  nioro 
flourlHliiiiK  aspect  than  it  hail  iloni'iliiriiiKlhi'  prr 
I'cillii^;  ci'iitury.  Thi'i'inlHllisliini'nt  of  hisrajiitcl 
was  also  thu  ubji'Ct  ot  tlit'  Sultan's  atti'iition. 
.  .  .  MoHipicH,  inliiarrlH,  fountains  ami  tonilm, 
the  great  obji'cts  of  arrhltcctiiral  niaKnlHccnce 
among   tbo  Musaulmuus,    wvru  coimtructi'd    in 


every  quiirtcr  nf  tlio  rlty.  .  .  ,  The  pirtiirf-Hqiie 
iM'auly  of  thr  StanilKiiil  of  ihi-  prt'srnt  day  owcn 
innst  of  itH  artillrlal  friitiirrM  to  tlii'  Othoiniin  con- 
i|iiisl.  ami  wrars  a  'I'lirkish  aspiTt.  'I'hf  Con- 
slantinoplfof  ihi'  ity/.anliiic  Kiiipiri' illHiipprari'd 
with  the  last  ii'liis'of  thr  (Iri'i'k  Kinjiin'.  Tlio 
tnivilliT  who  now  ilrsirrs  to  vli-w  llii'  vrslljfi'H  of 
a  Itv/.aiillni' rapital.  and  I'Xaniini-  tlii'  last  rcllcH 
of  liv/.antini'  arrliilrrtiiri',  must  conliniii'  his 
travi'ls  cast  ward  to'l  rrlii/.ond." — (}.  I'Miilay.  Hint. 
of  till  llii:iiiitiiii'  iiiiil  llreik  h'tii/iirtit.  /niiii  710  fo 
I  l."f;i,  /./■.  4.  i-h.  'i.  mrl.  7. 

A.  D.  1807.— Threatened  by  a  British  fleet. 
Hi'i'TruKs;  A.  1).  IMIkuimo?. 

CONSTANTlNOPLt  ,    Conference    of 

(1877).     SiiTniKs:  A.  I>.  1M(1|_1H77 
CONSTANTIUS  I.,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  1). 

!tO.V:iiMl Constantius  II.,  A.  1).  ;i:i7  ildl. 

CONSTITUTION,  The  battles  of  the  frig- 

a  c.    Si'c  rvirKi)  .Stacks  OK  Am.:  A.  1).  IMiJ- 

18i:t.  ami  IMIJ. 
CONSTITUTION    OF    ARAGON    AND 

CASTILE  (the  old  monarchy).    .See  Ciiutkm, 

TiiK  Eahly  Upamhii. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC. 


Till!  siilijoinid  text  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
Ai'^'entine  Hepiiblie  is  n  translation  "from  the 
olUcial  edition  of  1808,"  taken  from  R.  Napps 
work  on  "The  Arj;i'ntine  Republic,"  jirepared 
for  the  Central  Argentine  Commission  on  the  Cen- 
tenary Exhibition  at  I'hiladelphia.  1870.  Accord- 
ing to  the  "Statesman's  Year-Book"  of  181)3, 
there  have  been  no  moditicatious  since  1800; 

Part  I. 

Article  1.  The  Argentine  Nation  adopts  the 
fi'deral-republlcan,  and  representative  form  of 
Ooverument,  as  established  by  the  present  Con- 
stitution. 

Art.  2,  The  Federal  Government  shall  main- 
tain the  Apo.stolic  Roman  Catholic  Faith. 

Art.  3.  The  authorities  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment shall  reside  in  the  city  which  a  special  law 
of  Congress  may  declare  the  capital  of  the  He- 
public,  subsequently  to  the  cession  by  one  or 
more  of  tlie  Provincial  Legislatures,  of  the  terri- 
tory about  to  be  federalized. 

Art.  4.  The  Federal  Government  shall  ad- 
minister the  expenses  of  the  Nation  out  of  the 
revenue  in  the  National  Treasury,  derived  from 
import  and  export  duties ;  from  the  sale  and  lease 
of  the  public  lands;  from  postage;  and  from 
such  other  taxes  as  the  General  Congress  may 
equitably  and  proportionably  lay  upon  the  peo- 
ple; as  also,  from  such  loans  and  credits  as  may 
be  decreed  by  it  in  times  of  national  necessity,  or 
for  enterprises  of  national  utility. 

Art.  5.  Each  Province  shall  make  a  Constitu- 
tion for  itself,  according  to  the  republican  repre- 
sentative system,  and  the  principles,  declarations 
and  guarantees  of  this  Constitution ;  and  which 
shall  provide  for  (secure)  Municipal  Government, 
primary  education  and  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice, tinder  these  conditions  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment shall  g  uarantcc  to  each  Province  the  exercise 
and  enjoyment  of  its  institutions. 

Art.  6.  The  Federal  Government  shall  inter- 
vene in  the  Provinces  to  guarantee  the  republican 


form  of  Ooverniiient,  ortorepil  foreign  invas.on, 
and  also,  on  application  of  their  constituted  au- 
thorities, shnuld  they  have  been  deposed  by 
sedition  or  by  invasion  from  another  Irovince, 
for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  or  reestablishing 
them. 

Art.  7.  Full  faith  shall  be  given  in  each  Prov- 
ince to  the  |)ublii-  acts,  and  judicial  proceedings 
of  every  other  Provinci';  and  Congress  may  by 
general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such 
acts  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the 
ellect  thereof. 

Art.  8.  The  citizens  of  each  Province  shall  bo 
entitled  to  all  the  rights,  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties, inherent  to  tlie  citizens  of  all  the  several 
Provinces.  Tlie  reciprocal  extradition  of  crimi- 
nals between  all  the  Provinces,  is  obligatory. 

Art.  9.  Throiighoutthe  territory  of  the  Nation, 
no  other  than  the  National  Custom-lloii,ses  shall 
be  al'owed,  and  they  shall  be  regulated  by  the 
tarills  sanctioned  by  Oingress. 

Art.  10.  The  circulation  of  all  goods  produced 
or  manufactured  in  the  Republic,  is  free  within 
its  borders,  as  al.so,  that  of  all  species  of  mer- 
cliaiidise  which  may  be  dispatched  by  the  Cus- 
tom-IIousesof  entry. 

Art.  It.  Such  articles  of  native  or  foreign  pro- 
duction, ns  well  as  cattle  of  every  kind,  which 
pass  from  one  Province  to  another,  shall  \k  free 
from  all  transit-duties,  und  also  •he  vehicles, 
vessels  or  animals,  which  transport  them ;  and  no 
tax,  let  it  be  what  it  may,  can  be  henceforward 
imposed  upon  them  on  account  of  such  transit. 

Art.  12.  Vessels  bound  from  one  Province  to 
another,  shall  not  be  compelled  to  enter,  anchor, 
or  pay  transit-duties;  nor  in  any  case  can  prefer- 
ences be  granted  to  one  port  .iver  another,  by 
any  commercial  laws  or  regulations. 

Art.  13.  New  Provinces  may  be  admitted  into 
the  Nation;  but  no  Province  r'  '  be  erected 
within  the  territory  of  any  ot  er  ovince,  or 
Provinces,  nor  any  Province  be  "by  the 

junction  of  various  Vrovinces,  wituo      .he  con- 


511 


CONSTITUTION:  AHGENTTNE  REPUBLIC.       CONSTITUTION:  ARGENTINE  UEPURLIC. 


sent  of  tlip   legislatures  of  the  Provinces  con- 
cerned, ns  well  (18  of  Conifress. 

Art.  14.  All  the  inlmliitiints  of  the  Nation  slmll 
enjoy  the  following  rights,  iiecordingto  the  hiws 
which  regiiliUe  their  exercise:  viz.,  to  liihor  mid 
to  priu'tice  till  lawful  industry ,  to  trade  and 
navigate;  to  petition  the  authorities;  to  enter, 
remain  in,  travel  over  and  leave,  Argentine  terri- 
tory; to  publish  their  ideas  in  the  public-press 
without  previous  censure;  to  enjoy  and  dispose 
of  their  pn  ,/erty ;  to  associate  for  useful  pur- 
poses; to  profess  freely  their  religion;  to  teach 
and  to  learn. 

Art.  15.  In  the  Argentine  Nation  there  arc  no 
slaves;  the  few  which  now  exist  shall  be  free 
from  the  date  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitu- 
tion, and  a  special  law  shall  regulate  the  indem- 
nity acknowledged  as  duo  by  this  declaration. 
All  contracts  for  the  purchase  and  sale;  of  jiersons 
Is  a  crime,  for  wliieli  those  who  make  them,  as 
well  as  the  notary  or  functionary  wliich  author- 
izes tiiem,  shall  bo  responsible,  and  the  slaves 
who  in  any  manner  whatever  may  be  introduced, 
shall  be  free  from  the  sole  fact  that  they  tread 
the  territory  of  tlie  Republic. 

Art.  16,  The  Argentine  Nation  does  not  ad- 
mit the  prerogatives  of  blood  nor  of  birth;  in  it, 
there  are  no  personal  privileges  or  titles  of  no- 
bility. All  its  inhabitants  ere  equal  in  presence 
of  the  law,  and  admissible  to  otiice  without  other 
condition  tlian  that  of  titness.  Equality  is  the 
basis  of  taxation  as  well  as  of  public-posts. 

Art.  17.  Property  is  inviolable,  and  no  inhabit- 
ant of  the  Nation  can  be  deprived  of  it,  save  by 
virtue  of  a  sentence  liased  on  law.  The  expropri- 
ation for  public  utility  must  be  authorized  by  law 
and  i)Tevioiisl^-  indemnitied.  Congress  alone  shall 
iinpos''  the  contributions  mentioned  in  Art.  4. 
No  personal  service  shall  be  exacted  save  by 
virtue  of  law,  or  of  a  sentence  founded  on  law. 
Every  author  or  inventor  is  the  exclusive  pro- 
prietor of  his  work,  invention  or  discovery,  for 
the  term  wliich  the  law  accords  to  him.  Tlie  con- 
fiscation of  property  is  henceforward  and  forever, 
stricken  from  the  Argentine  penal-code.  No 
armed  body  can  make  requisitions,  nor  exact  as- 
sistance of  any  kind. 

Art.  18.  No  inhabitant  of  the  Nation  shall 
suifer  punishment  without  iv  previous  judgment 
founded  on  a  law  passed  previously  to  the  cause  of 
judgment,  mr'oe  judged  by  special  commissions, 
or  withdrawn  from  the  .Judges  designated  bj' 
law  before  the  opening  of  tlio  cause.  No  one 
shell  be  obliged  to  testify  against  himself ;  nor  be 
arrested,  save  by  virtue  of  a  written  order  from 
a  competent  authority.  The  defense  at  law  both 
of  the  person  and  his  rights,  is  inviolable.  The 
domicil,  private  papers  and  epistolary  corre- 
spondence, are  inviolable ;  and  a  law  shall  deter- 
mine in  what  cases,  and  under  wliat  imputations, 
a  search-warrant  can  proceed  agaiustand  occupy 
them.  Capital  punisliinent  for  political  cau.ses 
us  well  as  every  species  of  torture  and  whippings, 
are  abolished  for  eve.  The  prisons  of  the  Aaiion 
shall  be  healthy  and  clean,  for  the  security,  and 
not  for  the  punishment,  of  tlie  criminals  detained 
in  them,  and  every  measure  which  under  pretext 
of  precaution  may  mortify  them  more  than  such 
-"curity  requireft,  shall  render  res'ionsible  the 
i      ge  who  authorizes  it. 

Art.  19.  Tnose  private  actions  of  men  that  in 
nowise  offend  public  order  and  morality,  or  in- 
jure a  third  party,  belong  alone  to  God,  and  are 


beyond  the  authority  of  tlie  inagist-  ntes.  No  in- 
habitant of  the  Nation  shall  be  compelled  to  do 
what  the  law  does  not  ordain,  nor  be  deprived  of 
anylliing  which  it  doe.s  not  prohibit. 

Art.  20.  Within  the  territory  of  the  Nation, 
forelgiu'is shall  enjoy  all  the  civil  rights  of  citi- 
zens; they  can  exercise  their  industries,  com- 
merce or  professions,  in  accordance  with  the  laws ; 
own,  buy  and  .sell  real-estate;  navigate  the  rivers 
and  coasts;  freely  profess  their  religion,  and  tes- 
tate anil  marry.  Tliey  shall  not  be  obliged  to  be- 
come citizens,  nor  to  ]iay  forced  contributions. 
Two  yeara  i)revious  residence  in  the  Nation  sliall 
be  required  for  naturalization,  but  theauthoritiea 
can  shorttn  this  term  in  favour  of  him  who  so 
desires  it,  under  the  allegation  and  proof  of  ser- 
vices rendered  to  the  Republic. 

Art.  21.  Every  Argentine  citizen  is  obliged  to 
arm  himself  in  defense  of  his  country  and  of  this 
Constitution,  according  to  tlie  laws  which  Con- 
gress shall  ordain  for  the  purj" c,  and  the  de- 
crees of  the  National  Exeeutiv  For  the  period 
of  ten  years  from  tlie  day  on  iiicli  they  nicy 
have  obtained  their  citizenship,  this  service  shall 
be  voluntary  on  the  part  >/f  the  naturalized. 

Art.  22.  The  people  shall  not  deliberate  nor 
govern  save  by  means  of  their  Representatives 
and  Autluu'ities,  created  by  this  Constitution. 
Every  armed  force  or  meeting  of  persons  which 
shallnrrogate  to  itself  tlie  rights  of  the  people, 
and  petition  in  their  name,  is  guilty  of  sedition. 

Art.  23.  In  the  event  of  internal  commotion  or 
foreifrn  attack  which  might  jilace  in  jeopardy 
the  piactice  of  tliis  Constitutiou,  and  the  free 
action  of  the  Autliorities  created  by  it,  tlie  Prov- 
ince or  territory  v.'here  such  disturbance  exists 
shall  be  declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  all  constitu- 
tional guarantees  beiiiji  meantime  suspended 
there.  But  during  sucli  suspension  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic  cannot  condemn  nor  apply 
any  punishment  iicr  se.  In  respect  to  pereons, 
his  power  shall  be  limited  to  arresting  and  re- 
moving them  fnmi  one  place  to  another  in  the 
Nation,  sliould  they  not  jirefev  to  leave  Argen- 
tine territory. 

Art.  24.  Congress  shall  establish  the  reforin  of 
existing  laws  in  all  bmnches,  as  also  the  trial  by 
■Jury. 

Art.  25.  The  Federal  Government  shall  foment 
European  immigration;  and  it  cannot  restrict, 
limit,  nor  lay  any  impost  upon,  the  entry  upoa 
Argentine  territory,  of  such  foreigners  as  come 
for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  tlie  soil,  improving 
manufactures,  and  introducing  srnd  teaeliing  the 
arts  and  sciences. 

Art.  26.  The  lavigation  of  the  interior  rivera 
of  tlie  Nation  is  free  to  all  flags,  subject  only  to 
such  regulations  as  tlie  National  Authority  may 
dictate. 

Art.  27.  The  Federal  Government  is  obliged  to 
strengthen  the  bonds  of  peace  and  commerce 
with  foreign  powi^rs,  by  means  of  treaties  wliich 
shall  be  in  conformity  witli  the  principles  of  pub- 
lic law  laid  down  in  this  Constitutiou. 

Art.  28.  Tlic  principles,  riglits  and  guarantees 
laid  down  in  the  foregoing  articles,  cannot  be 
altered  by  any  laws  intended  to  regulate  their 
practice. 

Art.  29.  Congress  cannot  grant  to  the  Execu- 
tive, nor  the  p'-ovincial  legislatures  to  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Provinces,  any  "extraordinary  faculties," 
nor  the  "sum  of  the  public  power,"  nor  "re- 
nunciations or  supremacies"  by  which  the  lives, 


512 


CONSTITUTION :  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.      CONSTITUTION ;  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


honor  or  fortune  of  tho  Argcnthu's  slmll  he  at 
the  mercy  of  any  Government  or  person  wliiit- 
cver.  Acts  of  this  nature  sliall  be  irremediably 
null  and  void,  nnd  shall  subject  those  who  frame, 
vote,  or  sign  them,  to  the  pains  and  penalties  in- 
curred by  those  who  are  infamous  traitors  to  their 
country. 

Art.  30.  Tills  Constitution  can  be  reformed  in 
whole  or  in  part.  The  necessity  for  the  reform 
shall  be  declared  by  Congress  by  at  least  a  two- 
thirds  vote;  but  it  can  only  be  accomplished  by 
11  eiinvcntion  called  ad  hoc. 

Art.  31.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  tho 
Nation  which  shall  be  made  in  piusuance  there- 
of, and  all  treaties  made  or  which  shall  be  made 
with  Foreign  Powers,  shall  be  the  supreme  law 
of  tho  land;  and  the  authorities  of  every  Prov- 
ince shall  1)0  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Con- 
stitution or  laws  of  any  Province  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding,  excepting  in  the  case  of  Buenos- 
Aires,  i'l  the  treaties  ratified  after  tho  compact  of 
Nov.  11th,  1859. 

Art.  32.  The  Federal  Congress  .shall  not  dictate 
laws  restricting  the  liberty  of  the  press,  nor  es- 
tiU)Hsh  any  federal  jurisdiction  over  it. 

Art.  33!^  The  enumcr.'.tion  in  this  Constitution 
of  certain  rights  and  guarantees,  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  dispar.ige  other  rights  and 
guarantees,  not  enumerated;  but  which  spring 
from  the  iirlnciplo  of  popidar  sovereignty,  and 
the  republican  form  of  Government. 

Art.  34.  Tho  Judges  of  the  Federal  courts 
shall  not  be  Jmlgesof  Provincia'  tribunals  at  the 
same  time:  nor  shall  the  federal  service,  civil  as 
well  a  J  militarj',  constitute  a  domicil  in  the 
Provini  e  where  it  may  be  exercised,  it  it  be  not 
Imhituaily  that  of  the  employe;  it  being  under- 
stood by  this,  that  all  Proviucial  public  service 
is  optional  in  the  Province  where  such  employe 
may  casually  reside. 

Art.  35.  The  names  which  have  been  s\ic- 
ce.ssively  adopted  for  the  Nation,  since  tho  jjear 
1810  up  to  the  present  time;  viz.,  tnc  United 
Provinces  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Argentine  Ro- 
l)\iblic  and  Argentine  Confederation,  shall  heuce- 
forward  serve  without  distinction,  ollicially  to 
designate  the  Government  and  territoiy  of  the 
Provinces,  winlst  the  words  Argentine  Nation 
shall  be  employed  in  the  making  and  sanction  of 
the  laws. 

Part  II.— Section  I. 

Article  36.  All  legislative  powers  herein 
granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  composed 
of  two  Chambers,  one  of  National  Deputies,  and 
the  other  of  Senators  of  the  Provinces  and  of  the 
capital. 

Chapter  I. 

A'-*icle  37.  Tho  Chamber  of  Deputies  shall 
he  composed  of  representatives  elected  directly 
by  the  people  of  the  Provinces,  for  whicli  pur- 
pose each  one  shall  bj  considered  as  a  single 
electori',1  district,  and  by  a  simple  plundity  of 
votes  in  the  r  ''o  of  one  for  each  20,000  inhabit- 
ants, or  for  a  fraction  not  less  than  10,000. 

Art.  38.  Tho  deputies  for  the  first  Legisla- 
ture shall  be  nominated  in  the  following  propor- 
tion: for  the  Province  of  Buenos- Aires,  twelve; 
for  that  of  Cordoba,  six;  for  Cat.unarca,  three; 
Corrientes,  four,  Entre-Rios,  two;  .Tujui,  two; 
Mondoza,  three;  Rioja,  two;  Salta,  three;  San- 
tiago, four;  Sau  Juan,  two;  3anta-Fe,  two;  San 
Luis,  two,  and  for  that  of  Tucumdu,  throe. 


Art.  39.  For  the  second  Legislature'  a  general 
census  shall  be  taken,  aiid  the  number  of  Depu- 
ties be  regulated  by  it;  thereafter,  this  census 
shall  be  decennial. 

Art.  40  No  person  shall  be  a  Deputy  who 
shall  not  liavo  attained  the  age  of  twenty  live 
years,  have  been  four  years  in  the  exercise  of  citi- 
zenship, and  be  a  native  of  the  Province  which 
elects  hiiu,  or  a  resident  of  it  for  the  two  years 
immediately  preceding. 

Art.  41.  For  the  first  election,  the  provincial 
Legislatures  shall  regulate  the  method  for  a 
direct  election  of  the  National  Depucies.  Con- 
gress shall  pass  a  genend  law  for  tli('  future. 

Art.  42.  The  I)eputies  sliall  hold  their  place 
for  four  years,  and  are  re-eligible;  but  the  liousc 
shall  be  renewed  each  "  'ennial,  by  halves;  for 
which  purpose  'hose  elected  to  the  first  Legisla- 
ture, as  soon  as  the  session  opens,  shall  decide  by 
lot  who  shall  leave  at  the  end  of  the  first  periodf. 

Art.  43.  In  case  of  vacancy,  the  (ioverninent 
of  the  Province  or  of  the  capital,  shall  call  an 
election  for  a  new  memlier. 

Art.  44.  The  origination  of  the  tax-laws  and 
those  for  the  recruiting  of  troops,  belongs  exclu- 
sively to  the  House  of  Deputies. 

Art.  45.  It  has  the  sole  right  of  impeaching 
before  the  Senate,  the  President,  Vice-President, 
their  .Ministers,  and  the  members  of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  other  inferior  Tribunals  of  the  Nation, 
in  suits  whicl'.  n'  '.y  be  undertaken  against  them 
for  tho  iirip-oper  discharge  of,  or  deficiency  in, 
the  exeri;ise  of  their  functions;  or  for  common 
crimes,  after  having  heard  them,  and  declared  by 
a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  tho  members  present, 
that  there  is  cause  for  proceeding  against  them. 

Chapter  II. 

Article  46.  Tlie  Senate  shall  be  composed  of 
two  Senators  from  each  Province,  chosen  by  the 
Legislatures  thereof  by  plurality  of  vote,  and  two 
from  the  cap'tal  elected  in  the  form  prescribed 
for  the  election  of  the  President  of  the  Nation. 
Each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Art.  47.  No  person  shall  be  c  Senator  who 
shall  not  liave  attained  the  age  of  thirty  years, 
been  six  years  a  citizen  of  the  Nation,  enjoy  an 
annual  rent  or  iucomi!  "f  two  thousand  liara- 
dollars,  and  !>•.  a  native  of  tho  Province  which 
elects  him,  or  a  resident  of  the  same  for  the  two 
years  immediately  preceding. 

Art.  48.  The  Senators  sliall  enjoy  their  trust 
for  nine  years,  and  are  indefinitely  re-eligible; 
but  the  Senate  shall  bo  renewed  by  thirds  each  . 
three  years,  and  shall  decide  by  lot,  as  soon  as 
they  lie  all  re-united,  who  shall  leave  at  the  end 
of  th'  •  first  and  .second  triennial  periods. 

Art.  49.  Tlie  Vice-President  of  the  Nation  shall 
be  Pre;ident  of  the  Senate;  but  shall  have  no 
vote,  e  eept  in  a  case  of  a  tie. 

Art.  50.  The  Senate  shall  choose  a  President 
pro-tempore  who  shall  preside  during  the  absence 
if  the  Vice-President,  or  v/hen  he  sliall  exer^'se 
the  otliee  of  President  of  the  Nation. 

Art.  51.  The  Senate  sliall  have  sole  power  to 
try  all  impeachments  presented  by  the  House  of 
Dei)uties.  When  sitting  for  that  purpose  they 
shall  be  uniler  oa'.h.  When  the  President  of  the 
Nation  is  tried,  the  Chief  .Justice  shall  preside. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  con- 
currence of  nvo-thirds  of  the  members  present 

Art.  52.  Judgment  in  case  of  impeachmei' 
shall  not  extend  farther  than  to  removal  r.ji,. 


513 


CONSTITUTION :  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.      CONSTITUTION :  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


ollicc,  and  diaqunliflcatioii  to  liold  ami  enjoy  any 
ollk'c  (if  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  Nation. 
But  till:  party  convicted  slnill,  nevcrtliel('s.s,  l)e 
liable  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and  punish- 
ment acconling  to  law,  before  the  ordinary  tribu- 
nals. 

Art.  53.  It  belongs,  moreover,  to  the  Senate, 
to  aulliori/.e  (he  I'resident  to  declare  martial  law 
in  one  or  n'ore  points  of  the  Republic,  iu  case  of 
foreign  aggression. 

Art.  54.  When  any  scat  of  a  Senator  bo  va- 
cant by  death,  re,signati(;n  or  other  reason,  the 
Gov(!rinneMt  to  which  the  vacancy  belongs,  shall 
immediately  proceed  to  the  election  cf  ti  new 
member. 

Chapter  III. 

A.-ticleSS.  Both  C'liandu'rs  .shall  meet  in  ordi- 
nary session,  cvi  ry  year  from  tlie  1st  3Iay  until 
the  ;i()th  September.  Tliey  can  be  extraordi- 
narily eonvolied,  or  their  session  be  prolonged  by 
the  President  of  the  Nation. 

Art.  56.  Each  House  shall  be  tlie  judge  of 
the  elections,  returns,  and  (lualifications  of  its 
own  members.  Neither  of  them  shall  enter  into 
session  without  an  absolute  majority  of  its  mem- 
bers; but  a  smaller  luunber  may  compel  al)sent 
members  to  attend  tiie  sessions,  in  sucli  terms 
and  tnider  such  penal;  ies  as  each  llousc  may  es- 
tablisli. 

Art.  57.  Both  Houses  shall  begin  and  close 
their  sessions  simultaneously.  Neither  of  tliem 
whilst  in  sessions  can  suspend  its  meetings  for 
more  than  three  ilays,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other. 

Art.  58.  Each  IIou.se  may  make  its  rules  of 
proceeding,  and  witli  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds  punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior 
in  the  exercise  of  their  functions,  or  remove,  and 
even  expel  them  from  the  House,  for  physical  or 
moral  incapacity  occurring  after  their  incorpora- 
tion; but  a  majority  of  one  above  one  half  of 
the  members  present,  shall  sulllce  to  decide  ((Ues- 
tions  of  voluntary  resignation. 

Art.  59.  In  the  act  of  thei'-  incorporation  the 
Senators  and  Deputies  shall  tjike  an  oath,  to 
properly  fu'til  their  charge,  and  to  act  in  all 
things  in  conformity  to  the  prescriptions  of  this 
Constitution. 

A*!.  60.  No  member  of  Congress  can  be  in- 
dieted,  judicially  interrogated,  or  molested  for 
any  opinion  or  discourse  which  he  may  have 
uttered  in  fulfilment  of  his  Legislative  duties. 

Art.  6l.  No  Senator  or  Deputy,  during  the 
term  for  which  he  may  have  been  elected,  shall 
be  arrested,  except  when  taken  '  in  flagrante'  com- 
mission of  some  crime  wnich  merits  capital  pun- 
ishment or  other  degrading  sentence ;  an  account 
thereof  shall  be  rendered  to  the  Chamber  he  be- 
longs to,  with  a  verbal  process  of  the  facts. 

Art.  62.  When  a  complaint  in  writing  be  made 
bef(/re  the  ordinary  courts  against  any  Senator 
or  Deputy,  each  Chamber  can  by  a  two-thirds 
vote,  suspend  the  accused  in  his  functions  and 
place  him  at  the  disposition  of  the  competent 
judge  for  trial. 

Art.  63.  Each  of  the  Chambers  can  cause  the 
Ministers  of  the  Executive  to  come  to  their  Hall, 
to  give  such  explanations  or  information  as  may 
be  considered  convenient. 

Art.  64.  No  member  of  Congress  can  receive 
any  post  oi-  commission  from  the  Executive,  with- 
out the  previous  consent  of  his  respective  Cl-am- 


ber,  excepting  such  as  are  in  the  line  of  jiromo- 
tion. 

Art.  65.  The  regular  ecclesiastics  cannot  be 
members  of  Congress,  nor  can  the  Governors  of 
Provinces  represent  the  Province  which  they 
govern. 

Art.  66.  The  Senators  and  Deputies  shall  be 
remunerated  for  their  services,  by  a  compensation 
to  be  ascertained  liy  law. 

Chapter  IV. 
Article  67.  The  Congress  sliall  have  power; — 
1.  To  legislate  upon  the  Ciistom-Houses  and  es- 
tablish import  duties;  which,  as  well  as  all  a])- 
praiseinents  for  their  collection,  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  Nation,  it  being  clearly  understood 
that  the.se,  as  well  as  all  other  national  coii'riltu- 
tions,  can  be  paid  in  any  money  at  the  just  value 
which  may  be  current  in  the  respective  Provinces. 
Also,  to  establish  export  duties.  2.  To  lay  direct 
taxes  for  determinate  jieriods,  whenever  the  com- 
mon detense  and  general  welfare  require  it, 
which  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  territory 
of  tlie  Nation.  I!.  To  borrow  money  on  the 
credit  of  the  Nation.  4.  To  determine  t\y;  use 
and  sale  of  the  Nati(mal  lands.  5.  To  establish 
and  regulate  a  National  Bank  in  the<apit;'.l,  with 
branches  in  the  Provinces,  and  with  power  to 
emit  bills.  0.  To  regulate  the  payment  of  the 
home  and  foreign  debts  of  the  Nation.  7.  To 
annui'lly  determine  the  estimates  of  the  National 
Administration,  and  approve  or  reject  the  ac- 
counts of  expenses.  8.  To  grant  subsidies  from 
the  National  Treasury  to  those  I'rovinces,  whose 
revenues,  according  10  their  liudgets,  do  not  suf- 
fice to  cover  the  ori'inary  expenses.  9.  To  regu- 
late tlie  free  navigation  of  the  interior  rivers, 
open  such  ports  as  ma.v  be  considered  necessary, 
create  and  suppress  Custom-llouses,  but  without 
suppressing  those  which  existed  in  each  Province 
at  the  time  of  its  incorporation.  10.  To  coin 
money,  regulate  the  v.ilue  thereof  and  of  foreign 
coin,  and  adopt  a  uniform  system  of  weights  and 
measures  for  the  whole  Nation.  11.  To  decree 
civil,  commercial,  penal  and  mining  Codes,  but 
such  Codes  shall  have  no  power  to  change  local 

i'urisdiction;  their  application  shall  bclon  to  the 
'ederal  or  Provincial  courts,  in  accordance  with 
such  things  or  persons  as  may  come  under  their 
respective  jurisdiction;  especially,  general  laws 
embracing  the  whole  Nation,  shall  be  passed  upon 
naturalization  and  citizenship,  subject  to  the 
principle  of  native  citizenship;  also  upon  bank- 
1  .iptcy,  the  counterfeiting  of  current-money  and 
public  State  documents ;  and  such  laws  as  may 
be  required  for  the  establishment  of  trial  by 
Jury.  13.  To  regulate  commerce  by  laud  and 
sea  with  foreign  nations,  and  between  the  Prov- 
inces. 13.  To  establish  and  regulate  the  general 
pi.st-ofHces  and  post-roads  of  the  Nation.  14.  To 
finai'y  settie  the  National  boundaries,  fix  those 
of  tliL  Provinces,  create  new  Provinces,  and  de- 
termine by  a  special  legislation,  the  organization 
ami  governments,  which  such  National  territories 
as  are  beyond  the  limits  assigned  lO  the  Province, 
should  have.  15.  To  provide  for  the  security  of 
the  frontiers;  preserve  peaceful  relations  with 
the  Indians,  and  promote  their  conversion  to 
Catholicism.  16.  To  provide  all  things  condu- 
cive to  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  to  the  ad- 
vancement and  happiness  of  the  Provinces,  and 
to  the  increase  of  enlightenment,  decreeing  plans 
for  general  and  university  instruction,  promoting 


514 


CONSTITUTION :  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.      CONSTITUTION :  ARGENTIfTE  REPUBLIC. 


industry,  immigrfttion,  the  construction  of  mil- 
wftj'S,  and  navigable  canals,  the  peopling  of  the 
National  lands,  the  introduction  and  cstablisli- 
ment  of  now  industries,  the  importation  of  for- 
eign capital  and  the  exploration  of  the  interior 
rivers,  liy  prot<!ction  laws  to  these  ends,  and  by 
temporary  concessions  and  stimulating  recom- 
penses. 17.  To  constitute  tribunals  interior  to 
the  Supreme  Court,  create  and  suppress  public 
ollices,  fl.v  their  attributes,  grant  pensions,  decree 
honors  and  general  amnesties.  18.  To  accept  or 
reject  the  resignation  of  the  1  resident  or  Vice- 
I'resident  of  the  Republic,  and  declare  new  elec- 
tions; to  make  the  scrutiny  and  rectification  of 
tlie  same.  10.  To  ratify  or  reject  the  treaties 
made  with  other  Nations  and  the  Concordats  with 
•he  Apostolic  See,  and  regulate  the  patronage  of 
advowsons  throughout  the  Nation.  20.  To  admit 
religious  orders  witliiu  the  Nation,  other  than 
tliose  already  existing.  31.  To  authorize  the 
Executive  to  declare  war  and  make  peace.  22. 
To  grant  letters  of  maripu^  and  rei)risal,  and  to 
make  rules  concerning  prizes.  23.  To  tix  tlie 
land  and  sea  forces  in  tinu^  of  peace  and  war:  and 
to  make  rules  and  regulations  for  the  government 
of  said  forces.  2-1.  To  i)rovi(le  for  calling  forth 
the  militia  of  all,  or  a  part  of,  the  Provinces,  to 
execute  the  laws  of  the  Nation,  suppress  insur- 
rections or  repel  invasions.  To  provide  for  or- 
ganizing, arming,  and  disciplining  said  militia, 
and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  Nation,  reserving 
to  the  Provinces  respectively,  the  appointment  of 
the  corresponding  cliiefs  and  ollicers,  and  the  au- 
thority of  training  the  militia  according  to  the 
discipline  prescril.icd  by  l^ongress.  25.  To  per- 
mit the  introduction  of  foreign  troops  within  the 
territory  of  the  Nation,  and  the  going  beyond  it 
of  the  N.  tional  foices.  26.  To  declare  martial 
law  in  any  or  various  points  of  the  Nation  in 
case  of  domesJc  commotion,  and  ratify  or  sus- 
pend the  declaration  of  martial  law  made  by  the 
executive  during  the  recess.  27.  To  exercise  ex- 
elusive  legislation  over  the  ijrritory  of  the  Na- 
tional capitjil,  and  over  such  other  places  accjuired 
by  p  jrchiisc  or  cession  in  any  of  the  Provinces, 
for  the  purpose  of  establislung  fcrts,  arsenals, 
warehouses,  or  other  needful  nation.vl  buildings. 
28.  To  make  all  laws  and  regulations  which  shall 
be  necessary  for  carrying  into  execution  the  fore- 
going powers,  and  all  others  vested  by  the  pres- 
ent Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  Ar- 
gentina.; Nation. 

Chapter  V. 

Article  68.  Laws  may  originate  in  cither  of 
the  Houses  of  Congress,  by  bills  presented  by 
their  members  or  by  the  Executive,  excepting 
those  relative  to  the  objects  treated  of  in  Art.  44. 

Art.  69.  A  bill  being  approved  by  -ae  House 
wherein  if,  originated,  shall  pass  for  discussion 
to  the  other  House.  IBeing  approved  by  both,  it 
shall  pass  to  the  Executive  of  the  Nation  for  liia 
examination;  and  should  it  receive  his  approba- 
tion he  shall  publish  it  as  law. 

Art.  70.  Every  bill  not  returned  within  ten 
worl  'ag-days  by  the  Executive,  shall  be  taken  as 
approved  by  him. 

Art.  71.  No  bill  entirely  rejected  by  one 
House,  can  be  presented  again  during  thai  year. 
But  should  it  be  only  amplilied  or  corrected  ay  the 
revising  House,  it  shall  return  to  that  wherein 
it  originated ;  and  if  there  the  additions  or  cor- 


rections lie  approved  by  an  absolute  majority, 
it  shall  jiass  to  the  Executive.  If  the  addition* 
or  corrections  be  rejected,  it  shall  return  to  the 
revising  House,  and  if  here  tliev  be  again  sanc- 
tioned bv  a  majority  of  two-thirds  of  its  mem- 
bers, it  sliall  pa.ss  to  the  other  House,  and  it  shall 
not  be  understood  that  the  said  additions  and 
corrections  are  rejected,  unless  two-thirds  of  the 
members  present  should  so  vote. 

Art.  /a.  A  bill  being  rejected  in  whole  or  in 
part  by  the  Executive,  he  shall  return  it  with  his 
objections  to  the  House  in  which  it  originated; 
here  it  shall  be  debated  again;  and  if  it  be  con- 
firmed by  a  majority  of  two-thirds,  it  shall  pass 
again  to  the  revising  House.  If  both  Houses 
should  pass  it  by  the  Mime  majority,  it  becomes 
a  law,  and  shall  be  sent  to  tlie  ftxeeiitive  for 
promulgation.  In  such  ease  the  votes  of  both 
Houses  shall  be  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names 
of  the  persons  so  voting  sliali  be  recorded,  as 
well  as  the  objections  of  the  Executive,  and  sliall 
be  imnu.liately  published  in  the  daily-press.  If 
tl'.e  Houses  differ  upon  the  objections,  the  bill 
cannot  be  renewed  during  that  year. 

Art.  73.  The  following  formula  shall  be  used 
in  the  pas,sage  of  the  laws:  "The  (Senate  and 
Chamber  of  Deputies  of  the  Argentine  Nation  in 
Congress  assembled,  etc.  decree,  or  sanction, 
with  the  force  of  law." 

Section  II.— Chapter  I. 

Article  74.  The  Executive  power  of  the  Na- 
tion shall  be  exercised  by  a  citizen,  with  the  title 
of  "  President  of  the  Argentine  Nation." 

Art.  75.  In  case  of  the  sickness,  absence  from 
the  capital,  death,  resignation  or  dismissal  of  the 
President,  the  Executive  power  shall  be  exer- 
cised by  the  Vice-President  of  the  Nation.  In 
case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  in- 
ability of  the  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
Nation,  Congress  will  determine  which  public 
functionary  shall  then  (111  the  Presidency,  until 
the  disability  be  removed  or  a  new  President  be 
elected. 

Art.  76.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citi- 
zen or  a  son  of  a  natural-born  citizen  brought 
forth  abroad,  shall  be  eligible  as  Presitlent  or 
Vice-President  of  the  Nation ;  he  is  re(iuired  to 
belong  to  the  Apostolic-Roman-Catholic  com- 
munion, and  possess  the  other  qualiflcations  re- 
quired to  be  elected  Senator. 

Art.  77.  The  President  and  Vice-President 
shall  hold  office  during  the  ♦erm  of  six  years; 
and  cannot  be  re-elected  except  iftcr  an  interval 
of  an  equal  period. 

Art.  78.  The  President  of  the  Nation  shall 
cease  in  his  functions  the  very  day  on  which  his 
period  of  six  years  expires,  and  no  event  what- 
ever which  may  have  interruiited  it,  can  be  a 
motive  for  completing  it  at  a  later  time. 

Art,  79.  The  President  and  Vice-President 
shall  receive  a  compensation  from  the  National 
Treasury,  which  cannot  be  altered  during  the 

Berio<l  for  which  they  shall  have  been  elected, 
luring  ihe  same  period  they  cannot  exercise  any 
other  office  nor  receive  any  other  emolument 
from  the  Nation,  or  any  of  its  Provinces. 

Art.  80.  The  President  and  Vice-President  be- 
fore entering  upon  the  execution  of  their  of^^ces, 
shall  take  the  following  oath  administered  by  the 
President  of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  by  the 
President  of  the  Constituent  Congress)  in  Con- 
gress assembled:  "I  (such  an  one)   iwcar  by 


515 


CONSTITUTION:  ARQENTINK  IlEPUBLIC.      CONSTITUTION:  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


God  our  Lord,  nnd  by  these  Holy  Evangelists, 
that  I  will  fiiithfiilly  and  piitriotically  execute 
the  olllce  of  I'ri'sidciit  (or  Vice-l'rcsidcnt)  of  the, 
Ni)tioii,  and  oliscrvc  and  cause  to  be  faithfully 
olwcrvcd,  the  Constitutidii  of  the  Argentine  Na- 
tion. If  1  should  not  do  so,  let  God  and  the 
Nation  indict  me." 

Chapter  II. 

Article  8i.  Tlie  election  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  Nation,  .sli;ill  he  made  in 
the  following  manner: — Ihe  capital  and  each  of 
tlie  Provinces  shall  by  direct  vote  nominate  a 
boanl  of  electors,  double  the  number  of  Depu- 
ties and  Senators  which  tliey  send  to  (!ongress, 
with  tlio  same  qualiflcutinns  and  under  the  same 
form  as  those  prescribed  for  the  election  of  Depu- 
ties. Deputies  or  Senators,  or  o(li(!ers  in  the  pay 
of  the  Federal  Government  cannot  be  electors. 
The  electors  being  met  in  tlie  National-capital 
and  in  that  of  their  respective  Provinces,  four 
months  [jrior  to  tlie  conclusion  of  the  term  of 
the  out-going  President,  they  shall  proceed  by 
signed  ballois,  to  elect  a  President,  and  Vice- 
President,  one  of  winch  shall  .stiitc  the  person  as 
Presid(;nt,  and  the  other  the  person  as  Vice-Presi- 
dent, for  whom  they  vote.  Two  lists  shall  be 
made  of  al!  the  individuals  elected  as  President, 
and  other  two  also,  of  those  elected  as  Vice- 
President,  with  tlie  number  of  votes  which  each 
may  have  received.  These  lists  shall  be  signed 
by  the  electors,  and  shall  be  remitted  closecl  and 
sealed,  two  of  them  (one  of  each  kind)  to  the 
President  of  tlu^  Provincial  Legislature,  and  to 
the  President  of  the  Municipality  in  tlic  capital, 
among  whose  records  they  shall  remain  deposited 
and  closed;  the  other  two  shall  be  .sent  to  the 
President  of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  to  the 
President  of  the  Constituent  Congress). 

Art.  82.  Tlic  President  of  tlie  Senate  (the 
first  time  tiiat  of  the  Constituent  Congress)  all 
the  lists  being  received,  shall  open  them  in  the 
presence  of  both  Houses.  Four  members  of 
Congress  taken  by  lot  and  associated  to  tlie  Secre- 
taries, shall  immediately  proceed  to  count  the 
votes,  and  to  announce  the  number  which  may 
result  in  favor  of  each  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dency and  Vice-Presidency  of  the  Nation.  Those 
who  have  received  an  absolute  majority  of  all 
the  votes  in  both  cases,  shall  be  immediately  pro- 
claimed President  and  Vice-President. 

Art.  83.  In  case  there  be  no  absolute  ma- 
jority, on  account  of  a  division  of  the  votes,  Con- 
gress shall  elect  one  of  tlie  two  persons  who  shall 
have  received  tlic  highest  number  of  votes.  If 
the  first  majority  should  liavc  fallen  to  a  single 
person,  and  the  second  to  two  or  more,  Congniss 
shall  elect  among  all  the  persons  who  may  have 
obtained  the  first  and  second  majorities. 

Art.  84.  This  election  shall  bo  made  by  abso- 
lute plurality  of  votes,  and  voting  by  name.  If, 
on  counting  the  first  vote,  no  absolute  majority 
shall  liavft  been  obtained,  a  second  trial  shall  be 
made,  limiting  the  voting  to  the  two  per.sons 
who  shall  have  obtained  the  greatest  number  of 
suffrages  at  the  first  trial.  In  case  of  an  equal 
number  of  votes,  the  operation  shall  be  '•epeated, 
and  should  the  result  be  the  same,  then  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate  (the  first  time  that  of  the  Con- 
stituent Congress)  shall  decide  it.  No  scrutiny 
or  rectificition  of  these  elections  can  be  made, 
unless  three-fourth  parts  of  all  the  members  of 
the  Congress  be  present. 


Art.  85.  The  election  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  Nation,  shall  be  concluded 
in  a  single  meeting  of  Ihe  Congress,  and  there- 
after, the  result  and  the  electoral  lists  shall  lie 
published  in  the  daily  press. 

Chapter  I! I. 

Article  86.  The  President  of  'the  Nation  has 
the  following  attributes: — 1.  lie  is  the  supreme 
chief  of  the  Nation,  ond  is  chargi^l  with  the 
general  administration  of  the  country.  3.  He 
issues  such  instructions  and  regulations  as  may 
be  necessary  for  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  the 
Nation,  taking  care  not  to  alter  their  spirit  with 
regul.itive  exceptions.  3.  lie  is  the  immediate 
and  local  chief  of  the  National  capital.  4.  He 
particulates  in  making  the  laws  according  to  the 
Constitution;  and  sanctions  and  promulgates 
them.  n.  He  nominates  the  Judges  of  Mie  Su- 
preme Court  anil  of  the  Inferior  Federal  tri- 
bunals, and  appoints  them  by  and  with  the  con- 
sent and  advice  of  the  Senate.  0.  He  has  power 
to  pardon  or  comniiite  iienalties  against  officers 
subject  to  Federal  jurisdiction,  pi\'ceded  by  a 
report  of  tiie  proper  Tribunal,  excepting  in  case 
of  im]ieaehment  by  Ihe  House  of  Deputies.  7. 
Ho  grants  reUring-pensions,  leaves  of  absence 
and  pawnbrokers'  licences,  in  conformity  to  the 
laws  of  the  Nation,  c!.  He  exercises  the  rights 
of  National  Patronage  in  the  presentation  of 
Hishojjs  for  the  catlii'dri.ls,  choosing  from  a  ter- 
nary nomination  of  the  Senate.  0.  He  grants 
letters-iiatent  or  retains  the  decrees  of  tlie  Coun- 
cils, the  bulls,  briefs  and  rescript.^  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Pontitf,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  must  require  a  law  for  the 
same  when  tliey  contain  general  and  permanent 
dispositions.  10.  lie  appoints  nnd  removes  Min- 
isters Plenipotentiary  and  Charge  d'Aflaires,  by 
and  with  the  consent  and  advice  of  the  Senate ; 
and  himself  alone  appoints  and  removes  the  Min- 
isters of  his  Cabinet,  the  ofticers  of  the  Secretary- 
ships, Consular  Agents,  nnd  the  rest  of  the  em- 
ployes of  the  Administration  whose  nomination 
is  not  otherwise  ordained  by  this  Constitution. 
11.  He  annually  opens  the  Sessions  of  Congress, 
both  Houses  being  united  for  this  purpose  in  the 
Senate  Chamber,  giving  an  account  to  Congress 
on  this  occasion  of  the  state  of  the  Nation,  of 
the  reforms  provided  by  the  Constitution,  and 
recommending  to  its  consideration  such  measures 
as  may  be  judged  necessary  and  convenient.  13. 
He  prolongs  the  ordinary  meetings  of  Congress 
or  convokes  it  in  extra  session,  when  a  question 
of  progress  or  aa  important  interest  so  re(iuires. 
13.  He  collects  the  rents  of  the  Nation  and  de- 
crees their  expenditure  in  conformity  to  the  law 
or  estimates  of  the  Public  expenses.  14.  He 
negotiates  and  signs  those  treaties  of  peace,  of 
commerce,  of  navigation,  of  alliance,  of  bounda- 
ries and  of  neutrality,  requisite  to  maintain 
good  relations  with  foreign  powers ;  he  receives 
their  Ministers  and  admits  tlieir  Consuls.  15.  Ho 
is  commander  in  chief  of  all  the  sea  and  land 
forces  of  the  Nation.  16.  He  confers,  b;,-  and 
v/it'  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  the  high  military 
graaes  in  the  army  and  navy  of  the  Nation ;  and 
by  himself  on  the  field  of  battle.  17.  He  dis- 
poses of  the  land  and  sea  forces,  and  takes 
charge  of  their  organization  and  distribution  ac- 
corditig  to  the  requirements  of  the  Nation.  18. 
By  the  authority  and  approval  of  Congress,  he 
declares  war  and  grants  letters  of  marcjue  and 


516 


CONSTITUTION:  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.      CONSTITUTION:  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


reprisal.  19.  By  nnd  with  the  consent  i)f  Iho 
Sennte,  in  case  of  foreign  aggression  and  for  a 
limited  time,  lie  declares  niartjal  law  in  oTie  or 
more  points  of  the  Nation.  In  ra.se  of  internal 
commotion  he  has  this  power  oidy  when  (;ongre.ss 
is  in  recess,  because  it  is  an  attribute  which  be- 
longs to  this  body.  Tlu!  President  exercises  it 
under  tlie  limitations  mentioned  in  Art.  2ii.  20. 
lie  may  require  from  the  chiefs  of  all  the 
branches  and  departments  of  the  Administration, 
and  through  tlicm  from,  all  other  employes,  siicli 
reports  as  lie  may  believe  necessary,  and  they 
lire  compelled  to  give  them.  21.  He  cannot  ab- 
'Bcnt  himself  from  the  capital  of  the  Nation  with- 
out permission  of  Congress.  During  the  recess 
ho  can  only  do  so  without  permission  on  account 
of  important  objects  of  public  service.  22.  The 
President  sliall  have  power  to  till  all  vacancies 
tliat  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate, 
by  granting  commissions,  which  ahull  expire  at 
the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Chapter  IV. 

Article  87.  Five  Minister-Secretaries;  to  wit, 
of  tlie  Interior;  of  Foreign  Affairs ;  of  Finance; 
of  Justice,  Worslnp  and  Public  Instruction;  and 
of  War  and  the  Navy;  shall  have  under  tlieir  \ 
charge  tlie  disi....cli  of  National  affairs,  and  tliey 
shall  counter-sig.  and  legalize  the  acts  of  the 
President  by  means  of  their  signatures,  without 
wliicli  requisite  they  shall  not  lie  efficacious.  A 
law  shall  determine  the  respective  duties  of  the 
Jliiiistens. 

Art.  88.  Each  Minister  is  responsible  for  tlio 
acts  which  ho  legalizes,  nnd  collectively,  for 
those  wliich  be  agrees  to  with  his  colleagues. 

Art.  89.  The  Ministers  cannot  determine  any- 
thing whatever,  by  themselves,  except  what  con- 
cerns the  economical  and  adniirii'trativc  regimen 
of  their  respective  Departmenvs. 

Art.  90.  As  soon  as  Congress  opens,  the  Jlin- 
isters  shidl  present  to  it  a  detailed  report  of  the 
State  of  tlio  Nation,  in  all  that  relates  to  tlieir 
respective  Departments. 

Art.  91.  They  cannot  be  Senators  or  Deputies 
without  resigning  their  places  as  Ministers. 

Art.  92.  The  Ministers  can  assist  at  the  meet- 
ings of  Congress  and  take  part  in  its  debates, 
but  tliey  cannot  vote. 

Art.  93.  They  shall  receive  for  their  services  a 
compensntion  established  by  law,  which  shall  not 
b(!  increased  or  diminished,  in  favor  or  ag'iiust, 
the  actual  incumbents. 

Section  III.— Chapter  I. 

Article  94.  The  Judicial  Power  of  tho  Nation 
shall  be  exercised  by  a  Supremo  Court  of  Justice, 
and  by  such  other  inferior  Tribunals  as  Congress 
may  establish  within  the  dominion  of  tlie  Nation. 

Art.  95.  The  President  of  tlie  Nation  cannot 
in  any  ease  whatever,  exercise  Judicial  powers, 
arrogate  to  himself  any  knowledge  of  pending 
causes,  or  reopen  tliose  which  have  terminated. 

Art.  96.  The  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court 
and  of  the  lower  National-Tribunals,  shall  keep 
their  places  quamdiu  so  bene  gcsserit,  and  shall 
receive  for  their  cervices  a  compensation  deter- 
mined by  law,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  in 
any  manner  whatever  during  their  continuance 
in  olUce. 

Art.  97.  No  one  can  be  a  member  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Justice,  unless  he  shall  have  been 
un  attorney  at  law  of  the  Nation  for  eight  years, 


an(!  shall  pos.sess  the  qualitlcationa  required  for  a 
Senator. 

Art.  98.  At  tlie  first  installation  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  individuals  appointed  .shall  take  an 
oath  administered  l)ytli(^  President  of  the  Nation, 
to  discharge  their  functions,  by  the  good  and  legal 
administration  of  Justice  according  to  the  jue- 
scripllons  of  this  Constitution.  Tliereafter,  tho 
oath  shall  be  taken  before  the  President  of  the 
Court  itself. 

Ar..  99.  The  Supreme  Court  shall  establish 
its  own  internal  and  economical  regulations,  and 
shall  appoint  its  subaltern  employes. 

Chapter  II. 

Article  100.  The  Judicial  power  of  the  Su- 
])renie  Court  and  th(!  lower  National-Tribunals, 
shall  extend  to  all  cases  arising  under  llils  Con- 
stitution, tho  laws  of  the  Nation  with  Ihereserve 
made  in  clause  11  of  Art.  H7,  and  by  treaties  with 
foreign  nations;  to  ail  cases  afTccting  aml)as.-ii- 
dors,  i)ublic  Ministers  and  foreign  Consuls;  to 
all  eases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction; 
to  C()ntrover.sies  to  which  tlie  Nation  slmll  be 
party;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
Provinces;  between  a  Province  and  the  eill/.ens 
of  another;  between  the  citizens  of  ditferent 
Provinces;  and  between  a  Province  or  its  citi- 
zens, against  a  foreign  State  or  citizen. 

Art.  lOI.  In  these  cases  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  exercise  an  ap|)elate  jurisdiction  according 
to  such  rules  aiiil  exceptions  as  Congress  may 
prescribe;  but  in  all  ca.ses  affecting  ambassadors, 
ministers  and  foreign  consuls,  or  tiio.se  in  wliicli 
a  Province  shall  be  a  party,  it  slmll  exercise 
original  and  exclusive  jurisdiction. 

Art.  102.  The  trial  of  all  ordinary  crimes  ex- 
c(!pt  in  cases  of  impiMichment,  shall  terminate  by 
jury,  so  soon  as  this  institution  be  established  in 
the  Republic.  Tliese  trials  shall  be  held  in  the 
same  Province  where  tho  crimes  sliall  have  bix'u 
committed,  but  when  not  committed  within  the 
frontiers  of  the  Nation,  but  against  International 
Law,  Congress  shall  determine  by  a  siieciai  law 
the  place  wliero  the  trial  shall  take  effect. 

Art.  103.  Treason  against  the  Nation  shall 
only  consist  in  levying  war  against  it,  or  in  ad- 
hering to  its  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  com- 
fort. Congress  shall  fix  b}'  .1  special  law  the 
punishment  of  treason;  but  it  c.innot  go  beyond 
the  person  of  the  criminal,  and  no  attainder  of 
treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  to  relatives 
of  any  grade  whatever. 

Art.  104.  Tlie  Provinces  keep  all  the  powers 
not  delegated  by  this  Constitution  to  the  Federal 
Government,  and  those  which  were  exjiressly  re- 
served by  special  compacts  at  the  time  of  their 
incorporation. 

Art.  105.  They  create  their  own  local  institu- 
tions and  are  governed  by  these.  They  elect 
their  own  Governors,  tlieir  Legislators  ami  other 
Provincial  functionaries,  without  intervention 
from  the  Fedc^ral  Government. 

Art.  106.  Each  Province  shall  make  its  own 
Constitution  in  conformity  witli  the  dispositions 
of  Art.  5. 

Art.  107.  The  Provinces  with  the  consent  of 
Congress  can  celebrate  contr:tcts  among  them- 
selves for  the  purposes  of  administering  justice 
and  promoting  economical  interests  and  works  of 
common  utility,  and  a'so,  <'an  pass  protective 
laws  for  the  purpose  with  their  own  resources, 
of  promoting  manufactures,   immigration,  tho 


517 


CONSTIT'JTION:  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


building  of  railways  ami  oniiuls,  tlie  peopling  of 
their  liindH,  the  introduction  and  I'stablmhrnent 
of  new  industries,  the  import  of  foreign-capital 
and  the  exploration  of  their  rivers. 

Art.  lo8.  The  Provinces  cannot  exercise  any 
powers  delegated  to  the  Nation.  They  cannot 
ceh'brate  compacts  of  a,  political  character,  nor 
make  laws  on  conunerce  or  internal  or  external 
navigation ;  nor  establish  Provincial  Custom- 
llouses,  nor  coin  money,  nor  establish  Banks  oC 
omission,  williout  authority  of  Congress;  nor 
make  civil,  commenial,  penal  or  minuig  'otles 
after  Congress  shall  have  sanctioned  those  pro- 
vided for  in  this  C'cmstitution;  nor  pass  laws 
upon  citizenship  or  naturalization;  iikruptcy, 
counterfei;  ing  money  or  public  State-<locuments ; 
nor  lay  toimage  dues ;  nor  arm  vessels  of  war  or 


raise  armies,  save  in  the  case  of  foreign  invasion, 
or  of  a  danger  so  inunineiit  that  it  admits  of  no 
<lelay,  and  then  an  account  thereof  must  be  im- 
mediately given  fo  the  Federal  Government;  or 
name  or  receive  foreign  agents;  or  admit  new  re- 
ligious orders. 

Art.  109.  No  Province  can  declare  or  make 
war  to  another  Province.  Its  complaints  must  be 
submitted  to  the  Supretnc  Court  of  Justice  and 
be  settled  by  it.  Hostilities  ile  facto  arc  acts  of 
civtl-war  and  qualitled  as  scditio\is  and  tunuiltu- 
ous,  wliicli  the  (Jencral  Government  must  repress 
and  s\ifrocate  according  to  law. 

Art.  no.  The  Prov'  al  Governors  arc  the 
nat\iral  agents  of  the  I'ederal  Government  to 
catiso  the  fullllmcnt  of  tlie  laws  of  the  Nation. 
See  Ahoenti.ne  HKi-unMc:  A.  1).  1880-1801. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  AUSTRO- 
HUNGARIAN  EMPIRE.  Introduced  in 
1807.     See  AusTiUA:  A.  D.  1806-1807.  and  1800- 

1887. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    BELGIUM.     See 

NKTirEur,.\M)s;  A.  1).  18;i()-1884. 

CONSTITUTION    OF     BOLIVIA.      See 
Peuu:  A.  I).  1825-1830,  and  1830-1878. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


Tlie  following  text  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  Brazil,  adopted  February  94, 
1891,  is  taken  from  a  translation  published  in 
Bulletin  No.  7  of  tlu!  B\ireau  of  American  Re- 
publics, Washington: 

We,  the  representatives  of  the  Brazilian  peo- 
ple, >inited  in  constitutional  cmgress,  to  organize 
a  free  and  democratic  regime,  do  establish,  de- 
cree and  promulgate  the  following  constitution 
of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States  of  Bnizil: 

Article  i.  T'le  Brazilian  nation,  adopting  as 
a  form  of  government  the  Federal  Republic  pro- 
claimed November  15,  1889,  constit\ites  itself,  by 
the  perpetual  and  indissoluble  union  of  its  for- 
mer ijrovinces,  the  United  States  of  Brazil. 

Art.  2.  Eacli  of  the  former  provinces  shall  con- 
stitute a  Stiitc,  and  the  former  municipal  district 
shall  form  the  F(!deral  District,  continuing  to  bo 
tlie  cai)ital  of  the  Union  until  the  following  arti- 
cle snail  be  carried  into  effect. 

Art.  3.  In  the  center  there  is  allotted  as  the 
property  of  the  Union  a  zone  of  14,400  square 
kilometres,  which  in  due  time  shall  be  laid  off 
for  the  establishment  of  the  future  federal  capi- 
tal. Sole  paragraph. — After  the  change  of  site 
of  the  capital,  the  present  Federal  District  shall 
constitute  a  State. 

Art.  4.  The  States  shall  have  the  right  to  in- 
cornorate  themselves  one  with  another,  sub- 
divide themselves,  dismember  themselves  to  join 
with  others  or  form  new  States,  witli  the  consent 
of  the  respective  local  le^'islatures  in  two  Fucces- 
givc  annual  sessions  and  the  approval  of  the 
national  Congress. 

Art.  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  State  to 
provide,  at  its  own  expense,  for  the  necessities  of 
its  government  and  administration ;  but  the  Union 
shall  extend  assistance  to  any  State  which,  in 
case  of  public  calamity,  shall  demand  it. 

Art.  o.  The  Federal  Government  shall  not  intei  - 
fere  in  matters  pertaining  peculiarly  to  the  States, 
save:  (1)  To  repel  foreign  invasion,  or  the  inva- 
sion of  one  State  by  another.  (2)  To  maintain  the 
fedenitive  republican  form  of  government.  (3) 
To  reestablish  order  and  tranquillity  in  the  States 
at  the  request  of  the  respective  governments. 


(4)  To  assure  the  execution  of  the  laws  and  fed 
eral  decrees. 

Art.  7.  It  is  the  exclusive  prerogative  of  the 
Union  to  deeiee:  (1;  Duties  on  imports  from  for- 
eign countries.  (3)  Duties  of  entry,  departure, 
and  stay  of  vessels ;  the  coasting  trade  for  national 
articles  being  free  of  duties,  as  well  as  for  for- 
eign mercliandise  that  has  already  paid  an  im- 
port duty.  (15)  Stamp  duties,  save  the  restric- 
tions impo.sed  by  article  9,  ^  1,  No.  1.  (4)  Postal 
and  federal  telegraphic  taxes,  i^  1.  The  Union 
alone  shall  have  the  power:  (1)  To  establish 
banks  of  emission.  (3)  To  create  aiu'.  maintain 
custom-houses.  5^  2.  The  taxes  decreed  by  tlu; 
Union  shall  be  uniform  forall  the  States.  8  3.  The 
laws  of  the  Union  and  the  acts  and  decisions  of 
its  authorities  shall  be  executed  throughout  the 
country  by  federal  ollieials,  except  that  the  en- 
forcement of  the  former  may  be  committ'  d  li.^ 
the  governments  of  the  States,  with  the  consent 
of  the  said  States. 

Art.  8.  The  Federal  Government  is  forbidden 
to  make  distinctions  and  preferences  in  favor  of 
the  ports  of  an'  of  the  States  against  those  of 
others. 

Art.  9.  The  States  alone  are  competent  to  de- 
cree taxes :  (1)  On  the  exportation  of  merchan- 
dise of  their  own  production.  (2)  On  landed 
property.  (3)  On  the  transmission  of  property. 
(4)  On  industries  and  professions.  §  1.  The 
States  also  have  the  exclasive  right  to  decree: 
(1)  Stamp  duties  on  instruments  emanating  from 
their  respective  governments  and  business  of 
their  internal  economy.  (3)  Contributions  touch- 
ing their  own  telegraphs  and  postal  service. 
§  2.  The  products  of  the  other  States  are  exempt 
from  imposid  in  the  State  wlience  they  are  ex- 
ported. §  3.  It  is  lawful  for  a  State  to  levy 
duties  on  imports  of  foreign  goods  only  when 
Intended  for  consumption  in  its  own  territory; 
but  it  shall,  in  such  case,  cover  into  the  federal 
treasury  the  amount  of  duties  collected.  8  4.  The 
right  is  reserved  to  the  State?  of  establishing 
telegraph  lines  between  the  different  points  of 
their  own  territory,  and  between  these  and  those 
of  other  States  not  served  by  federal  lines;  but 


518 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BRAZIL. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BRAZIL. 


tlic  Union  may  liikc  possession  of  tlicm  when  the 
gciicr.il  welfiire  shall  require. 

Art.  10.  Tlie  several  States  are  proliihited  from 
taxing  the  federal  property  or  reveniu!,  or  any- 
thing in  the  service  of  tlie  Lnion,  and  vice  versa. 

Art,  II.  It  is  forbidden  to  tlie  States,  as  well 
as  to  tlie  Unions:  (1)  To  impo.se  duties  on  tlie 
jiroduc'ts  of  tiie  other  States,  or  of  foreign  conn- 
tries,  in  transit  througli  tlie  territory  of  any 
State,  or  from  one  State  to  another,  as  also  on 
tlie  vehicles,  whether  by  land  or  water,  by  whicli 
tliey  are  transported.  (3)  To  establish,  aid,  or 
emliarrass  the  exercise  of  religii  us  worsliip.  (3) 
To  enact  ex  post  facto  laws. 

Art.  12.  In  addition  to  the  sources  of  revenue 
set  forth  in  articles  7  and  9,  it  sliall  be  lawful  for 
tlic  Union,  as  well  as  for  the  States,  cumulatively 
or  otlierwise,  to  create  any  others  whatsoever 
wliicii  may  not  be  in  contravention  of  the  terras 
of  articles?,  9,  and  11,  §  1. 

Art.  13.  The  right  of  the  Union  and  of  the 
States  to  legislate  in  regard  to  railways an<l  navi- 
gation of  internal  waters  shall  be  regulated  by 
federal  law.  Sole  pdrnr/raph. —  Tlie  coastwise 
trade  sliall  be  carried  on  in  national  vessels. 

Art.  14.  The  land  anil  naval  forces  are  perma- 
nent national  institutions,  intended  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  country  from  foreign  attadc  and  the 
niiiinteiiance  of  the  laws  of  the  land.  Witliin 
the  limits  of  tlie  law,  the  armed  forces  are  from 
their  nature  lield  to  obedience,  caeli  raiili  to  its 
.superior,  and  bound  to  support  all  constitutional 
institutions. 

Art.  15.  The  legislative,  executive,  and  judi- 
cial powers  arc  organs  of  the  national  sover- 
eigntj',  harmonious  and  indepem'.ent  among 
theiiLselves. 

Art.  16.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
national  Congress,  with  the  sanction  of  tlie  Presi- 
dent of  tlie  Republic.  §  1.  The  national  Con- 
gress is  composed  of  two  branches,  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  and  the  Senate,  i^  3-  The  elections 
for  senators  and  for  deputies  shall  be  held  siniul- 
tiiiieously  throughout  the  country.  §  3.  No  per- 
son shall  be  senator  and  deputy  at  the  same  time. 

Art.  17.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  in  the 
federal  capital  on  the  3d  day  of  May  of  each 
year,  unless  some  other  day  shall  be  fixed  by 
law,  without  being  convokeil,  and  shall  continue 
in  session  4  montlis  from  the  date  of  the  opening, 
and  may  be  prorogued,  adjourned,  or  convoked 
in  extraordinary  session.  §  1.  Tlie  Congress 
.ilone  shall  have  the  power  to  deliberate  on  the 
prorogation  or  extension  of  its  session.  §2.  Each 
legislature  shall  last  for  3  years.  §  3.  The  gov- 
ernor of  any  State  in  which  tliere  shall  be  a  va- 
cancy in  the  representation,  including  the  case  of 
resignation,  sliall  order  a  new  election  to  be  held 
at  once. 

Art.  18.  Tlie  Chamber  and  the  Senate  shall 
hold  their  sessions  apart  and  in  public,  unless 
otlierwise  resolved  by  a  majority  vote,  and  shall 
deliberate  only  when,  in  cacli  of  the  chambers, 
there  shall  be  present  an  absolute  majority  of  its 
members.  SuU  jmragraph. — To  eacli  of  the  cham- 
bers sliall  belong  the  right  to  verify  and  recog- 
nize the  powers  of  its  members,  to  clioose  its  own 
presiding  oHlcers,  to  organize  its  internal  govem- 
incut,  to  regulate  the  service  of  its  own  police 
rules,  and  to  choose  its  own  secretaries. 

Art.  19.  Tlie  deputies  and  senators  can  not  be 
held  to  account  for  their  opinions,  expressions, 
and  votes  in  the  discharge  of  their  mandate. 


I 


Art.  20.  Deputies  and  senators,  from  the  time 
of  receiving  their  certitlcati'  of  election  until  a 
new  election,  can  not  be  arrested  or  proceeded 
against  criminally  without  the  [lerini.ssion  of 
tlieir  respective  chambers,  except,  in  the  case  of  a 
llagrant  crime,  in  wliich  liaii  is  inadmissible.  In 
sueli  case,  the  prosecution  being  carried  to  exclu- 
sive decision,  tlie  prosecuting  aulliorily  sliall 
send  the  court  records  to  the  respective  chamber 
for  its  decision  on  tlie  iiroseciition  of  tlie  charge, 
unless  the  accused  shall  prefer  immediate  judg- 
ment. 

Art.  21.  The  members  of  the  two  chambers, 
on  taking  tlieir  .seats,  shall  taki!  a  formal  obliga- 
tion, in  public  session,  t'  iierform  their  duties 
faithfully. 

Art.  22.  During  tlie  sessions  the  senators  and 
deputies  shall  receive  an  e((ual  pecuniary  salarj' 
and  mileage,  which  shall  be  fixed  by  Congress 
at  the  end  of  each  session  for  tlie  following  one. 

Art.  23.  No  member  of  the  Congress,  from 
the  time  if  his  election,  can  make  contracts  witli 
tlie  executive  power  or  receive  from  it  any  paid 
commission  or  employment.  5;  1.  Exceptions  to 
this  iirohibition  are:  (1)  Diplomatic  missions.  (2) 
C'ommissions  or  military  commands.  (3)  Ad- 
vancement in  rank  and  legal  iiromotion.  ;$  3. 
No  deputy  or  senator,  however,  can  accept  an 
apiiointnient  for  any  mission,  commission,  or 
command  mentioned  in  Nos.  1  and  2  of  the  ]re- 
ceding  paragraph,  witliout  the  consent  of  the 
chamber  to  wliicli  he  belongs,  when  such  accept- 
ance would  prevent  the  exercise  of  his  legisla- 
tive duties,  except  iu  case  of  war  or  .sudi  as 
involve  the  iKmor  iv  integrity  of  tin;  nation. 

Art.  24.  No  deputy  or  senator  can  be  jiresi- 
dent  or  form  part  of  a  directory  of  any  bank, 
companv,  or  enterprise  whicli  enjoys  the  favors 
of  the  Federal  Government  defined  in  and  by 
law.  Solepardf/rnph. — Nonobservance  of  the  jiro- 
visions  of  the  fon  going  article  by  any  deputy  or 
senator  shall  involve  the  loss  of  his  .seat. 

Art.  25.  Tiie  legislative  commission  shall  be 
incomiiatible  with  tlie  exercisa  of  any  other  func- 
tions during  the  sessions. 

Art.  26.  Tlie  conditions  for  eligibility  to  the 
national  C(jngress  are:  (1)  To  be  iu  possession 
of  tlie  riglits  of  Brazilian  citizenship  and  to  lie 
registered  as  a  voter.  (2)  For  the  t'hamber,  to 
have  been  for  more  than  4  years  a  Brazilian  citi- 
zen; and  for  tlie  Senate,  for  more  than  li  years. 
This  provision  does  not  include  those  citizens 
referred  to  in  No.  4,  article  09. 

Art.  27.  The  Congress  shall  by  special  legis- 
lation declare  the  cases  of  electoral  incompetency. 

Art.  28.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  shall  be 
composed  of  tiie  reiiresentatives  of  the  people, 
elected  by  tlie  States  and  tlie  Federal  District  by 
direct  sulTrage,  the  representation  of  the  min- 
ority being  guarantied,  t^  1-  Tlie  number  of 
the  deputies  shall  be  fixed  by  law  yi  sueii  a  way 
as  not  to  exceed  one  for  each  70,000  iiiliabitants, 
and  that  there  shall  not  be  less  than  four  for 
each  State.  S  ~-  To  this  end  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment sliali  at  once  order  a  census  to  Ir-  taken 
of  tlie  population  of  the  Republic,  whicli  shall 
be  revi-sed  everv  10  years. 

Art.  29.  TotheCliainberbelnngs  the  initiative 
in  the  adjournment  of  the  legislative  sessions 
and  in  all  legislation  in  regard  to  taxation,  to  tlie 
determination  of  tiie  size  of  tiie  army  and  navy, 
in  tlie  discussion  of  propositions  from  the  execu- 
tive power,  am.!  in  tlie  decision  to  proceed  or  not 


519 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


in  rliiirjrcH  HjcainHt  tlic  I'rcKidciit  of  tlic  Ucpuhlir 
under  tlio  trrriiH  r)f  article  5i),  and  aKainitt  tlio 
niini.sti'rs  of  HtAtc  in  crimes  connected  with  tlioHo 
of  tli(^  Htti<l  President. 

Art.  30.  Tlie  .Senate  sludl  lie  composed  of  citi- 
zens elifrihie  under  tlic  terms  of  article  2(1  and 
more  than  iW  years  of  age,  to  the  numlier  of 
three  senators  for  each  State  and  three  for  the 
Federal  District,  chosen  in  the  same  maimer  as 
the  deputies. 

Art.  31.  The  mandate  of  a  senator  shall  con- 
tinue for  0  years,  and  one-third  of  f'lO  Seiuito 
shall  he  renewed  every  3  years,  title  ])iiragr(iji/i. 
—  A  senator  elected  in  place  of  another  shall 
exercise  his  mandate  during  the  remainder  of  the 
ternt  of  tlie  latter. 

Alt.  32.  The  Vice  President  of  the  ncpuhlic 
shall  lie  the  president  of  the  Senate,  where  he 
shall  vote  only  in  case  of  tie,  and  shall  he  re- 
jilaced  in  ease  of  ahsence  or  inipeiHmeiit  by  the 
vice  president  of  that  body. 

Art.  33.  The  Senate  alone  shall  have  the  power 
to  try  and  sentence  the  President  of  the  Uepub- 
lic  and  the  other  federal  oflleers  designiited  by 
the  constitution,  under  the  conditions  and  in  the 
manner  which  it  prescribes.  S;  1.  The  Senate, 
when  sitting  as  a  tribunal  of  justice,  shall  be 
presided  over  by  the  jiresidcnt  of  tlic  federal  su- 
preme cotirt.  ^  2.  It  shall  not  pass  sentence  of 
condemnation  unless  two-thirds  of  its  members 
be  present.  8  3.  It  shall  not  impose  other  penal- 
tics  tliaii  the  less  of  ollicc  and  prohibition  from 
holding  any  otiier,  without  prejudice  to  the 
action  of  ordinary  justice  against  tlie  condemned. 

Art.  34.  The  national  Congress  shall  have  ex- 
clusive power:  (1)  To  estimiite  tlie  revenue,  and 
fix  the  expenditures  of  the  Federal  Government 
annually,  and  tal<e  account  of  the  receipts  and 
ex|K'nditures  of  each  flcaiicial  budget.  (2)  To 
autliorizc  the  executive  to  contract  loans  and 
make  other  operations  of  credit,  (ii)  To  legislate 
in  regard  to  the  public  debt  and  furnish  means 
for  its  payment.  (4)  To  coitrol  the  collection 
ind  disposition  of  the  national  revenue.  (5)  To 
regulate  international  commeroe,  as  well  os  that 
of  the  States  with  each  other  and  with  the  Fed- 
eral District;  to  establish  and  regulate  the  col- 
lection of  customs  duties  in  the  ports,  create  or 
abolish  warehouses  of  deposit.  (6)  To  legislate 
in  regard  to  navigation  of  rivers  running  through 
more  than  one  State,  or  through  foic'gn  tcrri- 
,tory.  (7)  To  determine  the  weight,  vaiUe,  in- 
scription, type,  am'  denomination  of  the  currency. 
(8)  To  create  banks  of  emi.ssion,  legislate  in  re- 
gard to  tills  emission  and  to  tax  it.  (9)  To  fix 
the  standard  of  weights  and  measures.  (10)  To 
determine  definitely  the  boundaries  of  the  States 
between  each  other,  those  of  the  Federal  District, 
and  those  of  the  national  territory  with  the  ad- 
joining nations.  (11)  To  authorize  the  Govern- 
ment to  declare  war,  if  there  be  no  recourse  to 
arbitration  or  in  case  of  failure  of  this,  and  to 
makepeace.  (12)  To  decide  definitively  in  regard 
to  treaties  and  cor  i^entions  with  foreign  nations. 
(13)  To  remove  the  capital  of  the  Union.  (U)  To 
extend  aid  to  the  States  in  the  case  referred  to  'n 
article  5.  (1.5)  To  legislate  in  'cgard  to  federal 
postal  and  telegraph  service.  (16)  To  adopt  the 
necessary  measures  for  the  protection  of  the  fron- 
tiers. (17)  To  fix  every  year  the  number  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces.  (18)  To  make  laws  for 
the  organization  of  the  army  and  navy.  (10)  To 
grant  or  refuse  to  foreign  forces  passage  through 


the  territory  of  the  country  to  carry  on  military 
operiitioiiH.  (2(1)  To  molilli/e  and  make  use  of 
the  national  guard  or  local  militia  in  the  cases 
designated  by  the  Constitution.  (21)  To  declare 
a  state  of  siege  at  one  or  more  points  in  the 
national  territory,  in  tlie  emergency  of  an  attiiek 
by  foreign  forces,  or  internal  disturlmnci^  and  to 
approve  or  suspend  the  slate  of  siege  proclaimed 
by  the  executive  power  or  its  responsible  agents 
in  llie  absence  of  tlie  C'ongress.  (22)  To  reg\ilat(! 
the  conditions  and  methods  of  elections  for  fed- 
eral otlices  throughout  the  country.  (23)  To  leg- 
islate upon  the  civil,  crimiial,  and  (■ominereial 
laws  and  legal  procedures  of  the  federal  judi- 
ciary. (24)  To  establisli  uniform  :<iituralizatioii 
laws.  (25)  To  create  and  abolish  federal  pub- 
lic ofilccs,  to  fix  the  duties  of  the  same,  and 
designate  their  salaries,  (20)  To  organize  t!;^ 
federal  judiciary  according  to  the  terms  of  arti- 
cle 55  and  the  succeeding,  section  3.  (27)  To 
grant  iimnesty.  (28)  To  commute  and  pardon 
penalties  imposed  upon  federal  olUeers  for  of- 
fenses arising  from  their  responsibility.  (20)  To 
make  laws  regarding  Government  lands  and 
mines.  (30)  To  legislate  in  regard  to  the  munici 
pal  organization  of  tlie  Federal  District,  as  well 
as  to  the  police,  the  superior  instruction  and 
other  services  wliicli  in  the  capital  may  be  re- 
served for  tlie  Government  of  the  Union.  (31) 
To  govern  by  special  legislation  tliose  points  of 
the  territory  of  tlie  Republic  needed  for  the 
cstablisliment  of  arsenals,  other  establishments 
or  institutions  for  federal  uses.  (32)  To  settle 
cases  of  extradition  between  the  States.  (33)  To 
enact  such  laws  and  resolutions  as  may  be  neces- 
sary for  the  exercise  of  the  powers  belonging  to 
the  Union.  (34)  To  enact  the  organic  laws  neces- 
sary for  the  complete  execution  of  the  require- 
ments of  tlic  Constitution.  (35)  To  prorogue  and 
adjourn  its  own  sessions. 

Art.  35.  It  shall  belong  likewise  to  the  Con- 
g'ess,  but  not  exclusively :  (1)  To  watch  over  the 
Constitution  and  the  laws,  and  provide  for  neces- 
sities of  a  federal  character.  (2)  To  promote 
in  the  country  the  development  of  literature, 
the  arts,  and  sciences,  together  with  immigra- 
tion, agriculture,  manufactures,  and  commerce, 
witliout  privileges  such  as  would  obstruct  the 
action  of  tlie  local  governments.  (3)  To  create 
institutions  of  higher  instruction  and  of  higli 
school  cducatic  n  in  the  States.  (4)  To  provide 
for  high  school  instruct'on  in  tlie  Federal  Dis- 
trict. 

Art.  36.  Save  the  exceptions  named  in  article 
27,  all  bills  may  originate,  indilferently,  in  the 
Chamber  or  in  the  Senate,  and  may  be  introduced 
by  any  of  their  members. 

Art.  37.  A  bill,  after  being  passed  in  one  of 
the  chambers,  shall  be  submitted  to  tlie  other, 
and,  if  tlie  latter  shall  approve  the  sume,  it  shall 
send  it  to  the  executive,  who,  if  he  approve  it, 
shall  sanction  and  promulgate  it.  S  1-  I^.  how- 
ever, the  President  of  the  Republic  sliall  consider 
it  unconstitutional,  or  contrarj-  to  the  good  of  the 
nation,  he  shall  refuse  his  sanction  to  the  same 
witliin  10  working  days,  countc  '.  from  thiA  on 
which  he  recjived  it  (tlie  bill),  and  shall  return 
it,  within  tiie  same  period,  to  the  chamber  in 
which  it  originated,  with  liis  reasons  for  his  re- 
fusal. 5;  2.  Vhc  failure  of  the  executive  to  sig- 
nify his  disapproval  within  tlie  above-named  10 
days  b.iall  be  considered  as  an  approval,  and  in 
case  his  sanction  be  refused  after  the  close  of  the 


520 


CONSTITUTION  OF  HltAZII,. 


CONHTITUTION  OF  BUAZIJ.. 


spssion  of  tho  Congress,  tlio  I'rcsidont  sliall  mako 
public  Ills  reasons  therefor.  (5  iJ.  The  bill  sent 
back  to  the  chamber  where  it,  originated  shall 
be  discussed  and  voted  upcin  by  call  of  names, 
and  shall  be  considered  as  passed  if  it  obtain 
two-thirds  of  the  votes  of  tlie  members  present; 
and,  in  this  case,  it  shall  be  sent  to  th(f  other 
clianiber,  whence,  if  it  receive'  the  same  majority, 
it  shall  return,  ns  a  law,  to  the  executive  to  be 
formally  promulgated.  S  4.  Tlie  sanction  and 
promulgation  shall  be  eft'eeted  in  the  following 
forms:  (1)  "The  national  Congress  enacts  and  t 
sanction  the  following  law  (or  resolution)."  (3) 
"The  national  Congress  enacts  and  I  promul- 
gate the  following  law  (or  resolution)." 

Art.  38.  If  tli(!  law  be  not  promulgated  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic  within  48  hours,  in  the 
cases  provided  for  in  SS  3  and  3  of  tho  preced- 
ing article,  tho  president  of  the  Senate,  or  the 
vice  president,  if  the  former  shall  not  do  so  in 
the  same  space  of  time,  sliall  pronuilgate  it, 
making  use  of  tho  following  formula:  "  I,  presi- 
dent (or  vice  president)  of  the  Senate,  mako 
known  to  whomsoever  these  presents  may  come, 
that  the  national  Congress  enacts  and  promul- 
gates tho  following  law  (or  resolution). " 

Art.  39.  A  l)ill  from  one  cliamber,  amended  in 
tlio  otlier,  shall'  return  to  the  former,  wldeh,  if  it 
accept  tho  amendments,  shall  send  it,  clianged  to 
conform  with  the  same,  to  the  executive,  g  1.  In 
the  contrary  case,  it  sliall  go  back  to  tho  amend- 
ing cliamber,  where  tho  alterations  shall  be  con- 
.iilered  as  approved,  if  they  receive  the  vote  of 
two-thirds  of  t'.io  members  present;  in  tlio  latter 
case,  the  bill  sliall  return  to  the  chamber  where 
it  originated,  and  there  tho  amendments  can  be 
rejected  only  by  a  two-tlards  vote.  S  2-  If  tl>e 
alterations  be  rejected  by  such  vote,  the  bill  shall 
he  submitted  without  them  to  the  approval  of 
the  executive. 

Art.  40.  Bills  finally  rejected  or  not  approved, 
shall  not  be  presented  again  in  the  same  legisla- 
tive! session. 

Art.  41.  The  executive  power  shall  be  exer- 
ci.sed  by  the  President  of  tlio  United  States  of 
Brazil,  as  elective  cliief  of  the' nation.  §  1.  Tlio 
Vice  President,  elected  simultaneously  with  the 
President,  shall  serve  in  place  of  the  latter  in 
case  of  impediment  and  succeed  hiln  in  case  of 
vacancy  in  tho  Presidency.  '  In  cas(!  of  im- 
pedi'nent  or  vacancy  in  the  \  ice  I  i isidency,  tho 
following  officers,  in  tho  order  named,  shall  be 
called  to  the  Presidency:  Tho  vice  president  of 
the  Senate,  tho  president  of  tho  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  the  president  of  tlie  federal  supremo 
court.  §  8.  The  following  are  the  conditions  of 
eligibility  to  the  Presidency  or  Vice  Presidency 
of  tlie  Republic:    (1)  Must  be  a  native  of  Brazil. 

(2)  Must   bo  in  tho  exorcise  of  politi"al  rights. 

(3)  Must  be  more  than  35  years  of  age. 

Art.  42.  In  case  of  vacancy  from  any  cause  in 
tlie  Presidency  or  Vicj  Presidency  before  tlie  ex- 
piration of  tho  first  3  years  of  tlie  Presidential 
term,  a  new  election  shall  be  held. 

Art.  43.  Tlie  President  shall  hoM  his  office 
during  4  years,  and  is  not  eligible  for  reflection 
for  tlie  fiext  succeeding  term.  S  1.  Tlie  Vice 
President  who  shall  fill  the  Presidency  during 
the  last  year  of  the  Presidential  term  shall  not  be 
eligible  to  the  Presidency  for  the  next  term  of 
that  office.  §  3.  On  the  same  day  on  which  his 
Presidential  term  shall  cease  the  Presidout  shivll, 
without  fail,  cease  to  exercise  the  functions  of 

34 


his  office,  ami  the  newly  elected  President  sliall 
at  onci^  Kiieceed  him.  ^  3.  If  the  latter  should 
be  hinderi'il  or  should  fail  to  do  so,  the  succes 
slon  shall  be  ell'eeled  in  accordance  \villi  jStS  1 
and  3  of  article  41.  ^  4.  The  llrsl  Presidential 
term  shall  expire  on  Ihi'  IHlh  of  November,  1HI)4. 

Art.  44.  On  taking  possession  of  bis  iilllce,  the 
President,  in  a  session  of  the  Congress,  or,  if  it 
be  not  assembled,  before  the  federal  siiprciiui 
court,  shall  pronounce'  the  following  alllrmalion: 
"  I  promise  to  maintain  tlu'  federal  Coiistitiitlon 
and  comply  witli  '.s  provisions  with  perfect  loy- 
alty, to  promote  .he  general  welfare  of  tlu!  lie- 
public,  to  obse  ve  its  laws,  and  support  the 
union,  intogrit},  and  independence  of  the  na- 
tion." 

Art.  45.  The  President  and  Vice  President 
shall  not  leave  tlie  national  territory  without  tho 
permission  of  the  Congress,  under  penalty  of  loss 
of  office. 

Art.  46.  The  President  and  Vice  President 
shall  receive  tlie  salary  fixed  by  the  Congress  In 
the  preceding  Presidential  term. 

Art.  47.  The  President  and  Vice  President 
shall  be  clio.sen  by  direct  sulTrage  of  tlie  nation 
and  an  absolute  majority  of  tlio  votes,  g  1  Tlie 
election  sliall  take  place  on  tlie  first  day  of  >Liieli 
In  tho  last  year  of  the  P'-esidential  term,  and  the 
counting  of  tlie  votes  cast  at  the  dilTerent  pre- 
cincts shall  at  once  be  made  in  the  respectivo 
capitals  of  the  States  and  in  the  federal  capital. 
Tlie  Congress  shall  make  the  count  at  its  lirst 
session  of  the  same  year,  with  any  number  of 
members  present.  §  '■^-  If  """c  "f  f'ose  voted 
for  shall  have  received  an  absolute  majority,  the 
Congress  sliall  elect,  by  a  majority  of  votes  of 
tliose  present,  one  of  the  two  who,  in  the  direct 
election,  shall  have  received  'he  highest  number 
of  votes.  In  case  of  v  tie  the  older  shall  be  con- 
sidered elected,  g  3.  The  manner  of  the  election 
and  of  the  counting  of  tlie  votes  shall  be  regu- 
lated by  ordinary  legislation.  S  i-  The  relatives, 
botli  by  consanguinity  and  by  marriage,  in  the 
first  and  secoiul  degrees,  of  the  President  and 
Vice  President  shall  bo  ineligible  for  the  offices 
of  President  and  Vice  President,  provided  the 
said  otBeials  art;  in  office  at  tlie  time  of  the  eh.'C- 
tion  or  have  left  the  office  even  6  mimtlis  before. 

Art.  48.  To  the  President  of  the  Republic 
shall  beleng  the  exclusive  right  to  —  (1)  Sanction,, 
promulgate,  and  make  public  the  laws  and  reso- 
lutions of  the  Congress;  issue  decrees,  instruc- 
tions, and  regulations  for  tlieir  f".itliful  execu- 
tion. (3)  Choose  and  dismiss  at  will  the  cabinet 
ofilcers.  (3)  Exercise  or  appoint  some  one  to 
exorcise  supreme  command  over  the  land  and 
naval  forces  of  the  Uniteil  Stjites  of  TJrazil,  as 
well  as  over  the  local  polic,  when  called  to  arms 
for  the  internal  or  externa,  defense  of  the  Union. 
(4)  Govern  and  distribute,  under  the  laws  of  the 
Congress,  according  to  the  necessities  of  the  Na- 
tional Government,  the  lanil  and  :iaval  forces. 
(15)  Dispose  of  the  offices,  both  military  and  civil, 
of  a  federal  character,  with  the  exceptions  speci- 
fied in  tho  Constitution.  (0)  Pardon  crimes  and 
commute  penalties  for  olTenses  subject  to  federal 
jurisdiction,  save  in  tlie  cases  mentioned  in  arti- 
cle 34,  No.  38,  and  article  'J3,  g  3.  (T)  Declare 
war  and  •'■iike  peace,  .inder  the  provisions  of 
article  34,  No.  11.  (8)  Declare  war  at  once  in 
cose  of  foreign  invasion  or  aggression.  (9)  Give 
an  annual  state:nent  to  tiui  national  Congress  of 
the  condition  of  tlie  country,  with  a  rccommv;nda- 


521 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  HUAZIL. 


lion  of  pri'ssliij;  provlHioiiH  nnd  rcfoniiH,  tliroii);ti 
r.  ii.t'HHiiKi',  wlilcli  lie  hIiiiII  w-nil  to  the  Hi'crc'tary 
of  tlic  Hciiittc  on  the  duy  of  tlli^  opciiiiii^  of  Itio 
I<'f;isliitlv4'  session.  (10)  Convoke  llie  ('oni;ress 
ill  e.xtni  session.  (11)  .\|ipoint  tli<'  feilenil  |ii<l|;es 
when  prr)poseil  by  the  supreme  court.  {I'i)  Ap- 
point tli(^  meniliers  of  tlie  fciieral  supreme  eimrl 
iiM(i  ministers  of  tlie  dlploiniitie  corps,  willi  llie 
approvul  of  tile  senate:  anil,  in  tlie  absence  of  the 
Conj^ress,  appoint  them  in  commission  until  con 
Hiilereil  by  the  senate,  (lit)  Appoint  the  other 
members  of  the  (liplomatic  corps  unil  consular 
aKiints.  (14)  Maintain  relations  with  forel);n 
states.  (15)  Declare,  ilirectly,  or  through  his 
responsible!  ajjents,  a  slate  of  siege  at  any  point 
of  the  national  territory,  in  ca.se  of  for<'f)j;n  a>r- 
ftression  or  serious  internal  ilisturbance.  (Article 
fl,  No.  !);  article  :U,  No.  21 ;  ami  article  8(1.)  (1(1) 
Set  on  f(«)t  international  ne>;otiatiims,  celebrate 
njrreements,  conventions,  anil  treaties,  always  nd 
refer<!iidum  to  tlu^  Coni^ress,  nnd  npjjrove  tho.se 
ni.idy  by  the  States  in  conformity  witli  article  (15, 
Hiibinittii;);  Iheni  when  necessary  to  the  authority 
of  the  C'on),'ress. 

Art.  49.  The  President  of  the  Republic  shall 
be  assisted  by  the  ministers  of  state  (cabinet  otll- 
<:ers),  aj;ents  of  his  contldence,  who  sign  the  acts 
and  prosido  over  their  respective  departments 
into  which  the  federal  administration  is  divided. 

Art.  50.  TIk!  cabinet  ministers  shall  not  exer- 
cise any  oilier  employment  or  function  of  a  pid)- 
lic  natiire,  be  eligible  to  the  Presidency  or  Vice 
Presidency  of  the  Union,  or  be  elected  deputy  or 
senator.  Sale  piiraijraph. — Any  deputy  or  sena- 
tor, who  shall  accept  the  position  of  cabinet 
minister,  shall  lose  his  .seat  in  the  respective 
cliamlier,  and  ft  new  election  shall  at  once  be 
lield,  in  which  lie  shall  not  be  voted  for. 

Art.  51.  The  cabinet  ministers  shall  not  appear 
at  the  sessions  of  the  Congress,  and  shall  com- 
municate with  that  body  in  writing  only  or  by 
personal  conference  with  the  committees  of  tlio 
chambers.  The  annual  report  of  the  ministers 
shall  be  aililressed  to  the  Pre.siilent  of  the  Repub- 
lic, and  distributed  to  all  the  members  of  the 
Congress. 

Art.  S3,  The  cabinet  ministers  shall  not  be 
responsible  to  the  Congress  or  to  the  courts  for 
advice  given  to  the  President  of  the  Republic. 
§  1.  They  shall  be  responsible,  nevertheless,  with 
respect  to  their  acts,  for  crimes  deflned  in  tlic 
law.  j5  3.  For  common  crimes  and  those  for 
which  they  are  responsible  they  shall  be  prose- 
cui.'d  and  tried  by  the  federal  supreme  court, 
ar  1  I'lr  those  committed  jointly  with  the  Presi- 
dent ot  'he  Republic,  by  the  authority  competent 
to  judge  this  latter. 

Art.  S3.  The  President  of  the  United  States  of 
Brazil  shall  be  brought  to  trial  and  judgment, 
after  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  sliall  have  decided 
that  he  should  be  tried  on  tlie  charges  made 
against  him,  in  the  federal  supreme  court,  in  the 
case  of  common  crimes,  nnd  in  those  of  responsi- 
bility, in  the  Senate.  Sole  paragraph. — As  .soon 
as  it  shall  be  decided  to  try  him  on  the  charges 
brought,  the  President  shall  be  suspended  in  the 
exercise  of  the  duties  of  his  ollicc. 

Art.  54.  Crimes  of  responsibility  on  the  part 
of  the  President  of  tlie  Republic  are  such  as  are 
directed  agnin.st  —  (1)  The  political  existence  of 
the  Union.  (2)  The  (Jonstitution  and  the  form  of 
the  Federal  Government.  (3)  The  free  exercioj 
of  the  political  powers.     (4)  The  legal  enjoyment 


and  exercis<-  of  political  or  Individual  righti. 
(5)  The  intcnial  security  of  thi^  country,  (tl)  The 
piirilv  of  till'  administration.  (7)  The  cmmtltu- 
tioiial  keeping  and  use  of  the  iiiibllc  fuiiilH.  (K) 
The  tinancial  legislation  enacted  by  the  ('ongress. 
^  I.  Tliesi-  olTcnsi's  shall  Ih'  di'llncd  in  a  special 
law,  5;  'i.  Another  law  sliall  provide  for  the 
chargi'S,  the  trial,  and  the  |iid.Lrnu'nt.  ^  !l.  Both 
these  laws  sliall  be  enacted  In  the  tlrst  session  of 
the  (Irst  ('ongres.s. 

Art.  55.  The  iiidlciiil  power  of  the  Union  sliall 
be  lodged  in  a  federal  supreme  court  sitting  in 
the  capital  of  the  Republic,  and  as  inaiiv  inferior 
federal  courts  anil  Iribiinals,  dislributcil  through 
the  country,  as  llie  Congress  shall  create. 

Art.  S6.  The  federal  Kupreme  court  shall  be 
composed  of  tlfteen  justices,  appointed  under  tlie 
provisions  of  article  4H,  No.  \'i.  from  among  tlie 
oldest  thirty  citizens  of  well-known  knowledge 
and  reputation  who  may  be  eligible  to  the  Senate. 

Art.  S7-  The  federal  justices  shall  hold  olllce 
for  life,  being  removable  solely  by  juiliclal  sen- 
tence. SI-  Their  salaries  shall  be  llxed  by  law 
of  the  (."(ingress,  and  can  not  be  diminisheil.  ,5  3. 
The  Senate  shall  try  the  meiiiliers  of  the  federal 
supreme  court  for  crimes  of  responsibility,  and 
this  latter  the  lower  federal  judges. 

Art.  s8.  The  federal  courts  shall  choo.si!  their 
presidents  from  among  their  own  members,  and 
shall  organize  their  respective  clerical  corps. 
S  1.  In  tliese  corps  the  appointment  and  dis- 
inissal  of  the  respective  clerks,  as  well  as  the  (III- 
ing  of  the  judicial  otilces  in  the  respective  judi- 
cial districts,  shall  belong  to  the  presidents  of  tlie 
respective^  couits.  ij  2.  The  President  of  the 
Republic  shall  appoint  from  among  tlie  members 
of  the  federal  .supreme  court  the  attorney-general 
of  the  Republic,  wliose  duties  sliall  be  dullned  by 
law. 

Art.  S9-  To  the  federal  supreme  court  shall 
belong  till  duty  of  —  (1)  Trying  and  judging  by 
original  and  exclusive  jtiri.sdietion  —  (a)  Tlie 
President  of  the  Republic  for  common  (Times, 
and  tlio  cabinet  ministers  in  the  cases  specilied 
in  article  53.  (h)  ,The  ministers  of  tlie  diplomatic 
corps  for  common  crimes  and  those  of  respimsi- 
bility.  (c)  Cases  and  disputes  between  the  .States 
and  the  Union,  or  between  the  States  one  with 
another.  ('/)  Disputes  nnd  claims  between  for- 
eign states  and  the  Union,  or  between  foreign 
nations  and  the  States,  (e)  Conilicts  between  the 
federal  courts  one  with  anotlier,  or  between  these 
nnd  those  of  the  States,  as  well  as  those  between 
the  courts  of  one  State  and  those  of  another. 
(2)  Deciding,  on  appeal,  (iiiestions  pronounced 
upon  by  the  lower  federal  courts  and  tribunals, 
ns  well  as  those  mentioned  in  §  1  of  the  present 
article  and  in  article  60.  (3)  Reviewing  the  pro- 
ceedings of  flnislied  trials,  under  the  jirovisions 
of  article  81.  ^  1.  Decisions  of  State  courts  in 
last  appeal  can  be  carried  to  the  federal  supremo 
court  —  (a)  AViien  the  validity  or  application  of 
the  federal  laws  or  l...'aties  is  called  in  (juestion 
and  the  decisioL  -  f  the  St.ite  court  shall  be 
against  the  same,  (h)  "When  the  validity  of  laws 
or  acts  of  the  governments  of  the  States  in  respect 
to  I  .e  Constitution  or  of  the  federal  laws  is  con- 
tested and  the  State  court  shall  have  decided  in 
favor  of  the  validity  of  the  acts  or  laws  in  ques- 
tio.i.  §  3.  In  tlie  cases  which  involve  the  appli- 
cation of  the  laws  of  the  States,  the  federal  court 
shall  consult  the  jurisprudence  of  the  local  tribu- 
nals, and  vice  versa,  the  State  court  shall  consider 


522 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


CONHTITIITION  OP  nUAZIt,, 


•  hut  of  till'  frdcriil  trll)iiimlH  wlini  llic  iiitcrprctn- 
tloli  of  till!  liiwH  of  till!  I'liiciti  Is  Involved. 

Art,  60.  It  hIiiiII  Ih'Ioiik  totlir  frilrritl  roiirtx  to 
di'cldc  —  (")  t'liwH  In  widcli  the  iilalntllT  or  llir 
(Icfcndant  Hlmll  rest  tti<;  case  on  sonir  provision  of 
the  federal  ConHtitution.  (/>)  All  suits  lirouKl>t 
aKailist  the  (iovernnient  of  the  I'nion  or  the  na- 
tional treasury  Imscd  on  constitiitional  provisions, 
on  the  laws'and  regulations  of  the  executive 
power,  or  on  contracts  made  with  tlie  said  <}ov- 
cnunent.  (c)  Hidts  arising  from  eompeiisations, 
claims,  indemnilication  of  dama^;es,  or  any  others 
•vliatsocviT  lirouKht  by  the  ((overninenl  of  the 
Union  against  private  individuals,  and  vice  versa. 
(il)  MliKations  hetwecn  a  States  and  the  eiti/ens 
of  another,  or  lictwcen  citizens  of  dilTerent  Slates 
liaving  dllTeronces  in  their  laws,  (c)  Suits  be- 
tween fort'ijfii  states  and  Itra/.ilian  citizens.  (/) 
Actions  begun  by  foreigners,  and  based  either  on 
contracts  with  the  Ferlcral  Oovernment  or  on 
conventions  or  treaties  of  the  I'liion  with  other 
nations.  (</)  Questions  of  maritime  law  and 
navigation,  whether  on  tlu'  sea  or  on  the  rivers 
and  lakes  of  the  country.  (/()  (Questions  of  inter- 
national law,  whether  crindnal  or  civil.  (/)  Po- 
litical crimes.  i5  1.  ("ongress  is  forliidden  to 
conunit  any  part  of  the  federal  jurisdiction  to 
the  Stale  courls.  §  3.  Heutenccs  and  orders  of 
tlic  federal  judges  will  be  ctecuted  by  federal 
<>ourt  olBcers,  and  the  local  police  shall  assist 
them  when  called  upon  by  the  same. 

Art.  61.  'I'he  decisions  of  the  State  courts  or 
tribunals  in  matters  within  their  competence 
shall  put  an  end  to  the  suits  and  questions,  ex- 
cept as  to  (1)  habeas  corpus,  or  (2)  elTccts  of  a 
foreigner  deceased  in  cases  not  provided  for  bv 
convention  or  treaty.  In  such  cases  there  shall 
be  voluntary  recourse  to  the  federal  supreme 
court. 

Art.  62.  The  State  courts  shall  not  have  the 
power  to  Intervene  In  (luestions  subnutted  to  the 
federal  tribunals,  or  to  annul,  alter,  or  suspend 
the  sentences  or  orders  of  these  latter;  and,  recip- 
rocallv,  the  federal  judiciary  can  not  interfere  in 
questions  submitted  to  the  State  courts,  or  annul, 
alter,  or  suspend  their  decisions  or  orders,  except 
In  the  cases  provided  in  this  Constitution. 

Art.  65.  Each  State  shall  be  governed  by  the 
constitution  and  laws  which  it  shall  adopt,  respect 
l)clng  observed  for  the  coustitutional  principles  of 
the  Union. 

Art.  64.  The  unexplored  mines  and  wild  lands 
lying  within  the  States  shall  belong  to  these 
States  respectively;  and  to  the  Union  only  as 
much  territory  as  may  be  nccessi\ry  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  frontiers,  for  fortiflcationa,  nulitary 
VorKs,  and  federal  railways.  Sole  paragrnph. — 
The  national  properties,  not  necessary  for  the 
service  of  the  Union,  shall  pass  to  the  domain  of 
the  States  in  whose  territory  they  may  be  situ- 
ated. 

Art.  65.  The  States  shall  have  the  right  to  — 
(1)  Conclude  agreements  and  conventions  among 
themselves,  if  such  be  not  of  a  political  character. 
(Article  48,  No.  16.)  (2)  Exercise  in  general  any 
and  every  power  or  right  not  deui'ul  expressly 
by  the  Constitution,  or  implicitly  in  its  express 
terms. 

Art.  66.  It  is  forbidden  to  the  States  to— (1) 
Kefuse  to  recognize  public  documents  of  tlie 
Union,  or  of  any  of  t)»e  States,  of  a  legislative, 
arlministiative,  or  judiciol  character.  (2)  Reject 
tlie  currency  or  notes  issued  by  banks,  which 


clrculiite  by  act  of  the  Fcclcral  (Jovernmcnt. 
(II)  iMake  or  (hrlarc  war,  r)ne  with  another,  or 
make  reprisals.  (J)  Refuse  tlie  extradition  of 
criiidiials  drmanded  by  the  justice  of  other  .Stall's, 
or  of  the  Feileral  District,  in  coiifdrmlty  with  the 
laws  id  ('iiiigress  wliieli  relate  to  tills  subject. 
(Arllih-ll,  No.  !t2.) 

Art.  67.  Save  the  rcslrlctlnns  specitled  in  Ihe 
Ciinstllution.  and  the  federal  laws,  the  Federal 
Distrirl  shall  be  governed  directly  by  the  iiiuiilci- 
\n\\  authorillis.  Sol,-,  jkirdijrdiih. — Kxpenses  of  a 
local  character  in  llie  lapilal  of  the  Re|>ulillc 
imist  be  provided  fur  i'.\clu><ivcly  by  the  muiiiii- 
pal  aiillioritii's. 

Art.  68.  The  States  shall  orguiiize  tlieinselves 
in  such  n  iiiaimcr  as  to  assure  the  autonomy  of 
the  municipalltii's  in  ('Very thing  that  coucema 
their  peculiar  interests. 

Art.  69.  The  following  shall  be  Ilrazilian  1  ,tl- 
zcns:  (I)  Natives  of  Hrazil.  thougli  of  I'orclgn 
parentage  (father),  provided  hi-  be  not  in  tlie  .ser- 
vice of  ills  nation.  (2)  Sons  of  a  Hiazilian  falliir, 
and  illegitimate  sons  of  a  Brazilian  mother,  born 
in  foreign  parts,  if  they  take  up  their  nsidinei) 
(domicile)  in  the  republic.  (H)  Sons  of  a  Ilrazil- 
ian father  who  may  be  in  another  country  in  tlie 
service  of  the  Republic,  although  tliey  do  not 
make  their  domicile  hi  Hra/.il.  (4)  Foreigners, 
who,  being  in  Hrazil  on  the  l,'5tli  of  November, 
1881),  shall  not  declare,  within  (1  months  from  the 
time  when  the  Cimstitutloii  enters  into  force, 
their  desire  to  pre,m'rve  their  original  iialionalily. 
(5)  Foreigners  who  possess  property  (real  estate) 
in  Hrazil  and  arc  married  to  lirazilian  women,  or 
have  Hraziliau  children,  provided  they  reside  in 
Hrazil,  unless  they  shall  declare  their  iiitention 
of  not  changing  their  nationality.  (6)  Foreign- 
ers naturalized  lu  any  other  way. 

Art.  70.  Citizens  of  more  than  21  years  of  age, 
and  registered  according  to  law,  shall  be  electors. 
55  1.  The  following  shall  not  be  registered  as 
electors  for  federal  or  State  elections:  (1)  Beg- 
gars. (2)  Persons  ignorant  of  the  alphabet,  (it) 
Soldiers  on  pay,  except  alumni  of  the  military 
sch'ools  of  higher  instruction.  (4)  Members  of 
monastic  orders,  companies,  congregations,  or 
communities  of  whatsoever  denomination,  who 
are  subject  to  vows  of  obedience,  rule,  or  statute, 
which  implies  the  surrender  of  individual  liberty. 
^5  2.  Citizens  who  can  not  be  registered  shall  not 
be  eligible. 

Art.  71.  The  rights  of  the  Hrazilian  citizen 
can  be  suspended  or  lust  only  in  the  following 
cases:  ^  1.  The  rights  may  be  suspended  —  (<() 
For  physical  or  monil  incapacity,  (b)  For  crimi- 
nal conviction,  during  the  operation  of  the  .sen- 
tence. §  2.  Tliey  may  bo  lost — (n)  By  naturali- 
zation in  a  foreign  country,  (h)  By  acceptance 
of  employment  or  pension  from  a  foreign  power, 
without  permission  of  tlie  federal  executive.  ^  3. 
Tlio  means  of  reacquiring  lost  riglits  of  the  Bra- 
zilian citizen  shall  be  specitled  by  federal  law. 

Art.  72.  Tlie  Constitution  secures  10  Hrazil- 
ians  ami  foreigners  residing  in  the  country  the 
inviolability  of  their  rights  touching  individual 
liberty,  and  security,  and  projierty.  in  tlie  fol- 
lowing terms:  §  1.*  No  person  sliall  be  forced 
to  do,  or  leave  undone,  luiything  whatever,  ex- 
cei)t  by  virtue  of  law.  (5  2.  Before  the  law  all 
persons  are  equal.  The  Republic  does  not  recog- 
nize privileges  of  birth,  or  titles  of  nobility,  and 
abolishes  all  existing  honorary  orders,  with  all 
their  prerogatives  and  decorations,  as  well  as  all 


523 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BRAZIL. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  BRAZIL. 


liercditury  und  coiiciliar  titles.  §  3.  All  persons 
ami  ri'li)iiouH  profegsions  miiy  exercise,  publicly 
and  freely,  the  riglit  of  worship,  and  may  asso- 
ciate themselves  for  that  purpose,  acquire  prop- 
erty, observance  being  had  to  the  provisions  of 
the  common  law.  t^  4.  The  Uepubiic  recognizes 
only  the  civil  marriage,  the  celebration  of  which 
shall  lie  gratuitou.s.  s^  li.  The  cemeteries  shall  be 
secular  m  character,  and  be  managed  by  the 
municipal  authorities,  being  free  to  all  religious 
st^cts  for  the  exercise  of  tlieir  respective  rites  as 
regards  their  membert,  provided  they  do  not 
oitend  public  morals  or  the  laws.  t$  6.  The  in- 
struction given  in  the  public  institutions  shall  be 
secular.  S  7.  No  sect  or  church  shall  receive 
ofUcial  aid,  nor  be  dependent  on,  nor  connected 
with,  the  Government  of  the  Union,  or  of  the 
States.  §  8.  AH  persons  have  the  right  of  free 
association  and  -usscmbly,  without  arms;  and  the 
police  force  shall  not  intxirvene,  except  to  main- 
tain the  public  order.  <^  0.  Any  person  wliatso- 
ever  shall  have  the  right  to  address,  by  petition, 
the  public  powers,  deuoimcc  abuses  of  the  authori- 
ties, and  appeal  to  the  responsibility  of  the 
accused.  S  10-  I'i  time  of  peace  any  person 
may,  without  pasf  port,  enter  or  loavc  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Kepul;lic,witli  his  fortune  and  goods, 
whenever  and  however  he  may  choose.  §  11. 
The  house  is  the  inviolable  asylum  of  the  person; 
no  one  can  enter  it  at  night  without  tlie  consent 
of  the  inhabitant,  except  to  aid  the  victims  of  a 
crime  or  disaster;  nor  by  day,  unless  in  the  ca.ses 
and  in  the  form  prescribed  by  law.  g  12.  The 
expression  of  opinion  shall  be  free,  in  respect  to 
whatever  sabject,  tlirough  the  press  or  through 
the  tribune,  v/ithout  subjection  to  censorship, 
eacli  one  bein'j  responsible  for  the  abuses  he  may 
commit,  in  tha  cases  and  in  the  form  prescribed 
by  law.  Anonymous  publications  arc  forbidden, 
g  13.  Cases  of  flagrante  delicto  alone  excepted, 
no  arrest  shall  be  made,  unless  after  declara- 
tion of  the  charge  (save  in  cases  determined  by 
law),  and  by  written  order  of  the  competent 
autiiorities.  §  14.  No  person  shall  be  kept  in 
prison  without  charge  formally  made,  save-  the 
exceptions  mentioned  in  the  law,  or  talien  to 
prison,  or  diitained  there,  if  he  give  bail,  in  cases 
where  such  is  lawful.  §  15.  No  person  shall  bo 
condemned,  except  by  competent  authority,  and 
in  virtue  of  law  alrea<ly  existing  and  in  the  form 
prescribed  by  it.  §  16.  The  law  shall  secure  to 
the  accused  the  fullest  defense  by  all  the  re- 
courses and  means  essential  to  the  sitme,  includ- 
ing the  notice  of  the  charge,  delivered  to  the 
prisoner  within  24  hours  and  signed  by  the  pro- 
per author  ,ty  along  with  the  names  of  the  accu- 
sers and  witnesses.  §17.  The  rights  of  property 
arc  maint  lined  in  all  their  plenitude,  and  no 
disupprop  .nation  shall  be  made,  er-^ept  from  ne- 
cessity or  public  utility,  and  indemnity  shall,  in 
such  caseti,  be  made  beforehan'i.  Mines  belong 
to  tlic  owners  of  tlie  soil,  under  tl  j  limitations 
to  be  cstiblished  by  the  la'"  U  encourage  the 
developnent  of  this  branch  -^  .adustry.  §18. 
Correspc  ndence  under  seal  is  in\  lolable.  §  19.  No 
penalty  shall  extend  beyond  the  person  of  tlie 
delinquent.  §  20.  The  penalty  of  the  galleys  is 
abolished,  as  also  judicial  banishment.  §  21. 
The  death  penalty  is  abolished,  except  in  the 
cases  under  military  law  in  time  of  war.  g  22. 
The  hiibcas  corpus  shall  always  be  granted  wben 
the  icdividual  suffers  violence  or  compulsion, 
through  illegality  or  abuse  of  power,  or  considers 


himself  in  imminent  danger  of  the  same.  §  23. 
There  shall  be  no  privileged  tribunal,  except  in 
such  cases  as,  from  their  nature,  belong  to  special 
courts.  §  24.  The  free  exercise  of  any  profes- 
sion, moral,  intellectual,  or  industrial,  is  guanm- 
tied.  §  25.  Industrial  inventions  belong  to  their 
authors,  to  whom  the  law  will  grant  a  temporary 
privilege,  or  to  whom  the  Congress  will  give  a 
reasonable  premium,  w  lien  it  is  desirable  to  make 
the  invention  public  property.  §  26.  To  authors 
of  literary  and  artistic  works  is  guarantied  tlie 
exclusive  right  of  reproducing  them  through  the 
press  or  by  any  other  mechanical  pnxiess,  and 
tlieir  heirs  shall  enjoy  the  same  right  during  the 
tipace  of  time  dutermined  by  the  law.  §  27.  The 
law  shall  also  secure  the  riglits  of  property  in 
trade-marKs.  §  28.  No  Brazilian  can  be  deprived 
of  his  civil  and  political  riglits  on  u'-count  of 
religious  belief  or  duty,  nor  lie  cxt  mpted  from 
the  performance  of  any  civic  duty.  55  29.  Those 
who  sliall  claim  exemption  from  any  i)urden  im- 
posed by  tlie  laws  of  the  Itepublie  on  its  citizens, 
on  account  of  religious  belief,  or  who  shall  accept 
any  foreign  decoration  or  title  of  nobility,  sha'l 
lose  all  their  political  rights.  §  30.  No  tax  >{ 
any  kind  shall  be  collected  except  in  virtue  of  a 
law  authorizing  tlie  same.  §  31.  The  institutioa 
of  trial  by  jury  is  maintained. 

Art.  73.  i'ublic  offices,  civil  or  military,  are 
accessible  to  all  Brazilian  citizens,  always  observ- 
ing the  conditions  of  particular  capacity  fixed 
by  the  law;  but  the  accumulation  of  remunera- 
tions is  forbidden. 

Art.  74.  Conunissions,  offices,  and  positions 
not  subject  to  removal  are  guarantied  in  all  their 
plenitude. 

Art.  75.  Only  such  public  officials  as  have  be- 
come infirm  in  tlie  service  of  the  nation  shall  be 
retired  on  paj'. 

Art.  76.  Officers  of  the  army  and  navy  shall 
lose  their  commissions  only  in  case  of  condemna- 
tion to  more  than  2  years  in  prison,  pronounced 
in  judgment  by  the  competent  tribunals. 

Art.  77.  There  shall  bo  a  special  court  for  the 
trial  of  military  offenses  committed  by  soldiers 
or  marines.  §  1.  This  court  shall  be  composed 
of  a  supreme  military  tribunal,  whose  members- 
shall  hold  their  seats  for  life,  and  of  the  councils 
necessary  for  the  formulation  of  tlie  charge  and 
the  judgment  of  the  crimes.  §2.  The  organiza- 
tion and  pov/ers  of  the  supreme  military  tribunal 
shall  be  determined  by  law. 

Art.  78.  The  enumeration  of  the  rights  and 
guaranties  expressed  in  the  Constitution  docs  not 
exclude  other  guaranties  and  rights,  not  enumer- 
ated, but  resulting  from  the  form  of  government 
established  and  principles  settled  by  said  Consti- 
tution. 

Art.  79.  The  citizen  vested  with  the  functions- 
of  either  of  these  three  federal  powers  shall  not 
exercise  those  of  another. 

Art.  80.  Any  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Union 
may  be  declared  in  state  of  siege,  and  the  consti- 
tutional guaranties  suspended  for  a  determined 
period,  whenever  the  security  of  the  Republic 
so  demands  in  case  of  foreign  aggression  or  in- 
testine disturbance.  (Article  34,  No.  21.)  §  1. 
The  power  to  execute  the  above  provision  may, 
if  the  Congress  be  not  in  session  and  the  country 
be  in  imminent  peril,  be  used  by  the  federal 
executive.  (Article  48,  No.  15.)  §  2.  In  the 
cxercis'  of  this  power,  during  the  state  of  siege, 
the  executive  shall  be  restricted  to  the  following 


524 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  HR  \7IL. 


measures  of  repression  against  persons:  (1)  To 
tliclr  detention  in  a  place  not  allotted  to  persons 
accused  of  common  crimes.  (2)  To  banishment 
to  other  parts  of  the  national  territory.  S  3.  As 
soon  as  the  Congress  shall  have  asfembled,  th(,' 
President  of  the  Republic  shall  make  a  report  to 
that  body  of  the  exceptional  measures  which 
may  have  been  taken.  S  4.  Tlie  authorities  who 
shall  have  ordered  such  measures  shall  be  re- 
sponsible for  any  abuses  that  may  have  been  com- 
mitted. 

Art.  8i.  In  criminal  cases,  trials  concluded 
may  be  reviewed  at  any  time,  in  favor  of  the 
condemned  ])arties,  by  the  federal  supreme  court, 
for  the  purpose  of  correcting  or  of  confirming  tluj 
sentence.  ;?  1.  The  law  shall  tletermine  the  cases 
and  the  form  of  such  revision,  which  may  be 
asked  for  by  the  condemned,  by  any  one  of  the 
people,  or  by  the  attorney-general  of  the  Repub- 
lic, ex  officio.  §  2.  In  such  revision  the  penalties 
imposed  by  viie  sentence  reviewed  can  not  be  iu- 
tTeased.  §  3.  The  provisions  of  the  present  ar- 
ticle are  applicable  to  military  trials. 

Art.  82.  Public  officers  shall  be  strictly  rc- 
8)K)nsible  for  the  abuses  and  omissions  that  occur 
in  the  exercise  of  the  duties  of  their  offices,  as 
well  as  for  the  indulgences  and  negligences  for 
which  they  do  not  hold  their  subordinates  re- 
sponsible. Sole  paragraph. — They  shall  all  be 
bomid  by  formal  obligation,  on  takmg  possession 
of  their  offices,  to  discharge  the  lawful  duties  of 
the  same. 

Art.  83.  Until  revoked,  the  laws  of  the  aneien 
regime  shall  remain  in  force,  in  as  far  as  they 
are  not,  explicitly  or  implicitly,  contrary  to  the 
system  of  government  established  by  the  Con- 
stitution, and  to  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
Biune. 

Art.  84.  The  federal  government  guaranties 
the  payment  of  the  public  debt,  both  internal 
and  foreign. 

Art.  85.  The  officers  of  the  line  and  of  the  an- 
nexed classes  of  tlw  navy  shall  liave  the  same 
commissions  and  advantage  as  those  of  the  army 
of  corresponding  rank. 

Art.  86.  Every  Brazilian  shall  be  bound  to 
military  service  in  defense  of  the  country  and 
the  Constitution,  as  provided  by  the  federal  laws. 

Art.  87.  The  federal  army  shall  be  made  up 
of  contingents  which  the  states  and  tlie  Federal 
District  are  bound  to  furnish,  constituted  in  con- 
formity with  the  annual  law  regulating  the  num- 
ber of  the  forces.  §  1.  The  general  organization 
of  the  army  shall  be  determined  by  a  federal  law, 
in  accordance  with  No.  18  of  article  34.  §  2. 
The  Union  shall  have  charge  of  the  military  in- 
struction of  the  troops  and  of  the  higher  military 
instruction.  §  3.  Compulsory  recruiting  for  mili- 
tary purposes  is  abolished.  §  4.  The  army  and 
navy  shall  be  made  up  by  volunteering  without 
bounties,  or,  if  this  means  be  not  sufficient,  by 
lot  previously  determined.  The  crews  for  the 
navy  shall  be  made  up  from  the  naval  school, 
the  schools  of  marine  apprentices,  and  the  mer- 
chant marine,  by  means  of  lot. 

Art.  88.  In  no  case,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, alone  or  in  alliance  with  another  nation, 
shall  the  United  States  of  Brazil  engage  in  a  war 
of  conquest. 

Art.  89.  A  tribunal  of  accounts  shall  be  insti- 
tuted for  the  auditing  of  the  receipt  and  expense 
accounts  and  examining  into  their  legality  before 
their  presentation  to  the  Congress.     The   mem- 


bers of  this  tribunal  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
President  of  llie  Republic,  with  the  approval  of 
tlie  Senate,  and  can  lose  their  seats  only  by  sen- 
tence. 

Art.  90.  The  Constitution  may  be  amended,  at 
tlie  initiative  of  the  national  Congress,  or  of  the 
legislatures  of  tiie  States.  S  1-  ^^  amendment 
shiiU  be  considered  as  proposed,  when,  having 
been  presented  by  one-fourlh,  at  least,  of  the 
members  of  either  house  of  the  Congress,  it  shall 
have  been  accepted  in  three  readings  (discussions) 
by  two-tliirds  of  the  votes  in  both  houses  of  the 
Congress,  or  when  it  slmll  have  been  asked  for 
by  two-thirds  of  the  Staies  represented,  each  one 
by  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  its  legislature,  said 
votes  to  be  taken  in  the  courst;  of  1  year,  t^  2. 
The  proposed  amendment  shall  be  considered 
ajiproved,  if,  in  the  following  year,  after  three 
discussions,  it  shall  have  been  adopted  by  a  ma- 
jority of  two-thirds  of  the  votes  in  the  two 
houses  of  the  Congress.  §  3.  The  amendment 
adopted  shall  be  published  with  the  signatures 
of  the  presidents  and  clerks  of  the  two  chambers, 
and  be  incorporated  into  the  Constitution  as  a 
part  of  the  same.  55  4.  No  project  having  a  ten- 
dency to  abolish  the  fedemtive  republican  form, 
or  the  equal  representation  of  the  States  in  the 
Senate,  shall  be  admitted  for  consideration  in  the 
Congress. 

Art.  91.  This  Constitution,  after  approval, 
shall  be  promulgated  by  the  president  of  the 
Congress  and  signed  by  the  members  of  the 
same. 

Temporary  Provisions. 

Article  i.  After  the  promulgation  of  this  Con- 
stitution, the  Congress,  in  joint  lussembly,  shall 
choose  'Consecutively,  by  an  absolute  majority  of 
votes  in  the  first  balloting,  and,  if  no  candidate! 
shall  receive  such,  by  a  plurality  in  the  second 
balloting,  the  President  and  Vice;  President  of  the 
United  States  of  Brazil.  §1.  This  election  shall 
be  in  two  distinct  ballotings,  for  the  President 
and  Vice  President  respectively,  the  ballots  for 
President  being  taken  anl  counted,  in  the  first 
place,  and  afterwards  f(  r  Vice  President.  §  2. 
The  President  and  Vice  President,  thus  elected, 
shall  occupy  the  Presidency  and  Vice  Presidency 
of  the  Republic  during  the  first  Presidential 
term,  g  3.  For  said  election  there  shall  be  no 
incompatibilities  admitted.  §  4.  As  soon  as  said 
election  shall  be  concluded,  the  Congress  shall 
consider  as  terminated  its  mission  in  joint  session 
and,  separating  into  Chamber  and  Senate,  shall 
enter  upon  the  exercise  of  its  functions  as  de- 
fined by  law,  on  the  15th  of  June  of  the  present 
year,  and  can  not  in  any  case  be  dissolved,  g  5. 
In  the  first  year  of  the  first  legislature,  among  its 
preparatory  measures,  the  Senate  shall  designate 
the  first  and  second  third  of  its  members,  whose 
term  of  office  shall  cease  at  the  end  of  the  first 
and  second  3-ycar  terms,  t!,  6.  The  discrimina- 
tion shall  be  made  in  three  lists,  corresponding 
to  the  three  classes,  alloting  to  them  the  senators 
of  each  State  and  of  the  Federal  District  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  votes  received  by  them 
respectively,  so  as  to  allot  to  the  third  for  the 
last  3  years  the  one  receiving  the  highest  number 
of  votes  in  the  Federal  District  and  in  each  State, 
and  to  the  otlier  two-thirds  the  remaining  two 
names  in  the  order  of  the  numlier  of  votes  re- 
ceived by  them  respectively.  §7.  In  case  of  tie, 
the  oldest  shall  be  preferred,  and  if  the  ages  are 
equal,  the  choice  shall  be  made  by  lot. 


525 


CONSTITUTION  OF  BRAZIL. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  CANADA. 


Art.  2.  The  State  which,  by  tlio  end  of  the 
year  1802,  Nhiill  not  Imvu  adopted  its  constitu- 
tion, shall,  by  act  of  the  fedeml  legislative  power, 
be  placed  iinder  that  of  one  of  the  other  States, 
which  it  shall  judge  most  suitable,  until  the 
State  tlius  subjected  to  said  constitution  shall 
amend  it  in  the  manner  provided  in  the  same. 

Art.  3.  As  fast  as  the  States  shall  be  organized, 
the  Federal  Government  shall  deliver  to  them 
the  administration  of  the  services  which  belong 
to  them,  and  shall  settle  tin;  responsibility  of  the 
fedend  administration  in  all  that  relates  to  said 
services  and  to  the  payment  of  the  respective 
officials. 

Art.  4.  While,  during  the  period  of  organiza- 
tion of  their  services,  the  States  shall  be  engaged  in 
regulating  t  heir  expenses,the  Federal  Government 
shall,  fortius  purpose,  open  spechd  credits  to  them, 
under  conditions  detertnined  by  the  Congress. 

Art.  5.  In  llie  States  which  shall  become  or- 
ganized the  classiflcation  of  the  revenues  estab- 
lished in  the  C'onstituti<m  shall  enter  into  force. 

Art.  6.  In  the  first  appointments  for  the  federal 
magistracy  and  for  that  of  the  States,  the  pre- 
ference shall  be  given  to  the  justices  and  magis- 
trates of  the  higher  courts  of  the  greatest  note. 
Such  as  are  not  admitted  into  the  new  organiza- 
tion of  the  judiciary,  and  have  served  30  years, 
shall  be  retired  on  full  pay.     Those  who  have 


served  for  less  than  30  years  shall  continue  to 
receive  their  salaries  umil  they  shall  be  em- 
ployed, or  retired  with  pay  corresponding  to 
their  length  of  service.  The  payment  of  salaries 
of  magistrate  'etired  or  set  aside  shall  be  made 
by  the  FeOf  ..1  Government. 

Art.  7.  J.,  1).  Pedrode  Alcantara,  ex-Emperor 
of  Brnz.i,  a  pension  is  granted,  to  run  from  the 
15th  of  November,  1889,  siitlicient  to  guaranty 
him  a  decent  subsisttmce  during  liis  lifetime. 
The  Congress,  at  its  first  session,  shall  fix  the 
amount  of  said  pension. 

Art.  8.  Tlie  Federal  Government  shall  acquire 
for  the  ni'tion  the  house  in  which  Dr.  Bcujamin 
Constant  Botelho  de  MagalliAes  died,  and  shall 
have  placed  on  it  a  memorial  slab  in  memory  of 
that  great  patriot,  the  founder  of  the  Republic. 
ik)le  paragraph. — The  widow  of  the  said  Dr.  Ben- 
janun  Constant  shall  have,  during  her  lifetime, 
the  usufruct  of  the  said  house.  \Vu  order,  then, 
all  the  authorities  to  whom  the  recognition  and 
execution  of  this  Constitution  belongs,  to  exe- 
cute it  and  have  it  executed  and  observed  faith- 
fully and  fully  in  all  its  provision?.  Let  the 
same  be  published  and  observed  throughout  the 
territory  of  the  nation.  Hall  of  the  sessions  of 
the  National  Constitutional  Congress,  in  the  city 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  the  year  1891,  and  the 
third  of  the  Republic.     SeeBuAZiL:  1889-1891. 


CONSTITUTION  OF   CALIFORNIA.— 

For  an  account  of  the  main  features  of  this 


singular  constitution,  see  Califounia:   A.  D. 
1877-1880. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


A.  D.  1774.— The  Quebec  Act.  See  Canada  : 
A.  D.  1763-1774. 

A.  D.  1791.— The  Constitutional  Act.  See 
Canada:  A.  D.  1701. 

A.  D.  1840.— The  Union  Act,  Bee  Canada: 
A.  D.  1840-1807. 

A.  D.  1867.— The  British  North  America 
Act.— The  history  of  t'.:e  Confederation  of  the 
provinces  of  British  North  America,  forming  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  is  given  briefly  under 
Canada:  A.  D.  1807.  The  following  is  the  text 
of  the  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  by 
■which  tho  Confederation  was  formed  and  its 
constitution  established : 

An  Act  for  the  Union  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  New  Brunswick,  and  the  Government 
thereof;  and  for  purposes  connected  therewith. 
aOrn  Makcii,  1867. 

Whereas  the  Provinces  of  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  have  expressed 
their  desire  to  be  feuerally  united  into  one 
Dominion  under  the  Crown  of  the  United  King- 
dom of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  with  a  con- 
stitution similar  in  principle  to  that  of  the  United 
Kingdom:  And  whereas  such  a  Union  would 
conduce  to  the  welfare  of  the  Provinces  and  pro- 
mote the  interests  of  the  British  Empire;  And 
whereas  on  the  establishment  of  the  Union  by 
authority  of  Parliament  it  is  expedient,  not  only 
that  the  Constitution  of  the  Legislative  Authority 
in  the  Dominion  be  provided  for,  but  also  that 
the  nature  of  the  Executive  Government  therem 
be  declored:  And  whereas  it  is  expedient  that 
provision  be  made  for  the  eventual  admission 
into  the  Union  of  other  parts  of  British  North 
America:  Be  it  therefore  enacted  ond  declared 


b^  the  Queen's  most  Excellent  Majesty,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  I.irds 
Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  this 
present  Parliament  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  as  follows : 

1.  This  Act  may  be  cited  as  The  British  North 
America  Act,  1867. 

2.  The  provisions  of  this  Act  referring  to  Iler 
Majesty  the  Queen  extend  also  to  the  heirs  and 
successors  of  Her  Majesty,  Jlings  and  Queens  of 
W\p  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

3.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Queen,  by  and 
with  the  advice  of  Her  Majesty's  Most  Honour- 
able Privy  Council,  to  declare  by  Proclamation 
that,  on  and  after  a  day  therein  appointed,  not 
being  more  than  six  months  after  the  passing  of 
this  Act,  the  Provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  New  Brunswick  shall  form  and  be  one 
Dominion  under  the  name  of  Canada;  and  on 
and  after  that  day  those  three  Provinces  shall 
form  and  be  one  Dominion  under  that  name 
accordingly. 

4.  The  subsequent  provisions  ^i  this  Act 
shall,  unless  it  is  otherwise  expressed  or  implied, 
commence  and  have  effect  on  and  after  the 
Union,  that  is  to  say,  on  and  after  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  the  Union  taking  effect  in  theQw\'n's 
Proclamation ;  and  in  the  same  provisions,  unless 
it  is  otherwise  expressed  or  implied,  the  name 
Canada  shall  be  taken  to  mean  Canada  as  con- 
stituted i;uder  this  Act. 

5.  Canada  shall  be  divided  into  four  Prov- 
inces, named  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
New  Brunswick. 

6.  The  parts  of  the  Province  of  Canada  ''is  it 
exists  at  the  passing  of  this  Act)  which  for;aerly 


526 


CONSTITUTION  OP  CANADA. 


Executive  antl 
Parliament. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  CANADA. 


constituted  respectively  the  Provinces  of  Upper 
Ciiiiiulii  and  Lower  Ciinadii  sliiill  ho.  deemed  to  be 
fievcrcd,  and  Kimll  fonn  two  separate  I'rovinceH. 
Tlic  part  wlncli  formerly  constituted  the  Prov- 
ince of  Upper  Canada  shall  constitute  tlie  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario;  and  tlie  ))Hrt  which  formcrlv 
constituted  the  Province  of  Lower  Canada  shall 
constitute  tlie  Province  of  Quebec. 

7.  The  Provinces  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick  shall  liavc  the  sunie  limits  as  at  the 
passinjf  of  this  Act. 

8.  In  the  p;ciieral  census  of  the  population  of 
Canada,  which  is  hereby  required  to  be  talsen  in 
tlie  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
seventy-one,  and  in  every  tenth  year  thereafter, 
the  respective  populations  of  the  four  Provinces 
shall  be  distinguished. 

O.  The  Executive  Government  and  authority 
of  and  over  C  anada  is  hereby  declared  to  con- 
tinue and  be  vested  in  the  Queen. 

10.  The  provisions  of  tliis  Act  refciring  to 
the  Governor  General  extend  and  apply  to  the 
Governor  General  for  the  time  being  of  Canada, 
or  other  the  Chief  Executive  Officer  cr  Ad- 
ministrator, for  tlie  time  being  carrying  on  tlie 
Government  of  Canada  on  behalf  and  in  the 
name  of  the  Queen,  by  whatever  title  he  is 
designated. 

11.  There  shall  be  a  Council  to  aid  and  advise 
in  the  Government  of  Canada,  to  bo  styled  the 
Queen's  Privy  Council  for  Canada;  and  the 
persons  who  are  to  be  members  of  that  Council 
shal.  be  from  time  to  time  chosen  and  summoned 
by  tlie  Governor  General  and  sworn  in  as  Privy 
Councillors,  and  members  thereof  may  be  from 
time  to  time  removed  by  tlio  Governor  General. 

12.  Ail  powers,  authorities,  and  functions 
which  :  nr'er  any  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Great 
Britain,  or  of  i,he  Parliament  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or  of  the 
Legislature  of  Upper  Canada,  Lower  Canada, 
Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  or  New  Brunswick,  are  at 
the  Union  vested  in  or  exerciseable  by  the  re- 
spective Governors  or  Lieutenant  Governors  of 
those  Provinces,  with  the  advice,  or  with  the 
advice  and  consent,  of  tlie  respective  Executive 
Councils  thereof,  or  in  conjunction  with  those 
Councils,  or  with  any  number  of  members 
tliereof,  or  by  those  Governors  or  Lieutenant 
Governors  individually,  sliall,  as  far  as  the  same 
continue  in  existence  and  capable  of  being 
exercised  after  the  Union  in  relation  to  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Canada,  be  vested  in  and  exercise- 
able  by  the  Governor  General,  with  the  advice 
or  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  or  in  conjunc- 
tion witli  the  Queen's  Privy  Council  for  Canada, 
or  any  members  thereof,  or  by  tlie  Governor 
General  individually,  as  the  case  requires,  subject 
nevertheless  (except  with  respect  to  such  as  exit 
under  Acts  of  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  or 
of  the  Parliament  of  Ihe  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland)  to  be  abolished  or 
altered  by  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

13.  llie  provisions  of  tliis  Act  referring  to  the 
Governor  General  in  Council  shall  be  construed 
as  referring  to  tlie  Governor  General  acting  by 
and  with  the  advice  of  the  Queen's  Privy  Council 
for  Canada. 

14.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Queen,  if  Her 
Majesty  thinks  fit,  to  authorize  the  Governor 
General  from  time  to  time  to  appoint  any  person 
or  any  persons,  jointly  or  severally,  to  be  hia 
Deputy  or  Deputies  within  any  part  or  parts  of 


Canada,  and  in  that  capacity  to  exercise  during 
tlie  iilcasiire  of  the  Governor  General  such  of  the 
powers,  authorities,  and  functions  of  the  Gov- 
ernor General  as  the  Governor  General  deems  it 
nccf'.ssury  and  expedient  to  a.ssign  to  him  or 
them,  sultjcct  to  any  limitations  or  directions  ex- 
pressed or  given  by  the  Queen;  but  the  appoint- 
ment of  such  a  Deputy  or  Deputies  shall  not 
aiTect  the  exercise  by  the  Governor  General  him- 
self or  any  power,  authority  or  function. 

15.  ''"he  Command-iu-Chief  of  the  liand  and 
Naval  AL.litia,  and  of  all  Naval  and  Milit'S'-y 
Forces,  of  and  in  Canada,  is  hereby  declared  to 
continue  and  be  vested  in  the  tju<'en. 

lO.  Until  the  Queen  otherwise  directs,  the 
reat  of  Government  of  Canada  sliall  be  (Jitawa. 

17.  There  shall  be  one  Parliament  for  Canada, 
consisting  of  the  Queen,  an  Upjier  House  styled 
tlie  Senate,  and  tlie  House  of  C;oninions. 

18.  The  privileges,  immunities,  and  powers 
to  be  held,  enjoyed,  and  exercised  by  the  Senate 
and  by  the  House  of  Commons,  and  by  the 
members  thereof  respectively,  sliall  be  such  aa 
are  from  time  to  time  defined  by  Act  of  the 
Parliament  of  Canada,  but  so  that  the  same  shall 
never  exceed  those  at  the  passing  of  this  Act 
held,  enjoyed,  and  exercised  by  the  Commons 
Hovise  of  Parliament  of  the  I  iiited  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  anil  Ly  the  members 
thereof. 

13.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  shall  be  called 
together  not  later  than  six  months  after  the 
Union. 

20.  There  shall  be  a  Session  of  the  Parliament 
of,  Canada  once  at  least  in  every  year,  so  that 
twelve  months  shall  not  intervene  between  the 
last  sitting  of  the  Parliament  in  one  Session  and 
its  first  sitting  in  the  next  Session. 

21.  The  Senate  shall,  subject  to  the  pro- 
visiorsof  this  Act,  consist  of  seventy-two  mem- 
bers, who  shall  be  styled  Senators. 

22.  In  relation  to  the  constitution  of  the 
Senate,  Canada  shall  bo  deemed  to  consist  of 
three  divisions  —  1.  Ontario;  2.  Quebec;  3.  The 
Maritime  Provinces,  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick ;  which  tlirce  divisions  sliall  (subject 
to  the  provisions  of  this  Act)  be  equally  repre- 
sented in  the  Senate  as  follows:  Ontario  by 
twenty-four  Senators;  QuebC';  by  twenty-four 
Senators;  and  the  Maritime  Pre  vinces  by  twenty- 
four  Senators,  twelve  thereof  'epresenting  Nova 
Scotia,  and  twelve  thereof  representing  New 
Brunswick.  In  the  ease  of  Quebec  each  of  the 
twenty-four  Senotors  repres'nting  tliat  Province 
shall  be  appointed  for  one  of  the  twenty-four 
Electoral  Divisions  of  Lower  Canada  specified  in 
Schedule  A.  to  chapter  one  of  the  Consolidated 
Statutes  of  Canada. 

23.  The  qualification  of  a  Senator  sliall  be  as 
follows: — Cj  He  shall  be  of  the  full  age  of 
thirty  years:  (2)  He  shall  be  eitiicr  a  natural 
born  subject  of  the  Queen,  or  a  subject  of  the 
Queen  naturalized  by  an  Act  of  tlie  Parliament 
of  Great  Britain,  or  of  tlie  Parliament  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or 
of  the  Legislature  of  one  of  the  Provinces  of 
Upper  Canada,  Lower  Canada,  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia,  or  New  Brunswick,  before  the  Union,  or 
of  the  Parliament  of  C:inada  after  the  Union: 
(3)  He  shall  be  legally  or  equitably  .seised  as  of 
freehold  for  his  own  use  and  benetic  of  lands  or 
tenements  held  in  free  and  comnion  socage,  or 
seised  or  possessed  for  his  own  use  and  benefit  of 


m 


CONHTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


Settatr 
and  Commong. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


lands  or  teneincnU  licld  in  frunc-allcti  or  in 
rot  UK',  witliin  till!  Province  for  wlilcli  In-  is  np- 
piiiiitc'd,  of  till'  valiiL'  of  four  thousand  dollars, 
over  and  al)ov(.'  all  rents,  dues,  debts,  cliarges, 
inortguK<'s,  and  ineunil)ranees  due  or  jiayaMe  out 
of  or  eliarged  on  or  alTeeting  tlu;  same:  (4)  His 
real  an<l  personal  property  shall  be  together 
worth  1|4,<MH)  over  antl  al)ovc  his  debts  and 
liabilities:  (5)  lie  shall  be  resident  in  the  Prov- 
iniw  for  which  he  is  ajjpoiiiU'd:  ((t)  In  the  case 
of  Quebec  he  shall  have  his  real  property 
qualitiealion  in  the  Electoral  'Jivjsion  for  which 
he  is  appointed,  or  shall  hr  resident  in  that 
Division, 

24.  The  Governor  General  shall  from  time  to 
time,  in  the  Queen's  name,  by  instrument  under 
the  Great  Seal  of  Canada,  summon  (iiniliticd 
persons  to  the  Senate ;  and,  stibject  to  the  jiro- 
visions  of  this  Act,  every  person  so  summoned 
shall  become  and  be  a  member  of  the  Senate  and 
11  Senator. 

25.  Such  iiersons  shall  be  lirst  summoned  to 
the  Senate  as  the  Queen  by  warrant  under  Her 
Majesty's  Uoyal  Sign  Manual  thinks  lit  to  ap- 
prove, and  their  names  shall  be  inserted  in  the 
Queen's  Proclamation  of  Union. 

2((.  If  at  any  time  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  Governor  General  the  (^uecn  thinks  lit  to 
direct  that  three  or  six  members  be  a(hh'd  to  the 
Senate,  the  Governor  General  may  by  sununons 
to  three  or  six  qualified  persons  (as  the  case  maj' 
be),  representing  cqinilly  the  three  divisions  of 
Canada,  add  to  tlie  Senate  accordingly. 

27.  In  case  of  such  addition  being  iit  any 
time  made  the  Governor  General  shall  not 
suiumon  any  person  to  the  Senate,  except  on  a 
further  like  direction  liy  the  Queen  on  the  like 
recommendation,  until  each  of  the  three  divisions 
of  Canada  is  represented  by  twenty -four  Senators 
and  no  more. 

28.  'liie  innnbcr  of  Senators  shall  not  at  any 
time  exceed  seventy-eight. 

29.  A  Senator  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions 
of  this  Act,  hold  his  place  1 1  the  Senate  for  life. 

JJO.  A  Senator  may  by  writing  under  his  hand 
addressed  to  the  Governor  General  resign  bis 
place  in  the  Senate,  and  thereupon '  the  same 
shall  be  vacant. 

31.  The  place  of  a  Senator  shall  become 
vacant  in  any  of  the  following  cases:  (1)  If  for 
two  consecutive  Sessions  of  the  Parliament  he 
fails  to  give  his  attendance  in  the  Senote :  (2)  If 
he  takes  an  oath  or  makes  a  declaration  or 
acknowledgment  of  allegiance,  obedience,  or  ad- 
herence to  a  foreign  power,  or  does  an  act 
■whereby  he  becomes  a  subject  or  citizen,  or 
entitled  to  the  rights  or  privileges  of  a  subject  or 
citizen  of  ;:  foreign  power;  (3)  If  he  i°  adjudged 
V-.  .jl  'upt  or  insolvent,  or  applies  for  the  benefit 
ol  any  law  relating  to  insolvent  debtors,  or  be- 
comes a  public  defaulter:  (4)  If  he  is  attnintcd 
of  treason  or  convicted  of  felony  or  of  uny  in- 
famous crime:  (5)  If  he  ceases  to  be  qualified  in 
respect  of  ])roperty  or  of  residence;  provided, 
that  a  Senator  shall  not  be  deemed  to  have  ceaseil 
to  be  qmilified  in  respect  of  residence  by  reason 
only  of  his  residing  at  the  seat  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Canada  while  holding  an  office  under 
that  Government  requiring  his  presence  there. 

•)2.  When  a  vacancy  happens  in  tlie  Senate 
by  resignation,  death,  or  otherwise,  the  Governor 
General  shall  by  s\in'mons  to  u  fit  and  qualified 
person  fill  the  vacancy. 


Sii.  If  any  question  arises  respecting  the 
(|ualitic4»tlon  of  a  Senator  or  a  vacancy  In  the 
Senate  the  same  shall  be  heard  and  determined 
by  the  Senate. 

JI4.  The  Governor  Gennvl  may  from  time  to 
time,  by  instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of 
Canada,  appoint  a  Senator  to  be  Speaker  of  the 
Senate,  and  may  remove  him  and  appoint  another 
in  his  stead. 

U5.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  otherwise 
provides,  the  presence  of  at  least  fifteen  Senators, 
including  the  Speaker,  shall  be  necessary  to  con- 
stitute a  meeting  of  the  Senate  for  the  exercise 
of  its  powers. 

30.  Questions  aHsing  in  the  Senate  shall  bo 
decided  by  a  majority  of  voices,  and  the  Speaker 
shall  in  all  cases  have  a  vote,  and  when  the 
voices  are  equal  the  decision  shall  be  deemed  to 
be  in  the  negative. 

37.  The  House  of  Commons  shall,  subject  to 
the  provisions  of  this  Act,  consist  -jf  one  hundred 
and  eighty-one  members,  of  whom  eighty-two 
shall  be  elected  for  Ontario,  sixty-flve  for  Quebec, 
nineteen  for  Nova  Scotia,  and  fli'een  for  New 
Brunswick. 

38.  Tlie  Governor  General  shall  from  IJtic  to 
time,  in  the  Queen's  name,  by  instrument  under 
the  Great  Seal  of  Canada,  summon  and  call 
together  the  House  of  Commons. 

30.  A  Senator  shall  not  be  capable  of  being 
elected  or  of  sitting  or  voting  as  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons. 

40.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  otherwise 
provides,  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
New  Brunswick  shall,  for  the  purposes  of  the 
e'ection  of  members  to  serve  in  the  House  of 
l^oinmons,  be  diviih  d  into  Electoral  Districts  as 
follows: — (1)  Ontario  .shall  be  divided  into  the 
Counties,  Ridings  of  Counties,  Cities,  parts  of 
Cities,  and  Towns  enumerated  in  the  first 
Schedule  to  this  Act,  each  whereof  shall  be  an 
Electoral  District,  each  iuch  District  as  num- 
bered in  that  Schedule  being  entitled  to  return 
one  member.  (3)  Quebec  shall  be  divided  into 
sixty-five  Electoral  Districts,  composed  of  the 
sixty-five  Electoral  Divi^'ons  into  which  Lower 
Canada  is  at  the  past  _^  of  this  Act  divided 
under  chapter  two  of  the  Consolidated  Statutes 
of  Canada,  chapter  seventy-five  of  the  Con- 
solidated Statutes  for  Lower  Canada,  and  the 
Act  of  the  Province  of  Canada  of  the  twenty- 
third  year  of  the  Queen,  chapter  one,  or  ony 
other  Act  amending  tlie  same  in  force  at  the 
Union,  so  tliat  each  such  Electoral  Division  shall 
be  for  the  purposes  of  this  Act  an  Electoral  Dis- 
trict entitled  to  return  one  member.  (3)  Each  of 
the  eighteen  Counties  of  Nova  Scotia  shall  be 
an  Electond  District.  The  County  of  Halifax 
shall  be  entitled  to  return  two  members,  and 
each  of  the  other  Counties  one  memi)er.  (4)  Each 
of  the  fourteen  Counties  into  wliicli  New  Bruns- 
wick is  divided,  including  ilie  City  and  County 
of  St.  Jolm,  shall  be  an  Electoral  District;  the 
City  of  St.  Jolin  shall  also  be  a  separate  Electoral 
District.  Each  of  those  fifteen  Electorol  Dis- 
tricts shall  be  entitled  to  return  one  member. 

41.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
wise rrovides,  all  laws  in  force  in  the  several 
Provinces  at  the  Union  relative  to  the  following 
matters  or  any  of  them,  namely, —  the  quoflifica- 
tious  ami  disqualifications  of  persons  to  be 
elected  or  to  sit  or  vote  as  members  of  the  House 
of  Assembly  or  Legislative    Assembly  in  the 


528 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


House  nf 
Commons. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


•several  Provinces,  the  voters  nt  ilcrtions  of  sueh 
members,  the  oaths  to  be  taken  by  voters,  the 
returning  oftlcers,  tlieir  powers  nnd  duties,  tlic 
proceedings  at  elections,  tlic  periods  during 
wliieh  elections  may  be  continued,  the  trial  of 
controverted  elections,  and  proceedings  incident 
thereto,  the  vacating  of  seats  of  members,  and 
the  execution  of  new  writs  in  case  of  scatr 
vacated  otlierwise  tlian  by  dissolution, — sliall  re 
spectively  apply  to  elections  of  members  to  serve 
in  tlie  ifouse  of  Commons  for  tlie  same  several 
Provinces.  Provided  tliat,  until  tlie  Parliament 
of  Canada  otherwise  provides,  at  any  election 
for  a  Member  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  tlie 
District  of  Algoma,  in  addition  to  persons 
qualified  by  the  law  of  tlu;  Province  of  Canada 
to  vote,  every  male  Britisli  subject  aged  twenty- 
one  years  or  upwards,  being  a  houseliolder,  sliall 
liave  a  vote. 

42.  For  the  first  election  of  members  to  serve 
in  the  House  of  Commons  tlie  Governor  General 
shall  er.use  writs  to  be  issued  by  such  person,  in 
such  form,  and  addressed  to  such  returning 
otlicers  as  he  thinlis  fit.  The  person  issuing 
writs  under  this  section  shall  have  the  like 
powers  as  are  possessed  at  tlie  Union  by  the 
otficers  charged  with  tlie  issuing  of  writs  for  the 
election  of  members  to  serve  in  the  respective 
House  of  Assembly  o.  Legislative  Assembly  of 
tlie  Province  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  or  Nev 
Brunswick ;  and  the  Returning  Officers  to  whom 
■writs  are  directed  under  this  section  shall  have 
the  like  powers  as  are  possessed  at  tlio  Union  by 
the  officers  charged  witli  the  returning  of  writs 
for  the  election  of  members  to  serve  in  the  same 
lesiiectivc  House  of  Assembly  or  Legislative 
Aissembly. 

43.  In  case  a  vacancy  in  the  representation  in 
the  House  of  Commons  of  any  Electoral  Dis- 
trict happens  before  the  meeting  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, or  after  tlic  meeting  of  the  Parliament  be- 
fore provision  is  made  by  the  Parliament  in  this 
behalf,  the  provisions  of  the  last  foregoing 
section  of  this  Act  shall  extend  and  apply  to  tlic 
issuing  and  returning  of  a  writ  in  respect  of  such 
vacant  District. 

44.  The  House  of  Commons  on  its  first  as- 
sembling after  a  general  election  shall  proceed 
with  all  practicable  speed  to  elect  one  of  its 
members  to  be  Speaker. 

45.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  happening  in  the 
offlce  of  Speaker  by  death,  resignation  or  other- 
wise, the  House  of  Commons  shall  witli  all 
practicable  speed  proceed  to  elect  another  of  its 
members  to  be  Speaker. 

40.  Tlie  Speaker  shall  preside  at  all  meetings 
of  the  House  of  Commons. 

47.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
wist!  provides,  in  case  of  the  absence  for  any 
reason  of  the  Speaker  from  the  chair  of  tlie 
House  of  Commons  for  a  period  of  forty-eight 
consecutive  hours,  the  House  may  elect  another 
of  its  members  to  act  as  Speaker,  and  the  mem- 
ber so  elected  shall  during  tlie  continuance  of 
sucli  absence  of  the  Speaker  have  and  execute 
all  the  powers,  privileges,  and  duties  of  Speaker. 

48.  The  presence  of  at  least  twenty  members 
of  tlic  House  of  Commons  shall  be  necessary  to 
constitute  a  meeting  of  the  House  for  tlie  exercise 
of  its  powers,  and  for  that  purpose  the  Speaker 
shall  be  reckoned  as  a  member. 

49.  Questions  arising  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons shall  be  decided  by  a  majority  of  voices 


other  than  that  of  the  Speaker,  and  when  the 
voices  are  equal,  but  not  otherwise,  tlie  Speaker 
sliall  have  a  vote. 

50.  Every  Hoitse  of  Commons  sliall  continue 
for  five  years  from  tlie  day  of  the  return  of  the 
writs  for  clioosing  the  House  (subject  to  be 
sooner  dissolved  by  the  Governor  General),  and 
no  longer. 

61.  On  the  completion  of  the  census  in  the 
year  one  thousand  eiglit  biiiiilred  and  seventy- 
one,  and  of  each  subs<'(iu('nt  decennial  census, 
the  representation  of  the  four  Provinces  shall  bo 
re-adjusted  by  such  aiithorily.  in  sucli  manner 
and  from  such  time  as  tlie  Parliament  of  Canada 
from  time  to  time  provides,  suliject  and  accord- 
ing to  the  following  rules:  — (1)  Quebec  shall 
have  the  fixed  number  of  sixty-five  members: 
(2)  There  shall  be  assigned  to  eacli  of  the  other 
Provinces  such  a  number  of  members  as  will 
bear  the  same  proportion  to  the  number  of  its 
population  (ascertained  in  such  census)  as  tlio 
number  sixty-five  bears  to  the  number  of  the 
population  cf  Quebec  (so  a.scertained) :  (3)  In  the 
computation  of  the  number  of  members  for  a 
Province  a  fractional  part  not  exceeding  one-half 
of  the  whole  number  requisite  for  entitling  the 
Province  to  a  member  shall  be  disregarded ;  but 
a  fractional  part  exceeding  one-half  of  that 
number  shall  be  equivalent  to  the  whole  num- 
ber: (4)  On  any  such  re-adju.stment  the  number 
of  members  for  a  Province  sliall  not  be  reiluced 
unless  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  the 
population  of  tlie  Province  bore  to  the  number 
of  the  aggregate  population  of  Canada  at  the 
then  last  preceding  re-adjustment  of  the  number 
of  members  for  the  Province  is  ascertained  at  the 
then  latest  census  to  be  diminished  by  one- 
twentieth  part  or  upwards:  (i5)  Such  readjust- 
ment shall  not  take  effect  until  the  termination 
of  the  then  existing  Parliament. 

52.  The  number  of  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons  may  be  from  time  to  time  increased  by 
the  Parliament  of  Canada,  provided  the  pr:>por- 
tionate  representation  of  tlic  Provinces  prescribed 
by  this  Act  is  not  thereby  disturbed. 

53.  Bills  for  appropriating  any  part  of  the 
public  revenue,  or  for  imposing  any  tax  or  im- 
post, shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

54.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  the  House  of 
Commons  to  adopt  or  pass  any  vote,  resolution, 
i'ddress,  or  bill  for  the  appropriation  of  any  part 
of  the  public  revenue,  or  of  any  tax  or  impost, 
to  any  purpose  that  has  not  been  first  recom- 
mended to  that  House  by  mes-snge  of  the  Gov- 
ernor General  in  the  Session  in  wliicli  such  vote, 
resolution,  address,  or  bill  is  proposed. 

55.  Where  a  bill  passed  by  the  Houses  of  the 
Parliament  is  presented  to  the  Governor  General 
for  the  Queen's  assent,  he  shall  declare  according 
to  his  discretion,  but  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
tliis  Act  and  to  Iler  Majesty's  instructions,  either 
that  he  assents  thereto  in  the  Queen's  name,  or 
that  he  withholds  the  Queen's  assent,  or  that  he 
reserves  the  bill  for  the  sifniflcation  of  the 
Queen's  pleasure. 

50.  Where  the  Governor  General  assents  to  a 
bill  in  tlie  Queen's  name,  he  shall  by  the  first 
convenient  opportunity  send  an  authentic  copy 
of  the  Act  to  one  of  Her  Majesty's  Principal 
Secretaries  of  .jtate,  and  if  the  Queen  in  Council 
within  two  years  after  receipt  thereof  by  the 
Secretary  of  State  thinks  lit  to  disallow  the  Act, 
such  disallowance  (with  a  certificate  of  the  Secrc- 


&29 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


Provimuil 
(Jovenwientt. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


tary  of  Suite  of  tlie  <liiy  on  which  the  Act  wiw 
recolvwi  by  him)  l)einj5  8ii;niflc(l  by  tlie  QoveriiDr 
Qoneriil,  l)y  8|M('c1i  i,:  aifSHiii^e  to  cudi  of  tlie 
IIoii.scs  of  !lie  I'arliiimciil,  or  l)y  i)r()cliimiitioii, 
hIihII  annul  tl:o  Act  from  luiil  lifter  tlic  liay  of 
such  siKniticution. 

57.  A  bill  reserved  for  the  signilleation  of  the 
Queen's  jileasure  wliull  not  have  any  force  unless 
and  until  within  tw(  years  from  the  day  on 
which  it  was  presented  to  tlie  Governor  General 
for  the  CJuccn'H  assent,  the  Governor  General 
sigtdtlcs,  by  speech  or  message  to  each  of  *he 
Houses  of  the  Parliament  or  by  proclamation, 
that  it  lias  rei'cived  the  assent  of  tlie  Queen  in 
Council.  An  entry  of  every  such  speech,  mes- 
sage, or  proclamation  shall  be  madcin  the  Journal 
of  eacli  Ilou.se,  and  a  duplicate  thereof  duly  at- 
testtul  shall  bedelivereil  to  the  proper  otUcer  to  be 
kept  among  the  Uecords  of  Cana(la. 

08.  For  eauh  Province  tliere  shall  be  an 
ofllccr,    styled    the    Lieutenant    Governor,    np- 

fwintei'  by  the  Governor  Gt'neral  In  Council  by 
nstrvnA^'iit  under  the  Great  Seal  of  Canada. 

BO.  A  Lieutenant  Governor  shall  liold  ollice 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  Governor  General; 
but  any  Lieutenant  Governor  appointed  afte;  the 
commencement  of  the  tirst  Session  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Canada  slmll  not  be  removable  within 
five  years  from  his  appointment,  except  for  cause 
assigned,  which  shall  be  communicated  to  him 
in  writing  within  one  month  after  the  order  for 
his  removal  is  made,  and  shall  be  communicated 
by  message  to  the  Senate  and  to  the  House  of 
dommons  within  one  week  thereafter  if  the 
Parliament  is  then  sitting,  and  if  not  then  within 
one  week  after  the  commencement  of  the  next 
Session  of  the  Parliament. 

00.  The  salaries  of  the  Lieutenant  Governors 
shall  be  fixed  and  provided  by  the  Parliament  of 
Canada. 

01.  Every  Lieutenant  Governor  shall,  before 
assuming  the  duties  of  his  otflce,  make  and  sub- 
scribe before  the  Governor  General,  or  some 
person  authorized  by  him,  oaths  of  allegiance 
and  ofllce  similar  to  those  taken  by  the  Governor 
General. 

02.  The  provisions  of  this  Act  referring  to 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  extend  and  apply  tn  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  for  the  time  being  of  1  ich 
Province  or  otiier  the  chief  executive  officer  or 
administrator  for  the  time  being  carrying  on  the 
government  of  the  Province,  by  whatever  title 
he  is  designated. 

on.  The  Executive  Council  of  Ontario  and  of 
Quebec  shall  be  composed  of  such  persons  as  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  from  to  time  thinks  fit,  und 
in  tlie  first  instance  of  the  following  officers, 
namely: — The  Attorney-General,  the  Secretary 
and  Registrar  of  the  Province,  the  Treosurer  of 
the  Province,  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands, 
and  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and  Public 
"W  orks,  with  in  Quebec  the  Speaker  of  the  Legis- 
lative Council  and  the  Solicitor  General. 

04.  The  Constitution  of  the  Executive 
Authority  in  eacli  of  the  Provinces  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  shall,  subject  to  the 
provisions  of  this  Act,  continue  as  it  exists  at  the 
Union  until  altered  under  the  authority  of  this 
Act. 

Of».  All  powers,  authorities,  and  functions 
which  under  any  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Great 
Britain,  or  of  the  Parliament  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or  of  the 


Legislaturo  of  Upper  Canada,  Lower  Canada,  or 
Canada,  were  or  are  before  or  at  the  Uuitm 
vested  in  or  exerciseable  by  the  respective  Gov- 
ernors or  Lieutenant  Governors  of  those  Prov- 
inces, with  the  advice,  or  with  the  advice  and 
consent,  of  the  respective  Executive  Councila 
tliereof,  or  in  conjunction  with  those  Councils, 
or  with  any  number  of  members  thereof,  or  by 
those  Governors  or  Lieutenant  Governors  in- 
dividually, sliall,  us  far  as  the  same  are  capable 
of  being  exercised  after  tlie  Union  in  relation  to 
the  Government  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  n-spec- 
tively,  be  vested  in,  aiul  shall  or  may  ■  ^,x- 
ercised  by  the  Lieutenant  Governor  of  OiiUirio 
and  Quebec  respectively,  with  the  adviu'  or 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  or  in  conjunction 
with  the  respective  Executive  Councils,  or  any 
members  thereof,  or  by  the  Lieutenant  Governor 
individually,  as  the  case  requires,  subject  never- 
theless (except  with  respect  to  sucli  as  exist 
under  Acts  of  the  I'arliamcnt  of  Great  Britain, 
or  of  the  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland),  to  be  atiolished  or 
altered  by  the  respective  Legislatures  of  Ontario 
and  Quebec. 

66.  The  provisions  of  this  Act,  referring  to 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  in  Council  shall  be  con- 
strued as  refernng  to  the  Lieutenant  Governor 
of  the  Province  acting  by  and  with  the  advice  of 
the  Executive  Council  thereof. 

67.  The  Governor  General  in  Council  may 
from  time  to  time  appoint  an  administrator  to 
execute  the  office  and  functions  of  Lieutenant 
Governor  during  his  absence,  illness,  or  other 
inability. 

68.  Unless  and  until  the  Executive  Govern- 
ment of  any  Province  otherwise  directs  with  re- 
spect to  thot  Province,  the  seats  of  Government 
of  the  Provinces  shall  be  as  follows,  namely, — 
of  Ontario,  the  City  of  Toronto ;  of  Quebec,  the 
City  of  Quebec;  of  Nova  Scotia,  the  City  ol. 
Halifax ;  and  of  New  Brunswick,  the  City  of 
Predericton. 

61).  There  shall  be  a  Legislature  for  Ontario 
consisting  of  the  Lieutenant  Governor  nd  of  one 
House,  styled  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  On- 
tario. 

70.  The  Legislative  Assembly  of  Ontario 
shall  be  composed  of  eighty-two  inembor-s,  to  be 
elected  to  represent  the  eighty-two  Electoral 
Districts  set  forth  in  the  first  Schedule  to  this- 
Act. 

71.  There  shall  be  a  Legislature  for  Quebec 
consisting  of  the  Lieutenant  Governor  and  of  two 
HoiLses,  styled  the  Legislative  Council  of  Quebec 

•  and  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec. 

73.  The  Legislative  Council  of  Quebec  shall 
be  composed  of  twenty-four  members,  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  Lieutenant  Governor  in  the 
Queen's  name,  by  instrument  under  the  Great 
Seal  of  Quebec,  one  being  appointed  to  represent 
each  of  the  twenty -four  Electoral  Divisions  of 
Lower  Canada  in  this  Act  referred  to,  and  each 
holding  office  for  the  term  of  his  life,  unless  the 
LegLslature  of  Quebec  otherwise  provides  under 
the  provisions  of  this  Act. 

73.  The  qualiflcatiuns  of  the  Legislative 
Councillors  of  Quebec  shall  be  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Senators  for  Quebec. 

74.  Tlie  place  of  a  Legislative  Councillor  of 
Quebec  shall  become  vacant  in  the  cases,  '  mutatis 
mutandis'  in  which  the  place  of  Senator  be- 
comes vacant. 


530 


CONSTITUTION  OP  CANADA. 


Provincial 
Oowmment$. 


CONSTITUTION  OK  CANADA. 


78.  When  a  vacancy  liappenf)  In  the  Legis- 
lative Council  of  (Jufl)ec,  by  resignation,  (Iciilli, 
or  otiierwise,  tlie  Lieutenant  Ooveruor,  in  tlie 
Queen's  niunp,  l)y  instrument  under  the  Great 
Heal  of  Quebec,  sl'iall  appoint  a  lit  and  (luaiilied 
person  to  till  tlie  vacancy. 

7tt.  If  any  ([ucstion  arises  respecting  tlic 
qualilicatiiin  of  a  Le: 'slativo  t'ouncilior  of 
Quebec,  or  a  vacancy  in  tlie  Legislative  Council 
of  Quebec,  tlie  same  .shall  be  heard  and  de- 
tcrnnned  by  the  Legislative  Council. 

77.  The  Lieutenant  Qovornor  may  from  time 
to  time,  by  instrument  under  the  Orc:it  Heal  of 
Quebec,  appoint  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Council  of  Quebec  to  be  Speaker  tliereof,  and 
may  remove  liim  and  appoint  another  in  his  stead. 

78.  Uiitii  tlie  Legislature  of  Quebec  other- 
wise jirovides,  the  presence  of  at  least  ten  mem 
ber^  of  the  Legislative  Council,  including  the 
Speaker,  shall  be  necessary  to  constitute  a  meet- 
ing for  the  exercise  of  its  powers. 

70.  Questions  arising  in  the  Legislative 
Coiincil  of  Quebec  shall  be  decided  by  a  majority 
of  voices,  and  the  Speaker  shall  in  all  cases  have 
a  vote,  and  when  the  voices  are  equal  the  decision 
shall  be  deemed  to  lie  in  the  negatii  i. 

80.  The  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec 
shall  be  composed  of  sixty -five  members,  to  be 
elected  to  represent  tlic  sixty-five  Electoral 
Divisions  or  Districts  of  Lower  Canada  in  this 
Act  referred  to,  subject  to  alteration  thereof  by 
the  Legislature  of  Quebec:  Provided  that  it 
shall  not  be  lawful  to  present  to  the  Lieutenant 
Governor  of  Quebec  for  assent  any  bill  for  alter- 
ing tlie  limits  of  any  of  the  Electoral  Divisions 
or  Districts  mentioned  in  the  second  Schedule  to 
this  Act,  unless  the  second  and  third  readings  of 
such  bill  have  been  passed  in  tlie  Legislative 
Assembly  with  the  concurrence  of  the  majority 
of  the  members  representing  all  those  Electoral 
Divisions  or  Districts,  and  the  assent  .shau  not  be 
given  to  such  bills  unless  an  address  has  been 
presented  by  the  Legislative  Assembly  to  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  stating  that  it  has  been  so 
passed. 

81.  The  Legislatures  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 
respectively  shall  be  called  together  not  later 
than  six  months  after  the  Union. 

82.  Tlie  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Ontario  and 
of  Quebec  shall  from  time  to  time,  in  the  Qu  'en's 
name,  by  instrument  under  the  Great  Seal  of  the 
Province,  summon  and  call  together  the  Legis- 
lative As.scmbly  of  the  Province. 

83.  Until  the  Legislature  of  Ontario  or  of 
Quebec  otherwise  provides,  a  person  accepting 
or  holding  in  Ontario  Oi  in  Quebec  any  office, 
commission,  or  employment,  permanent  or 
temporary,  at  the  nomination  of  the  Lieutenant 
Governor,  to  which  an  annual  salary,  or  any  fee, 
allowance,  emolument,  or  profit  of  any  kind  or 
amount  wliatever  from  the  Province  is  attached, 
shall  not  be  eligible  as  a  member  of  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  of  the  respective  Province,  nor 
shall  he  sit  or  vote  as  such ;  but  nothing  in  this 
section  shall  make  ineligible  any  person  being  a 
member  of  the  Executive  Council  of  the  respec- 
tive Province,  or  holding  any  of  tlie  following 
offices,  that  is  to  say,  tlie  offices  of  Attorney- 
General,  Secretary  and  Registrar  of  the  Province, 
Treasurer  of  the  Province,  Commissioner  of 
Crown  Lands,  and  Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
and  Public  Works,  and,  in  Quebec,  Solicitor- 
General,  or  shall  disqualify  him  to  sit  or  vote  in 


tli(>  IIou.se  for  which  he  is  elected,  provided  he  is 
elected  while  holding  such  olllee, 

84.  I'litil  till-  Legislatures  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec  respectively  otherwise  provi<le.  all  laws 
which  at  the  Union  are  in  force  in  tliost!  Prov- 
i:ices  respectively,  re'alive  io  the  following 
matters,  or  any  of  tliem.  namely,-— the  qiialillea- 
tions  and  dis(|ualitiiations  of  persons  to  bo 
;'ectcd  or  to  sit  or  vote  as  members  of  the  As- 
H  mblv  of  Canada,  the  (|ualilleations  or  liis- 
qualilicatioiis  of  voters,  the  oatlis  to  be  taken  by 
voters,  the  Heturning  OlUcers,  their  powers  and 
duties,  the  proceedings  at  elections,  tlie  periods 
(luring  wliicli  such  elections  may  be  continued, 
and  the  trial  of  controverted  erections  ami  tliu 
Iiroccedihgs  incident  thereto,  the  vacating  of  the 
.seats  of  members  and  the  iss'iiiig  and  execution 
of  new  writs  in  ease  of  seats  vacated  otiierwise 
than  by  dissolution,  shall  resiiectively  apply  to 
elections  of  members  to  serve  in  the  "respective 
Legislative  Assemblies  of  Ontario  aad  Quebec. 
Provided  that  until  tlie  Legislature  of  Ontario 
otherwise  ))rovides,  at  anj-  election  for  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Ontario  for  the 
District  of  Algoma,  in  addition  to  persctis  quali- 
fied by  the  law  of  the  Province  of  Canada  to 
vote,  every  male  British  subject,  aged  twenty- 
one  years  or  upwards,  being  a  liouseholdcr,  shall 
have  a  vote. 

85.  Every  Legislative  Assembly  of  Ontario 
and  every  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec  shall 
continue  for  four  years  from  the  day  of  the  re- 
turn of  the  v.'rits  for  choosing  tlie  same  (subject 
nevertheless  to  either  the  Legislative  Assembly 
of  Ontario  or  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec 
being  sooner  dissolved  by  the  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Province),  and  no  longer. 

80.  There  shall  be  a  session  of  the  Legislature 
of  Ontario  and  of  that  of  (Jucbec  once  at  least  in 
every  year,  so  that  twelve  months  sliall  not 
intervene  between  the  last  sitting  of  the  Legisla- 
ture in  each  Province  in  one  session  and  its  first 
sitting  in  tlic  next  session. 

87.  Tlie  following  provisions  of  this  Act  re- 
specting tlic  House  of  C'ommons  of  Canada,  sliall 
extend  and  apply  to  the  Legislative  Assemblies 
of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  that  is  to  say, —  the  pro- 
visions relating  to  the  election  of  a  Speaker 
originally  and  on  vacancies,  the  duties  of  the 
Speaker,  the  absence  of  the  Speaker,  the  quorum, 
and  the  mode  ot  voting,  as  if  those  provisions 
were  here  re-enacted  and  made  applicable  in 
terms  to  each  such  Legislative  Assembly. 

88.  The  constitution  of  the  Legislature  of 
each  of  the  Provinces  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Urunswick  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
this  Act,  continue  as  it  exists  at  the  Union  until 
altered  under  the  authority  of  this  Act ;  aii<l  the 
House  of  Assembly  of  New  Brunswick  existing 
at  the  passing  of  this  Act  sliall,  unless  sooner 
dissolved,  continue  for  the  period  for  which  it 
was  elected. 

89.  Each  of  the  Lieutenant  Governors  of 
Ontario,  Quebec,  and  Nova  Scotia  shall  cause 
writs  to  be  issued  for  the  first  election  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Legislative  Assembly  thereof  in  such 
form  and  by  such  person  as  he  thinks  fit,  and  at 
such  time  and  addressed  to  such  Heturning 
Officer  as  the  Governor  General  directs,  and  so 
that  the  first  election  of  member  of  Assembly  for 
any  Electoral  District  or  any  subdivision  thereof 
shall  be  held  at  the  same  time  and  at  the  same 
places  as  the  election  for  a  member  to  serve  in  the 


531 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


Oistribution 
at  i'oujeri. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


IIouw.'  of  ComnioDH  of  Canadii  for  that  Electoral 

District. 

OO.  Tliu  following  provlgionii  of  this  Act  re- 
Hix'cting  tlic  I'lirliiiiuciit  of  Cniiadii,  namely, — 
till'  proviitiiiim  ri'liitlrig  to  apprniiriiilioii  and  tax 
biiJH,  tlio  r('<(>iiiiii('ii(latii<n  of  MKincy  votes,  tlie 
a.HS<'nt  to  liilin,  tlie  (ii.sallo«aneo  of  Acts,  and  tlie 
Ki)rni(l<ationof  i)iea»un!  lu  bills  reserved, —  slial! 
<'.\tend  and  apply  to  the  IjCgislatures  of  the 
wveral  I'rovinees  as  if  tlio.se  provisions  were 
here  re-enacted  and  made  applicable  in  terms  to 
the  respective  Provinces  and  tlu^  Lejfislatures 
thereof,  with  the  suhstitution  of  the  Lieutenant 
Oovernor  of  th(^  I'rovinco  for  the  Ooveriior 
iJeneral,  of  the  (Joveruor  General  for  the  Queen 
and  for  a  Secretary  of  State,  of  one  year  for  two 
years,  atid  of  the  I'roviiice  for  Canada. 

IH.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Qiuen,  by  and 
with  th<'  advice  and  con.sent  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Commons,  to  make  law.s  for  the  peace, 
order,  and  good  government  of  Canada,  in  rela- 
tion to  all  matters  not  coming  within  the  clas.ses 
of  subjects  by  this  A<'t  aHslgncd  exclusively  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  Provinces;  and  for 
greater  certainty,  but  not  so  as  to  restrict  the 
generality  of  the  foregoing  terms  of  this  section, 
It  \.i  hereby  declared  that  (notwithstanding  any- 
thing in  this  Act)  the  exclu.sivc  legislati'  e 
authority  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  exter.ds 
to  all  matters  coming  within  the  classes  of  sub- 
jects next  hereinafter  enumerat(d,  that  is  to 
say,— 1.  The  Public  Debt  and  Property.  3.  The 
regulation  of  Trade  and  Commerce.  3.  The 
raising  of  money  by  any  mode  or  system  of 
Taxation.  4.  The  borrowing  of  motwy  on  the 
public  credit.  5.  Postjil  servico.  8.  ThoCen.sus 
and  Statistics.  7.  Militia,  Military  and  Naval 
Service,  and  Defence.  8.  The  fixing  of  and  pro- 
viding for  the  salaries  and  allowances  of  civil 
and  other  ofllcers  of  the  Government  of  Canada. 
9.  IJeacons,  Buoys,  Lighthouses,  and  Sable 
Island.  10.  Navigation  and  Shipping.  11. 
Quarantine  and  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  Marine  Hospitals.  13.  Sea  coast  and 
inland  Fisheries.  13.  Ferries  between  a  Prov- 
ince and  any  British  or  Foreign  country,  or  be- 
tween two  Provinces.  14.  Currency  and  Coin- 
age. 15.  Banking,  incorporation  of  banks,  and 
the  issue  of  paper  money.  18.  Savings  Banks. 
17.  Weights  and  Measures.  18.  Bills  of  Ex- 
change and  Promissory  Notes.  10.  Interest. 
20.  Legal  tender.  31.  Bankruptcy  and  In- 
solvency. 22.  Patents  of  invention  and  dis- 
covery. 23.  Copyrights.  24.  Indians,  and 
lands  reserved  for  the  Indians.  25.  Naturaliza- 
tion and  Aliens.  28.  Marriage  and  Divorce. 
27.  The  Criminal  Law,  except  the  Constitution 
of  Courts  of  Criminal  Jurisdiction,  but  includ- 
ing the  Procedure  in  tJriminal  JIatters.  28.  The 
EsUiblishment,  Maintenance,  and  Management 
of  Penitentiaries.  20.  Such  classes  of  subjects 
as  are  expressly  excepted  in  the  enumeration  of 
the  classes  of  subjects  by  this  Act  assigned  ex- 
clusively to  the  Legislatures  of  the  Provinces. 
And  any  matter  coming  within  any  of  the  class<!s 
of  subjects  enumerated  in  this  section  shall  not 
be  deemed  to  come  within  the  class  of  matters  of 
a  local  or  private  nature  comprised  in  the 
enumeration  of  the  classes  of  subjects  by  this 
Act  assigned  exclusively  to  the  Legislatures  of 
the  Provinces. 

02.  In  each  Province  the  Legislature  may  ex- 
clusively make  laws  in  relation  to  matters  coming 


within  the  cla.sses  of  siibjecta  next  hereinafter 
enumerated ;  that  is  to  say, —  1.  The  amendment 
from  time  to  time,  notwithstanding  anvthing  in 
this  Act,  of  the  Constitution  of  tin.'  I'rovlnce, 
except  as  regards  the  oltlci'  of  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor, 2.  Direct  Taxation  within  the  Province 
in  order  to  the  ndslng  of  a  Ucvenint  for  Pro- 
vincial purposes.  1).  Tlie  borrowing  of  money 
on  the  .sole  credit  of  the  Province.  4.  The 
estalilishmeiit  and  tenure  of  I'rovincial  olllces 
an<l  the  n)ipointment  and  payiiu'nt  of  Provincial 
olllccrs.  5.  T\u'  management  and  sale  of  the 
Puhli(!  Lands  belonging  to  the  Province  and  of 
the  timber  and  wood  thereon.  8.  The  establish- 
ment, maintenance,  and  management  of  public 
and  reformatorv  ])ri.sons  in  and  for  the  Province. 
7.  Tlie  establishment,  maintenance,  and  nianago- 
ment  of  hospitals,  asylums,  charities,  and 
eleemosynary  inslitutions  in  and  for  the  Prov- 
ince, other  than  marine  hospitals.  8.  ^Iiinicipal 
instituticms  in  the  Province.  0.  Shop,  sahion,. 
tavern,  auctioneer,  and  other  licenses  in  order  to 
the  niLsing  of  a  revenue  for  Provincial,  loci'l,  or 
municipar  purposes.  10.  Local  works  and 
undertakings  other  than  such  as  are  of  the 
following  clas.ses, —  a.  Lines  of  steam  or  otlier 
ships,  railways,  canals,  telegraphs,  and  other 
works  and  undertakings  c<mnecting  the  Province 
with  any  other  or  others  of  the  Provinces,  or  ex- 
tending beyond  the  limits  of  the  Province: 
A.  Lines  of  steamships  between  the  Province  and 
any  British  or  foR'ign  country,  c.  Such  works 
as,  although  wholly  situate  within  the  Province, 
are  before  or  after  their  execution  declared  by 
the  Parliament  of  Canada  to  be  for  the  general 
advantage  of  Canada  or  for  the  advantage 
of  two  or  more  of  the  Provinces.  11.  The  in- 
corporation of  companies  with  Provincial  objects. 
13.  The  solcmni/ation  of  marriage  in  the  Prov- 
ince. 13.  Property  and  civil  rights  in  tlie 
Province.  14.  The  administnition  of  justice  in 
the  Province,  including  the  constitution,  main- 
tenance, and  organization  of  Provincial  Courts, 
both  of  civil  and  of  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  in- 
cluding procedure  in  Civil  matters  in  tiiose 
Courts.  15.  The  imposition  of  punishment  by 
flne,  penalty,  or  imiirisonment  for  enforcing  any 
law  of  the  Province  made  in  relation  to  any 
matter  coming  within  any  of  the  classes  of  sub- 
jects enumerated  in  this  section.  16.  Generally 
all  matters  of  a  merely  local  or  private  nature  in 
the  Province. 

03.  In  and  for  each  Province  the  Legislature 
may  exclusively  make  laws  in  relation  to  educa- 
tion, subject  and  according  to  the  following 
provisions:  (1)  Nothing  in  any  such  law  shall 
prejudicially  affect  any  right  or  privihjge  with 
respect  tc  denominational  schools  which  any 
cla.ss  of  persons  have  by  law  in  the  Province  at  tlio 
Union.  (2)  All  the  powers,  privileges,  and 
duties  at  tlie  Union  by  law  conferred  and  im- 
posed in  Upper  Canada  on  the  separate  schools 
and  school  trustees  of  the  (Jueen's  Roman  Catholic 
subjects  shall  he  and  the  same  are  hereby  ex- 
tended to  the  dissentient  schools  of  the  Queen's 
Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  subjects  in 
Quebec  (3)  Where  in  any  Province  a  system  of 
.separate  or  dissentient  schools  exists  by  law  at 
the  Union  or  is  thereafter  established  by  the 
Legislature  of  the  Province,  an  appeal  shall  lie 
to  the  Governor  General  in  Council  from  any 
Act  or  decision  of  any  Provincial  authority 
affecting  any  right  or  privilege  of  the  Protestant 


582 


CONSTITUTION  OP  CANADA. 


Judiciary 
and  Mruinr**, 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


or  Romftii  Catholic  minority  of  tl:i'  Qiiwn'n  mib- 
jects  In  ri'liition  to  cdvicution:  (4)  In  ciiso  iiny 
auch  I'roviucial  liiw  us  from  tiin*-  to  tinii'  wcmim 
to  thn  Governor  UcniTiil  in  Council  rci|iiinii"'  for 
the  (Iiic  execution  of  the  provUionHof  IIiIh  M'ctioii 
la  not  nimU',  or  In  case  any  decision  of  ihe  (Jov- 
emor  Oenernl  in  Council  on  any  appeal  under 
this  section  Is  not  dtily  executed  by  tlie  proper 
Provincial  iiutliority  in  tliat  behalf,  then  and  in 
every  sucli  case,  an<l  as  far  only  as  tin-  ciii'um- 
stances  (<f  each  ca.sc  re(iuiri',  the  Parliament  of 
('anada  may  nialio  i,:<ie(iial  laws  for  the  <lui! 
execution  ot  tile  iirovisions  of  this  sccMon  and  of 
any  decision  of  tiic  Oovernor  Ocnerul  In  Council 
under  this  section. 

94.  Notwitlistandlng  anytldng  in  tills  Act, 
the  Parliament  of  Canada  may  nutke  provision 
for  the  uniformity  of  ail  or  any  ot  the  laws 
relative  to  i)roperty  anil  civil  ri.i^hts  in  Ontario, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Urunswick,  and  of  tlie 
procedure  of  ail  or  any  of  tlie  Courts  in  those 
three  Provinces;  and  from  and  after  tlie  passing 
of  any  Act  in  tliat  behalf  the  power  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Canada  to  make  laws  in  riMation  to  any 
matter  compriseil  in  any  such  Act  shall,  notwith- 
standing anything  in  this  Act,  be  unrestricted ; 
but  any  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  mak- 
ing provision  for  sudi  uniformity  shall  not  have 
clTect  in  any  Province  unless  and  until  it  is 
adopted  and  enacted  as  law  by  the  Legislature 
thereof. 

96.  In  each  Province  the  Legislature  may 
make  laws  in  relation  to  Agriculture  in  the 
Province,  and  to  Immigration  into  tlic  Province ; 
and  it  is  hereby  declared  that  the  Parliament  of 
Canada  may  from  time  to  time  make  laws  in  re- 
lation to  Agriculture  in  all  or  any  of  tlic  Prov- 
inces, and  to  Immigration  into  ail  or  any  of  the 
Provinces;  and  any  law  of  the  Legislature  of  a 
Province  relative  to  Agriculture  or  to  Immi.'jra- 
tion  sliall  have  effect  in  and  for  the  Province  as 
long  and  as  far  only  as  it  is  not  repugnant  to  any 
Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada. 

96.  The  Governor  General  shall  appoint  the 
Judges  of  the  Superior,  District,  and  County 
Courts  In  each  Province,  except  those  of  the 
Courts  of  Probate  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Urunswick. 

97.  Until  the  laws  relative  to  property  and 
civil  riglits  in  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick,  and  the  procedure  of  the  Courts  in 
those  Provinces,  arc  made  uniform,  the  Judges 
of  the  Courts  of  those  Provinces  aiipointed  by 
the  Governor  General  shall  be  selected  from  the 
respective  Bars  of  those  Provinces. 

98.  The  Judges  of  the  Courts  of  Quebec 
shall  bo  selected  from  the  Bar  of  that  Province. 

99.  The  Judges  of  the  Superior  Courts  shall 
hold  office  during  good  behaviour,  but  shall  be 
removeable  by  the  Governor  General  on  address 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Commons. 

100.  The  salaries,  allowances,  and  pensions 
of  the  Judges  of  the  Superior,  District,  and 
County  Courts  (except  the  Courts  of  Probate  in 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick),  and  of  the 
Admiralty  Courts  in  cases  where  the  Judges 
thereof  are  for  the  time  being  paid  by  salary, 
shall  be  fixed  and  provided  by  the  Parliament  of 
Canada. 

101.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may,  not- 
withstanding any  :'iing  in  this  Act,  from  time  to 
^ime,  provide  for  the  "institution,  maintenance, 
and  organization  of  a  general  Court  of  A  ppeal 


for  Canada,  and  for  the  ratablisliment  of  any 
addilioiial  Courts  for  the  (H'tlcr  adminlMtra'.lou 
of  the  Laws  of  Canada. 

lOSi.  All  duties  and  revenues  over  which 
the  respeilive  Legislatures  of  Cannda,  Nova 
Sciilia,  aii<i  New  Brunswirk  bcfnre  and  at  tho 
riiion  had  and  have  power  of  appropriation, 
except  Hiicli  portions  thereof  as  iire  by  this  Act 
reserved  to  tlie  respeeliv,'  Leirislatures  of  tho 
I'roviiiies,  or  are  raised  by  iIumii  in  acconlanco 
with  the  special  powers  conri-rred  on  tliem  by 
this  Act,  shall  form  one  Con.solidated  Kevenuo 
Fund,  to  be  appropriated  for  the  public  service 
of  ('anada  in  the  maimer  and  subject  to  tho 
charges  li,  this  Ac-t  provided. 

10!l.  The  Consolidated  Uevenue  Fund  of 
Canada  sliall  be  perniaiiently  charged  witli  tho 
costs,  charges,  and  expenses  incident  to  llio 
collection,  management,  and  receipt  thereof,  and 
tho  same  shall  form  the  lirst  charge  thereon,  siib- 
je'jt  to  b(!  reviewed  and  audited  in  sucli  manner 
as  shall  be  ordered  by  tlii^  Governor  General  in 
Council  until  the  Parliament  otherwise  provides. 

104.  The  annual  interest  of  the  public  debts 
of  the  sevral  ''-ovinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  New  Brunswick  at  tlie  Union  shall  fonn  tho 
second  charge  on  the  Co.isolidated  Heveniie 
Fund  of  Canada. 

105.  Unless  altered  by  the  Parliament  of 
Canada,  the  salary  of  the  Oovernor  General  shall 
be  ten  thousand  pounds  sterling  money  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
payable  out  of  the  Consoliilated  Uevenue  Fund 
of  Canada,  and  the  same  shall  form  the  third 
charge  thereon. 

lOO.  Subject  to  the  several  payments  by  this 
Act  charged  on  the  Consolidated  Hevenue  Fund 
of  CaiuKla,  tlie  same  shall  be  appropriated  by 
the  Parliament  of  Canada  for  the  publ'c  service. 

107.  All  stocks,  cash,  banker's  bala-""cs,  and 
securities  for  immey  belonging  to  eacli  Province 
at  the  time  of  the  Union,  except  as  in  tliii  Act 
mentioned,  shall  be  the  projierty  of  Canada,  and 
shall  be  taken  in  reduction  of  the  amount  of  the 
respective  debts  of  tlie  Provinces  at  the  Union. 

108.  The  public  works  and  jiroperty  of  each 
Province,  enumerated  in  the  third  scliedule  to 
this  Act,  shall  be  the  pro.iierty  of  Canada. 

109.  All  lands,  mines,  minerals,  and  royal- 
ties belonging  to  the  sevcml  Provinces  of 
Canada,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  at  tho 
Union,  and  all  sums  then  due  or  payable  for  such 
lands,  mines,  minerals,  or  roj-alties,  shall  belong  to 
the  several  Provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  in  whicli  the  same 
are  situate  or  arise,  subject  to  any  trusts  existing 
in  respect  tliercof,  and  to  any  interest  other  than 
that  of  the  Province  in  the  same. 

1 J  O  All  as.sots  connected  with  such  portions 
of  the  public  debt  of  each  Province  •  .^  are 
assumed  by  that  Province  sliall  belong  to  that 
Province. 

111.  Canada  shall  be  liable  for  the  debts  and 
liabilities  of  each  Province  existing  at  the  Union. 

112.  Ontario  and  Quebec  conjointly  shall  bo 
liable  10  Canada  for  the  amount  (if  any)  by 
which  the  debt  of  the  Province  of  Canada  ex- 
ceeds at  the  Union  sixty-two  million  five  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars,  and  shall  be  charged  with 
interest  at  tlie  rate  of  five  per  centum  per  annum 
thereon. 

118.  The  assets  enumerated  in  the  fourth 
Schedule  to  this  Act  belonging  at  the  Union  to 


53a 


CONHTITITION  OF  CANADA. 


fiehtt  anil 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


thi!  Pmvlncf!  (if  Cunndit  nIiiiII  Im'  tlif  pniporty  of 
Oiitiirio  niid  CjiK'lx-c  ('(iMji>iiitly. 

I  l-l-.  NdVii  Hcotiii  hIiiiII  Iio  liable  to  ('iiiiii<lii 
for  llir  aiiKiuiit  (if  luiy)  by  wlilcli  ItH  piilill(^  dclit 
t'Xi'i'i'd.s  al  tlic  I'ldon  cii^lit  million  dollars,  and 
Hhall  be  cliarKi'il  witli  liitcrcst  at  tilt'  rate  of  live 
per  <'('iitiiiii  perannutii  tliercon. 

110.  New  lininBwick  NJiall  Ik'  liable  to 
('aiia<la  for  tli(!  amount  (if  any)  by  which  its 
])Mbli('  debt  exceedH  at  the  Union  Heveii  million 
doilarx,  and  Hhall  be  cliarffed  with  interent  at  the 
rate  of  the  ]ier  centum  per  annum  therccm. 

1  lO.  In  eaHC  the  public  ilel)t  of  Nova  Scotia 
.'.iKl  New  Hnniswick  do  not  at  tiic  Union  am""Mt 
to  elKlit  million  dollars  and  Hcven  nullioii  dollars 
respect ively,  they  sliall  respectively  receive  by 
half-yearly  i)aym'<'nts  In  advance  from  tlic  Oov- 
enimcnt  of  (Canada  int<'reHt  at  tlvu  per  centum 
per  annum  on  the  dilTen'rici!  Ijctween  the  actual 
amounts  of  their  respective  debts  and  such 
Htipulateil  amotints. 

117.  The  sevend  provlnccH  shall  n^tain  all 
their  respective  public  proix-rty  not  otherwise 
disposed  of  in  this  Act,  subject  to  the  right  of 
Canada  to  assume  any  lands  or  public  property 
required  for  fortiUeations  or  for  the  defence  of 
tlw.  country. 

118.  The  following  Btims  shall  be  paid 
yearly  by  Canada  to  the  s«'veml  I'rovlnces  for 
the  mipport  of  their  Uovernmcnts  and  liCgisia- 
turcs :  Ontario,  eighty  thousand  dollars ;  QuelK'c, 
seventy  thousand  dollars;  Nova  Scotia,  sixty 
thousiiml  dollars;  New  Itrunswick,  lifty  th(«i- 
8iind  (h>llars;  [total!  two  hundred  and  sixty 
thousand  dollars ;  nnd  an  annual  grant  in  aid  of 
eadi  Province  shall  be  made,  ecpiul  to  eighty 
cents  per  head,  of  the  population  as  ascertained 
by  the  census  if  one  tlui'isand  eight  hundred  and 
sixty-one,  ami  in  tlie  eas<'  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  lJrunswi(;k,  l)y  each  subsequent  decennial 
census  until  tl  e  population  of  each  of  those  two 
Provinces  amc.  ints  to  four  hundred  thousand 
soids,  at  which  'ate  such  grunt  shall  thereafter 
remuia.  Such  gi.nt  shall  be  in  full  Settlement 
of  all  future  demands  on  Ciiuada,  and  shall  be 
paid  half-yearly  in  advance  to  each  Province; 
liut  the  Ooverniiient  of  Canada  shall  deduct  from 
such  grants,  us  uguinst  uny  Province,  uU  sums 
chargeable  as  int,rest  on  the  Public  Debt  of  tliat 
Province  in  excess  of  the  sevcnil  amounts  stipu- 
lated in  this  Act. 

IIO.  New  Brunswick  shall  receive  by  half- 
yearly  payments  in  advance  from  Canada,  for 
the  periwl  of  ten  years  from  the  Union,  an  ad- 
ditional nlidwam'e  of  sixty-three  tiiousuiul  dol- 
lars per  a-unim ;  but  as  long  as  the  Public  Debt 
of  tiiut  Province  remains  under  seven  million 
dollars  a  deduction  equal  *o  the  interest  at  five 
per  centum  per  annum  on  h  i  li  deflciency  shall 
be  made  from  that  allowance  of  sixty-three 
thousand  dollars. 

120.  All  payments  to  be  made  under  this 
Act,  or  in  discharge  of  liabilities  created  und'-r 
uny  Act  of  tlie  Provinces  of  (Canada,  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  respectively,  and  assumed 
by  Canada,  shall,  until  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
otherwiBC  directs,  be  made  in  such  form  and 
manner  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  ordered  by 
the  Governor  General  in  Council. 

ISil.  All  articles  of  the  growth,  produce,  or 
manufacture  of  any  one  of  tlie  Provinces  shall, 
from  and  after  the  Union,  be  admitted  free  into 
each  of  the  other  Provinces. 


122.  The  Customs  an<l  Excise  I.uwHofeach 
Province  shall,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this 
A<t,  continue  in  force  until  altered  by  the  Par- 
liament (>r  Canada. 

1 2.'l.  Where  Customs  duties  are,  at  the  Union, 
leviable  on  any  goods,  wares  or  merchandises 
in  any  two  Provinces,  those  gO(Mls,  wares  and 
merchandiws  may,  from  and  after  the  Uniim,  bo 
imported  from  one  of  those  Provinces  into  the 
other  of  them  on  proof  of  pavment  of  the  Cus- 
toms duty  leviable  thereon  In  the  I'rovuiK-  of 
exportation,  and  on  payment  of  sucli  further 
amount  (if  any)  of  ('■  ioms  duty  as  is  leviable 
thereon  in  tlie  Province  of  importation. 

124.  Notlung  in  this  Act  shall  alTect  the 
right  of  Ni  V  Brunswick  to  levy  the  lumber 
dues  provided  In  chapter  fifteen,  of  title  three, 
of  the  Revised  Statul"s  of  New  Brunswick,  or 
in  any  Act  amending  i.iat  act  before  or  after  the 
Union,  and  not  increasing  the  amount  of  suck 
dues;  but  the  lumber  of  any  of  the  Provinces 
other  tlian  New  Brunswick  shall  not  be  subjected 
to  such  dues. 

120.  No  lands  or  property  belonging  to 
Canada  or  any  Province  shall  tie  liable  to  taxa- 
tion. 

120.  Such  portions  of  the  duties  and  rev- 
enues (vvcr  which  the  respective  Legislatures  of 
Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  had 
before  the  Union  power  of  appropriation  as  are 
by  this  Act  reserved  to  the  i;vi)ective  Govern- 
ments or  Legislatures  of  the  Provinces,  and  all 
duties  (ind  revenues  raised  by  tliem  in  accordance 
with  the  special  powers  conferred  uiiou  them  by 
this  act,  shall  in  each  Province  form  one  CJonsoii- 
dated  Uevenuo  Fund  to  be  appropriated  for  the 
public  service  of  tlie  Province. 

127.  If  any  person  being  at  the  passing  of 
this  Act  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council  of 
Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  or  New  Brunswick,  to 
whom  a  place  in  the  Senate  is  offered,  docs  not 
within  thirty  days  thereafter,  by  witing  under 
his  hand,  addressed  to  the  Qover;.or  General  of 
the  Province  of  Canada,  or  to  the  Lieutenant 
Governor  of  Novo  Scotia  or  New  Brunswick  (as 
the  case  may  be),  accept  the  same,  he  shall  be 
deemed  to  have  declined  the  same ;  nnd  any  per- 
son who,  being  at  the  passing  of  this  Act  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Legislative  Council  of  Nova  Scotia  or 
New  Brunswick,  accepts  a  place  in  the  Senate, 
shall  thereby  vacate  his  seat  in  such  Legislative 
Council. 

128.  Every  member  of  tlie  Senate  or  House 
of  (;ommon8  of  Canada  shall  before  taking  his 
seat  therein,  take  and  subscribe  before  the  Gov- 
ernor General  or  some  person  authorized  by  him, 
and  every  member  of  a  Legislative  Council  or 
Legislative  Assembly  of  any  Province  shall 
before  taking  his  scat  therein,  take  and  subscrilie 
before  the  Lieutenant  Governor  of  the  Province, 
or  some  person  uutliorized  by  him,  the  oath  of 
allegiance  contoined  in  tlie  flftli  Schedule  to 
this  Act;  and  every  member  of  the  Senate  of 
Canada  and  every  member  of  the  Legislative 
Council  of  Quebec  shall  also,  before  taking  his 
seat  therein,  take  and  subscribe  before  the  Gov- 
ernor General,  or  some  person  authorized  by  him, 
the  declaration  of  quulitication  contained  in  the 
pame  Schedule. 

120.  Except  as  otherwise  provided  by  this 
Act,  all  laws  in  force  in  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
or  New  Brunswick  at  the  Union,  and  all  courts 
of  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  all  legal 


m^ 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


IMtano 
and  .^uebec. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


commiBginnH,  powers  and  autliDritioM,  iiiul  all 
ottlccrH,  Judlciiil,  iidmlniNtnitivi',  iind  ininiHtcrinl, 
rxiHtiii^  tlicrciti  at  tliu  Uiiidii,  hIiuII  ((intiiiiK;  in 
Onlurlo,  tinclu'c,  Novii  Scotlii,  iiiitl  Ni'W  llriiim- 
wick  rcHpi'ctivi'ly,  tin  if  IIk^  Union  liiiil  nol  Ihtu 
miiilc,  Hiilijcrt  iH'VcrlliclcHH  (cxrcpt  wllli  icwpi'ct 
to  siicli  ii.s  lire  cniiclcd  l)y  or  c.viHl  under  Acts  of 
the  I'lirliiiincnt  of  Orunl  Hritiiin  or  of  IIk^  I'urliii- 
nicnt  of  tlic  United  KinK<ioni  of  (ireiit  llritiiin 
aud  Ireland),  to  l)i-  repealed,  alxilislied  or  altered 
by  tlie  Parliament  of  Canacla,  or  by  tlie  Lej^i.sla- 
ture  of  tlie  reHpeetive  I'rovinee,  aecordinj?  to  tlio 
nutlioritv  of  the  i'jirliament  or  of  that  Legisla- 
ture under  thi.s  Act. 

IJIO.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
wise provides,  all  oilleers  of  the  several  Provinces 
having  duties  to  di.scliarge  in  relation  to  matters 
other  tlian  thoH<!  connng  within  tlu^  cla.s.sc8  of 
subjects  by  this  Act  a.s.signed  exclusively  to  the 
Legislatures  of  the  Provinces  shall  be  oilleers  of 
Canada,  and  shall  ecmtinue  to  discharge  the 
duties  of  their  respective  otllces  under  the  same 
liabilities,  responsibilities  aud  penalties  as  if  the 
Union  liad  not  been  made. 

131.  Until  the  Parliament  of  Canada  other- 
wise provides,  the  Governor  General  in  (,'ouneil 
may  fnmi  time  to  time  appoint  such  odieers  as 
the  Governor  General  in  Council  deems  neces.sary 
or  proper  for  the  clfectual  e.veeution  of  tins  Act. 

13^.  Tho  Parliament  and  Government  of 
Canadit  shall  have  all  iiowerr,  necessary  or  proper 
for  performing  the  obligations  of  Canada  or  of 
ony  Province  thereof,  us  part  of  the  Dritish 
Empire  towards  foreign  countries,  arising  under 
treaties  between  the  Empire  ami  such  foreign 
countries. 

133.  Either  the  English  or  tlie  French  lan- 
guage may  be  used  by  any  person  in  the  debates 
of  tlie  Houses  of  Parliament  of  Canada  aud 
of  the  Houses  of  the  Legislature  of  Quebec ;  and 
both  those  languages  shall  be  used  in  the  respect- 
ive records  and  journals  of  tlio.se  Houses;  and 
either  of  those  languages  may  be  used  by  any 
person  or  in  any  pleading  or  process  in  or  issuing 
from  any  Court  of  Canada  established  under  this 
Act,  and  in  or  from  all  or  any  of  the  Courts  of 
Quebec.  The  Acts  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
and  of  tlio  I  egislature  of  Quebec  sliall  be  printed 
and  publislicd  in  both  those  languages. 

134.  Until  the  Legislature  of  Ontario  or  of 
Quebec  otherwise  provides,  the  Lieutenant 
Governors  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  may  eueli  ap- 
point under  the  Great  Seal  of  tlu!  Province  the 
following  officers,  to  hold  oflice  during  pleasure, 
that  is  to  say, — tlie  Attorney  General,  the  Secre- 
tary and  Itegistrar  of  the  Province,  the  Treas- 
urer of  the  Province,  the  Commissioner  of  Crown 
Lands  and  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and 
Public  Works,  and,  in  the  case  of  Quebec,  the 
Solicitor  General;  and  may,  hy  order  of  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  in  Council  from  time  to 
time  prescribe  the  duties  of  tho.se  ofHcers  and 
of  the  several  dei)artments  over  which  they  shall 
preside  or  to  wliich  they  sliall  belong,  and  of 
the  ofliccrs  and  clerks  thereof;  and  may  also  ap- 
point other  and  additional  officers  to  liold  office 
during  pleasure,  and  may  from  time  to  time 
prescribe  the  duties  of  those  officers,  and  of  the 
several  departments  over  which  they  shall  pre- 
side or  to  which  they  shall  belong,  and  of  the 
officers  and  clerks  thereof. 

136.  Until  the  Legislature  of  Ontario  or 
Quebec  otherwise  provides,  all  rights,  powers, 


duticD,  functions,  rcsponsibilitios  or  nuthori- 
ties  at  the  passing  of  this  Act  vested  in  or  iin- 
posed  on  tlie  Attorney  General,  Solicitor  General, 
Secretary  an<l  Ueicislrar  of  tlie  Pri>vinee  of  Can- 
ada, .Minister  of  Finance,  Commissionerof  (,'rown 
Lands,  Commissionerof  Pulilic  Works,  and  .Minis- 
ter of  Agriculture  and  Heceiver  General,  by  any 
law,  statute  or  ordinance  of  Upper  Canada, 
JiOWer  Canada,  or  Canada,  and  not  repugnant  to 
tills  Act,  shall  lie  vested  in  or  imposed  on  any 
officer  to  be  appointed  hy  the  Lieutenant  Gov 
ernor  f(i'-  lliedisclmrgeof  I'liesami'orany  of  them; 
and  til'!  Commissio.icr  of  Agriculture  and  Public 
Works  shall  iierform  (he  duties  and  functions 
of  tlie  office  of  Minister  of  Agriculture  at  tlio 
missing  of  this  Act  imposed  by  the  law  of  the 
Province  of  Canada  as  well  as  Jiose  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Public  Works. 

13«.  Until  altered  by  the  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor in  Council,  tiie  Great  Seals  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec  respectively,  shall  !«■  tlie  sami'  or  of  tlie 
same  design,  as  thost!  used  in  the  Provinces  of 
Upper  Canada  and  Lower  Carada  respectively 
before  their  Unicm  as  tlie  Province  of  Canada. 

137.  The  words  "and  from  thence  to  the 
end  of  the  then  next  ensuing  Session  of  t.  >;  Leg- 
islature," or  words  to  the  same  elfect,  used  in  any 
temporary  Act  of  tlie  Province  of  Canada  not 
expired  liefore  tlie  Union,  shall  be  construed  to 
extend  and  applv  to  the  next  Session  of  ar- 
liament  of  Canada,  if  the  spbiect  matter  of  tlie 
Act  is  within  the  powers  of  the  same  as  dellned 
by  this  Act,  or  to  tlie  next  Sessions  of  the  Legis- 
latures of  Ontario  and  (Juebec  resiicctively,  if 
the  subject  mutter  of  the  Act  is  within  tiie  powers 
of  the  same  03  defined  by  this  Act. 

138.  From  and  after  the  Uni(m,  the  v.no  of 
the  words  ' '  Upper  Canada, "  instead  of  ' '  OntJirio, " 
or  "Lower  Canada"  instead  of  "Quebec,"  in 
aiy  deed,  writ,  process,  pleading,  document, 
matter  or.  thing,  shall  not  invalidate  the  same. 

130.  Any  Proclamation  under  the  Great  Seal 
of  the  Province  of  Canada,  issued  lH;fore  tlie  Union 
to  take  effect  at  a  time  wliicli  is  subsequent  to 
the  Union,  whether  relating  to  that  Province  or 
to  Upper  Canada,  or  to  Lower  Canada,  an<l  the 
several  mattera  and  things  therein  proclaimed 
shall  be  and  continue  of  like  force  and  effect  as 
if  the  Union  had  not  been  made. 

140.  Any  proc  ■imation  wliich  is  authorized 
by  anv  Act  of  the  Legislature  of  the  Province  of 
Canada  to  be  issued  under  the  Great  Seal  of  the 
Provime  of  Canada,  whether  relating  to  that 
Province  or  to  Upper  Canada,  or  to  Lower  Can- 
ada, and  which  is  not  issued  before  llie  Union, 
may  be  issued  by  the  Lieutenant  Governor  of 
Ontario  or  of  Quebec,  as  its  subject  matter  re- 
quires, under  tlie  Great  Seal  thereof;  and  from 
and  after  the  issue  of  such  Proclamation  the 
same  and  the  several  matters  and  tilings  therein 
proclaimed  shall  be  and  continue  of  tlie  like 
force  and  effect  in  Ontario  or  Quebec  as  if  the 
Union  had  not  been  made. 

141.  The  Penitentiary  of  the  Province  of 
Canada  shall,  until  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
otherwise  jirovides,  be  and  continue  the  Peniten- 
tiary of  Ontario  and  of  Quebec. 

142.  The  division  and  adjustment  of  the 
debts,  eretlits,  liabilities,  properties  and  assets 
of  Upper  Canada  and  Lower  Canada  shall  be  re- 
ferred to  the  arbitrament  of  three  arbitrators, 
one  chosen  by  the  Government  of  Ontario,  one 
by  the  Government  of  Quebec,  and  one  by  the 


535 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


SuppUmentarv 
Actt. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  CANADA. 


Qvivcmmont  of  Oanadn ;  and  the  selection  of  the 
Arbitrato  n  shull  not  be  niiulc  until  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Canada  and  the  Legislatures  of  Ontar'  i 
snd  Quebec  have  met;  and  the  arbitrator  chosen 
by  the  Government  of  ('auada  shall  not  bo  a 
resident  either  in  Ontario  <;r  in  Quebec. 

143.  Tlie  Governor  (ieneral  in  Council  may 
from  time  to  tiiiw  order  lliat  .sueli  ami  so  many 
of  the  records,  books,  and  documents  of  the 
Province  of  Canada  as  he  t.iinks  tit  shall  be  ap- 
propriated and  delivered  either  to  Ontario  or  to 
Quebec,  and  the  same  shall  henceforth  be  the 
proi)erty  of  that  Province;  an<l  any  copy  thereof 
or  extract  therefrom,  duly  certified  by  the  ollicer 
having  charge  of  the  original  thereof  sliall  be 
admitted  as  evidence. 

l^^.  The  Lieute...u  t  Govenior  of  Quel)ec 
may  from  time  to  time,  by  Proclamation  under 
the  Great  Seal  of  tlie  Province,  to  take  effect 
from  a  day  to  be  appointed  therein,  constitute 
townships  in  those  parts  of  the  Province  of 
Quebec  in  which  townships  arc  not  then  already 
censtituted,  and  fl.x  the  inet<'s  and  bounds  thereof. 

145.  Inasmuch  as  the  Provinces  of  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  IJninswick  have  joined 
in  a  declaration  that  the  construction  of  the  In- 
tercolonial Itailway  is  essential  to  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  Union  of  British  Nortli  America,  and 
to  the  assent  tlieroto  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick,  and  have  consequently  agreed  that 
provision  sliould  be  mp.de  for  its  Immediate  con- 
struction by  the  Government  of  Canada:  There- 
fore, in  orcler  to  give  effect  to  that  agreement, 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  tho  Government  and  Par- 
liament of  Canada  to  provide  for  the  commence- 
ment, within  si.x  months  after  the  Union,  of  a 
railway  connecting  the  liiver  St.  Lawrence  with 
the  City  of  Halifax  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  for  the 
construction  thereof  without  intermission,  and 
the  completion  thereof  with  all  practicable  speed. 

140.  It  sliall  be  lawfid  for  the  Queen,  by  and 
with  tlie  advice  of  Her  JIajesty's  Most  Honour- 
able Privy  Council,  on  Addresses  from  the  Houses 
of  the  Parliament  of  Canada,  and  from  tlie  Houses 
of  the  respective  Legislatures  of  the  Colonies  or 
Provinces  of  Newfoundland,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  and  British  Columbia,  to  admit  those 
Colonies  or  Provinces,  or  any  of  them,  into  the 
Union,  and  on  Address  from  the  I'ouscs  of  the 
Parliament  of  Canada  to  admit  iupert's  Laud 
and  the  North-western  TerriU'  /,  or  either  of 
them,  into  the  Union,  "■  mC  jrins  and  condi- 
tions in  each  case  a'  .trc  in  tlic  Addresses  ex- 
pressed and  as  the  Queen  thinl;s  fit  to  approve, 
subject  to  tlie  provisions  of  this  Act,  and  the 
provisions  of  any  Order  in  Council  in  that  behalf 
shall  have  effect  as  if  they  had  been  enacted  by 
the  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

147.  In  case  of  the  admission  of  Newfound- 
land and  Prince  Edwatxl  Island,  or  either  of  them, 
eacli  shall  be  entitled  to  a  representation  in  the 
Senate  of  Canada  of  four  members,  and  (not- 
withstanding anything  in  this  Act)  in  case  of  the 
admission  of  Newfoundland  the  normal  num- 
ber of  Senators  shall  be  seventy-six  and  their 
maximum  number  shall  be  eighty-two;  but 
Prince  Edward  Island  when  admitted  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  comprised  in  the  third  of  the  three 
divisions  into  which  Canada  is,  in  relation  to  the 
constitution  of  the  Senate,  divided  by  this  Act, 
and  accoixlingly,  after  the  admission  of  Prince 
Edwaitl  Island,   whether  Newfoundland  is  ad- 


mitted or  not,  the  representation  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  in  the  Senate  shall,  as  va- 
cancies occur,  be  reduced  from  twelve  to  ten 
members  respectively,  and  the  n.'presentation  of 
each  of  those  Provinces  shall  not  be  increased  at 
any  time  Iwyond  ten,  except  under  the  provi- 
sions of  this  Act  for  the  appointment  of  three 
or  six  additional  Senators  under  the  direction  of 
the  Quet  n. 

A.  O.  i8?i. — British  North  America  Act, 
1871. — An  Act  respecting  the  Establishment  of 
Provinces  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  [29tu 
Jdne,  1871.] 

WiiKUKAS  doubts  have  been  entertained  re- 
specting the  powers  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
to  establish  Provinces  in  territories  admitted,  or 
which  may  hereafter  be  admi  icd,  into  the  Do- 
minion of  Caniula,  n;ul  to  provide  for  the  repre- 
sentation of  such  Provinces  in  the  said  Parlia- 
ment, and  it  is  expedient  to  remove  such  doubts, 
a, id  to  vest  such  lowers  in  the  said  Parliament: 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  Queen's  Most  Excellent 
^Majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Lonls,  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Com- 
mons in  tlii!-.  present  Parliament  assembled,  and 
by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  fiillows: — 

1.  This  Act  may  be  cited  for  all  purposes  a» 
The  British  North  America  Act,  1871. 

2.  T1;l'  Parliament  of  Canada  may  from  time 
to  time  .stahlish  new  Provinces  in  any  territories 
formir  -■■  for  the  time  being  part  of  tlie  Dominion 
of  Ca;i.ida,  but  not  included  in  any  Province 
there')'.,  and  may,  at  the  time  of  such  establish- 
ment, make  provision  for  the  constitution  and 
administraticu  of  any  such  Province,  and  for 
the  passing  of  laws  for  the  peace,  order  and  goo<l 
government  of  such  Province,  and  for  its  repre- 
sentation in  the  said  Parliament. 

3.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may  from  time 
to  time,  with  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of 
nny  Province  of  the  said  Dominion,  increase, 
diminish,  cr  otherwise  alter  the  limits  of  such 
Province,  upon  such  terms  and  conditions  as 
may  be  agreed  to  by  the  said  Legislature,  and 
may,  with  the  like  consent,  make  provision  re- 
specting the  effect  and  operation  of  any  such  in- 
crease or  diminution  or  alteration  of  territory  in 
relation  to  any  Province  affected  thereby. 

4.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may  from  time 
to  time  make  provision  for  the  administration, 
peace,  order,  and  good  government  of  any  terri- 
tory not  for  the  time  being  included  in  any 
Province. 

5.  The  following  Acts  passed  by  the  said 
Parliament  of  CaniuTa,  and  intituled  respectively : 
"An  Act  for  the  temporary  government  of 
Rupert's  Land  and  the  North- Western  Territory 
when  united  n-ith  Canala;"  and  "An  Act  tc> 
amend  and  continue  the  Act  thirty-two  and  thirty- 
three  Victoria,  chapter  three,  and  to  establish 
ond  provide  for  the  government  of  the  Province 
of  Manitoba,"  shall  be  and  be  deemed  to  hav& 
been  valid  and  effectual  for  all  purposes  whatso- 
ever from  the  date  at  which  they  respectively 
received  the  assent,  in  the  Queen's  name,  of  the 
Governor  General  of  the  said  Dominion  of 
Canada. 

6.  Except  as  provided  by  the  third  section  of 
this  Act,  it  shall  not  be  competent  for  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Canada  to  alter  the  provisions  of  the  last 
mentionea  Act  of  the  said  Parliament  in  so  far 
as  it  relates  to  the  Province  of  Manitoba,  or  of 
any  other  Act  hereafter  establishing  new  Prov 


536 


CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  ENGLAND. 


Inces  in  the  said  Dominion,  sul)ject  always  to 
tlie  rig'it  of  tlic  Lt'gislaturt'  of  tlie  Province  of 
Manit,)l)a  to  alter  from  time  to  time  tlie  pro- 
visions of  any  law  respoctin;;  the  qualitication 
of  electors  and  members  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  to  malic  laws  respecting  elections 
In  the  salil  Province. 

A.  D.  1875.— Parliament  of  Canada  Act, 
'^7S- — A.n  Act  to  remove  certain  doubts  with 
1  "ject  to  the  powers  of  tlie  Parliament  of 
C.  ada,  nnder  Section  18  of  the  British  North 
America  Act,  1867.     [IOtii  July,  1875.] 

■■  *''iiEHEA8  by  section  18  of  The  Dritisli  North 
America  Act,  1807,  it  is  provided  as  follows: — 
"The  privileges,  inununitics,  and  powers  to  bo 
held,  enjoyed,  and  exercised  by  the  Senate  and 
by  tlie  House  of  Commons,  an(l  by  the  members 
thereof  respectively,  shall  be  such  as  are  from 
time  to  time  defined  by  Act  of  the  Parliament  of 
Canada,  bill  so  that  the  same  shall  never  exceed 
those  at  the  passing  of  this  Act  licld,  eii.jo;?ed, 
and  exercised  by  the  Commons  House  of  PiiVlia- 
ment  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Hritain 
and  Ireland,  and  by  the  members  thereof."  And 
whereas  doubts  have  arisen  with  regard  to  the 
power  of  defining  by  an  Act  of  tlie  Parliament 
of  Canada,  in  pursuance  of  the  said  section,  the 
said  privileges,  powers  or  immunities:  audit  is 
expedient  to  remove  such  doubts:  Be  it  tiiere- 
fore  enacted  bv  the  Queen's  Most  Excellent 
Majesty,  by  antl  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Com- 
mons, in  tills  present  Parliament  assembled,  and 
by  the  authority  of  tlie  same,  a^  follows: — 

1.  Section  18  of  The  British  North  America 
Act,  1867,  is  hereby  repealed,  without  prejudice 
to  anything  done  under  that  section,  and  the 
following  section  shall  be  substitii.ed  for  tlio 
section  so  repealed : — The  privileges,  immunities, 
and  powers  to  bo  held,  enjoyed  and  exercised  by 
the  Senate  and  by  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
by  the  members  thereof  respectively,  shall  be 
such  as  are  from  time  to  time  defined  by  Act  of 
the  Parliament  of  Canada,  but  so  that  any  Act 
of  the  Parliament  of  Canada  defining  sucli 
privileges,  immunities  and  powers  shall  not 
confer  any  privileges,  immunities,  or  powers  ex- 
ceeding those  at  the  passing  of  such  Act  held, 
enjoyed,  and  exercised  by  the  Commons  House 
of  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britidn  and  Ireland,  and  by  the  members  thereof. 

2.  Tho  Act  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada 
passed  in  the  thirty-first  year  of  the  reign  of  her 
present  J.'ajesty,  chapter  twenty-four,  intituled 
An  Act  to  provide  for  oaths  to  witnesses  being 
administered  in  certain  cases  for  the  purposes  of 


either  Hoilic  of  Parliament,  shall  be  deemed  to  he 
valid,  and  to  have  been  valid  as  from  the  date  at 
which  the  royal  assent  was  given  thereto  by  the 
Governor  General  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

3.  This  Act  may  be  cited  as  The  Parliament 
of  Canada  Act,  1875. 

A.  D.  1886.— British  North  America  Act, 
1886. — An  Act  respecting  the  Kepreseiitation 
in  tlie  Parliament  of  Canada  of  Territories  which 
for  the  time  being  form  part  of  the  Dominiou 
of  Canada,  but  arc  not  included  in  any  Pri<vinco. 
[25T1I  June,  1886.] 

WiiEiiEAS  it  is  expedient  to  empower  the 
Parliament  of  Canada  to  provide  for  the  repre- 
sentation in  the  Senate  and  House  of  Commons, 
of  Canada,  or  eitlicr  of  them,  of  any  territory 
wliicli  for  tlie  time  being  forms  part  of  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  but  is  not  included  in  any 
Province:  Be  it  therefore  enact;'d  by  the  Queen  s 
Most  Excellent  Majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  tlie  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal, 
and  Commons,  in  the  present  Parliament  os- 
sembleil,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  ao 
follows: — 

1.  The  Parliament  of  Canada  may  from  time 
to  time  make  provision  for  tlio  representation  in 
tlie  Senate  and  House  of  Commons  of  Canada,  or 
in  either  of  them,  of  anj-  territories  wliieli  for  the 
time  being  form  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
but  are  not  included  in  any  Province  thereof. 

3.  Any  Act  passed  by  the  Parliament  of 
Canada  before  tlie  passing  of  this  Act  for  the 
purpose  mentioned  m  this  Act  sliall,  if  not  dis- 
allowed by  the  Queen,  be,  and  shall  be  deemed 
to  have  been,  valid  and  eflectual  from  the  date 
at  wliich  it  received  the  assent,  in  Her  Majesty's 
name,  of  tlio  Governor- general  of  Canada.  It  i» 
hereliy  declared  that  any  Act  passed  by  the 
Parliament  of  Canada,  whether  before  or  after 
the  passing  of  this  Act,  for  the  purpose  men- 
tioned ill  this  Act,  or  in  Tlio  British  North 
America  Act,  1871,  has  effect,  notwithstanding 
anything  in  Tlie  British  North  America  Act,  1867. 
and  the  number  of  Scnatoi's  or  the  number  of 
Members  of  the  House  of  Commcms  specified  in 
the  last-mentioned  Act  is  increased  by  the  num- 
ber of  Senators  or  of  Members,  as  tlie  case  may 
be,  provided  by  any  sucli  Act  of  the  Parliament 
of  Canada  for  tlie  representation  of  any  provincea 
or  territories  of  Canada. 

3.  This  Act  maybe  cited  as  The  British  North 
America  Act,  1880.  This  Act  and  The  British 
North  America  Act,  1867,  aiiikThe  British  North 
America  Act,  1871,  shall  be  construed  together, 
and  iray  bo  cited  together  as  The  Brills'-  North 
America  Acts,  1867  to  1886. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  (OR  FOR)  THE 
CAROLINAS  (Locke's).  See  Nouth  Caro- 
lina: A.  D.  1660-1093. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  CHILE.  See  Chile: 
A.  D.  1833-1884,  and  1885-lfeul. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  CLEISTHENES. 
See  Athens:  B.  C.  510-507. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  COLOMBIA.  See 
CoLOMniAN  States:  A.  D.  1830-1886,  and  1885- 
1891. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CONFED- 
ERATE STATES  OF  AMERICA.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :   A.  I).   1861  (Febhu- 

AllV). 

CONSTITUTION  OF   CONNECTICUT 

(1639 — the  Fundamental  Agreement  of  New 

86 


Haven).  See  Connecticut:  A.  D.  1686-1030, 
and  1639. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  DENMARK.  See 
Scandinavian  States  (Denmark— Iceland)  : 
A.  D.  1849-1874. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  DUTCH 
REPUBLIC,  or  the  United  Netherlands.  See 
NETiiEnL.\NDs:  A.  I).  1.584-1585. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  ENGLAND.—"  Our 
Englii;h  Constitution  was  never  maile,  in  the 
sense  in  which  tlie  Constitutions  of  many  other 
countries  liave  been  made.  There  never  was 
any  moment  when  Englislimen  drew  out  their 
political  system  in  the  shape  of  a  formal  docu- 
ment, whether  as  the  carrying  out  of  any 
abstract  political  theories  or  as  the  imitation  of 


537 


CONHTIVUTION  OF  ENGLAND. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


the  past  or  prcsont  system  of  nny  otlior  nation. 
There  arc  indeed  certain  great  political  docu- 
ments, eaeli  of  wliicli  forms  a  landniaric  in  our 
[lolitieal  lilstory  Tliert!  is  tlie  Great  Cliarter 
see  Enoi.and:  A.  D.  12151,  tlie  Petition  of 
{iKlits[same:  /.  D.  1025-1628,  and  1028],  the 
Hill  of  Rights  [same:  A.  D.  1080  (October)]. 
But  not  one  of  tliese  gave  itself  out  us  tlie 
enactment  of  anything  new.  All  claimed  to  set 
fortli,  with  new  strengtli,  it  miglit  be,  and  with 
new  clearnes.s,  those  riglits  of  Englislunen  wliicli 
were  already  old.  .  .  .  Th(!  life  and  soul  of 
Englisli  law  hius  evr  been  precedent;  we  have 
always  held  that  whatever  our  fathers  once  did 
their  stms  liave  a  right  to  do  again." — E.  A. 
Freeman,  The  Growth  of  the  KiKjUtth  Cunstitu- 
Hon,  ch.  2. — "  It  is,  in  the  first  place,  necessary 
to  liave  a  clear  understanding  of  what  we  mean 
when  wo  tallt  about  'thelCngli.sh  Constitution.' 
Few  terms  in  our  langiuige  Iiave  been  more  laxly 
employed.  .  .  .  Still,  tlie  term,  '  the  English 
Constitution'  is  susceptible  of  full  and  accurate 
explanation :  tliougli  it  may  not  be  easy  to  set  it 
lucidly  forth,  witliout  first  investigating  the 
arcliaeology  of  our  history,  rather  more  deeply 
than  may  suit  hasty  tamers  and  superficial 
thinkers.  .  .  .  Some  furious  Jacobins,  at  the 
close  of  tlie  l:vst  century,  used  to  clamour  tliat 
there  was  no  such  thing  as  tiie  Englisli  Constitu- 
tion, because  it  could  not  be  jjroduced  in  full 
written  form,  lilie  that  of  tlie  United  States.  .  .  . 
But  an  impartial  and  earnest  investigator  may 
still  satisfy  him.self  that  England  has  a  constitu- 
tion, and  tliat  there  is  ample  cause  why  she 
should  cherisli  it.  And  by  this  it  is  meant  that 
he  will  recognise  and  admire,  in  tlie  history,  the 
laws  and  tlie  institutions  of  England,  certain 
great  leading  i)rinciples,  which  have  existed 
from  the  earliest  period  of  our  nationality  down 
to  the  present  time;  expanding  and  adapting 
themselves  to  the  progress  of  society  and  civil- 
ization, advancing  and  varying  in  development, 
but  still  essentiall}'  the  same  in  substance  and 
spirit.  These  great  primeval  and  enduring 
principles  are  the  principles  of  the  English 
Constitution.  And  we  are  not  obliged  to  learn 
them  from  imperfect  evidences  or  precarious 
speculation ;  for  they  are  imperishably  recorded 
in  the  Great  Charter,  and  in  Charters  and  Stat- 
utes connected  with  and  conflrmafory  of  Magna 
Charta  [see  England:  A.  D.  1215].  .  .  .  These 


great  primeval  and  enduring  principles  of  our 
C(m8t;tution  are  as  follows:  The  government 
of  the  country  by  an  lieredit'iry  s  vereign,  rul- 
ing with  limited  powers,  and  bound  to  summon 
an<l  consult  a  parliament  of  the  whole  rca'.m, 
comprising  hereditar  peers  and  elective  repre- 
sentatives of  the  commons.  That  without  the 
stinction  of  parliament  no  Uix  of  any  kind  can  be 
imposed;  and  no  law  can  be  made,  repealed,  or 
altered.  That  no  man  be  arbitrarily  fined  or 
impri.soned,  that  no  man's  property  or  liberties 
1h!  impaired,  and  that  no  man  'le  in  any  way 
punished,  except  after  a  lawful  trial.  Trial  by 
jiiry.  Tliat  justice  sliail  not  be  sold  or  delayeii. 
These  great  constitutional  principles  can  all  bo 
I)roved,  eitlier  by  express  terms  or  by  fair  impli- 
ciition,  from  JIagna  Carta,  and  its  .  .  .  supple- 
ment [tlie  statute  '  Conflrnmtio  Cartarum ']. 
Tlieir  vigorous  development  was  aided  and 
attested  in  many  subsequent  statutes,  especially 
in  the  Petition  of  Rights  and  the  Bill  of  Rights. 
.  .  .  Lord  Chatham  called  these  three  '  The 
Bible  of  the  English  Constitution,'  to  which 
appeal  is  to  be  made  on  every  grave  political 
question." — E.  S.  Creasy,  liim  and  Proyresa  of 
the  Eng.  Const.,  ch.  1. —  "The  fact  that  our  con- 
stitution has  to  be  collected  from  statutes,  from 
legal  decisions,  from  observation  of  the  course  of 
conduct  of  the  business  of  politics ;  that  much  of 
what  is  written  is  of  a  negative  sort,  stating 
I  what  the  Crown  and  its  ministers  cannot  do; 
that  there  is  no  part  of  it  wliicli  an  omnipotent 
Parliament  may  not  change  at  will ;  all  this  is  a 
puzzle  not  only  to  foreign  jurists  who  are  pre- 
pared to  say,  with  De  Tocqueville,  that  the 
English  constitution  does  not  exist,  but  to  our- 
selves who  are  prepared  to  maintain  that  it  is  a 
monument,  if  only  we  can  find  it,  of  political 
sagacity.  Tliose  who  praise  it  call  it  flexible; 
those  who  criticise  it  unstable." — Sir  W.  R. 
Anson,  The  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Const.,  pt.  1, 
p.  85. 

Also  in:  W.  Stubbs,  Const.  Hist,  of  Eng. 
in  its  Ongin  and  Develojmient. —  H.  Hallam, 
Const.  Hist  of  Eng.:  Henry  VII.  to  Geo.  //.— T. 
E.  May,  Const.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1760-1800.— R. 
Gneist,  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  Const. —  E.  Fiscliel, 
Tlie  Eng.  Const.— W.  Bagehot,  The  Eng.  Const.— 
E.  Boutmy,  The  Eng.  Const. —  See,  also,  Pah- 
LiAMBNT,  The  English,  and  Cabinet,  The 
English. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


1791. 

Louis  XVI.     See  Fhance:  A.  D.  1789-1  toi,  an5 
1791  (July— Seitembeu). 

A.  D.  1793  (or  the  Year  One).— The  Jacobin 
Constitution.     See  Fhance:  A.  D.  1793  (June 

— OCTOUEU). 

A.  D.  170S  (or  the  Year  Three).— The  Con- 
stitution of  the  Directory.  See  France:  A.  D. 
1795  (June — Septembeb). 

A.  D.  1799.— The  Constitution  of  the  Con- 
sulate. Sec  Fuance:  A.  D.  1790  (Nove.mbeu— 
Deuembeu). 

A.  D.  1814.— The  Constitution  of  the  Restor- 
ation.    See  Fuance:  A.  D.  1814  (Ai'uir, — June). 

A.  D.  1848.— The  Constitution  of  the  Second 
Republic.  See  France:  A.  D.  1848  (Apbil— 
December). 


A.  D.  1853. — The  Constitution  of  the  Second 
Empire.     See  France:  A.  D.  1851-1852. 

A.  D.  1875-1889.— The  Constitution  of  the 
Third  Republic. — The  circumstances  of  tlie 
framing  and  adoption  in  1875  of  the  Constitution 
of  the  Third  Republic  will  be  found  narrated 
under  France:  A.  D.  1871-1870.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  text  of  the  organic  law  of  1875,  with 
the  later  amendatory  and  supplemental  enact- 
ments, down  to  July  17,  1889,  as  transli.[ed  and 
edited,  with  an  historical  introduction,  by  Mr. 
Charles  F.  A.  Currier,  and  published  in  the 
Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  March,  1898.  It  is  repro- 
duced here  with  the  kind  permission  of  the 
President  of  the  Academy,  Professor  Edmund 
J.  James: 


588 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


1875.  Law  on  the  Organization  of  the  Pub- 
lic Powers.    February  25. 

AiiTici.K  1.  The  k'gislativo  power  is  exer- 
cised by  two  assemblies:  tlie  Chiunljer  of  Depu- 
ties ami  tliu  Senate.  Tlie  Chamber  of  Deputies  is 
elected  by  universal  suffrage,  luider  the  condi- 
tions determined  by  the  electoral  lawp*  The 
composition,  the  method  of  election,  and  the 
powers  of  the  Senate  shall  be  regulated  by  a 
special  law." 

Akt.  2.  The  President  of  the  Republic  is 
chosen  by  an  absolute  majority  of  votes  of  tlie 
Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  united  in 
National  Assembly.  He  is  elected  for  seven 
years.     He  is  re-eligible. 

AnT.  3.  Tlie  President  of  the  Republic  has 
the  initiative  of  the  laws,  concurrcutly  with  the 
members  of  the  two  Chambers.  He  promul- 
gates the  laws  wnen  they  have  been  voted  by 
the  two  Chambers;  ho  looks  after  and  scL'ures 
their  execution.  He  has  the  right  of  pardon; 
amnesty  can  be  granted  by  law  only.  He  dis- 
poses of  the  armed  f(.rce.  He  appoints  to  all 
civil  and  military  positions.  He  presides  over 
national  festivals;  envoys  and  ambassadors  of 
foreign  powers  are  accredited  to  him.  Every 
act  of  the  President  of  the  Republic  must  be 
countersigned  by  a  .Minister. 

AilT.  4.  As  vacancies  occur  on  and  after  the 
promulgation  of  the  present  law,  the  President  of 
the  i{epublic  appoints,  in  the  Council  of  aMinis- 
ters,  the  Councilors  of  State  in  ordinary  service. 
The  Councilors  of  State  thus  chosen  may  bo  dis- 
missed only  by  decree  rendered  in  the  Council  of 
Ministers  The  Councilors  of  State  chosen  by 
virtue  of  the  law  of  May  24,  1872,  cannot,  before 
the  expiration  of  their  powers,  be  dismissed  ex- 
cept in  the  manner  determined  by  that  law. 
After  the  dissolution  of  the  National  Assembly, 
revocation  may  be  pronounced  only  by  resolu- 
tion of  the  Senate. 

Akt.  5.  The  President  of  the  Republic  may, 
with  the  advice  of  the  Senate,  dissolve  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  before  the  legal  expiration 
of  its  term.  [In  that  case  the  electoral  colleges 
are  summoned  for  new  elections  within  the  space 
of  three  months.]' 

AiiT.  6.  The  Ministers  are  jointly  and  sev- 
erally (' solidairement')  responsible  to  the  Cham- 
bers for  the  general  policy  of  the  government, 
and  individually  for  their  personal  acts.  The 
President  of  the  Republic  is  responsible  in  case 
of  high  treason  only.' 

AuT.  7.  In  case  of  vacancy  by  death  or  for 
any  otlier  reason,  the  two  Chambers  assembled 
together  proceed  at  once  to  the  election  of  a  new 
President.  In  the  meantime  the  Council  of  Min- 
isters is  invested  witli  the  executive  power.' 

AiiT.  8.  The  Chambers  shall  have  the  right 
by  separate  resolutions,  t«ken  in  each  by  an  ab- 
solute majority  of  votes,  either  upon  their  own 
Initiative  or  upon  the  re(iuest  of  the  President  of 
the  Republic,  to  declare  a  revision  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Laws  necessary.  jVfter  each  of  the  two 
Chambers  shall  have  come  to  this  decision,  they 
shall  meet  together  in  National  Assembly  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  revision.  Tlie  acts  effecting 
revision  of  the  constitutional  laws,  in  whole  or 

'  See  law  of  November  80, 187.1,  infra. 

'  See  laws  of  February  a4.  ami  Au^jTiBt  S,  1875,  infra. 

•  Amended  by  constitutional  law  of  August  14, 1884, 
infra. 

•  See  Art.  13,  law  of  July  10, 1875,  infra. 

•  Bee  Arts.  3  and  11,  law  of  July  16, 1876,  infra. 


in  part,  must  be  by  an  absolute  majority  of  the 
members  comiiosmg  the  National  Assembly. 
[During  the  continuance,  however,  of  the  pow- 
ers conferred  by  the  law  of  November  20,  1873, 
upon  Slarshal  de  MacMahon,  this  revision  can 
take  place  only  upon  the  initiative  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic.]' 

[AuT.  9.  The  scat  of  the  Executive  Power 
and  of  the  two  Chambers  is  at  Versailles.]' 

1875.  Law  on  the  Organization  of  the 
Senate.     February  24. 

[Ainici.io  1.'  The  Senate  consists  of  three  hun- 
dred members:  Two  hundred  and  twenty-flve 
elected  by  the  departments  and  colonics,  and 
seventy-five  elected  by  the  National  A.ssembiy.l 

[AuT.  2.  The  deiiartments  of  the  Seine  and 
Nord  elect  each  live  senators.  TIk-  follow ii.,j 
departments  elect  f(mr  sc^nators  each:  Seine- 
Inferieure,  Pas-de-Calais,  Giroiidc,  Rhone,  Fiuis- 
t(5re,  Cotes-du-Nord.  The  following  depart- 
ments elect  three  senators  each :  lioire-hiferieure, 
Saone-et-Loirc,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  Seine-et-Oise, 
Is^re,  Puy-dc-D6me,  Somme,  Houehes-du-Rhone, 
Aisiie,  Loire,  Manclie,  Maine-et-Loire,  Morbihan, 
Dordogne,  Haute-Garonne,  Chareute-Inferieure, 
Calvados,  Sarthc,  Herault,  Rasses-Pyrences, 
Gard,  Aveyron,  Vendee,  Orne,  Oise,  "Vosges, 
Allier.  All  the  other  departments  elect  two 
senators  each.  The  following  elect  one  senator 
each:  The  Territory  of  Bclfort,  the  three  de- 
partments of  Algena,  the  four  colonies:  Jlarti- 
nique,  Guadeloupe,  Reunion  and  the  French 
Indies.] 

[AiiT.  3.  No  one  can  be  senator  unless  he  is 
a  French  citizen,  forty  years  of  age  at  least,  and 
enjoying  civil  and  political  rights.] 

[Akt.  4.  The  senators  of  the  departments 
and  colonies  are  elected  by  an  absolute  majority 
and  by  '  scrutin  de  liste',  by  a  college  meeting  at 
the  capital  of  the  department  or  colony  and 
composed:  (1)  of  the  deputies;  (2)  of  the  general 
councilors;  (3)  of  the  urrondissemeut  councilors; 
(4)  of  delegates  elected,  one  by  each  municipal 
council,  from  among  the  voters  of  the  com- 
mune. In  the  French  Indies  the  members  of 
the  colonial  council  or  of  the  local  councils  art. 
substituted  for  the  general  councilors,  arrondisse- 
ment  councilors  and  delegates  from  the  munici- 
pal councils.  They  vote  at  the  capital  of  each 
district.] 

[Art.  5.  The  senators  chosen  by  the  Assem- 
bly are  elected  by  '  scrutin  de  liste '  and  by  an 
absolute  majority  of  votes.] 

[Akt.  6.  The  senators  of  the  departments 
and  colonies  are  elected  for  nine  years  and  re- 
newable by  thirds  every  three  years.  At  the 
beginning  ol  the  first  session  tlie  departments 
shall  be  divided  into  three  scries  containing  an 
equal  number  of  senators  each.  It  shall  be 
determined  by  lot  which  series  shall  be  renewed 
at  the  expiration  of  the  first  and  second  triennial 
periotls.] 

[Akt.  7.  The  senators  elected  by  the  Assem- 
bly are  irremovable.  Vacancies  by  death,  by 
resignation,  or  for  any  other  reason,  shall,  within 
the  space  of  two  months,  be  filled  by  the  Senate 
itself.] 

'  Amended  by  constitutional  law  of  August  14,  18&(, 

»  Repealed  by  constitutional  law  of  June  21, 1879,  infra. 

'  By  the  constitutional  law  of  August  14,  1884,  it  was 
provided  that  Articles  1  to  7  of  this  law  should  no  longer 
have  a  constitutlouol  character;  and  they  were  repealed 
by  the  low  of  December  9, 1884,  infra. 


539 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FIUNCE. 


AnT.  8.  The  Heimtc  has,  concurrently  witli 
tlie  Clmnilxir  of  Deputies,  the  iiiithitivo  and 
piiHsuig  of  liiws.  Money  bills,  however,  miist 
first  Ih!  intrtKluccd  iu,  and  passed  by  the  Chani- 
Ikt  of  Deputies. 

AiiT.  9.  The  Hrnnto  may  be  constituted  a 
Court  of  .lustice  to  jud){e  either  the  President  of 
tlie  Republic  or  the  Ministers,  and  to  take  coj;- 
nizancc  of  attacks  made  upon  tlic  safety  of  tlic 
State. 

AuT.  10.  Elections  to  tlie  Senate  shall  tjike 
place  one  iiiontli  before  the  time  fixed  by  the 
National  As.sembly  for  its  own  dissolution. 
Tlic  Senate  sliall  organize  and  enter  upon  its 
duties  tlie  same  day  that  the  National  Assembly 
is  dissolved. 

Aht.  11.  The  present  law  sholl  be  promul- 
gated only  after  tlie  passage  of  the  law  on  the 
public  powers.' 

1875.  Law  on  the  Relations  of  the  Public 
Powers.     July  16. 

AiiTici.K  1.  The  Senate  and  the  C'haml)er  of 
Deputies  shall  assemble  each  year  the  second 
Tuesday  of  January,  unless  convened  earlier  by 
the  President  of  the  Republic.  The  two  Cham- 
bers continue  in  session  at  least  five  months 
each  year.  The  sessions  of  eacli  begin  and  end 
at  the  same  time.  [On  the  Sunday  following 
the  opening  of  the  session,  public  prayers  shall 
be  addressed  to  Ood  in  the  churches  and  tem- 
ples, to  invoke  His  aid  iu  the  labors  of  the 
Chambers.]' 

Aht.  2.  The  President  of  the  Republic  pro- 
nounces the  closure  of  the  session.  He  may  con- 
vene the  Chambers  in  extra  session.  He  must 
convene  them  if,  during  the  recess,  an  absolute 
majority  of  the  members  of  each  Chamber  re- 
quest it.  The  President  may  adjourn  the  Cham- 
bers. The  adjournment,  however,  must  not 
exceed  one  month,  nor  take  place  more  than 
twice  in  the  same  session. 

Art.  3.  One  month  at  least  before  the  legal 
expiration  of  the  powers  of  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  the  Chambers  must  be  called  together 
in  National  Assembly  and  proceed  to  tho  election 
of  a  new  President.  In  default  of  a  summons, 
this  meeting  shall  take  place,  as  of  right,  the 
flfteentli  day  before  the  expiration  of  those 
powers.  In  case  of  the  death  or  resignation  of 
the  President  of  the  Republic,  the  two  Cham- 
bers shall  reassemble  immediately,  as  of  right. 
In  case  tlie  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  conse- 
quence of  Article  5  of  the  law  of  February  25, 
1875,  is  dissolved  at  tlie  time  when  the  presi- 
dency of  tlie  Republic  becomes  vacant,  the 
electoral  colleges  shall  be  convened  at  once,  and 
the  Senate  shall  reassemble  as  of  right. 

Akt.  4.  Every  meeting  of  cither  of  the  two 
Chambers  w'  Ch  shall  bo  held  at  a  time  other 
then  the  con  iium  session  of  both  is  illegal  and 
void,  except  tlie  case  provided  for  in  the  pre- 
ceding article,  and  tliat  when  tho  Senate  meets 
08  a  court  of  justice;  and  in  this  last  case,  judi- 
cial duties  alone  shall  be  performed. 

Art.  5.  The  sittings  of  the  Senate  and  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  are  public.  Nevertheless 
each  Chamber  may  meet  iu  secret  session,  upon 
the  request  of  a  fixed  number  of  its  members, 
determined  by  the  rules.  It  decides  by  absolute 
majority  whether  tho  sitting  shall  be  resumed  in 
public  upon  the  same  subject. 


>  i.e.,  the  law  of  February  25, 1875,  aupra. 

>  Repealed  by  law  of  August  14, 1684,  infra. 


AliT.  0.  Tlu-  President  of  tho  Republic  com- 
municates with  the  Chambers  by  messages, 
which  are  read  from  tho  tribune  liy  a  Minister. 
The  Jlinisters  have  entrance  to  both  Chamliers, 
and  must  bo  heani  when  they  request  it.  They 
may  lie  represented,  for  the  tiiscnssion  of  a 
specifit;  bill,  by  commissioners  designated  by 
decree  of  tlie  President  of  tho  Republic. 

AuT.  7.  The  President  of  the  Republic  pro- 
mulgates tho  laws  within  the  month  following 
the  transmission  to  tlio  Qovemment  of  tho  law 
finally  pas.sed.  Ho  must  promulgate,  within 
three  days,  laws  whoso  promulgation  shall  liavo 
been  declared  urgent  by  an  express  vote  in  each 
Chamber.  Within  the  time  fixed  for  promulga- 
tion tile  President  of  the  Republic  may,  by  a 
message  witli  reiuwns  assigned,  request  of  the 
two  Chambers  a  new  discussion,  which  cam  ot 
bo  refused. 

AuT.  8.  The  President  of  tho  Itopublic  nego- 
tiates and  mtitlcs  treaties.  He  communicotes 
tliem  to  tho  Chambers  as  soon  as  the  interests  and 
safety  of  the  State  permit.  Treaties  of  peoce, 
and  of  commerce,  treaties  wliich  involve  tho 
finances  of  the  State,  those  relating  to  tlio  per- 
sons and  property  of  French  citizens  in  foreign 
countries,  shall  become  definitive  only  after 
having  been  voted  by  the  two  Chambers.  No 
cession,  no  exchange,  no  annexation  of  territory 
shall  take  place  except  by  virtue  of  a  law. 

Art.  9.  The  President  of  the  Republic  can- 
not declare  war  except  by  the  previous  assent  of 
the  two  Chambers.       ; 

Art.  10.  Each  Chamber  is  the  judge  of  tho 
eligibility  of  its  members,  and  of  the  legality  of 
their  election;  it  alone  can  receive  tlioir  resig- 
nation. 

Art.  11.  The  bureau'  of  each  Chamber  is 
elected  each  year  for  the  entire  session,  and  for 
every  extra  session  which  may  be  held  before 
the  ordinary  session  of  the  following  year. 
When  tlio  two  Chambers  moot  together  as  a 
National  Assembly,  their  bureau  consists  of  the 
President,  Vice-Presidents  and  Secretaries  of  the 
Senate. 

Art.  12.  The  President  of  the  Republic  may 
be  impcaclied  by  tho  Chamber  of  Deputies  only, 
and  tried  by  tho  Senate  only.  Tho  Ministers 
may  bo  impeached  by  tho  Chamber  of  Deputies 
for  offences  committed  in  the  performance  of 
their  duties.  In  this  case  they  are  tried  by  the 
Senate.  Tho  Senate  may  be  constituted  a  court 
of  Justice,  by  a  decree  of  the  President  of  tlio 
Republic,  issued  in  tho  Council  of  Ministers,  to 
try  all  persons  accused  of  attempts  upon  the 
safety  of  the  State.  If  procedure  is  begun  by 
the  ordinary  courts,  tlic  decree  convening  the 
Senate  may  be  issued  any  time  before  the  grant- 
ing of  a  discharge.  A  law  shall  determine  tlie 
method  of  procedure  for  the  accusation,  trial 
and  judgment' 

Art.  13.  No  member  of  either  Chamber  shall 
be  prosecuted  or  held  responsible  on  account  of 
any  opinions  expressed  or  votes  cast  by  him  in 
the  performance  of  his  duties. 

Art.  14.  No  member  of  either  Chamber 
shall,  during  the  session,  be  prosecuted  or  ar- 
rested for  any  offence  or  misdemeanor,  except 
on  the  authority  of  the  Chamber  of  which  he  is  a 

'  Tlie  bureau  of  the  Senate  consists  of  a  president,  four 
vice-presidents,  six  secretaries  and  thrt»e  (inestors;  the 
bureau  of  the  Cliamber  ot  Deputies  i.s  tlie  same,  except 
that  there  are  eight  secretaries  Instead  of  six. 

'  Fixed  by  law  of  April  10, 1889. 


540 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FRANCK 


iiiry 


member,  unless  ho  be  cauffht  In  the  very  act. 
The  detention  or  prosecution  of  ft  member  of 
cither  CJhnmber  is  Hiispendcd  for  the  session,  nnd 
for  its  [the  Chamber's]  cntin;  term,  if  it  de- 
miinds  it. 

1879.  ^"■'^  Revising;  Article  9  of  the  Con- 
stitutional Law  of  February  25, 1 875.     I  une  2 1 . 

Article  9  of  the  conHtitutioniiT  law  of  Febriii 
25,  1875,  is  repealed. 

1884.  Law  Partially  Revising  the  Con- 
stitutional Laws,  August  14. 

AuTicLK  1.  Para>?niph  2  of  Article  5  of  the 
constitutionul  law  of  Febr\iary  25,  1875,  on  the 
Organization  of  the  Public  Powers,  is  amended 
us  follows:  "In  that  case  the  electoral  colleges 
meet  for  new  elections  within  two  months,  and 
the  Chamber  within  the  ten  days  following  the 
close  of  the  elections." 

Art.  2.  To  Paragraph  3  of  Article  8  of  the 
same  law  of  February  25,  1875,  is  added  the  fol- 
lowing: "  The  Republican  form  of  the  Govern- 
ment cannot  be  made  the  subject  of  a  proposed 
revision.  Members  of  families  that  have  reigned 
in  France  are  ineligible  to  the  presidency  of  the 
Republic." 

Art.  8.  Articles  1  to  7  of  the  constitutional 
law  of  February  24,  1875,  on  the  Organization 
of  the  Senate,  shall  no  longer  have  a  constitu- 
tional character.' 

Art.  4.  Paragraph  3  of  Article  1  of  the  con- 
stitutional law  of  July  16,  1875,  on  the  Illation 
of  the  Public  Powers,  is  repealed. 

1875.  Law  on  the  Election  of  Senators. 
August  2. 

Article  1.  A  decree  of  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  issued  at  least  six  weeks  in  advance, 
determines  the  day  for  the  elections  to  the 
Senate,  and  at  the  same  time  that  for  [the  choice 
of  delegates  of  the  municipal  councils.  There 
must  be  an  interval  of  at  least  one  month  be- 
tween the  choice  of  delegates  and  the  election  of 
senators. 

Art.  2.  Each  municipal  council  elects  one 
delegate.  The  election  is  without  debate,  by 
secret  ballot,  and  by  an  absolute  majority  of 
votes.  Aftei  two  ballots  a  plurality  is  sufficient, 
and  in  case  of  an  equality  of  votes,  the  oldest  is 
declared  elected.  If  the  Mayor  is  not  a  member 
of  the  municipal  council,  he  presides,  but  shall 
not  vote.'  On  the  same  day  and  in  the  same 
way  an  alternate  is  elected,  who  takes  the  place 
of  the  delegate  in  case  of  refu.sal  or  Inability  to 
serve.'  The  choice  of  the  municipal  councils  shall 
not  extend  to  a  deputy,  a  general  councilor,  or 
ftn  arrondissement  councilor.'  All  communal 
electors,  including  the  municipal  councilors,  are 
eligible  without  distinction. 

Art.  3.  In  the  communes  where  a  municipal 
committee  exists,  the  delegate  and  alternate 
shall  bo  chosen  by  the  old  council.' 

Art.  4.  If  the  delegate  was  not  prenent  at 
the  election,  the  Mayor  shall  see  to  it  that  he  is 
notified  within  twenty-four  hours.  He  must 
transmit  to  the  Prefect,  within  live  days,  notice 
of  his  acceptance.  In  case  of  refusal  or  silence, 
he  is  replaced  by  the  alternate,  who  is  then 
placed  upon  the  list  as  the  delegate  of  the  com- 
mune.' 

'  And  may  therefore  be  amended  by  ordinary  legisla- 
tion.   See  tlie  law  of  December  »,  1HH4,  infra. 
iJ  Amended  by  Art.  8,  law  of  December  9, 18&4,  infra. 
'    '    ',  la\ 


'  See  Art.  4,  law  of  February  ^4, 1H75,  mpra. 
*  See  Art.  8,  law  of  Decemlier  0, 1884,  infra. 


Art.  5.    The  ofllcial  report  of  the  election  of 

thi'  delegate  and  alternate  is  transmitted  at  oncu 
to  the  Prefect ;  it  states  the  ac(!eptance  or  refusal 
of  tlie  delegates  and  alternates,  iw  well  as  the  pro- 
tests raised,  by  one  or  more  members  of  the 
municipal  council,  against  the  legality  of  the 
election.  A  copy  of  this  official  report  is  posted 
on  the  door  of  the  town  hall.' 

Art.  0.  A  statement  of  the  results  of  the 
election  of  delegates  and  alternates  is  drawn  up 
within  a  week  by  the  Prefect;  this  is  given  to  all 
reiiuesting  it,  and  may  be  copied  and  published. 
Every  elector  may,  at  the  bureaux  of  the  prefec- 
ture, obtain  information  and  a  copy  of  the  list, 
by  communes,  of  the  municipai  councilors  of  tho 
department,  and,  at  the  bureaux  of  the  sub- 
prefectures  tt  copy  of  the  list,  by  communes, 
of  the  municipal  councilors  of  tlio  arrondisse- 
ment. 

Art.  7.  Every  communal  elector  nuiy,  within 
three  days,  address  directly  to  the  Prel"(,'ct  a  pro- 
test against  the  legality  of  the  election.  If  tho 
Prefect  deems  the  proceedings  illegal,  he  may 
request  that  they  be  .s'.t  uside. 

Art.  8.  Protests  concerning  the  election  of 
the  delegate  or  alternate  are  decided,  subject  to 
an  appeal  to  the  Council  of  State,  by  the  council 
of  the  prefecture,  and,  in  tho  colonies,  by  the 
privy  council.  A  delegate  whose  election  is  an- 
nulled because  he  docs  not  satisfy  the  conditions 
demanded  by  law,  or  on  account  of  informality, 
is  replaced  by  the  alternate.  In  cose  the  elec- 
tion of  the  delegate  and  alternate  is  rendered 
void,  as  by  the  refusal  or  death  of  both  after 
their  acceptance,  new  elections  are  held  by  the 
municipal  council  on  a  day  fixed  by  an  order  of 
the  Prefect.' 

Art.  9.  Eight  days,  at  the  latest,  before  the 
election  of  senators,  the  Prefect,  and,  in  the  colo- 
nies, the  Director  of  the  Interior,  orranges  the 
list  of  the  electors  of  tho  department  in  alpha- 
betical order.  The  list  is  communicated  to  all 
demanding  it,  and  may  be  copied  and  published. 
No  elector  has  more  than  one  vote. 

Art.  10.  The  deputies,  the  members  of  the 
general  council,  or  of  the  arrondissement  coun- 
cils, who  have  been  announced  by  the  returning 
committees,  but  whose  powers  have  not  been 
verified,  are  enrolled  upon  the  list  of  electors 
and  are  allowed  to  vote. 

Art.  11.  In  each  of  the  three  departments  of 
Algeria  the  electoral  college  is  composed :  (1)  of 
the  deputies ;  (2)  of  tho  members  of  the  general 
councils,  of  French  citizenship ;  (3)  of  delegates 
elected  by  the  French  members  of  each  muni- 
cipal council  from  among  tho  communal  electors 
of  French  citizenship. 

Art.  12.  The  electoral  college  is  presided 
over  by  the  President  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the 
capital  of  the  department  or  colony.  The  Presi- 
dent is  assisted  by  the  two  oldest  and  two 
youngest  electors  present  at  the  opening  of  the 
meeting.  The  bureau  thus  constituted  chooses 
a  secretary  from  among  the  electors.  If  the 
President  is  prevented  [from  presiding]  his  place 
is  taken  by  the  Vice-President  [of  the  civil 
tribunal],  and,  in  his  absence,  by  the  oldest 
justice. 

Art.  13.  The  bureau  divides  the  electors  in 
alphabetical  order  into  sections  of  at  least  one 
hundred  voters  each.     It  appoints  the  President 

1  See  Art.  8,  law  of  December  9, 1884,  infra. 


641 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


and  Inspectors  of  each  of  these  sections.  It 
decides  ttll  (luestions  iin(i  contesti  wliioli  may 
arisj!  in  llu'  course  of  tlio  election,  witlumt, 
however,  power  to  depart  from  I  lie  decisions 
rend'-'red  by  virtue  of  Article  8  of  the  present 
law. 

AllT.  14.  Tli(^  first  Imllot  licpiiLS  iit  eljrlit 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  closes  at  noon.  The 
second  Ix'gins  at  two  o'clock  and  closes  at  four 
o'clock.  The  third,  if  it  takes  place,  lu-gins  at 
Bis  o'clock  and  doses  at  eight  o'clock.  Tlie 
results  of  the  hallotings  are  determined  by  the 
bureau  and  announced  Ihc  same  day  by  the 
President  of  the  electoral  college.' 

Akt.  IT).  No  one  is  elected  senator  on  either 
of  the  first  two  ballots  \ude8S  he  receives:  (1)  an 
absolute  majority  of  the  votes  cast ;  and  (2)  a 
number  of  votes  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  total 
number  of  electors  registered.  On  the  third  bal- 
lot a  idurality  is  sufilcicnt,  and,  in  case  of  an 
equality  of  votes,  tlie  oldest  is  elec'ted. 

Ai'T.  1(1,  Political  meetings  for  the  nomina- 
tion (..'  senatoi-s  may  take  phu:o  confonnably  to 
the  rules  laid  down  by  the  law  of  June  «,  1868' 
subject  to  the  following  conditions :  I.  These 
meetings  may  be  held  from  the  date  of  the  elec- 
tion of  delegates  up  to  the  day  of  the  election  [of 
senators]  inclusive;  II.  They  must  be  preceded 
by  a  declaration  made,  at  latest,  the  evening 
before,  by  seven  senatorial  electors  of  the  arron- 
dissement,  and  indicating  the  place,  the  day  and 
the  hour  the  meeting  is  to  take  place,  and  the 
names,  occupation  and  residence  of  the  candi- 
dates to  be  presented;  III.  The  municipal 
authorities  will  sec  to  it  that  no  one  is  admitted 
to  the  meeting  unless  he  is  a  deputy,  general 
councilor,  arrondissement  coimcilor,  delegate  or 
candidate.  The  delegate  will  present,  as  a 
means  of  identification,  a  certificate  from  the 
Mayor  of  his  commune,  the  candidate  a  certifi- 
cate from  the  otlicial  who  shall  have  received  the 
declaration  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph." 

AuT.  17.  Delegates  who  take  part  in  all  the 
hallotings  shall,  if  they  demand  it,  receive  from 
the  Ptale,  upon  the  presentation  of  tlieir  letter  of 
Bununons,  countersigned  by  the  President  of  the 
electoral  college,  a  remuneration  for  traveling 
expenses,  which  shall  be  paid  to  them  upon  the 
same  l)a8is  and  in  the  same  manner  as  that  given 
to  jurors  by  Articles  35,  00  and  following,  of  the 
decree  of  June  18,  1811.  A  public  administra- 
tive regulation  shall  determine  the  metho<l  of 
fixing  the  amount  and  the  method  of  payment 
of  this  remuneration.' 

AiiT.  18.  Every  delegate  who,  without  law- 
ful reason,  shall  not  take  part  in  M  the  hal- 
lotings, or,  having  been  liindered,  shall  not  have 
given  notice  to  the  nlteriiate  in  sufiicient  season, 
shall,  upon  the  demand  of  the  public  prosecutor, 
be  punished  by  a  tine  of  fifty  francs  by  the  civil 
tribunal  of  the  capital.'  The  same  penalty  may 
bo  imposed  upon  tlie  alternate  who,  after  having 
been  notified  by  letter,  telegram,  or  notice  per- 
sonally delivered  in  due  season,  shall  not  have 
taken  part  in  the  election. 

AuT.  19.  Every  attempt  at  corruption  by  the 
employment  of  means  enumerated  in  Articles 
177  and  following,  of  the  Penal  Code,  to  influ- 

'  See  Art.  8,  law  of  December  9, 18S1,  ivfra. 

>  This  law  has  been  superseded  by  a  law  of  June  80, 
1881. 


•  Done  by  decree  of  Decemljer !»,  1876. 

*  Of  the  uepartment. 


cncc  the  vote  of  an  elector,  or  to  keep  him  from 
voting,  shall  be  pnidshed  by  imiirisonmcnt  of 
from  three  months  to  two  years,  and  a  fine  of 
from  fifty  to  five  hundred  fnmcs,  or  l)y  one  of 
the.se  twi)  penalties  alone.  Article  40!}  of  tho 
Penal  C(Mle  shall  apply  to  the  penalties  iinposcd 
by  the  present  article.' 

AuT.  20.  It  is  incompatible  for  a  senator  to 
be;  I.  Councilor  of  State,  Maltre  de  ReqiiCtes, 
Prefect  or  Sub-Prefect,  except  Prefect  of  the 
Seine  and  Prefect  of  Police;  II.  Member  of  tho 
courts  of  appeal  ("appel,")'  or  of  the  tribunals 
of  first  instance,  except  i)\it)lie  prosecutor  at  tho 
court  of  Paris;  III.  General  Paymaster,  Special 
Receiver,  official  or  employe  of  the  central  ad- 
minLstration  of  the  ministries. 

Akt.  21.  The  following  shall  not  be  elected 
by  the  department  or  the  colony  included  wholly 
or  partially  in  tlieir  jurisdiction,  during  tlio  exer- 
cise of  their  duties  and  during  the  six  months 
following  the  cessation  of  their  duties  by  resig- 
nation, (lismissal,  change  of  residence,  or  other 
cause :  I.  The  First  Presidents,  Presidents,  and 
members  of  the  courts  of  appeal  ("appel");  II. 
The  Presidents,  Vice-Presidents,  Examining  Mag- 
istrates, and  menilKTS  of  the  tribunals  of  first 
instance;  III.  The  Prefect  of  Poliiie;  Prefects 
and  Suo-Prefects,  and  Prefectorial  General  Sec- 
retaries ;  the  Governors,  Directors  of  the  Interior, 
and  General  Secretaries  of  the  Colonies;  IV. 
The  Chief  Arrondissement  Engineers  and  Chief 
Arrondis.sem(!nt  Road-Surveyors ;  V.  The  School 
Rectors  and  Inspectors;  VI.  The  Primary  School 
Inspectors;  VII.  The  Archbishops,  Bishops,  and 
Vicars  General ;  VIII.  Tlie  officers  of  all  grades 
of  the  land  and  naval  force;  IX.  The  Division 
Commissaries  and  the  ]^Iilitary  Deputy  Commis- 
saries ;  X.  Tho  General  Paymasters  and  Special 
Keceivers  of  Money ;  XI.  The  Supervisors  of 
Direct  and  Indirect  Taxes,  of  Registration  of 
Lands  and  of  Posts;  XII.  The  Guardians  and 
Inspectors  of  Forests. 

AiiT.  22.  A  senator  elected  in  several  depart- 
ments, must  let  his  choice  be  known  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  senate  within  ten  days  following  tho 
verification  of  tho  elections.  If  a  choice  is  not 
made  in  this  time,  the  question  is  settled  by  lot 
in  open  session.  The  vacancy  shall  be  filled 
within  one  month  and  by  the  same  electoral 
bo<ly.  The  same  holds  true  in  case  of  an  in- 
validated election. 

Art.  33.  If  by  death  or  resignation  the  num- 
ber of  senators  of  a  department  is  reduced  by 
one -half,  the  vacancies  shall  be  filled  within  the 
space  of  tliree  months,  unless  the  vacancies 
occur  within  the  twelve  months  preceding  the 
triennial  elections.  At  the  time  fixed  for  tho 
triennial  elections,  all  vacancies  shall  be  filled 
which  have  occurred,  whatever  their  number 
and  date.' 

[Akt.  24.  The  election  of  senators  chosen  by 
the  National  Assembly  takes  place  in  public 
sittirg,  by  "  scrutin  do  liste,"  and  by  an  absolute 
majority  of  votes,  whatever  tho  number  of  hal- 
lotings. 

Akt.  25.  When  it  is  necessary  to  elect  suc- 
cessors of  senators  chosen  by  virtue  of  Article  7 
of  the  law  of  February  24,  1875,  the  Senate  pro- 

'  See  Article  8.  law  of  December  9, 1884,  infra. 

'  Franco  is  divided  into  twenty-six  judicial  districtH,  in 
each  of  which  there  is  a  cour  d'appel.  There  are  similar 
courts  in  Algeria  and  the  colonies.  The  Cour  de  Cassa- 
tion is  the  supreme  court  of  appeal  for  all  France, 
Alg:erla  and  the  colonies. 


542 


CONSTITUTION  OP  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


c^eds  in  the  manner  indicated  In  ttic  preceding 
nrtlcle]." 

AuT.  20.  Members  of  the  8eiial(^  receive  tlie 
winie  snliiry  iih  members  of  the  Clmmbcr  of 
Deputies.' 

AuT.  27.  Tliere  are  applicable  to  elections  to 
tlie  Senate  all  tlie  provisions  of  tlie  electoriil  law 
relatinj(:  I.  to  cases  of  unworthiness  and  in- 
capacity ;  II.  to  offences,  prosecutions,  and  pen- 
alties; III.  to  election  proceediiips,  in  all  respects 
not  contrary  to  ihc  provisions  of  tlie  present  law. 

Temporary  Provisions. 

AuT.  28.  For  the  (irsl  election  of  members  of 
the  Senate,  the  law  which  shall  determine  the 
date  of  the  dissolution  of  the  National  Assembly 
shall  fix,  without  regard  to  the  intervals  estab- 
lished l)y  Article  1,  the  date  on  which  the 
municipal  councils  shall  meet  for  the  election  of 
delegates  am'  die  day  for  the  election  of  Sena- 
tors. Before  the  meeting  of  the  municipal 
councils,  the  National  A.ssj'mbly  shall  pniceed  to 
the  election  of  those  Senators  whom  it  is  to 
choose. 

AiiT.  20.  The  provisions  of  Article  21,  by 
which  an  interval  of  six  months  must  elapse 
between  the  cessation  of  duties  and  election, 
sliall  not  apply  to  officials,  except  Prefects  and 
Sub-Prefects,  whose  duties  shall  have  ceosed 
cither  before  the  promulgation  of  the  present 
law  or  within  twenty  days  following. 

1875.  Law  on  the  Election  of  Deputies.' 
November  30. 

Akticle  1.  The  deputies  shall  be  chosen  by  the 
votei-8  registered:  I.  upon  the  lists  drawn  up  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  ,Tuly  7,  1874;  II. 
upon  the  supplementary  list  including  those  who 
have  lived  in  the  commune  six  months.  Regis- 
tration upon  the  supplementary  list  shall  take 
place  conformably  to  the  laws  and  regulations 
now  governing  the  political  electoral  lists,  by 
the  committees  and  according  to  the  forms 
established  by  Articles  1,  2  and  8  of  the  law  of 
July  7,  1874.  Appeals  relating  to  the  formation 
and  revision  of  either  list  shall  be  carried 
directly  before  the  Civil  Chamber  of  the  Court  of 
Appeal  ("  Cassation").  The  elecLoral  lists  drawn 
up  March  31,  1875,  shall  serve  until  March  81, 
1876. 

Art.  2.  The  soldiers  of  all  ranks  and  grades, 
of  both  the  land  and  naval  forces,  shall  not  vot<s 
when  they  are  with  their  regiment,  at  their  post 
or  on  duty.  Those  who,  on  election  day,  are  in 
private  residence,  in  non-activity  or  in  possession 
of  a  regular  leave  of  absence,  may  vote  in  the 
commune  on  the  lists  of  which  they  are  duly 
registered.  This  last  provision  applies  equally 
to  officers  on  the  unattached  list  or  on  the  re- 
serve list. 

Akt.  3.  During  the  electoral  period,  circulars 
and  platforms  ("professions  de  foi")  signed  by 
the  candidates,  placards  and  manifestoes  signed 
bjf  one  or  more  voters,  may,  after  being  deposited 
with  the  public  prosecutor,  be  posted  and  dis- 
tributed without  previous  authorization.  The 
distribution  of  ballots  is  not  subjected  to  this 
deposit.'  Every  public  or  municipal  official  is  for- 
bidden to  distribute  ballots,  platforms  and  circu- 

'  Articles  24  and  25  repealed  by  law  of  December  9, 
)9K1,  infra. 

•  See  Article  17,  law  of  November  30, 1875,  infra. 

'  Heo,  infra,  the  laws  of  June  10, 1885,  and  February  13, 
18811.  amending  tlie  electoral  law. 

•  See,  however,  a  law  of  December  80,  1878,  by  which 
deposit  is  made  necessary. 


lars  of  randidntes.  The  provisions  of  Article  10 
of  the  organic  law  of  August  2,  1875,  on  the 
i'lcctions  of  Senators,  shall  apply  to  the  elections 
of  deputies. 

AiiT.  4.  Halloting  shall  continue  one  day 
only.  The  voting  occurs  at  the  chief  place  of 
the  commune;  each  commune  may  nevertheless 
be  divided,  by  order  of  the  Prefect,  into  as  many 
sections  as  may  Ik-  demanded  by  local  cir- 
cumstances and  the  numlicr  of  voters.  The 
second  ballot  shall  take  place  the  second  Sunday 
following  the  Hiiiiounccnu'nt  of  the  (Irst  ballot, 
according  to  the  provisions  of  Article  (15,  of  the 
law  of  March  15,  1849. 

AiiT.  r>.  The  method  of  voting  shall  l)o  ac- 
cording to  the  provisions  of  the  organic  and 
regulating  decrees  of  IVbruary  2,  18.52.  The 
ballot  is  secret.  The  voting  lists  used  at  the 
elections  in  each  section,  signel  by  the  President 
and  Secretary,  shall  reinnin  depo-iited  for  eight 
days  at  the  Secretary's  office  at  the  town  hall, 
where  they  shall  bo  communicated  to  every 
voter  requesting  them. 

AuT.  fl.  Every  voter  is  eligible,  without  any 
tax  ((Palification,  at  the  age  of  twenty-live  years. 

AiiT.  7.  No  soldier  or  sailor  forming  part  of 
the  active  forces  of  hind  or  sea  may,  whatever 
his  rank  or  position,  be  elected  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  This  provision  applies  to 
soldiers  and  sailors  on  the  unattached  list  or  in 
non-activity,  but  does  not  extend  to  officers  of 
the  second  section  of  the  list  of  the  general  staff, 
nor  to  tlio.so  who,  kept  in  the  first  section  for 
having  been  commander-in-chief  in  the  fiehl, 
have  censed  to  be  employed  actively,  nor  to  offi- 
cers who,  having  privileges  acci.iiea  m,  the  re- 
tired list,  are  sent  to  or  maintained  at  their  homes 
while  awaiting  the  settlement  of  heir  pen.sicm. 
The  decision  by  which  the  officer  shul!  I>".ve  been 
permitted  to  establish  his  rights  on  the  retired 
li.st  shall  become,  in  this  case,  irrevocable.  The 
rule  laid  down  in  the  first  paragraph  of  the 
present  Article  shall  not  apply  to  the  reserve  of 
the  active  army  nor  to  the  territorial  army. 

Akt.  8.  Tlie  exercise  of  public  duties  paid 
out  of  the  treasury  of  the  State  is  incompatible 
with  the  office  of  deputy.  Consequently  every 
official  elected  deputy  shall  be  superseded  in  his 
duties  if,  within  the  eight  days  following  the 
verification  of  powers,  he  has  not  signified  that 
he  does  not  accept  the  oflice  of  deputy.  There 
are  excepted  from  the  preceding  provisions  the 
duties  of  Jlinister,  Under  Secretary  of  State, 
Ambassador,  Minister  Plenipotentiary,  Prefect  of 
the  Seine,  Prefect  of  Police,  First  President  of 
the  Court  of  Appeal  ("cassation,")  First  Presi- 
dent of  the  Court  of  Accounts,  First  President  of 
the  Court  of  Appeal  ("  appel ")  of  Paris,  Attorney 
General  atthcCourtof  Appeal  ("cassati(m,")  At- 
torney General  at  the  Court  of  Accounts,  Attorney 
General  at  the  Court  of  Appeal  ("appel ")  of  Paris, 
Archbishop  and  Bishop,  Consistorial  Presiding 
Pastor  in  consistorial  districts  whose  capital  has 
two  or  more  pastors.  Chief  Itabbi  of  the  Central 
C'jnsistory,  Chief  Rabbi  of  the  Consistory  of  Paris. 

AiiT.  9.  There  are  also  excepted  from  tho 
provisions  of  Article  8:  I.  titular  professors  of 
chairs  which  are  filled  by  competition  or  upon  tho 
nomination  of  the  bodie.'^  where  the  vacancy  oc- 
curs ;  II.  persons  who  have  been  charged  with  a 
temporary  mission.  All  missions  continuing 
more  than  six  months  cease  to  be  temporary  and 
are  governed  by  Article  8  above. 


543 


CONSTITUrnN  OF  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRANCE. 


.Vkt.  10.  Tin-  ofllriiil  i)rcHervfH  tlic  riffhtu 
wlilcli  ho  lilts  iicqu'ri-d  to  a  ritirliiK  pciiHioii,  iiiiil 
limy,  ntlvr  tlio  i^xpirutiou  of  liis  Icriii  of  olllcc,  lio 
rcHtorcd  t"  iictive nerv  ce.  Tlio  civil  olliciiil  wlio, 
)mvin){  liuil  twenty  vt'  ir»of  wrvic'c  iit  tlie  iliitr  of 
tilt'  lU'iTplmici!  of  tfio  ilHco  of  ilcputy,  iinil  hIiiiII 
Ik-  fifty  yciirH  of  ai[i-  iit  tlio  time  of  tlie  cxpinitioii 
of  tills  trriii  of  ollicc,  iimy  crtiililixh  IiIh  nj^litH  to 
itn  I'xccptioiiiii  rctiriiiji;  pciiHioii.  Tliig  pension 
shall  li(^  regulated  aeeordin);  to  tlie  third  Para- 
irniph  of  Article  13  of  the  law  of  June  9,  \Hr,;i. 
If  the  (.(llcial  is  restored  to  active  service  after 
the  expiration  of  his  term  of  ulHce,  the  provisions 
of  Article  a,  Parasraph  2,  and  Art'elc  i'S  of  the 
law  of  June  0,  185!),  shall  apply  to  him.  In 
dllti(^s  where  tlie  rank  is  distinct  from  the  em- 
ployment, the  olllcial,  liy  the  acceptance  of  the 
olBce  of  (h'puty,  loses  the  emiiloyment  and  pre- 
serves the  rank  only. 

AiiT.  11.  Every  deputy  appointed  or  pro- 
moted to  a  salaried  public  position  ceases  to 
belonf^  to  the  Cliamber  by  the  very  fact  of  his 
acceptance ;  but  he  may  be  re-electe(l,  if  tlie  ofllce 
which  ho  occupies  is  compatible  with  tlie  olllce 
of  deputy.  Dcpuiies  who  become  Ministers  or 
Under-Secretaries  of  State  are  not  subjected  to  a 
re-election. 

AiiT.  13.  There  shall  not  be  elected  by  the 
arrondissement  or  tht!  colony  included  wholly  or 
partially  in  their  jurisdiction,  during  the  exercise 
of  their  duties  or  for  six  months  lollowing  the 
expiration  of  their  duties  due  to  resignation,  dls- 
mlasal,  change  of  residence,  or  any  other  cause: 
I.  The  First-Presidents,  Presidents,  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Courts  of  Appeal  ("appel");  II.  The 
Presidents,  Vice-Presidents,  Titular  Judges,  Ex- 
amining Magistrates,  and  members  of  the  tribu- 
nals of  first  instance;  III.  The  Prefect  of  Police; 
the  Prefects  and  General  Secretaries  of  the 
Prefectures;  the  Governors,  Directors  of  the  In- 
terior, and  General  Secretaries  of  the  Colonies; 
IV.  The  Chief  Arrondissement  Engineers  and 
Chief  Arrondissement  Road-Surveyors;  V. 
The  School  Rectors  and  Inspectors;  VI.  The 
Primary  School  Inspectors;  VII.  The  Arch- 
bishops, Bishops,  and  Vicars  General ;  VIII.  The 
General  Paymasters  and  Special  Receivers  of 
Money ;  IX.  The  Supervisors  of  Direct  and  Indi- 
rect Taxes,  of  Registration  of  Lands,  and  of 
Posts;  X.  The  Guardians  and  Inspectors  of  For- 
ests. The  Sub-Prefects  shall  not  be  elected  in 
any  of  the  arrondissements  of  the  department 
where  they  perform  their  duties. 

AiiT.  13.  Every  imperative  mandate  is  null 
and  void. 

AuT.  14.  Members  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
are  elected  by  single  districts.  Each  administra- 
tive arrondissement  shall  elect  one  deputy.  Ar- 
rondissements having  more  than  100,000  inhabit- 
ants shall  elect  one  deputy  in  addition  for  every 
additional  100,000  inhabitants  or  fraction  of 
100,000.  Arrondissements  of  this  kind  shall  be 
divided  into  districts  whose  boundaries  shall  be  es- 
tablished by  law  and  may  be  changed  only  by  law. 

Art.  15.  Deputies  shall  be  chosen  for  four 
years.     The  Chamber  is  renewable  integrally. 

AliT.  16.  In  case  of  vacancy  by  death,  resig- 
nation, or  otherwise,  a  new  election  shall  be  held 
within  three  months  of  the  date  when  the 
vacancy  occurred.  In  case  of  option,'  the 
viicincy  shall  be  filled  within  one  month. 

.  when  a  deputy  had  been  elected  from  two  or 
mu.'  oiatriota. 


AuT.  17.  The  dcpuiies  sliall  receive  a  salary. 
This  salary  is  regulated  by  Articles  Oil  and  07  of 
tli(^  law  of  March  15,  1840,  and  by  the  provisions 
of  the  law  of  February  1(1,  1873. 

AiiT.  18.  No  one  is  elected  on  the  first  ballot 
unless  he  receives:  (1)  an  absolute  majority  of 
tlie  votes  cast;  (2)  a  number  of  votes  eipiai  to 
onefourtli  of  the  number  of  voters  registered. 
On  tlie  second  ballot  a  plurality  is  sufilcient.  In 
case  of  nil  equality  of  votes,  the  oldest  is  de- 
clared elected. 

Aht.  10.  Each  department  of  Algeria  electa 
one  dejiuty. 

Abt.  20.  The  voters  living  in  Algeria  in  a 
place  not  yet  made  a  commune,  shall  be  regis- 
tered on  the  electoral  list  of  the  nearest  com- 
mune. When  it  is  necessary  to  establish  electoral 
districts,  eitlier  for  the  purpose  of  grouping 
mixed  communes  in  each  of  which  the  niimlx;r 
of  voters  shall  be  iiisufilcient,  or  to  bring  togetiier 
voters  living  in  places  not  formed  into  communes 
the  decrees  for  tlxing  the  seat  of  these  districts 
shall  be  issued  by  tlie  Governor-General,  upon 
the  report  of  the  Prefect  or  of  the  General  com- 
manding the  division. 

Aht.  21.  The  four  colonies  to  which  senators 
have  been  assigned  by  the  law  of  February  34, 
1875,  on  the  organization  of  the  Senate,  shall 
choose  one  deputy  each. 

AuT.  22.  Every  violation  of  the  prohibitive 
provisions  of  Article  3,  Paragraph  8,  of  the 
present  law  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  from 
sixteen  francs  to  three  hundred  francs.  Never- 
theless the  criminal  courts  may  apply  Article 
463  of  the  Penal  Code.  The  provisions  of  Arti- 
cle 6  of  tlie  law  of  July  7,  1874,  shall  apply  to 
the  political  electoral  lists.  The  decree  of  Janu- 
ary 29,  1871,  and  the  laws  of  April  10,  1871, 
May  2,  1871,  and  February  18,  1873,  arc  re- 
pealed. Paragraph  11  of  Article  15  of  the 
organic  decree  of  February  2,  1858,  is  also  re- 
pealed, in  so  far  as  it  refers  to  tlie  law  of  May  31, 
1836,  on  lotteries,  reserving,  however,  to  the 
courts  the  right  to  apply  to  convicted  persons 
Article  42  of  the  Penal  Code.  The  provisions  of 
the  laws  and  decrees  now  in  force,  with  which 
the  present  law  docs  not  conflict,  shall  continue 
to  be  applied. 

Art.  23.  The  provision  of  Article  13  of  the 
present  law  by  which  an  interval  of  six  months 
must  elapse  between  the  expiration  of  duties  and 
election,  shall  not  apply  to  olficials,  excep!.  Pre- 
fects and  Sub-Prefects,  whose  duties  shall  have 
ceased  either  before  the  promulgation  of  the 
present  law  or  within  the  twenty  days  follow- 
ing it. 

1879.  Law  ReUtine  to  the  Seat  of  the 
Executive  Power  ana  of  the  Chamber;  at 
Paris.    July  22. 

Article  1.  The  seat  of  the  Executive  Power 
and  of  the  two  Chambers  is  at  Paris. 

Art.  2.  The  Palace  of  the  Luxemburg  avl 
the  Palais-Bourbon  are  assigned,  the  first  to  the 
use  of  the  Senate,  the  second  to  that  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  Nevertheless  each  of  the 
Chambers  is  outhorized  to  choose,  in  the  city  of 
Paris,  the  palace  which  it  wishes  to  occupy. 

Art.  3.  The  various  parts  of  the  palace  of  Ver- 
sailles now  occupied  by  the  Senate  and  Chamber 
of  Deputies  preserve  their  arrangements.  When- 
ever, according  to  Articles  7  and  8  of  the  law  of 
February  25,  1875,  on  the  organization  of  the 
public  powers,  a  meeting  of  the  National  Assem- 


544 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRANCE. 


bly  tnkr»  pliicc,  It  kIiiiII  sit  iit  VcrsiilllcK,  In  tlip 
pri'MPiit  liull  iif  tlu,'  ('Iminbi'r  nf  Dcpiitii-H. 
WliPiicvpr,  uccordliiff  to  Article  0  of  llic  liiw  of 
Fel)ruiiry  24,  IHTn,  on  tin;  orKimiziilioii  of  tlic 
Hciiiitc,  iind  Articli'  I'J  of  Ilic  conHtilnlioiml  law 
of  .Inly  10,  lN7r>,  on  tlic  ri'liitlotiH  of  tlu^  iMihlic 
powers,  tlic  Semite  sliiill  be  call<'tl  upon  to  con- 
Btltwte  itHclf  a  ("ourt  of  Jiistiee,  It  hIuiU  Indieuto 
the  toivn  and  plaeo  wliere  It  propowH  to  Hit. 

AuT.  4.  Tlie  Senate  and  CliHinber  of  DeputieH 
will  Kit  at  Paris  on  and  after  NovenitM'r  U  next. 

AnT.  a.  The  PresidentH  of  the  Senate  and 
(Chamber  of  Depiilles  are  charged  with  the  duty 
of  securing  the  external  and  int"rnal  safety  df 
th(^  Chambers  over  which  they  preside.  To  this 
vnd  they  have  the  right  to  call  upon  the  armed 
force  and  every  authority  whose  assistance  tli(!y 
Judge  necessary.  The  demands  nniy  be  act- 
dressed  directly  to  all  odlcers,  coninianders,  or 
ofllcials,  who  arc  bound  to  obey  Immediately, 
under  the  penalties  established  by  the  luvs. 
The  Presidents  of  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of 
Deputies  may  delegate  to  the  (|uestors  or  to  one 
of  them  their  ri^ht  of  demanding  aid. 

AuT.  6.  Petitions  to  either  of  the  Chnml)ers 
can  be  made  and  presented  In  writing  only.  It  Is 
forbidden  to  present  them  In  person  or  at  the  bur. 

AuT.  7.  Every  violation  of  the  preceding 
article,  every  provocation,  by  speeches  uttered 
publicly,  or  by  writings,  or  printed  matter, 
posted  or  distributed,  to  a  crowd  upon  the  piddic 
ways,  having  for  an  object  the  discussion,  draw- 
ing up,  or  carrying  to  the  Chambers  or  either  of 
them,  of  petitions,  declarations,  or  addresses  — 
whether  or  not  any  results  follow  such  action  — 
shall  be  punislied  by  the  penalties  euumcrated 
In  Paragraph  1  of  Article  5  of  the  law  of  June 
7,  1848. 

AiiT.  8.  The  preceding  provisions  do  not 
diminish  the  force  of  the  law  of  June  7,  1848,  on 
riotous  assemblies. 

Aht.  9.  Article  463  of  the  Penal  Co<le  applies 
to  the  offences  mentioned  in  the  present  law. 

1884.  Law  Am<"i(line  the  Organic  Laws 
on  the  Organization  of  the  Senate  and  the 
Elections  ot  Senators.    December  9. 

Abtici-e  1.  The  Senate  consists  of  three  hun- 
dred members,  elected  by  the  departments  and 
the  colonics.  The  present  members,  without 
any  distinction  between  senators  elected  by  the 
National  Assembly  or  the  Senate  and  those 
•elected  by  the  departments  and  colonics,  main- 
tain their  term  of  office  during  the  time  for 
■wldch  they  have  been  chosen. 

Art.  2.  The  department  of  the  Seine  elects 
ten  senators.  The  deportment  of  the  Nord  elects 
•eight  senators.  The  loUowing  departments  elect 
five  senators  each:  C6te8-du-Nord,  Finistire, 
Gironde,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  Loire,  Loire-Infcrieure, 
Pas-de-Colais,  Rhone,  Sa6ne-et-Loire,  8eine-In- 
ferieure.  The  following  departments  elect  four 
senators  each ;  Aisne,  Bouche8-du-Rh6ne,  Char- 
cnte  -  Infcricure,  Dordogne,  Haute  -  Garonne, 
Isdre,  Maine-et-Loirc,  Manche,  Morbihan,  Puy- 
de-D6me,  Seine-et-Oise,  Somme.  The  following 
•departmenta  elect  throe  senators  each:  Ain, 
Allier,  Ard^che,  Ardennes,  Aubc,  Aude,  Avey- 
ron,  Calvados,  Charente,  Cher,  Corrfize,  Corse, 
COte-d'Or,  Creuse,  lloubs.  Drome,  Eure,  Eure- 
et-Lolr,  Qard,  Gers,  Herault,  Indre,  Indre-ct- 
Loire,  Jura,  Landes,  Loir-et-Cher,  Haute-Lolre, 
Loiret,  Lot,  Lot-et-Garonne,  Marne,  Haute-Mame, 
Mayenne,   Meurthe-et-Moselle,   Meuse,    Nidvre, 


Ol8P,()rne,Ua8He8-Pyrene<'K,  HanteSartne,  Sarthe, 
Savoie,  ilaute-Savole,  Seineet-Mnrne,  Deux- 
SevrcH,  Tarn,  Var,  V'endiV,  Vienne,  llaute- 
Vicnne,  Vosges,  Yonne.  The  following  depart- 
ments cleft  two  senators  each:  nas.srs-Alpes, 
llautcs-Alpes,  AliX'S  .Maritinies,  Arii^ge,  Cantal, 
l.o/.iyre,  llaulcs-Pyrenees,  Pvrfinees-Orientaics, 
Tani-et-Oaronnc,  Vanchise.  The  following  elect 
one  senator  each;  the  Territory  of  Helfort,  tho 
three  departments  of  Algeria,  tlie  four  colonies: 
iMurtinhiue,  Guadeloupe,  lii'iudon  and  Krencli 
Ii.dles. 

Aht.  8.  In  the  departnient.s  where  the  num- 
ber of  senators  Is  increased  by  the  present  law, 
the  increase  shall  take  effect  as  vacancies  occur 
among  the  life  senators.  To  this  end,  within 
eight  days  after  the  vacancy  occiirs,  it  shall  l>e 
determined  by  lot  what  de])artment  shall  bo 
calle<l  upon  to  elec^t  a  senator.  This  election 
shall  take  place  within  tliree  months  of  the  dc- 
terminatiim  by  lot.  Furthermore,  if  the  vacancy 
ocnirs  within  six  months  preceding  the  triennial 
el  ^•ti(m,  the  vacancy  shall  be  tilled  at  that 
election.  The  term  of  ofllce  in  this  case  shall 
expire  at  the  siune  time  as  that  of  the  other 
senators  belonging  to  the  same  department. 

AiiT.  4.  No  one  shall  l)e  a  senator  unless  ho 
Is  a  French  citizen,  forty  years  of  age,  at  least, 
and  enjoying  civil  and  political  right.s.  Mem- 
lH?rs  of  families  that  have  reigned  in  France  are 
ineligible  to  the  Senate. 

Aht.  a.  The  soldiers  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  cannot  be  elected  senators.  There  are 
excepted  from  this  provision:  I.  The  Marshaln 
and  Admirals  of  France;  II.  The  general  olllcers 
maiut^dned  without  limit  of  age  in  the  tlrst  sec- 
tion of  the  list  of  the  general  staff  and  not  pro- 
vided with  a  command ;  III.  The  general  olHcc^rs 
placed  in  the  second  section  of  the  list  of  the 
general  .staff;  IV.  Soldiers  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  who  belong  either  to  the  reserve  of  the 
active  ormy  or  to  the  territorial  army. 

Aht.  6.  Senators  are  elected  by  "scrutinde 
liste,"  by  a  college  meeting  at  the  capital  of  the 
department  or  colony,  and  composed:  (1)  of  the 
Deputies;  (2)  of  the  General  Councilors;  (3)  of 
the  Arrondissement  Councilors ;  (4)  of  delegates 
elected  from  among  the  voters  of  the  commune, 
by  each  Alunicipal  Co\incil.  Councils  composed 
of  ten  members  shall  elect  one  delegate.  Coun- 
cils composed  of  twelve  members  shall  elect  two 
delegates.  Councils  composed  of  sixteen  mem- 
bers shall  elect  three  delegates.  Councils  com- 
posed of  twenty-one  members  shall  ehict  six 
delegates.  Councils  composed  of  twenty-three 
members  shall  elect  nine  delegates.  Councils 
composed  of  twenty-seven  members  shall  elect 
twelve  delegates.  Councils  composed  of  thirty 
inemt)ers  shall  elect  fifteen  deleg.".tes.  Councils 
composed  of  thirty-two  members  shall  elect 
eighteen  delegates.  Councils  compo.sed  of 
thirty-four  members  shall  elect  twenty -one  dele- 
gates. Councils  composed  of  thirty -six  members 
or  more  shall  elect  twenty-four  delegates.  The 
Munlcipol  Council  of  Paris  shall  elect  thirty 
delegates.  In  the  French  Indies  the  members  of 
the  local  councils  take  the  place  of  Arrondisse- 
ment Councilors.  The  JIunicipal  Council  of 
Pondichery  shall  elect  five  delegates.  The 
Municipal  Council  of  Karikal  shall  elect  thrcS 
delegates.  All  the  other  communes  shall  elect 
two  delpgates  each.  The  balloting  takes  place 
at  the  capital  of  each  district. 


545 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  FHANCE. 


AliT,  7.  McmliiTH  iif  tlic  Hcimli'  iirr  clcrtcd 
for  niiH'  yciifH.  Tin-  Hcniil*'  Ix  rriii-wi'd  cviTy 
three  yeiirit  aecortliiiK  to  llie  oriler  of  tin-  prcitcnt 
M'rieM  uf  <lL>|mrtnieiitH  iiiul  eoloiiieii. 

AiiT.  8.  ArtlcleH  'J  (imniKriiplm  1  nml  2),  U,  4, 
S,  H,  14,  10,  lit  Hliil  Sa  of  the  orKiinle  \nw  of 
Au^ilHt  2,  1H7A,  on  the  Klectloim  of  SetiiilorH  lire 
amuniled  iih  followH:  "Art.  2(imrit>rmiihH  1  itiiil 
2).  In  Riu'h  Miiiiicipiil  Coiiiiell  the  election  of 
diOexateH  tjikes  plaee  without  debate  and  liy 
M'cretlmllot,  l)y  "wrutindeiiHte"  and  l)y  imalmo- 
luti!  majority  of  voteH  euHl.  After  two  liailotH  a 
plurality  \h  Hiillleient,  ami  in  eaxe  of  an  e(|uality 
of  vott'H  tlie  oldcHt  in  elected.  Tlic  procedure 
nnd  tnetiiod  Ih  tlie  Haine  for  tliu  election  of  alter- 
natcH.  OoiincilH  having  one,  two,  or  thre<^  dele- 
gatcM  to  clioose  Hliail  elect  one  alternate.  Tlione 
choosiiiff  Hix  or  idne  <leieKaleH  elect  two  alter- 
nalcH.  riioMe  cliiMMtinK  twelve  or  llfteen  dele 
gat^M  elect  three  alteriiateH.  Those  cliooHinj; 
ciKhtcon  or  twenty -one  delegates  elect  four  alter- 
nates. Those  elKKwinx  twenty-four  deleijates 
elect  live  alternates.  The  Mun'icinai  Council  of 
Paris  elects  ei^lit  alternates.  'I  lie  alterinites 
take  the  ])iacu  of  delegates  in  ca.se  of  refusal  or 
inal)ility  to  serve,  in  tlie  order  deterniiiie(l  hy  the 
nuinlier  of  votes  received  by  each  of  tlicni. 
Art.  3.  In  eoinniunes  wliere  llie duties  of  a  Munici- 
pal Council  are  performed  by  a  special  delegation 
organized  by  virtue  of  Article  44  of  the  law  of 
April  5,  1H84,  the  senatorial  delegates  and  alter- 
nates shall  be  chosen  by  the  old  council.  Art.  4. 
If  the  delegates  were  not  pa'sent  at  the  election, 
notice  is  given  them  by  the  Mayor  within 
twenty-four  liours.  They  must  within  live  <lay8 
notify  the  Prefect  of  their  acceptance.  In  case 
of  declination  or  silence  they  sliall  be  re- 
placed by  the  alternates,  who  are  then  placed 
upon  the  list  as  tlie  delegates  of  the  commune. 
Art.  5.  The  olllcial  report  of  the  election  of 
delegates  and  alternates  is  transmitted  at  once 
to  the  Prefect.  It  indicates  the  acceptance  or 
declination  of  tlie  delegates  and  alternates,  as 
■well  as  the  protests  made  bv  one  or  more  mem- 
bers of  the  Municipal  Council  against  tlie  legality 
of  the  election.  A  copy  of  this  olllcial  report  Is 
posted  on  the  door  of  the  t<jwn  hall.  Art.  8. 
Protests  concerning  the  election  of  delegates  or 
alternates  arc  decided,  subject  to  an  appeal  to 
the  Council  of  State,  by  tlie  Council  of  tlie 
Prefecture,  and,  in  the  colonies,  by  the  Privy 
Council.  Delegates  whose  election  is  set 
aside  because  they  do  not  satisfy  tlie  conditions 
demanded  by  law,  or  because  of  informality,  are 
replaced  by  the  alternates.  In  case  the  election 
of  a  delegate  and  of  an  alternate  is  rendered 
void,  as  by  the  refusal  or  death  of  both  after  their 
acceptance,  new  elections  are  held  by  the  Munici- 
pal Council  on  a  day  fixed  by  decree  of  the  Pre- 
fect. Art.  14.  The  first  ballot  begins  at  eight 
o'clock  In  the  morning  and  closes  at  noon.  The 
second  begins  at  two  o'clock  and  closes  at^  four 
o'clock.  The  third  begins  at  seven  o'clock  and 
closes  at  ten  o'clock.  The  results  of  the  bal- 
lotings  are  determined  by  the  bureau  and  an- 
nounced immediately  by  the  President  of  the 
electoral  follegc.  Art.  10.  Political  meetings 
for  the  nomination  of  senators  may  be  held  from 
the  date  of  the  promulgation  of  the  decree  sum- 
moning the  electors  up  to  the  day  of  the  election 
inclusive.  The  declaration  prescribed  by  Article 
3  of  the  law  of  June  30,  1881,  shall  be  made  by 
two  voters,  at  least.     The  forms  and  regulations 


of  this  Article,  as  well  as  those  of  Article  .1, 
Nliall  be  obH<Tved.  The  members  of  Parliament 
elected  or  electors  In  the  department,  the  sena- 
torial electors,  delegates  and  iilternates,  and  the 
candidates,  or  their  representatives,  may  alone 
be  present  at  these  meetlng.H.  The  municipal 
authorities  will  see  to  it  lluit  no  other  person 
is  admitted.  Delegates  and  alternates  shall 
present  as  a  means  of  Identitlcation  a  certiflcatu 
from  the  Mayor  of  the  commune;  candidates  or 
their  repn'sentativesa  ci'rtiflcate  frfim  IheoHlelal 
who  sliall  have  received  the  declaration  men- 
tioned in  Paragraph  3.  Art.  10.  Kvery  attem,.l 
at  corruption  or  constraint  by  the  employment 
of  means  enumerated  in  Articles  177  and  follow- 
ing of  tlie  Penal  ('(mIc,  to  Infiuenee  the  vote  of 
an  elector  or  to  keep  him  from  voting,  shall  bo 
puni.slic<i  by  imprisonme.<l  of  from  three  montlia 
to  two  years,  and  by  a  fine  of  from  fifty  francs 
to  five  hundred  francs,  or  by  one  of  these  penal- 
ties alone.  Article  4(13  of  the  Penal  Code  is  aji- 
plicable  to  the  penalties  provided  for  by  tlw 
prcm'nt  artlch;.  Art.  23.  Vacancies  caused  by 
tlu^  death  or  resignation  of  senators  shall  be  filled 
within  three  months;  moreover,  if  the  vacancy 


occurs   within    the   six    months    preceding    the 

ed  at  th 

tions." 


triennial  elections,  it  sliall  be  filled  at  those  clcc- 


AuT.  0.  There  are  repealed :  (1)  Articles  1  to 
7  of  the  law  of  February  24,  1875,  on  the  organi- 
zation of  tlie  Senate ;  (2)  Articles  24  and  25  of  the 
law  of  August  2,  1875,  on  the  elections  of  sena- 
tors. 

Temporary  Provision. 

In  case  a  special  law  on  parliamentary  incom- 
patibilities shall  not  liave  been  passed  at  the 
date  of  the  next  senatorial  elections.  Article  8,  of 
the  law  of  November  30,  1875,  shall  ajiply  to 
those  elections.  Every  official  affected  by  this 
provision,  who  has  had  twenty  years  of  service 
and  is  fifty  years  of  age  at  the  date  of  Ids  ac- 
ceptance of  the  olHco  [of  senator],  may  establish 
his  right  to  a  proportional  retiring  pension, 
which  shall  be  governed  by  the  third  paragraph 
of  Article  12,  of  the  law  of  June  0,  1853. 

1885.  Law  Amending  the  Electoral  Law. 
June  16, 

[AkticleI.'  The  members  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  are  elected  by  "  scrutin  de  listc." 

Art.  2.  Each  department  elects  the  number 
of  deputies  assigned  to  it  in  the  table'  annexed  to 
the  present  law,  on  the  basis  of  one  deputy  for 
seventy  thousand  inhabitants,  foreign  residents 
not  included.  Account  shall  be  taken,  never- 
theless, of  every  fraction  smaller  than  seventy 
thousand.'  Each  department  elects  at  least 
three  deputies.  Two  deputies  are  assigned  to 
the  territory  of  Belfort,  six  to  Algeria,  and  t«n 
to  the  colonies,  as  is  indicated  by  the  table.  This 
table  can  be  changed  by  law  only. 

AuT.  3.  The  department  forms  a  single  elec- 
toral district.] 

Art.  4.  Members  of  families  that  have  reigned 
in  France  are  ineligible  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies. 

Art.  5.  No  one  is  elected  on  the  first  ballot 
unless  he  receives:  (1)  an  absolute  majority  of 

'  Articles  1,  S  and  3  repealed  by  the  law  of  February 
13, 1880,  infra. 

'  Tills  table  may  be  found  In  the  Bullethi  <les  Lois, 
twelfth  series,  No.  15,518 ;  and  In  the  Journal  Offlciel  for 
June  17, 1HK5,  p.  8074. 

>  i.  «.,  fractious  of  less  than  70,000  are  entitled  to  a. 
deputy. 


546 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRANCE. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GEUMANY. 


Ilio  votcH  ciiHt ;  (2)  a  iuiihImt  of  viilcii  (Miunl  to 
imc-fdurtli  of  the  totiil  iiiiinlH'r  of  voters  tckIh- 
tcn'd.  Oil  till'  m-conil  ballot  i\  pliimllty  Ih  Hiif- 
flciciit.  Ill  a\M\  of  iiii  riiuitlity  of  votJ's,  the 
olili'Ht  of  the  ciinilliljitcH  is  <l('('liiri'(l  elected. 

AllT.  (t.  Hiilijeet  to  tile  etiHe  of  ii  ilJHHollltiiin 
foreseen  anil  reKiilateil  by  tlie  ConHtitiitlon,  tliu 
general  eleitloiiH  take  plaee  wltliin  Hixty  dav" 
prceediii);  tlie  expiration  of  tlie  powers  of  'lie 
Chamber  of  DeputleH. 

Aht.  7.  Viicunek'H  itliall  not  be  llllfd  wlik'li 
oeeiir  in  tlio  hIx  inontliH  pn-eodlnK  tbu  renewal  of 
the  Clmmber. 

1887.  Law  on  Parliamentary  Incompati- 
bilitiei.    December  a6. 

Until  the  piiHHiiKi'  of  a  Hpeeial  law  on  parlia- 
mentary ineonipatibilitiex,  ArticleH  H  and  0  of 
tlie  law  of  November  HO,  1H75,  Hliall  apply  to 
senatorial  elections.  Every  olllcial  afTected  liy 
this  provision  who  lias  hiul  twenty  years  of  sef- 
vlco  f  "i  l»  ilfty  years  of  a)?o  at  "the  time  of  his 
acci-  ■■  ■nee  of  the  otilce  [of  senator],  may  estab- 
lish Ills  riRlit.s  to  a  proportional  retiring  pension, 
which  shall  be  fjoverned  by  the  third  pamgruph 
of  Article  13  <if  the  law  of  .June  I),  IH.W. 

1889.  Law  Re-establishing  Single  Districts 
for  the  Election  of  Deputies.    February  13. 

Aktici.I'.  1.  Articles  1,  3  and  !1  of  the  law  of 
.lune  16,  1HH5,  are  re^)ealed. 

Akt.  a.  Members  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties are  elected  by  sin);Ie  districts.  Each  ad- 
ininistrutive  arrondissement  In  the  departments, 
and  eaeli  municipal  arrondissement  at  I'aris  and 
at  Lyons,  elects  one  deputy.  Arrondis-sements 
whose  population  (^xceeils  one  hundred  thousand 
inhabitnnts  elect  an  additional  deputy  for  every 
one  hundred  thousand  or  fraction  of  one  hun- 
dred thousand  inhabitants.  The  arrondissements 
are  in  this  case  divided  into  di.slrlcts,  u  table'  of 
which  is  annexed  to  the  present  law  and  can  be 
changed  by  a  law  only. 


■  Tills  table  may  be  found  In  the  Journal  OMciel  for 
Kebniary  14,  IHHll,  pp.  70  anU  following ;  and  In  the  Bulle- 
tin det  Loit,  twelfth  sertea,  No.  120,47$. 


AuT.  :).  One  deputy  is  aiwiKned  to  the  terri- 
tory of  llelfort,  six  to  Algeria,  ami  ten  to  the 
colonies,  as  is  indicated  by  the  table. 

Altr.  4.  On  and  after  the  pi'oiiiul);ation  of 
the  presi'ut  law,  iiiilll  llie  renewal  of  tlieChant- 
iMTof  Deputies,  vaeiiiieles  o<>currili|{  ill  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  shiill  not  be  tilled. 

1889.    Law  on  Multiple  Candidatures.    July 

AuTK'M':  1.  No  one  may  1m'  a  caiidldiile  In 
more  than  one  district. 

Aht.  3.  Every  citizen  who  olTers  himself  or 
Is  offered  at  tlic^  general  or  partial  elei  tions  must, 
by  a  declaration  siKneil  or  <'oiiiiterslKiied  by  liiiii- 
wdf,  and  duly  legalized,  make  known  in  what 
district  he  means  to  be  a  eandidate.  This  de- 
claration is  deposited,  and  a  jirovisional  receipt 
obUilned  therefor,  at  the  Prefecture  of  the 
department  corcerned,  the  llflli  day,  at  latest, 
before  the  day  of  election,  A  delliiilive  receipt 
shall  be  delivered  within  twenty-four  hours. 

AuT.  it.  Every  declaration  iiiade  in  violation 
of  Article  1  of  the  present  law  is  void  and  not  to 
be  received.  If  declarations  are  denoslted  by 
the  same  citizen  in  more  than  one  district,  the 
earliest  in  date  is  alone  valid.  If  they  bear  thu 
same  date,  all  are  void. 

AuT.  4.  It  is  forbidden  to  sign  or  post  pla- 
cards, to  carry  or  distributee  ballots,  circulars,  or 
platforms  in  the  interest  of  a  candidate  who  has 
not  conformed  to  the  reiiulrementsof  the  present 
law. 

AiiT.  a.  liiillots  bearing  the  name  of  a  citizen 
whose  candidacy  Is  |)ut  forward  in  violation  of 
the  present  law  shall  not  be  Included  in  the  re- 
turn of  votes.  Posters,  placards,  iilatforms,  and 
ballots  posted  or  distributed  to  support  a  candi- 
dacy in  a  district  where  such  caiulidacy  is  con- 
trary to  the  law,  shall  be  removed  or  seized. 

AiiT.  0.  A  flue  of  ten  tllou^•an(l  fnincs  shall 
be  imposed  on  the  candidate  violating  the  pro- 
visions of  the  present  law,  and  one  of  Ave  thou- 
sand francs  on  all  persons  acting  in  violutiou  of 
Article  4  of  the  present  law. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


I3th-i7th  Centuries.— The"  Old  (Holy  Ro- 
man) Empire. — The  Golden  Bull.  See  Qeh- 
MANv:  A.  I).  lU'.l-ll.W;  i:M~-1403;  and  DiKT, 
TiiK  Qeumanic. 

A.  D.  1815.— The  Confederation.  See  Ger- 
many: A.  D.  1814-1820. 

A.  D.  1871.— The  New  Empire.— On  the  18th 
day  of  .January,  1871 ;  at  Versailles,  King 
William  of  Prussia  assumed  the  title  of  German 
Emperor.  On  the  16th  of  April  following  the 
Emperor  Lssiied  a  proclamation,  by  and  with  the 
consent  of  tlio  Council  of  the  German  Confeder- 
ation, and  of  the  Imperial  Diet,  decreeing  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution  for  the  Empire.  See 
Germany:  A.  D.  1871  (Januauy)  and  (April). 
The  following  is  a  translation  of  the  text  of  the 
Constitution,  as  transmitted  by  the  American 
Minister  ot  Berlin  to  his  Government: 

His  Majesty  the  King  of  Prussia,  in  tlie 
name  of  the  North  German  Union,  His  Majesty 
the  King  of  Bavaria,  His  Majesty  the  King  of 
Wtlrtemberg,  His  Itoyal  Highness  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Hiidcn,  and  His  Royal  Highness  the 
Grand  Duke  of  llesse,  and  by  llhine  for  those 


parts  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  which  are 
situated  south  of  the  Main,  conclude  an  eternal 
alliance  for  the  protection  of  the  territory  of  the 
confcderntion,  and  of  the  laws  of  the  same,  a» 
well  as  for  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  the 
German  people.  This  confederation  shall  bear 
the  name  of  the  German  Empire,  and  shall  have  vl 
the  following  constitution. 

I.— Territory. 

Article  i.  The  territory  of  the  confederation 
shall  consist  of  the  States  of  Prussia,  with  Lunen- 
burg, Bavaria,  Saxony,  WUrtcmberg,  Baden, 
Hesse,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Saxe-Weimar, 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Oldenburg,  Brunswick, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Sa.\e-Cobnrg- 
Gotha,  Anhalt,  Sehwarzburg  -  Kudolstadt, 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  Woldeck,  Heuss  of 
the  elder  branch,  Keuss  of  the  younger  branch, 
Schaumburg-Jjippc,  Lippe,  Lubeck,  Bremen, 
and  Hamburg. 

II.— Legislation  of  the  Empire. 

Article  2.  AVitliin  this  territory  the  Empire 
shall  have  the  right  of  legislation  according  to 
the  provisions  of  this  constitution,  and  the  law» 


547 


CONSTITUTION  OF  OKHM\NY. 


CONSTITUTION  OK  OKHMANY. 


iif  till'  Kiiiiilri*  Hlmll  tiiki*  pri'ii'tli'iu'c  of  iIkim'  uf 
ciicli  liiilivliliiiil  Htalc.  The  litwN  of  III*'  Ijiipiri' 
nIiiiII  III'  ri'iiili'r<'(l  liliuiiiiK  I'y  liiiixTiiil  iiroiliiiiiu 
tioii,  Niicli  |iriK'liiiMittiiiii  til  III'  iiuIiIIkIh'iI  in  ii 
Jiiiiriiiil  ili'vnti'il  til  I  III'  |iulillrittliiii  of  till'  liiWM  iif 
till'  Kiii|iiri',  (Iti'lrliHKi'iu't/.iiliilt.)  If  no  otliiT 
IMtIoiI  nIiiiII  III' ilrnlKlliltril  ill  llii'  pilliliHlii'il  luw 
fur  it  III  taki'  I'tTrrI,  it  hIiiiII  tiiki'  t'lTcct  on  tlir 
foiirti'i'Mtli  iliiv  iiflir  till'  iliiy  of  itH  pi|lill''iitii>:i 
111  till'  liiw-jouriial  lit.  liiTlin. 

Article  3.  TliiTr  is  imn  citl/.i-nHliip  for  all 
OiTiiiuny,  mill  tlic  lili/riis  or  Hiihji'cts  of  cttcli 
hUU'  of  till-  fi'iliTittliiii  nIiuII  li(t  tri'iiti'il  111  uvrry 
iitlicr  Ntiili'  lliiTiuif  If*  iiiitivrH,  iiiiil  Hliitll  liuvr  till' 
rl){lil  of  lH'romin>{  piTiiiiiiirnt  rrHlili'iilH,  of  riirry 
iugoii  IiiinIiii'hm,  of  lining  pulilic  otIlcvH,  unit  iiiiiy 
iicqulri'  itll  civil  rlKlitx  on  tliv  hiij'ic  coniiitiiiim  iih 
thuHo  iHirii  in  tlii'  Htiiti',  itnil  nIiuII  hIho  liiivi'  tlir 
Hiiiiic  iiHii;;!'  iiM  ri'KorilH  livil  nm-itiitions  iinil  tiw. 

{irutcction  of  tliu  Iiiwh.  No  drrniim  hIiiiII  be 
iinittfd,  ill  till)  (!Xpr('ls<!  of  this  privili'gc,  liy  tlii! 
nutliortticH  of  liiH  niitivo  Hliiti),  or  by  tlio  iiutliori- 
tlrM  of  liny  otlirr  Ktiito  of  the  confi'ik'nition. 
Till'  ri'KiiliilionH  K"*''''"iihiK  ll»'  f'liri'  of  piiupiTs, 
unit  their  luliniwiiiiii  into  tlii'  various  purislii'S, 
ur«.'  not  Hfli'Ctril  by  tlii'  iirimlplr  I'liiiniiiiteil  in 
the  llrsi  pariigriiph.  In  llki'  iimnncr  those  treaties 
Hhali  reniiiiii  in  foree  whieh  have  liee-i  coneliideil 
between  the  various  states  of  the  feileration  in 
relation  to  the  eustinly  of  persons  who  are  to  be 
bunishei],  the  care  of  sick,  ami  the  burial  of 
(leceaseil  citizens.  With  rejjaril  to  the  n'liilering 
<if  iiiliitary  service  to  the  various  states,  the 
necessary  laws  will  be  passed  hereafter.  All 
Uerniaiis  in  foreif^n  countries  shall  have  equal 
claims  upon  the  prutectiou  of  the  Knipire. 

Article  4.  'Iho  fullowiug  matters  shall  be 
under  the  suiiervlsloa  of  the  Empire  and  Its 
legislature;  1.  The  privilege  of  carrying  on 
trade  in  more  than  one  place;  domestic  affairs 
and  matters  relating  to  the  settlement  of  natives 
of  one  state  in  the  territory  of  another ;  the  right 
of  citizenslii|i;  the  issuing  and  examination  of 
passports;  surveillance  of  foreigners  and  of 
manufactures,  together  with  insurance  business, 
80  far  as  these  matters  are  not  already  provided 
for  by  article  8  of  this  constitution,  (in  Uavaria, 
however,  exclusive  of  domestic  oSairs  and  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  settlement  of  natives  of  one 
state  in  the  territory  of  another;)  and  likewise 
matters  relating  to  colonization  and  emigration  to 
foreign  countries.  2.  Legislation  oncerning 
custoiiis  duties  and  commerce,  and  such  imposts 
as  are  to  be  applied  to  the  uses  of  the  Empire. 
8.  llegulatiou  of  weights  and  racf  ■,'•  of  the 
coinage,  together  with  the  eraisaii .  funded 
and  unfunded  paper  monej .  4.  Bi.uUing  regu- 
lations in  general.  5.  Patents  for  inventions. 
0.  The  protection  of  literary  property.  7.  The 
organization  of  a  general  system  of  protection 
for  Qerman  trade  in  foreign  countries ;  of  Qerman 
navigation,  and  of  tlie  German  flag  on  the  high 
seas;  likewise  the  organization  of  u  general 
consular  representation  of  the  Empire.  8.  Hail- 
way  matters,  (subject  in  Bavaria  to  the  provisions 
of  article  40,)  and  the  construction  of  rac-s  of 
communication  by  land  and  water  for  tlie  pur- 

goses  of  home  defense  and  of  general  commerce. 
Rafting  and  navigation  upon  those  waters 
■which  are  common  to  several  States,  and  the 
condition  of  such  waters,  as  likewise  river  and 
other  water  dues.  10.  Postal  and  telegraphic 
affairs ;  but  in  Bavaria  and  Hungary  these  shall 


be  subject  to  the  provisiiins  of  article  53.  11. 
Iti'giiialions  ciiiiri'riiing  the  exeiniliiin  of  Judicial 
Hi'iiti'iii'i'S  in  civil  nialtera,  and  the  fuilllliiirni  of 
ri'i|iiiHitliiim  in  general.  I'i.  The  aiillu'iitiriitlon 
of  public  docuinents.  HI.  (Jeiieral  legiHiiiliiin 
regarding  tlie  law  of  obligalions,  criniliial  law, 
I'oinmeri'lal  law,  and  the  law  of  exchange;  like- 
wise JuiHrial  pMceedings.  14.  The  liiiperlal 
army  and  navy.  ITi.  The  surveillanre  of  the 
mi'ilicid  and  veterinary  |irofeHHions.  10.  The 
pri'ss,  tiiwles'  unions,  Ac. 

Article  5.  The  legislative  power  of  the 
Empire  sliall  be  exereisi'd  by  the  federal  (Miiincil 
and  the  diet.  A  majority  of  the  votes  of  both 
houses  shall  be  necessary  and  sulllcieiit  for  the 
passage  of  a  law.  When  a  law  is  proposed  in 
relation  to  the  army  or  navy,  or  to  the  imposts 
specitled  In  article  '•)!>.  the  vote  of  the  presldiiig 
ollleer  shall  ileeida||  in  cas<!  of  a  dllTerence  of 
opinion  in  the  federal  council,  if  said  vote  shall 
be  in  favor  of  the  retention  of  the  existing 
arrangements. 

III.  — Federal  Council. 

Article  6.  The  federal  council  shall  consist  of 
the  representatives  of  the  states  of  the  confedem- 
tion,  among  whom  the  votes  shall  be  divhied  in 
such  a  manner  that  Prussia,  including  the  former 
votes  of  Hanover,  the  electorale  of  Ilessc,  Hol- 
stein,  Nassau,  and  Frankfort  shall  have  17  votes; 
Bavaria,  0  votes;  Saxony,  4  votes;  WUrtemlx'rg, 
4  votes;  Baden,  II  votes;  IIes.se,  8  vot«'s;  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  2  votes;  Saxe- Weimar,  1  vote; 
Mei'klenburg-.Streilt/,,  Ivote;  Oldenburg,  Ivoto; 
Brunswick,  2  votes;  Saxe-Meiningen,  1  vote; 
Saxe-Altcnburg,  1  vote;  Saxe-Coburg-Ootha,  1 
vote;  Anhalt,  T  vote;  Hchwarzburg-Uudolstadt, 
1  vote ;  Schwarzburg-8oudershau.sen,  1  vote ;  Wal- 
dcck,  Ivote;  Heuss,  elder  branch,  1  vote;  lieuss,  ■ 
younger  branch,  1  vote ;  Schaumburgh-Lliipe,  1 
vote;  Lippc,  1  vote;  Lubeck,  1  vote;  Bremen,  1 
vote;  Hamburgh,  1  vote;  total  58  vnies.  Each 
membei  of  the  confederation  shall  appoint  as 
many  delegates  to  the  federal  council  as  it  has 
votes ;  the  total  of  the  votes  of  each  state  shall, 
however,  be  cast  by  only  one  delegate. 

Article  7.  The  federal  council  shall  take  liction 
upon — 1.  The  measures  to  lie  jiroposed  to  the 
diet  and  the  resolutions  passed  by  the  same.  2. 
The  general  provisions  and  regulations  necessary 
for  the  cxccutioo  of  the  laws  of  the  Empire,  si) 
far  OS  no  other  provision  is  made  by  said  laws. 
3.  The  defects  which  moy  be  discovered  in  the 
execution  of  the  laws  of  the  Empire,  or  of  the 
provisions  r.  d  regulations  heretofore  mentioned. 
Each  member  of  the  confederation  shall  have  the 
right  to  introduce  motions,  and  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  presiding  officer  to  submit  them  for 
deliberation.  Legislative  action  shall  take  place 
by  simple  majority,  with  the  exceptions  of  the 
provisions  in  articles  5,  87,  and  78.  Votes  not 
represented  or  instructed  shall  not  be  counted. 
In  the  case  of  a  tie,  the  vote  of  the  presiding 
officer  shall  decide.  When  legislative  action 
upon  a  subject  which  does  not  affect,  according 
to  the  provisions  of  this  constitution,  the  whole 
Empire  is  taken,  the  votes  of  only  those  states 
of  the  confederation  shall  be  counted  which  shall 
be  interested  in  the  matter  in  question. 

Article  8.  The  federal  council  shall  appoint 
from  its  own  members  permanent  committees  — 
1.  On  the  amy  and  the  fortiflcations.  2.  On 
naval  affairs.  ?  On  duties  and  taxes.  4.  On 
commerce  and     .-ado.     5.      On  railroads,   post 


/ 


548 


\Jt^ 


i^X 


CONSTITUTION  OF  aEHMANV. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


<>ni('('H,  mill  tc'li'i(miiliH.  ft.  On  the  Jiiillcliiry. 
7.  On  itri'oiinlH.  In  I'ltcli  nf  (Iicho  ciininiltti'cM 
tlirro  hIiiiII  Im'  ri'prrsintativiH  of  iit  IntHl  four 
Htatrx  iif  till-  <'i)nfi'ili'riilii)n,  lirslili' the  lirt'Hiilini( 
ollh'i'r,  itnil  I'lirli  Hiati'  Hliail  lir  rntltlcii  to  only 
one  voti'  in  tlir  winii'.  In  llic  ciiinniittri'  on  llii' 
army  anil  fortlllrationH  Bavaria  NJiall  liavr  a  per 
niiiru'nt  rtcat  ;  tlir  rrinalnini;  nirniliiTs  of  It,  tin 
wril  itH  llii' nirinlirrx  of  llii' coinrnittiT  on  naval 
ulTalrs,  hIuiII  I>i'  a|ipiiinlril  tiy  the  Kniprror  :  the 
nicnilirrHof  tlir  ollirr  coniniflli'rH  Hliall  ln'clrcti'il 
by  tlic  fi'iliTitl  ciiuncll.  TIh'hc  comnilttii's  Hliall 
!)(•  iii'wly  forinril  at  racli  ki'msIoii  of  tlir  fnliral 
rouiicil,  i.  <'. ,  I'auli  yrar,  when  tlii^  rcllrliij?  nii'iii- 
Imth  Hliall  a^aln  bo  cliffibli'.  Bi'siili'S,  tlicrt'  Hliall 
bo  appiiintcil  ill  the  federal  roiincil  a  con  'iiitlei! 
on  fori'lKii  airairs,  over  wliieli  Bavaria  nliali  pre- 
Hiile,  to  lie  eonipimed  of  tlie  plenlpotelitiarieH  of 
llie  Kliijfdom.sof  Bavaria,  Haxony,  and  WUrteiii- 
l)er((,  and  of  two  plenlpotelitiarieH  of  the  other 
Htates  of  till!  Knipire,  wlio  Hliall  be  elected 
animally  by  the  federal  couneil.  ClerkH  Hliall  be 
placed  at  the  dinponal  of  the  ooiiiniittees  to  per- 
forin the  neeoHsary  work  appertaining  thiTcto. 

Article  9.  Kacli  ineinbcr  of  the  federal  ruiin- 
cil  NJiaii  have  the  right  to  appear  in  the  diet,  and 
J  gbail  be  heard  tlieru  at  any  tliP'i  .  ..en  he  Khali  ho 
reijucHt,  to  represent  the  viewH  of  bin  govern- 
ment, even  when  the  same  shall  not  liiivo  been 
adopted  by  the  majority  of  the  couuril.  Nobixly 
shall  beat  the  name  time  a  member  of  the  federal 
coiiiieii  and  of  the  diet. 

Article  10.  The  Emperor  Hball  alTord  the 
cuHtiimary  diplnmatio  prutcution  to  the  members 
of  tlie  federal  couneil. 

IV.— Presidium. 

Article  II.  The  King  of  Prussia  sliall  bo  the 
president  of  the  eonfeireratloii,  and  shall  have 
the  title  of  Gorman  Kmpcror.  Tho  Emperor 
shall  represent  the  Empire  among  nations,  declare 
_l  war,  and  conclude  peace  in  tlie  name  of  the 
same,  enter  into  alliances  and  other  conventions 
with  foreign  countries,  accredit  embassiidors,  and 
receive  them.  For  a  declaration  of  war  in  the 
name  of  the  Empire,  the  consent  of  the  federal 

V  council  Hhall  be  required,  except  in  case  of  an 
attack  upon  the  territory  of  the  confederation  or 
its  coasts.  So  far  as  treaties  with  foreign  coun- 
tries refer  to  matters  which,  acconling  to  article 
4,  are  to  '■  regulated  by  the  legislature  of  tho 
Empir(  Jic  onsent  of  the  federal  council  u:iall 
borer,,  i/ed  ft  their  ratification,  and  the  approval 
> .  tue  diet  sh.  11  bo  necessary  to  render  them 
valid. 

Article  12.  The  Emperor  shall  have  the  right 
■  to  convene  the  federal  counci'  and  the  diet,  and 
to  open,  adjourn,  and  close  them. 

Article  13.  The  convocation  of  the  federal 
council  and  tho  diet  shall  take  place  annually,  and 
the  federal  counci'  may  be  called  together  for  the 
preparation  of  business  without  the  diet ;  the 
latter,  however,  shall  not  be  convoked  without 
the  federal  council. 

Article  14.  The  convocation  of  tho  federal 
4  couneil  shall  take  place  as  soon  as  demanded  by 
one-third  of  its  members. 

Article  15.  The  chancellor  of  the  Empire,  who 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  Emperor,  shall  preside 

V  in  the  federal  council,  and  supervise  the  conduct 
of  its  business.  The  chancellor  of  the  Empire 
shall  have  the  right  to  delegate  the  power  to 
represent  him  to  any  member  of  the  federal 
couaciL 


Article  16.  The  iicroHHary  bill.H  Hhall  bo  laid 
lii'fiiri'  llio  ilii't  in  tho  name  of  the  Knipenir,  in 
aroordanoo  with  ll'o  rrHoliillons  of  the  fodoral 
niuiiril,  and  they  nliall  Im'  roproKonteil  in  Ilio  diet  ■* 
by  tiioiiiliorH  of  the  fodrral  oDunoil  or  by  H|H'cial 
('oiiiiiiJMKiiiiii'rs  aiipoiiilod  by  naid  iiiiinill. 

Article  17.  'ro  the  Kiiipomr  hIiiiII  iK'long  tliii 
rJKht  to  prepare  and  puIiIIhIi  the  laws  of  the 
Empire.  Tlii^  laws  and  rigiilatloiiH  of  tho  j 
Empornr  Hliall  Ih!  published  in  the  name  of  tliii 
Enijiiri',  and  reiiiilro  for  their  validity  the  nlgna- 
ture  of  the  (•liancolior  of  the  Empire,  who  thuru- 
by  boeoiiioH  roHpiinsilile  for  tli"ir  execution. 

Article  18.  Tho  Einporor  Hhall  appoint  tho 
ollloers  of  the  Empire,  roiiuire  them  to  take  tliu 
oath  of  allegiiinoe,  and  disiiiiss  them  when  iioeoH- 
Hary.  Oltlcials  appointed  •  1  an  olllio  of  tlio 
Empire  from  one  of  the  staloH  of  the  (•unfodora- 
tion  Hhall  enjoy  tho  same  rights  to  which  they 
wen-  entillod  in  their  native  Htates  by  their  ollleial 
position,  provided  no  other  legiHlalivo  provinion 
Hhall  have  been  made  previoUHly  to  their  entrance 
into  the  service  of  the  Empire. 

Article  19.  If  Htates  of  the  confederation 
Hhall  not  fultlll  their  coiistilutional  duties,  pro- 
ceedings may  bo  instituted  again.st  them  by  mili- 
tary oxecutiim.  This  execution  sliull  be  ordered 
by  tho  federal  council,  and  enforced  by  tho 
Emperor. 

Vi-Diet. 

Article  30.  The  members  of  the  diet  shall  lie 
elected  by  universal  suffrage,  and  by  direct  secret 
ballot.  Until  regulatod  by  law,  which  is  reserved 
by  section  5  of  the  election  law  of  May  31,  1869 
(Bundesgosotzblatt,  1800,  section  146,)  48  dele- 
gates  shall  bo  elected  in  IJavaria,  17  in  Wtlrtom- 
berg,  14  in  Baden,  0  in  llosso,  south  of  tho  river  . 
Main,  and  tlie  total  number  of  delegates  shall  bo  ' 
»83. 

Article  ai.  Officials  shall  not  require  a  leave 
of  absence  in  order  to  enter  the  diet.  When  a 
memlior  of  tho  diet  accepts  a  salaried  office  of 
the  Empire,  or  a  salaried  office  in  one  of  tho 
states  of  the  confederation,  or  accepts  any  office 
of  tho  Empire,  or  of  a  state,  with  \  'hich  a  high 
rank  or  salary  is  connected,  he  sluiL  forfeit  his 
seat  and  vote  in  tho  diet,  but  may  recover  his 
place  in  the  same  by  a  new  election. 

Article  22.    The  proceedings  of  the  diet  siiall 
be  public.     Truthful  reports  of  tho  proceedings 
of  tlio  public  sessions  of  tlio  diet  shall  subject  < 
those  making  tliem  to  no  responsibility. 

Article  23.    Tho  diet  shall  have  the  right  tc 
propose    laws    within    tiie    jurisdiction  of    tho  ^ 
Empire,  and  to  refer  petitions  addressed  to  it  to 
tlie    federal    council  or  tlie  chancellor  of    tho 
Empire. 

Article  24.      Each   legislative   period   of  tho 
diet  siiall  last  three  yours.     The  diet  may  be  dis-  j 
solved  by  a  resolution  of  tlio   federal  council, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Emperor. 

Article  25.    In  the  case  of  a  dissolution  of  tlio 
diet,    new  elections  shall  take   place  within  a 
period  of  00  days,  and  the  diet  siiall  reassemble    '' 
witliin  a  period  of  90  days  after  the  dissolution. 

Article  26.  Unless  by  consent  of  the  diet,  un 
adjournment  of  that  body  shall  not  exceed  tho 
period  of  30  daya,  and  shall  not  be  repeated 
during  the  same  jession,  without  such  consent. 

Article  27.  The  diet  sliall  examine  into  tho 
legality  of  tho  election  of  its  members  and  decide 
thereon.  It  shall  regulate  the  mode  of  transact- 
ing business,  and  its  ov/n  discipline,  by  establish- 


549 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


ln>,'  rules  therefor,  and  elect  its  president,  vice- 
presidents,  iiiid  secretaries. 

Article  28.  The  diet  .slinll  pii^  laws  by 
absolute  majority.  To  render  the  1  ssage  of 
^  laws  valid,  tlie  presence  of  the  majority  of  the 
legal  n\iml)er  of  members  shidl  be  required. 
Wlien  passing  laws  which  <lo  not  affect  the  whole 
Empire,  according  to  the  provisions  of  this  con- 
stitution, the  votes  of  only  those  members  shall 
be  co>intc<l  who  shall  have  been  elected  in  those 
states  of  the  confederation  wliich  the  laws  to  be 
passeil  shall  affect. 

Article  29.  The  members  of  the  diet  shall  be 
the  representatives  of  the  entire  people,  and  shall 
not  be  sul)ject  to  orders  and  instructions  from 
their  constituents. 

Article  30.  No  member  of  the  diet  shall  at 
any  time  suffer  legal  prosecution  on  account  of 
his  vote,  or  on  account  of  utterances  made  while 
in  the  jjcrformance  of  his  functions,  or  be  held 
resi)onsible  outside  of  the  diet  for  his  actions.     * 

Article  31.  Without  the  consent  of  the  diet, 
none  of  its  members  shall  l)e  tried  or  punished, 
during  the  session,  for  any  offense  committed, 
except  when  arrested  in  the  act  of  committing 
the  offense,  or  in  the  course  of  the  following  day. 
The  same  rule  shall  apply  in  the  case  of  arrests 
for  debt.  At  the  request  of  the  diet,  all  legal 
proceedings  instituted  against  one  of  its  mem- 
bers, and  liliewise  imprisonment,  shall  be  sus- 
pended during  its  session. 

Article  32.  The  members  of  the  diet  shall 
J  not  be  allowed  to  draw  any  salary,  or  be  compen- 
sated as  such. 

VI. — Customs  and  Commerce. 

Article  33.  Germany  sliall  form  a  customs 
and  commercial  union,  having  a  common  frontier 
for  the  collection  of  duties.  Such  territories  as 
cannot,  by  reason  of  their  situation,  be  suitably 
embraced  within  the  said  frontier,  shall  l)e 
excluded.  It  shall  be  lawful  to  introduce  all 
articles  of  commerce  of  a  state  of  the  confedera- 
tion into  any  other  «ite  of  the  confederation, 
without  paying  any  duty  thereon,  except  so  far 
as  such  articles  are  subject  to  taxation  therein. 

Article  34.  Tlie  uanseatic  towns,  Bremen 
and  Hamburg,  shall  remain  free  ports  outside  of 
J  tiie  common  boundary  of  the  customs  union, 
retaining  for  that  purpose  a  district  of  their  own, 
or  of  the  surrounding  territory,  until  they  shall 
request  to  be  admitted  into  the  said  union. 

Article  35.  The  Empire  shall  have  the  exclu- 
sive power  to  legislate  concerning  everything 
relating  to  the  customs,  the  taxation  of  salt  and 
tobacco  manufactured  or  raised  in  the  territory 
of  the  confederation  ;  concerning  the  taxation  of 
manufactured  brandy  and  beer,  and  of  sugar  and 
sirup  prepared  from  beets  or  other  domestic  pro- 
ductions. It  shall  have  exclusive  power  to  legis- 
late concerning  the  mutual  protection  of  taxes 
upon  articles  of  consumption  levied  in  the  several 
states  of  the  Empire  ;  against  embezzlement  ;  as 
well  as  concerning  the  measures  which  are 
required,  in  granting  exemption  from  the  pay- 
ment of  duties,  for  the  security  of  the  common 
customs  frontier.  iU  Bavaria,  WUrtemberg,  and 
Baden,  the  matter  of  imposing  duties  on  domes- 
tic brandy  and  beer  is  reserved  for  the  legislature 
of  each  country.  The  states  of  the  confederation 
shall,  however,  endeavor  to  bring  about  uniform 
legislation  regarding  the  taxation  of  chese  articles. 

Article  36.  The  imposing  of  duties  and 
excises  on  articles  of  consumption,  and  the  collec- 


tion of  the  same  (article  3.'),)  is  left  to  each  state 
of  the  confederation  within  its  own  territory,  so 
far  as  this  has  been  done  by  each  state  hirntofo'c. 
The  Emperor  shall  have  the  supervision  of  ttit 
institution  of  legal  proceedings  ijy  otlicials  of  t.ie 
empire,  whom  he  shall  designate  as  adjuncts  to 
the  custom  or  excise  offlces,  and  boards  of  direc- 
tors of  the  several  states,  after  hearing  the 
committee  of  the  Confederate  Council  on  customs 
and  revenues.  Notices  given  by  these  otlicials  as 
to  defects  in  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  the 
Empire  (article  35)  shall  be  submitted  to  the 
confederate  coimcil  for  action. 

Article  37.  In  taking  action  upon  the  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  execution  of  tlie  laws  of 
the  Empire,  (article  35,)  the  vote  of  the  presiding 
officer  shall  decide,  whenever  he  shall  pronounce 
for  upholding  tlie  existing  rule  or  regulation. 

Article  38.  The  amounts  accruing  from  cus- 
toms and  otlier  revenues  designated  in  article  85 
of  the  latter,  so  far  as  they  are  subject  to  legis- 
lation by  the  diet,  shall  go  to  the  treasury  of  the 
Empire.  This  amount  is  made  up  of  the  total 
receipts  from  the  customs  and  otlier  revenues, 
after  deducting  therefrom — 1.  Tax  compensa- 
tions and  reductions  in  conformity  with  existing 
laws  or  regulations.  2.  Reimbursements  for 
taxes  unduly  imposed.  8.  The  costs  for  collec- 
tion and  administration,  viz. :  a.  In  the  depart- 
ment of  customs,  the  costs  which  are  required 
for  the  protection  and  collection  of  customs  on 
the  frontiers  and  in  the  frontier  districts,  b.  In 
the  department  of  the  duty  on  salt,  the  costs 
whicli  are  used  for  the  pay  of  tlie  officers  charged 
with  collecting  and  controlling  these  duties  in  the 
salt  mines,  c.  In  the  department  of  duties  on 
beet-sugar  and  tobacco,  the  compensation  which 
is  to  be  allowed,  according  to  the  resolutions  of 
the  confederate  council,  to  the  several  state 
governments  for  the  costs  of  tlie  collection  of 
these  duties,  d.  Fifteen  per  cent,  of  tlic  total 
receipts  in  the  departments  of  the  other  duties. 
The  territories  situated  outside  of  the  common 
customs  frontier  shall  contribute  to  the  expenses 
of  the  Empire  by  paying  an  'aversum,'  (a  sum  of 
acquittance.)  Bavaria,  WUrtemberg,  and  Baden 
shall  not  share  in  the  revenues  from  duties  on 
liquors  and  beer,  which  go  into  the  treasury  of 
the  Empire,  nor  in  the  corresponding  portion  of 
the  aforesaid  '  aversum. ' 

Article  39.  Tlie  quarterly  statements  to  be 
regularly  made  by  the  revenue  officers  of  the 
federal  states  at  the  end  of  every  quarter,  and 
the  final  settlements  (to  be  made  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  and  after  the  closing  of  the  account- 
books)  of  the  receipts  from  customs,  wliich  have 
become  due  in  the  course  of  tlie  quarter,  or 
during  the  fiscal  year,  and  the  revenues  of  the 
treasury  of  the  Empire,  according  to  article  38, 
shall  be  arranged  by  the  boards  of  directors 
of  the  federal  states,  after  a  previous  examination 
in  general  summaries  in  which  every  duty  is  to 
be  shown  separately  ;  t'lcsc  summaries  sliall  be 
transmitted  to  the  fedc'.al  committee  on  accounts. 
The  latter  provisional'.y  fixes,  every  three  months, 
taking  as  a  basis  th  ;se  summaries,  the  amount 
due  to  the  treasury  01  the  Empire  from  the  treas- 
ury of  each  state,  and  it  su.-'U  inform  the  federal 
council  and  the  federal  States  01  this  act ;  furtlier- 
Kiore,  it  shall  submit  to  the  federal  council, 
aniiually,  the  final  statement  of  these  amounts, 
with  :ts  remarks.  The  federal  council  shall  act 
upon  f-c-  fixing  of  these  amounts. 


660 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


Article  40.  The  terms  of  the  customs-union 
treaty  of  July  8,  1867,  rciuiiin  in  force,  so  far  ns 
they  have  not  been  altenMl  l>y  tlie  Provisions  of 
this  constitution,  and  as  long  us  they  are  not 
alicred  iii  the  manner  designated  iu  articles?  and 
78. 

VII.  — Railways. 

Article  41.  Hallways,  which  are  considered 
necessary  for  the  defense  of  Germany  or  for  pur- 
poses of  general  eonuuerce,  may  be  built  for  the 
account  of  tlie  Empire  by  a  law  of  the  Emi)ire, 
i  even  in  opposition  to  the  will  of  those  members 
of  the  confederation  through  whose  territory  the 
railroads  run,  without  detracting  from  the  rights 
of  the  sovereign  of  that  country  ;  or  private 
persons  may  be  charged  with  tlieir  construction 
and  receive  rights  of  expropriation.  Every  ex- 
isting railway  company  is  bound  to  permit  new 
railroad  lines  to  be  connected  with  it,  at  the 
expense  of  these  latter.  All  laws  granting 
cxlstiug  railway  companies  the  right  of  injimction 
against  the  builtling  of  parallel  or  competition 
lines  are  hereby  abolished  throughout  the  Empire, 
without  detriment  to  rights  already  acquired. 
Such  right  of  injunction  can  henceforth  not  be 
granted  in  concessions  to  be  given  hereafter. 

Article  42.  The  governments  of  the  federal 
states  bind  themselves,  in  the  interest  of  general 
commerce,  to  have  the  German  railways  managed 
as  a  uniform  net- work,  and  for  this  purpose  to 
have  the  lines  constructed  and  equipped  accord- 
ing to  a  uniform  system. 

Article  43.  Accordingly,  as  soon  as  possible, 
uniform  arrangements  as  to  management,  shall 
be  made,  and  especially  shall  uniform  regulations 
be  instituted  for  the  police  of  the  railroads.  Tiie 
Empire  shall  take  care  that  the  administrative 
olHeers  of  the  railway  lines  keep  the  roads  alwavs 
in  such  a  condition  us  is  required  for  public 
security,  and  that  they  bo  equipped  with  the 
necessary  rolling  stock. 

Article  44.  Railway  companies  arc  bound  to 
cstiiblish  such  passenger  trains  of  suitable 
velocity  as  may  be  required  for  ordinary  travel, 
and  for  the  establishment  of  harmonizing  sched- 
ules of  travel  ;  also,  to  make  provision  for  such 
freight  trains  as  may  be  necessary  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  to  establish,  without  extra  remun- 
eration, offices  for  the  d'^ect  forwarding  of  pas- 
sengers and  freight  trains,  to  be  transferred,  when 
necessary,  from  one  road  to  another. 

Article  45.  The  Empire  shall  have  control 
over  the  tariff  of  fares.  The  same  shall  endeavor 
j  to  cause  —  1.  Uniform  regulations  to  be  speedily 
introduced  Ol^  all  German  railway  lines.  2.  The 
tariff  to  be  reduced  and  made  uniform  as  far  as 
possible,  and  particularly  to  cause  a  reduction 
of  the  tariff  for  the  transport  of  coal,  coke, 
wood,  minerals,  stone,  salt,  crude  iron,  manure, 
and  similar  articles,  for  long  distances,  as  de- 
manded by  the  interests  of  agriculture  and 
industry,  and  to  introduce  a  one-penny  tariff  as 
soon  as  practicable. 

Article  46.  In  case  of  distress,  especially  in 
case  of  an  extraordinary  rise  in  the  price  of  pro- 
visions, it  shall  bo  the  duty  of  the  railway  com- 
panies to  adopt  temporarily  a  low  special  tjiriff, 
to  be  fixed  by  the  Emperor,  on  motion  of  the 
competent  committee,  for  the  forwarding  of 
grain,  flour,  vegetables,  and  potatoes.  This 
tariff  shall,  however,  not  be  less  than  the  lowest 
rate  for  raw  produce  exisiing  on  the  said  line. 
The  foregoing  provisions,  and  those  of  articles  42 


to  4.';,  shall  not  apply  to  Bavaria.  Tlie  imperia\ 
government  has,  however,  the  power,  also  with 
reganl  to  Havana,  to  cstablisli,  by  way  of 
legislation,  uniform  rules  for  the  construction 
and  equipment  of  such  railways  as  may  bo  of 
importance  for  the  defense  of  the  country. 

Article  47.  The  managers  of  all  railways 
shall  bo  required  to  obey,  without  hesitation, 
requisitions  made  by  the  authorities  of  tlio 
Empire  for  the  use  of  their  roads  for  the  defeuso 
of  Germany.  Particularly  shall  the  military  and 
all  material  of  war  be  forwarded  at  uniform 
reduced  rates. 

VIII. —  Mails  and  Telegraphs. 

Article  48.  The;  mails  and  telegraphs  shall  bo 
organized  and  managed  as  state  institutions 
throughout  tlie  German  Empire.  The  legislation 
of  the  empire  in  regard  to  postal  and  telegniijliic 
affairs,  provided  for  in  article  4,  does  not  extend 
to  those  matters  whose  regulation  is  left  to  tlio 
Inanagerial  arrangement,  according  to  the  princi- 
l)les  which  have  controlled  the  North  Gennau 
administration  of  mails  and  telegraphs. 

Article  49.  The  receipts  of  mails  and  tele- 
graphs are  a  joint  affoir  throughout  the  Empire. 
The  expenses  shall  bo  paid  from  the  general 
receipts.  The  surplus  goes  into  the  treasury  of 
the  Empire.     (Section  12.) 

Article  50.  The  Emperor  has  the  supremo 
suiiervisiou  of  the  administration  of  mails  and 
telegraiihs.  The  authorities  appointed  by  him 
are  in  duty  bound  and  uuthorizc'd  to  see  that 
uniformitjr  be  established  and  maintained  in  the 
organization  of  the  administration  and  in  tlio 
transaction  of  business,  as  al.so  in  regard  to  the 
qualifications  of  employes.  The  Fmperor  shall 
have  the  power  to  make  general  administrativo 
regulation.s,  and  al.so  exclusively  to  regulate  the 
relations  which  are  to  exist  between  the  post  and 
telegraph  offices  of  Germany  and  those  of  other 
countries.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  officers  of 
the  post-office  and  telegraph  department  to  obey 
imperial  orders.  This  obligation  shall  be  included 
in  their  oath  of  office.  The  apiiointnient  of 
superior  officers  (such  as  directors,  counselors, 
and  superintendents,)  as  they  shall  be  required 
for  the  administration  of  the  mails  and  telegraphs, 
in  the  various  districts  ;  also  the  appointment  of 
officers  of  the  posts  and  telegraphs  (such  as 
inspectors  or  comptrollers,)  acting  for  the  afore- 
said authorities  in  the  several  districts,  in  the 
capacity  of  supervisors,  shall  bo  made  by  tho 
Emperor  for  the  whole  territory  of  the  German 
Empire,  and  these  officers  shall  take  the  oaiu  ^f 
fealty  to  him  as  a  part  of  their  oath  of  office. 
The  governments  of  the  several  states  shall  be 
informed  in  due  time,  by  means  of  imperial  con- 
firmation and  official  publication,  of  the  afore- 
mentioned appointments,  so  far  as  they  may 
relate  to  their  territories.  Other  officers  required 
by  the  department  of  mails  and  telegraphs,  as 
also  all  olllcers  to  be  employed  at  the  various 
stations,  and  for  technical  purposes,  and  hence 
officiating  at  the  actual  centers  of  communica- 
tion, &c.,  shall  be  appointed  by  the  respective 
governments  of  the  states.  Where  there  is  no 
independent  administration  of  inland  mails  or 
telegraphs,  the  terms  of  the  various  treaties  are 
to  be  enforced. 

Article  51.  In  assigning  the  surplus  of  the 
post-office  department  to  the  treasury  of  tlio 
Empire  for  general  purposes,  (article  49,)  tlio 
following  proceeding  is  to  be  observed  in  con- 


551 


CONSTITUTION  OF  OEUMANY. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  OEUMANY. 


Nidcrotlon  of  the  diffcrcnco  which  has  licretoforo 
existed  in  tho  clear  receipts  of  tlie  post-ofilce 
departments  of  tlio   several    territories,  for  tho 

fmrposo  of  8<t;viiiiig  a  suitable  e(iualizalion  dur- 
ng  tlic  period  of  transition  below  named.  Of 
the  p<ist-ofiice  surplus,  which  accumulated  in  the 
several  mail  districts  during  the  tivo  years  from 
IHOl  to  1885,  nn  average  yearly  surplus  shall  be 
computed,  and  the  share  which  every  separate 
mail  district  has  had  in  tho  surplus  resulting 
therefrom  for  the  whole  territory  of  l!ie  Empire 
shall  be  fixed  upon  by  a  percentage.  In  :\cconl- 
ancc  with  the  proportion  thus  made,  the  several 
states  shall  be  credited  on  the  account  of  their 
otlier  contributions  to  tlie  exvenscs  of  the  empire 
with  their  quota  accruing  from  the  postal  surplus 
in  the  Empire,  for  a  period  of  eiplit  years  subse- 
quent to  their  entrance  into  the  post-oflico 
department  of  tho  Empire.  At  the  end  of  tlie 
3aid  eight  years  this  distinction  sliall  cease,  and 
any  surplus  in  the  post-oflico  department  sliall 
go,  without  division,  into  tho  treasury  of  the 
Empire,  according  to  the  principle  enunciated  in 
article  49.  Of  the  quota  of  the  post-olflce 
department  surpl'is  resulting  during  the  afore- 
mentioned period  of  eiglit  years  in  favor  of  the 
Hanscatic  towns,  one-half  shall  every  year  be 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Emperor,  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  for  the  establishment  of 
uniform  post-offlces  in  tlie  Hanseatic  towns. 

Article  52.  The  stipulations  of  the  foregoing 
articles  48  to  51  do  not  apply  to  Bavaria  and 
^  Wilrtemberg.  In  their  stead  the  following  stipu- 
lation shall  be  valid  for  these  two  states  of  tho 
confederation.  The  Empire  alone  is  authorized 
to  legislate  upon  the  privileges  of  the  post-oflico 
and  telegraph  departments,  on  the  legal  position 
of  both  institutions  toward  the  public,  upon  the 
franking  privilege  and  rates  of  postage,  and  upon 
the  establishment  of  rates  for  telegraphic  corres- 
pondence into  Hanseatic  towns.  Exclusive, 
however,  of  managerial  arrangements,  and  the 
fixing  of  tariffs  for  internal  communication 
within  Bavaria  and  WUrtemberg.  In  the  same 
manner  the  Empire  shall  regulate  postal  and 
te'^i^raphic  communication  with  foreign  coun- 
tries excepting  the  immediate  communication  of 
Bavaria  and  WUrtemberg  with  their  neighboring 
statci,  not  belonging  to  the  Empire,  in  regard  to 
which  regulation  the  stipulations  in  article  49  of 
the  postal  treaty  of  November  33,  1867,  remains 
in  force.  Bavoria  and  Wilrtemberg  shall  not 
share  in  the  postal  and  telegraphic  receipts  which 
belong  to  the  treasury  of  the  Empire. 
IX.  —  Marine  and  NaTigation. 
Article  53.  The  navy  of  the  Empire  is  a 
J  united  one,  under  the  supremo  command  of  tho 
Emperor.  The  Emperor  is  charged  with  its 
organization  and  arrangement,  and  he  shall 
appoint  the  officers  and  officials  of  the  navy,  and 
in  his  name  these  and  the  seamen  are  to  be 
sworn  in.  The  harbor  of  Kiel  and  the  harbor  of 
the  lade  are  imperial  war  harbors.  The  expendi- 
tures required  for  tho  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  the  navy  and  the  institutions 
connected  therewith  shall  bo  defrayed  from  the 
treasury  of  the  Empire.  All  sea-faring  men  of 
the  Empire,  including  machinists  and  hands 
vni)loycd  in  ship-building,  are  exempt  from 
*Tvice  in  the  nrmy,  but  obliged  to  serve  in  the 
imperial  navy.  The  apportionment  of  men  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  navy  shall  be  made 
according  to  the  actual  sea-'aring  population, 


o? 


and  the  quota  furnished  in  accordance  herewith 
by  each  state  shall  be  credited  to  the  army 
account. 

Article  54.  The  merchant  vessels  of  all  states 
of  the  confederation  shall  form  :i  united  com- 
mercial marine.  The  Empire  sliali  'letermine  the 
process  for  ascertaining  the  tonnage  of  sea-going 
vesse's,  shall  regulate  the  issuing  of  tonnage- 
certificates  and  sea-letters,  and  shall  fix  the  con- 
ditions to  which  a  permit  for  commanding  a 
sea-going  vessel  shall  be  subject.  The  merchant 
vesseio  of  all  the  states  of  tfie  confederation 
shall  bo  ail.nitted  on  an  equal  footing  to  the 
harbors,  and  to  all  natural  and  artificial  water- 
courses of  the  several  states  of  the  confcieration, 
and  shall  receive  the  sumo  usage  therein.  The 
duties  which  shall  be  collectud  from  sea-going 
vessels,  or  levied  upon  their  freights,  for  the  use 
of  naval  institutions  in  the  harbors,  shall  not 
exceed  the  amount  required  for  the  mointenunce 
and  ordinary  repair  of  these  institutions.  On  all 
natural  water-courses,  duties  are  only  to  be  levied 
for  the  use  of  special  estiblishments,  which 
servo  for  facilitating  commercial  intercourse, 
These  duties,  as  well  as  the  duties  for  navigatin 
such  artificial  channels,  which  are  prop  v 
the  state,  are  not  to  exceed  the  amount  ri  red 
for  the  maintenance  and  ordinary  repair  ui  the 
institutions  and  establishments.  These  rules 
apply  to  rafting,  so  far  as  it  is  carried  on  on 
navigable  water-courses.  The  levying  of  other 
or  higher  duties  upon  foreign  vessels  or  their 
freights  than  those  which  are  paid  by  the  vessels 
of  tho  federal  states  or  their  freights  does  not 
belong  to  the  various  states,  but  to  the  Empire. 

Article  55.  The  flag  of  the  war  and  merchant 
navy  shall  be  black,  wliite,  and  red. 

X.  —  Consular  Affairs. 

Article  56.  The  Emperor  shall  have  the 
supervision  of  all  consular  affairs  of  the  German 
Empire,  and  he  shall  appoint  consuls,  after  hear- 
ing the  committee  of  tho  federal  council  on 
commerce  and  trafllc.  No  new  state  consulates  are 
to  be  established  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
German  consuls.  German  consuls  shall  perform 
the  functions  of  state  consuls  for  the  states  of 
the  confederation  not  represented  in  their  district. 
All  tho  now  existing  state  consulates  shall  be 
abolished,  as  soon  as  the  organization  of  the 
German  consulates  shall  be  completed,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  representation  of  tho  separate 
interests  of  all  the  federal  states  shall  be  recog- 
nized by  the  federal  council  as  secured  by  the 
German  consulates. 

XI.  —  Milita^  Affairs  of  the  Empire. 

Article  57.  Every  German  is  subject  to  mili- 
tary duty,  and  in  the  discharge  of  this  duty  no 
substitute  can  bo  accepted. 

Article  58.  The  costs  and  the  burden  of  all 
the  military  system  of  the  Empire  are  to  be 
borne  equally  by  all  tho  federal  states  and  their 
subjects,  and  no  privileges  or  molestations  to 
the  several  states  or  classes  are  admissible. 
Whore  an  equal  distribution  of  tho  burdens  can- 
not be  effected  'in  natura'  without  prejudice  to 
the  public  welfare,  affairs  shall  be  equalized  by 
legislation  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
justice. 

Article  59.  Every  German  capable  of  bearing 
arms  shall  serve  for  seven  years  in  the  standing 
army,  ordinarily  from  the  end  of  his  twentieth  to 
the  beginning  of  his  twenty -eighth  year;  the 
first  three  years  in  the  army  of  the  field,  the  last 


y/ 


562 


CONSTITUTION  OF  OFRM<VNY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  OEIIMANY. 


four  yciirs  in  the  rewrvo;  durinif  the  i;oxt  five 
years  he  sliall  belong  tn  the  niiiitiit.  In  those 
states  of  theconfederutiiiii  in  whicli  lieretoforo  a 
longer  term  of  service  tlian  twelve  years  was 
req\''.re(l  by  law,  the  gradual  reduction  of  tlic 
ro^^uircd  time  of  service  shall  take  place  in  such 
a  manner  as  is  compatible  with  the  interests  and 
the  war-footing  of  the  army  of  the  Empire.  As 
regards  the  emigration  of  men  belonging  to  the 
reserve,  only  those  provisions  shall  bo  Tn  force 
which  apply  to  the  emigration  of  members  of 
the  militia. 

Article  60.  The  strength  of  the  German 
army  in  time  of  peace  shall  be,  until  the  31st 
December,  1871,  one  per  cent,  of  the  population 
of  ISGI,  and  shall  be  furnished  by  the  several 
federal  states  in  proportion  to  their  population. 
In  future  the  strength  of  the  army  in  time  of 
peace  shall  bo  fl.xcd  by  legislation. 

Article  61.  After  the  publication  of  this  con- 
v/  stitution  the  full  Prussian  military  sysicin  of 
legislation  shall  be  introduced  without  delay 
throughout  the  Empire,  as  well  the  statutes 
themseh'  s  as  the  regulations,  instructions,  and 
ordinanc< .-.  issued  for  their  execution,  explana- 
tion, or  completion;  thus,  in  particular,  the 
military  penal  code  of  April  3, 1845;  the  military 
orders  of  the  penal  court  of  April  3,  1845;  the 
ordinance  concerning  the  courts  of  honor  of  July 
20,  1843;  the  regulations  with  respect  to  recruit- 
ing, time  of  service,  matters  relating  to  the 
service  and  subsistence,  to  the  quartering  of 
troops,  claims  for  damages,  mobilizing,  &c.,  for 
times  of  peace  and  war.  Orders  for  the  attend- 
ance of  tin  military  upon  religious  services  is, 
however,  excluded.  When  a  uniform  organiza- 
tion of  the  German  army  shall  have  been  estab- 
lished, a  comprehensive  military  law  for  the 
Empire  shall  be  submitted  to  the  ''et  and  the 
federal  council  for  their  action  in  accordance  with 
the  constitution. 

Article  62.  For  the  purpose  of  defraying  the 
expenses  of  the  wliole  German  army,  and  the 
lcs*'tutions  connected  therewith,  the  sum  of  225 
(two  hundred  and  twenty-five)  thalers  shall  be 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Emperor  until  the 
31st  of  December,  1871,  for  each  man  in  the 
army  on  the  peace-footing,  according  to  article 
60.  (See  section  13.)  After  tlie  31st  of  Decem- 
ber, 1871,  the  payment  of  these  contributions  of 
the  several  states  to  tlie  imper''  1  treasury  must 
bo  continued.  The  strength  of  tlie  army  in  time 
of  peace,  which  has  been  temporarily  fixed  In 
article  60,  shall  be  taken  as  a  basis  for  calculuiii.g 
these  amounts  until  it  shall  be  altered  by  a  law 
of  the  Empire.  The  expenditure  of  this  sum  for 
the  whole  army  of  the  Empire  and  its  establish- 
ments shall  bo  detcnnined  by  a  budget  law.  In 
determining  the  budget  of  military  expenditures, 
the  lawfully  established  organization  of  tlie 
imperial  army,  in  accordance  with  this  constitu- 
tion, shall  be  taken  as  a  basis. 

Article  63.  The  total  land  force  of  the  Empire 
shall  form  one  army,  wliicli,  in  war  and  in  peace, 
shall  be  under  the  command  of  the  Emperor. 
The  regiments,  &c.,  throughout  the  whole  Ger- 
man army  shall  bear  continuous  numbers.  The 
principal  colors  and  the  cut  of  the  garments  of 
the  Royal  Prussian  army  sliall  serve  as  a  pattern 
for  the  rest  of  the  army.  It  is  left  to  commanders 
of  contingent  forces  to  choose  the  external 
badges,  cockades,  &c.  It  shall  be  the  duty  and 
the  right  of  the   Empeior   to  take  care  that, 

^'^  553 


throughout  the  German  army,  all  divisions  bo 
kept  full  and  well  eijuippod,  and  that  unity  be 
established  and  maintained  in  regard  to  organiza- 
tion and  formation,  c<iuipmcnt.  and  ccmimand  in 
the  training  of  the  nion,  as  well  as  in  tlio  qualifi- 
cation of  the  olHcers.  For  thi.s  purpose  the 
Eini.-ror  shall  be  authori/.ed  to  satisfy  himself  at 
any  tiiiic  of  tlie  condition  of  the  several  contin- 
gents, and  to  provide  remeilics  for  existing  defects. 
The  Knipcror  shall  determine  the  strcnglli,  com- 
position, and  division  of  the  contingents  of  th<! 
imperial  army,  and  also  the  organization  of  the 
militia,  and  he  shall  have  the  right  to  designate 
garrisons  within  the  territory  of  the  confedera- 
tion, as  also  to  call  any  portion  of  the  army  into 
active  service.  In  order  to  maintain  the  neces- 
sary unity  in  the  care,  arming,  and  eiiuipment  of 
all  troops  of  the  Oerinan  army,  all  orders  here- 
after to  be  issued  for  the  Prussian  army  shall  b(! 
communicated  in  due  form  to  the  commanders  of 
tlie  remaining  contingents  by  tlie  committee  on 
tlie  army  and  fortifications,  provided  for  in  article 
8,  No.  1. 

Article  64.  All  Gorman  troops  arc  bound 
implicitly  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  Emperor. 
Tills  obligation  shall  bo  included  in  the  oath  of 
allegiance.  Tho  commander-in-chief  of  a  con- 
tingent, as  well  as  all  oftlcers  commanding  troopa 
of  more  than  one  contingent,  and  all  commanders 
of  fortresses,  shall  bo  appointed  by  tlie  Emperor. 
Tho  otBcers  appointed  by  tho  Emperor  shall  take 
the  oath  of  fealty  to  him.  The  appointment  of 
generals,  or  of  officers  performing  the  duties  of 
generals,  in  a  contingent  force,  shall  be  in  each 
case  subject  to  tho  approval  of  the  Emperor. 
The  Emperor  has  tho  right  with  regard  to  the 
transfer  of  officers,  with  or  without  promotion, 
to  positions  which  are  to  be  filled  in  the  service 
of  tho  Empire,  bo  it  in  the  Prussian  army  or  in 
other  contingents,  to  select  from  the  officers  of 
all  the  contingents  of  the  army  of  the  Empire. 

Article  65.  The  right  to  build  fpitrcsses 
witliin  tlio  territory  of  tlie  Empire  shall  belong 
to  the  Emperor,  who,  according  to  section  12, 
shall  ask  for  the  appropriation  of  the  necessary 
means  ^uired  for  that  purpose,  if  not  already 
includeu  in  the  regular  appropriation. 

Article  66.  If  not  otherwise  stipulated,  tho 
princesof  the  Empire  and  the  senates  sliall  appoint 
tlio  officers  of  tlie'r  respective  contingents,  sub- 
ject to  the  restriction  of  article  64.  Tliey  are  tho 
chiefs  of  all  the  troops  belonging  to  their 
respecti\v-  ter'-itories,  and  are  entitled  to  the 
honors  couneclod  thorcwitli.  They  shall  have 
especially  tho  right  to  hold  inspections  at  any 
time,  and  receive,  besides  the  regular  reports 
and  announcements  of  changes  for  publication, 
timely  information  of  all  promotions  and  appoint- 
ments concerning  their  respective  contingents. 
They  shall  olso  have  tho  right  to  employ,  for 
police  purposes,  not  only  their  own  troops  but 
all  other  contingents  of  the  army  of  tho  Empire 
who  are  stationed  in  tlieir  respective  territories. 

Article  67.  The  unexpended  portion  of  the 
military  appropriation  shall,  under  no  circum- 
stances, fall  to  the  share  of  a  single  government, 
but  at  all  times  to  tho  treasury  of  tlie  Empire. 

Article  68.  Tho  Emperor  sliall  have  tho 
power,  if  the  public  security  of  the  Empire 
demands  it,  to  declare  martial  law  in  any  part 
thereof,  until  the  publication  of  a  law  regulating 
the  grounds,  the  form  of  announcement,  and  tho 
effects  of  such  a  declaration,  the  provisions  of  tlio 


CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  JAPAN. 


Prussliin  law  of  June  4,  1851,  shall  be  imbstituti 
thcri'for.     (Liiw.sof  1851,  piigc  451.) 

Addition  to  section  XI. 

Tliv  provi.sion.s  coiitiiiiictl  in  this  section  slinll 
KO  into  <'ffi'ct  in  Biiviiriii  us  providod  for  in  tluj 
treaty  of  alliaucf  of  Novt-niber  23,  1870,  (Hun- 
desgt'setzbliitt,  1871,  section  0,)  under  III,  section 
5,  in  Wtlrtemberg,  as  provided  for  in  tlie  military 
convention  of  \ovenil)er  21-25,  1870,  (Bundes- 
Keset/.blatt,  1870,  section  658.) 

XII. — Finances  of  the  Empire. 

Article  69.  All  receipts  and  expenditures  of 
the  ICnipin!  .shall  be  estimated  yearly,  and 
included  in  the  tiiiancial  estimate.  The  latter 
shall  be  fixed  by  law  before  the  Ijcginning  of  the 
flsi'al  year,  according  to  llie  following  princi- 
ples: 

Article  70.  The  surplus  of  tlie  previous 
year,  as  well  as  the  customs  duties,  the  com- 
mon excise  duties,  and  tlie  revenues  derived 
from  the  postal  and  telegrupli  service,  sliall  be 
applied  to  the  defrayal  of  all  general  expendi- 
ture. In  so  far  as  these  expenditures  are  not 
•covered  by  the  receipts,  tliey  shall  be  misod,  as 
long  as  no  taxes  of  the  Empire  shall  have  been 
■established,  by  assessing  the  several  states  of 
the  Empire  according  to  their  population,  tlic 
amount  of  tin!  assessment  to  be  fixed  by  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Empire  in  accordance  with  the 
budget  agreed  ui)on. 

Article  71.  The  general  expenditure  shall 
be,  as  a  rule,  granted  for  one  year;  they  may, 
I  however,  in  special  cases,  be  granted  for  a 
longer  period.  During  the  period  of  transition 
fixed  in  Article  60,  the  financial  estimate,  prop- 
erly classified,  of  the  expenditures  of  the  army 
shall  be  laid  before  tlie  federal  council  and  the 
<iiet  for  their  information. 

Article  72.  An  annual  report  of  the  expen- 
diture of  all  the  receipts  of  the  Empire  shall  be 
rendered  to  tlie  federal  council  and  the  diet, 
thriiugh  the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire. 

Article  73.  In  cases  of  extraordinary  re- 
<iuirements,  a  loan  may  be  contracted  in  accord- 
ance witli  the  laws  of  the  Empire,  such  loan 
to  be  granted  by  the  Empire. 

Addfition  to  section  XII. 

Articles  09  and  71  apply  to  the  expenditures 
for  the  Bavarian  army  only  according  to  the  pro- 
visions of  the  addition  to  section  XI  of  the  treaty 
■of  November  23,  1870 ;  and  article  73  only  so  far 
as  is  required  to  inform  the  federal  council  and 
the  diet  of  tlie  assignment  to  Bavaria  of  the 
required  sum  for  the  Bavarian  army. 

XIII.— Settlement  of  Disputes  and  Modes 
of  Punishment. 

Article  74.  Every  attempt  against  the  exist- 
■ence,  the  integrity,  the  security,  or  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  German  Empire ;  finally,  any  offense 
committed  against  the  federal  council,  tlie 
diet,  a  member  of  the  federal  council,  rr  of  the 
•diet,  a  magistrate  or  public  official  of  tlie  Em- 


pire, while  in  the  execution  of  his  duty,  or  with 
reference  to  his  otllcial  positi(m.  by  word,  writ- 
ing, printing,  signs,  or  caricatures,  shall  be 
judicially  investigated,  and  upon  conviction 
punisli('<l  ill  tlie  several  states  of  the  Empire, 
according  to  the  laws  tlierein  existing,  or  which 
shall  ht^reafter  exist  in  the  same,  acconiing  to 
wliicli  laws  a  similar  olleiise  against  any  one  of 
the  stJites  of  the  Empire,  its  constitution,  legis- 
lature, members  of  its  legislature,  authorities  or 
officials  is  to  be  judged. 

Article  75.  For  those  offenses,  specified  in 
Article  7'!,  against  the  German  Empire,  which, 
if  committed  against  one  of  the  states  of  the  Em- 
pire, would  be  deemed  high  treason,  the  superior 
court  of  appeals  of  the  three  free  llanseatic 
towns  at  Lubeclc  shall  be  the  competent  decid- 
ing tribunal  in  the  first  and  last  resort.  More 
definite  provisions  as  to  the  competency  and  the 
proceedings  of  the  superior  court  of  appeals 
shall  be  adopted  by  tlie  Legislature  of  the 
Empire.  Until  the  passage  of  a  law  of  the 
Empire,  the  existing  competency  of  tlie  courts 
in  the  respective  states  of  the  Empire,  and  the 
provisions  relative  to  the  proceedings  of  those 
courts,  shall  remain  in  force. 

Article  76.  Disputes  between  tlic  different 
states  of  the  confederation,  so  far  as  they  are 
not  of  a  private  nature,  and  tiierefore  to  be 
decided  by  the  competent  authorities,  sliall  be 
settled  by  tlie  federal  council,  at  tlie  request  of 
one  of  the  parties.  Disputes  relating  to  consti- 
utional  matters  in  those  of  the  states  of  the 
confederation  whose  constitution  contains  no 
provision  for  tlie  settlement  of  such  differences, 
shall  bo  adjusted  by  the  federal  council,  at  the 
request  of  one  of  the  parties,  or,  if  this  cannot  be 
done,  they  shall  be  settled  by  the  legislative 
power  of  the  confederation. 

Article  77.  If  in  one  of  the  states  of  tlie 
confederation  justice  shall  be  denied,  and  no 
suflicient  relief  can  bo  procured  by  legal  meas- 
ures, it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  federal  council 
to  receive  substantiated  complaints  concerning 
denial  or  restriction  of  justice,  wliicli  are  to  be 
judged  according  to  the  constitution  and  the 
existing  laws  of  the  respective  states  of  the 
confederation,  and  thereupon  to  obtain  judicial 
relief  from  tlie  confederate  government  in  the 
matter  which  shall  have  given  rise  to  the  com- 
plaint. 

XIV. — General  Provision. 

Amendments  of  the  constitution  shall  be  made 
by  legislative  enactment.  They  shall  be  con-  ^ 
sidered  as  rejected  wlien  14  votes  are  cast 
against  them  in  the  federal  council.  The  pro- 
visions of  tlie  constitution  of  the  Empire,  by 
which  fixed  rights  of  individual  states  of  tlie 
confederation  arc  established  in  their  relation 
to  the  whole,  shall  only  be  ino<lifled  with  the 
consent  of  that  state  of  the  confcderatioa  which 
is  immediately  concerned. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 


The  following  text  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
Empire  of  Japan,,  promulgated  by  the  Emperor, 
February  11,  1880,  is  from  a  imniplilct  published 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University  on  the  occasion  of 
a  meeting  of  professors,  students  and  guests, 
April  17,  1889,  to  celebrate  its  promulgation : 


Having,  by  virtue  of  the  glories  of  Our  Ances- 
tors, ascended  the  throne  of  a  lineal  succession 
unbroken  for  ages  eternal ;  desiring  to  promote 
the  welfare  of,  and  to  give  development  to  the 
moral  and  intellectual  faculties  of  Our  beloved 
subjects,  the  very  same  that  have  been  favoured 


554 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  JAPAN. 


•with  the  benevolent  cftre  and  afI<,ctionate  vigi- 
lance of  Our  Ancestors;  and  hoping  to  maintain 
the  prosperity  of  the  Siate,  in  concert  with  Our 
I)eople  and  with  their  support,  We  hereby  pro- 
mulgate, in  i)ursu»nce  of  Our  Imperial  Rescript 
of  the  14th  (lay  of  tlic  lOt'a  month  of  tlie  14th 
year  of  Meiji,  a  fundamental  law  of  State,  to 
exhibit  the  principles,  by  which  We  are  to  be 
guided  in  Our  conduct,  and  to  point  out  to  what 
Our  descendants  and  Our  subjects  and  tlieir  de- 
scendants are  forever  to  conform.  The  rights  of 
sovereignty  of  the  State,  We  have  inherited  from 
Our  Ancestors,  and  We  shall  bequeath  them  to 
Our  descendants.  Neither  We  nor  they  shall  in 
future  fail  to  wield  them,  in  accordaucc  with  the 
provisions  of  the  Constitution  hereby  granted. 
We  now  declare  to  respect  and  protect  the 
security  of  the  rights  and  of  the  property  of  Our 
people,  and  to  secure  to  them  the  complete  enjoy- 
ment of  the  same,  within  tlio  extent  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  present  Constitution  and  of  the 
law.  The  Imperial  Diet  shall  first  be  convoked 
for  tlie  23d  vear  of  Meiji,  and  the  time  of  its 
opening  shall  be  the  date,  when  the  present  Con- 
stitution comes  into  force.  When  in  the  future 
it  may  become  necessary  to  amend  any  of  the 
provisions  of  the  present  Constitution,  We  or 
Our  successors  shall  assume  the  initiative  right, 
and  submit  a  project  for  the  same  to  the  Imperial 
Diet.  The  Imperial  Diet  shall  pass  its  vote  upon 
It,  according  to  tlie  conditions  imposed  by  the 
present  Constitution,  and  in  no  otherwise  shall 
Our  descendants  or  Our  subjects  be  permitted  to 
attempt  any  alteration  thereof.  Our  Ministers 
of  Stote,  on  Our  behalf,  shall  be  held  responsible 
for  tlie  carrying  out  of  the  present  Constitution, 
and  Our  present  and  future  subjects  shall  for- 
ever assume  the  duly  of  allegiance  to  the  present 
Constitution.  [His  Imperial  Majesty's  Sign- 
Manual.]  The  11th  day  of  the  2nd  month  of  the 
23nd  year  of  Meij  1.   [Countersigned  by  Ministers.  ] 

Chapter'!. 

Article  I.  The  Empire  of  Japan  shall  be 
reigned  over  and  governed  by  a  line  of  Emperors 
unbroken  for  ages  eternal. 

Article  II.  The  Imperial  Throne  shall  be  suc- 
ceeded to  by  Imperial  male  descendants,  accord- 
ing to  the  provisions  of  the  Imperial  House  Law. 

Article  III.  The  Emperor  is  sacred  and  in- 
violable. 

Article  IV.  The  Emperor  is  the  head  of  the 
Empire,  combining  in  Himself  the  rights  of  sov- 
ereignty, and  exercises  them,  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  present  Constitution. 

Article  V.  The  Emperor  exercises  the  legis- 
lative power  with  the  consent  of  the  Imperial 
Diet. 

Article  VI.  The  Emperor  gives  sanction  to 
laws,  and  orders  them  to  be  promulgated  and 
executed. 

Article  VII,  The  Emperor  convokes  the  Im- 
perial Diet,  opens,  closes,  and  prorogues  it,  and 
dissolves  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Article  VIII.  The  Emperor,  in  consequence 
of  an  urgent  necessity  to  maintain  public  safety 
or  to  avert  public  calamities,  issues,  when  the 
Imperial  Diet  is  not  sitting.  Imperial  Ordinances 
in  the  place  of  law.  Such  Imperial  Ordinances 
arc  to  be  laid  before  the  Imperial  Diet  at  its 
next  session,  and  when  the  Diet  does  not  approve 
the  said  Ordinances,  the  Government  shall  declari' 
them  to  be  invalid  for  the  future. 


Article  IX.  The  Emperor  issues,  or  causes 
to  be  issued,  the  Ordinances  necessary  for  the 
carrying  out  of  the  laws,  or  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  public  peace  and  order,  i>n(l  for  the  pro- 
motion of  the  welfare  of  the  subjects.  But  no 
Ordinance  shall  In  any  way  alter  any  of  tlie  exist- 
ing laws. 

Article  X.  The  Emperor  determines  the  or- 
ganization of  the  different  brunches  of  tlie  ad- 
ininistration.  and  tlie  salaries  of  all  (  vil  and 
military  olllcers,  and  appoints  and  dismisses  the 
same.  Exceptions  especially  provided  for  In  the 
present  Constitution  or  in  other  laws,  shall  be  in 
accordance  with  the  respective  provisions  (bear- 
ing thereon). 

Article  XI.  The  Emperor  has  the  supremo 
command  of  the  Army  and  Navy. 

Article  XII,  The  Emperor  determines  the 
organization  and  peace  standing  of  the  Army 
and  Navy. 

Article  XIII.  The  Emperor  declares  war, 
makes  peace,  and  concludes  treaties. 

Article  XIV.  The  Emperor  proclaims  the 
law  of  siege.  The  condltijns  and  effects  of  the 
law  of  siege  shall  lie  determined  by  law. 

Article  XV.  The  Emperor  confers  titles  of 
nobility,  rank,  orders,  and  other  marks  of  honor. 

Article  XVI.  The  Emperor  orders  amnesty, 
Iiardon,  commutation  of  punishment,  and  re- 
habilitation. 

Article  XVII.  A  Regency  shall  be  Instituted 
in  conformity  witli  the  provisions  of  the  Imperial 
House  Law.  The  Regent  shall  exc'lse  the 
powers  appertaining  to  the  Emperor  in  1 1  is  name. 

Chapter  II, 

Article  XVIII.  The  conditions  necessary  for 
being  a  Japanese  subject  shall  be  determined  by 
law. 

Article  XIX.  Japanese  subjects  may,  ac- 
cording to  qualifications  determined  in  law  or 
ordinances,  be  appointed  to  civil  or  military 
offices  equally,  and  may  fill  any  other  public 
offices. 

Article  XX.  Japanese  subjects  are  amenable 
to  service  in  the  Army  or  Navy,  according  to 
the  provisions  of  law. 

Article  XXI.  Japanese  subjects  are  amenable 
to  the  duty  of  paying  taxes,  according  to  the 
provisions  of  law. 

Article  XXII.  .lapanese  subjects  shall  have 
the  liberty  of  abode  and  of  changing  the  same 
within  the  limits  of  law. 

Article  XXIII.  No  Japanese  subiect  shall  be 
arrested,  detained,  tried,  or  punished,  unless  ac- 
cording to  law. 

Article  XXIV.  No  Japanese  subject  shall  be 
deprived  of  his  right  of  being  tried  by  the  judges 
determined  bv  law. 

Article  X3tV.  Except  in  the  cases  provided 
for  in  the  law,  tlie  house  of  no  Japanese  subject 
shall  be  entered  or  searched  without  his  consent. 

Article  XXVI.  Except  in  the  cases  mentioned 
in  the  law,  the  secrecy  of  the  letters  of  every 
Japanese  subject  shall  remain  inviolate. 

Article  XXVII.  Tlie  right  of  property  of 
every  Japanese  subject  shall  remain  inviolate. 
Measures  necessary  to  be  taken  for  the  public 
benefit  shall  be  provided  for  by  law. 

Article  XXVIII.  Japanese  subjects  shall, 
within  limits  not  prejudicial  to  peace  and  order, 
and  not  antagonistic  to  their  duties  as  subjects, 
enjoy  freedom  of  religious  belief.  


555 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  JAPAN. 


Article  XXIX.  JiipancBC  subjects  Hhall, 
williin  I  lie  liiiiit.4  of  liiw,  enjoy  the  liberty  of 
H|)C'('(.'li,  writiiii;;,  publication,  public  incotinga, 
itiidassooiittionH. 

Article  XXX.  Jnpiinese  subjects  nmy  present 
petitions,  by  i)l)Hcrvin>r  tlie  proper  forms  of  n- 
spect,  luiil  by  complying  witli  the  rules  si)ccially 
[jrovided  for  tlie  same. 

Article  XXXI.  The  provisions  cuut4iiQu<l  in 
the  present  ('liiipter  slmll  not  affect  the  exerei.se 
of  the  powers  apiMTtaining  to  the  Emperor  in 
times  of  war  or  in  eases  of  a  national  emergency. 

Article  XXXII.  Each  and  every  one  of  tlie 
provisions  ccmtjiined  in  the  preceding  Articles  of 
the  present  Chapter,  that  are  not  in  conflict  with 
the  laws  or  the  rules  and  discipline  of  the  Arniy 
and  Navy,  shall  apply  to  the  olllcers  and  men  of 
the  Army  and  of  tlic  Navy. 

Chapter  III. 

Article  XXXIII.  The  Imperial  Diet  shall 
consist  of  two  Houses,  a  House  of  Peers  and  a 
House  of  Uepresentativcs. 

Article  XXXIV.  The  House  of  Peers  shall, 
in  accordance  with  the  Ordinance  concerning  tlie 
House  of  Peers,  be  composed  of  the  members  of 
the  Imperial  Family,  of  the  orders  of  nobility, 
and  of  those  persons  who  have  been  nominated 
thereto  by  the  Emperor. 

Article  XXXV.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  be  composed  of  Jlembers  elected  by 
the  people  accordmg  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Law  of  Ele(!tion. 

Article  XXXVI.  No  one  can  at  one  and  the 
same  time  be  a  member  of  both  Houses. 

Article  XXXVII.  Every  law  requires  the 
consent  of  the  Imperial  Diet. 

Article  XXXVIII.  Both  Houses  shall  vote 
upon  projects  of  law  submitted  to  it  by  the 
Government,  and  may  respectively  initiate  pro- 
jects of  law. 

Article  XXXIX.  A  Bill,  which  has  been  re- 
jected by  either  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  two 
houses,  ihall  not  be  again  brought  in  during  the 
same  sesiion. 

Article  XL.  Both  Houses  can  make  repre- 
sentations to  the  Government,  as  to  laws  or  upon 
ony  other  subject.  When,  however,  such  repre- 
sentations are  not  accepted,  they  cannot  be  made 
a  second  time  during  the  same  session. 
I  Article  XLI.  The  Imperial  Diet  shall  be  con- 
voked every  year. 

Article  xLlI.  A  session  of  the  Imperial 
Diet  shall  last  during  three  months.  In  case  of 
necessity,  the  duration  of  a  session  may  be  pro- 
longed by  Imperial  Order. 
'  Article  XLIII.  When  urgent  necessity  arises, 
an  extraordinary  session  may  be  convoked,  in 
addition  to  the  ordinary  one.  The  duration  of 
an  extraordinary  session  shall  be  determined  by 
Imperial  Order. 

Article  XLIV.  The  opening,  closing,  pro- 
longation of  session,  and  prorogation  of  the 
Imperial  Diet,  shall  be  effected  simultaneously 
for  both  Houses.  In  case  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives has  been  ordered  to  d'ssolve,  the  House 
of  Peers  shall  at  the  same  time  be  prorogued. 

Article  XLV.  When  the  House  of  Iteprcsen-. 
tatives  has  been  ordered  to  dissolve.  Members" 
shall  be  caused  by  Imperial  Order  to  be  newly 
elected,  and  the  new  House  shall  be  convokeil 
within  five  months  from  the  day  of  dissolu- 
tion. 


Article  XLVI.  No  debate  can  beopcniHl  and 
no  vole  can  be  taken  in  either  House  of  the  Im- 
perial Diet,  unl<'.s8  not  less  than  one-third  r)f  the 
wh(de  number  of  the  mend)ers  thereof  is  present. 

Article  XLVII.  Votes  shall  be  taken  in  both 
Houses  by  absolute  majority.  In  the  ciuse  of  a 
tie  vole,  tli('  President  shall  have  the  casting  vote. 

Article  XLVIII.  Tlie  deliberations  of  both 
Iloust's  shall  be  held  in  public.  The  delibemtions 
may,  however,  upon  demand  of  the  Government  or 
by  resolution  of  the  House,  be  held  in  secret  sitting. 

Article  XLIX.  Both  Houses  of  the  Imperial 
Diet  nuiy  respectively  present  addresses  to  the 
Emjieror. 

Article  L.  Both  Houses  may  receive  petitions 
presented  by  subjects. 

Article  LI.  Both  Houses  may  enact,  besides 
what  is  provided  for  in  the  present  Constitution 
and  in  the  Law  of  the  Houses,  rules  necessary 
for  the  management  of  their  internal  afTairs. 

Article  Lll.  No  member  of  either  House 
.si. .ill  be  held  responsible  outside  the  respective 
Houses,  for  any  opinion  uttered  or  for  any  vote 
given  in  the  House.  When,  however,  a  Member 
liimself  has  given  publicity  to  his  opinions  by 
public  speech,  by  documents  in  printing  or  in 
writing,  or  by  any  other  similar  means  he  shall, 
in  the  ma'ter,  be  amenable  to  the  general  law. 

Article  y.IIL  The  members  of  both  Houses 
shall,  during  the  session,  be  free  from  arrest,  un- 
less with  the  consent  of  the  House,  except  in 
cases  of  flagrant  delicts,  or  of  offences  connected 
with  a  stjite  of  internal  commotion  or  with  a 
foreign  trouble. 

Article  HV.  The  Ministers  of  State  and  the 
Delegates  of  the  Government  may,  at  any  time, 
take  seats  and  speak  in  either  House. 

Chapter  IV. 

Article  LV.  The  respective  Ministers  of 
State  shall  give  their  advice  to  the  Emperor, 
and  be  responsible  for  it.  All  Laws,  Imperial 
Ordinances,  and  Imperial  Rescripts  of  whatever 
kind,  that  relate  to  the  affairs  of  the  State,  re- 
quire the  countersignature  of  a  Minister  of  State. 

Article  LVI.  The  Privy  Council  shall,  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Privy  Council,  deliberate  upon  im- 
portant matters  of  State,  when  they  have  been 
consulted  by  the  Emperor. 

Chapter  V. 

Article  LVII.  The  Judicature  shall  be  exer- 
cised by  the  Courts  of  Law  according  to  law,  in 
the  name  of  the  Emperor.  The  organization  of 
the  Courts  of  Law  shall  be  determined  by  law. 

Article  LVIII.  The  judges  shall  be  appointed 
from  among  those,  who  possess  proper  qualifi- 
cations according  to  law.  No  judge  shall  be 
deprived  of  his  position,  unless  by  way  of  crimi- 
nal sentence  or  disciplinary  punishment.  Rules 
for  disciplinary  punishment  shall  be  determined 
by  law. 

Article  LIX.  Trials  and  judgments  of  a 
Court  shall  be  conducted  publicly.  When,  how- 
ever, I'lpro  exists  any  fear  that  such  publicity 
may  bi  prejudicial  to  peace  and  order,  or  to  the 
mamtcuance  of  public  morality,  the  public  trial 
may  be  suspended  by  provision  of  law  or  by  the 
decision  of  the  Court  of  Law. 

Article  LX.  All  matters,  that  fall  within  the 
competency  of  u  special  Court,  shall  be  specially, 
provided  for  by  law. 


556 


CONSTITUTION  OF  JAPAN. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  LYCURGU8. 


Article  LXI.  No  suit  nt  law,  wlilrli  rclntcs 
to  riglilH  i'll('){c(l  to  liivvt;  Ihtii  infringed  l)y  the 
legal  nieiisiires  of  the  executive  iiutliorilies,  imd 
■wliich  shall  come  within  the  competency  of  the 
Court  of  Administrative  Litigation  specially 
established  1)V  law,  shall  bo  .akeu  coguizanco  of 
by  a  Court  oi  Law. 

Chapter  VI. 

Article  LXII.  The  imposition  of  ii  new  tax 
or  the  moditlcation  of  tlu^  rates  (of  an  existing 
one)  shall  be  detemiined  by  law.  However,  all 
such  administrative  fees  or  other  revenue  having 
the  nature  of  compensation  shall  not  fall  witliin 
the  category  of  the  above  clause.  The  raising  of 
national  loans  and  the  contracting  of  other  lia- 
bilities to  file  charge  of  the  National  Treasury, 
except  time  that  are  provided  in  tlio  Hudget, 
shall  require  tlie  consent  of  the  Imperial  Diet. 

Article  LXIII,  The  taxes  levied  at  present 
shall,  in  so  far  as  they  an  not  remodelled  by  new 
law,  lie  collected  according  to  the  old  system. 

Article  LXIV.  The  expenditure  and  revenue 
of  the  8ta.>'  reciuire  the  consent  of  the  Imperial 
Diet  by  means  of  an  annual  Budget.  Any  and 
all  expenditures  overpassing  the  aiipropriations 
set  forth  in  the  Titles  and  Paragraphs  of  the 
Budget,  or  that  are  not  provided  for  in  the  Bud- 
get, shall  subsequently  require  the  approbation 
of  the  Imperial  Diet. 

Article  LXV.  The  Budget  shall  be  first  laid 
before  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Article  LxVI.  The  expenditures  of  the  Im- 
perial House  shall  be  defrayed  every  year  out  of 
the  National  Treasury,  according  to  the  present 
fixed  amount  for  the  same,  and  shall  not  require 
the  consent  thereto  of  the  Imperial  Diet,  except 
in  case  an  increase  thereof  is  found  necessary. 

Article  LXVII.  Those  already  fixed  expen- 
ditures based  by  the  Constitution  upon  the  pow- 
ers appertaining  to  the  Emperor,  and  such  ex- 
ficnditures  as  may  have  arisen  by  the  effect  of 
aw,  or  that  appertain  to  the  legal  obligations  of 
the  Government,  shall  be  neither  rejected  nor  re- 
duced by  the  Imperial  Diet,  without  the  con- 
currence of  the  Government. 

Article  LXVI II.  In  order  to  meet  special  re- 
quirements, the  Government  may  ask  the  consent 
of  the  Imperial  Diet  to  a  certain  amount  as  a 
Continuing  Expenditure  Fund,  for  a  previously 
fixed  number  of  years. 

Article  LXIX.  In  order  to  supply  deficiencies 
which  are  unavoidable,  in  the  Budget,  and  to 


meet  reciuirements  unprovided  for  In  the  same,  a 
Hescrvc  Fund  shall  be  provided  in  the   Budget. 

Article  LXX.  Wlicn  the  Impcriiil  Diet  can- 
rot  be  convoked,  owing  to  the  external  or  Inter- 
nal condition  of  the  country,  In  case  of  urgent 
need  for  the  maintenance  of  piiblic  safety,  the 
Government  may  take  all  necessary  financial 
measures,  by  means  of  an  Imperial  Ordinance. 
In  the  case  mentioned  in  the  i)receiling  clause, 
the  matter  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Imperial 
Diet  at  Its  next  session,  and  its  approbation  shall 
be  obtained  thereto. 

Article  LXXI.  When  the  Itnperial  Diet  hag 
not  voted  on  the  Budget,  or  when  the  Budget 
has  not  been  brought  into  actual  exi.stence,  tlie 
Government  shall  carry  out  the  Budget  of  the 
preceding  year. 

Article  LXXII.  The  final  account  of  the  ex- 
penditures an<l  revenue  of  the  State  shall  t)o 
verified  and  confirmed  by  tlie  Board  of  Audit, 
and  it  shall  be  submitted  by  the  Government  to 
the  Imperial  Diet,  together  with  tlie  report  of 
verificafiim  of  the  said  Board.  The  organization 
and  comix'fcncy  of  the  Board  of  Audit  shall  bo 
determined  by  law  separately. 

Chapter  VII. 

Article  LXXIII.  When  it  has  become  neces- 
sary in  future  to  amend  the  provisions  of  the 
present  Constitution,  a  project  to  that elTect  shall 
be  submitted  to  the  Imperial  Diet  by  Imperial 
Order.  In  the  above  case,  neitli(!r  House  can 
open  the  debate,  imless  not  less  than  two-thirds 
of  the  whole  numlier  of  Members  are  present, 
and  no  amendment  can  be  passed,  unless  a  ma- 
jority of  not  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  Members 
present  is  obtained. 

Article  LXXIV.  No  modification  of  the  Im- 
perial House  Law  shall  be  required  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  deliberation  of  the  Imperial  Diet. 
No  provision  of  the  present  Constitution  can  be 
modified  by  the  Imperial  House  Law. 

Article  LXXV.  No  modification  can  be  in- 
troduced into  the  Constitution,  or  into  the  Im- 
perial House  Law,  during  the  time  of  a  Pegency, 

Article  LXXVI.  Existing  legal  enactments, 
such  as  laws,  regulations.  Ordinances,  or  by 
whatever  names  they  may  be  called,  shall,  so  far 
as  they  do  not  conflict  with  the  present  Constitu- 
tion, continue  in  force.  All  existing  contracts  or 
orders,  that  entail  obligations  upon  the  Govern- 
ment, and  that  are  connected  with  expenditure 
shall  come  within  the  scope  of  Art.  LXVII. 


CONSTITUTION   OF    LYCURGUS.— 

"The  constitution  of  Lykourgos  was  especially 
adapted  to  make  heroes,  and  it  made  them.  To 
serve  his  country  ond  die  for  her,  this  was  the 
Spartan's  chief  ambition.  '  Victory  or  death ! ' 
was  their  war-cry;  honor,  their  supreme  law. 
'That  most  to  be  admired  in  Lykourgos,' says 
Xenophon,  '  is  that  he  was  able  to  make  a  noble 
death  seem  preferable  to  a  dishonored  life.  This 
great  lawgiver  provided  for  the  happiness  of  the 
brave  man,  and  devoted  the  coward  to  infamy. 
...  At  Sparta  men  would  be  ashamed  to  sit  at 
table  with  the  coward,  to  touch  his  weapons  or 
his  hand ;  in  the  games  neither  party  will  receive 
him.  He  has  the  lowest  place  at  the  dances  and 
the  dramatic  representations.  In  the  street  he  is 
pushed  aside  by  younger  men.  His  daughters 
share  in  his  disgrace;  they  are  excluded  from 
public  feasts,  and  can  obtain  no  husbands. ' " — V. 


Duruy,  Hist,  of  Greece,  v.  1,  gect.  3,  p.  467. — Mr. 
Grote  remarks  upon  the  "unparalleled  stcatli- 
ness"  of  the  Spartan  constitution  ascribed  to 
Lycurgus,  which  was  maintained  "for  four  or 
five  successive  centuries,  in  the  midst  of  govern- 
ments like  the  Grecian,  all  of  which  had  under- 
gone more  or  less  of  fluctuation.  No  consider- 
able revolution  —  not  even  any  palpable  or  formal 
change  —  occurred  in  it  from  the  days  of  the 
Messenian  war  down  to  those  of  Agis  III. :  in 
spite  of  the  irreparable  blow  wliich  the  power 
and  territory  of  the  state  sustained  from  Epamel- 
nondas  and  the  Thebans,  the  form  ol  government 
nevertheless  remained  unchanged.  It  was  the 
only  government  in  Greece  which  could  trace  an 
unbroken  peaceable  descent  from  o  high  antiquity 
and  from  its  real  or  supposed  founder."— O. 
Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch.  6  (».  2). — See 
Spabta,  The  Constitution. 


557 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   MEXICO. 


The  following  trnnHliitcd  toxt  of  tho  Constitu- 
tion of  Mexico  lHfn)nil)uIlrtiii  No.  Oof  till!  liuri'iui 
of  tho  Amcricun  licpublics,  publighcd  in  July, 
1801: 

Preamble. — In  the  mime  of  Oo<l  nnd  with  the 
mithority  of  the  Mexican  people.  The  represen- 
tiitivcH  of  the  different  Htiites,  of  tho  Uistriet 
«nd  Territories  which  coniposo  tho  Hcpubllc  of 
Mexico,  culled  by  tlie  Pliin  procluimed  In  Ayutia 
the  1st  of  ^Miirch,  IHM,  nmended  In  Acapulco  the 
11th  day  of  tho  Bnnio  month  and  year,  and  by 
the  Bitnimons  Issued  tho  17th  of  ()ctol)er,  IH.W,  to 
constitute  tho  nation  under  the  form  of  a  popular, 
reprosentativo,  ('L'niocralic  republic,  exorcisinfj; 
the  powers  witli  which  they  are  Invested,  comply 
with  tho  requin'mentsof  tholr  hi)i;h  oftico,  decree- 
ing tho  following  political  Constitution  of  the 
Mexican  liepublle,  on  the  Indestructible  basis  of 
it8  legitimate  independence,  proclaimed  the  16th 
of  SeptemlH'r,  1810,  and  completed  the  37th  of 
September,  1821. 

Article  l,  Tho  Mexican  people  recognize  that 
the  rights  of  man  are  tho  basis  and  the  obiect  of 
social  Institutions.  Conseouently  they  (ledare 
that  all  the  laws  and  all  the  authorities  of  tho 
coimtry  must  respect  and  maintain  tho  guarantees 
which  tho  present  Constitution  establishes. 

Art.  3.  In  tho  Uepuh'ic  all  are  born  free. 
Slaves  who  set  fcot  upon  the  national  territory 
recover,  by  that  act  alone,  tholr  liberty,  and  have 
a  right  to  the  protection  of  the  laws. 

Art.  3,  Instruction  is  frc'.  Tho  law  shall 
determine  what  professions  require  a  diploma  for 
their  exercise,  and  witli  what  requisites  they  must 
be  iasued. 

Art.  A.  Every  man  Is  free  to  adopt  tho  pro-, 
fossion,  industrial  pursuit,  or  occupation  which 
suits  him,  tho  same  being  useful  and  honorable, 
and  to  avail  himself  of  Its  products.  Nor  shall 
any  one  bo  hindered  in  tho  exercise  of  such  pro- 
fession. Industrial  pursuit,  or  occupation,  unless 
by  judicial  sentence  when  such  exorcise  attacks 
the  rights  of  a  third  party,  or  by  governmental 
resolution,  dictated  in  terms  which  the  law  marks 
out,  when  it  offends  the  rights  of  society. 

Art.  S.  No  one  shall  bo  obliged  to  ^ive  per- 
sonal services  without  just  compensation,  and 
without  Ills  full  consent.  Tho  state  shall  not  per- 
mit any  contract,  pact,  or  agreement  to  be  carried 
into  elfcct  which  has  for  Its  object  tho  diminution, 
loss,  or  irrevocable  sftcriflce  of  tho  liberty  of  man, 
whether  It  be  for  tho  sike  of  labor,  education,  or 
a  religious  vow.  Thj  law,  consequently,  may 
not  recognize  monastic  orders,  nor  may  it  permit 
their  establishment,  whatever  may  be  the  de- 
nomination or  object  with  wliich  they  claim  to 
bo  formed.*  Neither  may  an  agreement  be  per- 
mitted in  which  anyone  stipulates  for  his  pro- 
scription or  banishment. 

Art.  6.  The  expression  of  ideas  shall  not  be 
the  object  of  any  judicial  or  lulminlstrativo  in- 
quisition, except  in  case  it  attacks  morality,  the 
rights  of  a  third  party,  provokes  some  crime  or 
misdemeanor,  or  disturbs  public  onier. 

Art.  7.  Tho  liberty  to  write  and  to  publish 
writings  on  any  subject  whatsoever  is  inviolable. 
No  law  or  authority  shall  establish  previous  cen- 
sure, nor  require  security  from  authors  or  printers, 

»  This  sentence  was  introduced  Into  the  original  article 
September  2S,  ISTi,  with  other  less  important  Amend- 
ments. 


nor  restrict  the  lllwrty  of  the  press,  which  has  no 
other  limits  than  respt^c^t  of  private  life,  morality, 
and  the  public  peace.  The  crimes  whh'h  aro 
committed  by  means  of  tho  press  shall  be  Judged 
by  tho  competent  tribunals  of  tho  Federation,  or 
by  those  of  the  States,  those  of  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict and  the  Territory  of  Lower  California,  in 
acconlanco  with  their  penal  laws.* 

Art.  8.  The  riglit  of  petition,  exercised  In 
writing  in  a  peaceful  and  respectful  manner,  la 
inviolable ;  but  in  political  matters  only  citizens 
of  tho  Republic  may  exorcise  It.  To  every  peti- 
tion mup'.,  be  returned  a  written  opinion  by  tho 
autho'.iv  to  whom  It  may  have  been  addressed, 
and  the  li.'ter  Is  oblig(!d  to  make  the  result  known 
to  tho  peutloner. 

Art,  o.  No  one  may  bo  deprived  of  the  right 
peacefully  to  assemble  or  unite  with  others  for 
any  lawful  obiect  whatsoever,  but  only  citizens 
of  the  Kepublic  may  do  this  in  order  to  take  part 
in  the  political  affairs  of  tho  country.  No  armed 
assembly  has  a  right  to  deliberate. 

Art.  10.  Every  man  has  a  right  to  poss(>ss  and 
carry  arms  for  his  security  and  legitimate  de- 
fence. The  law  shall  designate  what  arms  aro 
iirobibitoil  and  the  punishment  which  those  shall 
incur  who  carry  them. 

Art.  II.  Every  man  has  a  right  to  enter  and 
to  go  out  of  the  Republic,  to  travel  through  its 
territory  and  change  his  residence,  without  tho 
necessity  of  a  letter  of  security,  passport,  safe- 
conduct,  or  other  similar  requisite.  Tho  exercise 
of  this  right  shall  not  prejudice  tho  legitimate 
faculties  of  the  judicial  or  administrative  au- 
thority in  cases  of  criminal  or  civil  responsi- 
billty. 

Art.  13.  There  are  not,  nor  shall  there  be 
recognized  In  tho  Kepublic,  titles  of  nobility,  or 
prerogatives,  or  heredltory  honors.  Only  the 
people,  legitimately  represented,  n  ay  decree 
recompenses  in  honor  of  those  who  may  have 
rendered  or  may  render  eminent  services  to  the 
country  or  to  humanity. 

Art.  13.  In  the  Mexican  Republic  no  one  may 
be  judged  by  special  law  nor  by  special  tribunals. 
No  person  or  corporation  may  have  privileges, 
or  enioy  emoluments,  which  are  not  compensa- 
tion for  a  public  service  and  are  established  by 
law.  Martial  law  may  exist  only  for  crimes  and 
offences  wliich  have  a  definite  connection  with 
military  discipline.  The  law  shall  determine 
with  all  clearness  tho  cases  included  in  this  ex- 
ception. 

Art.  14.  No  retroactive  law  shall  be  enacted. 
No  one  may  be  judged  or  sentenced  except  by 
laws  made  prior  to  the  act,  and  exactly  applica- 
ble to  it,  and  by  a  tribunal  which  shall  have  been 
previously  established  by  law. 

Art.  15.  Treaties  shall  never  be  made  for  tho 
extradition  of  political  offenders,  nor  for  the  ox- 
tradition  of  those  violators  of  the  public  order 
who  may  have  held  In  the  country  where  they 
committed  the  oflfenco  the  position  of  slaves ;  nor 
agreements  or  treaties  in  virtue  of  which  may  bo 
altered  the  guarantees  and  rights  which  this 
Constitution  grants  to  the  man  and  to  tho  citizen. 

•  This  article  was  amended  May  IS,  1883,  by  introducing 
the  last  sentence  ns  a  Bubstitutt)  for  tlie  following :  "  Tho 
crimes  of  the  press  shall  be  judged  by  one  jury  which  at- 
tests the  fact  and  by  another  which  applies  the  law  and 
designates  the  punisimieut." 


558 


CONSTITTTION  OF  JIEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


Art.  i6.  No  one  niiiy  be  nuilfstcd  In  Ills  per- 
son, fiiinily,  ilomlcile,  piiperH  mid  poHHessiong, 
except  In  virtue  of  iin  order  written  by  the  com- 
petent authority,  which  shull  estiilillMh  and  im- 
lign  the  lcK»l  cause  for  the  proceedlnf^s.  In  tho 
C880  of  in  tliigrunto  dellnto  iiny  person  may  ap- 
prehend the  olTender  and  Ids  iicconipllees,  pluclng 
them  without  delay  at  tho  dlsposnl  of  the  nearest 
BUthoritles. 

Art.  17.  No  one  may  be  arrested  for  (U^bts  of 
a  purely  civil  cliaracter.  No  one  may  exercise 
violence  In  order  to  reclaim  Ills  riglits.  Tlic  tri- 
bunals sliall  always  be  prompt  to  administer 
lustice.  TUIb  sliall  be  gratuitous,  Judicial  costs 
being  conseouently  abolished. 

Art.  18,  Imprisonment  sliall  take  place  only 
for  crimes  which  deserve  corporal  punishment. 
In  any  stato  of  tho  process  in  which  it  shall  ap- 
pear that  sucli  a  punishment  might  not  bo  im- 
posed upon  the  occused,  he  shall  be  set  at  liberty 
under  bail.  In  no  case  shall  the  imprisonment 
or  detention  bo  prolonged  for  default  of  payment 
of  fees,  or  of  any  furnishing  of  money  what- 
ever. 

Art.  10.  No  detention  shall  exceed  the  term 
of  three  days,  unless  justified  by  a  writ  showing 
cause  of  impiisoniucnt  and  other  requisites  which 
the  law  cstablisheg.  Tlic  mere  lapse  of  this  term 
shall  render  responsible  tho  authority  tliat  orders 
or  consents  to  it,  and  tho  agents,  ministers,  war- 
dens, or  jailors  who  execute  it.  Any  maltreat- 
ment in  the  apprehension  or  in  the  confinement 
of  the  prisoners,  any  injury  which  may  be  In- 
flicted without  legal  ground,  any  tax  or  contri- 
bution in  the  prisons,  is  an  abuse  which  tho  laws 
must  correct  and  the  authorities  severally  1  mish. 

Art.  20.  In  every  criminal  trial  the  accused 
shall  have  the  following  guarantees :  T.  That  tlic 
grounds  of  the  proceedings  and  the  name  of  the 
accuser,  if  there  shall  be  one,  shall  be  made  known 
to  him.  II.  That  his  preparatory  declaration 
sliall  bo  taken  within  forty-eight  hours,  counting 
from  the  time  he  may  be  placed  at  the  disposol 
of  the  judge.  III.  That  he  shall  be  confronted 
with  tlie  witnesses  who  testify  against*  him.  IV. 
That  he  shall  be  furnished  with  the  data  which 
ho  requires  and  which  appear  in  the  process,  in 
order  to  prepare  for  his  defence.  V.  That  he 
shall  bo  heard  in  defence  by  himself  or  by  coun- 
sel, or  by  both,  as  he  may  desire.  In  case  he 
should  have  no  one  to  defend  him,  a  list  of  olHcial 
defenders  shall  be  presented  to  him,  in  order  that 
he  moy  choose  one  or  more  who  may  suit  him. 

Art.  21.  The  application  of  penalties  properly 
BO  called  belongs  exclusively  to  the  judicial  au- 
thority. The  political  or  administrative  authori- 
ties may  only  impose  fines,  as  correction,  to  tho 
extent  of  five  hundred  dollars,  or  imprisonment 
to  the  extent  of  one  month,  in  the  ca.ses  and  man- 
ner which  the  law  shall  expressly  determine. 

Art.  22.  Punishments  by  mutilation  and  in- 
famy, by  branding,  fiogging,  the  bastinado, 
torturfc  of  whatever  kind,  excessive  fines,  confis- 
cation of  property,  or  any  otlier  unusual  or  extra- 
ordinary penalties,  shall  be  forever  prohibited. 

Art,  23.  In  order  to  obolish  the  penalty  of 
death,  the  administrative  power  is  charged  to  es- 
tablish, as  soon  as  possible,  a  penitentiary  system. 
In  the  meantime  tlie  penalty  of  death  shall  be 
abolished  for  political  offences,  and  shall  not  be 
extended  to  other  cases  than  treason  during  for- 
eign war,  highwoy  robbery,  arson,  parricide, 
homicide  with  treachery,  premeditation  or   ad- 


vantage, to  grave  ofTenc<'S  of  the  military  order, 
and  piracy,  which  the  law  shall  d<-fine. 

Art.  24.  No  criminal  proceeding  may  liave 
more  than  three  Instaiices.  Noone  sliall  bo  tried 
twice  for  the  same  olTence,  wlictliiT  by  the  judg- 
ment he  be  absolved  or  conileniiicd.  Thi'  prac- 
tice of  absolving  from  the  Instance  Is  abolished. 

Art.  25.  Sealed  correspondence  which  circu- 
lates by  the  mails  is  free  Irom  all  registry.  Tho 
violation  of  tills  guarantee  Is  an  otfeuce  which 
the  law  Hliall  pimish  severely. 

Art.  26,  In  time  of  peace  no  soliller  may  ite- 
mund  ((iiarters,  supplies,  or  other  real  or  personal 
service  without  the  consent  of  the  proprietor.  In 
time  of  war  he  shall  do  this  only  In  the  manner 
prescribed  by  the  law. 

Art.  27.  Private  property  sliall  not  lie  ap- 
propriated without  the  consent  of  tlie  owner,  ex- 
cept for  the  sake  of  public  use,  and  with  previous 
indemnification.  The  law  sliall  determine  the  au- 
thority which  may  make  the  appropriation  and 
the  conditions  under  which  it  may  bo  carried 
out.  No  corporation,  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  what- 
ever may  be  its  character,  denomination,  or  ob- 
ject, shall  have  legal  capacity  to  acquire  in  pro- 
prietorship or  administer  for  itself  real  estate, 
with  tlie  single  exception  of  edifices  destined  im- 
mediately and  directly  to  tho  service  and  object 
of  tho  institution.* 

Art.  28.  There  shall  be  no  monopolies,  nor 
places  of  any  kind  for  the  sale  of  privileged  gooiis, 
nor  prohibitions  under  titles  of  protection  to  in- 
dustry. There  shall  bo  excepted  only  those  rela- 
tive to  the  coining  of  money,  to  the  mails,  and  to 
tho  privileges  wlilcli,  for  a  limited  time,  the  law 
may  concede  to  inventors  or  pcrfectors  of  some 
Improvement. 

Art.  39,  In  cases  of  invasion,  grave  disturb- 
ance of  the  public  peace,  or  any  other  cases  what- 
soever which  may  place  society  in  great  danger 
or  confiict,  only  tho  President  of  the  Republic  in 
concurrence  with  the  Council  of  Ministers  and 
with  the  approbation  of  the  Congress  of  tho  Union, 
and,  in  the  recess  thereof,  of  the  permanent  depu- 
tation, may  suspend  the  guarantees  established 
by  this  Constitution,  with  the  exception  of  those 
which  assure  the  life  of  man ;  but  such  suspen- 
sion shall  be  made  only  for  a  limited  time,  by 
moans  of  general  provisions,  and  without  being 
limited  to  a  determined  person.  If  the  suspension 
should  take  place  during  the  session  of  Congress, 
this  body  shall  concede  the  authorizations  which 
it  may  esteem  necessary  In  order  that  tho  Execu- 
tive may  meet  properly  the  situation.  If  the 
suspension  should  take  place  during  the  recess, 
the  permanent  deputation  shall  convoke  the  Con- 
gress without  delay  in  order  that  it  may  make 
the  authorizations. 

Art.  30.  Me.\  ns  are  —  I.  All  those  bom, 
within  or  wlthoi  ihe  Republic,  of  Mexican  par- 
ents. II.  Foreigners  who  are  naturalized  in  con- 
formity with  the  laws  of  the  Federation.  III. 
Foreigners  who  acquire  real  estate  in  the  Republic 
or  have  Mexican  children ;  provided  they  do  not 
manifest  their  resolution  to  preserve  their  nation- 
ality. 

Art.  31.  It  is  an  obligation  of  every  Mexican — 

I.  To  defend  the  Independence,  the  territory,  the 
honor,  tho  rights  and  Interests  of  his  country. 

II.  To  contribute  for  the  public  expenses,  as  well 
of  the  Federation  as  of  the  State  and  municipality 

*  See  Article  3  of  Additions  to  the  Constitution. 


559 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


In  which  ho  rcHldPH,  In  the  proportional  nnd  f>(iul- 
tahlc  iimiiiH'r  wlilcli  tho  Ihwh  w:^y  provlilo. 

Art.  3a.  Mi'xiciiiiH  Hhiill  ',1-  prcfcrriKl  to  for- 
clKix'm  In  i'(|iiitl  rircuniHt.inccK,  for  nil  cniploy- 
mvntH,  ohiirKcH,  orcomn'igHioimof  nppointniL'iitby 
tho  iiuthorlllcM,  In  w'lirh  thr  ('ondltionof  eltlzi'n- 
■hip  may  not  Ik*  lii'iUponiuililc.  l>awN  shnll  Ih'  Ih- 
giK'd  to  Improve  tjif  condition  of  Mexir'iinlaborr'rH, 
n^wardhiK  tlu'tc  who  (IJKtlnKiilHh  tlicMiwIvcx  in 
any  twience  ',r  art,  HtlniiilatiiiK  labor,  and  found- 
ing  practical  collrKcs  and  Mch(K)|g  uf  arts  and 
tradcH. 

Art.  33.    Foreigners  are    those  who  do    not 

So8W"«  tho  (|iiallttcatlons  determined  In  Article 
).  They  have  a  right  to  t\w  guarantees  estjib- 
lU'icd  by  .  .  .  [Articles  1-20]  of  the  present  Con- 
Btltutlon,  except  that  In  all  cases  the  Ooveniment 
hai  the  right  to  expel  peniicious  foreigners.  They 
an  under  obligation  to  contrib\itc  to  tho  public 
expenses  In  tho  manner  which  tho  laws  may  pro- 
vlilo,  and  to  obey  and  respect  the  institutions, 
lav,  s,  and  authorities  of  the  country,  subjecting 
the  nselves  to  tho  judgments  and  sentences  of  tho 
tribunals,  without  power  to  seek  other  protection 
thau  that  which  tho  laws  concede  to  Mcxicau 
citii.cns. 

Art.  34.  Citizens  of  the  I{«^publlc  arc  all  those 
who,  having  the  quality  of  Mexicans,  have  also 
tilt  following  qualitlcatlons:  I.  Eighteen  years 
of  ago  If  married,  or  twenty-one  If  not  married. 
II.  An  honest  means  of  livelihood. 

Art.  35.  The  prerogatives  of  tho  citizen  are 
— I.  To  vote  at  popular  elections.  II.  The  privi- 
lege of  being  voted  for  for  any  ofBcc  subject  to 
popular  election,  and  of  being  selected  for  any 
other  emi)loyment  or  commission,  having  tho 
qualifications  established  bv  law.  III.  To  asso- 
ciate to  discuss  the  political  affairsof  the  country. 
IV.  To  take  up  amis  In  tho  army  or  In  the  na- 
tional guard  for  tho  defence  of  tho  Itepubllc  and 
Its  Institutions.  V.  To  exorcise  In  all  cases  the 
right  of  petition. 

Art.  36.  Every  citizen  of  the  Republlcis  under 
tho  following  obligations:  I.  To  bo  inscribed  on 
the  municipal  roll,  stating  the  property  which 
he  has,  or  tho  industry,  profession,  or  labor  by 
which  he  subsists.     II.  To  enlist  in  the  national 

fuard.  III.  To  vote  at  popular  elections  In  the 
istrlct  to  which  he  belongs.  IV.  To  discharge 
the  duties  of  the  oftlcesof  popular  election  of  the 
Federation,  which  In  no  case  shall  bo  gratuitrfus. 

Art.  37.  The  character  of  citizen  Is  lost — I. 
By  naturalization  in  a  foreign  country.  II.  By 
serving  officially  the  government  of  another  coun- 
try or  accepting  its  decorations,  titles,  or  employ- 
ments witliout  previous  permission  from  the 
Feileral  Congress;  excepting  literary,  scientlflc, 
and  humanitarian  titles,  which  may  be  accepted 
freely. 

Art.  38.  The  law  shall  prescribe  the  cases  and 
the  form  in  which  may  be  lost  or  suspended  the 
rights  of  citizenship  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  may  be  regained. 

Art.  39.  The  national  .sovereignty  resides  es- 
Boutially  and  originally  in  the  people.  All  public 
power  emanates  from  the  people,  and  is  instituted 
for  their  iK'neflt.  The  people  have  at  all  times 
the  inalienable  right  to  alter  or  modify  the  form 
of  their  government. 

Art.  40.  The  ^Mexican  people  voluntorily  con- 
stitute themselves  a  democratic,  federal,  repre- 
sentative republic,  composed  of  States  free  and 
soToreign  in  all  that  concoms  their  internal  gov- 


ernment, but  united  in  a  fedemtlnn  establlNhed 
according  to  tho  principles  of  this  fundamental 
law. 

Art.  41.  The  people  exercise  their  sovereignty 
by  means  of  Federid  officers  incases  lielongiug  to 
tlie  Federation,  and  through  those  of  the  Hiatog 
In  all  that  relates  to  the  internal  alTalrs  of  tho 
Htatcs  within  tho  limits  respectively  established 
by  this  Federal  (N>nslltuti(m,  and  by  the  special 
ConHtitntlons  of  the  States,  which  latter  shall  la 
no  case  contmveno  the  stljiulatlons  of  the  Fed- 
eral Compact. 

Art.  4a.  The  National  Territory  compris<'s  that 
of  the  integral  parts  of  the  Federation  and  that 
of  the  adjacent  Islands  In  both  oceans. 

Art.  43.  The  integral  parts  of  the  Federation 
are :  the  States  of  Aguascallcntcs,  Collnia,  Chia- 
pas, Chihuahua,  Durango,  Guanajuato,  Querrero, 
.lallsco,  Mexico,  MIchoacan,  Niu^vo  Leon  and 
Coahulla,  Oajaca,  Puebla,  Uueretaro,  San  Luis 
Fotosl,  HInaloa,  Sonora,  Tabasco,  Tamaullpag, 
Tlascala,  Vallo  do  Mexico,  Veracruz,  Yucatan, 
Zacatecas,  and  the  Territory  of  Lower  California. 

Art.  44.  The  States  of  Aguascallentes,  Chla- 

Iias,  Chihuahua,  Durango,  Guerrero,  Mexico, 
'uebla,  Quer6taro,  Sinaloa,  Sonora,  Tamaiillpas, 
iind  tho  Territory  of  Lower  California  shall  pre- 
serve the  limits  which  they  now  have. 

Art.  45.  The  States  of  Collma  nnd  Tlascala 
shall  presi'rve  in  their  new  character  of  States  tho 
limits  which  they  have  had  as  Territories  of  tho 
Federation. 

Art.1^46.  The  State  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico 
shall  be  formed  of  tho  territory  actually  compos- 
ing the  Federal  District,  but  the  erection  into  a 
State  shall  only  have  effect  when  the  supremo 
Federal  authontics  are  removed  to  another  place. 

Art.  47.  Tho  State  of  Nuevo  Leon  and  Coa- 
hulla shall  comprise  the  territory  which  has  be- 
longed to  the  two  distinct  States  of  which  it  ia 
now  formed,  excejit  the  part  of  the  hacienda  of 
Bonanza,  which  shall  be  reincorporated  in  Zacate- 
cas, on  the  same  terms  in  which  it  was  before  its 
incorporation  in  Coahulla. 

Art.  48.  Tho  States  of  Guanajuato,  Jalisco, 
MIchoacan,  Oajaca,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Tabasco, 
Veracruz,  Yucatan,  and  Zucatecos  shall  recover 
the  extension  and  limits  which  they  had  on  the 
31st  of  December,  1852,  with  the  alterations  the 
following  Article  establishes. 

Art.  49.  The  town  of  Contepec,  which  has  be- 
longed to  Guanajuato,  shall  bo  Incorporoted  in 
MIchoacan.  The  municipality  of  Ahualulco, 
which  lias  belonged  to  Zacatecas,  shall  bo  incor- 
poroted in  San  Luis  Potosi.  Tho  municipalities 
of  Ojo-Callente  and  San  Francisco  do  los  Adames, 
which  have  belonged  to  San  Luis,  as  well  as  the 
towns  of  Nueva  Tlascala  and  San  Andres  del 
Teul,  which  have  belonged  to  Jalisco,  shall  be  in- 
corporated in  Zacatecas.  The  department  of 
Tuxpan  shall  continue  to  form  a  part  of  Vera- 
cruz. The  canton  of  Huimanguillo,  whicji  has 
iK'longed  'o  Veracruz,  shall  be  incorporated  in 
Tabasco.* 

*  Besides  the  twenty-foup  States  which  are  mentioned 
in  tliis  section  there  liave  be<>n  created  subsequentiy,  ac- 
cording to  executive  decrees  is.sued  in  accoruonce  with 
the  Constitution,  tlie  four  following  : 

XXV.  That  of  Campeche,  separated  from  Yucatan. 

XXVI.  Tliat  of  Ci)almlln,  separoted  from  Nuevo  Leon. 

XXVII.  Tlmt  of  Hidalpo,  in  territory  of  tlie  ancient  State 
of  Mexico,  which  forme<l  the  second  military  district. 

XXVIII.  That  of  MorelOB,  in  territory  also  of  the  ancient 
State  of  Mexico,  which  formed  the  third  military  district. 


560 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


Art.  50.  Tlu!  guprcmn  power  of  tlio  Fedcmtlon 
b  divided  f.i'  lis  "xerclHu  Into  leKlHliktivc,  execu- 
tive, and  Judlcl.vl.  Two  or  more  of  tlioKe  powers 
■linll  never  be  united  In  one  person  or  eorponitinn, 
ncr  the  legislative  power  bo  deposited  In  one  In- 
dlvlduul. 

Art.  SI.  Tlio  lejfisliitlvo  power  of  the  niillon 
Is  deposited  In  a  K»neriil  Congress,  which  shall  he 
dlvliie.l  Into  two  houses,  one  of  Deputies  nnd  the 
oihar  o?  Honators.* 

Art.  52.  The  House  of  Deputies  shall  be  com- 
posed ot  representatives  of  the  nation,  elected  In 
their  entire  number  every  two  years  l)y  Moxican 
citizens. 

Art.  S3-  One  deputy  shall  be  elected  for  each 
forty  thousand  inhabltapts,  or  for  a  fraction  which 
exceeds  twenty  thoiisivnd.  The  territory  in  which 
the  population  Is  less  than  that  deterndned  in  this 
article  shall,  nevertheless,  elect  one  deputy. 

Art.  54.  Poreachdeputy  there  shall  be  elected 
one  alternate. 

Art.  55.  The  election  for  deputies  shall  bo  In- 
direct in  the  first  degree,  and  by  secret  ballot,  In 
the  miinner  which  the  law  shall  prescribe. 

Art.  56.  In  onlcr  to  bo  eligible  to  the  position 
of  a  d(>puty  it  is  required  that  the  candidate  be 
a  Mexican  citizen  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  rights; 
that  ho  be  fully  twenty -five  years  of  age  on  the 
day  of  the  opening  of  the  session ;  that  ho  bo  a 
resident  of  tlio  State  or  Territory  which  makes 
tho  election,  and  that  he  bo  not  an  ecclesiastic. 
Residence  is  not  lost  by  absence  in  tho  discharge 
of  any  public  trust  bestowed  by  popular  election. 

Art.  57.  The  positions  of  Dep<ity  and  of  Sena- 
tor are  incompatible  \»ith  any  Federal  commission 
or  olBce  whatsoever  for  which  a  salary  is  received. 

Art.  58,  Tho  Deputies  and  the  Senators  from 
the  day  of  their  election  to  the  day  on  which 
their  trust  is  concluded,  may  not  accept  any  com- 
mission or  office  offered  by  tlio  Federal  Execu- 
tive, for  which  a  salary  is  received,  except  with 
the  previous  license  of  the  respective  house.  Tho 
same  requisites  are  necessary  for  tho  alternates 
of  Deputies  and  Senators  when  in  the  exercise  of 
their  functions.  A.  Tho  Senate  is  composed  ot 
two  Senators  for  each  State  and  two  for  tho  Fed- 
eral District.  The  election  of  Senators  shall  be 
indirect  in  tho  first  degree.  The  Legislature  of 
each  State  shall  declare  elected  the  person  who 
shall  have  obtained  the  absolute  majority  of  the 
votes  cast,  or  shall  elect  from  among  those  who 
shall  have  obtained  the  relative  majority  in  the 
manner  whicli  the  electoral  law  shall  prescribe. 
For  each  Senator  there  shall  be  elected  an  altern- 
ate. B.  Tho  Senate  shall  be  renewed  one-half 
every  two  years.  The  .'^t  notors  named  in  the 
second  place  shall  go  out  at  the  end  of  the  first 
two  years,  and  thereafter  the  half  who  have  held 
longer.  C.  The  same  qualifications  are  required 
for  a  Senator  as  for  a  Deputy,  except  that  of  age, 
which  must  be  at  least  thirty  years  on  the  day  of 
the  opening  of  the  session. 

Art.  59.  The  Deputies  and  Senators  are  privi- 
leged from  arrest  for  their  opinions  manifested 
in  the  perfonnancc  of  their  duties,  and  shall  never 
be  liable  to  be  called  to  account  for  them. 

Art.  60.  Each  house  shall  judge  of  the  elec- 
tion of  its  members,  and  shall  solve  the  doubts 
which  may  arise  regarding  them. 

•  The  original  fonn  of  this  article  was  as  follows:  "  The 
exercise  of  the  supreme  legislative  i)ower  is  vested  In  one 
iusembly,  which  shall  be  denominated  Congress  of  the 
Union." 


Art.  61.  The  houses  niav  not  open  their  »<'S- 
slons  nor  perform  their  functions  without  tho 
presi'Mce  in  the  Hi^iiate  of  at  least  two-thlnls,  and 
In  the  House  of  Depullrs  of  more  than  one-half 
of  the  whole  numlxT  of  their  nicmbers,  but  those 
present  of  one  or  the  (ithcr  Inxly  mUHt  meet  on 
the  day  Indicated  by  the  law  ami  compel  tho 
attendance  of  absent  mcmberH  under  penalties 
whh'h  the  law  shall  d('Hignat<'. 

Art.  6a.  The  (Nmgress  hIiiiII  have  each  year 
two  periixls  of  ordinary  sessions;  the  first,  which 
may  be  prorogued  for  thirty  (lays,  shall  begin 
on  the  Iflth  of  September  ami  end  on  the  1.1th  of 
December,  and  tlie  second,  which  may  l)e  pro- 
rogued for  fift<'en  days,  shall  Ix^gin  the  1st  of 
April  ond  end  the  last  day  of  May. 

Art.  63.  At  the  opciihig  of  the  sessions  of  the 
Congress  the  President  of  the  Union  shall  bo 
present  and  shall  pronounce  a  discourse  In  which 
lie  shall  set  forth  the  state  of  the  country.  The 
President  of  tho  Congress  shall  reply  in  general 
terms. 

Art.  64.  Every  resolution  of  the  (Congress  shall 
have  the  character  of  a  law  or  decree.  The  laws 
and  decrees  shall  bo  communicated  to  the  Exeeu- 
tlvo,  signed  by  the  Presidents  of  both  houses  and 
by  a  Secretary  of  each  of  them,  and  shall  be 
promulgated  in  this  foi  in ;  "  Tho  Coiigress  of  tho 
United  States  of  Mexico  decrees;"  (Text  of  tho 
law  or  decree.) 

Art.  65.  The  right  to  Initiate  laws  or  decrees 
liclongs;  I.  To  tho  Presulent  of  the  Union.  II. 
To  the  Deputies  and  Senators  of  the  general  Con- 
gress.    III.  To  the  Legislatures  of  the  States. 

Art.  66.  Bills  pa-sented  by  tho  President  of 
tho  Kepublle,  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  States, 
or  by  deputations  from  tho  same,  shall  pass  im- 
mediately to  a  committee.  Those  which  the 
Deputies  or  the  Senators  may  present  shall  be  sub- 
jected to  tho  procedure  which  the  rules  of  debate 
may  prescribe. 

Art.  67.  Every  bill  which  shall  be  rejected  In 
the  house  where  it  originated,  before  passing  to 
the  other  house,  shall  not  again  be  presented  dur- 
ing tho  sessions  of  that  year. 

Art.  68.  The  second  period  of  sessions  shall 
bo  (U  -lined,  in  all  preference,  to  tho  examination 
of  and  action  uppn  tho  estimates  of  the  following 
fiscal  year,  to  passing  the  necessary  appropria- 
tions to  cover  tlie  same,  and  to  the  examination 
of  tho  accounts  of  the  past  year,  which  the  Execu- 
tive shall  present. 

Art.  69.  The  lust  day  but  one  of  the  first 
period  of  sessions  the  Executive  shall  present  to 
the  House  of  Deputies  the  bill  of  appropriations 
for  the  next  year  following  and  the  accounts  of 
the  preceding  year.  Both  sliall  pass  to  a  com- 
mittee of  five  Uepre.sentatives  appointed  on  the 
same  day,  which  shall  be  under  obligation  to  ex- 
amine said  documents,  and  present  a  report  on 
them  at  the  second  session  of  tho  second  period. 

Art.  70.  Tlie  formation  of  the  laws  and  of  tho 
decrees  may  begin  indiscriminately  in  cither  of 
tlie  two  houses,  with  the  exception  of  bills  which 
treat  of  loans,  taxes,  or  imposts,  or  of  the  re- 
cruiting of  troops,  all  of  which  must  be  discussed 
first  in  the  House  ot  Deputies. 

Art.  71.  Every  bill,  the  consideration  ot  which 
does  not  belong  exclusively  to  one  of  tho  houses, 
shall  be  discussed  successively  in  both,  tho  rules 
ot  debate  being  observed  with  reference  to  tlio 
form,  the  intervals,  and  manner  of  proceeding  in 
discussions  and  voting.     A.  A  bill  having  been 


561 


CONSTITUTION  OK  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


itpiimvril  in  tin-  linuM!  where  It  iiritriiiatfil,  hIiiiII 
iiiiNH  for  ItH  (lisciiMtion  to  Uio  otlicr  Iiuuhv.  If  tlic 
flitter  Ixiily  hIioiiIiI  iipprovit  it,  it  will  Ix^  n'liiittcd 
til  till'  Kxi>(Mitivi',  will),  if  liu  nIiaII  hikvii  no  iili- 
HcrvnIiiiiiH  to  iiiitlo',  hIiiiII  piililiHli  it  iiii'uciiiatL'ly. 
li,  Hvi'ry  liill  hIihII  liiM'iinsiilt'rcil  iiMii|i{ir(>v(^il  by 
till'  Kxi'c;utlv(!  if  not  ri'tiiriiril  witli  olmTViitioiiM 
to  till'  hoiiw  wlirri'  itoriKiiiittrii  witlili.  trii  work- 
In^  <luv"4,  unli'HH  iliirinK  tlilH  term  i'oiigrL'HH  hIiiiII 
liiivi-  I'lowii  or  HiiHpcmlcit  itH  m'HhIoiih,  In  wliicli 
riiHo  till!  ri'tiirii  iiiiiNt  bu  nioilu  tlu.'  llrHt  workInK 


ility  on  wliicli  it  Hlmll  inci't.  C  A  bill  rcjuctoil 
wliolly  or  in  piirt  by  tliu  Excciitivu  must  Ins  ru- 
tiiriird  witli  IiIm  obiM'rviitionii  to  tlii!  Iioiihv  wlicru 


it  oriKinitti'ii.  It  hIiiiII  bi'iliMMiHm'il  nf^nin  by  tliix 
lH)iiy,uiiii  if  ItKlioiiliI  1)0  coiillrmcil  liy  imiihHolutu 
iimjority  of  voti'H,  ItHlmll  piixs  iiKuinto  tlii'  otlirr 
hoiiHv.  If  by  tliin  liouM  H  hIioiiIiI  bu  Hiuu'tioiit'd 
with  tliu  NiiiiK!  nmjority,  ti'u  bill  hIiuII  bo  a  liiw 
or  (lorrcc,  und  Hhallbu  retiirui'd  to  the  K-viciitivo 
for  proinii 'Kittion.  Thu  voting  on  tli«  law  or  ili'- 
crco  Hliull  bu  by  nninu.  I).  If  nny  bill  kIiduUI  bo 
rclectud  wlioUy  In  tliu  hoiisu  in  wliii'h  it  did  not 
orlginiitu,  it  shall  be  rutiirnud  to  that  In  wliiuh  it 
oriKinatud  with  thu  obHcrvutlon.s  which  thu  'orinur 
shall  liavu  made  upon  It.  If  having  been  uxuminud 
nnuw  it  should  bu  approved  by  tnu  absolulu  ma- 
jority of  thu  inuml)ur8  present,  it  shall  bu  rul  urnud 
to  thu  housu  which  rejected  it,  which  shall  again 
take  it  Into  cousidenition,  and  If  it  should  approve 
It  by  thu  same  majority  it  shall  pass  to  thu  Execu- 
tive, to  bo  trciteif  in  accordancu  with  division  A; 
but,  if  it  should  i-ejuct  It,  it  shall  not  be  jirus  :ntcd 
again  until  the  f'lllowing  sessions.  E.  If  i;  bill 
should  Ih!  rujuetud  only  m  part,  or  moilitlcd,  or 
receive  odditionii  by  the  house  of  revision,  the 
new  discussion  in  tiio  housu  where  It  orlgiDutcd 
shall  treat  only  of  tho  rejected  part,  or  of  t,ho 
umendmeuts  or  additions,  without  being  able  to 
alter  In  any  manner  the  articles  approved.  If  the 
additions  or  amendments  niadu  by  the  house  of 
revision  should  be  approved  by  the  absolute  ma- 
jority of  the  votes  present  in  tho  house  where  it 
originated,  the  whole  bill  shall  be  passed  to  the 
Executive,  to  be  treated  In  accordance  with  di- 
vision A.  But  if  (ho  additions  or  amendments 
made  by  tho  house  of  revision  should  bo  rejected 
by  the  majority  of  tho  votes  In  tho  house  where 
It  originated,  they  shall  be  returned  to  tho  former, 
in  order  tliut  thu  ruasons  of  thu  latter  may  bo 
taken  into  consideration ;  and  if  by  the  absolute 
majority  of  the  votes  present  said  additions  or 
amendments  sholl  be  rejected  In  this  second  re- 
vision, the  bill,  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  approved 
by  both  houses,  shall  bu  passed  to  tho  Executive, 
to  be  treated  in  accordance  with  division  A;  but 
if  the  house  of  revision  should  insist,  by  the  ab- 
solute majority  of  tlie  votes  present,  on  said  ad- 
ditions or  amendments,  the  whole  bill  shall  not 
be  again  presented  until  the  following  sessions, 
unless  both  houses  agree  by  the  absolute  majority 
of  their  members  present  that  tho  law  or  decree 
shall  bo  issued  solely  with  the  articles  approved, 
and  that  tho  parts  added  or  o  mended  shall  be  re- 
served to  be  examined  and  voted  in  the  following 
sessions.  F.  In  the  interpretation,  amendment, 
or  repeal  of  the  laws  or  decrees,  tho  rules  estab- 
lished for  their  formation  shall  be  observed.  Q. 
Both  houses  shall  resido  in  the  same  place,  and 
they  shall  not  remove  to  another  without  first 
agreeing  to  tho  removal  and  on  the  time  and 
manner  of  making  it,  designating  the  same  point 
for  the  meeting  of  both.    But  if  both  houses, 


agreeing  to  the  removal,  should  dilTcr  as  to  time, 
manner,  or  place,  the  Kxecutivu  Hlmll  tcriiiinato 
the  illtTeri'iiri'  liy  chiMmIng  one  of  the  iilaiVN  In 
(lUeNtion.  Neither  hoiiw!  Nhali  huhih^ikI  its  im«- 
Mions  for  more  than  three  days  without  thu  eou- 
sent  of  thu  other.  11.  When  thu  general  Con- 
gres;>  meets  in  extra  seHsioiiH,  It  shall  oeeupy  itself 
exelusively  with  the  objector  objects di'Kignated 
in  till!  summons;  and  if  the  H|H'<'ial  liUKiness  Hhall 
not  have  iM-en  completed  on  the  day  on  wliicli  thu 
regular  sesMion  should  open,  thu  extra  sessionH 
shall  bo  closed  nevertlu'leHS,  leaving  the  piiintu 
pending  to  be  treated  of  In  the  regular  sessions. 
The  Kxeciitivi!  of  the  Union  shall  not  make  ob- 
servations on  the  resolul  <' ins  of  the  Congress  whea 
this  body  prorogues  itssi'SHionsor  exercises  func- 
tions of  an  electoral  body  or  a  jury. 

Art.  7a.  The  Congress  has  power — I.  To  ad- 
mit new  Htates  or  Territories  Into  thu  Federal 
Uniini,  incorporating  them  in  thu  nation.  II.  To 
erect  Territories  Into  Htates  when  they  shall  have 
a  population  of  eighty  thousand  inhabitants  and 
thu  necessr  '  elements  to  providu  for  their  polit- 
ical existt  e.  III.  To  form  new  Htates  within 
tliu  ll.'iilts  of  those  existing,  it  iH^ing  necessary  to 
this  end  —  1.  That  the  f  racthin  or  fractions  which 
asked  to  bu  ereiaed  into  a  Htuto  shall  number  a 
population  of  at  least  one  hundred  und  twenty 
thousand  Inhabliants.  2.  That  It  shall  bu  proved 
before  Congress  that  they  have  elc'nents  sulUcient 
to  provide  for  their  political  existence.  8.  That 
the  Legislatures  of  the  States,  tho  territories  of 
which  are  in  question,  shall  have  been  hoard  on 
tho  expediency  or  inexpediency  of  the  establish- 
ment of  tho  new  State,  aiii|  they  shall  bo  obliged 
to  make  their  report  within  six  months,  counted 
from  tho  day  on  which  the  commuulcatiou  re- 
lating to  it  shall  have  been  remitted  to  tliem.  4. 
That  tho  Executive  of  tho  Federation  sliall  like- 
wise be  heard,  who  shall  send  his  report  within 
seven  days,  counted  from  tho  dato  on  which  ho 
shall  havu  been  asked  for  it.  5.  That  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  new  State  shall  have  been  voted 
for  by  two-thirds  of  the  Deputies  and  Senators 
present  in  their  respective  houses.  6.  That  tho 
resolution  of  Congress  shall  have  been  ratified  by 
the  majority  of  tho  Legislatures  of  tho  States, 
after  examining  a  copy  of  the  procecj'ngs;  pro- 
vided i^iat  the  Legislatures  of  the  Stat  •  ^"lioso 
territory  is  In  question  sliall  have  given  ,  .icir  con- 
sent. 7.  If  thu  Legislatures  of  the  States  wiioso 
territory  is  in  question  shall  not  have  given  their 
consent,  the  ratification  mentioned  In  the  preced- 
ing clause  must  bo  made  by  two-thirds  of  the 
Lcglsktures  of  the  other  States.  A.  The  exclu- 
sive powers  of  the  House  of  Deputies  are —  i.  To 
constitute  itself  an  Electoral  College  in  order  to 
exercise  the  powers  whicli  tho  law  may  assign 
to  it,  in  respect  to  the  election  of  the  Constitu- 
tional President  of  tho  Itepubllc,  Magistrates  of 
the  Supremo  Court,  and  Senators  for  the  Federal 
District.  11.  To  judge  and  decide  upon  the  res- 
ignations which  the  President  of  the  liepubllc 
or  the  Magistrates  of  tho  Supreme  Court  of  Jus- 
tice may  make.  The  same  power  belongs  to  it 
in  treating  of  licenses  solicited  by  the  first,  iii. 
To  watch  over,  by  means  of  an  mspocting  cora- 
mitteo  from  its  own  body,  the  exact  performance 
of  the  business  of  the  chief  auditorship.  iv.  To 
appoint  the  principal  oftlcers  and  other  employes 
of  the  same.  v.  To  constitute  itself  a  jury  of 
accusation,  for  tho  high  functionaries  of  whom 
Article  108  of  this  Constitution  treats,     vi.  Ta 


562 


CONSTITUTION  OK  MKXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


exnmiiio  tlic  luroiintM  which  tlio  Kxcciitivo  iiiiut 
prt'nciit  iiiiiniiilly,  to  iiiinrDvc  tho  iiiiiiiiiil  I'Ntliiiittii 
of  t'xpciiM'i*,  unit  to  inltiiiti' the  taxcH  which  In  itii 
jiiilKiiu'iit  otiKlit  to  1)1!  (Iccrccil  to  cover  thcMii  ex 
lu'iiHcM.  H.  Tliu  cxcIiihIvo  powers  of  the  Heiiiitc 
lire — t.  Tu  npprovu  tliu  treiitIcK  ami  (liploinntlit 
C'onvi'iitioiiH  which  tlie  Kxeciilive  iiiiiy  iiiiike  with 
foreign  lioweni.  ii.  To  riilify  the  iippolntnicntH 
which  the  I'rcHlileiit  of  tlii!  I{c|iiil)lie  iiiuy  iiiukn 
(if  ininiHterH,  ilipioiniilic  iiKciitH,  coimiilM  Keneriil, 
Hiiperlor  eiiiployf'H  of  tlie  Tniimiry,  colniiclti  iiiiil 
otlicr  Hii|ierior  otIlcerH  of  the  nittioiial  army  ami 
iiitvy,  oil  the  teriim  which  tlii^  law  Hliall  provide. 
III.  To  authori/.i!  the  Kxcculivc  to  penult  the  de 

Iiartiiri'of  iiatioiiul  tr(M)pHheyoml  tlie  liiiiitxof  tlie 
{epiihllc,  the  iiiiHwixe  of  forelKii  tr<Hip)t  tliroii)(h 
the  national  territory,  the  Htatloii  of  Hriiiadrotm 
of  other  powerH  for  inori!  than  u  inontli  in  the 
waterH  i  f  the  Uepulilic.  IV.  To  ^ive  ItH  coliHenl 
In  order  that  the  Kxecutive  may  dlHptmu  of  the 
national  guard  oui^ide  of  their  renpectlvo  Htates 
or  Torriiories,  determining  the  necesHnry  forc(^ 

V.  Todcclare,  when  the  ConNtitiitional  h'gUlatlve 
and  executive  poweni  of  a  Statu  hIuiU  have  iIIh- 
appvureil,  that  the  caHu  lum  arrived  for  appoint- 
ing to  It  a  provlHlonal  Uovernor,  who  Hhall  call 
electloiH  In  conformity  with  the  ConstltiitloDal 
lawHof  the  Kuid  State.  The  appointnientof  Gov- 
criior  Khali  be  made  by  the  federal  Kxecutive 
with  the  approval  of  the  Senate,  and  in  its  rc- 
cesscii  with  the  approval  of  the  Permanent  Coni- 
mi§8l')n.  Said  functionary  Hhall  not  be  elected 
(.'ouHlltutional  Uovernor  at  the  election!)  which 
are  had  in  virtue  of  the  suminonit  which  he  xhall 
IsHUC.  VI.  To  decide  political  quetitions  which 
may  arise  between  the  i.owers  of  ii  State,  when 
any  of  them  may  appear  with  this  purpose  in  the 
8<'nate,  or  when  on  account  of  said  (|ue8tions  Con- 
stitutional order  shall  have  l)een  interrupted  dur- 
ing a  contiict  of  arms.  In  this  case  the  Senate 
sliall  dictate  its  resolution,  being  subject  to  the 
geiicnd  Constitution  of  tlio  Kepulilie  and  to  that 
of  the  Stftfe.  The  law  sliull  regulate  the  exerci.se 
of  this  power  and  that  of  the  preceding,  vii. 
To  constitute  itself  a  jury  of  judgment  in  accord- 
Buco  with  Article  105  of  this  Constitution.  C. 
.''lehof  the  liouses  may,  without  the  interven- 
tion of  the  other  —  r  Dictate  economic  resolu- 
tions .relative  to  its  internal  regimen,  n.  Com- 
municate within  itself,  and  with  the  Executive 
of  the  Union,  by  means  of  committees  from  its 
own  liody.  in.  Appoint  the  employes  of  its 
secretaryship,  and  make  the  internal  regulations 
for  the  same.  iv.  Issue  summons  for  exiraor 
dlnary  elections,  with  the  object  of  filling  the 
vacancies  of  their  respective  members.  IV.  To 
regulate  definitely  the  limits  of  the  States,  ter- 
minating the  dilTerenccs  which  may  arise  between 
them  relative  to  the  demarcation  of  tlipir  respect- 
ive territories,  except  when  these  diflicultieshave 
a  contentious  character.  V.  To  change  the  resi- 
dence of  the  supreme  powers  of  the  Federation. 

VI.  To  establish  the  internal  order  of  the  Federal 
District  and  Territories,  taking  as  a  basis  that 
the  citizens  sliall  choose  by  popular  election  the 
political,  municipal,  and  judicial  authorities,  and 
designating  tlie  taxes  necessary  to  cover  their 
loail  expenditure.  VII.  To  approve  the  estimates 
of  the  Federal  expenditure,  which  the  Executive 
must  annually  present  to  it,  and  to  impose  the 
necessary  taxes  to  cover  them.  VIII.  To  giv ) 
rules  under  which  the  Executive  may  make  loans 
on  tae  credit  of  the  nation ;  to  approve  said  loans, 


And  to  recognl/.e  and  nnler  the  payment  of  tlin 
national  delit.  IX.  To  eMtiibllNh  tarllTs  on  for- 
eign coimiierce,  and  to  prevent,  liy  ineiiim  of 
general  laws,  onerous  riHtrictiotm  from  being  cm- 
talillHhed  with  refereiire  to  the  <'onimerce  Im!- 
Iween  till'  States.  X.  To  ^hiic  codes,  obligatory 
throughout  the  Uepiililic,  of  inlneHand  comnu'rce, 
('omprebemllng  In  this  hist  banking  InstitiitlonM. 
XI.  To  cri'iite  iiiid  HiippreMs  public  Federal  em- 
ployments and  to  eHtiiiillHli,  iiiigment,  or  diniiiiish 
their  Hiiliirii'M.  Xll.  To  riitifv  the  appoliitmeiilH 
which  the  Kxi'<'utlve  may  make  of  ministers,  dip- 
lomatic aj/cnls,  and  consuls,  of  the  higher  em- 
ployes of  the  Tri'asury,  of  the  colnnels  and  other 
suiierldr  olUcers  of  the  niitlonal  army  mid  navy. 
XIII.  To  approve  the  treaties,  coiilr'.''ts,  or  dip- 
lomatic conventions  which  the  Kxecutive  may 
make.  XIV.  To  declare  war  In '.  lew  of  the  datit 
which  the  i^xecullve  may  present  to  it.  XV. 
To  regulate  the  manner  in  which  letters  of  mariiiio 
may  he  issued;  to  dictate  lawsaceonling  to  which 
must  Im'  declared  goiKl  or  bad  the  pri/.es  on  sea 
and  land,  and  to  Issue  laws  relating  to  nmritinio 
rights  in  peace  and  war.  XVI.  To  permit  or 
deny  the  ei'tniHce  of  foreign  tnsips  into  the  ter- 
ritory of  Jio  Hcpublii ,  and  to  consent  to  the 
station  of  s'luadrotisoi  other  powers  for  iiiore  than 
a  month  in  the  waters  of  the  Uepulilic.  XVII. 
To  permit  tlie  depart  urtMif  national  troops  bey  mid 
the  limits  of  the  Hepublic*  XVIII.  To  raisu 
and  maintain  the  army  and  navy  of  the  Union, 
and  to  re).Miliite  their  organization  ami  service. 
XIX.  To  establish  regulations  with  the  purpose 
of  organi/iiig,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  na- 
tioniuguard,  reserving  respectively  to  the  citizens 
wlio  compose  it  the  appointment  of  the  command- 
ers and  ollicers,  and  to  the  Stales  the  power  of 
instructing  it  in  conformity  with  the  disciplina 
prescribeclby  said  regulations.  XX.  To  give  its 
consent  in  order  that  the  Executive  may  control 
the  national  guard  outside  of  its  respective  Statea 
and  Territories,  determining  the  necessary  force. 
XXI.  To  dictate  laws  on  natiinilization,  coloniza- 
tion, and  citizenship.  XXII.  To  dictate  laws  on 
the  general  means  of  communication  and  on  the 
post-otlice  and  mails.  XXIII.  To  establish  mints, 
lixing  tlie  conditions  of  their  operation,  to  deter- 
mine the  value  of  foreign  money,  and  adopt  a 
general  system  of  weights  and  nieasuR's.  XXI V. 
To  tlx  rules  to  which  must  be  subject  the  occu- 
pation and  sale  of  public  lands  and  the  price  of 
these  lands.  XXV.  To  grant  pardons  for  crimes 
cognizable   by  the  tribunals  of  the  Federation. 

XXVI.  To  grant  rewards  or  recompense  for  emi- 
nent services  rendered  to  tlie  country  or  humanity. 

XXVII.  To  prorogue  for  thirty  working  days 
the  first  period  of  its  ordinary  sessions.  XXVIII. 
To  form  rules  for  its  internal  regulation,  to  take 
the  necessary  measures  to  compel  the  attendance 
of  absent  meiabers,  and  to  correct  the  faults  or 
omissions  of  those  pn^sent.  XXIX.  To  appoint 
ami  remove  freely  tue  employes  of  its  secretary- 
ship and  those  of  the  chief  niiditorsliip,  which 
shall  be  organized  in  accordance  with  tlu'  jiro- 
visions  of  tlie  law.  XXX.  To  make  al  laws 
which  may  be  necessary  and  proper  to  icmlcr 
effective  tlie  foregoing  powers  and  all  others 
granted  by  this  Constitution  and  the  authorities 
of  the  Union,  f 

•  Amended  by  Section  H,  Clause  III.,  Article  7S,  of  the 
law  of  the  18th  of  Novemlier,  1H~4. 

+  See  respcctlnK  this  Artii'le  the  additions  A,  B.and  C  lo 
Article  7S  of  the  law  of  the  13th  of  November,  already  cited. 


568 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


Art.  7j.  During  the  recess  of  Congress  there 
sliiill  be  u  Permanent  Deputation  composed  of 
twenty-nine  nieml)er8,  of  wliom  fifteen  shall  be 
Deputies  njid  fourteen  Senators,  appointed  by 
tlielr  respective  houses  tlie  evening  before  the 
close  of  the  sessions. 

Art.  74.  The  attributes  of  the  Permanent 
Deputation  are  —  I.  To  give  its  consent  to  the 
U8<!  of  the  national  gua  d  iu  the  cases  mentioned 
in  Article  72.  Clause  XX.  II.  To  detennino  by 
Itself,  or  on  he  jiroposal  of  the  Executive,  after 
hearing  him  in  the  first  place,  the  summons  of 
Congres.s,  or  of  one  house  alone,  for  extra  sessions, 
the  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present 
being  necessary  in  botli  cases.  The  summons 
shall  designate  the  object  or  objects  of  the  extra 
sessions.  III.  To  api)rove  the  appointments 
which  are  referred  to  in  Article  8!>,  Clause  III. 
IV.  To  administer  tlie  oath  of  olliee  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  trie  Republic,  and  to  the  Justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  in  t  le  cases  provided  by  this 
Constitution.*  V.  To  report  u]ion  all  the  liusi- 
ness  not  disposed  of,  in  order  that  tlie  Legislature 
■whicli  follows  may  immediately  take  up  such 
unfinished  business. 

Art.  75.  Tlie  exercise  of  the  supreme  execu- 
tive power  of  tlic  Union  is  vested  in  a  single 
individual,  who  shall  be  called  "President  of  the 
United  States  of  Mexico." 

Art.  76.  The  election  of  President  shall  be 
indirect  in  the  first  degree  and  by  secret  ballot, 
in  such  manner  as  may  lie  prescribed  by  the 
electoral  law. 

Art.  77.  To  be  eligible  to  the  position  of 
President,  the  candidr.tc  must  be  a  Mexican  citi- 
zen by  birth,  in  the  exorcise  of  his  rights,  be 
fully  thirty-five  years  old  nt  the  time  of  tlic  elec- 
tion, not  belong  to  the  ecclesiastical  order,  and 
reside  in  the  country  at  the  time  the  election  is 
held. 

Art.  78.  Tlie  President  shall  enter  upon  the 
performance  of  the  duties  of  liis  office  on  the  first 
of  December,  and  shall  continue  in  office  four 
years,  being  eligible  for  the  Constitutional  period 
immediately  following ;  but  he  shall  remain  in- 
capable thereafter  to  occupy  the  presidency  by 
a  new  election  until  four  years  shall  have  p-xsscd, 
•counting  from  tlio  day  on  which  he  ceased  to 
perform  his  functions. 

Art.  79.  In  the  temporary  default  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Kepublic,  and  in  tlie  vacancy  before 
the  installation  of  the  newly-elected  President, 
tlie  citizen  who  may  have  performed  the  duties 
of  President  or  Vice-President  of  the  Senate,  or 
•of  the  Permanent  Commission  in  the  periods  of 
recess,  during  the  month  prior  to  that  in  which 
said  default  may  have  occurred,  shall  enter  upon 
the  exercise  of  tlie  executive  power  of  tlie  Union. 
A.  The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Sen- 
ate and  of  the  Permanent  Commission  sliall  not 
"be  reOlected  to  tliose  otflces  until  a  year  after 
having  held  them.  B.  If  the  period  of  sessions 
•of  the  Senate  or  of  the  Permanent  Commission 
sliall  begin  in  tlie  second  half  of  a  month,  the 
default  of  the  President  of  the  Republic  shall  be 
■covered  by  the  President  or  Vice-President  who 
may  have  acted  in  the  Senate  or  in  the  Perma- 
nent Commission  during  the  first  half  of  the  said 
month.  C.  The  Senate  and  the  Permanent  Com- 
mission shall  renew,  the  last  day  of  each  month, 
their  Presidents  and  Vice-Presidents.     For  these 


•See  the  Amendmeat  of  Septemlwr  25, 1873,  Art.  4. 


offices  the  Permanent  Commission  shall  elect, 
alternatively,  in  one  month  two  Deputies  and  in 
the  following  month  two  Senators.  D.  When 
the  office  of  President  of  the  Republic  is  vacant, 
the  functionary  who  shall  take  it  constitutionally 
as  his  substitute  must  issue,  within  the  definite 
term  of  fifteen  days,  tlip  s'lmnions  t<.  proceed  to 
a  new  election,  which  slr.ill  be  held  within  the 
term  of  three  mcntho,  and  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  Article  70  of  this  Constitution. 
The  provisional  President  shall  not  be  eligible  to 
tlie  iiresidency  at  tlie  elections  -(vliicli  are  held  to 
])ut  an  end  to  his  provisional  term.  E.  If,  on 
account  of  death  or  any  other  reason,  the  func- 
tionaries who,  according  to  this  law,  should  iako 
the  place  of  the  Prcsidentof  the  Republic,  might 
not  be  able  in  any  absolute  manner  to  do  so,  it 
shall  be  taken,  under  predetermined  conditions, 
by  the  citizen  who  may  have  been  President  or 
Vice-President  of  the  Senate  or  the  Pennanent 
Commission  in  the  month  prior  to  that  in  which 
they  discharged  those  offices.  P.  When  the  office 
of  I'resident  of  tlie  Republic  shall  become  vacant 
within  t'^e  last  six  months  of  the  constitutional 
period,  the  functionary  who  shall  take  the  place 
of  the  President  shall  terminate  this  period.  G. 
To  be  eligible  to  the  position  of  President  or 
Vice-President  of  the  Senate  or  of  the  Permanent 
Commission,  one  must  be  a  Mexican  citizen  by 
birtli.  II.  If  tlie  vacancy  in  tlie  office  of  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic  sliould  occur  when  the 
Senate  and  Permanent  Commission  are  perform- 
ing their  functions  in  extra  sessions,  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Commission  shall  fill  the  vacancy, 
under  conditions  'ndicated  in  this  r.rticle.  I. 
The  Vice-President  of  the  Senate  or  of  the  Per- 
manent Commission  shall  enter  upon  the  per- 
formance of  the  functions  whiih  ,tliis  Article 
confers  upon  tliem,  in  the  vacancies  of  the  office 
of  President  of  tlie  Senate  or  of  the  Permanent 
Commission,  and  in  the  periods  only  while  the 
impediment  lasts.  J.  The  newly-elected  Presi- 
dent sliall  enter  upon  the  discbarge  of  his  duties, 
at  the  latest,  sixty  days  after  that  of  the  election. 
In  case  the  House  of  Deputies  shall  not  be  in 
session,  it  shall  be  convened  in  extnv  session,  in 
order  to  make  the  computation  of  votes  within 
the  term  mentioned. 

Art.  80.  In  the  vacancy  of  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent, the  period  of  the  newly-elected  President 
shall  be  computed  from  the  first  of  December  of 
the  year  prior  to  that  of  his  election,  provided 
he  may  not  have  taken  possession  of  his  office  on 
the  date  which  Article  78  determines. 

Art.  81.  The  office  of  President  of  the  Union 
may  not  be  resigned,  except  for  grave  cause,  ap- 
proved by  Congress,  before  whom  the  resignation 
shall  be  iircsented. 

Art.  82.  If  for  any  reason  the  election  of  Presi- 
dent shall  not  have  been  miule  and  publislied  by 
the  first  of  December,  on  which  the  transfer  of 
the  otflce  should  be  made,  or  the  President-elect 
shall  not  have  been  ready  to  enter  upon  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties,  the  term  of  the  former  Presi- 
dent shall  end  nevertheless,  and  the  supreme 
executive  power  shall  be  deposited  provisionally 
in  the  functionary  to  whom  it  belongs  according 
to  the  provisions  of  the  reformed  Article  79  of 
this  Constitution. 

Art.  83.  The  President,  on  taking  possession 
of  his  office,  shall  take  an  oath  before  Congress, 
and  in  its  recess  before  the  Permanent  Commis- 
sion, under  the  following  formula:    "  I  swear  to 


564 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


perform  loyally  and  patnotically  the  duties  of 
President  of  the  United  States  of  Mexico,  accord- 
ing to  the  Constitution,  and  seek  in  everything 
for  the  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  Union."* 

Art.  84.  The  President  may  not  remove  from 
the  place  of  the  residence  of  the  Federal  powers, 
nor  lay  aside  the  exercise  of  liis  functions,  with- 
out grave  cause,  approved  by  the  Congress,  and 
in  its  recesses  by  the  Permanent  Commission. 

Art.  85.  The  powers  and  obligations  of  the 
President  are  the  following:  I.  To  promulgate 
and  execute  tlio  laws  passed  by  the  Congress 
of  the  Union,  providing,  in  the  administrative 
sphere,  for  their  exact  observance.  II.  To  ap- 
point and  remove  freely  the  Secretaries  of  the 
Cabinet,  to  remove  the  diplomatic  agents  and 
superior  employds  of  the  Treasury,  and  to  ap- 
pomt  and  remove  freely  the  other  employes  of 
the  Union  whose  appointment  and  removal  are 
not  otherwise  provided  for  iu  the  Constitut..yn  or 
in  the  laws.  III.  To  appoint  ministers,  diplo- 
matic agents,  consuls-general,  with  the  approval 
of  Congress,  and,  in  its  recess,  of  the  Permanent 
Commission.  IV.  To  appoint,  with  the  iiproval 
of  Congress,  the  colonels  and  other  superior  offi- 
cers of  the  national  army  and  navy,  and  the  su- 
perior employes  of  the  treasury.  V.  To  appoint 
the  other  officers  of  the  national  army  and  navy, 
according  to  the  laws.  VI.  To  control  the  per- 
manent armed  force  by  sea  and  land  for  the  in- 
ternal security  and  external  defence  of  the  Fed- 
eration. VIL  To  control  the  national  guard  for 
the  same  objects  within  the  limits  estamished  by 
Article  73,  Clause  XX.  VIII.  To  declare  war 
in  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  Slexico,  after 
the  passage  of  the  necessary  law  by  the  Congress 
of  the  Union.  IX.  To  grant  letters  of  marque, 
subject  to  bases  fixed  by  the  Congress.  X.  To 
direct  diplomatic  negotiations  and  make  treaties 
with  foreign  powers,  submitting  them  for  the 
ratification  of  the  Federal  Congress.  XI.  To  re- 
ceive ministers  ond  other  envoys  from  foreign 
powers.  XII.  To  convoke  Congress  in  extra  ses- 
sions when  the  Permanent  Commission  sliall  con- 
sent to  it.  XIII.  To  furnisli  the  judicial  power 
with  that  assistance  which  may  be  necessary  for 
the  prompt  exercise  of  its  functions.  XIV.  To 
open  all  classes  of  ports,  to  establish  maritime 
and  frontier  custom-houses  and  designate  their 
situation.  XV.  To  grant,  in  accordance  with 
the  laws,  pardons  to  criminals  sentenced  for 
crimes  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  tri- 
bunals. XVI.  To  grant  exclusive  privileges,  for 
a  linnted  time  and  according  to  the  proper  law, 
to  discoverers,  inventors,  or  perfecters  of  any 
branch  of  industry. 

Art.  86.  For  the  dispatch  of  th  .■  business  of 
the  administrative  department  of  the  federation 
there  shall  be  the  number  of  Secretaries  which 
the  Congress  may  establish  by  a  law,  which  shall 
provide  for  the  distribution  of  business  and  pre- 
scribe what  shall  be  in  charge  of  each  Secretary. 

Art.  87.  To  be  a  Secretary  of  the  Cabinet  it 
is  required  that  one  shall  be  a  Mexican  citizen 
by  birth,  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights,  and  fully 
twenty-five  years  old. 

Art.  88.  All  the  regulations,  decrees,  and  orders 
of  the  President  must  be  signed  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Cabinet  who  is  in  charge  of  the  depart- 
ment to  which  the  subject  belongs.  Without 
this  requisite  they  shall  not  be  obeyed. 

*  See  the  Amendments  and  Additions  of  September  as, 
1873. 


Art.  80.  The  Secretaries  of  the  Cabinet,  as 
soon  as  the  sessions  of  the  first  period  shall  l)e 
opened,  shall  render  an  account  to  the  Congress 
of  the  state  of  their  respective  departments. 

Art.  90.  The  exercise  of  tlu;  judicial  power  of 
the  Federation  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court  of 
Justice  and  in  the  district  and  circuit  courts. 

Art.  91.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  shall 
be  composed  of  eleven  judges,  four  supernum- 
eraries, one  fiscal,  an<l  one  attorney-general. 

Art.  92.  Each  of  the  members  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Justice  shall  remain  in  office  six  years,  and 
his  election  shall  be  indirect  in  the  first  degree, 
under  conditions  established  by  the  electoml  law. 

Art.  93.  In  order  to  be  elected  a  member  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  it  is  necessary  that 
one  be  learned  in  tlie  science  of  tlie  law  in  the 
judgment  of  the  electors,  more  than  tliirty-flve 
years  old,  and  a  Jlexican  citizen  by  l)irtli,  in  the 
exercise  of  his  riglits. 

Art.  94.  The  meml)crs  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Justice,  on  entering  upon  the  exercise  of  their 
charge,  shall  take  an  oath  before  Congress,  and, 
in  its  recesses,  before  the  Permanent  Commission, 
in  the  following  form:  "Do  yoti  swear  to  per- 
form loyally  and  patriotically  the  charge  of  Jlag- 
istrate  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  wliicli 
the  people  have  conferred  upon  you  in  conformity 
with  the  Constitution,  seeking  m  everything  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  Union  ?    * 

Art,  95.  A  member  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Justice  may  resign  his  office  only  for  grave  cause, 
approved  by  the  Co  'jress,  to  whom  the  resigna- 
tion shall  be  preseni  -d.  In  the  recesses  of  the 
Congress  the  judgment  shall  be  rendered  by  the 
Permanent  Commission. 

Art.  96.  The  law  shall  establish  and  organize 
the  circuit  and  district  courts. 

Art.  97.  It  belongs  to  the  Federal  tribunals  to 
take  cognizance  of  —  I.  All  controversies  which 
may  ariso  in  regard  to  the  fulfilment  and  appli- 
cation of  the  Federal  laws,  except  in  the  case  in 
which  the  application  affects  only  private  in- 
terests ;  such  a  case  falls  within  the  competence 
of  the  local  judges  and  tribunals  of  the  common 
order  of  the  States,  of  the  Federal  District,  and 
of  the  Territory  of  Lower  California.  II.  AH 
cases  pertainiiig  to  maritime  law.  III.  Those 
in  which  the  Federation  may  be  a  party.  IV. 
Those  that  may  arise  between  two  or  more  States. 
V.  Those  that  may  arise  between  a  State  and 
one  or  more  citizens  of  another  Stat '.  VI.  Civil 
or  criminal  cases  that  may  arise  uader  treaties 
with  foreign  powers.  VII.  Cases  concerning  dip- 
lomatic agents  and  consuls. 

Art.  98.  It  belongs  to  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Justice,  in  tlie  first  instance,  to  take  cognizance 
of  controversies  wliicli  may  arise  between  one 
State  and  another,  and  of  those  in  which  the 
Union  may  be  a  party. 

Art.  99.  It  belongs  also  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Justice  to  detennine  the  questions  of  jurisdic- 
tion which  may  arise  between  tlie  Federal  tri- 
bunals, between  tliese  and  those  of  the  States, 
or  between  the  courts  of  one  State  and  those  of 
another. 

Art.  100.  In  the  other  cases  comprehended  in 
Article  97,  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  shall  be 
a  court  of  appeal  or,  ratlier,  of  last  resort,  accord- 
ing to  the  graduation  wliicli  the  law  rnay  make  in 
the  jurisdiction  of  tiie  circuit  and  district  courts. 

•  See  Additions  to  the  Constitution,  Septem1)er  25, 1873. 


565 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  MEXICO. 


Art.  lOl.  Tliotribuiuila  of  the  Federation  shall 
decide  all  {juestions  which  arise  —  I.  Under  laws 
or  acts  of  whatever  authority  which  violate  in- 
dividual guarantees.  II.  Under  laws  or  acts  of 
the  State  autliority  which  violate  or  restrain  the 
sovereignty  of  the  States.  III.  Under  laws  or 
acts  of  the  State  authority  which  invade  the 
sphere  of  t)ic  Federal  authority. 

Art.  102.  All  the  judgments  which  the  pre- 
ceding article  mentions  shall  l)e  had  on  petition 
of  tlie  aggrieved  party,  by  means  of  judicial 
proceedings  and  forms  which  sluill  be  prescribed 
i)y  law.  The  sentence  shall  be  always  such  as 
to  affect  private  individuals  only,  limiting  itself 
to  defend  and  protect  them  in  the  special  case  to 
which  the  process  refers,  without  making  any 
general  declaration  respecting  the  law  or  act 
which  gave  rise  to  it. 

Art.  103.  The  Senators,  the  Deputies,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Supremo  Court  of  Jus''.ce,  and  the 
Secretaries  of  the  Cabinet  are  responsible  for 
the  common  crimes  which  they  may  commit  dur- 
ing their  terms  of  olTlce,  and  for  the  crimes,  mis- 
demeanors, and  negligence  into  which  they  may 
fall  in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  said  office. 
The  Governors  of  the  States  are  likewise  respon- 
sible for  the  infraction  of  the  Constitution  and 
Federal  laws.  The  President  of  the  Republic  is 
also  responsible ;  but  during  the  term  of  his  office 
lie  may  be  accused  only  for  the  crimes  of  treason 
against  the  country,  express  violation  of  the 
Constitution,  attack  on  the  freedom  of  election, 
and  grave  crimes  of  the  common  order.  The  high 
functionaries  of  the  Federation  shall  not  enjoy 
any  Constitutional  privilege  for  the  official  crimes, 
misdemeanors,  or  negligence  into  which  tlicy  may 
fall  in  the  performance  of  any  employment,  office, 
or  public  commission  which  they  may  have  ac- 
cepted during  the  periotl  for  which,  in  conformity 
with  the  law,  they  shall  have  been  elected.  The 
same  shall  happen  with  respect  to  those  common 
crimes  which  they  may  commit  during  the  per- 
formance of  said  employment,  officf  or  commis- 
sion. In  order  that  the  cause  may  be  initiated 
when  the  high  functionary  shall  have  returned 
to  the  exercise  of  his  proper  functions,  proceeding 
should  be  undertaken  in  accordance  with  the 
provision  of  Article  104  of  this  Constitution. 

Art.  104.  If  the  crime  should  be  a  common 
one,  the  House  of  Representatives,  formed  into 
a  grand  jury,  shall  declare,  by  an  absolute  ma- 
jority of  votes,  whether  there  is  or  is  not  ground 
to  procecu  against  the  accused.  In  the  negative 
case,  there  shall  be  no  ground  for  further,  pro- 
ceedings; in  the  affirmative,  the  accused  shall 
be,  by  the  said  act,  deprived  of  his  office,  and 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  ordinary  tribunals. 

Art.  105.  The  houses  shall  take  cognizance  of 
official  crimes,  the  House  of  Deputies  as  a  jury 
of  accusation,  the  Senators  a.s  a  jury  of  judgment. 
The  jury  of  accusation  shad  have  for  its  object 
to  declare,  by  an  absohite  majority  of  votes, 
whether  the  accused  is  or  is  not  culpable.  If 
the  declaration  should  bo  absolutory,  the  func- 
tionary shall  continue  in  the  exercise  of  his  office ; 
if  it  should  be  condemnatory,  he  shall  be  imme- 
diately deprived  of  his  office,  and  shall  be  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Senate.  The  latter,  formed 
into  a  jury  of  judgment,  and,  with  the  presence 
of  the  criminal  and  of  the  accuser,  if  there«hould 
be  one,  shall  proceed  to  apply,  by  an  absolute 
majority  of  votes,  the  punishment  which  the  law 
designates. 


Art.  106.  A  judgment  of  responsibility  for 
official  crimes  having  been  pronounced,  no  favc 
of  pardon  may  be  extended  to  the  offender. 

Art.  107.  The  responsibility  for  official  crimes 
and  misdemeanors  may  be  required  only  during 
the  period  in  whicli  the  functionary  remains  in 
office,  and  one  year  thereafter. 

Art.  108.  With  respect  to  demands  of  the  civ'l 
onlcr,  there  sliall  be  no  privilege  or  immunity 
for  any  public  functionary. 

Art.  109.  The  States  shall  adopt  for  their  in- 
ternal regimen  the  popular,  representative,  re- 
publiciui  form  of  government,  and  may  provide 
in  their  respective  Constitutions  for  the  reelection 
of  the  Governors  in  accordance  with  what  Article 
78  provides  for  the  President  of  the  Republic. 

Art.  no.  The  States  may  regulate  among 
themselves,  by  friendly  agreements,  their  re- 
spective boundaries;  but  those  regulations  shall 
not  be  carried  into  effect  without  the  approval 
of  the  Congress  of  the  Union. 

Art.  III.  The  States  may  not  in  any  case  — 
I.  Form  alliances,  treaties,  or  coalitions  with 
anotherState,  or  with  foreign  powers,  excepting 
the  coalition  which  the  frontier  States  may  make 
for  offensive  or  defensive  war  against  the  In- 
dians. II.  Grant  letters  of  murque  or  reprisal. 
III.  Coin  money,  or  emit  paper  money  or  stamped 
paper. 

Art.  112.  Neither  may  any  State,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Congress  of  the  Union:  I.  Es- 
tablish tonnage  duties,  or  any  port  duty,  or 
impose  taxes  or  duties  upon  importations  or  ex- 
portations.  II.  Have  at  any  time  permanent 
troops  or  vessels  of  war.  III.  Make  war  by 
itself  on  any  foreign  power  except  in  cases  of 
invasion  or  of  such  imminent  peril  as  to  admit 
of  no  delay.  In  these  cases  the  State  shall  give 
notice  immediately  to  the  President  of  the  Re- 
public. 

Art.  11^.  Each  State  is  under  obligation  to 
deliver  without  delay  the  criminals  of  other 
States  to  the  authority  that  claims  them. 

Art.  114.  The  Governors  of  the  States  are 
obliged  to  publish  and  cause  to  be  obeyed  tlie 
Federal  laws. 

Art.  1x5.  In  each  State  uf  the  Federation  en- 
tire faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  all  the 
other  States.  The  Congress  may,  by  means  of 
general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  of  proving 
said  acts,  records,  and  proceedings,  and  the  effect 
thereof. 

Art.  116.  The  powers  of  the  Union  are  bound 
to  protect  the  States  against  all  invasion  or  ex- 
ternal violence.  In  case  of  insurrection  or  in- 
ternal disturbance  they  shall  give  them  like  pro- 
tection, provided  the  Legislature  of  the  State,  or 
the  Executive,  if  the  Legislature  is  not  in  session, 
shall  request  it. 

Art.  117.  The  powers  which  are  not  expressly 
granted  by  this  Constitution  to  the  Federal 
authorities  are  understood  to  be  reserved  to  the 
States. 

Art.  118.  No  person  may  at  the  same  time 
hold  two  Federal  elective  offices ;  but  if  elected 
to  two,  he  may  choose  which  of  them  he  will  fill. 

Art,  119.  No  payment  shall  be  made  which  is 
not  comprehended  in  tlie  budget  or  determined 
by  a  subsequent  law. 

Art.  120.  The  President  of  the  Republic,  the 
members  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  the 
Deputies,  and  other  public  officers  of  the  Federa- 


666 


CONSTITUTION  OF  MEXICO. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


tion,  who  aro  chosen  by  popular  election,  shall 
receive  a  compensation  for  their  services,  which 
ghall  be  determined  by  law  and  paid  by  th(!  Fed- 
eral Treasury.  This  compensation  may  not  be 
renounced,  and  any  law  wliich  augments  or  di- 
minishes it  shall  not  have  elTect  during  the  period 
for  which  a  functionary  holds  the  office. 

Art.  131.  Every  public  ofTlcer,  withoat  any 
exception,  l)efore  taking  possession  of  hii  office, 
shall  take  an  oath  to  maintain  this  Constitution 
and  the  laws  which  emanate  from  it.* 

Art.  123.  In  time  of  peace  no  military  au- 
thoritj'  may  exercise  more  functions  than  those 
which  have  close  connection  with  military  disci- 
pline. There  shall  be  fixed  and  permanent  mili- 
tary commands  only  in  the  castles,  fortresses, 
and  magazines  which  ore  immediately  under  the 
government  of  the  Union ;  or  in  encampments, 
barracks,  or  depots  which  may  be  established 
outside  of  towns  for  stationing  troops. 

Art.  123.  It  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Federal 
authorities  to  exercise,  in  matters  of  religious 
worship  and  external  discipline,  the  intervention 
v.'liich  the  laws  may  designate. 

Art.  124.  The  States  shall  not  impose  any  duty 
for  the  simple  passage  of  goods  in  the  internal 
commerce.  The  Government  of  the  Union  alone 
may  tlecree  transit  duties,  but  only  with  respect 
to  1  reign  goods  which  cross  the  country  by  in- 
ternational or  interoceanic  lines,  without  being 
on  the  national  territory  more  time  than  is  nec- 
essary to  traverse  it  and  depart  to  the  foreign 
country.  Tliey  shall  not  prohibit,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  the  entrance  to  their  territory,  or 
the  departure  from  it,  of  any  merchandise,  ex- 
cept on  police  grounds ;  nor  burden  the  articles 
of  national  production  on  their  departure  for  a 
foreign  country  or  for  another  State.  The  ex- 
emptions from  duties  which  they  concede  shall 
be  general ;  they  may  not  be  decreed  in  favor  of 
the  products  of  specified  origin.  The  quota  of 
the  import  for  a  given  amount  of  merchandise 
shall  be  the  same,  whatever  may  have  been  its 
origin,  and  no  heavier  burden  may  be  assigned 
to  it  than  that  which  the  similar  products  of  the 
political  entity  in  which  the  import  is  decreed 
bear.  The  national  merchandise  shall  not  be  sub- 
mitted to  definitti  route  nor  to  inspection  or  reg- 
istry on  the  ways,  nor  any  fiscal  document  be 
demanded  for  its  internal  circulation.  Nor  shall 
they  burden  foreign  merchandise  with  a  greater 
quotii  than  that  which  may  have  been  permitted 
them  by  the  Federal  law  to  receive. 

Art.  125.  The  forts,  military  quarters,  maga- 
zines, and  other  edifices  necessary  to  the  govern- 


ment of  the  Union  shall  be  under  the  immediate 
inspection  of  the  Federal  authorities. 

Art.  126.  This  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the 
Congress  of  tl'.e  Union  which  emanate  from  it, 
and  all  the  treaties  made  or  which  shall  be  made 
by  the  President  of  the  Republic,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  Congress,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of 
the  whole  Union.  The  judges  of  each  State  shall 
be  guided  by  said  Constitution,  law,  and  treaties 
in  spite  of  provisions  to  the  contrary  which  may 
appear  in  the  Constitutions  or  laws  of  the 
States. 

Art.  127.  The  present  Constitution  may  be 
added  to  or  reformed.  In  order  that  additions 
or  alterations  may  become  part  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, it  is  required  that  the  Congress  of  the  Union, 
by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  tlie  members  present, 
shall  agree  to  the  alterations  or  additions,  and 
that  these  shall  be  approved  by  the  majority  of 
the  Legislatures  of  the  States.  The  Congress  of 
the  Union  shall  count  the  votes  of  the  Legislatures 
and  make  the  declaration  that  the  reforms  or 
additions  have  been  ajiproved. 

Art.  128.  This  Constitution  shall  not  lose  its 
force  and  vigor  even  if  its  observance  be  inter- 
rupted by  a  rebellion.  In  case  that  by  any  pub- 
lic disturbance  a  government  contrary  to  the 
principles  which  it  sanctions  shall  be  established, 
as  soon  as  the  peoplii  recover  their  liberty  its  ob- 
servance shall  be  reestablished,  and  in  accordance 
with  it  and  the  laws  which  shall  have  been  is- 
sued in  virtue  of  it,  shall  be  judged  not  only 
those  who  shall  have  figured  in  the  government 
emanating  from  the  rebellion,  but  also  those  who 
shall  have  cooperated  with  it. 

Additions. 

Art.  1,  The  State  and  the  Church  are  inde- 
pendent of  one  another.  The  Congress  may  not 
pass  laws  establishing  or  prohibiting  any  religion. 

Art.  2.  Marriage  is  a  civil  contract.  This  and 
the  other  acts  relating  to  the  civil  state  of  persons 
belong  to  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  func- 
tionaries and  authorities  of  the  civil  order,  within 
limits  provided  by  the  laws,  and  they  shall  have 
the  force  and  validity  which  the  same  attribute 
to  them. 

Art.  3.  No  religious  institution  may  acquire 
real  estate  or  capital  fixed  upon  it,  with  the  single 
exception  established  in  Article  27  of  this  Con- 
stitution. 

Art.  4.  The  simple  promise  to  dpeak  the  truth 
and  to  comply  with  the  obligations  which  have 
been  incurred,  shall  be  substituted  for  the  re- 
ligious oath,  with  its  effects  and  penalties. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NETHERLANDS 
KINGDOM.    After  1830,  this  became  the  King- 


dom of  Holland.     See  NETUBBLANDa :   A.    D. 
1830-1832,  and  1830-1884. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


"On  May  17,  1814,  ...  a  constitution  was 
granted  to  "Norway.  The  Fundamental  Law  of 
the  constitution  (GrundlOv),  which  almost  every 
peasant  farmer  now-a-days  has  framed  and  hung 
up  in  the  chief  room  of  his  house,  bears  the  date 
the  4th  of  November  1814. "— C.  F.  Keary,  Nor- 
way and  tfie  Norwegians,  ch.  13. — The  following 
is  the  text  of  the  corotii  ition  as  granted  in  1814: 

•  See  the  Additions  of  September  25, 187S. 


Title  I. 

Article  ■• .  The  kingdom  of  Norway  is  a  free, 
independent,  ntUvisible,  and  inalienable  state, 
united  to  Sweden  -nrler  the  same  king.  The 
form  of  its  governme.-  ""s  limited,  hereditary, 
and  monarchical. 

2.  The  Lutheran  evangelical  religion  shall 
continue  to  be  the  ruling  religion  of  tlie  king- 
dom; those  of  the  inhabitants  which  profess  It 


567 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


lire  bound  to  bring  up  their  chiUIrcn  in  its  tenets; 
J('8uitM  iiml  monastic  orders  Hbull  not  l)u  pro- 
hibited in  the  liingdom.  TIio  admission  of  Jews 
into  tlie  Icingdom  shall  always  lie,  as  formerly, 
prohibited. 

Title  II. 

Article  1.  Tlic  ex""utivc  power  is  declared  to 
bo  in  the  person  of  tl.e  king. 

2.  The  king  si.all  always  profess  the  evan- 
gelical Lutlieran  religion,  which  he  shall  main- 
tiiin  and  protect. 

3.  Tlie  jx'rson  of  the  king  is  sacred :  he  can 
neither  be  Ijlaniod  or  accused. 

4.  The  Biieccssion  is  lineal,  and  collateral, 
gucli  as  it  is  determined  l)y  the  order  of  succes- 
sion decrc(!d  by  the  general  estates  of  Sweden, 
and  siinct  oned  by  the  king  in  the  Act  of  the  20tli 
8epteml)cr  1810,  of  which  a  translation  is  an- 
nexed to  this  Constitution.  Of  the  number  of 
legitimate  heirs,  is  comprehended  the  child  in  its 
mother's  womb,  which,  as  soon  as  it  shall  be 
born,  after  the  death  of  its  father,  takes  the  place 
which  is  due  to  liim  in  the  lino  of  succession. 
When  a  Prince,  heir  of  the  re-united  crowns  of 
Norway  and  Sweden,  shall  be  born,  his  name, 
and  the  day  of  his  birth  shall  be  announced  at 
the  first  Storthing,  and  inscribed  in  the  registers. 

5.  Should  there  not  be  found  any  prince,  a 
legitimate  lieir  to  the  throne,  the  king  can  pro- 
pose his  successor  at  the  Storthing  of  Norway, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  the  states  general  oi 
Sweden.  As  soon  as  the  king  shall  have  made 
the  proposition,  the  representatives  of  the  two 
nations  shall  choose  from  among  them  a  commit- 
tee, invested  with  the  right  of  determining  the 
election,  in  case  the  king's  proposition  should 
not,  by  the  plurality  of  voices,  be  approved  of 
separately  Ijy  the  representatives  of  each  of  the 
countries.  The  number  of  members  of  this  com- 
mittee, shall  be  composed  of  an  equal  number  of 
Norwegians  and  Swedes,  so  that  the  step  to  fol- 
low in  the  election  shall  be  regulated  by  a  law 
which  the  king  shall  propose  at  the  same  time  to 
the  next  Storthing,  and  the  states  general  of 
Sweden.  They  shall  draw  by  lot  one  out  of  the 
committee  for  its  member.  • 

6.  Tlie  Storthing*  of  Norway,  and  the  states 
general  of  Sweden  shall  concert  to  fix  by  a  law 
the  king's  majority ;  if  they  cannot  agree,  a  com- 
mittee, taken  from  the  representatives  of  the  two 
nations,  shall  decide  it  in  the  manner  established 
by  article  5th,  title  2nd.  As  soon  as  the  king 
shall  have  attained  the  years  of  majority  fixed 
by  the  law,  he  shall  publicly  declare  that  he  is  of 
age.f 

7.  When  the  king  comes  of  age  he  shall  take 
Into  his  hands  the  reins  of  government,  and  make 
the  following  oath  to  the  Storthing:  "I  swear,  on 
my  soul  and  conscience,  to  govern  the  kingdom 
of  Norwav  conformably  to  its  constitution  and 
laws."  If  the  Storthing  is  not  then  assembled, 
this  oath  shall  be  deposited  in  writing  in  the 
council,  and  solemnly  repeatr '  by  the  king  at 
the  first  Storthing,  either  vivfi  or  by  writing, 
by  tlie  person  whom  he  shi  appointed  to 
this  effect. 

8.  The  coronation  of  the  -  iiall  take  place 
when  he  is  of  age,  in  the  cathei  i .  .  i  of  Dronthelm, 

*The  national  assembly,  or  general  estates  of  the  king- 
dom. 

tA  law  of  the  Storthing,  18th  July  181B,  and  sanctioned 
by  the  king,  doclarpd  that  the  king  Is  major  on  arriving 
•t  the  age  of  eighteen  years. 


at  the  time  and  with  those  ceremonies  that  shall 
be  fixed  by  liimself. 

O.  The  king  shall  pass  some  time  in  Norway 
yearly,  unless  this  is  prevented  by  urgent  cir- 
cumstances. 

10.  The  king  st  all  exclusively  choose  a  coun- 
cil of  Norwegian.s,  citizens,  who  shall  have  ot- 
tained  the  seventieth  year  of  their  age.  This 
council  shall  be  composed  at  least  of  a  minister 
of  state,  and  seven  otiier  members.  In  like 
manner  the  king  can  create  a  viceroy  or  a  gov- 
ernment. The  king  shall  arrange  the  affairs 
between  the  members  of  the  council,  in  such 
manner  as  he  shall  consider  expedient.  Besides 
these  ordinary  members  of  council,  the  king,  or 
in  Ills  absence  the  viceroy  (or  the  government 
jointly  with  the  ordinary  members  of  council)' 
may  on  particular  occasions,  call  other  Norwe- 
gians, citizens,  to  sit  there,  provided  they  are  not 
members  of  the  Stortliing.  Tlie  father  and  son, 
or  two  brotliers,  shall  not,  ot  the  same  time,  have 
a  seat  in  the  council. 

11.  The  king  sliall  appoint  a  governor  of  the- 
kingdom  in  his  absence,  and  on  failure  it  shall 
bo  governed  by  the  viceroy  or  a  governor,  with 
five  at  least  of  the  members  of  council.  They 
shall  govern  the  Kingdom  in  the  name  and  behalf 
of  the  king;  and  they  shall  observe  inviolably, 
as  much  the  principles  contained  in  this  funda- 
mental law  as  those  [relative  precepts  the  king 
shall  lay  down  ic  his  instructions.  They  shall 
make  a  humble  report  to  the  king  upon  those 
affairs  they  have  decided.  All  matters  shall  be 
decided  by  plurality  of  votes.  If  the  votes 
happen  to  be  equal,  the  viceroy  or  governor,  or 
in  their  absence  the  first  member  of  council,  shall 
have  two. 

12.  The  prince  royal  or  his  eldest  son  can  be 
viceroy ;  but  this  can  only  occur  when  they  have 
attained  the  majority  of  the  king.  In  the  case 
of  a  governor,  either  a  Norwegian  or  a  Swede 
may  be  nominoted.  The  viceroy  shall  remain  in 
the  kingdom,  and  shall  not  be  allowed  to  reside 
in  a  foreign  one  beyond  three  months  each  year. 
When  tlie  king  shall  be  present,  the  viceroy's 
functions  shall  cease.  If  there  is  no  viceroy,  but 
only  a  governor,  the  functions  of  the  latter  shall 
also  cease,  in  which  event  he  is  only  the  first 
member  of  council. 

13.  During  the  residence  of  the  king  in 
Sweden,  ho  shall  always  have  near  him  the 
minister  of  stote  of  Norway,  and  two  of  the 
members  of  the  Norwegian  council,  when  they 
shall  be  annually  changed.  These  are  charged 
with  similar  duties,  and  the  same  constitutional 
responsibility  attaches  to  them  as  to  the  sitting 
council  in  Norway ;  and  it  is  only  in  their  pres- 
ence that  state  affairs  shall  be  decided  by  the 
king.  All  pjetitions  addressed  to  the  kin^  by 
Norwegian  citizens  ought,  first,  to  be  transmitted 
to  the  Norwegian  council,  that  they  may  bo  duly 
considered  previously  to  decisions  being  pro- 
nounced. In  general,  no  affairs  ought  U  be 
decided  before  the  council  has  expressea  an 
opinion,  in  case  it  should  be  met  with  important 
objections.  The  minister  of  state  of  Norway 
ought  to  report  the  affairs,  and  he  shall  be  re- 
sponsible for  expedition  in  the  resolutions  which 
shall  iiave  been  taken. 

14.  The  king  shall  regulate  public  worship 
and  its  rites,  as  well  as  all  assemblies  that  have 
religion  for  their  object,  so  that  ministers  of  re- 
ligion may  observe  their  forms  prescribed  to  them. 


668 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  NORWAY. 


in.  The  king  can  give  nndiiboliHlioriliDaMcoa 
wliicli  respei't  commtTcc,  tlio  custom-house, 
mniuifiictures,  and  police.  Tliey  slmll  not,  liow- 
ever,  be  contriiry  to  tlie  constitution  nor  tli(!  liiws 
mlonteil  by  tlie  Stortliing.  Tliey  sliall  liave  pro- 
visional force  \intil  the  next  Storthing. 

10.  Tlie  king  shall  in  general  regulate  the 
taxes  imposed  by  the  Storthing.  Tlie  public 
treasurerof  Norway  shall  remain  in  Norway,  and 
the  revenues  shall  only  be  employed  towards  the 
expenses  of  Norway. 

17.  The  king  shall  superintend  the  manner 
in  wliich  the  domains  and  crown  property  of  the 
stale  are  employed  and  governed,  in  tlie  manner 
lixed  l)y  the  Storthing,  and  which  sliall  be  most 
advantageous  to  the  country. 

18.  The  king  in  council  has  the  right  to  par- 
don criminals  wlicn  the  supreme  trilmnal  has 
pronounced  its  oj)inlon.  Tlie  criminal  has  tluf 
choice  of  receiving  pardon  from  the  king  or  of 
subniitling  to  tlie  punishment  to  wliicli  he  is 
condemned.  In  tlie  causes  which  the  Odelsthing 
would  have  ordered  to  be  carried  to  tlie  Uigsrct, 
there  can  be  no  other  pardon  but  that  which 
shall  liberate  from  a  capitid  punisliment. 

10.  The  king,  after  liaving  lieard  his  Norwe- 
gian council,  shall  dispose  of  all  the  civil,  eccle- 
siastic, and  military  employments.  Those  who 
assist  in  the  functions  shall  swear  obedience  and 
lidelity  to  the  constitution  and  to  the  king.  Tlie 
princes  of  the  royal  family  cannot  be  invested 
witli  any  civil  employment;  yet  tlie  prince  royal, 
or  his  eldest  son,  may  be  nominated  viceroy. 

20.  The  governor  of  tlie  kingdom,  the  minis- 
ter of  state,  otlier  members  of  council,  and  those 
employed  in  the  functions  connected  with  these 
offices,  the  envoys  and  consuls,  superior  magis- 
trates, civil  and  ecclesiastic  commanders  of  regi- 
ments, and  other  military  bodies,  governors  of 
fortresses,  and  commanders-in-cliicf  of  ships  of 
war,  shall,  without  previous  arrest,  bo  deposed 
by  the  king  and  his  Norwegian  council.  As  to 
the  pension  to  be  granted  to  tliose  employed  they 
sliall  be  decided  by  the  first  Storthing.  In  the 
mean  time,  they  shall  enjoy  two-third  parts  of 
their  former  salary.  The  others  employed  can 
tinly  be  suspended  by  the  king,  and  they  shall 
afterwards  be  brought  before  the  tribunals,  but 
cannot  be  deposed  excepting  by  order  of  an 
arrest,  and  the  king  cannot  make  them  change 
their  situations  contrary  to  their  will. 

21.  The  king  can  confer  orders  of  knighthood 
on  whomsoever  he  chooses,  in  reward  of  dis- 
tinguished services,  which  shall  be  published; 
but  he  can  confer  no  other  rank,  with  the  title, 
tlmn  that  which  is  attached  to  every  employment. 
An  order  of  knighthood  does  not  liberatd  the  per- 
son on  whom  it  is  conferred  from  those  duties 
common  to  all  citizens,  and  particular  titles  are 
not  conferred  in  order  to  obtain  situations  in  the 
state.  Such  persons  shall  preserve  the  title  and 
rank  attached  to  those  situations  which  they 
have  occupied.  No  person  can,  for  the  future, 
obtain  personal,  mixed,  or  hereditary  privileges. 

22.  The  king  elects  and  dismisses,  whenever 
he  thinks  proper,  all  the  officers  attached  to  his 
court. 

23.  The  king  is  commander-in-chief  of  all  the 
forces,  by  sea  and  land,  in  tlie  kingdom,  and 
these  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished  without 
the  consent  of  the  Storthing.  They  will  not  be 
ceded  to  the  service  of  ony  foreign  power,  and 
troops   belonging  to  a  foreign  power  (except 

87 


auxiliary  tnxips  in  case  of  a  hostile  invasion,) 
cannot  enter  the  country  without  tlie  eimsent  of 
the  Stiirthing,  During  peace,  the  Norwegian 
tr(«)ps  sliall  be  stationed  in  Norwav,  and  not  in 
Sweden.  Notwithstanding  tills  tlic  king  may 
have  in  Sweden  a  Norwegian  gimid,  composed 
of  volunteers,  and  may  for  a  short  time,  not  ex- 
ceeding six  weeks  in  a  year,  nsseiiible  troops  in 
the  envinms  of  tlie  two  countries,  for  exercising; 
but  in  ease  tliere  are  more  than  it,l)00  men,  com- 
posing the  army  of  one  of  the  two  countries,  they 
cannot  in  time  of  peace  enter  the  other.*  The 
Norwegian  army  and  gun-boats  shall  not  be  em- 
ployed without  the  consent  of  the  Storthing. 
The  Norwegian  licet  shall  have  dry  docks,  and 
during  peace  its  stations  and  harbours  in  Nor- 
way. Ships  of  war  of  both  countries  shall  bo 
supiiiied  with  the  seamen  of  the  other,  so  long  as 
they  shall  voluntarily  engage  to  serve.  Tho 
laiulwchr,  and  other  Norwegian  forces,  which 
are  not  calculated  among  the  number  of  troops 
of  the  line,  sliall  never  be  employed  beyond  the 
frontiers  of  the  kingdom  of  Norway. 

24.  Tlie  king  has  the  right  of  assembling 
troops,  commencing  war,  making  peace,  coneluil- 
iiig  and  dis.solving  treaties,  semling  ministers  to, 
and  receiving  those  of,  foreign  courts.  When  ho 
begins  war  he  ought  to  adv'ise  the  council  of 
Norway,  consult  it,  and  order  it  to  prepare  an 
address  on  the  state  of  the  kingdom,  relative  to 
its  finances,  and  proper  means  of  defence.  On 
this  tho  king  shall  convoke  the  minister  of  state 
of  Norway,  and  those  of  the  council  of  Sweden, 
at  an  extraordinary  assembly,  when  he  shall  ex- 
plain all  those  relative  circumstances  tliat  ought 
to  be  taken  into  considemtion ;  with  a  representa- 
tion of  the  Norwegian  council,  and  a  similar  one 
on  tlie  part  of  Sweden,  upon  the  state  of  the  king- 
dom, sliall  then  be  presented.  The  king  shall  then 
require  advice  upon  tliesc  objects;  and  each  shall 
be  inserted  in  a  register,  under  tlie  responsibility 
imposed  by  tlic  constitution,  when  the  king  sliall 
then  adopt  that  resolution  which  he  judges  most 
proper  for  tho  benefit  of  the  state. 

25.  On  this  occasion  all  the  members  of  coun- 
cil must  be  present,  if  not  prevented  by  some  law- 
ful cause,  and  no  resolution  ought  to  be  adopted 
unless  one  half  of  the  members  are  present.  In 
Norwegian  affairs,  which,  according  to  the  fif- 
teenth article,  are  decided  in  Sweden,  no  resolu- 
tion shall  be  taken  unless  the  minister  of  state  of 
Norway  and  one  of  the  members  of  council,  or 
two  members,  are  present. 

20.  The  representations  respecting  employ- 
ments, and  other  important  acts,  excepting  those 
of  a  diplomatic  and  military  nature,  properly  so 
called,  shall  be  referred  to  the  council  by  him 
who  is  one  of  the  members  in  tho  department 
charged  with  it,  wlio  shall  accordingly  draw  up 
the  resolution  adopted  in  council. 

27.  If  any  member  of  council  is  prevented 
from  appearing,  and  referring  the  affairs  which 
belong  to  his  peculiar  department,  he  shall  be  re- 
placed in  this  office  by  one  of  the  others  appointed 
to  this  purpose,  either  by  the  king,  if  personally 
present,  and  if  not,  by  liim  who  has  precedence  in 
tlie  council,  jointly  with  the  other  members  com- 
posing it.     Sliould  several  of  these  be  prevented 

•  Tho  law  of  the  Storthintt,  5th  July  191«,  bears,  that 
troops  of  the  line  shall  be  employed  beyond  the  frontiers 
of  the  kinKdoin,  and  llie  interpn-tation  Kivon  by  it  to  that 
law  is,  that  tnxips  of  the  line  shall  be  employed  beyond 
the  frontiers  of  the  two  kingdoms. 


669 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


from  npppnrinjt,  so  tlmt  only  one  half  of  the  ordi- 
nary n\nnl>i'r  is  prewnt,  the  otiier  employed  in 
tlie  ollU'cN  Hhnll  in  lilie  innnner  liave  ri^lit  to  git 
In  rouncil ;  und  in  thnt  event  it  hIiiiII  he  iifter- 
wiirds  referred  to  tlio  Itinc,  who  decides  if  they 
ought  to  continue  to  exercise  this  olflce. 

28.  'I'lie  eonneil  slmll  keep  n  register  of  all 
nfTairs  tlmt  mny  come  under  its  ronsiderntion. 
Kvery  individuul  wliosits  in  it  slmll  he  iit  liherty 
to  give  his  opinion  freely,  which  tlie  king  is 
ohligcd  to  heiir;  hut  it  is  reserved  to  his  majesty 
to  ado])t  resolutions  after  he  has  consulted  his 
own  mind.  If  a  incml)er  of  council  finds  thnt 
the  king's  resolution  is  contrary  to  the  form  of 
government,  the  lows  of  the  kingdom,  or  in- 
jurious to  the  state,  he  shall  consider  it  his  duty 
to  opi)ose  it,  and  record  his  opinion  in  the  register 
accordingly ;  hut  he  who  rcmainb  silent  slmll  be 
presumed  to  Imvo  agreed  with  the  king,  and 
shall  he  responsible  for  it,  even  in  the  case  of  be- 
ing referrecl  to  at  a  future  period ;  and  the  Odels- 
tlung  is  empowered  to  bring  him  before  the 
lligsret. 

20.  All  the  orders  issued  by  the  king  (mili- 
tary afTairs  excepted)  shall  be  eountersigned  by 
tlie  Norwegian  minister  of  state. 

30.  Kesolutions  made  in  absence  of  the  king, 
by  the  council  in  Norway,  shall  be  publicly  pro- 
claimed and  signed  by  the  viceroy,  or  the  gov- 
ernor and  council,  and  countersigned  by  him  who 
slmll  have  referred  them,  and  he  is  further  re- 

'  sponsible  for  the  accuracy  and  dispatch  with  the 
register  in  which  the  resolution  is  entered. 

31.  All  representations  relative  to  the  affoirs 
of  this  country,  as  well  as  writings  concerning 
tliem,  must  be  in  the  Norwegian  language. 

32.  The  heir-apparent  to  the  throne,  if  a  son 
of  the  reigning  king,  bhall  have  the  title  of  prince 
royal,  the  other  legitimate  heirs  to  the  crown 
shall  be  culled  ])rinces,  and  the  king's  daughters 
princesses. 

33.  As  soon  as  the  heir  shall  h:<.ve  attained 
tlie  age  of  eighteen,  he  shall  have  a  right  to  sit 
in  council,  without,  however,  having  a  vote,  or 
any  responsibility. 

34.  No  prince  of  the  blood  shall  marry  with- 
out permission  of  the  king,  and  in  case  of  con- 
travention, he  shall  forfeit  his  right  to  tlie  crown 
of  Norwaj'. 

35.  The  princes  and  princesses  of  the  royal 
family,  shall  not,  so  far  as  respects  their  persons, 
he  bound  to  appear  before  other  judges,  but  be- 
fore the  king  or  whomsoever  he  slmll  have  ap- 
pointed for  that  purpose. 

30.  The  minister  of  state  of  Norway,  as  well 
as  the  two  members  of  council  who  are  near  the 
king,  shall  have  a  seat  and  deliberative  voice  in 
the  Swedish  council,  where  objects  relative  to 
the  t\yo  kingdoms  shall  be  treated  of.  In  affairs 
of  this  nature  the  advice  of  the  council  ought 
also  to  be  undcrstooil,  unless  these  require  quick 
dispatch,  so  as  not  to  allow  time. 

37.  If  the  king  happens  to  die,  and  the  heir 
to  the  throne  is  under  age,  the  council  of  Nor- 
way, and  that  of  Sweden,  shall  assemble,  and 
mutually  call  a  convocation  of  the  Storthing  in 
Norway  and  Diet  of  Sweden. 

38.  Although  the  representatives  of  the  two 
kingdoms  should  have  assembled,  and  regulated 
the  administration  during  the  king's  minority,  a 
council  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  Nor- 
wegian and  Swedish  members  shall  govern  the 
kingdoms,  and  follow  their  fundamental  recipro- 


cal laws.  The  minister  of  state  of  Norway  who 
sits  in  this  council,  shall  draw  by  ballot  in  order 
to  decide  on  which  of  Its  members  the  preference 
slmll  happen  to  fall. 

30.  The  regulations  contained  in  the  two  last 
articles  shall  he  always  e(|imlly  adopted  after  the 
constitution  of  Sweden.  It  belongs  to  the  Swed- 
ish council,  in  this  quality,  to  he  at  the  head  of 
government. 

40.  With  respect  to  more  particular  and  neces- 
sary alTairs  that  might  occur  in  cases  under  the 
three  former  articles,  the  king  slmll  propose  to 
the  first  Storthing  in  Norway,  and  at  the  first 
Diet  in  Sweden,  a  law  having  for  its  basis  the 
principle  of  a  perfect  equality  existing  between 
the  two  kingdoms. 

41.  The  election  of  guardians  to  be  at  the 
head  of  government  during  the  king's  minority, 
shall  be  made  after  the  same  rules  and  manner 
formerly  prescribed  in  tlie  second  title.  Article 
5th,  concerning  the  election  of  an  heir  to  the 
throne. 

42.  The  individuals  who  in  the  cases  under 
the  38th  and  89th  articles,  are  at  the  head  of  gov- 
ernment, shall  be,  the  Norwegians  at  the  Storth- 
ing of  Norway,  and  slmll  take  the  following  oatli: 
"I  swear,  on  my  soul  and  conscience,  to  govern 
the  kingdom  conformably  to  its  constitution  and 
laws;"  and  the  Swedes  shall  also  make  a  similar 
oath.  If  there  is  not  a  Storthing  or  Diet,  it  shall 
bo  deposited  in  writing  in  the  council,  and  after- 
wards repeated  at  the  first  of  these  when  they 
happen  to  assemble. 

43.  As  soon  as  the  governments  have  ceased, 
they  shall  be  restored  to  the  king,  and  the  Storth- 
ing. 

44.  If  the  Storthing  is  not  convoked,  agree- 
ably to  what  is  expressed  in  the  38th  and  89th 
articles,  the  supreme  tribunal  slmll  consider  it  as 
an  imperious  duty,  nt  the  expiration  of  four 
weeks,  to  call  a  meeting. 

45.  The  charge  of  the  education  of  the  king, 
in  case  his  father  may  not  have  left  in  writing 
instructions  regarding  it,  shall  be  regulated  in 
the  manner  laid  down  under  the  5th  and  4Ist 
articles.  It  is  held  to  be  an  invariable  rule,  that 
the  king  during  Ids  minority  shall  learn  the  Nor-" 
wegian  language. 

40.  If  the  masculine  line  of  the  royal  family 
is  extinct,  and  there  has  not  been  elected  a  suc- 
cessor to  the  throne,  the  election  of  a  new 
dynasty  shall  be  proceeded  in,  and  after  the  man- 
ner prescribed  under  the  5tli  article.  In  the 
mean  time  tlie  executive  power  shall  be  exercised 
agreeably  to  the  41st  article. 

Title  III. 
Article  1.  Legislative  power  is  exercised  by 
the  Storthing,  which  is  constituted  of  two  houses, , 
namely,  the  Lagthing  and  Odclsthing. 

2.  None  shall  have  a  right  to  vote  but  Nor- 
wegians, who  have  attaineil  twenty-five  years, 
and  resided  in  the  country  during  five  years. 
1.  Those  wlio  are  exercising,  or  who  have  exer- 
cised functions.  2.  Possess  land  in  the  country, 
which  has  been  let  for  more  than  five  years.  3. 
Are  burgesses  of  some  city,  or  possess  eitlier  in 
it,  or  some  village,  a  house,  or  property  of  the 
value  of  at  least  three  liundred  bank  crowns  in 
silver. 

3.  There  shall  be  drawn  up  in  cities  by  the 
magistrates,  and  in  every  parish  by  the  iiubllc 
authority  and  the  priest,  a  register  of  all  the  iu- 


570 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  NORWAY. 


haliitiints  who  are  voters.  They  slmll  also  note 
in  it  with(<ut  delay,  tlioBC  changes  which  may 
successively  take  place.  Before  iM-ing  inscribed 
in  the  register,  every  one  shall  take  an  oath,  be- 
fore the  tribunal,  of  fidelity  to  the  constitution. 

4.  Right  of  voting  is  suspended  in  the  follow- 
ing cases:  1.  By  the  accumition  of  crime  before 
a  tribuital ;  3.  By  not  attaining  the  proper  age ; 
8.  By  insolvency  or  bankruptcy,  \nitil  creditors 
have  obtained  their  payment  in  whole,  \inless  it 
can  be  proved  that  the  former  has  arisen  from 
tire,  or  other  unforeseen  events. 

a.  The  riglit  of  voting  is  forfeited  deliniti  vcly : 

1.  By  condenuiation  to  the  lio\ise  of  correction, 
slavery,  or  punishment  for  defamatory  language ; 

2.  By  acceptance  of  tlie  service  of  a  foreign 
power,  witliout  the  consent  of  government.  3. 
By  obtaining  the  right  of  citizen  in  a  foreign 
co\ui|ry.  4.  By  conviction  of  liaving  purchased 
ancl  sold  votes,  and  having  voted  in  more  than 
one  electoral  assembly. 

O.  The  electoral  assemblies  and  districts  arc 
held  every  three  years,  and  sliall  finish  before  the 
end  of  the  month  of  Decemlwr. 

7.  Electoral  assemblies  shall  be  held  for  the 
country,  at  tlic  manor-house  of  the  i)ari8h,  the 
church,  town-hall,  or  some  other  tit  place.  In 
the  country  they  shall  be  directed  by  the  first 
minister  and  assistants;  and  in  towns,  by  magis- 
trates and  slieriffs;  election  shall  be  made  in  tlie 
onler  appointed  by  the  registers.  Disputes  con- 
cerning the  riglit  of  voting  slnill  be  decided  by 
the  directors  of  the  assembly,  from  whose  judg- 
ment an  appeal  may  be  made  to  tlie  Htorlhing. 

8.  Before  proceeding  to  the  election,  tlie  con- 
stitution shall  be  read  with  a  loud  voice  in  tlic 
cities,  by  the  first  magistrate,  and  in  the  country 
by  the  curate. 

O.  In  cities,  an  elector  shall  be  chosen  by  fifty 
eligibl.'  inliabitants.  They  shall  assemble  eight 
days  after,  in  the  place  ap|)ointed  by  the  magis- 
trate, and  choose,  either  from  amongst  themselves, 
or  from  others  who  are  eligible  in  the  department 
of  tlieir  election,  a  fourth  of  their  number  to  sit 
at  tlie  Storthing,  thai,  is  after  the  manner  of  three 
to  si.x  in  choosing  one ;  seven  to  ten  in  electing 
two;  eleven  to  fourteen  in  choosing  three,  and 
fifteen  to  ■  iglitcen  in  electing  four;  which  is  tlie 
greatest  number  permitted  to  a  city  to  send.  If 
these  consist  of  less  than  150  eligible  inhabitants, 
they  shall  send  the  electors  to  the  nearest  city,  to 
vote  conjointly  with  tlie  electors  of  the  former, 
wlien  the  two  shall  only  be  considered  as  forining 
one  district.* 

10.  In  each  parish  in  tlie  country  tlie  eligible 
inliabitants  sliall  choose  in  proportion  to  tlieir 
number  electors  in  tlie  following  manner;  that  is 
to  say,  a  hundred  may  clioose  one ;  two  to  three 
liundred,  three;  and  so  on  in  the  same  propor- 
tion.! Electors  shall  assemble  a  month  after,  in 
tlie  place  appointed  by  tlie  bailiff,  and  choose, 
cither  from  amongst  themselves  or  the  others  of 

*  A  law  passed  8tli  February  1816,  contains  this  amend- 
ment. Twenty-five  electors  and  more  shall  not  elect  nioro 
than  tliree  representatives,  which  Rlmll  be.  ad  interim, 
the  greatest  niimher  wliicli  tlie  baitiwielc  can  send  ;  and, 
consequently,  out  of  which  tlie  number  of  representatives 
in  the  county,  which  are  sixty-one,  shall  bo  diminished 
from  fifty  to  fifty-tliree. 

+  If  future  Storthings  discover  the  number  of  repre- 
sentatives of  towns  from  an  increOKe  of  ix>nulation  should 
amount  to  thirty,  the  same  StorthiiiR  stiall  have  riifht  to 
augment  of  now  the  number  of  representatives  of  the 
country,  in  the  manner  fixed  by  the  principles  of  the  con- 
stitution, which  shall  be  held  as  a  rule  in  future. 


the  liailiwick  eligible,  a  tenth  of  tlieir  own  num- 
ber to  sit  at  the  Stortliing,  so  that  five  to  fourleen 
may  choose  one;  fifteen  to  twenty-four  may 
choose  two  of  llieiii;  twenty-five  to  thirty-four, 
three;  thirty-five  and  lieyond  it,  four.  This  istho 
greatest  niimlier. 

1  1.  The  powers  contained  in  tlie  0th  and  10th 
articles  shall  have  their  proper  force  and  elTect 
until  ne.\t  Storthing.  If  it  is  found  that  the  re- 
presenlatives  of  cities  constitute  more  or  less  than 
one-third  of  those  of  the  kingdom,  the  .Storthing, 
as  a  rule  for  the  future,  shall  have  right  to  cliango 
these  powers  in  sucli  a  manner  that  repre.st^uta- 
fives  of  tlie  cif's  may  join  with  those  of  the 
country,  as  one  to  two;  and  the  total  number  of 
reprcsentiifives  ought  not  to  be  under  seventy- 
five,  nor  above  (me  liundred. 

12.  Those  eligible,  who  are  in  tlie  country, 
and  are  prevented  from  attending  by  sickness, 
military  service,  or  otiier  proper  reasons,  can 
transmit  tlieir  votes  in  writing  to  tho.se  who  direct 
tile  electoral  assemblies,  before  tlieir  terminafion. 

IJJ.  No  person  can  be  clios<'ii  a  representative, 
unless  he  is  thirty  years  of  age,  ami  has  resided 
ten  years  in  the  country. 

14.  The  members  of  council,  those  employed 
in  tlieir  offices,  ofiicers  of  the  court,  and  its  pen- 
sioners, sliall  not  be  cliosen  as  rei)reseiitatives. 

15.  Individuals  chosen  to  lie  representatives, 
are  obliged  to  accept  of  tlie  election,  unless  pre- 
vented by  motives  considered  lawful  by  the  elect- 
ors, whose  judgment  may  be  submitted  to  tlie 
decision  of  tlie  Storthing.  A  person  who  lias 
appeared  more  than  once  as  representative  at  an 
ordinary  Stortliing,  is  not  obliged  to  accept  of  the 
electiim  for  tlie  ne.\t  ordinary  Storthing.  If  legal 
reasons  prevent  a  representative  from  apiiearing 
at  tlie  Storthing,  the  person  who  after  him  lias 
most  votes  shall  take  his  jilace. 

lO.  As  soon  as  representatives  have  been 
elected,  tliey  shall  receive  a  writing  in  the  coun- 
try from  tlie  superior  magistrate,  and  in  tlie  cities 
from  the  magistrate,  also  from  all  the  electors, 
as  a  [iroof  tliat  they  have  been  elected  in  the  man- 
ner prescribed  by  tlie  constitution.  The  Storth- 
ing .shall  judge  of  the  legality  of  this  authority. 

17.  All  representatives  have  a  riglit  to  claim 
an  indemnification  in  travelling  to  and  returning 
from  tlie  Storthing;  as  well  as  subsistence  dur- 
ing the  period  tliey  shall  have  remained  tliere. 

18.  During  tlie  journey,  and  return  of  repre- 
sentatives, as  well  as  the  time  tliey  may  have 
attended  the  Storthing,  they  are  exempted  from 
arrest;  unless  tliey  are  seized  in  some  flagrant 
and  public  act,  and  out  of  the  Storthing  they  sliall 
not  be  responsible  for  llie  opinions  they  may  liave 
(leclared  in  it.  Every  one  is  bound  to  conform 
himself  to  the  order  established  in  it. 

lO.  Representatives,  chosen  in  tlie  manner 
above  declared,  compose  tlie  Storthing  of  tlic 
liingdom  of  Norway. 

20.  The  opening  of  the  Storthing  shall  lie 
made  tlic  first  lawful  day  in  tlie  month  of  Febru- 
ary, every  three  years,  in  tlie  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, unless  tlie  king,  in  extraordinary  circum- 
stances, by  foreign  invasion  or  contagious  disease, 
fixes  on  some  other  city  of  the  kingdom.  Such 
change  ought  tlien  to  be  early  annoiineed. 

21.  In  extraordinary  cases,  the  king  has  the 
right  of  a.ssembling  the  Storthing,  witliout  re- 
spect to  the  ordinary  time.  The  king  will  then 
cause  to  be  issued  a  proclamation,  which  is  to  be 
read  in  all  the  principal  churches  six  weeks  at 


571 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  NOUWAY. 


IcHHt  pix'vioUB  to  tb(3  iluy  flxf<l  fur  the  asscm- 
Miiig  of  iiii'IiiImth  of  the-  Storthing  at  tlic  pluce 
uji|)ointi'(l. 

22.  Hticli  cxtriiordinary  HtortliinK  may  iMidis- 
8olv('(l  by  till;  king  wiicn  iii-  Himll  Juilgu  tit. 

2i).  MLMiil>C'rti  of  till!  Stortliiiig  Kliall  continue 
ill  till)  cxtTcisu  of  tlifir  otlico  (iiiring  tlirce  con- 
wciitivc  ycurH,  iia  inncli  during  an  extraordinary 
ns  any  ordinary  Stortiiing  tliat  might  bu  lieid 
during  tliis  time. 

24.  If  an  extraordinary  Storthing  is  lieid  at  a 
time  wiieii  tiie  ordinary  Stortiiing  oiiglit  to  as- 
geinlile,  tile  funetion.s  of  tlie  llrHt  will  cease,  as 
Boon  as  tlie  second  Hliall  liave  met. 

2n.  The  extraordinary  Storthing,  no  more 
tlian  tlie  ordinary,  can  be  held  if  two-thirds  of 
the  iiieniliers  do  not  Iiappen  to  lie  present. 

2((.  As  soon  as  the  Stortiiing  sliail  be  orgau- 
ixed,  the  l(ing,  or  the  person  who  sliaii  lie  ap- 
pointed by  liim  for  tliat  i)urpoBe,  sliall  open  it  liy 
an  address,  in  wliicii  lie  is  to  descrilic  tlie  state  of 
the  kingdom,  and  those  ol)jccts  to  which  lie  di- 
rects llie  attention  of  the  Storthing.  No  delilier- 
ution  ouglit  to  take  place  in  the  king's  presence. 
The  Storthing  sliall  choose  from  its  members  one- 
fourth  imrt  to  form  tlie  I^gthing,  and  the  other 
tliree-fourths  to  constitute  tlie  Odelsthing.  Eacli 
of  these  houses  shall  have  its  private  meetings, 
and  nominate  its  president  and  secretary. 

27.  It  lielongs  to  the  Storthing, —  1.  To  make 
and  abolisli  laws,  cstablisli  imposts,  taxes,  cus- 
tom-houses, and  other  public  acts,  wliich  sliall, 
however,  only  exist  until  the  1st  of  July  of  that 
year,  when  a  new  Storthing  sliall  be  assembled, 
unless  this  last  is  expressly  renewed  by  them. 

3.  To  make  loans,  by  means  of  the  credit  of  the 
state.     3.  To  watch  over  the  finances  of  the  state. 

4.  To  grant  sums  necessary  for  its  expenses.  5. 
To  fix  the  yearly  grant  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  king  and  viceroy,  and  also  appendages  of  tlie 
royal  family ;  which  ought  not,  however,  to  con- 
sist in  landed  property.  6.  To  exhibit  the  regis- 
ter of  the  sitting  council  in  Norway,  and  all  the 
reports,  and  public  documents  (the  affairs  of 
military  command  excepted),  and  certified  copies, 
or  extracts  of  tlie  registers  kept  by  the  ministers 
of  state  and  members  of  council  near  the  king,  or 
tlie  public  documents,  which  shall  have  been  pro- 
duced. 7.  To  communicate  wliatever  treaties 
the  king  sliall  have  concluded  in  tlic  name  of  the 
state  with  foreign  powers,  excepting  secret  arti- 
cles, provided  these  are  not  in  contradiction  with 
the  public  articles.  8.  To  require  all  individuals 
to  appear  before  the  Storthing  on  affairs  of  state, 
the  king  and  royal  family  excepted.  This  is  not, 
however,  applicable  to  the  princes  of  the  royal 
family,  as  tlioy  are  invested  with  other  offices  than 
that  of  viceroy.  9.  To  examine  the  lists  of  pro- 
visional pensions ;  and  to  make  such  alterations 
as  shall  be  judged  necessary.  10.  To  name  five 
revisers,  who  are  annually  to  examine  the  oc- 
counts  of  tlie  state,  and  publish  printed  extracts 
of  these,  which  are  to  be  remitted  to  the  revisers 
also  every  year  before  the  Ist  of  July.  11.  To 
naturalize  foreigners. 

28.  Laws  ouglit  first  to  be  proposed  to  the 
Odelsthing,  either  by  its  own  members  or  the 
government,  through  one  of  the  members  of  coun- 
cil. If  the  proposition  is  accepted,  it  shall  be 
Bent  to  the  Lagthing,  who  approve  or  reject  it; 
and  in  the  last  case  return  it  accompanied  with 
remarks.  These  shall  be  weighed  by  the  Odels- 
thing, which  sets  the  proposed  law  aside,  or 


remits  it  to  the  Lagthing,  with  or  without  alter- 
ations. Wlii'ii  a  law  shall  have  lH>en  twice  pro- 
posed by  the  Odelsthing  to  tlie  Lagthing,  and 
tlie  latter  shall  have  rejected  it  a  seconirtime, 
the  Storthing  shall  assemble,  when  two-thirds  of 
the  votes  shall  ih-cide  iipim  it.  Three  days  at 
least  ought  to  pass  between  each  of  those  clelib- 
erations. 

2W,'  When  a  resolution  proposed  by  the  Odels- 
thing shall  bo  approved  by  the  Lagthing,  or  by 
the  Storthing  al(mc,  a  deputation  of  these  two 
houses  to  the  Storthing  shall  present  it  to  the 
king  if  he  is  present,  and  if  not,  to  the  viceroy,  or 
Norwegian  council,  and  require  it  may  receive 
tlie  royal  sanction. 

JIG.  Sliould  the  king  approve  of  the  n'solution, 
he  subscribes  to  it,  anil  from  tliat  period  it  is  de- 
I'lared  to  pass  into  a  public  law.  If  he  disap- 
jiroves  lie  retiiins  it  to  tlie  Odelsthing,  declaring 
that  at  >liis  time  he  does  not  give  it  his  stmction. 

t)  1 .  In  this  event,  tlie  Storthing,  then  assem- 
bled, ouglit  to  submit  the  resolution  to  the  king, 
wlio  inav  proceed  in  it  in  the  same  manner  it  the 
first  ordinary  Storthing  presents  again  to  him  the 
same  resolution.  But  if,  after  reconsideration, 
it  is  still  adopted  by  the  two  houses  of  the  third 
ordinary  Storthing,  and  afterwards  submitted  to 
tiie  king,  who  gliall  have  been  intreated  not  to. 
withhold  his  sanction  to  a  resolution  that  the 
Stortiiing,  after  tlie  most  mature  deliberations, 
believes  to  be  useful ;  it  shall  acquire  the  strength 
of  a  law,  even  should  it  not  receive  the  king's 
signature  before  the  closing  of  the  Storthing. 

32.  The  Storthing  sliall  sit  as  long  as  it  shall 
be  judged  necessary,  but  not  beyond  three 
months,  witliout  tlie  king's  permission.  When 
tlie  business  is  finished,  or  after  it  has  assembled 
for  the  time  fixed,  it  is  dissolved  by  the  king. 
Ills  Majesty  gives,  at  tlic  same  time,  his  sanc- 
tion to  tlie  decrees  not  already  decided,  either  in 
corroboratinfj  or  rejecting  till  i.  All  those  not  ex- 
pressly sanctioned  are  held  to  be  rejected  by  him. 

33.  Laws  are  to  be  drawn  up  in  the  Norwe- 
gian language,  and  (those  mentioned  in  81st  arti- 
cle excepted)  in  name  of  the  king,  under  tiie  seal 
of  the  kingdom,  and  in  tliese  terms: — "We,  «&c. 
Be  it  known,  that  there  has  been  submitted  to 
us  a  decree  of  the  Storthing  (of  such  a  date) 
thus  expressed  (follows  the  resolution) ;  We  have 
accepted  and  sanctioned  as  law  the  said  decree, 
in  giving  it  our  signature,  and  seal  of  the  king- 
dom." 

34.  The  king's  sanction  is  not  necessary  to  the- 
resolutions  of  the  Stortiiing,  by  which  the  legis- 
lative body, — 1.  Declares  itself  organized  as  the 
Storthing,  according  to  the  constitution.  2. 
Regulates  its  internal  police.  3.  Accepts  or  re- 
jects writs  of  present  members.  4.  Confirms  or 
rejects  judgments  relative  to  disputes  respect- 
ing elections.  5.  Naturalizes  foreigners.  6. 
And  in  sliort,  the  resolution  by  which  tlie  Odels- 
thing orders  some  member  of  council  to  appear 
before  the  tribunals. 

35.  Tlie  Storthing  can  demand  the  advice  of 
the  supreme  tribunal  in  judicial  matters. 

30.  The  Storthing  will  hold  its  sittings  with 
open  doors,  and  its  acts  shall  be  printed  and  pub- 
lished, excepting  in  cases  where  a  contrary  meas- 
ure shall  have  been  decided  by  the  plurality  of 
votes. 

37.  Whoever  molests  the  liberty  and  safety  of 
the  Storthing,  renders-  himself  guilty  of  an  act  of 
high  treason  towards  the  country. 


572 


CONSTITUTION  OP  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  NORWAY. 


Title  IV. 

Article  1.  Tlu^  mi'mlicrM  of  tlio  LiigthiiiK  mid 
supri'tiK!  trihiiiial  coiiiposiii;  tlio  Hlgsrct,  Ju<lj?o 
ill  tliu  tlrat  1111(1  IiiHt  limtiiiiri'  of  the  nlfiiira  cntcrt'd 
upmi  l)v  tlic  OdelHtliiiig,  either  iigiilnst  tlic  mem- 
bers of  council  or  siiprcnu'  tribiimil  for  crimes 
committed  in  the  excr  .■  of  their  ollices,  or 
iigninat  the  members  n  Storthing  for  nets  com- 
mitted by  them  in  ii  similar  ciipuclty.  The  presi- 
dent of  the  Lngthing  has  the  precedence  in  the 
Higsret. 

3,  The  accused  can,  without  declaring  his  mo- 
tive for  so  doing,  refuse,  even  a  tliird  part  of  the 
members  of  the  Rigsret,  provided,  however,  that 
tlie  nuinlierof  persons  who  compose  this  tr'bunal 
be  not  reduced  to  less  than  fifteen. 

3.  The  supreme  tribunal  shall  judge  in  the 
last  instance,  and  ought  not  to  lie  composed  of  a 
lesser  number  than  the  resident  and  six  assessors. 

4.  In  time  of  peace  the  supremo  tribunal, 
with  two  supc^rior  ofllcers  appointed  by  the  king, 
constitutes  a  tribunal  of  the  second  and  last  re- 
sort in  nil  military  affairs  which  respect  life,  hon- 
our, and  loss  of  liberty  for  a  time  beyond  the 
space  of  three  months. 

5.  The  arrests  of  the  supreme  tribunal  shall 
not  in  any  case  be  called  upon  to  be  submitted  to 
revisal. 

O.  No  person  shall  be  named  member  of  the 
supreme  tribunal,  if  he  has  not  attained  at  least 
thirty  years  of  age. 

Title  V. 
Article  1.  Employments  in  the  states  shall  be 
conferred  only  on  Norwegian  citizens,  who  pro- 
fess the  Evangelical  Lutheran  religion  —  have 
sworn  fidelity  to  the  constitution  and  king,  speak 
the  language  of  the  country,  and  arc, — 1.  Eltlier 
born  in  the  kingdom  of  parents  who  were  then 
subjects  of  the  state.  3.  Or  born  in  a  foreign 
country,  their  father  and  mother  being  Norwe- 
gians, and  at  that  period  not  the  subjects  of 
another  state.  3.  Or,  whoon  the  17th  May,  1814, 
hod  a  permanent  residence  in  the  kingdom,  and 
did  not  refuse  to  take  an  oath  to  maintain  the 
independence  of  Norway,  4.  Or  who  in  future 
shall  remain  ten  years  in  the  kingdom.  5.  Or 
who  have  been  naturalized  by  the  Storthing. 
Foreigners,  however,  may  be  nominated  to  these 
otiicial  situations  in  the  university  and  colleges, 
as  well  as  to  those  of  physicians,  and  consuls  in 
a  foreign  country.  In  order  to  succeed  to  an 
office  in  the  superior  tribunal,  the  person  must 
be  thirty  years  old ;  and  to  fill  a  place  in  the  in- 
ferior magistracy, —  a  judge  of  the  tribunal  of 
first  instance,  or  a  public  receiver,  he  must  be 
twenty -five. 

2.  Norway  does  not  acknowledge  herself  ow- 
ing any  other  debt  than  that  of  her  own. 

3.  A  new  general  code,  of  a  civil  and  criminal 
nature,  shall  first  be  published ;  or,  if  that  is  im- 
practicable, at  the  second  ordinary  Storthing. 
Meantime,  the  laws  of  the  state,  as  at  present  ex- 
isting, shall  preserve  their  effect,  since  they  are 
not  contrary  to  this  fundamental  law,  or  provi- 
sional ordinances  published  in  the  interval.  Per- 
manent taxes  shall  continue  to  be  levied  until 
next  Storthing. 

4.  No  protecting  dispensation,  letter  of  respite, 
or  restitutions,  shall  be  granted  after  the  new 
general  code  shall  be  published. 

5.  No  persons  can  be  judged  but  in  conformitv 
to  the  law,  or  be  pimished  until  a  tribunal  shall 


have   taken  cogniznm'e  of  tin-  charj-'es  directed 
agidiiHt  them.     Torture  shall  never  take  place. 
H.   Laws  shall  have  no  retroactive  efleet. 

7.  Fees  due  to  otllcers  of  justice  are  not  to  bo 
comliined  with  rents  payable  to  the  public  treas- 
ury. 

8.  Arrest  ought  not  to  take  place  excepting  in 
cases  and  in  tlii^  manner  llxed  by  law.  Illegal 
arrests,  and  unlawful  delays,  render  liim  who 
oceasiims  them  responsible  to  tlie  person  arrested. 
Government  is  not  authorized  to  employ  military 
force  against  the  memlKTs  of  the  statt ,  but  un- 
der the  forms  preserilied  by  the  laws,  unless  an 
assembly  which  disturbs  the  public  tninquillity 
does  not  instantly  disperse  after  the  iirticles  of 
the  code  {'omcrning  sedition  shall  hive  been 
read  aloud  thrci'  times  by  the  civil  autliorities. 

1>.  The  liberty  of  the  press  sliall  lie  estab- 
lished. No  person  can  be  punished  tor  a  writ- 
ing he  has  ordered  to  be  jirinted  or  jmblishcd, 
whatever  may  lie  the  contents  of  it,  unless  he 
has,  by  himself  or  others,  wilfully  declared,  or 
prompted  others  to,  disobedience  of  the  laws, 
contempt  for  religion,  and  constitutioiml  powers, 
and  resistance  to  their  operations;  or  has  ad- 
vanced false  and  defamatory  accusations  against 
others.  It  is  permitted  to  every  oiu!  to  speak 
freely  his  opinion  on  tlie  administrution  of  the 
state,  or  on  any  other  object  whatever. 

10.  New  and  permanent  restrictions  on  the 
freedom  of  industry  are  not  to  be  granted  in 
future  to  any  one. 

11.  Domiciliary  visits  are  prohibiU^d,  except- 
ing in  the  cases  of  criminals. 

12.  Refuge  will  not  be  granted  to  those  who 
shall  be  bankrupts. 

13.  Xo  person  can  In  any  case  forfeit  his 
landed  jiioperty,  and  fortune. 

14.  If  the  interest  of  the  state  requires  thot 
any  one  should  sacrifice  his  moveable  or  immove- 
able property  for  the  public  benefit,  he  shall  be 
fully  indemnified  by  the  public  treasury. 

15.  The  capital,  as  well  as  the  revenues  of  the 
domains  of  tlie  church,  can  bo  applied  only  for 
the  interests  of  the  clergy,  and  the  prosperity  of 

fmblic  instruction.  The  property  of  benevolent 
nstitutions  shall  be  employed  only  for  their  profit. 
10.  The  right  of  the  power  of  redemption 
called  Odelsret*,  and  that  of  possession,  called 
Afojdesret  (father's  right),  shall  exist.  Particu- 
lar regulations,  which  will  render  these  of  util- 
ity to  the  states  and  agriculture,  shall  be  deter- 


mined by  the  first  or  second  Storthing. 
17.  No  county,   barony,   majorat  or 


'fldel 


commis"f  sliall  be  created  for  the  future. 

18.  Every  citizen  of  the  state,  without  re- 
gard to  birth  or  fortune,  shall  be  equally  obliged, 
during  a  particular  period,  to  defend  his  coun- 
try. J  The  application  of  this  principle  ond  its 
restrictions,  as  well  as  the  question  of  ascertain- 
ing to  what  point  it  is  of  benefit  to  the  country, 
that  this  obligation  should  cease  at  the  age  of 
twenty-five,— shall  be  abandoned  to  the  decision 

•  In  virtue  of  tho  rleht  of  "  Odelaret."  mnmbers  of  a 
family  to  wliom  certain  laads  oriKtnally  iwrtained,  can 
reclaim  and  retake  [jOBseBsion  of  tlie  Kanie,  even  atUtr  the 
lapse  of  centuries,  provided  these  lauds  are  repreHenta- 
live  of  the  title  of  the  family;  that  is,  if  for  every  ten 
years  successively  they  shall  have  judicially  made  reser- 
vation of  their  right.  This  custom,  injurious  perhaps  to 
tlie  progress  of  agriculture,  does,  however,  attach  the 
peasants  to  their  native  soil. 

+  Entail. 

t  Every  person  is  obliged  to  serve  from  twenty-one  to 
twenty-three,  and  not  after. 


673 


CONSTITUTION  OP  NORWAY. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUSSIA. 


of  thn  flrxl  onllnnry  HUirtlilnK,  nftir  llicy  Hhall 
have  Ih'i'ii  illNcliiirKi''!  I>y  a  ('oiiiniiltt'c;  in  tlic 
nivautiiiu',  viK'iniuH  cfTortM  hIiiiII  pri-mTvi-  tlii'ir 
effoct. 

lO.  Norway  shall  ri'taiii  her  own  langiiauc, 
her  own  tlnaiiccR  itiiil  coin:  inHtltutloiiH  whluli 
■hall  lif  (IcU'riiiiniMl  npon  by  lawn. 

20.  Norway  Iiuh  the  rlnl't  '>f  Imvlnj?  hi-r  own 
flaKof  trndi-unil  war,  wliicliNhall  be  an  union  lla^. 

!il.  If  (■xprricncc  Hhould  hIiow  llic  necessity 
of  clianKiiiK  Home  imrt  of  this  fundamental  law, 
a  proposition  to  this  purpoHi;  shall  be  made  to  au 

CONSTITUTION  OF  PLYMOUTH 
COLONY  (Compact  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers). 
Ben  MAHHAcuuHKri's:  A.  U.  1U20. 


I  ordinary  Storthliif;,  published  and  printed ;  and 
j  it  oidy  pertains  to  the  next  ordinary  Slorthluff 
j  to  decide  if  the  chuuKe  proposeil  oujitht  to  In) 
efTectual  or  not.  Such  alteration,  however, 
ouKht  iieviT  to  Ik-  contrary  to  the  principles  of 
this  fundamental  law ;  and  should  only  have  for 
its  object  thoH<*  modifications  in  which  particular 
reftuiations  do  not  alter  the  spirit  of  the  consti- 
tution. Two-thirds  of  the  Htorthinj^  outfht  to 
agree  upon  such  a  chaiiKe.  (.'hrlstiaua,  4th  No- 
vember, 1H14.  See  .Scandinavian  8tatk8(Nou- 
WAY):  A.  D.  1814-1815. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    POLAND    (The 

old).    .Sec  Poland:   A.  I).  inTil,  and  1578-1(152. 
. . .  .(of  1791).     See   P01.ANU:  A.  D.  1791-1798. 


CONSTITUTION  OF   PRUSSIA. 


The  followiuK  text  of  the  Constitution  granted 
l)y  FrediTick  William,  King  of  Prussia,  on  the 
Ulst  of  January,  1850,  with  subsectucnt  altera- 
tions, is  a  translation  made  by  Mr.  Charles 
Lowe,  and  published  in  the  appendix  to  his  Life 
of  Prince  IHsniarek,  1885. 

Wk,  Frederick  William,  &c.,  hereby  proclaim 
and  give  to  know  that,  whereas  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Prussian  State,  promulgated  by  us 
on  the  5lh  December,  1848,  subject  to  revision 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  legislation,  and  recog- 
nised by  both  Chambers  of  our  Kiugdom,  has 
been  submitted  to  the  prescribed  revision;  we 
have  linuUy  established  that  Constitution  in 
agreement  with  both  Chambers.  Now,  there- 
fore, we  promulgate,  as  a  fundamental  law  of 
the  State,  as  follows: — 

Article  i. — All  parts  of  the  Monarchy  in  its 
present  extent  form  the  Prussian  Stat<!  Territory. 

Article  a.— The  limits  of  this  State  Territory 
can  only  be  altered  by  law. 

Article  3. — The  Constitution  and  the  laws  de- 
termine under  what  conditions  the  quality  and 
tivil  rights  of  a  Prussian  may  be  acquired,  exer- 
cised, and  forfeited. 

Article  4. — All  Prussians  are  equal  before  the 
,  law.  Class  privileges  there  are  none.  Public 
■^  olllccs,  subject  to  the  conditions  imposed  by 
law,  are  equally  accessible  to  all  who  are  com- 
petent to  hold  tlicm. 

Article  5. — Personal  freedom  is  guaranteed. 
The  forms  and  conditions  under  which  ony  limi- 
tation thereof,  especially  arrest,  is  permissible, 
will  be  determined  by  law. 

Article  6. — The  domicile  is  inviolable.  Intru- 
sion and  sciirch  therein,  as  well  as  the  seizing  of 
letters  anil  iiapers,  are  only  allowed  in  legally 
settled  cases. 

Article  7. — No  one  may  be  deprived  of  his  law- 
ful judge.  Exceptional  tribunals  and  extraordi- 
nary commissions  are  inadmissible. 

Article  8. — Punishments  can  only  be  threatened 
or  iullicted  according  to  the  law. 

Article  9. — Property  is  inviolable.  Itcan  only 
be  taken  or  curtailed  from  reasons  of  jniblic  weal 
*"  and  expediency,  and  in  return  for  statutory  com- 
pensation which,  in  urgent  cases  at  least,  shall 
be  fixed  beforehond. 

Article  10.— Civil  death  and  confiscation  of 
property,  as  punishments,  are  not  possible. 


Article  11. — Freedom  of  emigration  can  only 
bo  limited  by  the  Stale,  with  reference  to  military 
service.     Migration  fees  may  not  Ixs  levied. 

Article  la. — Freedom  of  religious  confession, 
of  meeting  In  religious  societies  (Art.  30  and  81), 
and  of  tlie  common  exercise  of  religion  in  private 
and  public,  is  guaranteed.  The  enjoyment  of 
civil  and  political  rights  is  independent  of  re- 
ligious belief,  yet  the  duties  of  a  citizen  or  a  sub- 
ject may  not  be  impaired  by  the  exercise  of  re- 
ligious liberty. 

Article  13. — Religious  and  clerical  societies, 
which  have  no  corporate  rights,  can  only  ac(iuire 
tlio.sc  rights  by  siiecial  laws. 

Article  14. — The  Christian  religion  is  taken  as 
the  basis  of  those  State  institutions  which  are 
connected  with  the  exercise  of  religion  —  all  re- 
ligious liberty  guaranteed  by  Art.  13  notwith- 
standing. 

Article  15.*— The  Protestant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic Churches,  as  well  as  every  other  religioug 
society,  regulate  and  administer  their  own  affairs 
in  an  independent  manner,  and  remain  in  posses- 
sion and  enjoyment  of  the  institutions,  founda- 
tions, and  moneys  intended  for  their  purposes  of 
public  worship,  education,  and  charity. 

Article  l6.* — Intercourse  between  religious 
societies  and  their  superiors  shall  be  tmobstructed. 
The  making  public  of  Church  ordinances  is  only 
subject  to  those  restrictions  imposed  on  all  other 
publications. 

Article  17. — A  special  law  will  be  passed 
with  respect  to  Church  patronage,  and  to  the 
conditions  on  which  it  may  be  abolished. 

Article  18.* — Abolished  is  the  right  of  nom- 
inating, proposing,  electing,  and  confirming,  in 
the  matter  of  appointments  to  eccl'^siastical 
posts,  iu  so  far  as  it  belongs  to  the  State,  and  is 
not  based  on  patronage  or  special  legal  titles. 

Article  19. — Civil  marriage  will  be  introduced 
in  accordance  with  a  special  law,  which  shall  also 
regulate  the  keeping  of  a  civil  register. 

Article  20. — Science  and  its  doctrines  are  free. 

Article  21. — The  education  of  youth  shall  be 
sufBciently  cared  for  by  public  schools.  Par- 
ents and  their  substitutes  may  not  leave  their 
children  or  wards  without  that  education  pre- 
scribed for  the  public  folk-schools. 


•  Affected  by  the  T  k  laws  of  1875,  and  by  the  act  of 
1887  which  repealea  .hem.  See  Qbrhant:  A.  D.  1873- 
1887. 


574 


CONBTITUTION  OP  PIIUH8IA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUH8IA. 


Article  aa.— Every  oim  rIihII  Ik-  ut  liberty  to 
fflvt!  liiHtriiction,  mill  cHluliliHh  iiiNtitiitionH  fur 
cloiiiK  *<>i  proviilluK  !>•'  nIiiiII  Iiuvo  kIvi'Ii  prixif  of 
IiIh  luoriil,  H('lfiititl(\  and  ticliiilcal  cupuclty  t(i 
the  Sliitt'  iiulliDrillcs  coiiccriii'd 

Article  23. — All  piililic  itiut  privutt!  liiHtitti- 
tloimof  nil  t'duciitioiuil  klml  uri:  under  the  super- 
vIhIiiii  of  autlioritii'H  ui)p<iliited  by  the  Htato. 
Public  teacbertt  have  tliu  rights  and  duties  uf 
Htatt!  HervaiitH. 

Article  34. — In  the  eHtubHHhinent  of  public 
folk  schools,*  confessional  dillerenccs  shall  re- 
ceive thi^  greatest  possll)le  eonslileratlon.  Ke- 
ll)(lous  hiNlrucMon  in  th<^  folksi 'lools  will  be 
superintended  by  the  rellKlous  hX'ietles  con- 
cerned. OliarKc  of  the  other  (external)  atfairs  of 
the  folksch(M)l8  belongs  to  the  Parish  (Com- 
mune). WItli  the  statutory  co-operation  of  the 
(lommune,  the  Htate  shall  appoint  teachers  In 
the  public  folk-st'hools  from  the  number  of  those 
(|ua'illed  (for  such  posts). 

Article  ac. — The  means  forestabllHliIng,  inain- 
lalnliiK,  arKl  enlarKhiK  the  public  folk-.sehools 
shall  be  provided  by  tlu;  (y'ommunes,  ubich  may, 
however,  be  assisted  by  the  State  in  proven  cases 
of  parochial  inability.  The  obligations  of  third 
l)ersons  —  based  on  special  legal  titles  —  remain 
in  force.  The  State,  therefore,  gimrantees  to 
teachers  in  folk-schools  a  steady  income  suitable 
to  local  circumstances.  In  public  folk-schools 
education  shall  be  imparted  free  of  charge. 

Article  a6. — A  special  law  will  regulate  all 
matters  of  education. 

Article  27. — Every  Prussian  is  entitled  to  ex- 
press his  opinion  freely  by  word,  writing,  print, 
or  artistic  representation.  Censorship  may  not 
be  introduced ;  every  other  restriethm  on  freedom 
of  the  Press  will  only  be  Imposed  by  law. 

Article  38. — Offences  committed  by  word, 
writing,  print,  or  artistic  representation  will  be 
punished  in  accordance  with  the  general  penal 
code. 

Article  29. — All  Pnissinns  are  entitled  to  meet 
in  closed  rooms,  peacefully  and  unarmed,  with- 
out previous  permission  from  the  authorities. 
But  this  provision  docs  not  apply  to  open-air 
meetings,  which  are  subject  to  the  law  with  re- 
spect to  previous  permission  from  the  authori- 
ties. 

Article  30. — All  Prussians  have  the  right  to 
assemble  (in  societies)  for  such  purposes  as  do  not 
contravene  the  penal  laws.  The  law  will  regu- 
late, witli  special  regard  to  the  preservation  of 
public  security,  the  exercise  of  '.'.le  right  guaran- 
teed by  this  and  the  preceding  orticle. 

Article  31. — The  law  shall  determine  the  con- 
ditions on  which  corporate  rights  may  be  granted 
or  refused. 

Article  33. — The  right  of  petitioning  belongs 
to  all  Prussians.  Petitions  under  a  collective 
name  are  only  permitted  to  authorities  and  cor- 
porations. 

Article  33. — The  privacy  of  letters  is  inviola- 
ble. The  necessary  restrictions  of  this  right,  in 
cases  of  war  and  of  criminal  investigation,  will 
be  determined  by  law. 

Article  34. — All  Prussians  are  bound  to  bear 
arms.  The  extent  and  manner  of  this  duty  will 
be  fixed  by  law. 

Article  35. — The  army  comprises  all  sections 
"■■  dli  


of  the  standing  army  and  the  Landwehr  (terri- 
Volkschulo"  better  than  by 


•We  cannot  translate 
'foUc-scbool." 


torlol  forces).     In  th(<  event  of  war,  the  King  can 
<'all<iut  the  l.andsturm  In  arcon lance  with  the  law. 

Article  36. — 'I'he  armi'd  force  (of  the  nation) 
cull  only  be  I'lnployrd  fur  the  suppression  of  In- 
ternal troubles,  and  the  exn  iillon  of  the  laws,  in 
the  cases  and  inanner  speeilled  by  statute,  and  on 
till'  re(|uisili(ii  'I  the  civil  authorities.  In  the 
latter  respeit  'Xceptlons  will  have  to  be  deter- 
mined by  law. 

Article  37.— The  military  Judiciary  of  the  army 
Is  restricted  to  penal  mattrrs.  and  will  be  regii- 
lateil  by  law.  Provlsloim  with  ri'gard  to  mlll- 
tarv  discipline  will  remain  the  subject  of  special 
orilhianci'S. 

Article  38.— The  armed  force  (of  the  nathui) 
may  not  deliberate  either  when  on  or  off  duty; 
nor  may  it  otlierwl.se  assemble  than  when  com- 
manded to  do  HO.  Assemblii'S  and  meetings  of 
the  l.aiidwehr  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  mili- 
tary institutions,  commands  and  ordinances,  are 
forbidden  even  when  It  is  not  called  out. 

Article  39.— The  provisions  of  .\rts.  Ti,  (1,  20, 
;tO.  and  ICJ  will  only  apply  to  the  army  in  so  far 
as  they  (1(1  not  c(mlllct  with  military  laws  and 
rules  of  discipline. 

Article  40. — The  establishment  of  feudal  ten-  ■/ 
ures  is  forbidden.     The  Keiidal  Union  still  exist- 
ing with  respect  to  surviving  llefs  shall  be  dis- 
solved by  law. 

Article  41. — The  provisions  of  Art,  40  do  not 
apply  to  Crown  tiefs  oi*  to  non-.'itate  llefs. 

Article  43. — Abolished  without  compensatl(jn, 
in  accordance  with  special  laws  passed,  are:  1. 
The  exercise  or  transfer  of  judicial  power  con- 
nected with  the  posseasion  of  certain  lands,  to- 
gether with  the  (lues  and  exemptions  iw'cruing 
from  this  right ;  3.  The  obligationsarising  from 
patriarchal  jurisdiction,  vassalage,  and  former  tax 
and  trading  institutions.  And  with  these  rights 
are  also  abolished  the  counter-servicesand  burdens 
hitherto  therewith  connected. 

Article  43. — The  person  of  the  King  is  Invhila- 
ble. 

Article~44. — The  King's  Ministers  are  responsi- 
ble. All  Oovernment  acts  (documentary)  of  the 
King  reiiuire  for  their  validity  the  approval  of  a 
>Iinister,  who  thereby  assumes  responsibility  for 
them. 

Article  45. — The  King  alone  is  invested  with 
executive  power,  lie  appoints  and  dismisses 
Ministers.  He  orders  the  promulgathm  of  laws, 
and  Issues  the  necessary  ordinances  for  their  exe- 
cution. 

Article  46. — The  King  is  Commander-in-Chief 
of  tlie  army. 

Article  47.— The  King  fills  all  posts  in  the 
army,  as  well  as  in  other  branches  of  the  State 
service,  in  so  far  us  not  otherwise  ordained  by 
law. 

Article  48.— The  King  has  the  right  to  declare 
war  and  make  peace,  and  to  conclude  other 
treaties  with  foreign  governments.  The  latter 
require  for  their  validity  the  assent  of  the  Cham- 
bers in  so  far  as  they  are  commercial  treaties,  or 
impose  burden.s  on  the  State,  or  obligations  on 
its  individual  subjects. 

Article  49.— The  King  has  the  right  to  par- 
don, an('  to  mitigate  punishment.  But  in  favour  • 
of  a  Minister  condemned  for  his  olficial  acts, 
this  right  can  only  be  exercised  on  the  motion  of 
that  Chamber  whence  his  indictment  emanated. 
Only  by  special  law  can  the  Kmg  suppress  in- 
quiries already  instituted. 


575 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PnUHHIA. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PUUSHIA. 


Article  50.— Tlic  Kliij?  nmy  ronfcr  imlvrn  nml 
other  ilUtiiictioim.  nut  larryiiiK  with  tliciii  iirivi 
li'Ki'H.  Ill'  rxcrriiw'M  the  rlxht  of  coinuKu  In  m- 
fonliiiuT  with  tlic  law. 

Article  sx. — Tht-  Khig  convoliuM  tlii<  CIiiiim' 
iMrN,  and  Wdhch  thrir  M'DHinnH.  IIi;  nmy  iliHwilvi' 
•4  botli  lit  onci',  i>r  only  oni'  iit  11  tinir.  In  hiicIi  11 
ciue,  liowvvcr,  the  I'lectoni  niiiHt  lie  iinhciiiIiIi'iI 
within  u  i)(>riiMl  of  (H)  tlnyi,  iinil  thr  ('hitiiibrrs 
luinnioncil  within  11  pi'riod  of  (M)  ilsyfi  rcupi'ct' 
Ivf'ly  lifter  the  iUhhoIiiIIoh. 

Article  5a.— The  KIiik  con  mljoiim  thu  Chiini- 
bcrM.  Hut  without  their  luwent  thiH  iKljouni' 
iiienl,  nmy  not  exceed  the  Hpiiee  of  *)  dayB,  nor 
liu  repented  iluriiiK  the  Hiinie  Hciuiion. 

Article  53.— Tlie  (!rown,  ncconllnR  to  the 
luWH  of  the  Hoyul  Hoiihu,  Ih  iKireditiiry  in  the 
mule  lliiu  of  tliut  Ilouac  in  necordnnco  with  the 
law  of  priinoKen  tuns  imd  UKnutic  sueccsHlon 

Article  54.— Tlie  Klnj?  iittninH  his  iniijority  on 
conipletlnft  Ids  I8th  yeiir.  In  pnsenre  of  the 
united  I'lmiiiberH  he  will  tiiko  the  otith  to  oli- 
wrve  the  CoiiHtltutlon  of  the  Monarchy  Htciid- 
fiiHtly  uud  invioliibly,  and  to  rule  in  accordnncu 
with  it  and  the  Iuwh. 

Article  55. — Without  the  consent  of  both 
Chuinbers  the  Kin)i;  cannot  also  bo  ruler  of  for- 
I'Ikii  rciilius  (lielchc). 

Article  56.— If  thu  King  is  u  minor,  or  is 
otherwise  lastingly  prevented  from  ruling  him- 
self, the  Hegency  will  be  undertaken  by  that 
agnate  (Art.  53)  who  has  attained  his  majority  and 
stands  nearest  the  Crown.  Ho  has  Immediately  to 
convoke  the  Cliumbcrs,  which,  in  united  session, 
will  decide  as  to  the  necessity  of  the  Regency. 

Article  S7-  —If  there  be  no  agnate  of  age,  and 
if  no  legal  provision  has  previously  been  made 
for  such  a  contingency,  the  Ministry  of  Htiite  will 
»  convoke  the  Clminbers,  which  shall  then  elect  a 
Hegeut  in  united  session.  And  imtil  the  assump- 
tion of  the  Hegency  by  him,  the  Ministry  of  State 
will  conduct  the  Government. 

Article  58. — The  Hcgent  will  exercise  the  pow- 
ers invested  in  tlie  King  In  the  lattcr's  name ;  and, 
after  institution  of  the  Itegency,  he  will  take  an 
oath  before  the  united  Chambers  to  observe  the 
Constitution  of  the  Monarchy  steadfastly  and  in- 
violably, and  to  ride  in  accordance  with  it  and 
tb^  laws.  Until  this  oath  is  taken,  the  whole 
M.,  stry  of  State  for  the  time  being  will  remoin 
responsible  for  all  acts  of  the  Government. 

Article  59. — To  the  Crown  Trust  Fund  appcr- 
talug  the  annuity  drawn  from  the  income  of  the 
forests  and  domains. 

Article  60. — The  Ministers,  as  well  as  the  State 
ollicials  appointctl  to  represent  them,  have  access 
1  to  each  Clmmbcr,  and  must  at  all  times  be  listened 
to  at  request.  Each  Chamber  con  demand  the 
presence  of  the  Ministers.  The  Ministers  are 
oidy  entitled  to  \  >>te  in  one  or  other  of  the  Cham- 
bers when  membirs  of  It. 

Article  61. — On  the  resolution  of  a  Clmmbcr 
the  Jlinistcrs  may  be  impeached  for  the  crime  of 
infringing  the  Constitution,  of  bribery,  and  of 
'  treason.     The  decision  of  such  a  case  lies  with 

the  Supreme  Tribunal  of  the  Monarchy  sitting  in 
United  Senates.     As  long  as  two  Supreme  Trl- 

bunals  co-exist,  they  shall  unite  for  the  above 

purpose.  Further  details  as  to  matters  of  re- 
sponsibility (criminal)  procedure  (th'jreupon),  and 
punishracutfi,  are  reserved  for  a  special  law. 

Article  62. — The  legislative  power  will  be  ex- 
ercised in  common  by  the  King  and  by  two  Chom- 


IxTH.  Kvery  law  reqiiiri-M  the  luwcnt  of  the  King  1 
and  t  he  two  ( 'liainlxTH.  Money  liills  and  budget* 
shall  llrst  Ih'  laid  iH'fore  the  Hecoiid  Chaiiiber; 
and  thelatterd.  e.,  budgets)  shall  either  be  wholly 
ap|in>ved  by  the  First  Clmniber,  or  rejectoi  alto- 
gether. 

Article  63. — In  tlie  event  only  of  its  being 
urgently  nccesHary  to  maintain  public  Heeurlty, 
or  deal  with  on  unusual  state  of  dlsln'ss  wlien 
the  ('liamlN'rH  are  not  in  session,  ordlimnees, 
wliieh  do  not  contravene  the  ('onstltutlon,  may 
lie  issued  with  the  forie  of  law,  on  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  whole  Ministry.  Hut  these  must  be 
laid  for  approval  before  the  Chamlieni  at  their 
next  meeting. 

Article  64, — The  King,  as  well  as  eoeh  Cham- 
lH!r,  has  the  right  of  proposing  laws.     Hills  that       . 
have  been  rejected  by  one  of  tlu^  ClmmlK'rs,  of 
by    th('    King,    cannot   be   re-irtroduced   in   the 
same  session. 

Articles  65-<i8.— The  First  (.'hamb'.'r  is  formed 
by  royal  orainance,  which  can  o;i!y  be  altered 
by  a  law  to  be  Issued  with  tlie  apfi'.ival  of  the  ^ 
<;iiuuibers.  Tlic  First  (Jhamber  is  cimiposed  of 
members  appointed  by  the  King,  \ih\i  hen^dlt- 
ary  rl)j[hts,  or  only  for  life. 

Article  69. — The  Second  Chamber  consists  of 
4!J0  members.*  Tli(!  electoral  districts  arc  de- 
terminiMl  by  law.  They  may  consist  of  on(!  or 
more  C^'lrcfcs  (Arrondlssements),  or  of  one  or 
more  of  the  larger  towns. 

Article  70. — Every  Prussian  who  has  com- 
pleted his  astli  year  (1.  e.,  attained  his  maiority), 
and  is  capable  of  taking  part  In  the  elections  of 
the  Commune  where  he  is  domiciled,  is  entitled  ^ 
to  act  as  a  primary  voter  (UrwUhlcr).  Any  one 
who  Is  entitled  to  take  part  In  the  election  of 
scverol  Communes,  can  only  exercise  his  right  as 
primary  voter  in  one  Commune. 

Article  71. — For  every  250  souls  of  the  popu- 
lation, one  (secondary)  elector  (Wahlmann)  shall 
be  chosen.  The  primary  voters  fall  into  three 
classes,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  direct 
taxes  they  pay  —  and  in  such  a  manner  as  tirat 
each  class  will  represent  a  third  of  tlie  sum-total 
of  tlie  taxes  paid  by  the  primary  voters.  This 
lum-total  is  reckoned : — (a)  by  Parishes,  in  case 
the  Commune  docs  not  form  of  itself  a  primary 
electoral  district,  (b)  by  (Government)  Districts 
(Bezirke),  in  case  the  primary  electoral  district  con- 
sists of  several  Communes.  The  first  class  consists 
of  those  primary  voters,  highest  in  the  scale  of 
taxation,  who  pay  a  third  of  the  total.  The  sec- 
ond class  consists  of  those  primary  voters,  next 
highest  in  the  scale,  whose  taxes  wrm  a  second 
third  of  the  whole ;  and  the  third  doss  is  made  up 
of  the  remaining  tax-payers  (lowest  in  the  scale) 
who  contribute  the  other  tliird  of  the  whole. 
Each  class  votes  opart,  and  for  a  third  of  the 
secondary  electors.  These  classes  may  be  divided 
into  several  voting  sections,  noi  ■■  of  which,  how- 
ever, must  include  more  than  500  primary  voters. 
The  secondary  voters  are  electetl  in  each  class 
from  the  number  of  the  primary  voters  in  their 
district,  without  regard  to  the  classes. 

Article  72. — The  deputies  ore  elected  by  the 
secondary  voters.  Details  will  be  regulated  by 
an  electoral  law,  which  must  also  make  the  neces- 
bory  provision  for  those  cities  where  flour  and 
slaughter  duties  are  levied  instead  of  direct  taxes. 

•  Orifrinally  S50  only— a  number  which,  In  1881,  was 
increased  by  3,  for  the  Principality  of  Hohentollem,  and 
In  1887  by  80  tor  the  annexed  provinces. 


576 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRUSSIA. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  PRUSSIA. 


Article  73.— The  lp«iBlutlvn  poriiMl  of  the  Sec- 
ond (IlminlMT  Is  (IximI  iit  llirro  yciirs, 

Article  74.— Elljfllilo  iw  (Icpiily  to  tli"  Hornnd 

C'huinliur  U  every    I'rtiHfiiiui   who  Iiuh  completed 

.   bin  tliirtloth  year,  hiis  forfeited  nonu  of  his  elvll 

V  rIgliiS  In  eonfMM|iien('o  of  11  valid  judlcliil  tu'ntcnec, 
ami  liofi  Ih'I'ii  11  I'mssliui  Hulijcct  for  tlireo  yciirs. 
The  president  iiiid  iiu'iiiherii  of  the  Supreme 
(.'hnmocr  of  AcroiinlH  euniiot  Hit  in  either  llougt; 
of  the  Diet  (l.andtiiK). 

Article  75.— After  the  lupso  of  n  legislative 
period  the  C  Immbcrs  will  Im?  eleeled  uiiew,  mid 
the  Hitme  in  the  event  of  dUiuiliitlon.  In  both 
ciwes,  prevloiiH  members  lire  ruollgible. 

Article  76.— Hoth  Houses  of  the  Diet  of  the 
Moimrrhy  shiill  be  regularly  convened  by  the 
King  In  the  perhul  from  the  beginning  of  Novcm- 
\J  b  ;r  in  eiw  h  year  till  the  middle  of  the  followinf 
Januiiry,  and  otherwUo  aa  often  us  circumstAnces 
""Miuiro. 

Article  77. — The  Chambers  will  be  opened  and 
closed  by  the  Ivliig  In  person,  or  liy  n  Minister 
appointed  by  him  to  do  so,  at  a  combined  sit- 
ting of  the  Cliamberg.  Doth  Chambers  shall  be 
siiniiltaneousiy  convened,  opened,  adjourned,  and 
closed.  If  one  Chamber  Is  dissolved,  the  other 
shall  be  at  the  sumo  time  prorogued. 

Article  78, — Each  ('hamber  will  examine  the 
credeiitlnls  ol  Us  members,  mid  decide  thereupon. 
It  will  regulnt ;  its  own  order  of  business  and  dls- 
clpline  by  spr  ,inl  ordinances,  nnd  elect  its  presi- 
dent, vico-pr 'sldents,  and  olBce-1  carers.  Civil 
scrvonts  require  no  leave  of  nbserco  In  order  to 
enter  the  Chui'iber.  If  a  inembei  of  the  Chamber 
accepts  u  salaried  offlco  of  the  State,  or  is  pro- 
moted In  the  ssrvico  of  the  State  to  a  pi)st  Involv- 

V  Ing  higher  rank  or  increase  of  pay,  he  shall  lose 
his  scat  and  vovc  in  the  Chamber,  and  can  only 
recover  his  place  in  it  by  '"-election.  No  one 
can  bo  racmber  of  both  Chami>  ts. 

Article  79. — The  sittings  of   both  Chambers 
arc  public.    On  tho  motion  of  its  president,  1 
of  ten   members,  each  Chamber  may   meet  iu 

Erivate  sitting  —  at  which  this  motion  will  then 
ave  to  be  discussed. 

Article  80. — Neither  of  the  Chambers  can  pass 
a  resolution  unle  there  be  present  a  majority 
of  the  legal  number  of  its  members.  Each 
Chamber  passes  its  resolutions  by  absolute  mu- 
^  jority  of  votes,  subject  to  any  exceptions  that 
may  bo  determined  by  the  order  of  business  for 
elections. 

Article  81. — Each  Chamber  lia.^  the  separate 
right  of  presenting  addresses  to  the  King.  No 
one  may  In  person  present  to  the  Chai"bers,  or 
to  one  of  tlier.i,  a  petition  or  address,  Each 
Chamber  can  transmit  the  communications  made 
to  it  to  the  Ministers,  and  demand  of  them  an 
answer  to  any  grievances  thus  conveyed. 

Article  82. — Each  Chamber  is  entitled  to  ap- 
point commissions  of  Inquiry  into  facts  —  for  its 
own  information. 

Article  83. — The  members  of  both  Chambers 
are  representatives  of  the  whole  people.  Tlicy 
vole  according  to  their  simple  convictions,  and 
are  not  bound  by  commissions  or  instructions. 

Article  84. — For  their  votes  in  the  Chamber 
they  can  never  be  called  to  account,  and  for  the 
opinions  they  express  therein  they  can  only  be 

V  called  to  account  within  the  Chamber,  in  virtue 
of  the  order  of  business.  No  member  of  a 
Chamber  can,  without  Hs  assent,  be  had  up  for 
«zamiuation,  or  be  arrested  during  the  Parlia- 


mentary sesNlon  for  nny  penal  olTrncc,  unlosx  ho 
be  taken  In  the  act,  or  in  the  course  of  the  fol- 
lowing day.  A  Himllar  usMent  Nhall  be  iieccsMury 
In  the  rase  of  arrest  for  debts.  All  crlinlnal 
proeeedingH  ugainst  a  member  of  the  (.'hamlier, 
and  all  arrests  for  |ireliniinury  examination,  or 
civil  arrest,  shall  be  sUHpcndeil  iluring  thi;  I'ar- 
llamcntarv  session  on  demand  from  the  Cluimber 
concerneil. 

Article    85. — The    members    of    the    Sc'cond 
Clhamber  shall  receive  out  of  the  State  Treasury     1 
travelling  expenses  and  daily  feci ,  according  to  a  '■' 
statutory   scale;  and   renunciation   thereof  shall 
be  Inadmissible. 

Article  86.— Tho  judicial  power  will  bo  exor- 
cised in  tlie  name  of  the  King,  by  independent 
tribunals  subject  to  no  other  authority  but  that 
of  the  law.  .lodgment  shall  be  executeil  in  the 
nami^  of  the  King. 

Article  87.— The  judges  will  be  appoinied  for 
life  by  the  King,  or  In  his  name.  They  can  only 
be  removed  or  temporarily  suspended  from  otilce 
by  judicial  sentence,  and  for  reasons  forestu'ii  by 
the  mw.  Tempomry  suspcjision  from  olllce  (not 
ensuing  on  the  strength  of  a  law),  and  Involuntary 
traimfei  to  another  place,  or  to  the  retired  list, 
can  only  take  place  from  the  causes  and  In  tho 
form  meiitioned  by  law,  anil  In  virtue  of  a  Judicial 
seutence.  Hut  these  iirovisions  do  not  apply  to 
cases  of  transfer,  renclered  necessary  by  changes 
in  the  organisation  of  the  courts  or  their  districts. 

Article  88  (aboUithed). 

Artir '  t  89. — The  organisation  of  tho  tribunals 
will  oniy  bo  determined  by  law. 

Article  90 — ."o  the  Juuiciul  olBcc  oniy  thos-' 
can  be  appointed  who  have  qualified  themselves 
for  It  as  I  rescrilwd  by  law. 

Article  >n.— Courts  for  special  kinds  of  affairs, 
and,  in  paf.lcular,  tribunals  for  trade  and  com- 
merce, shall  bo  established  by  statute  in  those 
places  where  1  icul  needs  may  require  them.  Tho 
organisation  an  I  Jurisdiction  of  such  courts,  as 
well  us  their  pr  )ccdure  and  the  appointment  of 
their  members,  the  special  status  of  the  latter, 
and  the  duratl'/n  of  their  office,  will  be  determined 
by  law. 

Article  9;,. — In  Prussia  theie  shall  only  bo  one 
supreme  tri  junal. 

Article  93. — Tho  proceedings  of  the  civil  and 
criminal  CO, irts  shall  be  public.  But  the  public 
may  bo  excluded  by  an  openly  declared  resolution 
of  the  court,  when  order  or  good  morals  may 
seem  endangered  (by  their  admittance).  In  otlier 
casts  publicity  of  proceedings  can  only  be  limited 
by  law. 

Article  94. — In  criminal  cases  the  guilt  of  the 
accused  shall  be  determined  by  jurymen,  in  so 
far  as  exceptions  are  not  determined  by  a  law 
issued  witli  the  previous  assent  of  the  Cham- 
bers. The  formation  of  a  jury-court  shall  bo 
regulated  by  a  law. 

Article  95.— By  a  law  issued  with  the  previ- 
ous  assent  of  the  Chambers,  there  may  be  estab- 
lished a  special  court  whereof  the  jurisdiction 
shall  include  the  crimes  of  higli  treason,  as  well 
as  those  crimes  against  the  internal  and  external 
security  of  the  State,  which  may  be  iLssigned  to 
it  by  law. 

Article  96. — The  competence  of  the  courts  and 
o."  the  administrative  authorities  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  law.  Conflicts  of  authority  between 
tho  courts  and  the  administrative  authorities  shall 
be  settled  by  a  tribunal  appointed  by  law. 


m 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUSSIA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PUU8SIA. 


Article  07. — A  liiw  shall  determiuo  the  condi- 
tions on  which  public,  civil,  and  military  otUcials 
may  Ih;  sued  for  wrongs  committed  by  them  in 
exceeding  their  functions.  But  the  previous 
assent  of  olllcial  superiors  need  not  be  rc- 
(luestcd. 

Article  98. — Tlie  special  legal  status  (Rechts- 
vcrhilltnissc)  of  State  olllcials  (including  advo- 
cates and  solicitors)  not  belonging  to  the  judicial 
class,  shall  be  determined  by  a  law,  which,  with- 
out rostricting  the  Government  in  the  choice  of 
its  executive  agonta,  will  grant  civil  servants 
proper  protection  against  arbitniry  dismissal 
from  their  posts  or  diminution  of  their  pay. 

Article  99.— All  income  and  expenditure  of 
.  the  State  must  be  pre-estimated  for  every  year, 
■^  and  be  presented  in  the  Budget,  which  shall  be 
annually  fixed  by  a  law. 

Article  100. — Taxes  and  dues  for  the  State 
Treasury  may  only  bo  raised  in  so  far  as  they 
shall  have  been  included  in  the  Budget  or  or- 
dained by  special  laws. 

Article  101. — In  the  matter  of  taxes  there 
/  must  bo  no  privilege  of  persons.  Existing  tax- 
^  laws  shall  be  subjected  to  a  revision,  and  all 
^  such  privileges  abolislied. 

Article  102.— State  and  Communal  oflicers  can 
only  levy  dues  on  the  strength  of  a  law. 

Article  103. — The  contracting  of  loans  for  the 
State  Treasury  can  only  be  effected  on  the  strength 
of  a  law ;  anil  tlie  same  holds  good  of  guarantees 
involving  a  burden  to  the  State. 

Article  104. — Budget  transgressions  require 
subscfiuent  approval  by  the  Chambers.  The  Bud- 
get will  be  examined  and  audited  by  the  Supreme 
Cliamber  of  Accounts.  The  general  Budget  ac- 
counts of  every  year,  including  tabular  stiitistics 
of  the  National  Debt,  shall,  with  the  comments 
of  the  Supremo  Chamber  of  Accounts,  be  laid 
before  the  Chambers  for  the  jjurpose  of  exonerat- 
ing the  Government.  A  special  law  will  regulate 
the  establishment  and  functions  of  the  Supreme 
Chamber  of  Accounts. 

Article  105. — The  represenlaliim  and  adminis- 
tration of  the  Communes.  Arrondissements  and 
Provinces  of  the  Prussian  State,  will  be  deter- 
mined in  detail  by  specibl  laws. 

Article  lo6. — Laws  and  ordinances  become 
binding  after  having  been  published  in  the  form 
prescribed  by  law.  The  examination  of  the  valid- 
ity of  properly  promulgated  Royal  ordinances  is 
not  witliin  the  competence  of  the  authorities,  but 
of  the  Chambers. 

Article  107. — The  Constitution  may  be  altered 
by  ordinary  legislative  means;  and  sucli  altera- 
tion sliall  merely  require  the  usual  absolute  ma- 
iority  in  both  Chambers  on  two  divisions  (of  the 
louse),  between  whioli  there  must  elapse  a  period 
of  at  least  twerly-one  days. 

Article  108.— The  members  of  both  Chambers, 
and  all  State  oflieials,  shall  take  the  oath  of  fealty 
and  obedience  to  tlie  King,  and  swear  conscienti- 
ously to  observe  the  Constitution.  The  army 
will  not  take  the  oath  to  the  Constitution. 

Article  109.— Existing  ta.xes  and  dues  will 
continue  to  be  raised ;  and  all  provisions  of  ex- 
isting statute-books,  single  laws,  and  ordinances, 
which  do  not  contravene  the  present  Constitution, 
will  remain  in  force  until  altered  by  law. 

Article  no. — All  authorities  holding  appoint- 
ments in  virtue  of  existing  laws  will  continue 
their  activity  pending  the  issue  of  organic  laws 
aficctiug  them. 


Article  m. — In  the  event  of  war  or  revolu- 
tion, and  pressing  danger  to  public  security 
therefrom  ensuing,  Articles  5,  0,  7,  27,  28,  20,  'SO, 
and  liO  of  the  Constitution  may  be  suspended  for 
a  certain  time,  and  in  certain  districts — the  de- 
tails to  be  determined  by  law. 

Article  11  a. — Until  issue  of  the  law  contem- 
plated in  Article  26,  educational  m'itters  will  be 
coutroll(;d  by  the  laws  at  present  in  force. 

Article  113. — Prior  to  the  vevision  of  the 
criminal  code,  a  special  law  will  deal  with 
offences  committed  by  word,  writing,  print,  or 
artistic  repriisentation. 

Article  114  (abulished). 

Article  115. — Until  issue  of  t"-ie  electoral  law 
contemplated  in  Article  72,  the  ordinance  of  30th 
Jlay,  184i),  touching  the  return  of  deputies  to 
the  Second  Chamber,  will  remain  in  force;  and 
with  this  ordinance  is  associated  the  provisional 
electoral  law  for  elections  to  the  Second  Cham- 
ber in  the  llohenzollern  Principalities  of  30th 
April,  1851. 

Article  116. — The  two  supreme  tribunals  still 
existing  sliall  be  combined  into  one  —  to  be  or- 
ganised by  a  special  law. 

Article  117. — The  claims  of  State  oflieials  ap- 
pointed before  the  promulgation  of  the  Constitu- 
tion shall  be  taken  into  special  consideration  by 
the  Civil  Servant  Law. 

Article  118. — Should  changes  in  the  present 
Constitution  be  rendered  necessary  by  the  Ger- 
man Federal  Constitution  to  be  drawn  up  on  the 
basis  of  'he  Draft  of  26th  May,  1849,  such  altera- 
tions will  be  decreed  by  the  King;  and  the  ordi- 
nances to  this  effect  loid  before  tlie  Chonibers,  at 
their  first  meeting.  The  Chambers  will  then 
have  to  decide  whether  the  changes  thus  pro- 
visionally ordained  harmonise  witli  the  Federal 
Constitution  of  Germany. 

Article  119. — The  Royal  oath  mentioned  in 
Article  54,  as  well  as  the  oath  prescribed  to  be 
taken  by  both  Chambers  and  all  State  officials, 
will  have  to  be  tendered  immediately  after  the 
legislative  revision  of  the  present  Constitution 
(Articles  62  and  108). 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our 
signature  and  seal. 

Given  at  Charlottenburg,  the  31st  January, 
1850.    (Signed)  FniEDUicii  Wiliielm. 

In  connection  with  Article  44  the  course  of  do- 
mestic and  parliamentary  politics  drew  forth  the 
following  Declaratory  Ifcscr.'pt  from  the  German 
Emperor  and  King  of  Prussia,  in  1882: — "The 
iliflit  of  the  King  to  conduct  the  Government  and 
pt-icy  of  Prussia  according  to  his  own  discre- 
tion is  limited  by  the  Constitution  (of  January  81, 
1850),  but  not  abolished.  The  Government  acts 
(documentary)  of  the  King  require  the  counter- 
signature of  a  Minister,  and,  as  was  also  the  case 
before  the  Constitution  was  issued,  have  to  be 
represented  by  the  King's  Ministers;  but  they 
nevertheless  remain  Government  acts  of  the  King, 
from  whose  decisions  they  result,  and  who  thereby 
constitutionally  expresses  his  will  and  pleasure.  It 
is  therefore  not  admissible,  and  leads  to  obscura- 
tion of  the  constitutional  riglits  of  the  King,  when 
their  exercise  is  so  spoken  of  as  if  lliey  emanated 
from  the  Ministci-s  for  the  time  being  responsible 
for  them,  and  not  iroin  the  King  himself.  The 
Constitution  of  Prussia  is  the  expression  of  the 
monarchical  traditica  of  this  country,  whose  de- 
velopment is  based  on  the  living  and  actual  re- 


5V8 


CONSTITUTION  OF  PRUSSIA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


litt  ion.s  of  its  Kings  to  the  people.    Tliesc  relntions, 
moreover,  do  not  admit  of  being  tnuisferrcd  to 
tlie  Ministera  appointed  bv  the  King,  for  they  iit- 
tiicli  to  the  person  of  tlie  King.     Their  preserva- 
tion, too,  is  a  political  necesisity  for  Prussia.     It   i 
is,  tiierefore,  my  will  that  both  in  Prussia  and  in 
the  Legislative  Hodiea  of  the  realm  (or  R  ich),    . 
\/   there  may  be  no  doubt  left  as  to  my  own  a  nsti-   , 
tutional  right  and  that  of  my  successors  to  per- 
sonally conduct  the  policy  of  my  Government ; 
and  that  the  theory  shall  always  be  gainsaid  that 
the  [doctrine  of  the]  inviolability  of  the  person 
of  the  King,  which  has  always  existed  in  Prus-   i 
sia,  and  is  enunciated  by  Article  43  of  the  Con-   | 
stitution,  or  the  necessity  of  a  responsible  coui. 
signature  of  my  Government  acts,  deprives  then, 
of  the  character  of  Royal  and  independent  deci- 
sions.    It  is  the  duty  of  my  Ministers  to  support 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  ROMAN 
EMPIRE.  Sec  Ro.me:  B.  C.  31-A.  D.  14,  and 
A.  I).  '384-305. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  RE- 
PUBLIC. Sec  Home:  IJ.  C.  509,  to  U.  C.  280; 
also  CoMiTi.v  Cknturiat.v;  Comitlv  Cukiat.a.; 
Consuls,  Roman  ;  Consui.au  Tuibunks  ;  Senate, 
Roman;  Pleoeianb. 


my  constitutional  rights  by  protecting  them  from 
doubt  and  obscuration,  and  1  e.\pect  thi^  same 
from  all  State  servants  (IJeamten)  who  have  taken 
to  me  the  olllcial  oath.  I  am  far  from  wishing  to 
impair  the  freedom  of  elections,  but  in  the  case  of 
those  olllcials  who  are  intrusted  with  the  execu- 
tion of  my  Government  acts,  anil  may,  therefore, 
in  conformity  with  the  disciplinary  law  forfeit 
their  situations,  the  duty  solemnly  undertaken  by 
their  oath  of  service  also  applies  to  tli(^  representa- 
tion by  them  of  the  policy  of  my  Government 
during  election  times.  The  faithful  performance 
of  this  duty  I  shall  thankfully  acknowledge,  and 
I  expect  from  all  oflicials  that,  in  view  of  their 
oath  of  allegiance,  they  will  refrain  from  all  agi- 
tation against  my  Government  al.so  during  elec- 
tions.—  Berlin,  "ji\n\niry  4,  1883. —  Wiliielm. 
Von  Bih.mauck.     To  the  Ministry  of  State." 


CONSTITUTION     OF     SOLON.       See 

Atiikns:   B.  C.  504. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  SPAIN  (1812).     See 
Spain:  A.  1).  1814-1827 (1869).    See  Si-ain; 

A.  D.    1800-1873 (The   Early   Kingdoms.) 

Sec  Cortes. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  SULLA.    See  Rcmk: 

B.  C.  88-78. 


CONSTITUTION    OF   SWEDEN. 


"Four  fundamental  lows  account  for  the  pres- 
ent political  constitution  of  Sweden:  the  law 
concerning  the  form  of  government  (regerings- 
formcn)  dated  Juno  0,  1801);  the  law  on  represen- 
tation (riksdags-ordningen),  June  22,  1860;  the 
order  of  successiou  (successions-orduingen),  Sept. 
20,  1810;  and  the  law  on  the  liberty  of  the  press 
(tryckfrihets-fiirordningen),  July  10,  1812.  The 
imion  with  Norway  is  regulated  by  the  act  of 
union  (riks-akten),  Aug.  0.  1815.  .  .  .  The  re- 
presentation of  the  nation,  since  the  law  of  June 
22,  1808,  rests  not  as  formerly  on  the  division  of 
the  nation  into  four  orders,  but  on  election  only. 
Two  chambers,  having  equal  authority,  compose 
the  diet.  The  members  of  the  first  chamber  are 
elected  for  n.-j  years  by  the  'landstingen'  (spe- 
cies of  provincial  assemblies)  and  by  the  '  stads- 
fullmllktigc'  (municipal  counsellors)  of  cities 
which  do  not  sit  in  the  '  landsting. ' " — Lalor's 
Cyclopedia  of  Political  Scienee,  v.  3,  pp.  834-835. 
—"The  First  Chamber  consists  (1892)  of  147 
members,  or  one  deputy  for  every  30,000  of  tlic 
popidatiou.  The  election  of  the  members  takes 
place  by  the  '  Landstings, '  or  provincial  repre- 
sentations, 25  in  number,  and  the  municipal  cor- 
porations of  the  towns,  not  already  represented 
in  the  'Landstings,' Stockholm,  GOtebcrg,  MalmO 
and  NorrkOping.  All  members  of  the  First 
Chamber  must  be  above  35  years  of  age,  and 
must  have  possessed  for  at  least  three  years  pre- 
vious to  the  election  either  real  property  to  the 
taxed  value  of  80,000  kroner,  or  4,444  1.,  or  an 
annual  income  of  4,000  kroner,  or  223  1.  They 
are  elected  for  the  term  of  nine  years,  and  obtain 
no  payment  for  their  services.  The  Second  Cliam- 
l)er  consists  (Autumn  1892)  of  228  members,  of 
whom  76  are  elected  by  the  towns  and  146  by  the 
rural  districts,  one  representative  being  returned 
for  every  10,000  of  the  population  of  towns,  one 
fcr  every  'Domeaga,'  or  rural  district,  of  under 
40  000  inhabitants,  and  two  for  rural  districts  of 


I  over  40,000  inhabitants.  All  natives  of  Sweden, 
I  aged  21,  possessing  real  property  to  the  taxe(l 
i  value  of  1,000  kroner,  or  56  1.,  or  farming,  for 
a  period  of  not  less  than  live  years,  landed 
property  to  the  taxed  value  of  0,000  kroner,  or 
333  1.,  or  paying  income  tox  on  an  annual  in- 
come of  800  kroner,  or  45  1.,  are  electors;  and  all 
natives,  aged  25,  possessing,  and  having  ]ms- 
sessed  at  least  one  year  previous  to  the  election, 
the  s^ime  qvialifications,  may  be  elected  members 
of  the  Second  Chamber.  The  number  of  quuli- 
fled  electors  to  the  Second  Chamber  in  1890  was 
i  288,098,  or  0.0  of  the  population;  only  110,890, 
I  or  38.5  of  the  electors  actually  voted.  In  the 
smaller  towns  and  country  districts  the  election 
may  either  be  direct  or  indirect,  according  to  the 
wish  of  the  majority.  The  election  is  for  the 
term  of  three  years,  and  the  members  obtain 
salaries  for  their  services,  at  the  rate  of  1,200 
kroner,  or  07  1.,  for  each  session  of  four  months, 
besides  travelling  expenses.  .  .  .  The  members 
of  both  Chambers  are  elected  by  ballot,  both  in 
town  and  country." — Sldtesv.an's  Year-book,  1893, 
;).  905. — "The  IJict,  or  R!-sdag,  assembles  every 
year,  in  ordinary  session,  on  the  15th  of  January, 
or  the  day  following,  if  the  1.5th  is  a  holiday.  It 
may  be  convoked  in  extraordinary  session  by  the 
king.  In  case  of  the  decease,  absence,  or  illness 
of  the  king,  the  Diet  may  be,  convoked  extraor- 
dinarily by  the  Council  of  State,  or  even,  if  this 
latter  neglects  to  do  so,  by  the  tribunals  of  seer  nd 
instance.  The  king  may  dissolve  the  two  cham- 
bers simultaneously,  or  one  of  them  alone,  dur- 
ing the  ordinary  sessions,  but  the  new  Diet  as- 
sembles after  the  three  months  of  the  dissolution, 
and  can  only  be  dissolved  again  four  months 
after  resuming  its  sitting.  The  king  dissolves 
the  extraordinary  session  when  ho  deems  proper. 
.  .  .  The  Diet  divides  the  right  of  initiative 
with  the  king :  tlie  consent  of  the  synod  is  neces- 
sary for  ecclesiastical  Laws.  .  .  .  Every   three 


679 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  SWEDEN. 


ypiirs  the  Diet  names  a  commission  of  twenty- 
four  members  (twelve  from  eacli  cliambor), 
charged  with  the  duty  of  electing  six  persons 
who  are  commissioned  under  the  presidency  of 
the  Procureur  general  of  the  Diet  to  watch  over 
the  liberty  of  the  press." — G.  Demombynes,  Con- 
gtitiitiont  EvrojmeiuKK,  v.  1,  pp.  84-00. — The  fol- 
lowing^ is  the  text  of  the  Constitution  as  adopted 
in  180i),  the  subsequent  modifications  of  which 
are  indicated  above: 

Form  of  government  adopted  by  the  King  and 
the  Estates  of  the  Swedish  Healm,  nt  Stockholm, 
on  the  6th  of  .Time,  1809;  together  with  the 
Alterations  afterwards  introduced. 

We  Charles,  bv  the  Grace  of  God,  King  of  the 
Swedes,  the  Goths,  and  the  Vandals,  &c.  &c.  &c. 
Heir  to  Norway,  I)>ike  of  Sleswick-Holstein, 
Stomiam,  and  Uitmarsen,  Count  of  01denb\irg 
,...d  Delnienhorst,  &c.  &c.  &c.  make  known,  that 
having  unlimited  conti<lence  in  the  estates  of  the 
realm,  charged  them  with  drawing  up  a  new 
form  of  government,  as  the  perpetual  gro\ind- 
■work  of  the  prosperity  and  independence  of  our 
common  native  land,  We  do  hereby  perform  a 
dear  and  pleasing  duty  in  promulgating  the  fun- 
damental law  (which  has  been)  upon  mature  de- 
liberation, framed  and  adopted  by  the  estates  of 
the  realm,  and  presented  inito  Us  this  day,  to- 
gether with  their  free  and  unanimous  offer  of 
the  Swedish  crown.  Having  with  deep  emotion 
and  an  affectionate  interest  in  the  prosperity  of  a 
nation  which  lias  afforded  Us  so  striking  a  proof 
of  confidence  and  attachment,  complied  with 
their  request.  We  trust  to  our  endeavors  to  pro- 
mote its  happiness,  as  the  reciprocal  rights  and 
duties  of  the  monarch  and  the  subjects  have 
been  marked  so  distinctly,  that,  without  en- 
croachment on  the  sacred  nature  and  power  of 
majesty,  the  constitutional  liberty  of  the  people 
is  protected.  We  do  therefore  hereby  adopt, 
sanction,  and  ratify  this  form  of  government, 
such  as  it  follows  here : — 

We  the  underwritten  representatives  of  the 
Swedish  realm,  counts,  barons,  bishops,  knights, 
nobles,  clergymen,  burghers,  and  peasants,  as- 
sembled at  a  general  Diet,  in  behalf  of  ourselves 
and  our  brethren  at  home.  Do  hereby  make  known, 
that,  having  by  the  late  change  of  government,  to 
which  we,  the  deputies  of  the  Swedish  people, 
gave  our  unanimous  assent,  exercised  our  rights 
of  drawing  up  a  new  and  improved  constitution, 
■we  have,  in  repealing  those  fundamental  laws, 
which  down  to  this  day  have  been  in  force  more 
or  less ;  viz. ,  —  The  Form  of  Government  of  the 
21st  of  August  1772,  the  Act  of  Union  and  Se- 
curity, of  the  2l8t  of  February  and  the  3d  of 
April  1789,  the  Ordinonce  of  Diet,  of  the  24th  of 
January  1617,  as  well  as  all  those  laws,  acts, 
statutes,  and  resolutions  comprehended  under 
the  denomination  of  fundamental  laws; — We 
have  Kesolved  to  adopt  for  the  kingdom  of  Swe- 
den and  its  dependencies  the  following  constitu- 
tion, which  from  henceforth  shall  be  the  chief 
fundamental  law  of  the  realm,  reserving  to  Our- 
selves, before  the  expiration  of  the  present  Diet, 
to  consider  the  other  fundamental  laws,  men- 
tioned in  tlie  S.'ith  article  of  this  constitution. 

Article  1.  The  kingdom  of  Sweden  shall  be 
governed  by  a  king,  wlio  shall  bo  hereditary  in 
that  order  of  succession  which  the  estates  will 
further  hereafter  determine. 

2.  The  king  shall  profess  the  pure  evangelical 
faith,  such  as  is  contained  and  declared  In  the 


Augsburgian  Confession,  and  explained   in  the 
Decree  of  the  Diet  at  Upsala  in  the  year  1593. 

3.  The  majesty  of  the  king  shall  be  held 
sacred  and  inviolable;  and  his  actions  shall  not 
be  subject  to  any  censure. 

4.  The  king  shall  govern  the  realm  alone,  in 
the  manner  determined  by  this  constitution.  In 
certain  cases,  however,  (to  be  specified)  ho  shall 
take  the  opinion  of  a  council  of  state,  which  shall 
be  constituti.'d  of  vrell-informed,  experienced, 
honest,  and  generally-esteemed  native  Swedes, 
noblemen  and  commoners,  who  profess  the  pure 
evangelical  faith. 

5i  The  council  of  state  shall  consist  of  nine 
members,  viz.,  the  minister  of  state  and  justice, 
who  shall  always  be  a  member  of  the  king's  su- 
preme court  of  judicature,  the  ministtir  of  state 
for  foreign  affairs,  six  counsellors  of  state,  three 
of  whom  at  least  must  have  held  civ  il  offices,  and 
the  chancellor  of  the  court,  or  aulic  chancellor. 
The  secretaries  of  state  shall  have  a  seat  and 
vote  in  the  council,  when  they  have  to  report 
matters  there,  and  in  cases  that  belong  to  their 
respective  departments.  Father  and  son,  or  two 
brothers,  shall  not  be  permitted  to  be  constant 
members  of  the  council  of  state. 

O.  The  secretaries  of  state  shall  be  four,  viz. 
—  One  for  military  affairs;  a  second  for  public 
economy,  mining,  and  all  other  affairs  connected 
with  the  civil  and  interior  administration ;  a  third 
fr,r  tlie  finances  of  the  realm,  inland  and  foreign 
commerce,  manufactures,  &c. ;  and  the  fourtli, 
for  affairs  relating  to  religion,  public  education, 
and  charities. 

7.  All  affairs  of  government  shall  be  laid 
before  the  king,  and  decided  in  a  council  of 
state :  those  of  a  ministerial  nature,  however,  ex- 
cepted, concerning  the  relations  of  the  realm 
with  foreign  powers,  and  matters  of  military 
command,  which  the  king  decides  in  his  capacity 
of  commander-in-chief  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces. 

8.  The  king  can  make  no  decision  in  matters 
in  which  the  council  of  state  are  to  be  heard,  un- 
less at  least  three  counsellors  of  state,  and  the 
secretary  of  state  wliom  it  concerns,  or  his  deputy- 
secretary,  are  present.  —  All  the  members  of  the 
council  shall,  upon  due  notice,  attend  all  deliber- 
ations deemed  of  importance,  and  which  concern 
the  general  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom;  such  as  questions  for  adopting  new 
statutes,  repealing  or  altering  those  in  existence, 
introducing  new  institutions  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  administration,  &c. 

1).  Minutes  shall  be  kept  of  all  matters  which 
shall  come  before  the  king  in  his  council  of  state. 
The  ministers  of  state,  the  counsellors  of  state, 
the  aulic  chancellor,  and  the  secretaries  of  state 
or  deputy -secretaries,  shall  be  peremptorily  Iwund 
to  deliver  their  opinions:  it  is,  however,  the  pre- 
rogative of  tlie  king  to  decide.  Should  it,  how- 
ever, unexpectedly  occur,  that  the  decisions  of 
the  king  are  evidently  contrary  to  the  constitu- 
tion and  the  common  law  of  the  realm,  it  shall 
in  that  case  he  the  duty  of  the  members  of  the 
council  of  state  to  make  spirited  remonstrances 
against  such  decision  or  resolution.  Unless  a 
different  opinion  has  been  recorded  in  the  min- 
utes (for  then  the  counsellors  present  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  having  advised  the  king  to  the  adopted 
measuret,  the  members  of  the  council  shall  be 
respousfble  for  their  advices,  as  enacted  in  the 
106th  article. 


580 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SMTEDEN. 


10.  Necessary  Informfttions  Imving  been  de- 
manded and  obtainiid  fiuir.  ••"!  proper  boards, 
aiitliorities,  and  functionaries,  tlie  atTairs  for  de- 
liberation shall  be  prepared  by  the  secretary  of 
state  and  eight  skilful  and  impartial  men,  con- 
sisting of  four  nobles  and  four  commoners,  in 
order  to  their  being  laid  before  the  king  in  the 
council  of  state. —  The  secretary,  as  well  as  all 
the  other  members  of  this  committee  (which  are 
nominated  by  the  king)  for  preparing  tlie  general 
aifairs  of  the  kingdom,  shall  upon  all  occasions, 
when  so  met,  deli  ver  tlieir  opinions  to  the  minutes, 
which  shall  afterwards  be  reported  to  the  king 
and  tlie  council  of  state. 

11.  As  to  the  management  of  the  ministerial 
affairs,  they  may  be  prepared  and  conducted  in 
the  manner  wliich  appears  most  8uital)le  to  the 
king.  It  appertains  to  the  minister  for  foreign 
aifairs  to  lay  such  mutters  before  him  in  the 
presence  of  the  aulic  chancellor,  or  some  other 
member  of  the  council,  if  the  chancellor  cannot 
attend.  In  the  absence  of  the  minister  of  state 
this  duty  devolves  upon  the  aulic  cliancellor,  or 
any  other  member  of  the  council  of  state,  whom 
his  majesty  may  appoint.  After  having  ascer- 
tained the  opinions  of  these  otlicial  persons  en- 
tered in  tlie  minutes,  and  for  whieli  they  shall 
be  responsible,  the  king  shall  pronounce  his  de- 
cision in  their  presence.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  aulic  chancellor  to  keep  the  minutes  on 
these  occasions.  The  king  shall  communicate  to 
the  council  of  state  the  information  on  these 
topics  as  may  be  necessary,  in  order  that  tliey 
may  have  a  general  knowledge  even  of  this  branch 
of  the  administration. 

12.  The  king  can  enter  into  treaties  and  alli- 
ances with  foreign  powers,  after  having  ascer- 
tained, as  enacted  in  the  prpceding  article,  the 
opinion  of  the  minister  of  state  for  foreign  af- 
fairs, and  of  the  aulic  chancellor. 

13.  When  the  king  is  at  liberty  to  commence 
war,  or  conclude  peace,  he  shall  convoke  an  ex- 
traordinarj-  council  of  state;  the  ministers  of 
state,  the  counsellors  of  state,  the  aulic  chancel- 
lor, and  the  secretaries  of  state ;  and,  after  having 
explained  to  them  the  circumstances  wliicli  re- 
quire their  consideration,  lie  shall  desire  their 
opinions  thereon,  which  each  of  them  shall  in- 
dividually deliver,  on  the  responsibility  defined 
in  the  107th  article.  The  king  shall  thereafter 
have  a  ri^lit  to  adopt  the  resolutions,  or  make 
such  decision  as  may  appear  to  him  most  bene- 
ficial for  the  kingdom. 

14.  The  king  sliall  have  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  military  forces  by  sea  and  land. 

15.  The  king  shall  decide  in  all  matters  of 
raititary  command,  in  the  presence  of  that  min- 
ister or  oHicer  to  whom  he  has  entrusted  the 
general  management  tliereof.  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  this  person  to  give  his  opinion,  under 
responsibility,  upon  the  resolutions  taken  by  the 
kin^,  and  in  case  of  tlicse  being  contrary  to  bis 
advice,  he  shall  be  bound  to  enter  his  objections 
and  counsel  in  the  minutes,  which  the  king  must 
confirm  by  his  own  signature.  Should  this  min- 
ister or  olflcial  person  find  the  resolutions  of  the 
king  to  be  of  a  flniigerous  tendency,  or  founded 
on  mistaken  or  erroneous  principles,  he  shall  ad- 
vise his  majesty  to  convoke  two  or  more  military 
officers  of  a  superior  rank  into  a  council  of  war. 
The  king  shall,  however,  be  at  liberty  to  comply 
with  or  to  reject  this  proposition  for  a  council  of 
war;  and  ii  approved  of,  he  may  take  what  no- 


tice he  pleases  of  the  opinions  of  such  council, 
which  shall,  however,  be  entered  in  tlie  minutes. 
lO.  The  king  shall  promote  the  exercise  of 
justice  and  riglit,  and  prevent  partiality  and  in- 
justice. He  shall  not  deprive  any  subject  of 
life,  honour,  liberty,  and  property,  without  pre- 
vious trial  and  sentence,  and  in  that  order  which 
the  laws  of  the  country  prescribe.  He  shall  not 
disturb,  or  cause  to  be  disturbed,  the  peace  of  any 
individual  in  his  house.  He  shall  not  banish  any 
from  one  place  to  another,  nor  constrain,  or  cause 
to  be  constrained,  tlie  conscience  of  any;  but 
shall  protect  every  one  in  tlie  free  exercise  of  his 
religion,  provideil  he  does  not  thereby  disturb 
the  tranquillity  of  society,  or  occasion  public 
oilence.  The  king  shall  cause  every  one  to  bo 
tried'  in  that  court  to  which  he  properly  belongs. 

1 7.  The  king's  prerogative  of  justice  shiill  be 
invested  in  twelve  men,  learned  in  the  law,  six 
nobles,  and  six  ccmimoners,  who  have  shown 
knowledge,  experience,  and  integrity  in  judicial 
matters.     They  shall  be  styled  counsellors  of 

^  justice,  and  constitute  the  king's  supreme  court 
of  justice. 

18.  The  supreme  court  of  justice  shall  t)iko 
cognizance  of  petitions  to  the  king  for  cancelling 
sentences  which  have  obtained  legal  force,  and 
granting  extension  of  time  in  lawsuits,  when  it 
has  been,  through  some  circumstances,  forfeited. 

lO.  If  information  be  sought  by  judges  or 
courts  of  justice  concerning  the  proper  interpre- 
tation of  the  law,  the  explanation  thus  required 
shall  be  given  by  the  said  supreme  court. 

20.  In  time  of  peace,  all  cases  referred  from 
the  courts  martial  sliall  be  decided  in  the  Bupreii 
court  of  justice.  Two  military  officers  of  a  su- 
perior degree,  to  be  nominated  by  the  king,  shall, 
with  the  responsibility  of  judges,  attend  and 
have  a  vote  in  such  cases  in  the  supreme  court. 
The  number  of  judges  may  not,  however,  exceed 
eight.  In  time  of  war,  all  such  cases  shall  be 
tried  as  enacted  by  the  articles  of  war. 

21.  The  king,  should  he  think  fit  to  attend, 
shall  have  right  to  two  votes  in  causes  decided 
by  the  supreme  court.  All  questions  concerning 
explanations  of  tlie  law  shall  be  reported  to  him, 
and  his  suffrages  counted,  even  though  he  should 
not  have  attended  the  deliberations  of  the  court. 

22.  Causes  of  minor  importance  may  be  de- 
cided in  the  supreme  court  by  five  members,  or 
even  four,  if  they  are  all  of  one  opinion ;  but  in 
causes  of  greater  consequence  seven  counsellors, 
at  least,  must  attend.  More  than  eight  members 
of  the  supreme  court,  or  four  noblemen  aud  four 
commoners,  may  not  be  at  one  time  in  actiye 
service. 

23.  All  the  decrees  of  the  supreme  court  of 
justice  shall  issue  in  the  king's  name,  and  under 
his  hand  and  seal. 

24.  The  cases  shall  bo  prepared  in  tlie  "king's 
inferior  court  for  revision  of  judiciary  affairs," 
in  order  to  be  laid  before,  or  produced  in  the 
supreme  court. 

25.  In  criminal  cases  the  king  has  a  right  to 
grant  pardon,  to  mitigate  capital  punishment, 
and  to  restore  property  forfeited  to  the  crown. 
In  applications,  however,  of  this  kind,  the  su- 
preme court  shall  be  heard,  and  the  king  give 
his  decision  in  the  council  of  slate. 

20.  When  matters  of  justice  are  laid  before 
the  council  of  state,  the  minister  of  state  and 
justice,  and,  at  least,  two  counsellors  of  state, 
two  members  of  the  supreme  court,  and  the  chau- 


581 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


cfUor  of  justice  shall  attend,  who  must  all  dpliver 
their  opinions  to  the  minutes,  according  to  the 
general  instruction  for  tlie  members  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state,  quoted  in  the  01st  article. 

27.  The  king  shall  nominate,  as  chancellor  of 
justice,  a  j\iri8-consult,  an  able  and  impartial 
man,  who  has  previously  Ik  Id  the  oflke  of  a 
judge.  It  shall  be  his  chief  duty,  as  the  highest 
legal  offlccr  or  attr)riiey  general  of  the  king,  to 
i,ro8ccute,  either  personally  or  through  the  otli- 
cers  or  flscals  under  him,  in  all  such  cases  as  con- 
cern the  public  safety  and  the  rights  of  the  crown, 
on  the  kmg's  behalf,  to  superintend  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice,  and  to  take  cognizance  of,  and 
correct,  errors  committed  by  judges  or  other 
legal  officers  in  the  discharge  of  their  official 
duties. 

28.  The  king,  in  his  council  of  state,  has  a 
right  to  appoint  native  Swedes  to  all  such  offices 
and  places  within  the  kingdom  for  which  the 
king's  commissions  are  granted.  The  proper  au- 
thorities shall,  however,  send  in  the  names  of 
the  candidates  to  be  put  in  nomination  for  such  , 
employments.  The  king  may,  likewise,  appoint 
foreigners  of  eminent  talents  to  military  offices, 
■without,  however,  entrusting  to  them  the  com- 
mand of  the  fortresses  of  the  realm.  In  prefer- 
ments the  king  shall  only  consider  the  merits 
and  the  abilities  of  the  candidates,  without  any 
regard  to  their  birth.  Ministers  and  counsellors 
of  state  and  of  justice,  sccretariesof  state,  judges, 
and  all  other  civil  officers,  must  always  bo  of  the 
pure  evangelical  faith. 

29.  The  archbishop  and  bishops  shall  be 
elected  as  formerly,  and  the  king  nominates  one 
of  the  three  candidates  proposed  to  him. 

30.  The  king  appoints,  as  formerly,  the  in- 
cumbents of  rectories  in  the  gift  of  the  crown. 
As  to  the  consistorial  benefices,  the  parishioners 
shall  be  maintained  in  their  usual  rightof  election. 

31.  Citizens,  who  are  freemen  of  towns,  shall 
enjoy  their  privilege  as  heretofore,  of  proposing 
to  the  king  three  candidates  for  the  office  of  bur- 
gomaster or  mayor,  one  of  whom  the  king  selects. 
The  aldermen  and  secretaries  of  the  magistracy 
of  Stockholm  shall  be  elected  in  the  same  manner. 

32.  The  king  appoints  envoys  to  foreign 
courts  and  the  officers  of  the  embassies,  in  tlie 
presence  of  the  minister  of  state  for  foreign  af- 
fairs and  the  aulic  chancellor. 

33.  When  offices,  for  which  candidates  are 
proposed,  are  to  be  filled  up,  the  members  of  the 
council  of  state  shall  deliver  their  opinions  on  the 
qualifications  and  merits  of  the  applicants.  They 
shall  also  have  right  to  make  respectful  remon- 
strances against  the  nomination  of  the  king  re- 
specting other  offices. 

34.  The  new  functionaries  created  by  this 
constitution,  viz. —  the  ministers  and  counsellors 
of  state  and  counsellors  of  justice,  shall  be  paid 
by  the  crown,  and  may  not  hold  any  other  civil 
offices.  The  two  ministers  of  state  are  the  highest 
functionaries  of  the  realm.  The  counselloi-s  of 
state  shall  hold  the  rank  of  generals,  and  the 
counsellors  of  justice  that  of  lieutenant-generals. 

35.  The  minister  of  state  for  foreign  affairs, 
the  counsellors  of  state,  the  presidents  of  the 
public  boards,  the  grand  governor  of  Stockholm, 
the  deputy  governor,  and  the  chief  magistrate 
of  police  in  the  city,  the  aulic  chancellor,  the 
chancellor  of  justice,  the  secretaries  of  state, 
the  governors  or  lord  lieutenants  of  provinces, 
field  marshals,  gcncrula  and  admirals  of  all  de- 


grees, adjutant  generals,  adjutant  in  chief,  ad- 
jutants ot  the  staff,  the  governors  of  fortresses, 
captain  lieutenants,  and  officers  of  the  king's  life 
guards,  colonels  of  the  regiments,  and  officers 
second  in  command  in  the  foot  and  horse  guards, 
lieutenant-colonels  in  the  brigade  of  the  life  regi- 
ments, chiefs  of  the  artillery  of  the  royal  en- 
gineers, ministers,  envoys,  and  commercial  agents 
with  foreign  powers,  and  official  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  king's  cabinet  for  the  foreign  cor- 
respondence, and  at  the  embassies,  as  holding 
places  of  tiust,  can  be  removed  by  the  king, 
when  he  considers  it  necessary  for  tlie  benefit  of 
the  realm.  The  king  shall,  however,  signify  his 
determination  in  the  council  of  state,  the  mem- 
bers whereof  shall  be  bound  to  make  respectful 
remonstrances,  if  they  see  it  expedient. 

36.  Judges,  and  all  other  oHicial  persons,  not 
included  in  the  preceding  article,  cannot  be  sus- 
pended from  their  situations  witliout  legal  trial, 
nor  be  translated  or  removed  to  other  places, 
without  having  themselves  applied  for  these. 

37.  The  king  has  jiower  to  confer  dignities  oa 
those  who  have  served  their  country  with  fidelity, 
bravery,  virtue,  and  zeal.  He  may  also  promote 
to  the  order  of  counts  and  barons,  persons,  who 
by  eminent  merits  have  deserved  such  an  honour. 
Nobility  and  the  dignity  of  a  count  and  baron, 
granted  from  this  time,  sliall  no  longer  devolve 
to  any  other  than  the  individual  himself  thus 
created  a  noble,  and  after  him,  to  the  oldest  of 
his  male  issue  in  a  direct  descending  line,  and  this 
branch  of  the  family  being  extinct,  to  the  nearest 
malt  descendant  of  the  ancestor. 

38.  All  despatches  and  orders  emanating  from 
tlie  king,  excepting  such  as  concern  military  af- 
fairs, shall  be  countersigned  by  the  secretary  who 
has  submitted  tlienj  to  the  council,  and  is  respon- 
sible for  their  being  confevmable  to  the  minutes. 
Should  the  secretary  find  any  of  the  decisions 
made  by  the  king  to  be  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
the  constitution,  he  shall  make  his  remonstrances 
respecting  the  same,  in  the  council  of  state. 
Should  the  king  still  persist  in  his  determination, 
it  shall  then  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  re- 
fuse his  countersign,  and  resign  his  place,  which 
he  may  not  resume  until  the  estates  of  the  realm 
shall  have  examined  and  approved  of  his  con- 
duct. He  shall,  however,  in  the  mean  time,  re- 
ceive his  salary,  and  all  the  fees  of  his  office  as 
formerly. 

30.  If  the  king  wishes  to  go  abroad,  he  shall 
communicate  his  resolution  to  the  council  of  state, 
in  a  full  assembly,  and  take  the  opinion  of  all  its 
members,  as  enacted  in  the  ninth  article.  Dur- 
ing the  absence  of  the  king  he  may  not  interfere 
with  tiie  government,  or  exercise  the  regal  power, 
which  shall  be  carried  on,  in  his  name,  by  the 
council  of  state;  the  council  of  stat«  cannot,  how- 
ever, confer  dignities  or  create  counts,  barons, 
and  knights;  and  oil  officers  appointed  by  the 
council  sliall  only  hold  their  places  ad  interim. 

40.  Should  the  king  be  in  such  a  state  of 
health  as  to  be  incapable  of  attending  to  the  af- 
fairs of  the  kingdom,  the  council  of  state  shall 
conduct  the  administration,  us  enacted  in  the  pre- 
ceding orticle. 

41.  The  lung  shall  be  of  age  after  havingcom- 
pleted  eighteen  years.  Should  the  king  die  be- 
fore tile  heir  of  the  crown  has  attained  this  age, 
the  government  shall  be  conducted  by  the  coun- 
cil of  state,  acting  with  regal  power  and  au- 
thority, iu  tue  name  of  the  king,  until  the  estates 


582 


CONSTITUTION  OP  SWEDEN. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  SWEDEN. 


of  the  realm  shnll  have  appointed  a  provisional 
government  or  regency ;  and  the  council  of  state 
is  enjoined  strictly  to  conform  to  the  enactments 
of  this  constitution. 

42.  Sliould  the  melancholy  event  take  place, 
that  the  whole  royal  family  became  extinct  on 
the  male  side,  the  council  of  state  shall  exercise 
the  government  with  regal  power  and  authority, 
until  the  estates  have  chosen  another  roj-al  house, 
and  the  new  king  has  taken  upon  Inniself  the 
government.  All  occurrences  or  things  having 
reference  to  tlie  four  last  articles,  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  the  whole  council  of  state  and  the  sec- 
retaries of  state. 

43.  When  the  king  takes  the  field  of  battle, 
or  repairs  to  distant  parts  of  the  kingdom,  he 
shall  constitute  four  of  the  members  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state  to  exercise  the  government  in  those 
alTairs  which  he  is  pleased  to  prescribe. 

44.  No  prince  of  the  royal  family  shall  be 
permitted  to  marry  without  liaving  obtained  the 
consent  of  the  king,  and  in  the  contrary  case 
shall  forfeit  his  right  of  inheritance  to  the  king- 
dom, both  for  himself  and  descendants. 

45.  Neither  the  crown  prince,  or  any  other 
prince  of  the  royal  family,  shall  have  any  appan- 
age or  civil  place.  The  princes  of  the  blood  may, 
however,  bear  titles  of  dukedoms  and  principali- 
ties, as  heretofore,  but  without  any  claims  upon 
those  provinces. 

46.  The  kingdom  shall  remain  divided,  as 
licretofore,  into  governments,  under  the  usual 
provincial  administrations.  No  governor-general 
shall,  from  this  time,  be  appointed  within  the 
kingdom. 

47.  The  courts  of  justice,  superior  as  well  as 
inferior,  shall  administer  justice  according  to  the 
laws  and  statutes  of  the  realm.  The  provincial 
governors,  and  all  other  public  functionaries, 
shall  exercise  the  offices  entrusted  to  them  accord- 
ing to  existing  regulations;  they  shall  obey  the 
orders  of  the  king,  and  be  responsible  to  him  if 
any  act  is  done  contrary  to  law. 

48.  The  court  of  the  king  is  under  his  own 
management,  and  he  may  at  his  own  pleasure  ap- 
point or  discharge  all  his  officers  and  attendants 
there. 

49.  The  estates  of  the  realm  shall  meet  every 
fifth  year.  In  the  decree  of  every  Diet  the  day 
sliull  be  fixed  for  the  next  meeting  of  the  estates. 
Tlic  king  may,  however,  convoke  the  estates  to 
un  extraordinary  Diet  before  that  time. 

50.  The  Diets  shall  bo  held  in  the  capital,  ex- 
cept when  the  invasion  of  an  enemy,  or  some 
other  important  impediment,  may  render  it  dan- 
gerous for  the  safety  of  the  representatives. 

51.  When  the  king  or  council  convokes  the 
estates,  the  period  for  the  commencement  of  the 
Diet  shall  be  subsequent  to  the  thirtieth,  and 
within  the  fiftieth  day,  to  reckon  from  that  day 
when  the  summons  has  been  proclaimed  In  the 
churches  of  tiie  capital. 

52.  The  king  names  the  speakers  of  the  nobles, 
the  burghers  and  the  peasants:  the  archbishop 
is,  at  all  times,  the  constant  speaker  of  the  clergy. 

53.  The  estates  of  the  realm  shall,  immedi- 
ately after  the  opening  of  the  Diet,  elect  the 
different  committees,  which  are  to  prepare  the  af- 
fairs intended  for  their  consideration.  Such  com- 
mittees shall  consist  in, —  a  constitutional  com- 
mittee, which  shall  take  cognizance  of  questions 
concerning  proposed  alterations  in  the  fundamen- 
tal laws,  report  thereupon  to  the  representatives. 


and  examine  the  minutes  held  in  the  council  of 
state ;  —  a  committee  of  finances,  wliich  shall  ex- 
amine and  report  upon  the  state  and  management 
of  the  revenues;  —  a  committee  of  taxation,  for 
regulating  tlie  taxes;  —  a  committee  of  the  bank 
for  inquiring  into  the  administration  of  the  af- 
fairs of  the  national  bank ;  —  a  law  committee  for 
digesting  propositions  concerning  improvements 
in  tlie  civil,  criminal,  ai.d  ecclesiastical  laws;  — 
a  c-mmittee  of  public  grievances  and  matters  of 
economy,  to  attend  to  the  defects  in  public  in- 
stitutions, suggest  alterations,  &c. 

54.  Should  the  king  dc^sirc  a  special  commit- 
tee for  deliberating  witli  him  on  sucli  matters  as 
do  not  come  witliin  the  cognizance  of  any  of  tlie 
other  committees,  and  arc  to  be  kept  secret,  tlio 
estates  shall  select  it.  Tliis  committee  shall,  how- 
ever, have  no  riglit  to  adopt  any  resolutions,  but 
only  to  give  their  opinion  on  matters  referred  to 
them  by  the  king. 

55.  The  representatives  of  tlie  realm  shall  not 
discuss  any  subject  in  the  presence  of  the  king, 
nor  can  any  other  committee  than  the  one  men- 
tioned in  the  above  article  hold  their  delibera- 
tions before  him. 

56.  General  questions  started  at  the  meetings 
or  the  orders  of  tlie  estates,  cannot  be  immedi- 
ately discussed  or  decided,  but  shall  be  referred 
to  the  proper  committees,  which  are  to  give  tlieir 
oiiinion  thereupon.  The  jiropositions  or  report 
of  the  committees  shall,  in  tlie  first  instance, 
without  any  alteration  or  amendment,  be  referred 
to  the  estates  at  the  general  meetings  of  all  the 
onlers.  If  at  these  meetings,  observations  should 
be  made  which  may  prevent  the  adoption  of  the 
proposed  measure,  these  objections  shall  be  com- 
municated to  the  committee,  in  order  to  its  being 
examined  and  revised.  A  proposition  thus  pre- 
pared having  been  again  referred  to  the  estates, 
it  shall  remain  with  them  to  adopt  it,  with  or 
without  alterations,  or  to  reject  it  altogether. 
Questions  concerning  alterations  in  the  funda- 
mental laws,  shall  be  thus  treated:  —  If  the  con- 
stitutional committee  approves  of  the  suggestion 
of  one  of  the  representatives,  or  the  committee 
reports  in  favour  of  or  against  a  measure  pro- 
posed by  the  king,  the  opinion  of  the  committee 
shall  be  referred  to  the  estates,  who  may  discuss 
the  topic,  but  not  come  to  any  resolution  during 
that  Diet. —  If  at  the  general  meetings  of  the 
orders  no  observations  are  made  against  the 
opinion  of  the  committee,  flu'  question  shall  be 
postponed  till  the  Diet  f ol  I  ig,  and  then  be  de- 
cided solely  by  yes  or  no,  :  uacted  in  the  75th 
article  of  the  ordinance  of  1  liit. —  If,  on  tlie  con- 
trary, objections  are  urged  at  the  general  meet- 
ings of  the  orders  against  the  opinion  of  the 
committee,  these  shall  be  referred  back  for  its  re- 
consideration. If  all  the  orders  bo  of  one  opinion, 
the  question  shall  be  postponed  for  final  decision, 
as  enacted  above.  Should  again  a  particular 
order  differ  from  the  other  orders,  twenty  mem- 
bers shall  be  elected  from  among  every  order,  and 
added  to  the  cominittee,  for  adjusting  the  differ- 
ences. Tlie  question  being  thus  prepared,  shall 
be  decided  at  the  following  Diet. 

67.  The  ancient  right  of  the  Swedish  people, 
of  imposing  taxes  on  themselves,  shall  bo  exer- 
cised by  the  estates  only  at  a  general  Diet. 

58.  The  king  shall  at  every  Diet  lay  before 
the  committee  of  finances  the  state  of  the  rev. 
enues  in  all  their  branches.  Should  the  crown 
have  obtained  subsidies  through  treaties  with  for- 


583 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


(■\gn  powers,  these  slinll  be  explnincd  in  the  usual 
way. 

AO.  The  kirifi;  shall  refer  to  the  decision  of 
this  cominittee  to  determine  what  the  government 
may  recjuire  beyond  tlie  ordinary  taxation,  to  l)e 
raised  by  an  e.x"traordinary  grant. 

(to.  No  tJi.vcs  of  any  de.seription  whatever  can 
be  increased  without  tlic  e.\i)res8  consent  of  tlie 
estates.  The  king  may  not  farm  or  let  on  lease 
the  revenues  of  state,  for  tlie  sake  of  profit  to 
himself  and  the  crown;  nor  grant  monopolies  to 
private  individuals,  or  torporations. 

01.  All  taxes  shall  be  paid  to  tlie  end  of  that 
term  for  wliicli  they  have  been  imposed.  Should, 
however,  tlie  estates  meet  before  the  expiration 
of  that  term,  new  regulations  shall  take  place. 

03.  Tlie  funds  required  by  government  hav- 
ing been  ascertained  by  the  committee  of  tinanccs, 
it  sliall  rest  with  the  estates  whether  to  assign 
proportionate  means,  and  also  to  determine  how 
the  various  sums  granted  shall  be  appropriated. 

03.  Besides  tlicsc  means,  two  adequate  sums 
shall  be  voted  and  set  apart  for  the  disposal  of 
the  king,  after  he  has  conbultcd  the  council  of 
state, —  for  the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  or  some 
other  important  object; — the  other  sum  to  be 
deposited  in  the  national  bank,  in  case  of  war, 
after  the  king  has  ascertained  the  opinion  of  the 
council  and  convened  tlie  estates.  The  seal  of 
the  order  for  this  latter  sum  may  not  be  broken, 
nor  the  money  be  paid  by  the  commissioners  of 
the  bank,  till  the  summons  to  Diet  sliall  have  been 
duly  proclaimed  in  the  churches  of  the  capital. 

04.  Tlie  ordinary  revenues  of  the  land,  as  well 
as  the  extraordinary  grants  which  may  be  voted 
by  the  estates,  shall  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  king 
for  the  civil  list  and  other  spccitled  purposes. 

05.  The  above  means  may  not  be  applied  but 
for  the  assigned  purposes,  and  the  council  of 
state  shall  be  resoonsible  if  they  permit  any 
deviation  in  tills  respect,  without  entering  their 
remonstrances  in  the  minutes,  and  pointing  out 
what  tlic  constitution  in  this  case  ordains. 

OO.  The  funds  of  amortissement  or  national 
debt,  shall  remain,  as  heretofore,  under  the  super- 
intendence and  direction  of  the  estates,  who  have 
guaranteed  or  come  under  a  responsibility  for 
the  national  debt ;  and  after  having  received  the 
report  of  the  committee  of  finances  on  the  affairs 
of  that  establishment,  the  estates  will  provide, 
tlirough  a  special  grant,  the  requisite  means  for 
paying  the  capital  as  well  as  the  interest  of  this 
debt,  in  order  that  the  credit  of  the  kingdom  may 
be  maintained. 

07.  The  deputy  of  the  king  shall  not  attend 
the  meetings  of  the  directors  or  commissioners  of 
the  funds  of  amortissement,  on  any  other  occasion 
than  when  the  directors  are  disposed  to  take  his 
opinion. 

08.  The  means  assigned  for  paying  off  the 
national  debt  shall  not,  under  any  pretence  or 
condition,  be  appropriated  to  other  purposes. 

09.  Should  the  estates,  or  any  particular 
order,  entertain  doubts  either  in  allowing  the 
grant  proposed  by  the  committee  of  finances,  or 
as  to  the  participation  in  the  taxes,  or  tlie  prin- 
ciples of  the  management  of  the  funils  of  amor- 
tissement, these  doubts  shall  be  communicated  to 
the  committee  for  their  further  consideration. — 
If  the  committee  cannot  coincide  in  the  opinions 
of  the  estates,  or  a  single  order,  it  shall  depute 
some  members  to  explain  circumstances.  Should 
this  order  still  persist  in  its  opinion,  the  question 


shall  be  decided  by  tlio  resolution  of  throe  onlers. 
If  two  orders  be  of  one,  and  the  other  two  of  a 
different  opinion,  thirty  new  members  of  every 
order  shall  bo  added  to  the  committee  —  the  com- 
mittee shall  then  vote  conjointly,  and  not  by 
orders,  witli  folded  liillets,  for  adopting,  or  re- 
jecting, unconditionally  the  proposition  of  the 
committee. 

70.  Tiie  committee  of  taxation  shall  at  every 
Diet  suggest  general  principles  for  dividing  tho 
future  taxes,  and  the  amount  having  been  fixed, 
tlie  committee  shall  also  propose  how  these  are 
to  be  paid,  referring  their  proposition  to  the  con- 
sideration and  decision  of  the  states. 

71.  Should  a  difference  of  opinion  arise  be- 
tween the  orders,  as  to  tliese  principles  and  tho 
mode  of  applying  tliem,  and  dividing  the  taxes; 
or,  what  hardly  can  be  presumed,  any  order  de- 
cline participating  in  tlie  proposed  taxation,  tlio 
order,  which  may  thus  desire  some  alteration, 
shall  communicate  their  views  to  the  other  repre- 
sentatives, and  suggest  in  wliat  mode  tliis  altera- 
tion may  be  effected  without  frustrating  the 
general  object.  The  committee  of  taxation  hav- 
ing again  reported  thereon  to  the  estates,  they, 
the  estates,  shall  decide  the  ciucstion  at  issue.  If 
tliree  orders  object  to  the  proposition  of  the  com- 
mittee, it  shall  be  rejected.  If,  again,  three 
orders  oppose  the  demands  of  a  single  order,  or 
if  two  be  of  an  opinion  contrary  to  that  of  the 
other  two,  the  question  sliall  be  referred  to  the 
committee  of  finances,  with  an  additional  num- 
ber of  members,  as  enacted  in  the  above  article. 
If  the  majority  of  this  committee  assent  to  the 
proposition  of  the  committee  of  taxation,  in  those 
points  concerning  which  the  representatives  have 
disagreed,  the  proposition  shall  be  considered  as 
the  general  resolution  of  the  estates.  Should  ;t, 
on  the  contrary,  be  negatived  by  a  majority  of 
votes,  or  be  rejected  by  tliree  orders,  the  com- 
mittee of  taxation  shall  propose  other  principles 
for  levying  and  dividing  tho  taxes. 

72.  The  national  bank  shall  remain,  as  for- 
merly, under  the  superintendence  and  guarantee 
of  tlio  estatco,  and  the  management  of  directors 
selected  from  among  all  the  orders,  according  to 
existing  regulations.  Tlic  states  alone  can  issue 
bank-notes,  which  are  to  be  recognized  as  the 
circulating  medium  of  the  realm. 

73.  No  troops,  new  taxes  or  imposts,  either 
in  money  or  kind,  can  be  levied  without  the  vol- 
untary consent  of  the  estates,  in  the  usual  order, 
as  aforesaid. 

74.  The  king  shall  have  no  right  to  demand 
or  levy  any  other  aid  for  carrying  on  war,  than 
that  contribution  of  provisions  which  may  be 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  troops  dur- 
ing their  march  through  a  province.  These  con- 
tributions shall,  however, be  immediately  paid  out 
of  the  treasury,  according  to  the  fixed  price-cur- 
rent of  provisions,  with  an  augmentation  of  a 
moiety,  according  to  tills  valuation.  Such  con- 
tributions may  not  be  demanded  for  troops  which 
have  been  quartered  in  a  place,  or  are  employed 
in  military  operations,  in  which  case  they  shall 
be  supplied  with  provisions  from  tho  magazines. 

75.  The  annual  estimation  of  such  rente?  as 
are  paid  in  kind  shall  be  fixed  by  deputies  elected 
from  among  all  the  orders  of  tlie  estates. 

70.  *  'le  king  cannot,  without  the  consent  of 
the  estates,  contract  loans  within  or  without  the 
kingdom,  nor  burthen  the  land  with  any  new 
debts. 


584 


CONSTITUTION  OP  SWKDEN. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  SWEDEN. 


77.  He  cannot  nlso,  without  the  consent  of 
till!  t'slttles,  vend,  plcdj?e,  niortgaKf,  or  in  any 
other  way  alienutv  domuius,  farms,  forests,  purlis, 
preserve'  jf  K'i"'e,  meadows,  pasture-land,  fish- 
eries, and  other  appurtenances  of  the  crown. 
These  shall  be  managed  acmrding  to  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  estates. 

78.  No  part  of  the  kingd.in  can  be  alienated 
through  sale,  mortgage,  douatidii,  or  in  any  other 
way  whatever. 

to.  No  alteration  can  bo  effected  In  the  stand- 
ard value  of  the  coin,  either  for  enhancing  or 
deteriorating  it,  without  the  consent  of  the 
cstat-'s. 

80.  The  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  realm 
shall  remain  on  the  same  footing,  till  the  king 
and  the  estates  may  think  proper  to  introduce 
some  other  principles.  No  regular  troops  can  be 
raised,  without  the  mutual  consent  of  the  king 
and  the  estates. 

81.  This  form  of  government  and  the  other 
fundamental  laws  cannot  be  altered  or  repealed, 
without  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  king  and 
the  estates  Questiono  to  this  effect  cannot  be 
brought  forward  at  the  meetings  of  the  orders, 
but  must  be  referred  to  the  constitutional  com- 
mittee, whose  province  it  is  to  suggest  such  alter- 
ations in  the  fundamental  laws,  as  may  be  deemed 
necessary,  useful,  and  practicable.  The  estates 
may  not  decide  on  such  proposed  alterations  at 
the  same  Diet.  If  all  the  orders  ogree  about  the 
a'*  -ation,  it  shall  be  submitted  to  tlie  king, 
t;..t.iigh  the  speakers,  for  obtaining  his  royal 
sanction.  After  having  ascertained  the  opinion 
of  the  council,  the  king  shall  take  his  resolution, 
and  communicate  to  the  estates  either  his  appro- 
bation or  reasons  for  refusing  it.  In  the  event  of 
the  king  proposing  any  alteration  in  the  funda- 
mental laws,  he  shall,  after  having  taken  the 
opinion  of  the  council,  deliver  his  proposition  to 
the  estates,  who  shall,  without  discussing  it, 
again  r^fer  it  to  the  constitutional  committee.  If 
the  committee  coincide  in  the  proposition  of  the 
king,  the  question  shall  remain  till  next  Diet.  If 
ngam  the  committee  is  averse  to  the  proposition 
of  the  king,  the  estates  may  either  reject  it  im- 
mediately or  adjourn  it  to  the  following  Diet. 
In  the  case  of  all  the  orders  approving  of  the 
proposition,  they  shall  request  that  a  day  be  ap- 
pointed to  declare  their  consent  in  the  presence 
of  his  majesty,  or  signify  their  disapprobation 
through  their  speakers. 

82.  What  the  estates  have  thus  unanimously 
resolved  and  the  king  sanctioned,  concerning 
alterations  in  the  fundamental  laws,  or  the  king 
has  proposed  and  the  estates  approved  of,  shall 
for  the  future  have  the  force  and  effect  of  a  fun- 
damental law. 

83.  No  explanation  of  the  fundamental  laws 
may  be  established  by  any  other  mode  or  order, 
than  that  prescribed  by  the  two  preceding  arti- 
cles. Laws  shall  bo  applied  according  to  their 
literal  sense. 

84.  When  the  constitutional  committee  find 
no  reason  for  approving  of  the  proposition,  made 
by  a  representative  concerning  alterations  or  ex- 
planations of  the  fundamental  laws,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  committee  to  communicate  to  him, 
at  his  request,  their  opinion,  which  the  proposer  of 
the  resolution  ma/  publish,  with  his  own  motion, 
and  under  the  usual  responsibility  of  authors. 

85.  As  fundamental  laws  of  the  present  form 
of  government,  there  shall  be  considered  the  ordi- 


38 


58 


nance  of  Diet,  the  order  of  succession,  and  tho 
act  concerning  universal  liberty  of  the  press. 

HU.  liy  the  liberty  of  the  press  is  iinderstoo<l 
the  right  of  every  Swedish  subject  to  publish  his 
writings,  without  any  inipediiiieiit  from  the  gov- 
ernment, and  without  being  resiHinsible  for  them, 
except  before  a  court  of  justice,  or  liable  to  pun- 
ishment, unless  their  contents  b('  contrary  to  a 
clear  law,  made  for  the  preservation  of  public 
peace.  The  minutes,  or  protocols,  or  the  pro- 
ceedings, may  be  published  in  any  case,  except- 
ing the  minutes  kept  in  the  council  of  state  and 
before  the  king  in  ministerial  affairs,  and  those 
matters  of  military  command;  nor  may  tho 
records  of  the  bank,  and  the  otllce  of  the  funds 
of  amortissement,  or  national  (lel)t,  be  printed. 

87.  The  estates,  together  with  the  king,  have 
the  right  to  make  new  and  repeal  old  laws.  In 
this  view  such  questions  must  be  proposed  at  tho 
general  meetings  of  the  orders  of  the  estates,  and 
shall  be  decided  by  them,  after  having  taken  tho 
opinion  of  the  law  committee,  us  laid  down  in 
tho  56th  article.  The  proposition  sliall  be  sub- 
mitted, through  tho  speakers,  to  the  king,  who, 
after  having  ascertained  the  opinion  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state  and  supreme  court,  shall  declfrc  mher 
his  royal  approbation,  or  motives  for  withhold- 
ing it.  Should  the  king  desire  to  propose  any 
alteration  in  the  laws,  he  shall,  after  having  con- 
sulted the  council  of  state  and  supreme  court, 
refer  his  proposition,  together  with  their  opinion, 
to  the  deliberation  of  the  states,  who,  after  hav- 
ing received  the  report  of  the  law  committee,  shall 
decide  on  the  point.  In  all  such  questions  the 
resolution  of  three  orders  shall  bo  considered  as. 
the  resolution  of  the  estates  of  the  realm.  If  two 
orders  are  opposed  to  the  other  two,  the  proposi- 
tion is  negatived,  and  the  law  is  to  remain  as 
formerly. 

88.  The  same  course,  or  mode  of  ])roceeding, 
shall  be  observed  in  explaining  tlie  civil,  criminal, 
and  ecclesiastical  laws,  as  in  making  these.     £x- 

f)lanations  concerning  the  proper  sen.se  of  the 
aw  given  by  the  supreme  court  in  the  name  of 
tho  king,  in  the  interval  between  the  Diets,  may 
be  rejected  by  the  states,  and  shall  not  after- 
wards be  valid,  or  cited  by  the  courts  of  judica- 
ture. 

80.  At  the  general  meetings  of  the  orders  of 
the  estates,  questions  may  be  proposed  for  alter- 
ing, explaining,  repealing,  and  issuing  acts  con- 
cerning public  economy;  and  the  principles  of 
public  institutions  of  any  kind  may  be  di.scusscd. 
These  questions  shall  afterwards  be  referred  to 
tho  committee  of  public  grievances  and  economi- 
cal affairs,  and  then  be  submitted  to  the  decision 
of  the  king,  in  a  council  of  state.  When  the 
king  is  pleased  to  invite  the  estates  to  deliberate 
with  him  on  questions  concerning  tlie  general 
administration,  the  same  course  shall  bo  adopted  . 
as  is  prescribed  for  questions  concerning  the 
laws. 

00.  During  the  deliberations  of  the  orders,  or 
tlieir  committees,  no  questions  shall  be  proposed 
but  in  the  way  expressly  prescribed  by  this  fun- 
damental law,  concerning  either  appointing  or 
removing  of  officers,  decisions  and  resolutions  of 
the  government  nnil  courts  of  law,  and  the  con- 
duct of  private  individuals  and  corporations. 

01.  When  the  king,  in  such  cases  as  those 
mentioned  in  the  30tli  article,  is  absent  from  the 
kingdom  longer  than  twelve  months,  the  council 
shall  convoke  the  estates  to  a  general  Diet,  and 

5 


CONSTITUTION  OF  HWEDBN. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


caiiRO  the  Riimnions  to  \hi  pmclnimi><1  within  flf- 
tecn  (Inyu  from  tlic  iil«>vi'  tini«,  In  the  cliiirchcH 
of  the  nipitul,  and  npfcdlly  nftcrwiinlH  in  tlie 
otlicr  j)artH  of  tliu  Ivitifciloiii.  If  tlie  Iting,  after 
bcini;  inforiiu'il  tlicri'of,  docs  not  return  to  tlie 
kingdom,  the  estiitcH  fthall  iidopt  Niieh  meuHiireH 
as  tliey  deem  most  lienelleial  for  tlio  eountrv. 

1>ti.  Th(!  same  sliall  he  eiiacte(i  in  case  of  any 
disease  or  ill  health  of  tlie  liing,  which  might  ])re- 
vent  him  from  attending  to  the  affairs  of  the 
liingdom  for  more  tlinn  twelve  months. 

li.l.  When  the  lieir  of  the  crown,  at  the  de- 
cca.se  of  the  king,  is  nniler  age,  the  council  of 
state  shall  issue  siinimons  to  the  representatives 
to  meet.  The  estates  of  the  realm  shall  have  the 
riglit,  witliout  regard  to  the  will  of  a  deceased 
king  concerning  the  adniinistnition,  to  appoint 
one  or  w^veral  giuirdians,  to  rule  in  the  king's 
nonie,  according  to  this  fuudanieutal  law,  till  the 
king  l)ecome8  of  age. 

1>4.  Should  it  ever  happen  that  tlie  royal 
family  become  extinct  in  the  mole  line,  the  council 
of  state  shall  convene  the  estates,  to  elect  another 
royal  family  to  ride  comformably  to  this  funda- 
mental law. 

1)5.  Should,  contrary  to  expectation,  the  coun- 
cil of  state  fail  to  convoke  the  estates,  in  the 
cases  prescribed  by  the  Olst,  98d,  and  04th  articles, 
it  shall  be  the  jiositive  duty  of  the  directors  of 
the  house  of  nobles,  the  diopters  throughout  the 
kingdom,  the  magistrates  in  the  capital,  and  the 
governors  in  the  provinces,  to  give  public  notice 
thereof,  in  order  that  elections  of  deputies  to  the 
Diet  may  forthwith  take  place,  and  the  estates 
assemble  to  protect  their  privileges  and  rights  of 
•  he  kingdom.  Such  a  Diet  shall  be  opened  on 
the  liftieth  day  from  that  period  when  the  coun- 
cil of  state  had  proclaimed  the  summons  in  the 
churches  of  the  capital. 

OO.  The  estates  shall  at  every  Diet  oppoint  on 
ollic(^r,  distinguished  for  integrity  and  learning  in 
the  law,  to  watch  over,  as  their  deputy,  the  con- 
duct of  the  judges  and  other  official  men,  and 
who  shall,  in  legal  order  and  at  the  proper  court, 
arraign  those  who  in  the  performance  of  their 
offices  have  betrayed  negligence  and  partiality, 
or  else  have  committed  any  illegal  act.  He  shall, 
however,  be  liable  to  the  some  responsibility  as  the 
law  iirescribes  for  public  prosecutors  in  general. 

97.  This  deputj-  or  attorney-general  of  the 
estates  sha'"  j  chosen  by  twelve  electors  out  of 
cverv  order. 

08.  The  electors  shall  at  the  same  time  they 
choose  the  said  attorney-general,  elect  a  person 
possessing  equal  or  similiar  qinilities  to  succeed 
him,  in  case  of  his  death  before  the  ne.xt  Diet. 

91).  The  attorney-general  may,  whenever  he 
pleases,  attend  the  sessions  of  all  the  superior 
and  inferior  courts,  ond  the  public  offices,  and 
shall  have  free  access  to  their  records  and  min- 
utes ;  and  the  king's  officers  shall  be  bound  to 
give  him  every  assistance. 

100.  Tlie  attorney-general  shall  at  every  Diet 
present  a  report  of  the  performance  of  his  office, 
explaining  the  state  of  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice in  the  land,  noticing  tlie  defects  in  the  exist- 
ing laws,  and  suggesting  new  improvements. 
He  shall  also,  at  the  end  of  each  year,  publish  a 
general  statement  concerning  these. 

101.  Should  the  supreme  court,  or  any  of  its 
members,  from  interest,  partiality,  or  negligence, 
judge  so  wrong  that  an  individual,  contrary  to 
law  and  evidence,  did  lose  or  might  have  lost  life. 


lilierty,  honour,  or  pmperty,  thoottorney-general 
shall  be  bound,  and  the  chuncellor  of  justleo 
authorised,  to  arraign  the  guilty,  acconling  to  the 
laws  of  the  realm,  in  the  court  after  mentioned. 

102.  This  court  is  to  be  denominated  the 
court  of  justice  for  the  realm,  and  shall  be  formed 
by  the  president  in  the  superior  court  of  Swea, 
the  presidents  of  all  the  pui)lie  boards,  four  senior 
members  of  the  council  of  state,  the  highest  com- 
mander of  the  troops  within  the  capital,  and  the 
commander  of  the  squadron  of  the  fleet  stationed 
at  the  capital,  two  of  the  senior  members  of  the 
superior  court  of  Swea,  and  the  senior  member 
of  all  the  public  boards.  Should  any  of  the 
officers  mentioned  above  decline  attending  this 
court,  he  shall  be  legally  responsible  for  such  a 
neglect  of  duty.  After  trial,  the  judgment  shall 
be  publicly  announced :  no  one  can  alter  such  a 
s<'ntence.  The  king  may,  however,  'extend  par- 
don to  tlie  guilty,  but  not  admitting  bim  any 
more  into  the  service  of  the  kingdom. 

103.  The  estates  shall  at  every  Diet  nominate 
a  jury  of  twelve  members  from  out  of  each  order, 
for  deciding  if  the  members  of  the  supreme  court 
of  justice  have  deserved  to  fill  their  important 
places,  or  if  any  member,  without  having  been 
legally  convicted  for  the  faults  mentioned  in  the 
above  articles,  yet  ought  to  be  removed  from 
office. 

104.  The  estates  shall  not  resolve  themselves 
into  0  court  of  justice,  nor  enter  into  any  special 
examination  of  the  decrees,  verdicts,  resolutions 
of  the  sujircme  court. 

105.  The  constitutional  committee  shall  hove 
right  to  demand  the  minutes  of  the  council  of 
state,  except  those  which  concern  ministerial  or 
foreign  affairs,  and  matters  of  military  command, 
which  may  only  be  communicated  os  fur  as  tlieso 
have  a  reference  to  generally  known  events, 
specified  by  the  committee. 

lOG.  Should  the  committee  find  from  these 
minutes  that  any  member  of  the  council  of  state 
has  openly  acted  against  the  clear  dictates  of  the 
constitution,  or  advised  any  infringement  either 
of  the  simic  or  of  the  other  lows  of  the  realm,  or 
thot  lie  had  omitted  to  remonstrate  against  such 
a  violation,  or  caused  ond  promoted  it  by  wilfully 
concealing  any  informotion,  the  committee  shall 
order  the  attorney-general  to  institute  the  proper 
proceedings  against  tlie  guilty. 

107.  if  the  constitutional  committee  should 
find  that  any  or  all  the  members  of  the  council 
of  state  hove  not  consulted  the  real  interest  of 
the  kingdom,  or  that  any  of  the  secretaries  of 
state  have  not  performed  his  or  their  official  duties 
with  impartiality,  activity,  and  skill,  the  com- 
mittee shall  report  it  to  the  estates,  who,  if  they 
deem  it  necessary,  may  signify  to  the  king  their 
wish  of  having  those  removed,  who  may  thus 
have  given  dissatisfaction.  Questions  to  this 
effect  may  be  brouglit  forward  at  the  general 
meetings  of  the  orders,  and  even  be  proposed  by 
any  of  the  committees.  These  cannot,  however, 
be  decided  until  the  constitutional  committee 
have  delivered  their  opinion. 

108.  The  estates  shall  at  every  Diet  appoint 
six  individuals,  two  of  whom  must  be  learned  in 
the  law,  besides  the  attorney-general,  to  watch 
over  the  liberty  of  the  jircss.  These  deputies 
shall  be  bound  to  give  their  opinion  as  to  tlio 
legality  of  publications,  if  such  be  requested  by 
the  authors.  These  deputies  shall  be  chosen  by 
six  electors  out  of  every  order. 


586 


CONSTITUTION  OF  SWEDEN. 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


lOO.  Diet*  may  not  last  longer  than  tlircc 
months  from  the  time  that  the  king  has  informed 
the  representatives  of  tlio  state  of  the  revenues. 
Should,  however,  the  estates  at  the  expiration  of 
that  time  not  have  concluded  tlicir  deliberations, 
they  may  demand  the  Diet  to  l)e  prolonged  for 
another  month,  which  the  king  shall  not  refuse. 
If  again,  contrary  to  expectation,  the  estjites  at 
the  expiration  of  this  term  liave  not  regidatcd  tlie 
civil  Ii3t,  the  king  shall  dissolve  tlie  Diet,  and 
taxation  continue  iu  its  former  state  till  the  next 
meeting  of  representatives. 

1  lO.  No  representative  shall  be  responsible 
for  any  opinion  uttered  at  meetings  of  the  orders, 
or  of  the  committees,  unless  by  the  express  per- 
mission of  at  least  five-sixths  of  Ids  o'.vn  order: 
nor  can  a  representative  be  banished  from  the 
Diet.  Should  any  individual  or  body,  either  civil 
or  militjiry,  endeavour  to  offer  violence  to  the 
estates,  or  to  any  individual  representative,  or 
presume  to  interrupt  and  disturb  their  delibera- 
tions, it  shall  bi!  considered  as  an  act  of  treason, 
and  it  rests  with  the  estates  to  take  legal  cogni- 
zance of  such  IU/  offence. 

111.  Should  any  representative,  after  having 
announced  himself  as  such,  be  insulted,  cither  at 
the  Diet  or  )n  his  way  to  or  from  the  same,  it 
shall  be  punished  as  a  violation  of  the  peace  of 
the  king. 

112.  No  olllcial  person  may  exercise  his  offl- 
cial authority  (his  authority  in  that  capacity)  to 


Influence  the  clectionH  of  deputies  to  the  Diet, 
under  pain  of  losing  his  place. 

11. 't.  Individuals  elected  for  regidatlng  thu 
taxation  shall  not  be  responsible  for  their  lawful 
deeds  in  tins  their  capacity. 

1 14.  The  king  shall  leave  the  estates  in  un- 
disturbed possession  of  their  liberties,  liriviieges, 
ami  Immunities.  Moditieations  which  the  pros- 
perity of  the  reiilm  nniy  demand  can  only  1)0 
done  with  the  eeneral  concurrence  and  consent  of 
the  estates  and  tlie  sanction  of  the  king.  Nor 
can  any  new  i)rivileges  be  gnuited  to  one  order, 
without  tlie  consent  of  the  other,  and  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  sovereign. 

This  we  have  conllrmed  by  our  names  and 
seals,  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  month  of  .June,  In 
the  year  after  the  birtli  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
eiglit  hundred  and  nine. 

On  lieliaif  of  the  Nobles,  .M.  Ankarsvard.  On 
behalf  of  the  Clergy,  Jac.  Ax.  Lindblom.  On 
helialf  of  the  Hurghers,  H.  N.  Schwan.  .On  be- 
half of  the  Peasantry,  Lars  Olsson,  Speakers. 

The  above  form  of  government  we  have  not 
only  acknowledged  Ourselves,  but  do  also  com- 
mand all  our  faithful  subjects  to  obey  it ;  in  con- 
firmation of  which,  wo  have  thereto  alllxed  our 
manual  signature  and  the  seal  of  the  realm.  In 
the  city  of  our  royal  residence,  Stockholm,  on  the 
sixth  (lay  of  the  month  of  June,  in  the  year  after 
the  birth  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  nine.  Cuakles. 


CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   SWISS   CONFEDERATION. 


After  the  Sondcrbund  secession  and  war  of 
1847  (see  Hwitzehland:  A.  D.  1803-18'.8),  the 
task  of  drawing  up  a  Constitution  for  Uie  Con- 
federacy was  confided  to  a  committee  ol  fourteen 
members,  and  the  work  was  finished  on  the  14th 
of  April,  i848.  "The  project  was  submitted  to 
the  Cantons,  and  accepted  at  once  by  tliirteen 
and  a  half;  others  joined  during  the  summer, 
and  tlie  new  Constitution  was  finally  promulgated 
with  the  assent  of  all  on  the  12tli  September. 
Hence  arose  the  seventh  and  last  phase  of  the 
Confederation,  by  the  adoption  of  a  Federal  Con- 
stitution for  the  whole  of  Switzerland,  being  the 
first  which  was  entirely  the  work  of  Swiss,  with- 
out any  foreign  influence,  although  Its  authors 
had  studied  that  of  the  United  States.  ...  It 
was  natural  that,  as  in  process  of  time  commerce 
and  industry  were  developed,  and  as  the  differ- 
ences between  the  legislation  of  the  various  Can- 
tons became  more  apparent,  a  revision  of  the 
first  really  Swiss  Confederation  should  be  neces; 
.sary.  This  was  proposed  botli  in  1871  and  1873| 
but  tlu;  partisans  of  a  further  centralization, 
though  successful  in  the  Chambers,  were  defeated 
upon  an  appeal  to  the  popular  vote  on  the  12th 
of  May  1872,  by  a  majority  of  between  five  and 
six  thousand,  and  by  thirteen  Cantons  to  nine. 
The  question  was,  however,  by  no  means  settled, 
and  in  1874  a  new  project  of  revision  more  ac- 
ceptable to  the  partisans  of  cantonal  independ- 
ence, was  adopt<;d  by  the  people,  the  numbers 
being  340,199,  to  198,013.  The  Cantons  were 
about  two  to  one  in  favour  of  the  revision,  14^ 
declaring  for  and  7i  against  it.  This  Constitu- 
tion bears  date  the  29th  May,  1874,  aud  has  since 
been  added  to  and  altered  in  certain  particulars." 
—  Sir  F.  O.  Adams  and  C.  D.  Cunningliam,  The 


Siciss  Confederation,  ch.  1.  —  "Since  1848,  .  .  . 
Switzerland  has  been  a  federal  state,  consisting 
of  a  central  authority,  the  Hund,  and  19  entire 
and  six  half  states,  the  Cantons;  to  foreign 
powers  she  presents  an  unitejl  front,  •while  her 
internal  policy  allows  to  each  Canton  a  largo 
amount  of  independence.  .  .  .  The  basis  of  all 
legislative  division  is  the  Commune  or  Qemeinde, 
corresponding  in  some  slight  degree  to  the  Eng- 
lish Parish.  The  commune  in  its  legislative  and 
administrative  aspect  or  '  Einwohnergemeinde ' 
is  composed  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  Commune. 
It  is  self-governing  and  has  the  control  of  the 
local  police ;  it  also  administers  all  matters  con- 
nected with  pauperism,  education,  sanitary  and 
funeral  regulations,  the  fire  brigade,  the  mainte- 
nance of  public  peace  and  trusteeships.  ...  At 
the  head  of  the  Commune  is  the  Gcmeinderath, 
or  Communal  Council,  whose  members  are  elected 
from  the  inhabitants  for  a  fixed,  period.  It  is 
presided  over  byan  Ammann,  or  Mayor,  or  Presi- 
dent. .  .  .  Above  the  Commune  on  the  ascending 
scale  comes  the  Canton.  .  .  .  Each  of  the  19 
Cantons  and  6  half  Cantons  is  a  sovereign  state, 
whose  i)rivileges  are  nevertheless  limited  by  the 
Federal  Constitution,  particularly  as  regards 
legal  and  military  matters;  the  Constitution  also 
defines  the  extent  of  each  Canton,  and  no  portion 
of  a  Canton  is  allowed  to  secede  and  join  itself 
to  another  Canton.  .  .  .  Legislative  power  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  '  Volk ' ;  in  the  i)olitical  sense 
of  the  word  the  '  Volk '  consists  of  all  the  Swiss 
living  in  the  Canton,  who  liave  passed  their  20tli 
year  and  are  not  under  disability  from  crime  or 
bankruptcy.  Tlic  voting  on  the  part  of  the 
people  deals  mostly  with  alterations  in  the  can- 
tonal constitution,  treaties,  laws,  decisions  of  the 


587 


CONSTITUTION:  8WITZEULAND. 


CONSTITUTION :  SWITZERLAND. 


KIret  ("ouncll  Invnlvlnj?  rxpcndlttirpH  of  Prs. 
I(N),IMK)  luicl  iipwuril,  itiid  otiicr  (IcclHinnH  wliicli 
till!  Couru'll  coiiHidcrH  iiilvimkblc  to  Hiilijvct  to  (lit 
imlilic  vote,  wlilc'li  iiIho  detcrniincfi  tliu  adoption 
of  propoHitioiiH  for  tin;  cri'iitioii  of  new  lawH,  or 
the  iiltcnitlon  or  iiliolition  of  old  ouch,  when  hucIi 
It  pli'blgcltc!  1h  dcmundcd  by  a  petition  signed  by 
5,000  voters.  .  .  .  The  first  (Conned  (Grosse 
Itiith)  1.4  th<-  hijclieHt  politieiil  hikI  udndnUtrutive 
pow<'r  of  ttie  ('nnton.  It  correspondD  to  the 
'('lmnil)er '  of  other  coiintrieH.  Every  1,3(K)  in- 
liubitantH  of  nn  eleetorul  circuit  send  one  mem- 
ber. .  .  .  The  Kleine  Hath  or  npucial  council 
(corrcHponding  to  tho  '  Ministcrium '  of  otiier 
continental  countries)  is  composed  of  three  mem- 
bers and  has  three  proxies.  It  is  cliosen  Iw  the 
First  Council  for  a  period  of  two  years.  It  su- 
perintends all  cantonal  institutions  and  controls 
the  various  public  tM)ards.  ,  .  .  The  jiopniations 
of  the  22  Bovoreign  (.'antons  constitute  together 
tho  Hwiss  Confederation." — P.  Ilauri,  Sketch  of 
the  Conttitution  of  Smtterland  (in  Strickland  s 
The  Engadine). 

The  following  text  of  tho  Federal  Constitution 
of  the  8w  Iss  Confederation  is  a  translation  from 
parallel  French  and  German  texts,  by  Professor 
Albert  Uushnell  Hart,  of  Harvard  College.  It 
oppeared  originally  in  "  Old  South  Leaflets,"  No. 
18,  and  is  now  reprinted  under  permission  from 
Professor  Ilart,  who  has  most  kindly  revised  his 
translation  throughout  and  intnMluced  tho  later 
amendments,  to  July,  1803. 

In  the  Name  of  Almig^hty  God. — The  Swiss 
Confederation,  desiring  to  contirm  the  alliance 
of  the  Confederates,  to  maintain  and  to  jiromoto 
the  unity,  strength,  and  honor  of  the  Swiss 
nation,  has  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution 
following: 

Chapter  i.  General  Provisions.— Autici.b  1. 
The  peoples  of  the  twenty-two  sovereign  Can- 
tons of  Switzerland,  united  by  this  present  alli- 
ance, viz. :  Zurich,  Bern,  Luzem,  Uri,  Schwyz, 
Unlerwaldcn  (Upper  and  Lower),  Olarus,  Zug, 
Freiburg,  Solothurn,  Basel  (urban  and  rural), 
Schaffhausop,  Ajipenzell  (tho  two  lUiodes),  St. 
Gallon,  Orisons,  Aargau,  Thurgau,  Ticino,  Vaud, 
Valttis,  Ncuchdtel,  ond  Genevo,  form  in  the  r 
entirety  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

Akt.  2.  The  purpose  of  the  Confederation  U, 
to  secure  the  independence  of  tho  country  against 
foreign  nations,  to  maintain  peace  and  order 
within,  to  protect  the  liberty  and  tho  rights  of 
tho  Confederates,  and  to  foster  their  comr.ion 
welfare. 

AliT.  3.  The  Cantons  are  sovereign,  so  far  as 
their  sovereignty  is  not  limited  by  the  Federal 
Constitution;  and,  as  such,  they  exercise  all  tho 
rights  which  are  not  delegated  to  the  federal 
government. 

Art.  4.  All  Swiss  are  equal  before  the  law. 
In  Switzerland  there  are  neither  iioliticid  depend- 
ents, nor  privileges  of  place,  birth,  persons,  or 
families. 

AuT.  5.  The  Confederation  guarantees  to  tho 
Cantons  their  territory,  their  sovereignty,  within 
the  limits  fixed  by  Article  3,  their  Constitutions, 
tho  libortj;  and  rights  of  the  people,  the  consti- 
tutional riglits  of  citizens,  and  the  rights  and 
powers  which  the  people  have  conferred  on 
those  in  authority. 

AiiT.  0.  The  Cantons  are  bound  to  ask  of  the 
Confederation  the  guaranty  of  thoirConstitutions. 
This  guaranty  is  accorded,  provided :  (u)  that  the 


ConHtitutions  contain  notldng  contrary  to  thor 
proviHionN  of  the  Federal  ('onstitution.  (h)  That 
they  assure  the  exercist'  of  political  riglits,  ac- 
cording to  republican  forniH,  representativf"  or 
dem<H'ratic.  (c)  Tliat  they  liav(!  lieen  ratified  by 
the  |>eople,  ami  may  bo  amended  whenever  the 
majority  of  all  the  citizens  demand  it. 

AiiT.  7.  All  H<'parate  alliances  and  all  treaties 
of  a  iMilitical  character  lM}tween  the  (.'anions  are 
forbidden.  On  tlio  other  hand  the  Cantons  have 
the  right  to  make  conventions  among  themselves 
iiIHHi  legislative,  administrative  or  Judicial  sub- 
jects; in  all  ciiMcs  they  shall  bring  such  conven- 
tions to  tho  uttenticm  of  tlie  federal  ofllcials,  who 
are  authorized  to  prevent  their  execution,  if  they 
contain  anything  contrary  to  the  Confederation, 
or  to  the  rights  of  other  Cantons.  Should  such 
not  be  the  cast-,  the  covenanting  Cantons  are 
authorized  to  re(iuirc  the  coilperatlon  of  the  fed- 
eral otllciuls  in  carrying  out  the  conventicm. 

AuT.  8.  The  Confederation  has  the  sole  right 
of  declaring  war,  of  making  peace,  and  of  con- 
cluding alliances  and  treaties  with  foreign  pow- 
ers, particularly  treaties  relating  to  tariffs  and 
commerce. 

Akt.  0.  By  exception  the  Cantons  preserve- 
the  right  of  concluding  treaties  with  foreign 
])owers,  respecting  tho  administration  of  public 
l)ronerty,  and  border  and  jjolice  intercourse ;  but 
such  treaties  sliall  contain  nothing  contrary  to  the 
Confederation  or  to  tho  riglits  of  other  Cantons. 

AuT.  10.  Otticial  intercourse  between  Cantons 
and  foreign  governments,  or  their  representatives, 
shall  take  place  through  the  Federal  Council. 
Nevertheless,  the  Cantons  may  correspond  di- 
rectly with  the  inferior  ofllciala  and  oilicers  of 
a  foreign  State,  in  regard  to  the  subjects  enu- 
merated in  the  preceding  article. 

Akt.  11.  No  military  capitulations  shall  be 
made. 

Art.  12.  No  members  of  tho  departments  of 
the  federal  government,  civil  and  military  ofll- 
cials of  the  Confederation,  or  federal  representa- 
tives or  commissioners,  shall  receive  from  any 
foreign  government  any  pension,  salary,  title, 
gift,  or  decoration.  Such  persons,  already  in 
possession  of  pensions,  titles,  or  decorations, 
must  renounce  tho  enjoyment  of  pensions  and 
the  bearing  of  titles  anil  decorations  during  thq^r 
term  of  olBco.  Nevertheless,  inferior  olflciala 
may  be  authorized  by  the  Federal  Council  to- 
continue  in  the  receipt  of  pensions.  No  deco- 
ration or  title  conferred  by  a  foreign  government 
shall  bo  borne  in  tlio  federal  army.  No  officer, 
non-commissioned  officer,  or  soldier  shall  accept 
such  distinction. 

.  Akt.  13.  The  Confederation  has  no  right  to 
keep  up  a  standing  army.  No  Canton  or  Half- 
Canton  shall,  without  tho  permission  of  the 
federal  government  keep  np  a  standing  force  of 
more  than  three  hundred  men;  the  mounted 
police  [gendarmeriej  is  not  included  in  this 
number. 

Art.  14.  In  case  of  differences  arising  between 
Cantons,  tlio  States  sliall  abstain  from  violence 
and  from  arming  themselves;  they  shall  submit 
to  the  decision  to  bo  taken  upon  such  differences 
by  the  Confederation. 

Art.  15.  In  case  of  sudden  danger  of  foreign 
attack,  tho  authorities  of  the  Cantons  threatened 
.shall  request  the  aid  of  other  members  of  the 
Confederation  and  shall  Immediotely  notify  the 
federal  governmeut;  tlie  subsequent  action  of 


588 


CONSTITUTION;  SWITZEHLAND. 


Army 
find  S*ttUcf, 


CONSTITITION ;  iSWITZEIU-ANn. 


the  Inttor  »hnll  not  thi-rrby  bo  prcrliidod.  Tlin 
CanUinH  Hiiiniiinni'il  nrr  lioiiiid  to  ^ivc  aid.  Tlui 
oxpciiHCH  Nliall  be  Ixirni'  by  thr  ('onrcilcrittion. 

Km.  1(1.  In  'list!  (if  iiitcrnid  di.sturbanrt',  or 
If  Ww  daiiK<'r  Ih  tlircatcncd  by  another  Canton, 
the  authorities  of  i\w  Canton  tlireatened  Hliall 
givo  ininiediato  uotin;  to  the  Federal  Council,  In 
order  that  that  Ixuly  may  take  tlu^  nieaHun'H 
necesnary,  within  the  llniltH  of  Itn  power  (Art. 
103,  ^^'i,  10,  11),  or  may  Huniinon  the  Ke<leral 
AsHeinbly.  In  extreme  ense.s  the  authoritieH  of 
the  Canton  are  authorized,  while  jjivinK  imme<ll- 
nte  notiee  to  the  Feilernl  (^>uneil,  to  ask  the  aid 
of  other  Cantons,  which  are  bound  to  alTord  such 
aid.  If  the  executive  of  the  Canton  Is  unable  to 
call  for  aid,  the  federal  a\ithority  having  the 
power  may,  and  if  the  safety  of  Switzerland  is 
endangered  shall.  Intervene  without  requisition. 
In  case  of  federal  intervention,  the  federal 
autliorities  shall  take  cure  that  the  provisions  of 
Arlie'o  5  l)0  obsiTved.  The  expenses  shall  be 
l)orne  by  the  Canton  asking  aid  or  occasioning 
federal  Intervention,  cxcep„  when  the  Federal 
Assembly  otherwise  decides  on  account  of  special 
circumstances. 

AiiT.  17.  In  the  cases  mentioned  In  Articles 
15  and  10,  every  Canton  is  bound  to  afford  imdis- 
turbed  passage  for  the  troops.  The  troops  shall 
immediately  bo  placed  under  federal  command. 

AiiT.  18.  Every  Swiss  Is  bound  to  perform 
military  service.  Soldiers  who  lose  their  lives  or 
sulTer  permanent  injury  to  their  health,  in  con- 
sequence of  federal  service,  are  entitled  to  aid 
from  the  Confederation  for  themselves  or  their 
families,  In  case  of  need.  Each  soldier  shall 
receive  without  expense  his  first  equipment, 
clothing,  and  arms.  T'-.^  r.:::-.i)on  remains  in  the 
hands  of  the  soldier,  under  conditions  which  sh  ill 
be  prescribed  by  federal  legislation.  The  Con- 
federation shall  enact  uniform  provisions  as  to  an 
exemption  t^tx. 

Akt.  19.  The  federal  army  is  composed:  (a) 
Of  the  cantonal  military  corps,  (b)  Of  all  Swiss 
who  do  not  belong  to  such  military  corps,  but 
are  nevertheless  liable  to  military  service.  The 
Confederation  exercises  control  over  the  nrmy 
aud  the  material  of  war  provided  by  law.  In 
cases  of  danger,  the  Confederation  lias  also  the 
exclusive  and  direct  control  of  men  not  included 
in  the  federal  army,  and  of  all  other  military 
resources  of  the  Cantons.  The  Cantons  have 
authority  over  the  military  forces  of  their  terri- 
tory, so  far  as  this  right  is  not  limited  by  the 
Federal  Constitution  or  laws. 

Art.  20.  The  laws  on  the  organization  of 
the  army  are  passed  by  the  Confederation.  The 
enforcement  of  military  laws  in  the  Cantons  is 
Intrusted  to  the  cantonal  olllcials,  within  limits 
which  shall  be  fixed  by  federal  legislation,  and 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Confederation.  Mili- 
tary instruction  of  every  kind  pertains  to  the 
Confederation.  The  same  applies  to  the  arming 
of  troops.  The  furnislnng  aud  maintenance  of 
clothing  and  equipment  is  within  the  power  of 
the  Cantons ;  but  the  Cantons  shall  be  credited 
with  tlie  expenses  therefor,  occording  to  a  regu- 
lation to  be  established  by  federal  legislation. 

Art.  21.  So  far  as  military  reasons  do  not 
prevent,  bodies  of  troops  shall  bo  formed  out  of 
the  soldiers  of  the  same  Cantons.  The  composi- 
tion of  these  bodies  of  troops,  the  maintenance 
of  their  eflfective  strength,  the  appointment  and 
promotion  of  officers  of  these  bodies  of  troops. 


iM'long  to  the  CantonK,  Rubject  to  general  pmvl- 
sions  which  shall  !><■  establiMhed  by  the  Confi'dcnt- 
tion. 

AliT.  22.  On  payment  of  a  reasonable  indem- 
nity, Wu:  Confederation  has  the  right  lo  use  or 
aeouire  drill-grounds  aud  buildings  Intended  for 
ndfilary  purposes,  within  the  Cantons,  together 
witli  the  appurtenances  thereof.  The  terms  of 
the  Indemidty  shall  be  settled  by  federal  legisla- 
tion. 

Aut.  211.  Tlie  Confederation  may  construct 
at  its  own  expense,  or  may  aid  by  subsidies,  pub- 
lic works  which  concern  Switzerland  or  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  country.  For  this  purpose 
It  may  expropriate  property,  on  payment  of  a 
reasonable  indemnity.  Further  enactments  upon 
this  matter  shall  be  made  by  federal  legislation. 
The  Federal  Assembly  may  forbid  public  works 
which  endanger  the  ndlltary  interests  of  the  (Con- 
federation. 

Aut.  24.  The  Confederation  has  the  right  of 
superintendence  over  dike  and  forest  police  in 
tlie  upper  mountain  regions.  It  may  c()lip<Tatc 
in  the  straightening  and  embankment  of  torrents 
us  well  as  in  the  afforesting  of  the  districts  in 
whieli  they  rise.  It  may  prescribe  the  regulations 
necessary  to  assure  the  maintenance  of  these 
works,  and  the  jireservation  of  existing  forests. 

Aut.  25.  The  Confederation  has  power  to 
make  legislative  enactments  for  the  regulation  of 
the  right  of  fishing  and  hunting,  particularly 
with  a  view  to  the  picservation  of  tlie  large  game 
In  the  mountains,  as  well  as  for  thi-  nrotccticm  of 
birds  useful  to  agriculture  and  forestry. 

Art.  20.  Legislation  upon  the  construction 
and  operation  of  railroads  is  In  the  province  of 
the  Confederation. 

Aut.  27.  The  Confederation  has  the  right  to 
establish,  besides  the  existing  Polyicchnic  HcIkk)!, 
a  Federal  University  and  other  Institutions  of 
higher  instruction,  or  to  subsidize  Institutions  of 
such  nature.  The  Cantons  provide  for  primary 
instruction,  which  shall  be  sutllcient,  ami  shall 
be  placed  exclusively  under  tho  direction  of  the 
secular  authority.  It  is  compulsory  and,  in  the 
public  schools,  free.  The  public  sciiools  shall 
be  such  that  they  may  be  frequented  by  the  ad- 
herents of  all  religious  sects,  without  any  olTense 
to  their  freedom  of  conscience  or  of  belief.  Tlie 
Confederation  shall  take  the  necessary  m(Misures 
against  such  Cantons  as  shall  not  fullill  these 
duties. 

Art.  28.  The  customs  are  In  the  province  of 
tho  Confederation.  It  may  levy  export  and  im- 
port duties. 

Art.  29.  The  collection  of  the  federal  cus- 
toms shall  bo  regulated  according  to  tlie  following 
principles:  1.  Duties  on  imports:  (a)  Materials 
necessary  for  the  manufactures  and  agriculture 
of  the  country  sliall  be  taxed  as  low  as  po.ssi- 
ble.  (h)  It  shall  be  the  same  with  tlio  necessities 
of  life.  ((•)  Luxuries  shall  be  subjected  to  the 
highest  duties.  Unless  there  arc  imperative 
reasons  to  the  contrary,  these  principles  shall  be 
observed  also  iu  the  conclusion  of  treaties  of 
commerce  with  foreign  powers.  2.  The  duties 
on  exports  shall  also  be  as  low  as  possible.  3. 
The  customs  legislation  shall  include  suitable 
provisions  for  the  continuance  of  commercial  and 
market  intercourse  across  the  frontier.  Tlie 
above  provisions  do  not  prevent  the  Confedera- 
tion from  making  temporary  exceptional  provi- 
sions, under  extraordinary  circumstances. 


089 


CONSTITUTION:  HWIT7EULAND. 


Outtnmi 
unii  Ktcit. 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


Art.  80,  Till'  prcKTnU  of  llmrMiHtonmlH-lonK 
tu  tbo  Confcdinitioii.  Tin-  Indi'iiililty  cniM'N 
whU'h  liltlicrto  liiiH  Ix'fn  p.'iiil  to  ilui  Ciiiitnim  for 
tlio  rc(I<'m|itioii  of  <uiHt'„.'<4,  for  road  nnd  bridge 
tnlU,  ciihtomii  diitiuB  nnd  olliiT  like  diii'H.  li.v 
('X('«{>t!:iM,  and  on  nccouMt  of  their  iMt<'rniitioniil 
nlpinit  roiidH,  \\w  CiintonNof  I'll,  Urlhonx,  TIcIno, 
iind  ViilitlH  rcci'ivR  iin  iuimiihI  ItidcMinlty,  wliicli, 
conHlderlng  ull  tlic  clrciiniKtiinci'H,  U  tlxcd  uh  fol- 
low*: Url,  H(),(H)0  friincK.  Gnsons,  2(M)  (KM) 
fmnca.  TIrIno,  200,(MM)  friincn.  V.iliiiH,  no.OOO 
fnuicR.  Till'  Ciinloim  of  I'rl  and  TIcIno  Hliall  re- 
reive  in  iiddition,  for  clcarinf^  the  Hriow  from  tlie 
Hitint  Oottliard  road,  jin  annual  ind(  ninity  of 
40,()()0  francs,  ho  Imi);  as  that  road  hIiuII  not  be 
ropliiccd  l>y  ii  raiiroaii. 

AuT.  HI.  Tlio  freedom  of  trade  and  of  industry 
is  giinranteed  tlirouijliout  tlie  wliolo  extent  of 
tlie  (/"(mfederatlon.  Tlio  followintf  subjeets  are 
excepted:  (ii)  The  salt  and  ^{unpowder  monopoly, 
the  federal  enstoms,  import  duties  on  wines  and 
other  spiritiioiiH  li(|U(irs,  and  other  taxes  on  eon- 
sumption  expressly  permitted  by  tlie  (lonfedera 
lion,  according  to  article  82.  (b)  [Added  by 
AiMiuinunt  of  Dec.  22,  1885.]  The  manufncturo 
and  fuilu  of  alcohol,  under  Article  82  (ii).  (c) 
[AMedby  Amendment  of  Dec.  22, 1885.]  Drinking 
nlaces,  and  the  retail  tindu  in  Rpirituoiis  liciuors; 
i)ut  ncvcrtheles.s  the  Cantons  may  by  legislation 
subject  the  business  of  keeping  drinking  places, 
and  the  retail  trade  in  spirituouH  liijuors,  to  such 
restrictions  as  are  required  for  the  public  welfare. 

(d)  [Originally  (b)]  Measures  of  sanitary  police 
against  epidemics  and  cattle  diseases.  (<■)  [Orif/i- 
nally  (r)]  Provisions  in  regard  to  the  exercise  of 
trades  nnd  manufactures,  in  regard  to  taxes  im- 
posed thereon,  and  in  regard  to  the  police  of  the 
ruads.  Tliese  provisions  shall  not  contain  any- 
thing contrary  to  the  principle  of  freetlom  of  trn'lo 
and  manufacture. 

AuT.  83.  The  Cantons  are  authori/.ed  to  col- 
lect the  import  duties  on  wines  and  other  spirit- 
uous licjuors,  provided  in  Article  81  {</),  always 
luider  liie  following  restrictions:  («)  The  collec- 
tion of  the.se  import  duties  shall  in  no  wise  im- 
pede transportation:  commerce  shall  be  ob- 
structed as  little  as  possible  and  sliall  not  be 
burdened  with  any  otlier  dues,  (h)  If  tlie  articles 
imported  for  consumption  are  reexported  from 
the  Canton,  tlie  duties  paid  on  importation  shall 
be  refunded,  witliout  further  charges,  (r)  Pro- 
ducts of  Swiss  origin  shall  be  less  burdened  than 
those  of  foreign  countries.  ('/)  Tlie  existing  im- 
port duties  on  wines  and  otlier  spirituous  liquors 
of  Swiss  origin  shall  not  lie  incren.sed  by  tlie 
Cantons  whicli  already  levy  them.  .Such  duties 
shall  not  be  establislicd  upon  such  articles  by 
Cantons  v.hicli  do  not  at  present  collect  them. 

(e)  The  laws  and  ordinances  of  tlie  Cantons  on 
the  collection  of  import  duties  .sliall,  before  their 
going  into  effect,  be  submitted  to  tlie  federal 
government  for  apiiroval,  in  order  that  it  may, 
if  necessary,  cause  the  enforcement  of  the  jire- 
ccding  provisions.  All  the  inijwit  duties  now 
leviecl  by  the  Cantons,  n.;  well  as  tbo  similar 
duties  levied  by  the  Communes,  shall  cease,  witli- 
out indcmnitv,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1890. 

Akt.  33  (i";).  [Amendment  of  Da-.  23,  1885.] 
The  Confederation  is  authorized  by  legislatiqn  to 
make  regulations  for  tlie  manufacture  and  sale 
of  alcohol.  In  this  legislation  those  products 
which  are  intended  for  exportation,  or  which 
have  been  subjected  to  a  process  excluding  them 


from  um>  an  a  tM'venige,  shall  be  Hubjeeted  to  no 
tax.  DiHtillallon  of  wlni>,  fnilt,  and  their  liy- 
pr(HliictH,  of  gentian  root,  juniper  lierries,  and 
similar  priNliictH,  is  not  HUbjerl  to  federal  legisla- 
tion as  to  manufacture  or  tax.  After  till!  cesHii- 
tloii  of  the  import  duties  on  splritiious  li(|Uor8, 
provided  for  in  Article  82  of  the  ('(iiiNtitution,  the 
trade  in  litiiiors  not  distilled  shall  not  be  sub- 
jected by  tli<^  Cantons  to  any  special  taxes  or  to 
other  limitations  than  those  necessary  for  pro- 
tection against  adulterated  or  noxious  beverages. 
Nevertheless,  the  powers  of  the  Cantons,  dellned 
in  Article  81,  are  retained  over  tlie  keeping  of 
dri. iking  places,  nnd  the  sah^  at  retail  of  (pianti- 
ties  less  tlian  two  liters.  The  net  proceeds  re- 
sulting from  taxation  on  the  snle  of  nil  oliol  belong 
to  tlie  Cantons  in  whiJi  the  tax  is  levied.  The 
net  proceeds  to  tlie  Coi.rc"'"':itlon  from  the  In- 
teninl  manufaetunMif  alcohol,  and  the  correspond- 
ing addition  to  tlie  duty  on  imported  alcohol,  are 
divided  among  nil  the  {'nntons,  in  proportion  to 
tlie  actual  population  as  ascertaineii  from  time 
to  time  by  the  next  preceding  federal  census. 
Out  of  the  receipts  therefrom  the  Cantons  must 
expend  not  less  than  one  tenth  in  combating 
drunkenness  in  its  causes  and  elTocts.  [For  ail- 
ditinniil  iirtiele»  of  this  Amendment  tee  Temporary 
J'roiisioni,  ArtiHe  0,  at  the  eiul  of  thit  Coiutitu- 
tion.\ 

Au'i  83.  The  Cantons  may  require  proofs  of 
<'(>mpeti'ney  from  tliose  mIio  desire  to  practice  u 
liberal  profession.  Provision  shall  be  made  by 
federal  legislation  by  which  sueli  persons  may 
obtain  certificates  of  competency  which  shall  bo 
valid  throughout  the  Confederation. 

AuT.  34.  The  Confederation  lias  power  to 
enact  uniform  provisions  as  to  the  labor  of  chil- 
dren in  factoiies,  and  as  to  the  duration  of  labor 
llxed  for  adults  tlierein,  and  as  to  the  protection 
of  workmen  against  tlie  operation  of  unliealthy 
and  dangerous  nianufactures.  The  transactions 
of  emigration  agents  and  of  organizations  for 
insurance,  not  instituted  Viy  the  State,  are  sub- 
ject to  federal  supervision  nnd  legislation. 

AllT.  84  (ii).  [Amendment  of  Dec.  17,  1890.] 
Tlie  (Jonfedemtion  sliull  by  law  iirovide  for  in- 
surance against  sickness  nnd  accident,  with  duo 
regard  for  existing  sick-benefit  funds.  The  Con- 
federation may  require  participation  therein, 
<'ither  by  all  persons  or  by  particular  classes  of 
the  population. 

AuT.  35.  The  opening  of  ■  aming  houses  is 
forbidden.  Those  which  now  exist  sliall  be 
closed  Dec.  31,  1877.  The  concessions  which 
may  have  been  granted  or  renewed  since  tlie  be- 
ginning of  tile  year  1871  are  declared  invalid. 
The  Confederation  may  also  take  necessary 
measures  comterning  lotteries. 

AuT.  86.  The  posts  and  telegrai)hs  in  all 
Switzerland  are  controlled  by  the  Confederation. 
The  proceeds  of  tlie  posts  and  telegraphs  belong 
to  the  federal  treasury.  The  rates  shall,  for  all 
linrts  of  Switzerland,  be  fixed  according  to  tlie 
same  principle  and  as  fairly  as  possible.  Invio- 
lable secrecy  of  letters  and  telegrams  is  guaran- 
teed. 

Akt.  87.  The  Confet'eration  exercises  general 
oversight  over  those  roads  and  bridges  in  the 
maiutenance  of  which  it  is  interested.  Tlie  sums 
due  to  the  Cantons  mentioned  in  Article  30,  on 
nccount  of  their  international  alpine  roads,  shall 
be  retained  by  the  federal  government  if  such 
roads  are  not  kept  by  them  in  suitable  condition. 


590 


CONSTITUTION:  SWlTZKIU.ANf).      Ciiiitnthtp.      CONSTIl  ^  HON :  SWITZEUF-AND. 


Art.  88.  The  ConfcdcnUioii  cxcrdiM'S  nil  the 
excluxlvn  HkIiIh  p<'rtiiliiiMi;  tr>  ('oinit)(c.  .'t  Iiih 
tlif!  iMilii  rlKlit  of  coining  nioiii'y.  Il  cMtnliliHluM 
tlui  mouuUiry  HyitUaii,  itiid  may  I'liitct  provlsioiiH, 
If  nocoHttry,  for  the  rutu  of  cxclmiiKu  of  fon-lKn 
coins. 

[AnT.  80.  (Ahm/iiled  hy  the  nrticle  /<>!!■  "'ng 
it).  The  ('i)i\fe<lfriitiiin  him  the,  /wircc  In  iiiu  hy 
liiw  general  prnrinioiiffur  the  iimiie  (tint  redemption 
qf  hank  noten.  Unt  it  nhnll  not  civate  any  monop- 
oly for  the  iiuiie  »/'  htnk  luitet,  luir  make  lueh 
nii/en  a  legal  tender  \ 

AbT.  liu.  [Hii/iKlitiite  for  former  Art.  no,  adopted 
Oct.  18,  1801. 1  Till!  ("oiifcdcmtlon  liim  tlio 
exclutilvo  power  to  issiiu  bank  noti's  mid  otiior 
like  cuiTt'iicy.  Tlio  Coiifcdcrutloii  miiy  I'XcrciHo 
the  excliiHlvu  power  over  tlie  Immuo  of  hank  notes 
throuKi'  a  National  Hank  carried  on  under  a  Hpcelal 
(leparlnient  of  administration  :  or  it.  may  aHr4lf;u 
tliu  riKlit  to  a  central  Joint  stock  bank  hereafter 
to  l)e  created,  which  hIiuII  he  administered  under 
tlie  ('oi)peration  and  supervision  of  the  Con- 
federation; hut  the  yirivileco  to  take  over  tlio 
hank,  by  paying  acomponwitron.  shall  he  rctiiincd. 
The  bank  possessed  of  the  exclusive  rljjht  to  issue 
Dotes  shall  havu  for  its  cidef  function  to  regulate 
thi  >;irculatiun  of  muuey  in  8wilzcrlaud  and  to 
fneilitate  cxchanK"'-  To  the  Cantons  shall  lii^ 
paid  at  lea.st  two-thirds  of  the  net  prollts  of  tlie 
banli  beyond  a  reasonable  interest  or  n  reason- 
able <lividend  to  the  stockholders,  and  the  ueces- 
miry  transfers  to  the  reserve  fund,  Tlio  hank 
anil  its  branches  shall  not  be  subjected  to  taxa- 
tion by  tliu  Cantons.  The  Confederation  shall 
not  niako  liank  notes  and  other  liko  currency 
legal  tender,  except  in  urgent  need  in  time  of 
war.  The  principal  olllcu  of  the  hank  and  the 
details  of  its  organization,  as  well  as  in  general  tlio 
carrying  into  effect  this  article,  shall  bo  deter- 
mined by  federal  law. 

AiiT.  40.  The  Confederation  Axes  the  stand- 
ard of  weights  and  measures.  The  Cantons, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Confederation, 
enforce  the  laws  relating  thereto. 

AliT.  41.  The  manufacture  and  the  sale  of 
gunpowder  throughout  Switzerland  pertain  ex- 
clusively to  the  Confederation.  Powders  used 
for  blasting  and  not  suitable  for  shooting  aro 
not  included  in  the  monopoly. 

Art.  43.  The  expenditures  of  the  Confedera- 
tion are  met  as  follows:  (a)  Out  of  the  income 
from  federal  property.  (6)  Out  of  the  proceeds 
of  the  federal  customs  levied  at  the  Swiss 
frontier,  (c)  Out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  posts 
and  telegraphs,  (d)  Out  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
powder  monopoly,  (e)  Out  of  half  of  the  gross 
receipts  from  the  tax  on  military  exemptions 
levied  by  the  Cantons.  (/)  Out  of  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  Cantons,  which  shall  be  determined 
by  federal  legislation,  with  special  reference  to 
their  wealth  and  taxable  resources. 

AuT.  43.  Every  citizen  of  a  Canton  is  a 
Swiss  citizen.  As  such  he  may  participate,  in 
the  place  where  he  is  dondciled,  in  all  federal 
elections  and  popular  votes,  after  having  duly 
proven  his  qualification  ns  a  voter.  No  person 
can  exercise  political  rights  in  more  than  one 
Canton.  The  Swiss  settled  as  a  citizen  outside 
his  native  Canton  enjoys  in  the  place  where  he 
is  domiciled,  all  the  rights  of  the  citizens  of  the 
Canton,  Including  all  the  rights  of  the  communal 
citizen.  Participation  in  municipal  and  cor- 
porate property,  and  the  right  to  vote  upon 


purely  municipal  alTaln*,  are  rxconted  from  such 
rlghtH,  unless  the  Cantun  hy  legislation  has 
otherwise  provided.  In  riinloiial  and  coiiimiinal 
alTairs,  he  gains  the  right  to  Vdte  after  a  risi- 
deuce  of  three  months.  Canlcinal  laws  relating 
to  the  right  of  Swiss  citi/.ens  to  settle  iiutHide  lliii 
(.'antoni  in  which  they  were  Ixirn,  and  to  vote 
on  communal  ({Uestions,  are  submitted  for  the 
approval  of  the  Kederal  Coiineil. 

AuT.  44.  No  Cantdii  shall  e.xpe'  from  its  ter- 
ritory one  of  its  own  eiti/.rns,  nor  deprive  him  of 
his  rights,  whether  aciiuireil  by  birlli  nr  settle- 
ment. [Origine  (111  rile,  |  Ke'drni!  legislatlim 
shall  tlx  the  coiKlitiniis  upon  which  foreigners 
may  be  naturalized,  as  well  us  those  upon  which 
a  Swiss  may  give  up  his  cili/.eiisliip  in  order  to 
obtain  natiirall/.atloii  in  a  foreign  country. 

Al'.T.  4r»,  Every  Swiss  cilizin  has  the  right  1o 
settle  anywhere  in  Swiss  territory,  on  condition 
of  submUting  a  certificate  of  origin,  or  a  similiir 
document.  By  exception,  settleiiicnt  may  be 
refused  to  or  withdrawn  from,  those  who,  in 
consequi'nee  of  a  penal  convielion,  are  not  enti- 
tled to  civil  rights.  In  addition,  settlement  may 
be  withdrawn  from  tlio.se  who  have  been  repeat- 
edly punished  for  serious  olleiises,  and  also  from 
those  who  permanently  come  upon  the  diarge  of 
]iublic  cliarity,  and  to  whom  their  Commune  or 
Canton  of  origin,  as  the  case  may  be,  refuses 
sutllcient  succor,  after  they  have  Is'en  olllcially 
asked  to  grant  it.  In  the  Cantons  where  the 
poor  are  relieved  in  their  place  of  residence  the 
perniis.sion  to  settle,  if  it  relates  to  citizens  of 
the  Canton,  may  be  coupled  witli  the  condition 
that  they  shall  be  able  to  work,  ond  that  they 
shall  not,  in  their  former  domicile  in  the  Canton 
of  origin,  have  permanently  become  a  charge  on 
public  charity.  Every  expulsion  on  account  of 
poverty  must  be  approveil  by  the  government 
of  the  Canton  of  domicile,  and  previously 
announced  to  the  government  of  tho  Canton  of 
origin.  A  Canton  in  which  a  8w'.,s  est^ibllshcs 
his  domicile  may  not  require  security,  nor  im- 
pose any  special  obligations  for  such  establish- 
ment. In  like  manner  the  Communes  cannot 
require  from  Swiss  domiciled  in  their  tcrritr>ry 
other  contributions  than  those  which  they 
require  from  t'leir  own  subjects,  A  federal  law 
shall  establish  the  maximum  fee  to  bo  paid  the 
Chancery  for  a  permit  to  settle. 

Akt.  40.  Persons  settled  in  Switzerland  are, 
as  a  rule,  subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  and  legis- 
lation of  their  domicile,  in  all  that  pertains  to 
their  personal  status  and  property  rights.  The 
Confederation  shall  hy  law  make  the  provisions 
necessary  for  the  application  of  this  principle 
and  for  the  prevention  of  double  taxation  of  a 
citizen. 

AnT.  47.  A  federal  law  sliall  establish  the 
distinction  between  settlement  and  temporary 
residence,  and  shall  at  the  same  time  make  the 
regulations  to  which  Swiss  temporary  residents 
shall  be  subjected  as  to  their  political  rights  and 
their  civil  rights. 

Art.  48.  A  federal  law  shall  provide  for  the 
regulation  of  the  expenses  of  the  illness  and 
burial  of  indigent  persons  amenable  to  one 
Canton,  who  have  fallen  ill  or  died  in  another 
Canton. 

Art.  49.  Freedom  of  conscience  and  belief  is 
inviolable.  No  person  can  be  constrained  to  take 
part  in  a  religious  society,  to  attend  religious  in- 
struction, to  perform  a  religious  rite,  or  to  Incur 


591 


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BighU. 


CONSTI'llJTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


fjcnalties  of  any  kind  wliutevcr  on  uccount  of  re- 
igious  opinion.  The  person  who  exercises  the 
parent's  or  (juardiiin's  uutliority  lias  the  right, 
conformably  to  the  principles  above  stated,  to 
regulate  the  religious  education  of  children  up 
to  the  age  of  sixteen  completed  years.  The  ex- 
ercise of  civil  or  political  rights  shall  not  be 
abridged  by  any  provisions  or  conditions  what- 
ever of  an  ecclesiastical  or  religious  kind.  No 
person  shall,  on  account  of  a  religious  belief, 
relea.se  himself  from  the  accomplishment  of  a 
civil  duty.  No  person  is  bound  to  pay  taxes  of 
which  the  proceeds  are  specitlcally  appropriated 
to  the  actual  expenses  of  the  worship  of  a  relig- 
ious body  to  which  he  does  not  belong.  The 
details  of  the  carrying  out  of  this  principle  are 
reserved  for  federal  legislation. 

Art.  50.  The  free  exercise  of  religious  wor- 
ship is  guaranteed  within  the  limits  compatible 
with  public  order  and  good  morals.  The  Cantons 
and  the  Confederation  may  take  suitable  measures 
for  the  preservation  of  public  o.der  and  of  peace 
between  the  members  of  different  religious  bodies, 
and  also  against  encroachments  of  ecclesiastical 
authorities  upon  the  rights  of  citizens  and  of  the 
State.  Contests  in  public  and  private  law,  which 
arise  out  of  the  formation  or  the  division  of  re- 
ligious bodies,  may  be  brought  by  appeal  before 
the  competent  federal  authorities.  No  bishopric 
shall  be  created  upon  Swiss  t<  rritory  without  the 
consent  of  the  Confederation. 

Art.  51.  The  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  so- 
cieties affiliated  with  them,  shall  not  be  received 
into  any  part  of  Switzerland ;  and  all  action  in 
church  and  school  is  forbidden  to  its  members. 
This  prohibition  may  be  extended  also,  by  feaeral 
ordinance,  to  other  religious  orders,  the  action 
of  which  is  dangerous  to  the  state  or  disturbs 
the  peace  between  sects. 

Art.  53.  The  foundation  of  new  consents  or 
religious  orders,  and  the  reSstablishment  of  those 
which  have  been  suppressed,  are  forbidden. 

Art.  53.  The  civil  status  and  the  keeping  of 
records  thereof  is  subject  to  the  civil  authority. 
The  Confederation  shall  by  law  enact  detailed 
provisions  upon  this  subject.  The  control  of 
places  of  burial  is  subject  to  the  civil  authority. 
It  shall  take  care  that  every  deceased  person  may 
be  decently  interred. 

Art.  54.  The  right  of  marriage  is  placed 
under  the  protection  of  the  Confederation.  No 
limitation  upon  marriage  shall  be  based  upon 
sectarian  grounds,  nor  upon  the  poverty  of  either 
of  the  eontractants,  nor  on  their  conduct,  nor  on 
any  other  consideration  of  good  order.  A  marriage 
contracted  in  a  Canton  or  in  a  foreign  country, 
conformably  to  the  law  which  is  there  in  force, 
shall  be  recognized  as  valid  throughout  the  Con- 
federation. By  marriage  the  wife  acquires  the 
citizenship  of  her  husband.  Children  born  be- 
fore the  marriage  are  made  legitlma.e  by  the 
subsequent  marriage  of  their  parents.  No  tax 
upon  admission  or  similar  tax  shall  be  levied 
upon  either  party  to  a  marriage. 

Art.  55.  The  freedom  of  the  press  is  guar- 
anteed. Nevertheless  the  Cantons  by  law  enact 
the  measures  necessary  for  the  suppression  of 
abuses.  Such  laws  are  submitted  for  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Federal  Council.  The  Confedera- 
tion may  enact  "enalties  for  the  suppression  of 
press  otienses  r.      .ted  against  it  or  its  authorities. 

Art.  66.  Citizens  have  the  right  of  forming 
associations,  provided  that  there  be  iu  the  pur- 


pose of  such  as-sociations,  or  iu  the  means  which 
they  emplov.  nothing  unlawful  or  dangerous  to 
the  state  The  Cantons  by  law  take  the  meas- 
ures necessary  for  the  suppression  of  abuses. 

Art.  57.     The  right  of  petition  is  guaranteed. 

Art,  58.  No  person  shall  be  deprived  of  his 
constitutional  judge.  Therefore  no  extraordinary 
tribuunl  shall  be  established.  Ecclesiatical  juris- 
diction is  abolished. 

Art.  59.  Suits  for  personal  claims  against  a 
solvent  debtor  having  a  domicil'i  iu  Switzerland, 
must  be  brought  before  the  judge  of  his  dom- 
icile; in  consequence,  his  property  outside  the 
Canton  in  which  he  is  domiciled  may  not  be  at- 
tached in  suits  for  personal  claims.  Neverthe- 
less, with  reference  to  foreigners,  the  provisions 
of  international  treaties  shall  not  thereby  be 
affected.     Imprisonment  for  debt  is  abo)ished. 

Art.  60.  All  the  Cantons  are  bound  to  treat 
the  citizens  of  tue  other  confederated  States  like 
those  of  their  own  State  iu  legislation  and  in  all 
judical  proceedings. 

Art.  61.  Civil  judgments  definitely  pro- 
nounced in  any  Canton  may  be  executed  any- 
where in  Switzerland. 

Art.  62.  The  exit  duty  on  property  [traite 
foraine]  is  abolished  in  the  Interior  of  Switzer- 
land, as  well  as  the  right  of  redemption  [droit 
de  retrait]  by  citizens  of  one  Canton  against 
those  of  other  confederated  States. 

Art.  63.  The  exit  duty  on  properly  is  abol- 
ished as  respects  foreign  countries,  provided  re- 
ciprocity be  observed. 

Art.  64.  The  Confederation  has  power  to 
make  laws :  On  legal  competency.  On  all  legal 
questions  relating  to  commerce  and  to  trans- 
actions affecting  chattels  (law  of  commercial  ob- 
ligations, including  commercial  law  and  law  of 
exchange).  On  literary  and  artistic  copyright. 
On  the  protection  of  new  patterns  and  forms,  and 
of  inventions  which  are  represented  in  models 
and  are  capable  of  industrial  application. 
[Amendment  of  Dec.  20,  1887.]  On  the  legal 
collection  of  debts  and  ou  bankruptcy.  The  ad- 
ministration of  justice  remains  with  the  Cantons, 
save  as  affected  by  the  powers  of  the  Federal 
Court. 

[Art.  65.  {Abrogated  by  Amendment  of  June  20, 
1870.)  The  death  penalty  is  abolisJud ;  nevertheless 
the  provisions 0^  military  law  in  time  of  war  shall 
be  <£served.     dorporal  punishment  is  abolished.^ 

Art.  65.  [Amendment  of  June  20,  1819.]  No 
death  penalty  shall  be  pronounced  for  a  political 
crime.    Corporal  punishment  is  abolished. 

Art.  66.  The  Confederation  by  law  fixes  the 
limits  within  which  a  Swiss  citizen  may  be  de- 
nrived  of  his  political  rights. 

Art.  67.  The  Confederation  by  law  provides 
for  the  extradition  of  accused  persons  from  one 
Canton  to  another ;  nevertheless,  extradition  shall 
not  be  made  obligatory  for  political  offenses  and 
offenses  of  the  press. 

Art.  68.  Measures  are  taken  by  federal  law 
for  the  incorporation  of  persons  without  country 
(Ileimathlosen),  and  for  the  prevention  of  new 
cases  of  that  nature. 

Art.  69.  Legislation  concerning  measures  of 
sanitary  police  against  epidemic  and  cattle  dis- 
eases, causing  a  common  danger,  is  included  in 
the  powers  of  the  Confederation. 

Art.  70.  The  Confederation  has  power  to 
expel  from  its  territory  foreigners  who  endanger 
the  internal  or  external  safety  of  Switzerland. 


592 


CONSTITUTION;  SWITZERLAND. 


Federal 

COUHCU. 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


Chapter  II.— Art.  71.  Witli  the  n'serviition 
of  tlio  riglita  of  tlie  people  and  of  the  (Jiintoiis 
(Articles  89  nnd  131),  tlie  supreme  nuthoritj'  of 
the  Confederation  is  exercised  by  the  Federal 
Assembly,  [  Assembleo  federale ;  liundesvcrsamm- 
lung]  which  consists  of  two  sections  or  councils, 
to  wit:  (A)  The  National  Council.  (B)  The 
Council  of  States. 

AUT.  72.  The  National  Council  rConseil 
National ;  Nationalrath]  is  comi)osed  of  repre- 
Bcntatives  of  the  Swiss  people,  chosen  in  tlie  ratio 
of  one  member  for  each  20,000  persons  of  the 
total  j)opuIation.  PYactions  of  upwards  of  10,000 
persons  arc  reckoned  as  20,000.  Every  Canton, 
and  in  the  divided  Cantons  every  Ila'lf-Cunton, 
chooses  at  least  one  representative. 

Aht  73.  The  elections  for  tlie  National 
Council  arc  direct.  They  are  held  in  federal 
electoral  districts,  which  in  no  case  shall  be 
formed  out  of  parts  of  different  Cantons. 

AuT.  74.  Every  Swiss  who  has  completed 
twenty  years  of  age,  and  who  in  addition  is  not 
excluded  from  the  rights  of  a  voter  by  the  legis- 
lation of  the  Canton  in  which  he  is  domiciled,  has 
the  riglit  to  vote  in  elections  and  popular  votes. 
Nevertheless,  the  Confederation  by  law  may 
establish  uniform  regulations  for  the  exci'-ise  of 
such  right. 

Aht.  75.  Every  lay  Swiss  citizen  who  has  the 
right  to  vote  is  eligible  for  membership  in  the 
National  Council. 

AuT.  70.  The  National  Council  is  chosen  for 
three  years,  and  entirely  renewed  at  oach  general 
election. 

AliT.  77.  Representatives  to  the  Council  of 
States,  members  of  til's  Federal  Council,  and 
oRlcials  appointed  by  that  Council,  shall  not  at  the 
same  time  be  membere  of  the  National  Council. 

AiiT.  78.  The  National  Council  chooses  out  of 
its  own  numlicr,  for  each  regular  or  extraordinary 
session,  a  President  and  a  Vice-President.  A 
member  who  has  held  the  ofllce  of  President 
during  a  regular  session  is  ineligible  either  as 
Presiden*,  or  Vice-President  at  the  next  rej,'ular 
session.  The  same  member  may  not  be  Vice- 
President  during  two  consecutive  regular  ses- 
sions. When  the  votes  arc  equally  divided  tlic 
President  has  a  casting  vote;  in  elections  he 
votes  in  the  same  manner  as  other  members. 

Akt.  79.  The  members  of  the  National 
Council  receive  a  compensation  out  of  the  federal 
treasury. 

Art.  80.  The  Council  of  States  [Conseil  des 
Etats;  Stttnderath]  consists  of  forty-four  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Cantons.  Each  Canton  af  oints 
two  representatives;  in  tlie  divided  Cantons, 
each  Half-State  chooses  one. 

Art.  81.  The  members  of  the  National  Coun- 
cil and  those  of  the  Federal  Council  may  not  be 
representatives  in  the  Council  of  States. 

Art.  82.  The  Council  of  States  chooses  out  of 
Its  own  number  for  each  regular  or  extraordinary 
session  a  President  and  a  Vice-President.  Neither 
tlie  President  nor  the  Vice-President  can  be 
chosen  from  among  tlie  representatives  of  the 
Canton  from  which  the  President  has  been  chosen 
for  the  regular  session  next  preceding.  Repre- 
sentatives of  tlie  same  Canton  cannot  occupy  the 
position  of  Vice-President  during  two  con- 
secutive regular  sessions.  W^lien  tlie  votes  are 
equally  divided  the  President  has  a  casting  vote ; 
In  elections  he  votes  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
other  members. 


AitT.  83.  Representatives  in  the  Council  of 
States  receive  a  compensation  from  the  Cantons. 

AuT.  84.  The  National  Council  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  States  consider  all  the  subjects  which  the 
present  Constitution  places  within  the  com- 
petence of  the  Cimfedenition,  and  which  are  not 
assigned  to  anv'  other  federal  mitliority. 

AuT.  65.  The  subjects  within  tlii^  competence 
of  the  two  Councils  are  particularly  the  t  lUow- 
ing:  1.  Laws  on  the  organization  of  and  election 
of  federal  authorities.  2.  Laws  and  [ordinances 
on  subjects  which  by  the  Constitution  are  placed 
within  the  federal  competence.  3.  The  salary 
and  compensation  of  members  of  the  federal 
governing  bodies  and  of  the  Federal  Chancery ; 
the  creation  of  federal  olllccs  and  the  determin- 
ation of  salaries  tlierefor.  4.  The  election  of  tlio 
Federal  Council,  of  the  Federal  Court,  and  of  the 
Chancellor,  and  also  of  the  Commander-in-cliief 
of  the  federal  army.  The  Confederation  may  by 
law  a.ssign  to  the  Federal  Assembly  other  powers 
of  election  or  of  confirmation.  5.  Alliances  and 
treaties  with  foreign  powers,  and  also  the 
approval  of  treaties  made  by  the  Cantons 
between  themselves  or  with  foreign  jiowers; 
nevertheless  the  treaties  made  by  the  Cantons 
shall  be  brought  before  the  Federal  Assembly 
only  in  case  tlie  Federal  C'ouncil  or  another  Canton 
protests.  6.  Measures  for  external  safety  and 
also  for  the  maintenance  of  the  independenci; 
and  neutrality  of  Switzerland;  the  declaration 
of  war  and  the  conclusion  of  peace.  7.  The 
guaranty  of  the  Constitution  and  of  the  territory 
of  the  Cantons ;  intervention  in  consequence  of 
such  guaranty ;  measures  for  the  internal  safety 
of  Switzerland,  for  the  maintenance  of  peace  and 
order;  amnesty  and  pardon.  8.  Measures  for 
the  preservation  of  tlie  Constitution,  for  carrying 
out  the  guaranty  of  the  cantonal  constitutions, 
and  for  fulfilling  federal  obligations.  9.  The 
power  of  controlling  the  federal  army.  10.  The 
determination  of  the  annual  budget,  the  audit  of 
public  accounts,  and  federal  ordinances  author- 
izing loans.  11.  The  superintendence  of  fedenil 
administration  and  of  federal  courts.  12.  Pro- 
tests against  the  decisions  of  the  Federal  Council 
upon  administrative  conflicts.  (Art.  113.)  13. 
Conflicts  of  jurisdiction  between  federal  autliori- 
tics.  14.  The  amendment  of  the  federal  Con- 
stitution. 

Art.  86.  The  two  Councils  assemble  annually 
in  regular  session  upon  a  day  to  be  fixed  by  the 
standing  orders.  They  are  convened  in  extra 
session  by  the  Federal  Council  upon  the  reciuest 
either  of  one  fourth  of  the  members  of  the 
National  Council,  or  c f  five  Cantons. 

Art.  87.  In  cithc  Council  a  quorum  is  a 
majority  of  the  total  number  of  its  members. 

Art.  88.  In  the  National  Council  and  in  the 
Council  of  States  a  majority  of  those  voting  is 
required. 

Art.  89.  Federal  laws,  enactments,  and  reso- 
lutions shall  be  passed  only  by  the  agreement  of 
the  two  Councils.  Federal  laws  shall  be  sub- 
mitted for  acceptance  or  rcj'  ction  by  the  people, 
if  the  demand  is  niiuie  by  30,000  voters  or 
by  eight  Cantons.  The  same  principle  applies 
to  federal  resolutions  which  have  a  genen;! 
application,  and  which  are  not  of  an  urgent 
nature. 

Art.  90.  Tlic  Confederation  shall  by  law 
establish  the  forms  and  intervals  to  be  observed 
in  popular  votes. 


593 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


Federal 
Council. 


CONSTITUTION :  SWITZKHLAND. 


Art.  91.  Members  of  either  Council  vote 
■witlidut  instnietidns. 

AuT.  93.  Eacli  Council  takes  action  separately. 
But  in  the  ease  of  the  elections  specified  m 
Article  8.5,  ^  4,  of  pardons,  or  of  deciding  a  con- 
flict of  jiirisdiction  (Art.  83,  §  13),  the  two  Coun- 
cils meet  in  joint  session,  under  the  direction  of 
the  President  of  tlic  National  Council,  and  a 
decision  is  made  by  the  majority  ot  the  members 
of  both  Councils  present  and  voting. 

AuT.  OH.  Sleastires  may  originate  in  either 
Council,  and  may  be  introduced  by  any  of  their 
meml)crs.  Tlie  Cantons  may  by  correspondence 
exercise  the  same  right. 

AiiT.  04.  As  ar\de,  the  sittings  of  the  Councils 
arc  public. 

Akt.  d'l.  Tile  si.preme  direction  and  executive 
authority  of  tlie  Confederation  is  exercised  by  a 
Federal  Council  [Conseil  federal;  IJundesrath], 
composed  of  seven  members. 

AuT.  90.  Tlie  members  of  the  Federal  Council 
are  chosen  for  three  years  by  the  Councils  in 
joint  session  from  among  all  the  Swiss  citizens 
eligible  to  the  National  Council.  But  not  more 
than  one  member  of  the  Fedeiid  Coiuicil  shall  be 
chosen  from  the  same  Canton.  The  Federal 
Council  is  chosen  anew  after  each  election  of  the 
National  Council.  Vacancies  which  occur  in  the 
co\irse  of  the  three  years  are  filled  at  the  first 
ensuing  session  of  the  Federal  As.sembly,  for  the 
remainder  of  the  term  of  otflce. 

AiiT.  97.  The  members  of  tlie  Federal  Coun- 
cil shall  not,  during  their  term  of  otlico,  occupy 
any  other  ofllcc,  either  in  the  service  of  the  Con- 
federation or  in  a  Canton,  or  follow  any  other 
pursuit,  or  exercise  a  profession. 

Aut.  98.  The  Federal  Council  is  presided 
over  by  the  President  of  the  Confederation. 
There  is  a  Vice-President.  The  President  of  the 
Confederation  and  tlio  Vice-President  of  the 
Fei.  '  Council  arc  chosen  for  one  year  by  the 
Federal  Assembly  from  among  the  members  of 
the  Council.  The  retiring  President  shall  not  be 
chosen  as  President  or  Vice-President  for  the 
year  ensuing.  The  same  memlier  shall  not  hold 
the  office  of  Vice-President  during  two  consecu- 
tive years. 

Art.  99.  Tlie'  President  of  the  Confederation 
and  the  other  members  of  the  Federal  Council 
receive  an  annual  salary  from  the  federal 
treasury. 

Art.  100.  A  quorum  of  the  Federal  Council 
consists  of  four  members. 

Art.  101.  The  members  of  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil have  the  right  to  .^peak  but  not  to  vote  in 
either  house  of  the  Federal  Assembly,  and  also 
the  right  to  make  motions  on  tlie  subject  under 
consideration. 

Art.  102.  The  powers  and  the  duties  of  the 
Federal  Council,  within  the  limits  of  tliis  Con- 
stitution, are  parMcularly  the  following:  1.  it 
cond'"-'-  federal  affairs,  conformably  to  the  laws 
and  resolutiu^j  of  the  Confederation.  2.  It 
takes  care  that  the  Constitution,  federal  laws 
and  ordinances,  und  also  the  provisions  of  fed- 
eral concordats,  be  observetl;  upon  its  own 
initiative  or  upon  complaint,  it  takes  measures 
necessary  to  cause  these  instruments  to  be  ob- 
served, unless  the  consideration  of  redress  be 
among  the  subjects  which  should  be  brought 
before  the  Federal  Court,  according  to  Article 
113.  3.  It  takes  care  that  the  guarauty  of  the 
caQtoLil  constitutions  be  observed.    4.  It  intro- 


duces bills  or  resolutions  into  the  Federal 
Assembly,  and  gives  its  opinion  upon  the  pro- 
posals submitted  to  it  by  the  Councils  or  the 
Cantons.  3.  It  executes  the  laws  and  resolu- 
tions of  the  Conf  deration  and  the  judgments  of 
the  Federal  Cou.t,  and  also  the  compromises  or 
decisions  in  arbitration  upon  disputes  between 
Cantons.  0.  It  makes  tliose  appointments  which 
are  not  assigned  to  the  Federal  Assembly,  Fed- 
end  Court,  or  other  authority.  7.  It  examines 
tlie  treaties  made  by  Cantons  witli  each  other,  or 
with  foreign  powers,  and  approves  them,  if 
proper.  (Art.  85,  §  5.)  8.  It  watclies  over  the 
external  interests  of  the  Confederation,  particu- 
larly the  maintenance  of  its  international  rela- 
tions, and  is,  in  general,  intrusted  with  foreign 
relations.  9.  It  watches  over  the  external  safety 
of  Switzerlai.d,  over  tlie  maintenance  of  inde- 
pendence and  neutrality.  10.  It  watches  over 
the  internal  safety  of  the  Coiifeden\tion,  over 
the  maintenancij  of  peace  and  order.  11  In 
cases  of  urgency,  and  when  the  Federal  Assem- 
bly is  not  in  session,  the  Federal  Council  has 
power  to  raise  the  necessary  troops  and  to 
employ  tlicm,  with  tlie  reservation  that  it  shall 
immecliately  summon  the  Councils  if  the  number 
of  troops  exceeds  two  thousand  men,  or  if  they 
remain  in  arms  more  tlian  iliree  weeks.  12.  It 
administers  the  military  establishn.:  r.t  of  the 
Confederation,  and  all  other  branches  of  admin- 
istration committed  to  the  Confederation.  13. 
It  examines  such  laws  and  ordinances  of  tlie 
Cantons  a«  must  be  submitted  for  its  approval ; 
it  exercises  supervision  over  such  departments 
ot  the  cantonal  administration  '"s  are  placed 
under  its  control.  14.  It  administers  tlie  finances 
of  the  Confederation,  introduces  the  budget,  and 
submits  accounts  of  receipts  and  expenses.  15. 
It  supervises  the  conduct  of  all  the  officials  and 
employees  of  the  fedend  administration.  10.  It 
f.ubmivs  to  the  Federal  Assembly  at  each  regular 
session  an  account  of  its  administration  and  a 
report  of  the  condition  of  the  Confederation, 
internal  as  well  as  external,  and  calls  attention 
to  the  measures  which  it  deems  desirable  for  the 
promotion  of  the  general  welfare.  It  also  makes 
spec  lal  reports  when  the  Federal  Assembly  or 
either  Council  requires  it. 

Art.  103.  The  business  of  the  Federal  Coun- 
cil is  distributed  by  departments  among  its 
members.  This  distribution  has  the  purpose 
only  of  facilitating  the  examination  and  despatch 
of  business;  decisions  emanate  from  the  Federal 
Council  as  a  single  authority. 

Art.  104.  The  Federal  Council  and  Its  de- 
partments have  power  to  cad  in  experts  on 
special  subjects. 

Aut.  105.  A  Federal  Chancery  [Chancellcrio 
federale;  Bundeskanzlei],  at  the  head  of  which 
is  placed  the  Chancellor  of  the  Confederation, 
conducts  tlie  secretary's  business  for  the  Federal 
Assembly  and  the  Federal  Council.  The  Chan- 
cellor is  chosen  by  the  Federal  Assembly  for  the 
term  of  three  years,  at  the  same  time  as  the  Fed- 
eral Council.  The  Chancery  is  under  the  special 
supervision  of  the  Federal  Council.  A  federal 
law  shall  provide  for  the  organization  of  the 
Chancery. 

Art.  106.  There  shall  be  a  Federal  Court 
[Tribunal  federal;  Bundesgericht]  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  j  ustice  in  federal  concerns.  Tliere 
shall  be,  moreover,  a  jury  for  criminal  cases. 
(Art.  112.) 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


Frdrrnl 
Court. 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


AiiT.  107.  The  mcmliors  iind  nlterndtra  of  the 
Fi'ilcnil  Court  slmll  be  chosen  by  the  Federal  ^Vs- 
scmbly,  which  shall  take  care  that  all  lliree  iia- 
tioiiiil  laugim^^es  arc  represented  therein.  A  law 
sliall  establisii  the  organization  of  the  Federal 
Court  and  of  its  section.s.  the  number  of  iudges 
and  alternates,  their  term  of  otHce,  and  their 
salary. 

Akt.  108.  Any  Swiss  citizen  eligible  to  the 
National  Council  may  be  chosen  to  the  Federal 
Court.  The  members  of  the  Federal  Assembly 
and  of  the  Federal  Council,  and  ofHcials  appointed 
by  those  authorities,  shall  not  at  the  Siime  timi! 
belong  to  the  F'_'dcral  Court.  The  members  of 
the  Federal  Court  shall  not,  during  their  term 
of  olUce,  occupy  any  other  olHec,  either  in  the 
service  of  tlie  Confederation  or  in  a  "anton,  nor 
engage  in  any  other  pursuit,  nor  practice  a  pro- 
fession. 

AiiT.  109.  Tlie  Federal  Court  orgi\nizes  its 
own  Chancery  and  appoints  the  offlcii'.is  thereof. 

Akt.  110.  The  Federal  Court  has  jurisdiction 
in  civil  suits:  1.  Between  the  Confederation 
and  the  Cantons.  2.  Between  the  Confedera- 
tion on  one  i)art  and  corporations  or  individuals 
on  the  otlier  part,  when  such  corporations  or 
individuals  are  plaintills,  and  when  the  amount 
involved  is  of  a  degree  of  importance  to  ho 
determined  l)y  fedend  legislation.  3.  Between 
Cantons.  4.  Between  Cantons  on  one  part  and 
corporations  •  individiutls  on  the  other  part,  when 
one  of  the  par'ies  demands  it,  and  the  amount  in- 
volved is  of  !i  degree  of  importance  to  be  de- 
tennincd  by  federal  legislation.  It  further  has 
jurisdiction  in  suits  concerning  the  status  of 
persons  not  subjects  of  any  government  (heimath- 
losat),  and  the  conflicts  which  arise  between  Com- 
miuies  of  difterent  Cantons  respecting  the  right 
of  local  citizenship.     [Droit  do  cite.] 

AuT.  111.  The  Federal  Court  is  bound  to 
give  judgment  in  other  cases  when  both  parties 
agree  to  abide  by  its  derision,  and  when  the 
amount  involved  is  of  a  degree  of  importance  tc 
be  <Ieterinined  by  federal  legislation. 

AuT.  113.  The  Federal  Court,  assisted  by  a 
jury  to  decide  upon  questions  of  fact,  has  crim- 
inal jurisdiction  in:  1.  Ca.ses  of  high  treason 
against  the  Confederation,  of  rebellion  or  violence 
against  federal  authorities.  3.  Crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors ogainst  tlie  law  of  nations.  3.  Politi- 
cal crimes  and  misdemeanors  \vK  .h  are  the  cause 
or  the  result  of  disturbances  ivhich  occasion 
armed  federal  intervention.  4.  Cases  against 
ollicials  appointetl  by  a  federal  authority,  where 
such  authority  relegates  them  to  the  Federal 
Court. 

Art.  113.  The  Federal  Court  further  has  juris- 
diction: 1.  Overconflictsof  jurisdiction betiween 
federal  authorities  on  one  part  and  cantonal  au- 
thorities on  the  other  part.  3.  Disputes  between 
Cantons,  when  such  disputes  are  upon  questions 
of  public  law.  3.  Complaints  of  violation  of 
the  constitutional  rights  of  citizens,  and  com- 
plaints of  individuals  for  the  violation  of  con- 
cordats or  treaties.  Conflicts  of  administrative 
jurisdiction  are  reserved,  and  are  to  be  settled 
in  a  manner  prescribed  by  federal  legislation. 
In  all  the  fore- mentioned  cases  the  Federal  Court 
shall  apply  the  laws  passed  by  the  Federal  As- 
sembly and  those  resolutions  of  the  Assembly 
which  have  a  general  import.  It  shall  in  like 
iiianner  conform  to  treoties  which  shall  have  been 
ratified  by  the  Federal  Assembly. 


Art.  114.  Besides  the  C!i.ses  specified  in  Arti- 
cles 110,  U3,  and  113,  the  Confederatiop  may  by 
law  |)la(e  other  matters  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Federal  Court;  in  particular,  it  may  give 
to  that  court  powers  intended  to  insure  the 
uniform  ai)plication  of  the  laws  provided  for  in 
Article  64. 

AiiT.  ll.">.  All  that  relates  to  the  locati(m  of 
the  authorities  of  the  Confederation  is  a  subject 
for  federal  legislation. 

Am".  110.  The  three  principal  languages 
spoken  in  Switzerland,  German,  French,  and 
Italian,  are  national  languages  of  the  Confedera- 
tion. 

AuT.  117.  The  oHiclals  of  tlie  Confederation 
are  responsible  for  their  i'onduct  in  ofilce.  A 
federal  law  sliall  enforce  this  responsibility. 

Chapter  III.  {{Them  foiirnrtidfK  abrogated  by 
the  four  arlickn  folloiping  tliem,  118-123.)  Art. 
118.  Tlie  Federal  Constitution  may  at  any  time 
lie  amended. 

Art.  110.  Amendment  is  secured  through  the 
forms  required  for  passing  federal  laws. 

Art.  130.  When  either  Council  of  the  Federal 
Assemhly  passes,  a  resolution  for  amendment  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  and  the  other  Council  does 
not  agree;  or  when  fifty  thousand  Swiss  voters  de- 
mand amendment,  the  question  whether  the  Federal 
Constitution  ought  to  l/e  amendetl  is,  in  either  ease, 
submitted  to  a  rote  of  the  Swiss  people,  voting  yes  or 
no.  If  in  cither  ease  the  majority  of  the  Siciss 
citizens  who  vote  pronounce  in  the  ajfirmatire, 
there  shedl  be  a  new  election  of  both  Corumlsfor  the 
purjMisc  of  preparing  amendnienl,-. 

Art.  121.  The  amended  Federal  Constitution 
shedl  be  in  force  when  it  has  been  adopted  by  the 
miij  i'y  of  Siriss  citizens  who  take  part  in  the 
vote  tliereon  and  by  a  majority  of  the  States.  In 
making  np  a  majority  if  the  States  the  vote  of  a, 
Ilalf-Canton  is  counted  as  half  a  rote.  The  result 
of  tM  popular  vote  in  eimh  Canton  is  considered  to 
be  the  vote  of  the  State.  1 

Akt.  118.  [Amemi)nentofJul,v  5,  1891.]  The 
Federal  Constitution  may  at  any  time  be  amended 
as  a  whole  or  ii:  part. 

Art.  119.  [Amemliwntof  July  r,,  iSQl.]  Gen- 
eral revision  is  secured  through  the  forms  re- 
quired for  passing  the  federal  laws. 

Art.  120.  When  eitlier  Council  of  the  Federal 
Assembly  passes  a  resolution  for  general  revision 
and  the  other  Council  does  not  agree ;  or  when 
fifty  thousand  Swiss  voters  demand  general  re- 
vision the  question  whether  there  shall  be  such 
a  revision  must,  in  cither  case,  be  submitted  to 
the  popular  vote  of  the  Swiss  people.  If,  in 
either  case,  the  majority  of  the  Swiss  citizena 
who  vote  on  the  question  pronounce  in  the  afflr- 
mative,  there  shall  be  a  new  election  of  both 
Cou'icils  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  a  general 
revision. 

Art.  131.  [Amendment  of  July  5,  1891.]  Spe- 
cific amendments  may  be  brought  forward  either 
through  a  Proposition  of  the  People  [Volksanre- 
gung]  (Initiative)  or  by  Federal  legislation.  A. 
Preposition  of  the  People  means  a  demand  sup- 
ported by  fifty  thousand  Swiss  voters,  either  for 
suspension,  lopeal,  or  alteration  of  specified  ar- 
ticles of  the  Federal  Constitution.  If  by  means 
of  the  method  of  Proposition  of  the  People 
several  different  subjects  are  brought  forwanl 
cither  for  alteration  or  for  incorporation  into  the 
Federal  Constitution,  each  one  of  those  separate 
subjects  must  be  presented  in  a  separate  demand 


695 


CONSTITUTION:  SWITZERLAND. 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES. 


for  n  popular  vote  [Initiiilivbcgolirenl.  Tlie  <1<;- 
tntiiul  for  11  ])cipiil!ir  votu  niiiy  tiiko  tlu;  form 
«!tliL'r  of  II  ri'(iia'st  in  gciicriil  terms,  or  of  ii 
detliiito  (Iritft.  If  Huch  a  (iemiiiul  be  iiiiulu  in 
the  form  of  ii  request  in  general  terms  and  the 
Councils  of  the  Federal  As.sembly  agree  thereto, 
the  said  Councils  shall  thereupon  prepare  u 
specilic  amendment  of  the  purport  indicated  by 
those  asking  amendment;  and  such  specitic 
amendment  shall  be  submitted  to  the  people  and 
to  the  states  for  their  acceptance  or  rejection. 
In  case  the  Councils  of  the  i  ederal  Assembly  do  j 
not  agree  thereto,  the  question  of  specific  amend- 
ment shall  then  be  subjected  to  the  people  for  a  ' 
popular  vote;  and  in  case  the  majority  of  the  I 
Swiss  voters  vote  therefor,  an  amendment  of  the  ! 
purport  indicated  by  the  vote  of  the  people  shall 
then  be  i)rei)ared  by  the  Federal  Assembly.  In 
case  the  re(iue8t  shall  take  the  form  of  a  specific 
<lraft  and  the  Federal  Assembly  agree  thereto, 
the  draft  is  then  to  bo  submitted  to  the  people 
and  the  States  for  acceptance  or  rejection.  If 
the  Federal  Assembly  shall  not  agree  thereto  it 
may  either  prepare  a  substitute  draft  for  itself, 
or  it  may  propose  the  rejection  of  the  propo- 
sition. The  proposition  to  reject  such  substi- 
tute draft  or  proposition  shall  be  submitted  to 
the  vote  of  the  people  and  of  the  States  at  the 
same  time  with  the  general  Proposition  of  the 
People. 

AuT.  122.  [Amendmentof  July  5.  ISOl.]  The 
procedure  upon  the  Proposition  of  the  People 
and  the  popular  votes  concerning  amendment  of 
tlie  Federal  Constitution,  shall  be  regulated  in 
detail  by  a  Federal  Law. 

AuT.  123.  [Amendment  of  Jul)/ 5,  ISdl.]  The 
amended  FedemI  Constitution  or  the  specific 
amendments  proposed,  as  the  case  may  be,  shall 
be  in  force  when  adopted  by  the  majority  of  the 
Swi.ss  citizens  who  take  part  in  the  vote  thereon 
and  by  a  majority  of  the  Cantons.  lu  making 
up  the  majority  of  the  States  tlie  vote  of  a  half 
of  each  Canton  is  counted  as  half  a  vote.  The 
result  of  the  popular  vote  in  each  Cantou  is 
considered  to  be  the  vote  of  the  state. 

Temporary  Provisions.  Auticle  1.  The 
proceeds  of  the  posts  and  customs  shall  be 
divided  upon  the  present  basis,  until  such  time 
ns  the  Confederation  shall  take  upon  itself  the 
military  expenses  up  to  this  time  borne  by  the 
Cantons.  Federal  legislation  shall  provide,  be- 
sides, that  the  loss  which  may  bo  occasioned  to 
the  finances  of  certain  Cantons  by  the  sum  of  the 
charges  which  result  from  Articles  20,  30,  36 
(§  2),  and  42  (e),  shall  fall  upon  such  Cantons 
only  gradually,  and  shall  not  attain  its  full  effect 
till  after  a  transition  period  of  some  years. 
Those  Cantons  which,  at  the  going  into  effect  of 
Article  20  of  the  Constitution,  have  not  fulfilled 


the  military  obligations  which  are  imposed  upon 
them  by  the  former  Constitution,  or  by  federal 
laws,  shall  be  bound  to  carry  them  out  at  their 
own  e.xijcnse. 

AiiT.  2.  The  provisions  of  the  federal  laws 
and  of  the  cantonal  conconlats,  constitutions  or 
cantonal  laws,  which  are  contrary  to  this  Con- 
stitution, cease  to  have  eifect  by  the  adoption  of 
tlic  Constitution  or  tlie  ))ublication  of  the  laws 
•  for  which  it  provides. 

AuT.  3.  The  new  ])rovisiou8  ndating  to  the 
organization  and  jtirisdiction  of  tlie  Fedend 
(.'ourt  take  eifect  only  after  the  publication  of 
fedend  laws  tliercon. 

AiiT.  4.  A  tlelay  of  five  years  is  allowed  to 
Cantons  for  the  establishment  of  fn-e  instruction 
in  primary  public  eciucation.     (Ar  .  27.) 

AiiT.  5.  Those  persons  who  p  L'tice  a  liberal 
profession,  ami  who,  before  the  publication  of 
the  federal  law  provided  for  in  Article  33,  have 
obtained  a  certificate  of  competence  from  a  Can- 
ton or  a  joint  authority  representing  several 
Cantons,  may  pursue  that  profession  throughout 
the  Confederation. 

AuT.  6.  [Ameiuliiuitt  of  Bee.  22,  1885.  For 
the  rciiiiiinder  of  this  amendment  see  article  32 
((■().]  If  a  federal  law  for  carrying  out  Article 
32  (li)  be  passed  before  the  end  of  1890,  the  im- 
port duties  levied  on  spirituous  liquors  by  the 
Cantons  and  Commtines,  accortiing  to  Article  38, 
cease  on  the  going  into  effect  of  such  law.  If, 
in  such  case,  the  shares  of  any  Canton  or  Com- 
mime,  out  of  the  sums  to  be  divided,  are  not 
sufficient  to  equal  the  average  annual  net  pro- 
ceeds of  the  ta.\es  they  have  levied  on  spirituous 
liquors  in  tlie  years  1880  to  1884  inclusive,  the 
Cantons  and  Communes  affected  shall,  till  the 
end  of  1800,  receive  the  amount  of  the  deficiency 
out  of  the  amount  which  is  to  be  divided  among 
the  other  Cantons  ace  jrding  to  population;  and 
the  remainder  only  slmll  be  divided  among  such 
otiier  Cantons  and  Communes,  according  to  popu- 
lation. The  Confederation  shall  further  provide 
by  law  that  for  such  Cantons  or  Communes  as 
may  suffer  financial  loss  through  the  effect  of  this 
amendment,  such  loss  shall  not  come  upon  them 
immediately  in  its  full  e.xtent,  but  gradually  up 
to  the  year  1805.  The  indemnities  thereby  made 
necessary  shall  be  previously  taken  out  of  the  net 
proceeds  designated  in  Article  32  (ii),  paragraph  4. 

Thus  resolved  by  the  National  Council  to  be 
submitted  to  the  popular  vote  of  the  Swiss 
j)eople  and  of  the  Cantons.  Bern,  January  81, 
1874.     Ziegler,  President.     Sehiess,  Secretary. 

Thus  resolved  by  the  Council  of  States,  to  be 
submitted  to  the  popular  vote  of  the  Swiss 
people  and  of  the  Cantons.  Bern,  January  31, 
1874.  A.  Kopp,  President.  J.  -L.  Lutscher,  Sec- 
retary. 


CONSTITUTION  OF   TEE   UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


A.  D.  1781.— The  Articles  of  Confederation. 
See  Unitkd  States  of  A.m.  :  A.  1).  1777-1781, 
and  1783-1787. 

A.  D.  1787-1789,  and  1791-1870.— A  sketch 
of  tlu!  history  of  tlie  framing  and  adoption  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  of  the  United  States  will  be 
found  under  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1787,  and  1787-1789.  The  .'ollowing  text  of  the 
original  instrument,  with  the  subsequent  amend- 


ments to  it,  is  one  i)rcpared  by  Professor  Albert 
Bushnell  Hart,  and  is  the  result  of  a  careful  com- 
parison witli  tiie  original  manuscripts,  preserved 
in  the  State  Department  at  Washington.  "  It  is 
intended  to  be  absolutely  exact  in  word,  spelling, 
capitalization  and  punctuation.  A  few  headings 
and  paragraph  numbers,  inserted  for  convenience 
of  reference,  are  indicated  by  brackets. "  "  Those 
parts  of  the  Constitution  which  were  temporary  in 


596 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES.    Congreu.  CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES. 


their  nature,  or  which  linvo  been  siiperscdeil  or 
altered  by  later  amendments,  are  included  witliin 
the  signs  [  ]."    This  text,  originally  j)riuted  in 
the  "  American  History  Leaflets,"  is  reprotlueed 
with  Professor  Hart's  consent.     The  pumgrajjli- 
iug  has  been  altered,  to  economize  B|)ace,  but  it 
is  otherwise  exactly  reproduced : 
"  We  TiiE  People  of  the  United  States,  in  Order 
to  form  a  more  perfect  Union,  establish  Jus- 
tice, insure  domestic  Tranquility,  provide  for 
the  common  defence,  promote  the  genend  Wel- 
fare, and  secure  the  Blessings  of  Liberty  to 
ourselves  and  our  Posterity,  do  ordain  and  es- 
tablish this  Constitution  for  the  United  States 
of  America. 

Article  i.  /Section  1.  All  legislative  Powers 
herein  granted  shall  bo  vested  in  a  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  tkctioii  3  [§  1.] 
The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  com- 
posed of  Members  chosen  every  second  Year 
by  the  People  of  the  several  States,  and  the 
Electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  Qualifl- 
cations  requisite  for  Electors  of  the  most  numer- 
ous Branch  of  the  State  Legislature.*  [§2.1 
No  Person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  Age  of  twenty-tive 
Years,  and  been  seven  Years  a  Citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected, 
be  an  Inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall 
be  chosen.  [^  3.]  Representatives  and  direct 
Taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union, 
according  to  their  respective  Numbers,  [which 
shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole 
Number  of  free  Persons,  including  those  bound 
to  Service  for  a  Term  of  Years,  and  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  Per- 
sons. If  The  actual  Enumeration  shall  be  made 
withm  three  Years  after  the  first  Meeting  of  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every 
subsequent  Term  of  ten  Years,  in  such  Manner 
as  they  shall  by  Law  direct.  The  Number  of 
Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every 
thirty  Thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at 
Least  one  Representative ;  [and  until  such  enu- 
meration shall  be  made?,  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  chuse  three,  Massa- 
chusetts eight,  Rhode-Island  and  Providence 
Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five,  New-York  six. 
New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware 
one,  Maryland  six,  Virgmia  ten.  North  Carolina 
five.  South  Carolina  five,  and  Glcorgia  three.  ]t 
[§  4.]  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  Represen- 
tation from  any  State,  the  Executive  Authority 
thereof  shall  issue  Writs  of  Election  to  fill  such 
Vacancies.^_[^5.]  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives sluilKpu^iiilieir  Speaker  and  other  Officers; 
and  shall  liaViTthe  sole  Power  of  Impeachment. 
Sections.  [§  1.]  The  Senate  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators  from  each 
State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six 
Years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  Vote. 
[%  2.]  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled 
m  Consequence  of  the  first  Election,  thc^y  shall 
be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  Classes. 
The  Seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  Class  shall 
be  vacated  at  the  Expiration  of  the  second  Year, 
of  the  second  Class  at  the  Expiration  of  the  fourth 
Year,  and  of  the  third  Class  at  the  Expiration  of 

•  Modifled  by  Fourteenth  Amendment. 
t  Bupergeded  by  Fourteentb  Amendment. 
i  Temporary  clause. 


[g  7.]    Judgment  in 
11  not  extend  further 


the  sixth  Year,  so  that  one  third  niuj-  t)e  chosen 
every  second  Year;  and  if  Vacancies  happen  by 
Resignation,  orotherwi.se,  during  the  Recess  of 
the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  Appointnu-nts  until 
the  next  Meeting  of  the  Legislature,  whicli  shall 
then  fill  such  Vacancies,  [t^  3.  |  No  Person  shall 
be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
Age  of  thirty  Years,  and  been  nine  Years  a  Citi- 
zen of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not, 
when  elected,  be  an  Inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen.  [55  4.]  The  Vice 
President  of  tl-e  United  States  shall  be  President 
of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  Vote,  unless  thev 
be  equally  divided,  [st  5.]  Tlie  Senate  shall 
chuse  their  other  OlUcers,  and  al.so  a  President 
pro  tempore,  in  the  Absence  of  the  Vice  Presi- 
ilent,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  Ollice  of 
President  of  the  United  States.  [^  0.]  The 
Senate  shall  have  the  sole  Power  to  try  all  Im- 
peachments. When  sitting  for  that  Purpose, 
they  shall  be  on  Oath  or  Allirmation.  AVhen  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief 
Justice  shall  presiile:  And  no  Person  shall  be 
convicted  without  the  Concurrence  of  two  thirds 
of  the  Members  present. 
Cases  of  Impeachment  shalf 
than  to  removal  from  Oftice,  and  disqualification 
to  hold  and  enjoy  any  Office  of  honor.  Trust  or 
Profit  under  the  United  States:  but  the  Party 
convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject 
to  Indictment,  Trial,  Judgment  and  Punish- 
ment, according  to  Law.  tkctioni.  [§  1.]  The 
Times,  Places  and  Manner  of  holding  Elections 
for  Senators  and  Representatives,  shall  be  pre- 
scribed in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  Law  make 
or  alter  such  Regulations,  except  as  to  the  Places 
of  chusing  Senators.  [S  2.]  The  Congress  shall 
assemble  at  least  once  ,in  every  Year,  and  such 
Meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Mondaj'  in  Decem- 
ber, unless  they  shall  by  Law  appoint  a  different 
Day.  tketion  5.  [§  1.]  Each  House  shall  be 
the  Judge  of  the  Elections,  Returns  and  Qualifi- 
cations of  its  own  Members,  and  a  Majority  of 
each  shall  constitute  a  Quorum  to  do  Business; 
but  a  smaller  Number  may  adjourn  from  day 
to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
Attendance  gi  absent  Members,  in  such  Manner, 
and  under  such  Penalties  as  each  House  may 
provide.  [§  2.  ]  Each  House  may  detenuine  the 
Rules  of  its  Proceedings,  punish  its  Members  for 
disorderly  Behaviour,  and,  with  the  Concurrence 
A  two  thirds,  expel  a  ilember.  ft^  3.]  Each 
House  shall  keep  a  Journal  of  its  Proceedings, 
and  from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  except- 
ing such  Parts  as  may  in  their  Judgment  require 
Secrecy ;  and  the  Yeas  and  Nays  of  the  Members 
of  either  House  on  any  question  shall,  at  the 
Desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  Present,  be  entered 
on  the  Journal.  [§  4.]  Neither  House,  during 
the  Session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  Con- 
sent of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three 
days,  nor  to  any  other  Place  than  that  in  which 
the  two  Housesshall  be  sitting.  Section  G.  [§  1.] 
The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive 
a  Compensation  for  their  Services,  to  be  ascer- 
tained by  Law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  Cases,  ex- 
cept Treason,  Felony  and  Breach  of  the  Peace, 
be  privileged  from  Arrest  during  their  Attend- 
ance at  the  Session  of  their  respective  Houses, 
and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same ; 


597 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITKD  STATES.    Congrt,%.  CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES. 


and  for  nny  Speech  or  Pelmtc  in  I'itliiT  Hoiisc, 
tliey  shall  not  be ((Uestioiied  in  iiny  other  I'liue. 
[55  «.  1  No  Senator  or  Kcpresentative  shall,  diir- 
iii);  tlie  Time  for  which  he  wa.s  elected,  be  ap- 
pointed to  any  civil  Olliee  under  the  Authoritv 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  create(l, 
or  the  Eniolurnents  whereof  shall  have  been  in- 
creas<'d  during  such  time;  and  no  Person  holding 
a7iy  OUice  under  th(^  United  States,  shall  bo  a 
Member  of  either  House  during  his  (,'ontinuance 
in  Olllce.  tirtioiil.  [g  1.]  All  Hills  for  raising 
Itevenie  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Kepre- 
sentat.ves;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  AiT'.;..diiients  as  on  other  IJills.  f«5  3.J 
Ever/  Kill  winch  shall  have  passed  the  llouse 
of  Representatives  and  the  Senate,  shall,  before 
it  become  a  Law,  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States;  If  he  approve  he  shall  sign 
it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  Objec- 
tions to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  origi- 
nated, who  shall  enter  the  Objections  at  large 
on  their  Journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it. 
If  after  such  Ucconsideration  two  thirds  of  that 
llouse  shall  agree  to  pass  the  Bill,  it  shall  be  sent, 
together  with  the  Objections,  to  the  other  House, 
by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and 
il  aiiproved  by  two  thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall 
become  a  Law.  But  in  all  such  Cases  the  Votes 
of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and 
Navs,  and  the  Names  of  the  Persons  voting  for 
and  against  the  Bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  ,Jour- 
nal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any  Bill  shall 
not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  Days 
(Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  pre- 
sented to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  Law,  in  like 
Manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  Adjournment  prevent  its  Keturn,  in 
which  Case  it  shall  not  be  a  Law.  [§  3.]  Every 
Order,  Resolution,  or  Vote  to  which  the  Con- 
currence of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of 
Adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States;  and  before  the  same  shall 
take  Effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being 
disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two 
thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, according  to  the  Rules  and  Limitations 
prescribed  in  the  Case  of  a  Bill.  Section  8.  The 
CongreES  shall  have  Power  [§  1.]  To  lay  and  col- 
lect Taxes,  Duties,  Imposts  and  Excises,  to  pay 
the  Debts  and  provide  for  the  common  Defence 
and  general  Welfare  of  the  United  States ;  but  all 
Duties,  Imposts  and  Excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States;  [§2.]  To  bor- 
row Money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 
[§  3.]  To  regulate  Commerce  with  foreign 
Nations,  and  among  the  several  States,  and  with 
the  Indian  Tribes;  [^  4.^  To  establish  an  uni- 
form Rule  of  Naturahzation,  and  uniform  Laws 
on  the  subject  of  Bankrupt<iie8  throughout  the 
United  States ;  [§5.1  To  coin  Money,  regulate 
♦,he  Value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  Coin,  and  fix  the 
standard  of  Weights  and  Measures ;  [§  6.]  To 
provide  for  the  Punishment  of  counterfeiting  the 
Securities  and  current  Coin  of  the  United  States; 
[§7.1  To  establish  Post  OfBces  and  post  Roads ; 
[§  8.  J  To  promote  the  Progress  of  Science  and 
useful  Arts,  by  securing  for  limited  Times  to 
Authors  and  Inventors  the  [exclusive  Right  to 
their  respective  Writings  and  Discoveries;  [§  9.] 
To  constitute  Tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme 
Court;  [|  10.]  To  define  and  punish  Piracies 
and  Felonies  committed  on  the  high  Seas,  and 


Offences  against  the  Law  of  Nations;  [§  11.1 
To  declare  War,  grant  Letters  of  Marepus  and 
Reprisal,  and  make  Rules  concerning  Captures 
on  Land  and  Water;  [^  13.]  To  raise  and  sup- 
port Armies,  b\it  no  Appropriation  of  iloney  to 
that  Use  shall  bo  for  a  longer  Term  than  two 
Years;  [S  13.]  To  provide  and  maintain  a  Navy ; 
[^  14.]  To  make  Rules  for  the  Government  and 
Regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  Forces;  [g  15.] 
To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  Militia  to  execute 
the  Laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  Insurrections 
and  repel  Invasions;  [g  10.  J  To  provide  for  or- 
ganizing, arming,  ancl  disci|)lining  the  Militia, 
and  for  governing  such  Part  of  them  as  may  bo 
employed  in  the  Service  of  the  United  States, 
reservmg  to  the  States  resi)ectively,  the  Appoint- 
ment of  the  OIHccrs,  and  the  Authority  of 
training  the  Militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  l)y  Congress;  [i;  17.]  To  exercise  ex- 
clusive Legislation  in  all  Cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  District  (not  exceeding  ten  Miles  S()uare) 
as  may,  by  Cession  of  particular  States,  and  the 
Acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  Seat  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise 
like  Authority  over  all  Places  i)urchased  by  the 
Consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  which 
the  same  shall  be,  for  the  Erection  of  Forts, 
Slaga/.ines,  Arsenals,  dock- Yards,  and  other  need- 
ftd  Buildings; — And  [S  18.]  Tomakeall  Laws 
which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  Execution  the  foregoing  Powers,  an(l  all 
other  Powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  De- 
partment or  Otllcer  thereof.  Section  0.  [§  1.] 
[The  Migration  or  Importation  of  such  Persons 
as  any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think 
proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 
Congress  prior  to  the  Year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eight,  but  a  Tax  or  duty  may  be 
imposed  on  such  Importation,  not  exceeding  ten 
dollars  for  each  Person.]*  [§  3.]  The  Privilege 
of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  shall  not  be  sus- 
pended, unless  when  in  Cases  of  Kebellion  or  In- 
vasion the  public  Safety  may  require  it.  [§3.1 
No  Bill  of  Attainder  ^c  ex  post  facto  Law  shall 
be  passed. ■)■  [§  4.]  No  Capitation,  or  other 
direct,  Tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  Proportion  to 
the  Census  or  Enumeration  herein  before  directed 
to  be  taken.  [§  5.]  No  Tax  or  Duty  shall  be 
laid  on  Articles  exported  from  any  State.  [§  6.] 
No  Preference  shall  be  given  by  any  Regulation 
of  Commerce  or  Revenue  to  the  Ports  of  one 
State  over  those  of  another:  nor  shall  Vessels 
bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter, 
clear,  or  pay  Duties  in  another.  [§  7.]  No 
Money  shall  be  drawn  frcm  the  Treasury,  but  in 
Consequence  of  Appropriations  made  by  Law ; 
and  a  regular  Statement  and  Account  of  the  Re- 
ceipts and  Expenditures  of  all  public  Money 
shall  be  published  from  time  to  time.  [§  8.] 
No  Title  of  Nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the 
United  States :  And  no  Person  holding  any  Office 
of  Profit  or  Trust  under  them,  shall,  without 
the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present, 
Emolument,  Office,  or  Title,  of  any  kind  what- 
ever, from  any  King,  Prince,  or  foreign  State,  t 
Section  10.  [g  1.]  No  State  shall  enter  into  any 
Treaty,  Alliance,  or  Confederation;  grant  Let- 
ters of  Marque  and  lieprisal ;  coi:.  Money ;  emit 
Bills  of  Credit;  make  any  Thing  but  gold  and 

•  Temporary  provisloD. 

t  Extended  by  the  first  ei^t  Amendments, 

t  Extended  by  Ninth  and  Tenth  Amendments. 


598 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES. 


„  Thf       CONSTITUTION: 

Executive. 


UNITED  STATES. 


silver  Coin  n  Toruler  in  Piiynient  of  Dobts ;  pnsa 
any  Bill  of  AttiiiiukT,  ex  post  fiicto  Law,  or  I.aw 
impairing  the  Obli^'ation  of  Contracts,  or  grant 
any  Title  of  N()l)iiity.  [tj  2.]  No  State  sliall, 
without  the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
Imposts  or  Duties  on  Imports  or  E.\ports,  except 
what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing 
its  inspection  Laws:  and  the  net  Produce  of  all 
Duties  and  Imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  Imports 
or  Kxi)orts,  shall  be  for  the  U.se  of  tlie  Treasury 
of  the  United  States;  and  all  such  Laws  sliall  be 
subject  to  the  Kevision  and  Controul  of  the  Con- 
gress, [g  3.]  No  State  shall,  without  the  Con- 
sent of  Congress,  lay  any  Duty  of  Tonnage,  keep 
Troops,  or  Ships  of  War  in  time  of  Peace,  enter 
into  any  Agreement  or  Compact  witli  another 
State,  or  with  a  foreign  Power,  or  engage  in 
\Var,  \mless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  immi- 
nent Danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay.* 

Article  II.  Section!.  [^  1.]  Tlie  executive 
Power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his 
Oftiee  during  the  Term  of  four  Years,  and,  to- 
gether witli  the  Vice  President,  ciiosen  for  the 
same  Term,  be  elected,  as  follows  [^  2.]  Each 
State  shall  appoint,  in  sucli  Manner  as  the  Legis- 
lature thereof  may  direct,  a  Number  of  Electors, 
e(iunl  to  the  whole  Number  of  Senators  and 
Uepresentatives  to  wliich  the  State  nniy  be  en- 
titled in  tlie  Congress:  but  no  Senator  or  Kepre- 
seutj^tive,  or  Person  liolding  an  Offlce  of  Trust 
or  Profit  under  the  United  States,  sliall  be  ap- 
pointed an  Elector.  [Tlio  Electors  shall  meet  in 
their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  Ballot  for 
two  Persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be 
an  Inhabitant  of  tlie  same  State  with  tliemselves. 
And  they  sliall  make  a  List  of  all  the  Persons 
voted  for,  and  of  tlie  Number  of  Votes  for  each ; 
wliicli  List  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and 
transmit  sealed  to  the  Seat  of  the  Government  of 
tlie  United  States,  directed  to  tlie  President  of 
the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  sliall, 
in  the  Presence  of  tlie  Senate  and  House  of  Re- 
presentatives, open  all  the  Certificates,  and  the 
Votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  Person  hav- 
ing tlic  greatest  Number  of  Votes  shall  be  the 
President,  if  such  Number  be  a  Majority  of  the 
whole  Number  of  Electors  appointed ;  and  if 
there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  Jlajority, 
and  iiave  an  equal  Number  of  Votes,  then  tlie 
House  of  Uopresentatives  shall  immediately 
cliiise  by  Ballot  one  of  them  for  President ;  and 
if  no  Person  have  a  Majority,  then  from  the  five 
highest  on  the  List  the  said  House  sliall  in  like 
Manner  chuse  the  President.  But  in  cliusing 
the  President,  tlie  Votes  shall  be  taken  by  States, 
tlie  Representation  from  eacli  State  having  one 
Vote;  A  quorum  for  this  Purpose  shall  consist 
of  a  Member  or  Members  from  two  thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  ^Majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  Choice.  In  every  (Jase,  after  tlie 
Choice  of  the  President,  the  Person  having  tlie 
greatest  Number  of  Votes  of  the  Electors  shall 
be  the  Vice  President.  But  if  tliere  should  re- 
main two  or  more  who  have  equal  Votes,  tlie 
Senate  shall  cliuse  from  them  by  Ballot  the  Vice 
President Jl  [§  3.1  The  Congress  may  deter- 
mine tlie  Time  of  cliusing  tlic  Electors,  and  the 
Day  on  which  'ley  shall  give  their  Votes;  which 
Day  shall  be  the  same  tliroughout  the  United 

•Extended  by  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth 
AmendmentH. 
t  Superseded  by  Twelfth  Amendment. 


States.  [§  4.]  No  Person  except  a  natural  born 
Citizen,  or  a  Citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  the 
time  of  till!  Adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  Otllce  of  President;  neither 
shall  any  Person  be  eligible  to  that  Odlee  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  Age  of  thirty  five 
Years,  and  lieeu  fourteen  Years  a  liesident  within 
tlie  United  States.  [Sj  5.]  In  Case  of  tlu'  Re- 
moval of  the  President  from  Ofilce,  or  of  Ids 
Deatli,  Resignation,  or  Inability  to  discliurge  the 
Powers  and  Duties  of  tin;  .said  Ofilce,  the  Same 
shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the 
("ongress  may  by  Law  provide  for  the  t)ase  of 
Removal,  Death,  Resignation,  or  Inability,  both 
of  the  President  and  Vice  Presid<>nt,  declaring 
what  OlHcer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such 
Officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  Disability 
be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 
[^  0.]  The  President  sliall,  at  stated  Times,  re- 
ceive for  his  Services,  a  Compensation,  which 
shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
tlie  Period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected, 
and  he  shall  not  receive  within  tliat  Period  any 
other  Emolument  from  the  United  Stales,  or  any 
of  tliem.  [g7.]  Before  he  enter  on  the  Execu- 
tion of  his  Ofilce,  he  shall  take  tli(!  following 
Oath  or  Atllrmation: — "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or 
"afilrni)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  Ofilce 
"of  President  of  tli('  United  States,  and  will  to 
"the  best  of  my  Ability,  preserve,  protect  and 
"  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 
/Section  2.  [S  l.J  Tlie  President  shall  be  Com- 
mander in  Chief  of  tlio  Armv  and  Navy  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  tiie  Militia  of  the  several 
States,  when  called  into  the  actual  Service  of  tlie 
United  States;  he  may  require  the  Opinion,  in 
writing,  of  the  principal  OfBcer  in  each  of  the 
executive  Departments,  upon  any  Subject  relat- 
ing to  the  Duties  of  their  respective  Olllces,  and 
lie  shall  have  Power  to  grant  Reprieves  and 
Pardons  for  OlTeuces  against  tlie  United  States, 
except  in  Cases  of  Impeachment.  [>;  2.]  He 
sliall  have  Power,  by  and  with  iXw.  Advice  and 
Consent  of  tlie  Senate,  to  make  Treaties,  pro- 
vided two  thirds  of  tlie  Senators  present  concur; 
and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  Ad- 
vice and  Consent  of  tlie  Senate,  shall  appoint 
Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers  and  Con- 
suls, Judges  of  the  suiirenie  Court,  and  all  other 
Onicers  of  the  United  States,  whose  Appoint- 
ments are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and 
which  sliall  be  established  by  Law:  but  the 
Congress  may  by  Law  vest  the  Appointment  of 
such  inferior  Otiicei-s,  as  they  tliink  proi)er,  iu 
the  President  alone,  iu  the  Courts  of  Law,  or  in 
the  Heads  of  Departments.  [^  3.]  The  Presi- 
dent sliall  have  Power  to  fill  up  all  Vacancies 
that  may  happen  during  the  Recess  of  the  Sen- 
ate, by  granting  Commissicms  wliich  shall  expire 
at  the' End  of  their  ne.vt  Session.  t>ectiou3.  He 
shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  tlie  Congress  In- 
formation of  the  State  of  the  Union,  and  recom- 
mend to  their  Ctmsideration  such  Jleasures  as  ho 
shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may, 
on  extraordinary  Occasions,  convene  both  Houses, 
or  eitlier  of  them,  and  in  Case  of  Disagreement 
between  them,  witli  Respect  to  the  Time  of 
Adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such 
Time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  lie  shall  receive 
Ambassadors  and  other  public  Ministei-s;  he 
sliall  take  Care  that  the  Laws  be  faithfully  exe- 
cuted, and  shall  Commission  all  the  Ollicers  of 
the  United  States.    Seotion  4.    The  President, 


599 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES.  Ju,iiciarv.  CONSTITUTION :  UNITED  STATES. 


Vioo  PrcMldont  and  all  civil  Ofllcers  of  tlic 
Unlk'tl  StatcH,  Hliall  !«■  removed  from  Ofllce  on 
Impeacliiiient  for,  and  Conviction  of,  Treason, 
Hril)ory,  or  otlier  Ingli  Crinios  anil  Misdcmean- 
orH. 

Article  III.  fiection  1.  The  judicial  Power 
of  the  United  StateH,  Hliall  Ik;  vested  in  one  su- 
premo Court,  and  in  such  inferior  Courts  as  the 
Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and 
establish.  Tlie  Judf;es,  hoth  of  the  supreme  and 
Inferior  Courts,  sliall  liold  their  Olliccs  during 
go(Ml  Iteliaviour,  and  shall,  at  slated  Times,  re- 
ceive for  tiieir  Services,  a  Compensation,  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  Continunnce 
In  OfHce.  .'feWioii  2.  [55  1.]  The  judicial  Power 
8hall  extend  to  all  Cases,  in  Law  and  Equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  tlio  Litws  of  the 
United  States,  and  Treaties  nuide,  or  which  sliull 
Ik!  ma<le,  under  their  Autliority;  —  to  all  Cases 
affecting  Amba-ssadors,  other  public  Ministers 
and  Consuls ;  —  to  all  Cases  of  admiralty  and  mari- 
time Jurisdiction;  —  to  Controversies  to  which 
the  United  States  shall  be  a  Party;  —  to  Contro- 
versies between  two  or  more  States ;  —  between 
a  State  and  Citizens  of  another  State ;  * —  between 
Citizens  of  dilTercnt  States, — between  Citizens 
of  the  same  State  claiming  Lands  under  Grants 
of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the 
Citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States,  Citizens  or 
Subjects.  [S5  2.]  In  all  Cases  affecting  Ambassa- 
dors, otlier  public  Ministers  and  Consuls,  and 
those  in  wliiclx  a  State  shall  be  Party,  the  supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  Jurisdiction.  In  all 
the  other  Cases  before  mentioned,  the  supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  Jurisdiction,  both  as 
to  Law  and  Fact,  with  such  Exceptions,  and 
tinder  such  Ucgulations  as  tiic  Congress  shall 
make.  [§  3.]  The  Trial  of  nil  Crimes,  except 
iu  Cases  of  Impcacliment,  shall  be  by  Jury;  and 
such  Trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the 
said  Crimes  shall  have  been  co.nmitted;  but 
when  not  committed  witliiu  any  State,  the  Trial 
shall  be  at  such  Place  or  Places  as  the  Congress 
may  by  Law  have  directed.  Section  3.  [§  L] 
Treason  against  tlie  United  States,  shall  consist 
only  in  levying  War  against  them,  or  in  adher- 
ing to  their  Enemies,  giving  them  Aid  and  Com- 
fort. No  Person  shall  be  convicted  of  Treason 
unless  on  the  Testimony  of  two  Witnesses  to  the 
same  overt  Act,  or  on  Confession  in  open  Court. 
[S  2.]  The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  de- 
clare the  Punishment  of  Treason,  but  no  Attain- 
der of  Treason  shall  work  Corruption  of  Blood, 
or  Forfeiture  except  during  the  Life  of  the  Per- 
son attainted. 

Article  IV.  Section  1.  Full  Faith  --.ud  Credit 
shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  Acts, 
Records,  and  judicial  Proceedings  of  every 
other  State.  And  the  Congress  may  by  general 
Laws  prescribe  the  JIaimer  in  which  such  Acts, 
Records  and  Proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and 
the  Effect  thereof.  Section  2.  [§  1.]  The  Citi- 
zens of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  Privi- 
leges and  Immunities  of  Citizens  in  the  several 
Slat»;st  [§  3.]  A  Person  chrrged  in  any  State 
with  Treason,  Felony,  or  other  Crime,  who  shall 
flee  from  Justice,  and  bo  found  in  anotlier  State, 
shall  on  Demand  of  the  executive  Authority  of 
the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to 
be  removed  to  the  State  having  Jurisdiction  of 
the  Crime.     [§  3.]    [No  Person  held  to  Service 


*  Limited  by  Eleventh  Amendment, 
t  Extended  by  Fourteenth  Amendment. 


or  LalKiur  In  one  State,  tinder  the  Laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  Consequence  of 
any  Law  or  Kegiilation  therein,  be  discharged 
from  such  Service  or  Labour,  but  shall  be  de- 
livered up  on  Claim  of  the  Party  to  whom  such 
Service  or  Labour  may  be  due.]*  Section  3.  [j5  1.] 
New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress 
into  this  Union ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed 
or  erected  within  the  Jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  Junction 
of  two  or  more  States,  or  Parts  of  States,  with- 
out the  Consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States 
concerned  as  well  as  of  tlie  Congress.  [S  2.1 
The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  dispose  of  and 
make  all  needful  Uules  and  Ucgulations  respect- 
ing the  Territory  or  otlier  Property  I>clonging  to 
the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitu- 
tion shall  be  so  construed  as  to  Prejudice  any 
Claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular 
State.  Section  4.  The  United  States  sliall  guar- 
antee to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  llepubiican 
Form  of  Government,  and  shall  protect  each  of 
tlien>  against  Invasion;  and  on  Application  of 
the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the 
Legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic 
Violence. 

Article  V.  The  Congress,  whenever  two 
thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  Amendments  to  this  Constitution, 
or,  on  the  Application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two 
thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  Conven- 
tion for  proposing  Amendments,  which.  In  either 
Case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  Intents  and  Purposes, 
as  Part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratifled  by  the 
Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several 
States,  or  by  Conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof, 
as  the  one  or  the  other  Mode  of  Ratification  may 
be  proposed  by  the  Congress;  Provided  that 
[no  Amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the 
Year  One  thousand  fight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  Manner  affect  the  flvst  and  fourth 
Clauses  in  the  Ninth  Section  oi  t'.ie  first  Article ; 
andlt  that  no  State,  without  itii  Consent,  shall 
be  deprived  of  its  equal  Suff -age  in  the  Sen- 
ate. 

Article  VI.  [§  1.]  All  Debts  contracted  and 
Engagements  entered  into,  before  the  Adoption 
of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against 
the  United  States  under  this  Constitution,  as 
under  tlie  Confederation,  t  [§2.]  This  Consti- 
tution, and  the  Laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  Pursuance  thereof;  and  all 
Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under 
the  Authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the 
supreme  Law  of  the  Land;  and  the  Judges  in 
every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  any  Thing 
in  the  Constitution  or  Laws  of  any  State  to  the 
Contrary  notwltlistanding.  [§  3.|  The  Senators 
and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
Members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and 
all  executive  and  judicial  Ofllccrs,  both  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be 
bound  by  Goth  or  Aftlrmation,  to  support  this 
Constitution ;  but  no  religious  Test  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  Qualification  to  any  Oflice  or  public 
Trust  under  the  United  States. 

Article  VII.  The  Itatificution  of  the  Conven- 
tions of  nine  States,  sliall  be  sufBcient  for  the 
Establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the 
States  so  ratifying  the  Same. 

•  &iipersedc<l  by  Thirteenth  Amendment. 

tTeinporary  provision. 

t  Estf  Dded  by  Fourteenth  Amendment,  Section  4. 


600 


CONSTITUTION:  UNITED  STATES.    AmendmmU.    CONSTITUTION;  UNITED  STATES. 


DoNK  in  Convention  by  llio  UnaniinnuH  Con- 
gont  of  tilt'  SUltt'g  present  tlu^  Seventeenth  Day 
of  September  in  tlie  Yeiir  of  our  Lonl  one 
thou8»U(l  Bevcn  hundred  and  Eiglity  seven  and 
of  tlio  Independenec  of  tlie  United  States  of 
America  tlie  Twelfth  In  Witness  whereof  We 
have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

Qo  Wasiiinoton  —  Presidt  and  deputy  from 
Virginia. 

Dklawaub. 
Qco:  Head  John  Dickinson 

Gunning  Bedford  iun        Uielmrd  Uassett 
Jaco:  Broom 
New  IIa.mi'8iiiue. 
Jolm  Langdon  Nicliolas  Oilman 

Massachusetts. 
Nathaniel  Ooriiam  Hufus  King 

MAUYIiAND. 

James  Mcllenry  Dan  of  St.  Thos.  Jenifer 

Danl  Carroll 
Connecticut. 
Wm.  Saml.  Johnson  Roger  Sherman 

VmoiNiA. 
John  Blair —  James  Madison  Jr. 

New  Yokk. 
Alexander  Hamilton 
NouTii  Cauomna. 
Wm.  Blount  Hichd.  Dobbs  Spaight 

Hu  Williamson 
New  Jehbey. 
Wil :  Livingston  Wm :  Patcrson. 

David  Brearley  Jona :  Dayton 

South  Carolina. 
J.  Uutledge,  Charles  Pinckney 

Charles   Cotesworth  Pierce  Butler. 

Pinckney 

Pennsylvania. 
B  Franklin  Tlios.  Fitz  Simons 

Thomas  Mifflin  Jaa>d  Ingcrsoll 

Robt.  Morris  James  Wilson. 

Geo.  Clymer  Qouv  Morris 

Geouoia. 
William  Few  Abr  Baldwin  * 

ARTICLES  in  addition  to  and  Amendment  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
proposed  by  Congress,  and  ratified  by  the  Legis- 
latures of  the  several  States,  pursuant  to  the  ttfth 
Article  of  the  original  Constitution,  f 

[Article  I.]  Congress  shall  make  no  law  re- 
specting an  establisliment  of  religion,  or  pro- 
hibiting the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging 
the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the 
riglit  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and 
to  petition  the  Government  for  a  redress  of 
grievunces. 

[Article  II.]  A  well  regulated  Militia,  being 
necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State,  the 
right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  Arms,  shall 
not  be  infringed. 

[Article  III.]  No  Soldier  shall,  in  time  of 
peace  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Owner,  nor  ni  time  of  war,  but  in 
a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

[Z'HclelV.]  The  riglit  of  the  people  to  be 
Beci.  'icir  persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects, 

again.  iisonable  searches  and  seizure?,  shall 

not  be  vio  ed,  and  no  Warrants  shall  issue,  but 
upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  Oath  or  afTlrm- 
ation,  and  particularly  describing  the   place  to 

•  These  signatures  have  no  other  legal  force  than  that 
of  attestation. 

tThis  heading  appears  only  in  the  joint  resolution  sub- 
mitting the  first  ten  amendments. 

^®  601 


be  searelicd,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  Ih- 
seized. 

[Article  V.]  No  persmi  shall  be  held  to  answer 
for  a  capital,  or  otlierwiw^  infamous  crinie,  unless 
on  a  preHentmeiil  or  InrMctnient  of  a  Grand  Jury, 
except  in  eases  arising  in  tlie  land  or  naval  forces, 
or  in  the  Alilitia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time 
of  War  or  publl<' danger;  nor  shall  any  person 
bo  subject  for  tlu!  same  olTence  to  be  twice  put 
in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  com- 
pelled in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor 
shall  private  i)roperly  be  taken  for  public  use. 
without  just  comiiensation. 

[Article  VI.]  In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the 
accu.sed  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  u  speedy  and 
public  tri  il,  by  an  imi)artial  jury  of  the  State 
and  district  wherein  tlie  crinie  shall  have  been 
committed,  which  district  shall  ha  e  iM'en  pre- 
viously ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed 
of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be 
confronted  witli  the  witnesses  against  liim;  to 
have  compulsiory  process  for  obtaining  witnes.ses 
in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  Assistance  of  Coun- 
sel for  his  defence. 

[Article  VII.]  In  suitsat  common  law,  where 
the  value  in  controvei'sy  shall  exceed  twenty 
dcllai-s,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  pre- 
se.  ved  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be 
otherwise  re-examined  in  any  Court  of  the 
United  States,  tlian  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
common  law. 

[Article  VIII.]  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be 
required,  nor  excessive  fines  impo.sed,  nor  cruel 
and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

[Article  Ix.]  The  enumeration  in  tlie  Con- 
stitution, of  certain  rights,  shall  not  be  construed 
to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the 
people. 

[Article  X.]  The  powers  not  delegated  to  the 
United  States  by  tlie  Constitution,  nor  |)rohibitcd 
by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  re- 
spectively, or  to  tlie  people.* 

[Article  XI.]  The  Judicial  power  of  the 
United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to 
any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prose- 
cuted against  one  of  tlie  United  States  by  Citizens 
of  another  State,  or  by  Citizens  or  Subjects  of 
any  Foreign  State,  f 

[Article  XII.]  The  Electors  shall  meet  in 
their  respective  states,  and  vote  by  ballot  for 
President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whim,  at 
least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  state 
with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  tlieir  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President, 
and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted 
for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  tlie  number  of 
votes  for  each,  wliich  lists  they  shall  sign  and 
certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
Pres' lent  of  the  Senate;  —  The  President  of  the 
Sent  vC  shall,  in  tlie  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
Hoise  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates 
am'  the  votes  shall  th 'ii  be  counted;  —  The 
pel  son  having  tlie  greatest  number  of  votes  for 
President,  sliall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 

*  Amendments  First  to  Tenth  appear  to  have  been  in 
force  from  Nov.  H,  1(91.  [^e  Vsiteu  States  or  Am.: 
A.  D.  1791.1 

t  Proclaimed  to  be  in  force  Jan,  8, 1796. 


CONSTITUTION :  UNITED  8TATE8. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


be  a  rimjorify  of  the  whole  number  of  RIcctoni 
itppoiiili'cl ;  mill  if  III)  iMTHoii  liiivcNiii'li  majority, 
tlit'ii  froin  tlie  porsoiix  liitviiiK  the  lii^lK'Ht 
niiiiilK'rx  not  (•Xd'cdin^  three  on  the  lint  of  thoxe 
voted  for  im  I'reHidciit,  the  House  of  Itepreselita- 
tiveH  Hhall  chiHiHc  iiiiriieiliately,  )iv  liallot,  the 
President.  Hut  in  eliooKiiig  the  President,  tlio 
vot<;.s  shall  be  taken  by  Hlale.s,  tlio  representation 
from  each  state  liavinii;  one  vote;  ii  i|Uorum  for 
tills  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  memlMT  or  mem- 
bers from  two  thirds  of  the  slates,  and  a  majority 
uf  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary  tu  a  choice. 
And  if  the  House  of  Itepn^sentatlves  shall  not 
clioos*!  a  President  whenever  the  ri^ht  of  choice 
sliall  devolve  upon  tliein,  before  the  fourth  day 
of  >Iarch  next  followinjf,  then  the  VleePresi 
<lent  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
<leatli  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the 
President, —  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the 
Vice-I'resideiit,  It  such  number  lie  a  maiorlty  of 
the  whole  nuiiiln  r  of  Electors  appointed,  and  if 
no  person  have  a  iiiujority,  then  from  the  two 
higliest  numbers  ou  the  list,  tlic  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice-President;  a  quorum  for  the 
purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
uiimbcr  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.     Uut  no 

iierson  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  oHlce  of 
•resident  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.* 

Article  XIII.  Section  \.  Neither  slavery  nor 
involuntary  servitude,  except  as  u  punishment 
for  crime  whereof  the  parly  shall  have  been  duly 
convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States, 
or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 
Section  2.  Congress  sliall  liave  power  to  eulorco 
this  article  by  appropriate  legislation.! 

Article  XlV.  Section  1.  All  persons  born  or 
naturalized  in  the  United  Stiites,  and  subject  to 
tlio  juri.sdiction  thereof,  are  citizensof  the  United 
States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside. 
No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which 
shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of 
citizens  of  tlie  United  Slates;  nor  shall  any  State 
deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  jjrocess  of  law ;  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  eipial  protec- 
tion of  the  laws.  Section  3.  Representatives 
shall  be  apportioned  among   the   several   States 


ftccordlnff  to  their  reapoctlvo  numl)crn,  counting 
the  whole  number  of  persons  In  each  State,  ex- 
cluding Indians  not  taxed.  Miit  when  the  right 
to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  clioice  of  electors 
for  President  and  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States,  Heprescntatlves  in  Congress,  the  Execu- 
tive and  Judicial  otllcers  of  a  Htiite,  or  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Ix'gislat  lire  thereof,  Is  denied  to  any 
of  the  male  Inhabltanls  of  such  State,  being 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the 
United  Slates,  or  in  any  way  abriilged,  except 
for  participation  in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the 
basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced 
in  tlic  proportion  which  the  number  of  such 
male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of 
mule  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such 
State.  Section  8.  No  |)erson  shall  be  a  Senator 
or  Uepri'sentative  in  ('ongres.s,  or  elector  of 
President  and  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  ofllco, 
civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or 
under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken 
an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an 
olHcer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of 
any  State  legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or 
judicial  olHcer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  St4itcs,  shall  have  engaged 
111  insurrection  or  rebellion  again.st  the  same,  or 
given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof. 
Uu*  Congress  may  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of 
each  House,  remove  Biicli  disability.  Section  4. 
Tlie  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
Slates,  autliorized  by  law,  including  debts  in- 
curred for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion, 
shall  not  be  questioned.  Hut  neither  the  United 
States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any 
debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrecti(m 
or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any 
claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ; 
but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  clainis  slii'.U 
be  held  illegal  and  void.  Section  5.  The  Con- 
gress shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropri- 
ate legislation,  the  jirovisions  of  this  article.* 

Article  XV.  Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridgetl  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State 
on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition 
ofservitude, — SectionZ.  The  Congress  shall  have 
power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation." — f 


CONSTITUTION   OF   VENEZUELA. 


The  following  text  is  taken  from  Bulletin  No. 
34  (if  the  Bureau  of  tiie  American  Republics: 

Article  i.  The  States  that  the  constitution  of 
March  28,  lri04,  declared  independent  and  united 
to  form  tlie  Venezuelan  Federation,  and  that  on 
April  27,  1881,  were  denominated  Apure,  Boli- 
var, Barq_uislmeto,  Barcelona,  Carabobo,  Co- 
jcdes,  Cumana,  Falcon,  Guzman  Blanco,  Guii- 
rico,  Qimyana,  Ouzmiin,  Jlaturin,  Nueva  Esparta, 
Portuguesa,  Tacliini,  Trujillo,  Yaracuy,  Za- 
inora,  and  Zulia  are  constituted  into  nine  grand 
political  bodies,  viz :  The  Slate  of  Bermudcz,  com- 
|)osed  of  Barcelona,  Cumana,  and  Maturin;  the 
State  of  Minmdo,  composed  of  Bolivar,  Ouzman 

♦  Proclaimed  to  be  In  force  Sept.  85, 1CM. 
•(•  Proolalnietl  to  he  in  force  Doc.  IH,  1865.    [See  Untted 
States  of  Ah.:  A.  U.  ItiUS  (Januaby).] 


Blanco,  Gufirico,  and  Nueva  Esparta ;  the  State 
of  Carabobo,  composed  of  Carabobo  and  Nirgua ; 
the  State  of  Zamorii,  composed  of  Coiedes,  Por- 
tuguesa, and  Zumora;  the  State  of  Lara,  com- 
posed of  Barquisimeto  and  Yaracuy,  except  the 
department  of  Nirgua ;  the  Stiito  of  Los  Andes, 
composed  of  Guzman,  Trujillo,  and  Tdchira;  the 
State  of  Bolivar,  composed  of  Guayana  and 
Apure ;  the  State  of  Zulia,  and  also  the  State  of 
Falcon.  And  they  are  thus  constituted  to  continue 
one  only  nation,  free,  sovereign,  and  independent, 
under  the  title  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela. 

•  Proclaimed  to  be  in  force  July  88.  IffM.  [Bee  UNmsD 
States  ok  Am.:  A.  D.  18«5-18()6  (Dkcbbbkr— April); 
1800  (Ju.NK),  and  186ft-1867  (October— March).] 

t  Proclaimed  to  he  In  force  Mar.  30, 1870,  [See  United 
States  of  Ah.:  A.  D.  1800-1870.] 


602 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  VENEZUELA. 


Art.  a.  Till)  IxiundftrloH  of  tliow!  j^ri'iit  Htntos 
an;  di'tcrmliu'd  by  tlioiM!  tlint  tlio  law  of  Anril  2H, 
IMO,  tliikt  iirriMiKi'd  tlio  liiHt  tcrrltoriiil  (llvUlon, 
<lefliKuiit('<l  for  tlioauclunt  provinci-H  until  it  hIiiiII 
Ik!  rcfomit'<l. 

Art.  3.  Tlic  l)oiin(liirle»  of  tho  United  HtatPH  of 
tlio  Vcnc/.ucliin  Ki'dcnition  iin;  llui  HiuntMliitt  In 
1810  bt'loiigt'd  to  till!  old  ('iiptiiincydcncnd  of 
VcnfZiiclu. 

Art.  4.  Tho  Stiitcs  timt  urc  grouped  to^jctluT 
to  form  tlic  gmnd  political  IxmIIch  will  Ix;  culled 
Sections.  TlioHu arc ci|ual  among  tlicmsclvcH ;  tho 
conNtitiitlons  proscriliod  for  their  internal  organ- 
ism niiiHt  be  harmonloiiH  with  tho  foderatlvo 
principles  cHtabiislied  by  tlic  present  compact, 
and  tho  sovereignty  not  delegated  resides  In  tlio 
Stato  without  any  other  llmitationN  than  tliost; 
that  devolve  from  the  eonipromiso  of  association. 

Art.  5.  These  are  Venezuelans,  viz:  tst,  All 
persons  that  may  have  been  or  may  bo  born  on 
Venezuelan  soil,  whatever  maybe  the  nationality 
of  their  parents;  2d,  The  children  of  a  Vene- 
zuelan father  or  mother  that  may  have  been  liorn 
on  foreign  soil,  if  they  should  come  to  take  up 
their  domicile  In  tho  country  an<l  express  the 
desire  to  become  citizens;  3d,  Foreigners  that 
may  have  obtained  naturalization  papers;  and, 
4th,  Those  born  or  that  shall  be  born  In  any  of 
the  .Spanish-American  republics  or  in  the  Spanish 
Antilles,  provided  that  they  may  have  taken  up 
their  residence  in  tho  territory  of  the  liepiibiic 
and  express  a  willingness  to  become  citizens. 

Art.  6.  Tiioso  that  take  up  their  residence  and 
acquire  nationality  in  a  foreign  country  do  not 
lose  the  character  of  Venezuelans. , 

Art.  7.  Males  over  twentyono  years  of  ago 
arc  qunlitled  Venezuelan  citizens,  with  only  the 
eptions  contained  in  this  constitution. 

Art.  8.  All  Venezuelans  are  obliged  to  serve' 
the  nation  according  to  the  prescriptions  of  the" 
laws,  sacritlcing  his  property  and.  his  life,  If 
necessary,  to  defend  the  country. 

Art.  9.  Venezuelans  shall  enjoy,'  In  all '  the 
States  of  tho  Union,  tho  rights  ami  immunities 
Inherent  to  their  condition  as  citizens  of  the  Fed- 
eration, and  tlicy  shall  also  have  Imposed  upon 
them  there  the  same  duties  that  are  required  of 
those  that  are  natives  or  domiciled  there. 

Art.  10.  Foreigners  shall  enjoy  the  samo  civil 
riglits  as  Venezuelans  and  tho  same  security  in 
their  persons  and  property.  Tliey  can  only  take 
atlvantage  of  diplomatic  means  in  accordance 
with  public  treaties  and  in  cases  when  right  per-_ 
mits  it. 

Art.  II.  The  law  will  determine  tho  right  ap- 

filicablo  to  tho  condition  of  foreigners,  accord- 
ng  as  they  may  be  domiciled  or  in  transit. 

Art.  13.  The  States  that  form  the  Venezuelan 
Federation  reciprocally  recognize  their  respective 
autonomies ;  they  are  declared  equal  in  political 
entity,  and  preserve,  in  all  its  plenitude,  tho 
sovereignty  not  expressly  delegated  in  this  con- 
stitution. 

Art.  ij.  The  States  of  the  Venezuelan  Feder- 
ation oblige  themselves  —  Ist,  To  organize  them- 
selves in  accord  with  the  principles  of  popular, 
elective,  federal,  representative,  alternative,  and 
responsible  goveniment;  2d,  To  establish  tho 
fundamental  regulations  of  their  interior  regu- 
lation and  government  in  entire  confonnity  with 
the  principles  of  this  constitution;  3d,  To  defend 
thcinselves  against  all  violence  that  threatens  the 
sectional  independence  or  the  integrity  of  the 


Venezuelan  Federation ;  4th,  To  not  alienate  to 
a  foreign  power  any  part  of  tlieir  territory,  nor 
to  implore  its  protection,  nor  to  establiHh  or  cul- 
tivate political  or  diplomatic  relations  with  otlier 
nations,  siiiiu'  tills  last  Is  reserved  to  the  Federal 
power;  5tli.  To  not  combine  or  ally  themselves 
witli  another  natiim,  nor  to  m-parate  themselveii 
to  the  prejuillcc  of  the  nationality  of  Venezuela 
and  her  territory;  Otli,  To  cede  to  tho  nation  tho 
territory  that  may  be  necessary  for  tho  Federal 
district;  7tii,  To  cede  to  tho  Oovernment  of  tho 
Federation  tho  territory  necessary  for  the  erec- 
tion of  forts,  warehouses,  sliipyards,  and  penl- 
tentiaries,  and  for  the  construction  of  other 
editlees  indisnensidilo  to  the  general  administra- 
tion ;  Htli,  To  leave  to  th(!  Government  of  tho 
Federation  the  administration  of  the  Amazonaa 
and  Goajira  territories  and  that  of  tho  islanils 
which  pertain  to  the  nation,  until  it  may  be  con- 
venient to  elevate  them  to  another  rank;  9lh,  To 
reserve  to  the  powers  of  tho  Federation  all  legis- 
lative or  executive  jurisdiction  cimcerning  mari- 
time, coastwise,  and  tluvlal  navigation,  and  tlio 
national  roads,  considering  as  such  those  that 
exceed  the  limits  of  a  State  and  lead  to  tlii!  fron- 
tiers of  others  and  to  tho  Federal  district;  10th, 
To  not  s"')Ject  to  contributions  the  prcMliict.s  or 
articles  upon  which  national  taxes  are  Imposed, 
or  those  that  are  by  law  exempt  from  tax  lieforo 
they  have  been  offered  for  consumption;  lltli, 
To  not  impose  contributions  on  cattle,  elTccts,  or 
any  class  of  merchandise  in  transit  for  another 
State,  in  order  that  tralUc  may  bo  absolutely 
free,  and  that  in  one  section  the  consumption  of 
others  may  not  be  taxed;  12th,  To  not  prohibit 
the  consumption  of  the  products  of  other  States 
nor  to  tax  their  productions  with  greater  general 
or  municipal  taxes  than  those  paid  on  pnxliicts 
raised  In  the  locality;  13tli,  To  not  establisli 
inaritime  or  territorial  custom-houses  for  the  col- 
lection of  imports,  since  there  will  bo  national 
ones  only;  14tli,  To  recognise  the  right  of  each 
State  to  dispose  of  its  natural  prtMUicts;  IStli, 
I  To  cede  to  tho  Oovernment  of  the  Federation 
the  administration  of  mines,  public  lands,  and 
salt  mines,  in  order  that  the  lirst  may  be  regu- 
lated by  a  system  of  uniform  working  and  that 
the  latter  may  be  applied  to  tho  benetit  of  tho 
people ;  16th,  To  respect  the  property,  arsenals, 
and  forts  of  the  nation;  17tli,  To  comjily  with 
and  cause  to  be  complied  witli  and  executed  tho 
Constitution  and  laws  of  tho  federation  and  tlio 
decrees  and  orders  that  the  federal  power,  tho 
tribunals,  and  courts  may  expedite  in  use  of 
their  attributes  and  legal  faculties;  18tli,  To 
give  entire  faith  to  and  to  cause  to  bo  comijlied 
witli  and  executed  the  public  acts  and  juiticial 
procedures  of  the  other  States;  19th,  To  organ- 
ize their  tribunals  and  courts  for  tlic  administra- 
tion of  justice  in  tlie  State  and  to  have  for  all  of 
them  the  same  substantive  civil  and  criminal 
legislation  and  tlie  same  laws  of  civil  and  crimi- 
nal procedure;  20tli,  To  present  judges  for  tho 
court  of  appeals  and  to  submit  to  the  decision  of 
this  supreme  tribunal  of  tlie  States;  2l8t,  To 
incorporate  the  extradition  of  criminals  as  a 
political  principle  in  tlieir  respective  Constitu- 
tions; 22d,  To  establisli  direct  and  public  suf- 
frage iu  popular  elections,  making  it  obligatory 
and  endorsing  it  in  tlie  electoral  registry.  The 
vote  of  the  suffragist  must  be  cast  in  full 
and  public  session  of  the  respective  board;  it 
will  be  inscribed  in  the  registry  books  that  the 


603 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUKLA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


Inw  pn'fH'rilx'H  for  clrrtlonit,  which  cim  nut  )h> 
RulmtlluU'il  ill  liny  otliir  form,  iiiiil  tint  ch'ctor, 
fur  hliiiiM'lf  or  liy  luiotlirr  lit  liin  r('<|iicHt  In  caiwt 
(if  ini|MMliiiu'nt  or  tliroiiKh  iKnonuit'c,  will  hI^ii 
the  nicinoruiiiluni  ciilrv  of  IiIh  vote,  iiiiil  without 


IIiIh  r)'i|ulHitr  It  ciui  not  lie  cliiimcil  tliiit  In  rciility 

iif  iirl 
mury  ciliu'iitionand  that  of  iirtHiiiiil  truilcH;  2'ttli, 


he  hiiH  voted;  'iM,  To  eHliililiiili  ii  HyHleni  of 


To  rcHervft  to  tlic  powers  of  the  Fcderiillon  the 
liiWH  nnd  provlHlons  neeeKsitry  for  the  creiitloii, 
C'oniiorvation,  iind  ))ro);reHH  of  freneral  hcIiooIn, 
colIegcH,  or  iinlverHltiis  lU'Kljjned  for  tin;  tench- 
IliK  of  thu  M'leni'eit;  'iMt,  Tu  not  Impose  diitieH 
upon  thi^  national  eniployeR,  exeept  in  the  i|ual- 
ity  of  eitlzenH  of  theKtale  and  insoiniieh  as  these 
dutleH  may  not  be  Inronipatlblu  with  thu  national 
piililie  service ;  2(llh,  To  funilsh  the  |)roporlional 
coDtlnf(cnt  that  pertains  to  them  to  compose 
tho  national  piiblie  forces  in  time  of  peace  or 
war;  27th,  To  not  iiernilt  in  the  Ktates  of  the 
Pcdenitlon  forced  enllstnienis  and  levies  thai 
liave  or  may  have  for  their  object  an  attack  on 
liberty  or  Indeiicmlence  or  a  (listurbiinee  of  the 
public  order  of  the  Nation,  of  other  Htates,  or  of 
nnothiT  Nation ;  28th,  To  jireservo  u  strict  neu- 
trality in  the  contentions  that  may  arise  in  otiier 
Btates;  20tli,  To  not  declare  or  carry  on  war  In 
any  case,  one  Htnte  with  anolher;  Soth,  To  de- 
fer and  submit  to  the  decision  of  tlie  Congress  or 
the  High  Federal  Court  in  all  the  controversies 
that  may  arise  between  two  or  more  Htates  when 
they  <'an  not,  between  themselves  and  by  pacific 
measures,  arrive  at  an  agreement.  If,  for  any 
cause,  they  may  not  designate  the  arbiter  to 
whose  decision  they  may  submit,  they  leave  it, 
in  fact,  to  the  High  Federal  Court;  ai.st,  To 
recognize  the  competency  of  Congress  and  of  the 
court  of  appeals  to  take  cognizance  of  the  causes 
that,  for  trea.son  to  the  country  or  for  the  Infrac- 
tion of  the  Constitution  nnd  laws  of  the  Fcdern- 
tlon,  may  be  instituted  against  those  that  exer- 
cise executive  authority  in  the  Stat<.'s,  it  being 
their  duty  to  Incoriiorato  this  precciit  in  their 
constitutions.  In  these  trials  the  modes  of  pro- 
cedure that  tho  general  laws  prescribe  will  be 
followed  nnd  they  will  be  tleclded  in  consonance 
w  ith  those  luws ;  22d,  To  have  as  the  just  Income 
of  the  States,  two-thinls  of  the  total  product  of 
the  Impost  collected  as  transit  tux  in  nil  tlic  custom- 
liouses  of  the  Republic  nnd  wwo-thirds  of  that  col- 
lected from  mines,  public  lands,  and  salt  mines 
administered  by  the  Federal  Power  and  to  distrib- 
ute tills  income  nmoug  all  the  States  of  the  Fed- 
eration in  proportion  to  the  population  of  each ; 
83d,  To  reserve  to  the  Federal  Power  the  amount 
of  the  third  part  of  the  income  from  transit  tax, 
the  production  of  mines,  public  lands,  and  salt 
mines,  to  be  invested  in  the  improvement  of  the 
country ;  34th,  To  keep  far  away  from  the  fron- 
tier those  individuals  that,  through  politicnl 
motives,  take  refuge  in  a  State,  provided  that 
the  State  interested  requests  it. 

Art.  14.  The  nation  guarantees  to  Venezue- 
lans: Ist,  The  inviolal)illty  of  life,  capital  pun- 
ishment being  abolished  iu  spite  of  any  low  that 
establishes  it ;  2il,  Proj)erty,  jv.ith  all  its  attri- 
butes, riglits  and  privileges,  will  only  be  sub- 
jected to  contributions  decreed  by  legislative 
authority,  to  judicial  decision,  and  to  be  taken 
for  public  works  after  indemnity  and  condemna- 
tion; 3d,  Tlic  inviolability  and  secrecy  of  cor- 
respondence and  other  private  papere ;  4th,  The 
domestic  bcartli,  that  can  not  be  approached  ex- 


cept to  nrevi'nt  tho  perpetration  of  crime,  and 
thiR  itwli  must  Ix'  done  in  accordance  with  law: 
fllh,  Persona'  lili'Tty,  and  conseiineiitly(l)  forcx'd 
recruiting  for  jirnied  service  is  abolished,  (2)  slav- 
ery is  forever  proscribed,  (II)  slaves  that  tread 
the  soil  of  Venezuela  arc  free,  and  (4)  nobody  ts 
obliged  to  do  that  which  llie  law  does  not  com- 
mand, nor  is  impeded  from  doihg  that  wliich  It 
does  not  lirohlbit ;  titli,  The  freedom  of  tlioiiglit, 
exiiressed  by  word  or  through  the  iiress,  is  with- 
out any  restriction  to  be  Mibmitteil  to  previous 
censun-.  In  cases  of  calumny  or  Injury  or  preju- 
dice to  a  third  party,  the  aggrieved  party  sliall 
have  every  facility  to  have  Ids  complaints  Inves- 
tigated before  competent  tribunnlH  of  justico  in 
accoriiance  with  the  common  laws;  7tli,  The  llb- 
iTty  of  traveling  without  passport,  to  change 
the  domicil,  observing  the  legal  formalities,  and 
to  depart  from  and  return  to  the  Hepnlilic,  carry- 
ing olf  and  bringing  back  his  or  her  property; 
8tli,  The  liberty  of  industry  and  conseciuently 
the  proprietorslil|)  of  discoveries  and  produc- 
tions. The  law  will  assign  to  the  proprietors  a 
temporary  privilege  or  the  mixle  of  indemnity  In 
case  that  the  author  agrees  to  Its  publication; 
Oth,  The  liberty  of  reunion  nnd  assembling  with- 
out nrnis,  publicly  or  privately,  the  nuthorltles 
being  iirohibited  from  exercising  any  net  of  in- 
spection or  coercion;  10th,  The  liberty  of  peti- 
tion, with  the  right  of  obtaining  action  by  reso- 
lution ;  jietitlon  can  be  made  by  any  functionary, 
authority  or  corporation.  If  the  petition  shall 
be  made  In  the  name  of  various  jiersous,  the  flrst 
five  will  respond  for  the  authenticity  of  the  sig- 
natures and  all  for  the  truth  of  the  assertions; 
11th,  The  lilK'rty  of  suffrage  at  popular  elections 
without  any  restriction  except  to  males  under 
eighteen  years  of  age;  12th,  The  liberty  of  in- 
struction w  ill  bo  protected  to  every  extent.  The 
public  power  is  obliged  to  establish  gratuitoua 
instruction  in  primary  schools,  the  arts,  and 
trades;  IStli,  lUiiglous lllierty ;  14th,  Individual 
security,  and,  therefore  (1)  no  Venezuelan  can  bo 
imprisoned  or  arrested  in  punishment  for  debts 
not  founded  in  fraud  or  crime ;  (2)  nor  to  lie  obliged 
to  lodge  or  quarter  soldiers  in  his  house;  (3)  nor 
to  be  judged  liy  special  commissions  or  tribu- 
nals, but  by  his  natural  judges  and  by  virtue  of 
laws  dictated  before  the  commission  of  the  crime 
or  net  to  bo  judged;  (4)  nor  to  be  imprisoned  nor 
arrested  without  previous  summary  iufonnation 
that  a  crime  meriting  corporal  punishment  has 
been  committed,  and  a  written  order  from  the 
functionary  that  orders  the  imprisonment,  stating 
the  cause  of  arrest,  unless  tho  person  may  bo 
caught  in  the  commission  of  the  crime ;  (5)  nor 
to  be  ploced  in  solitary  confinement  for  any 
cause ;  (6)  nor  to  bo  obliged  to  give  evidence,  in 
criminal  causes,  against  himself  or  his  blood  re- 
lations within  the  fourth  degree  of  consanguinity 
or  against  his  relations  by  marriage  within  tho 
second  degree,  or  against  husband  or  wife;  (7) 
nor  to  remain  in  prison  wiien  the  reasons  that 
caused  the  imprisonment  have  been  dissipated ; 
(8)  nor  tc  be  sentenced  to  corporal  punishment 
for  more  than  ten  years ;  (9)  nor  to  remain  de- 
prived of  liis  liberty  for  political  reasons  when 
order  is  reestablished. 

Art.  15.  Equality:  in  virtue  of  which  (1)  all 
must  be  judged  by  the  very  same  laws  and  sub- 
ject to  equal  duty,  service  and  contributions; 
(2)  no  titles  of  nobility,  iiereditary  honors,  and 
distinctions  will  be  conceded,  nor  employments 


604 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZl'ET.A. 


CONflTITl'TION  OP  VfiNEZUELA. 


or  offices  llio  MilnrloH  or  pmoliimcnts  of  wlilrli 
('(mtlnup  ftflcr  tlm  t^'nnlimlloii  of  ncrvic^o;  (!l)  no 
other  ollW'iiil  fiiilututiiiii  tliati  "citi/.cn "  unit 
"you"  will  Im!  ({Ivcii  to  cinployc'd  atid  corporii- 
tloiiH.  The  prc'si'iit.  ciiiiminitiDii  docM  not  Im- 
poNc  upon  till)  Htatt'H  tlic  oliliKatiuM  to  ucconl 
other  giiiirHiiteeN  to  their  lnliiil)ltiuitH. 

Art.  i6.  The  InwH  In  the  HtalcM  will  prescribe 
peimltleH  fortius  liifractloiiH  of  thcHe  K»arantees. 
eHtat)llslilnf;  iiiodi'S  of  i)roee(lur(!  to  niuKe  thetn 
elTectlve. 

Art.  17.  Those  who  may  issue,  sign,  or  exe- 
cute, or  order  executed  any  decrees,  orders,  or 
resolutions  that  violate  or  in  any  manner  infrlnj^e 
upon  the  j{uarante<>s accorded  to  Venezuelans  are 
culpable  and  must  be  punished  according  to  the 
law.   Every  citizen  is  empowered  to  IjrinKcliarKcs. 

Art.  18.  Tlie  National  Lejjislature  will  l)e  com- 
posed of  two  clinndK'rs,  one  of  Senators  and 
another  of  Deputies. 

Art.  19.  The  States  will  determine  the  mode 
of  election  of  Deputies. 

Art.  ao.  To  form  tlie  (!lmmber  of  Deputies, 
each  State  will  name,  by  |>opular  election  In  ac- 
cordance with  paragraph  'i'i  of  Article  liJ  of  tills 
(Jonstitution,  on<^  Deputy  for  each  thirty-five 
thousand  inhal)ltants  aiuf  anotber  for  an  excess 
not  under  fifteen  tliousand.  In  tlie  same  man- 
nvx  it  will  elect  alternates  in  equal  number  to 
the  principals. 

Art.  21.  Tlio  Deputies  will  liold  olUce  for  four 
years,  when  tliey  will  1)0  renewed  in  their  en- 
tirety. 

Art.  2a.  The  prerogatives  of  tlie  clinmber  of 
I)ep\itie8  are:  First,  to  examine  the  annual  ac- 
count that  the  President  of  tlie  United  States  of 
Venezuela  must  render;  second,  to  pass  a  vote 
of  censure  of  the  Ministers  of  tlic  Cabinet,  in 
which  event  their  posis  will  Ih;  vacant;  third,  to 
hear  charges  against  the  persons  in  charge  of 
the  olHce  of  the  Notional  Executive  for  treason 
to  tile  country,  for  infraction  of  the  constitution, 
or  for  ordinary  crimes;  against  tlie  ministers  and 
other  National  eniployfis  for  infraction  of  tlio 
Constitution  and  laws  and  for  fault  in  the  dis- 
cliarge  of  tlieir  duties  according  to  article  75  of 
this  constitution  and  of  tiie  general  laws  of  the 
Uepuiilic.  This  attribute  is  preventative  and 
neiJier  contracts  nor  dimlnislies  those  that  other 
authorities  have  to  judge  and  punish. 

Art.  23.  Wlien  a  charge  is  instituted  by  a 
Deputy  or  by  any  corporation  or  individual  the 
following  rules  will  be  observed :  (1)  there  will 
he  appointed,  in  secret  session,  a  commission  of 
tiirec  deputies;  (2)  the  commission  will,  within 
tlirco  days,  render  an  opinion,  declaring  whether 
or  not  there  is  foundation  for  instituting  a  cause ; 
(3)  the  Chamber  will  consider  tlie  information 
and  decide  upon  tlie  cause  by  the  vote  of  an  ol)- 
soluto  majonty  of  the  members  present,  the 
accusing  Deputy  abstaining  from  voting. 
_  Art.  24.  Tile  declaration  that  there  is  founda- 
tion for  the  cause  operates  to  suspend  from  office 
the  accused  and  incapacitates  liim  for  the  dis- 
charge of  any  public  function  during  the  trial. 

Art.  25.  To  form  this  Chamber  each  State, 
tlirough  its  respective  legislature,  will  elect 
three  principal  Senators  and  an  "rual  number  of 
alternates  to  supply  the  vacu  hat  may  oc- 

cur. 

Art.  26.  To  be  a  Senator  it  is  ^  _  lA  that  he 
shall  be  a  Venezuelan  by  birth  anQ  .nirty  years 
of  age. 


Art.  37.  The  ft-nBtom  will  occupy  their  po«t« 
for  four  vears  and  lie  renewed  in  their  I'ntirety. 

Art.  a&.  It  Is  tlie  pn'rogative  of  tlie  Senate  to 
sii'  -  initiate  and  decide  llie  causes  Initiated  in 
till'  Clianilier  of  Deputies. 

Art.  ao.  If  tlie  cause  may  not  have  been  con 
cluiled  (luring  tlie  seHKlons,"tlie  Senate  will  eon- 
tinue  aHsenililed  for  this  purpose  only  until  the 
cause  is  llnislied. 

Art.  30.  The  National  Legislature  will  assem- 
ble on  tlie  aoth  day  of  Fetiruiiry  of  each  year  or 
IIS  soon  thereafter  as  possilile  at  the  capital  of 
the  United  States  without  tlie  necessity  of  pre- 
vious notice.  Till' KeHsions  will  hiHt  for  seventy 
days  to  lie  jirohmged  until  nimly  days  at  the 
jiKlgiiient  of  the  majority. 

Art.  31.  The  Cliamliers  will  open  their  bob- 
sions  wltii  twothirds  of  their  iiumlier  at  least; 
and.  In  default  of  tills  numl«'r,  those  present 
will  assemble  in  preparatory  ciinimission  anil 
adopt  measures  for  tlie  concurrence  of  tlic  ab- 
sentees. 

Art.3a.  The  sessions  having  lieen  open-d,  tliey 
may  lie  continued  by  twotliirds  of  those  tiiat 
may  liave  Installed  them,  provided  that  the  num- 
bcT  be  not  less  than  liiilf  of  all  tlie  memliers 
elected. 

Art.  33.  Altliough  tlio  Chamliers  deliberate 
separately,  they  may  assemble  together  In  the 
Congress  wlien  the  constitution  and  laws  proviile 
for  It  or  wlien  one  of  the  two  Chamtiers  may 
deem  it  n(!eessary.  If  tlie  Cliamlier  that  is  in- 
vited sliall  agree,  it  remains  to  it  to  fix  tlie  day 
and  the  Iiour  of  the  joint  session. 

Art.  34.  Tiie  sessions  will  be  public  and  secret 
at  the  will  of  tlie  Chamber. 

Art.  35.  The  Chamliers  liave  the  right:  (1)  to 
make  rules  to  be  observed  in  tlie  sessions  and  to 
regulate  the  detiates;  (2)  to  correct  infractors;  (!)) 
to  estalilish  the  police  force  in  tlic  hall  of  ses- 
sions; (4)  to  punish  or  correct  spectators  who  cre- 
ate disorder ;  (.'))  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  the 
free  exercise  of  their  functions :  (6)  to  command 
tlie  execution  of  tlieir  private  resolutions ;  (7)  to 
judge  of  the  ((uoliHcations  of  their  members  and 
to  consider  their  resignations. 

Art.  36.  One  of  the  Chambers  cannot  suspend 
Its  sessions  nor  change  its  place  of  meeting  with- 
out the  consent  of  tlie  otlier ;  in  case  of  disagree- 
ment tliey  will  reassemble  together  and  execute 
that  which  tiie  majority  resolves. 

Art.  37.  Tiie  exerci.se  of  any  other  pulilic  func- 
tion, during  tiie  sessions,  is  incompatible  with 
tliose  of  a  Senator  or  Deputy.  The  law  will 
specify  tlie  remunerations  that  the  members  of 
the  national  Legislature  sliall  receive  for  their 
services.  And  whenever  an  increase  of  said  re- 
munerations is  decreed,  the  law  that  sanctions  it 
will  not  begin  to  be  in  force  until  the  following 
period  when  the  Chambers  tliat  sanctioned  it 
shall  have  been  renewed  in  their  entirety. 

Art.  38.  Tlie  Senators  and  Deputies  shall  en- 
joy immunity  from  tlio  20th  day  of  January 
of  eacli  year  until  thirty  days  after  the  close  of 
the  sessions  and  this  consists  in  the  suspension 
of  all  civil  or  criminal  proceeding,  whatever 
may  be  its  origin  or  nature ;  when  any  one  shall 
perpetrate  an  act  that  merits  corporal  piinisii- 
ment  the  investigation  sliall  continue  until  the 
end  of  tlie  summing  up  and  shall  remain  in  tuis 
stoto  wliile  the  term  of  immunity  continues. 

Art.  30.  The  Congress  will  be  presided  •  over 
iPn     ■  ■ •     - 


by  the  President  of  tlie  Senate  and  tho  presiding 


605 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


oflBcpr  of  the  Chamber  of  deputies  will  act  as 
Vice-President. 

Art.  40.  The  members  of  the  Chambers  are 
not  n-spousible  for  tlie  opinions  tliey  expres-s  or 
the  discourses  tliej'  pronounce  in  session. 

Art.  41.  Senators  and  deputies  that  accept  of- 
fice or  commission  from  the  National  E.xecutivo 
thereby  leave  vacant  the  posts  of  legislators  in 
the  Chamlwrs  to  which  they  were  elected. 

Art.  43.  Nor  can  senators  and  deputies  make 
contracts  with  the  general  Govemmcut  or  con- 
duct the  prosecution  of  claims  of  others  against  it. 

Art.  43,  The  National  Legislature  has  the  fol- 
lowing prerogatives:  (1)  to  dissolve  the  contro- 
versies that  may  arise  between  two  or  more 
States;  (3)  to  locate  the  Federal  District  in  an 
unpopulated  territory  not  exceeding  three  miles 
square,  'vhere  will  be  constructed  the  capital 
city  of  the  Republic.  This  district  will  be  neu- 
tral territory,  and  no  other  elections  will  be 
there  held  than  those  that  '  :iw  determines  for 
the  locality.  The  distric;  ill  be  provisionally 
that  which  the  consvitueni  assembly  designated 
or  that  which  the  National  Legislature  may 
designate;  (3)  to  organize  everythmg  relating  to 
the  custom-houses,  whose  income  will  constitute 
the  treasure  of  the  Union  until  these  incomes  are 
supplied  from  other  sources;  (4)  to  dispose  in 
everything  relating  to  the  habitation  and  security 
of  ports  and  seacoasts;  (5)  to  create  and  organize 
the  postal  service  and  to  fix  the  charges  for 
transportation  of  correspondence ;  (6)  tc  form  the 
x.ational  Codes  in  accordance  with  paidgraph  19, 
article  13  of  this  Constitution ;  (7)  to  fix  the  value, 
type  law,  weight,  and  coinage  of  national  money, 
and  to  regulate  the  admission  and  circulation  of 
foreign  money ;  (8)  to  designate  the  coat-of-arms 
and  the  national  flag  which  will  be  the  same  for 
all  the  States ;  (9)  to  create,  abolish,  and  fix  sala- 
ries for  national  offices;  (10)  to  determine  every- 
thing in  relation  to  the  national  debt;  (11)  to 
contract  loans  upon  the  credit  of  the  nation;  (l!i) 
to  dictate  necessary  measures  to  perfect  the  cen- 
sus of  the  current  population  and  the  national 
statistics;  (18)  to  annually  fix  the  armed  forces 
by  sea  and  land  and  to  aictate  the  army  regula- 
tions ;  (14)  to  decree  rules  for  the  formation  and 
substitution  of  the  forces  referred  to  in  the  pre- 
ceding clause;  (15)  to  declare  war  and  to  require 
the  National  Executive  to  negotiate  peace ;  (16) 
to  ratify  or  reject  the  contracts  for  national  pub- 
lic works  made  by  the  President  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Federal  Courcil,  without  which 
requisite  they  will  not  be  cai''  i  into  effect;  (18) 
to  annually  tix  the  estimates  tor  public  expenses; 

(19)  to  promote  whatever  conduces  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country  and  to  its  advancement  in 
the  general  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  sciences; 

(20)  to  fix  and  regulate  the  national  weights  and 
measures;  (21)  to  grant  anmesties;  (22)  to  estab- 
lish, under  tlie  names  of  territories,  sptjial  regu- 
lations for  the  government  of  regions  inhabited 
by  unconquered  and  uncivilized  Indians.  Such 
territories  will  be  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  tlio  Executive  of  the  Union;  (23)  to 
establish  the  motles  of  procedure  and  to  desig- 
nate the  penalties  to  be  imposed  by  the  Senate 
in  the  trials  originated  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties ;  (24)  to  increase  the  basi  j  of  population  for 
the  election  of  deputies;  (25)  to  permit  or  refuse 
the  admission  of  foreigners  into  the  service  of 
the  Republic ;  (26)  to  make  laws  in  respect  to  re- 
tirements from  the  military  service  and   army 


pensions ;  (27)  to  dictate  the  law  of  responnibility 
on  the  part  of  all  national  employes  and  thosa 
of  the  States  for  infraction  of  the  constitution 
and  the  general  laws  of  t'uu  Union;  (2b)  to  de- 
termine the  mo<le  of  conceding  military  rank  or 
promotion ;  (29)  to  elect  the  Federal  Council  pro- 
vided for  in  this  constitution  and  to  convoke  the 
alternates  of  the  senators  and  deputies  who  may 
have  been  chosen  for  it. 

Art.  44.  Besides  the  preceding  enumeration  the 
National  Legislature  may  pass  such  laws  of  gen- 
eral character  as  may  be  necessary,  but  in  no 
case  can  they  be  promulgated,  much  less  exe- 
cuted, if  they  conflict  with  this  constitution, 
which  defines  the  prerogatives  of  the  public 
powers  in  \  enezuela. 

Art.  45.  The  laws  and  decrees  of  the  National 
Legislature  may  be  proposed  by  the  members  of 
either  chamber,  provided  that  the  respective 
projects  are  conformed  to  the  rules  established 
for  the  Parliament  of  Venezuela. 

Art.  a6.  After  a  project  may  have  been  pre- 
sented, it  will  be  read  and  considered  in  order  to 
be  admitted ;  and  if  it  is,  it  must  undergo  three 
discussions,  with  an  interval  of  at  least  one  day 
between  each,  observing  the  rules  established  for 
debate. 

Art.  47.  The  projects  approved  in  the  chamber 
in  which  they  were  originated  will  be  passed  to  the 
other  for  the  purposes  indicated  in  the  preceding 
article,  and  if  they  are  not  rejected  they  will  be 
retuiued  to  the  chamber  whence  they  originated, 
with  the  amendments  they  may  have  under- 
gone. 

Art.  48.  If  the  cham'ier  of  their  origin  does 
not  agree  to  the  amrndi.  ents,  it  may  insist  and 
send  Its  written  reasons  to  the  other.  They  may 
"so  ussf  lie  together  in  Congress  and  deliber- 
ate, in  ler;)'.  commission,  over  the  mo<le  of 
agrpome.  but  If  this  can  not  be  reached,  the 
project  w.  '  bi;  of  no  effect  after  the  chamber  of 
its  origin  sepi.  atcly  decides  upon  the  ratification 
of  i'^  iDsistenca. 

Art.  49.  Upon  the  passing  of  the  projects  from 
cue  to  the  other  chamber,  the  days  on  which 
they  have  been  discussed  will  be  stated. 

Art.  so.  The  law  reforming  onother  law  must 
be  fully  engrossed  and  the  former  law,  in  all  its 
parts,  will  be  annulled. 

Art.  SI.  In  the  laws  this  form  will  be  used: 
"The  Congress  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela 
decrees." 

Art.  52.  The  projects  defeated  in  one  legisla- 
ture cannot  be  reintroduced  except  in  another. 

Art.  53.  The  projects  pending  in  a  chamber  at 
the  close  of  the  sessions  must  undergo  the  same 
three  discussions  in  succeeding  legislatures. 

Art.  S4.  Laws  are  annulled  with  tlie  same  for- 
malities established  fo.  their  sanction. 

Art.  SS-  When  the  ministers  of  Cnbinet  may 
have  sustained,  in  a  chamber,  the  unconrMtutlon- 
ality  cf  a  project  by  word  or  in  writing,  and, 
notwithstanding  this,  it  inay  have  been  sanctioned 
as  law,  the  National  Executive,  with  the  affirma- 
tive vote  of  the  Federal  Council,  will  suspend  its 
execution  and  apply  to  the  legislatures  of  the 
States,  asking  their  vote  in  the  matter. 

Art.  s6.  In  case  of  the  foregoing  article,  each 
State  will  represent  one  vote  expressed  by  the 
majority  of  the  members  of  the  legislature  pres- 
ent, and  the  result  will  bo  sent  to  the  High  I  ed- 
eral  Court  in  this  form:  "I  confirm"  or  "I  .'e- 
ject." 


606 


CONSTITUTION  OP  VENEZUELA. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  VENEZUELA. 


Art.  57.  If  a  majority  of  the  legislatures  of  the 
Bt<ite8  agree  ■with  the  Federal  Executive,  the 
Iliffh  Federal  Court  will  confirm  the  suspension, 
and  the  Federal  Executive  himself  will  render  an 
Bccouni.  to  the  next  Congress  relative  to  all  that 
has  hcen  done  in  the  matter. 

Art.  58.  The  laws  will  not  be  observed  until 
after  being  published  in  the  solemn  form  estab- 
lished. 

Art.  so.  The  faculty  conceded  to  sanction  n 
Jaw  is  not  to  be  delegated. 

Art.  60.  No  legislative  disposition  will  have  a 
retroactive  effect,  except  in  matters  of  judicial 
procedure  and  that  which  'mposes  a  lighter  pen- 
alty. 

Art.  61.  There  will  be  a  Federal  Council  com- 
posed of  one  senator  and  one  deputy  for  each 
State  and  of  one  more  deputy  for  the  Federal 
District,  who  will  be  elected  by  the  Congress 
each  two  years  from  among  the  respective  repre- 
sentations of  the  States  compo-iing  tlie  Federation 
and  from  that  of  the  Federal  District.  TJiis 
election  will  take  place  in  the  first  fifteen  days  of 
tlie  meeting  of  Congress,  in  the  first  and  third 
year  of  the  constitutional  period. 

Art.  62.  The  Federal  Council  elects  from  its 
members  the  President  of  the  United  States  of 
Venezuela,  and  in  the  same  manner  the  person  who 
sliall  act  in  his  stead  in  case  of  his  temporal  or  per- 
manent disability  during  his  term.  The  electic 
of  a  pers^v  ■  '■  V;"  President  of  the  United  States  or 
Vcneruc.H  who  is  not  a  member  of  the  Federal 
Council,  as  well  as  of  those  who  may  have  to  act 
in  his  stead  in  case  of  Ids  temporal  or  permanent 
disabili*y,  is  null  of  right  and  void  of  efficacy. 

Art.  63.  The  members  of  the  Federal  Council 
hold  office  for  two  vears,  the  same  as  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela,  whose 
term  is  of  equal  duration;  and  neither  lie  nor 
they  can  be  reelected  for  the  term  immediately 
succeeding,  although  they  may  return  to  occupy 
their  posts  as  legislators  in  the  chambers  to  which 
they  belong. 

Art.  64.  The  Federal  Council  resides  in  the 
district  and  exercises  the  functions  prescribed  in 
this  constitution.  It  cannot  deliberate  with  less 
tunn  an  absolute  majority  of  all  its  members;  it 
dictates  the  intorfci  ic^-,alations  to  be  observed 
in  its  deliVierations,  and  annually  appoints  the 
person  who  shall  preside  over  its  sessions. 

Art.  65.  The  prerogatives  of  the  President  of 
Venezuela  are:  (1)  To  appoint  and  remove  the 
cabinet  ministers;  (2)  to  preside  over  the  cabinet, 
in  wliose  discussions  he  will  have  a  vote,  and  to 
'"nforra  the  Council  of  all  the  matters  that  refer 
ti>  the  General  Administration;  (3)  to  receive  and 
Wv.)como  public  ministers;  (4)  to  sign  the  official 
lettirs  to  the  Sovereigns  or  Presidents  of  other 
cnur. tries;  (5)  to  order  the  execution  of  the  laws 
and  decrees  of  the  National  Legislature,  and  to 
take  care  that  they  arc  complied  with  and  exe- 
cuted; (6)  to  promulgate  the  resolutions  and  de- 
crees that  may  have  been  jiroposcd  and  re  eived 
the  approbation  of  the  Federal  Council,  jn  con- 
formity with  article  66  of  this  constitution ;  (7) 
to  organize  the  Federal  District  and  to  act  there- 
in as  the  chief  civil  an  1  political  authority  estab- 
lished by  this  constitution ;  (8)  to  issue  registers 
of  navigation  to  national  vessels;  (9)  to  render  an 
account  to  Congress,  within  the  first  eight  ('  ya 
of  its  annual  session,  of  the  cases  in  which,  •  ;th 
the  approval  of  the  Federal  Council,  he  my 
have  exercised  all  or  any  of  the  faculties  aceo  .-ded 


to  him  in  article  66  of  this  compact;  (10)  to  dis- 
charge the  other  functions  that  the  national  laws 
entrust  to  him. 

Art.  66.  Besides  the  foregoing  prerogatives, 
that  are  personal  to  the  president  of  the  United 
States  of  Venezuela,  he  can,  with  the  deliberate 
vote  of  the  Federal  Council,  exercise  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  To  protect  the  Nation  from  all  exterior 
attack ;  (3)  to  administer  the  public  lands,  mines, 
and  salt  mines  of  the  States  as  their  delegate ;  (8) 
to  convoke  the  Nationa.  IjCgislat'-re  in  its  regu- 
lar sessions,  and  in  extraordinary  session  when 
the  gravity  of  any  subject  demands  it'  (4)  to 
nominate  persons  for  diplomatic  positions,  con- 
suls-general, and  consuls;  those  named  for  the 
first  and  second  positions  must  be  Venezu- 
elans by  birth ;  (5)  to  direct  negotiations  and  cele- 
brate all  kinds  of  treaties  with  other  nations, 
submitting  these  to  the  National  Legislature;  (6) 
to  celebrate  contracts  of  national  interest  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  and  to  submit  them 
the  legislatures  for  their  approval ;  (7)  to  nomin- 
ate the  employes  oi  hacienda,  wliich  nominations 
are  not  to  be  made  by  any  other  authority.  It 
is  required  that  these  employes  shall  be  Vene- 
zuelan by  birth ;  (8)  to  remove  and  suspend  em- 
ployes of  his  own  free  motion,  order.ng  them  to 
be  tried  if  there  should  be  cause  for  it;  (9)  to 
declare  war  in  the  name  of  the  Republic  when 
Congress  shall  have  decreed  it;  (10)  in  the  case 
of  foreign  war  he  can,  first,  demand  from  the 
States  the  assistance  necessary  for  tlie  national 
defense;  second,  require,  in  anticipation,  the 
contributions  and  iiegotiate  the  loans  decreed  by 
the  National  Legislature ;  third,  arrest  or  expel 
pevsons  who  pertain  to  the  nation  with  which 
war  is  carried  on  and  who  may  be  opposed  to 
the  defense  of  the  country;  fourth,  to  suspend 
the  giiarauties  that  may  be  incompatible  with 
the  defense  of  the  country,  except  that  of  life ; 
fiftli,  to  select  the  place  to  which  the  General 
Power  of  the  Federation  may  be  provisionally 
translated  when  there  may  be  grave  rea&ons  for 
it;  sixth,  to  bring  to  trial  for  treason  to  the 
country  those  Venezuelans  who  may  be,  ir  any 
manner,  hostile  to  tlie  notional  defense;  seventh, 
to  issue  registers  to  corsairs  and  privateers  and  to 
prescribe  the  laws  that  they  must  observe  in 
cases  of  capture;  (11)  to  employ  the  public  force 
and  the  powers  containcc'  in  numbers  1,  2,  and  5 
of  the  preceding  clause  with  the  object  of  rees- 
tablishing constitutional  order  in  case  of  armed 
insurrection  against  the  institutions  of  the  Nation ; 
U2)  to  dispose  of  the  public  force  for  the  pur- 
pose of  quelling  every  anned  collision  between 
two  or  more  States,  requiring  them  to  lay  down 
their  arms  and  submit  their  controversies  to  the 
arbitration  to  whicli  they  arc  pledged  by  num- 
ber 30,  article  14  of  this  constitution;  (13)  to 
direct  the  war  and  to  appoint  tlic  person  who 
filiall  command  tlie  army;  (14)  to  organize  the 
national  force  in  time  of  peace ;  (15)  to  concede 
general  or  particular  exemptions;  (!6)  to  defend 
the  territory  designat'^d  for  the  Federal  District 
when  there  may  be  reasons  to  apprehenc.  that  it 
will  be  invaded  by  hostile  forces. 

Art.  67.  The  President  of  the  United  States  of 
Venezuela  shall  have  the  ministers  for  his  cabinet 
that  the  law  designates.  It  will  determine  their 
ianctions  and  duties  and  will  organize  their 
bureaus. 

Art.  68.  To  be  a  minister  of  the  cabinet  it  is 
required  that  the  person  shall  be  twenty-five 


607 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


CONSTITUTION  OP  VENEZUELA. 


years  of  oge,  aVenezuelan  by  birth  or  live  years 
of  naturahzation. 

Art.  69.  Tlie  ministers  are  the  natural  and 
proper  organs  of  the  President  of  tlie  United 
States  of  Venezuela.  All  his  acts  must  be  sub- 
scribed by  them  and  witliout  such  requisite  they 
will  not  be  complied  with  nor  executed  by  the 
authorities,  employees,  or  private  persons. 

Art.  70.  A",  tlie  acts  of  the^ministers  must  be 
conformed  to  this  Constituti(m  and  tlie  laws ;  their 
personal  responsibility  is  not  saved,  althougli 
they  may  Jiave  the  written  order  of  the  President. 

Art.  71.  Tlic  settlement  of  all  business,  except 
the  fiscal  affairs  of  the  bureaus,  will  bo  deter- 
mined in  the  council  of  ministers,  and  their  re- 
sponsibility is  collective  and  consolidated. 

Art.  72.  The  ministers,  witliin  the  Ave  tirst 
sessions  of  each  year,  will  render  an  account  to 
the  Chambers  of  wliat  they  may  have  done  or 
propose  to  do  in  their  respective  branches.  Tliey 
will  also  render  written  or  verbal  reports  tliat 
may  be  requested  of  tliem,  reserving  only  that 
which,  in  diplomatic  affairs,  it  may  not  be  con- 
venient to  publish. 

Art.  73.  Within  the  same  period,  tliey  will 
present  to  the  National  Legislature  the  estimates 
of  public  expenditures  and  the  general  account 
of  the  past  year. 

Art.  74.  The  ministers  have  the  right  to  be 
heard  in  the  Chambers,  and  are  obliged  to  attend 
wJicn  they  may  be  called  upon  for  information. 

Art.  75.  The  ministers  are  responsible :  (1)  for 
treason  to  th.e  country ;  (3)  for  infraction  of  this 
Constitution  or  the  Ism's;  (3)  for  malversation  of 
the  public  funds;  (4)  for  exceeding  the  estimates 
in  their  expenditures;  (5)  for  subornation  or 
bribery  in  the  affairs  under  their  charge  or  in  the 
nominations  for  public  employees ;  (6)  for  failure 
in  compliance  with  the  decisions  of  the  Federal 
Council. 

Art.  76.  The  High  Federal  Court  will  be  com- 
posed of  as  many  j  iidges  as  there  may  be  States 
of  the  Federation  and  with  the  following  quali- 
ties: (1)  A  judge  must  be  a  Venezuelan  by  birth; 
(2)  he  must  be  thirty  years  of  age. 

Art.  77.  For  the  nomination  of  judfjes  of  the 
High  Federal  Court  the  Congress  wi  .  convene 
on  the  fifteenth  day  of  its  regular  sessions  and 
wih  proceed  to  group  together  the  representation 
of  each  State  from  which  to  form  a  list  of  as 
many  candidates  for  principal  judges  and  an 
equal  number  of  alternates  as  there  may  be  States 
of  the  Federation.  The  Congress,  in  the  same  or 
following  session,  will  elect  one  principal  and 
one  alternate  for  each  State,  selecting  them  from 
the  respective  lists. 

Art.  78.  The  law  will  determine  the  different 
functions  of  tlie  judges  and  other  officers  of  the 
High  Federal  Court. 

Art.  79.  The  judges  and  their  respective  alter- 
nates will  hold  olfice  for  four  years.  The  princi- 
pals and  their  alternates  in  oiiice  can  not  accept 
during  this  period  any  office  in  the  gift  of  the 
executive  without  previous  resignation  and  law- 
ful acceptance.  The  infraction  of  this  disposition 
will  be  pupished  wltli  four  years  of  disability  to 
hold  public  oliice  in  Venezuela. 

Art.  80.  Tlie  matters  within  the  competence  of 
the  High  Federal  Court  an  :  (1)  to  talie  cogni- 
zance of  civil  or  criminal  causes  that  may  be  in- 
stituted against  diplomatic  officers  in  those  cases 
permitted  by  the  law  of  nations;  (2)  to  talie  cog- 
nizance of  causes  ordered  by  the  President  to  be 


instituted  against  cabinet  ministers  when  they 
may  be  accused  according  to  the  ca'-cs  provided 
for  in  this  Constitution.  In  the  matter  of  the 
necessity  of  suspension  from  office,  they  will  re- 
quest tlie  President  to  that  effect  and  he  will  com- 
ply;  (•!)  to  have  jurisdiction  of  the  causes  of  re- 
sponsibility instituted  against  diplomatic  agents 
accredited  to  another  nation  for  the  wrong  dis- 
chiirge  of  their  functions ;  (5)  to  have  jurisdiction 
in  civil  trials  when  the  nation  is  defi.'ndant  and 
the  law  sanctions  it;  (C)  to  dissipate  the  contro- 
VL-sies  ti.at  may  arise  between  the  officials  01 
different  States  in  political  order  in  the  matter  of 
jurisdiction  or  competence;  (7)  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  all  matters  of  political  nature  that  the 
States  desire  to  submit  for  tlieir  consideration; 
(8)  to  declare  whioli  may  be  the  law  in  force  when 
the  national  and  State  laws  may  be  found  to  con- 
flict with  each  otlier;  (9)  to  have  jurisdiction  in 
the  controversies  that  may  result  from  contracts 
or  negrtiations  celebrated  by  the  president  of  the 
federation;  (10)  to  have  jurisdiction  in  causes  of 
imprisonment;  (11)  to  exercise  otlier  prerogatives 
provided  for  by  law. 

Art.  81.  The  Court  of  Appeals  referred  to  in 
paragraph  20,  article  13  of  this  Constitution,  is 
the  tribunal  rf  the  states ;  it  will  be  composed  of 
as  many  judges  as  there  are  states  of  the  federa- 
tion, and  their  terms  of  office  will  last  for  four 
years. 

Art.  82.  A  judge  of  tlie  Court  of  Appeals 
must  have  the  following  qualitications :  (1)  he 
must  be  an  attorney  at  law  in  the  exercise  of  his 
profession,  and  must  have  had  at  least  six  years 
practice;  (2)  he  must  be  a  Venezuelan,  thirty 
years  of  age. 

Art.  83.  Every  four  years  the  legislature  of 
each  State  will  form  a  list  of  as  many  attorneys, 
with  the  qualifications  ex))i  'ssed  in  tiie  preceding 
article,  as  there  are  States,  and  will  remit  it,  duly 
certified,  to  the  Federal  Council  in  order  that  tliis 
body,  from  the  respective  lists,  may  select  a 
judge  for  each  State  in  the  organization  of  this 
high  tribunal. 

Art.  84.  After  the  Federal  Council  may  have 
received  the  lists  from  all  the  States,  it  will  pro- 
ceed, in  public  session,  to  verify  the  election; 
forming  thereafter  a  list  of  the  attorneys  not 
elected,  in  order  that  from  this  general  list,  which 
will  be  published  in  the  official  paper,  the  per- 
manent vacancies  that  may  occur  in  the  Court  of 
Appeals  may  be  filled  by  lot.  The  temporary 
vacancies  will  be  filled  a ocording  to  law. 

Art.  85.  The  Court  of  Appeals  will  have  the 
following  prerogatives:  (1)  to  take  cognizance  of 
criminal  causes  or  those  of  responsibility  that 
may  be  instituted  against  the  high  functionaries 
of  the  different  States,  applying  the  laws  of  the 
States  themselves  in  matters  of  resyonsibility, 
and  in  case  of  omission  of  the  promulgation  of  a 
law  of  constitutional  precept,  it  will  apply  to 
the  cause  in  question  the  general  laws  of  the 
land;  (2)  to  take  cognizance  and  to  decide  in 
cases  of  appeal  in  tlie  form  and  terms  directed 
by  law ;  (3)  to  annually  report  to  the  National 
Legislature  the  difficulties  that  stand  in  tlie  way 
of  uniformity  in  the  r  .tter  of  civil  or  criminal 
legislation;  (4)  to  dispose  of  the  rivalries  that 
may  arise  between  ♦he  officers  or  functionaries  of 
judicial  order  in  the  different  States  of  the  federa- 
tion and  amongst  those  of  a  single  State,  pro- 
vided that  the  authority  to  settle  them  does  not 
exist  in  the  State. 


608 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


Art.  86.  The  National  Executive  is  c::erriscd 
by  tlie  Federal  Council,  tlie  President  of  tlie 
United  States  of  Venezuela,  or  tlic  person  wlio 
fllla  his  vacancies,  in  union  witli  tlie  cabinet  niiu- 
istijrs  who  are  his  organs.  Tlie  President  of 
Venezuela  must  be  a  Venezuelan  by  birth. 

Art.  87.  Tlic  functions  of  National  Executive 
can  not  be  exercised  outside  of  the  federal  district 
except  in  the  case  provided  for  in  number  5,  para- 
grajjli  10,  article  60  of  tlie  Constitution.  When 
the  President,  with  tlie  ajiproval  of  tlie  Council, 
shall  take  command  of  tlie  army  or  absent  Iiim- 
self  from  the  district  on  account  of  matters  of 
public  interest  tliat  deinund  it,  he  can  not  exercise 
any  functions  and  will  be  replaced  by  tlie  Federal 
Council  in  accordance  with  article  03  of  this  Con- 
stitution. 

Art.  88.  Everything  that  may  not  be  expressly 
assigned  to  the  general  administration  of  the  na- 
tion in  this  Constitution  is  reserved  to  the  States. 

Art.  89.  Tlie  tribunals  of  justice  in  the  States 
are  independent;  the  causes  originated  in  them 
will  be  concluded  in  the  same  States  without  any 
other  review  than  that  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 
in  the  eases  provided  for  by  law. 

Art.  90.  Every  act  of  Congress  and  of  the 
National  Executive  that  violates  the  riglits  guar- 
anteed to  tlie  States  in  this  Constitution,  or  tluit 
attacks  their  independence,  must  be  declared  of 
no  effect  by  the  High  Court,  provided  that  a  ma- 
jority of  the  legislatures  demands  it. 

Art.  91.  The  public  national  force  is  divided 
into  naval  and  land  troops,  and  will  be  composed 
of  the  citizen  militia  that  the  States  may  organize 
according  to  law. 

Art.  92.  Tlie  force  at  the  disposal  of  the  federa- 
tion will  be  organized  from  citizens  of  a  contin- 
gent furnislied  by  each  State  in  proportion  to  its 
population,  calling  to  service  those  citizens  that 
should  render  it  according  to  tlieir  internal  laws. 

Art.  93.  In  case  of  war  the  continger.t  can  be 
augmented  by  bodies  of  citizen  militia  up  to 
tlio  number  of  men  necessary  to  till  the  draft  of 
the  National  Government. 

Art.  94.  The  National  Government  may  change 
the  eommanders  of  the  public  force  supplied  by 
the  States  in  ilie  cases  and  witli  the  formalities 
provided  for  in  the  national  military  law  and  then 
their  successors  will  be  called  for  from  the  States. 

Art.  95.  The  military  and  civil  authority  can 
never  be  exercised  by  the  same  person  or  corpo- 
ration. 

Art.  96.  The  nation,  be'ng  in  possession  of  the 
right  of  ecclesiastical  patronage,  will  exercise  it 
as  the  law  upon  the  subject  may  direct. 

Art.  97.  The  Government  of  the  Federation 
will  have  no  other  resident  employees  with  juris- 
diction or  authority  in  the  States  than  those  of 
the  States  themselves.  The  officers  of  hacienda, 
those  of  the  forces  that  garrison  national  for- 
tresses, arse  uals  created  by  law,  navy-yards,  and 
habilitated  ports,  that  only  have  jurisdiction  in 
matters  peculiar  to  their  respective  offices  and 
witliin  the  limits  of  the  forts  and  quarters  that 
thcj  command,  are  excepted;  but  even  these 
must  be  subject  to  tlie  general  laivs  of  the  Sirite 
in  which  they  reside.  All  the  elements  of  wf 
now  existing  belong  to  the  National  Government ; 
nevertheless  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the 
States  are  prohibited  from  acquiring  those  that 
tliey  may  need  for  domestic  defense. 

Art.  98.  The  National  Govcrmient  can  not 
station  troops  nor  military  otflcers  with  command 


in  a  State,  although  they  may  be  from  that  or 
another  State,  without  permission  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  State  in  which  tlie  force  is  to  bo 
stationed. 

Art.  99.  Neither  tlie  National  Executive  nor 
those;  of  tlic  States  can  resort  to  armed  interven- 
tion in  the  domestic  contentions  of  a  State ;  it  is 
only  permitted  to  them  to  tender  their  good  offi- 
ces to  bring  about  a  pacific  solution  in  the  case. 

Art.  100.  In  case  of  a  permanent  or  temporary 
vacancy  in  the  office  of  Presi<ient  of  the  United 
States  of  Venezuela,  the  States  will  be  immedi- 
ately informed  as  to  wlio  lias  supplied  the  va- 
cancy. 

Art.  101.  Exportation  in  Vehezuela  is  free  and 
no  duty  can  be  placed  upon  it. 

Art.  102.  All  usurped  authority  is  without 
effect  and  its  acts  are  null.  Every  order  granted 
for  a  requisition,  direct  or  indirect,  by  armed 
force  or  by  an  assemblage  of  people  in  subversive 
attitude  is  null  of  right  and  void  of  efficacy. 

Art.  103.  The  exercise  of  any  function  not  con- 
ferred by  tlie  c. institution  or  laws  is  prohibited 
to  every  corpora.'iou  or  autliority. 

Art.  104.  Any  citizen  may  accuse  the  em- 
ployees of  the  nation  or  tlie  States  before  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  before  their  respective  su- 
periors in  office,  or  before  tlie  authorities  desig- 
nated by  law. 

Art.  105.  No  payment  shall  be  made  from  the 
National  Treasury  for  which  Congress  lia.s  not 
expressly  provided  in  tlie  annual  estimate,  and 
tliosc  tliat  may  infringe  this  rule  will  be  civilly 
responsible  to  the  National  Treasury  for  the  sums 
they  have  paid  out.  In  every  payment  from  tlio 
public  Treasury  the  ordinary  expenses  will  bo 
preferred  to  the  extraordinary  charges. 

Art.  106.  The  ollicesof  collection  and  disburse- 
ment of  the  national  taxes  shall  be  always  separ- 
ate, and  the  officers  of  collection  may  disburse 
only  tlie  salaries  of  their  respective  employees. 

Art.  107.  When,  for  any  -cason,  the  estimate 
of  appropriations  for  a  fiscal  period  liave  not  been 
made,  that  of  the  immediately  preceding  periud 
will  continue  in  force. 

Art.  108.  In  time  of  elections,  the  public  na- 
tional force  or  that  of  tlie  States  themselves  will 
remain  closely  quartered  during  the  holding  of 
popular  elections. 

Art.  109.  In  international  treaties  of  commerce 
and  friendship  tiiis  clause  will  be  inserted,  to  wit: 
"  all  the  disagreements  between  the  contracting 
parties  must  be  decided  witliout  an  appeal  to  war, 
by  the  decision  of  a  powei  or  friendly  powers." 

Art.  no.  No  individual  can  hold  more  tlian 
one  office  within  the  gift  of  Congress  and  tlie 
National  Excutive.  The  acceptance  of  any 
otlier  is  equivalent  to  resignation  of  the  first. 
Officials  that  are  removable  will  cease  to  liold 
office  upon  accepting  the  cliar^e  of  a  Senator  or 
Deputy  when  they  are  dependents  of  the  National 
Executive. 

Art.  III.  The  law  will  create  and  designate 
other  national  tribunals  that  may  be  necessary. 

Art.  112.  National  oflieers  can  not  accept  gifts, 
commissions,  honors,  or  emoluments  from  u  for- 
eign nation  without  permission  from  the  National 
Legislature. 

Art.  113.  Armed  force  can  not  deliberate ;  it  is 
passive  and  obedient.  No  armed  body  can  make 
requisitions  nor  demand  assistance  of  any  kiinl, 
but  from  the  civil  authorities,  and  in  the  mode  and 
form  prescribed  by  law. 


609 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


CONSUL. 


Art.  114.  Tlie  Nation  and  the  Stntt's  will  pro- 
mote foreign  immigration  and  eolonizntioa  inac- 
corilancc  with  their  respective  laws. 

Art,  ii5.  A  law  will  regulate  the  manner  in 
which  national  ofllccra,  upon  taking  charge  of 
their  posts,  shall  ta^.c  the  oath  to  comply  with 
their  duties. 

Art.  116.  The  National  Executive  will  negoti- 
Bte  with  the  Ooveranients  of  America  over  treaties 
of  alliance  or  confedenition. 

Art.  117.  The  law  of  Nations  forms  a  part  of 
the  National  Legislation ;  its  dispositions  will  bo 
Bpecially  in  force  in  cases  of  civil  war,  which  can 
bie  terniuiated  by  treaties  between  the  belligerents 
■who  will  have  tOTCspect  the  humanitarian  cus- 
toms of  Christians  and  civilized  nations,  the 
guarantee  of  life  being,  in  every  case,  inviolable. 

Art.  Ii8.  Tliis  constitution  can  be  reformed  by 
the  National  Le^'islaturc  if  the  legislatures  of 
the  States  desire  it,  but  there  shall  never  be  any 
reform  except  in  the  jiarts  upon  which  the  ma- 
jority of  the  St'ites  coincide ;  also  a  reform  can 
be  made  upon  one  or  more  points  when  two- 
thirds  of  the  members  of  the  National  Legisla- 
ture, deliberating  separately  and  by  the  proceed- 
ings established  to  sanction  the  laws,  shall  accord 
it;  but,  in  this  second  case,  the  amendment  voted 
shall  be  submitted  to  the  legislaturesof  the  States, 
and  it  will  stand  sanctioned  in  the  point  or  points 
tliat  may  have  been  ratified  by  th"m. 


Art.  no.  This  constitution  will  >akv  effect 
from  the  day  of  its  ofllcial  promulgation  in  each 
State,  and  m  all  public  acts  and  utUcial  docu- 
ments there  will  be  cited  the  <Iate  of  the 
Federation  to  begin  with  February  20,  1850, 
and  the  date  of  the  law  to  begin  with  March 
28,  1864. 

Art.  120.  The  constitutional  period  for  the 
ollices  of  the  Qenenil  Administration  of  tlie  Ke- 
public  will  continue  to  be  computed  from  Febru- 
ary 20,  1882,  the  date  on  which  the  reformed 
constitution  took  cflfect. 

Art.  121.  For  every  act  of  civil  and  roliticftl 
life  of  the  States  of  the  Federation,  its  basis  of 
population  is  that  which  is  determined  in  the 
last  census  approved  by  the  National  Legis- 
lature. 

Art.  122.  The  Federal  Constitution  of  Ajiril 
27,  1881  ■  ..pealed.  Done  in  Cameos,  in  the- 
Palac  .  the  Federal  Legislative  Corps,  and 
sealed  ith  the  seal  of  Congress  on  the  0th  day 
of  Apni,  1801.  The  28th  year  of  the  Law  and 
the  33rd  year  of  the  Federation. 

(Here  follow  the  signatures  of  the  Presidents, 
Vice-Presidents,  and  Second  Vice-Presidents  of 
the  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies,  together 
with  those  of  the  Senators  and  Deiiuties  of  the 
various  States,  followed  by  those  (  f  the  President 
and  the  ministers  of  his  cabinet.)  See  Venezu- 
ela: A.  D.  1869-1892. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  WATAUGA 
ASSOCIATION  (the  first  Wes'.ern  American 
Commonwealth).  See  Tennessee  :  A.  I).  1769- 
1772. 

CONSTITUTIONS  OF  CLARENDON.— 
The  "  Constitutions  of  Clarendon"  were  a  series 
of  declarations  drawn  up  by  a  council  which  King 
Henry  II.  of  England  convened  at  Clarendon, 
near  Winchester,  in  1164,  and  which  were  in- 
tended to  determine  the  law  on  various  points  in 
dispute  between  the  Crown  and  the  laity,  on  one 
side,  and  the  Church  on  the  other.  The  issues 
in  question  were  those  which  brought  Henry  into 
collision  with  Thomas  Becket,  Archbisliop  of 
Canterbury.  The  general  provisions  embodied  in 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  "would  now  be 
scarcely  challenged  in  the  most  Catholic  country 
in  the  world.  1.  Duringthe  vacancy  of  any  arch- 
bishopric, bishopric,  abbey,  or  pnory  of  royal 
foundation,  the  estates  were  tc  be  in  the  custody  of 
the  Crowu.  Elections  to  these  preferments  were 
to  be  held  in  the  royal  chapel,  with  the  assert  of 
the  king  and  council.  2.  In  every  suit  to  which  a 
clerk  was  a  party,  proceedings  were  to  commence 
before  the  king's  justices,  and  these  justices  were 
to  decide  wliether  the  case  was  to  be  tried  before 
ft  spiritual  or  a  civil  court.  If  it  was  referred  to 
ft  spiritual  court,  a  civil  officer  was  to  attend  to 
watch  the  trial,  and  if  a  clerk  was  found  guilty 
of  felony  the  Ciuuch  Msis  to  tease  to  ])roteethim. 
3.  No  tenant  in-cliief  of  the  king,  or  olHeer  of 
his  household,  was  to  be  excommunicated,  or  his 
lands  laid  under  an  interdict,  mitil  application 
liad  been  first  made  to  the  king,  or,  in  liis  absence, 
to  the  chief  justice.  4.  Laymen  were  not  to  be 
indicted  in  a  bishop's  court,  either  for  perjury  or 
otber  similar  offence,  except  in  the  bishop  s  pres- 
ence by  a  lawful  prosecutor  and  with  lawfid 
■witnesses.  If  the  accused  was  of  so  high  rank 
that  no  proseciitor  would  appear,  the  bishop 
miglit  reciuire  the  sheriff  to  call  a  jury  to  inijuire 
into  the  case.    6.  Archbishops,  bishoiis,  and  other 


great  persons  were  forbidden  to  leave  the  realm 
without  the  king's  permisi  ion.  6.  Appeals  were 
to  be  from  the  archdeacon  to  the  bishop,  from 
the  bishop  to  the  archbishop,  from  the  archbishop 
to  the  king,  and  no  further;  that,  by  the  kings- 
mandate,  the  case  might  be  ended  in  the  arch- 
bishop's court.  The  last  article  the  king  after- 
wards explained  away.  It  was  one  of  the  moi' t 
essential,  but  he  was  unable  to  maintain  i; ;  and 
he  was  rash,  o-  he  was  ill-advised,  in  raising  a 
si"ond  question,  on  which  the  pope  woidd  natu- 
rally be  sensitive,  before  he  had  disposed  of  the 
first." — J.  A.  Froude,  Life  a  ml  I'imcs  of  liecket, 
VP.  31-32.— See  England:  A.  D.  1162-1170. 
CONSTITUTIONS,  Roman  Imperial.    See 

C0UPU8  JUUIS  C1VILI8. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  UNION  PARTY^ 
The.  See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1860 
(Ai'HiL — November). 

CONSUL,  Roman.— When  the  Romans  had 
rid  themseh  's  of  their  kings  and  established  a 
republic,  or,  rather,  an  aristocratic  government, 
' '  the  civil  duties  of  the  king  were  given  to  two- 
magistrates,  chosen  for  a  year,  who  were  at 
first  called  'pnetores'  or  generals,  'judices'  or 
judges,  or  consules  (cf.  con  '  together'  and  salio 
'  to  leap ')  or  '  colleagues. '  In  the  matter  of  their 
power,  no  violent  departure  was  made  from  the 
imperium  of  the  king.  The  greatest  limitation 
on  the  consuls  was  the  short  period  for  which 
they  were  at  the  head  of  the  state ;  but  even  here 
tliey  were  thought  of,  by  a  fiction,  as  voluntarily 
abdicating  at  the  expiration  of  their  term,  aud  as- 
nominating  tlieir  successors,  although  iliey  were 
required  to  nominate  the  men  who  had  already 
been  selected  in  the  'coniitiaecntuiiata.'  Another 
limitation  was  the  result  of  the  dual  character  of 
the  magistracy.  The  imperium  was  not  divided 
between  the  consuls,  but  each  possessed  it  in 
full,  as  the  king  had  before.  When,  therefore, 
they  did  not  agree,  the  veto  of  the  one  prevailed 
over  the  proposal  of  the  other,  and  there  wab  no 


610 


CONSUL. 


CONVOCATION. 


BCtion." — A.  Tiglic,  D''telopment  of  the  Roman 
Const.,  eh.  4. — "As  judges,  tlic  consuls  occupied 
altoKttlicr  tlie  plnce  of  the  kings.  Tliey  decided 
tlie  legal  disputes  of  the  citizens  either  personally 
or  by  deputy.  Their  criminal  jurisdiction  was 
pfohably  limited  to  the  most  important  cases. 
...  In  the  warlilte  stjite  of  the  Komana  the 
military  character  of  the  consuls  was  no  doubt 
most  prominent  and  most  important.  When  the 
consul  led  tlie  army  into  the  field  he  possessed 
tlie  unlimited  military  power  of  the  liings  (the 
imperium).  He  was  entrusted  with  tlie  direction 
of  the  war,  the  distribution  of  tlie  booty,  and  the 
first  disposal  Ci  the  conquered  land.  .  .  .  The 
oldest  designation  for  tlie  consuls,  therefore,  was 
derived  from  their  military  quality,  for  they  wee 
called  imetors,  tliat  is,  commanders.  It  was,  how- 
ever, precisely  in  war  that  the  division  of  power 
among  two  colleagues  must  often  have  provi  d 
prejudicial  .  .  .  and  f  lie  necessity  of  unity  in  the 
direction  of  affairs  was  felt  to  be  indispe:' sable. 
The  dietatorsliip  served  this  purpose.  By  decree 
of  tlie  senate  one  of  the  consuls  could  be  charged 
with  naming  a  dictator  for  six  months,  and  in 
this  officer  the  full  power  of  the  king  was  re- 
vived for  a  limited  period.  The  <lictatorsliip 
was  a  formal  suspension  of  the  constitution  of 
the  republic.  .  .  .  Military  was  substituted  for 
common  law,  and  Rome,  (luring  the  time  of  tlie 
dictatorship,  was  in  a  state  of  siege." — W.  Ihne, 
Jligt.  of  Home,  bk.  2,  eh.  1,  nnd  bk.  0,  eh.  3-5.— 
In  the  later  years  of  the  lioman  empire,  "two 
consuls  were  created  by  the  sovereigns  of  Rome 
and  Constantinople  for  the  sole  purpose  of  giving 
a  date  to  the  year  and  a  festival  to  the  people. 
But  the  expenses  of  this  festival,  in  which  the 
wealthy  and  the  vain  aspired  to  surpass  their 
predecessors,  insensibly  arose  to  the  eni.-mous 
sum  of  four  score  thousand  pounds;  tlie  wisest 
senators  declined  a  useless  honour  which  in- 
volved the  certain  ruin  of  their  families,  and  to 
this  nductance  I  should  impute  the  frequent 
chasms  in  tlie  last  age  of  the  consular  Fasti.  .  .  . 
Tlie  succession  of  consuls  tinally  ceased  in  the 
thirteenth  year  of  Justinian  [A.  D.  541]  whose 
despotic  temper  miglit  be  gnitifled  bj  the  final 
extiiietion  of  a  title  which  lulmonished  the 
Romans  of  their  ancient  freedom.  Yet  the  annual 
consulship  still  lived  in  tie  minds  of  the  people; 
they  fondly  expected  its  speecly  restoration  .  .  . 
ami  three  centuries  elapsed  after  the  death  of 
Justinian  before  tliat  obsolete  dignity,  which 
had  been  suppressed  by  custom,  could  be 
abolished  by  law.  The  imperfect  mode  of  dis- 
tinguishing each  year  by  the  name  of  a  magistrate 
was  usefully  supplied  by  tlie  date  of  a  permanent 
era." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  ch.  40. — "There  were  no  consuls  in  531 
ond  532.  The  Emperor  held  the  office  alone  in 
533,  and  witli  a  colleague  in  534.  Belisarius  was 
sole  consul  in  535.  The  two  following  years,  hav- 
ing no  consuls  of  their  own,  wc  re  styled  the  First 
and  Second  after  tlie  Consulship  of  Belisarius. 
John  of  Cappadocia  gave  his  name  to  the  year 
538,  and  the  years  539  and  540  had  again  consuls, 
though  one  only  for  each  year,  in  541  Albiuus 
Biisilius  sat  in  the  curule  chair,  and  he  was  prac- 
tically the  last  of  the  long  list  of  warriors,  orators, 
demagogues,  courtiers,  which  began  (in  the  year 
509  B.  C.)  with  tlie  names  of  Lucius  Junius 
Brutus  aud  Lucius  Tarquinius  Collatinus.  All 
the  rest  of  the  years  of  Justinian,  twenty-four  in 
number,   were   reckoned   as   Post  Consulatum 


Basilii."— T.  ITodgkin,  Itahi  and  Tier  Inmdert. 
hk.  ,5,  ch.  14.— See,  also.  Rome:  B.  C.  509. 

CONSULAR?  TRIBUNES,  Roman.- The 
plebeians  of  Rome  having  demanded  admissioa 
fr>r  their  order  to  the  consulship,  a  compromise 
was  arranged.  B.  C.  444,  whicli  settled  that, 
thereafter,  "tlie  people  should  be  free  to  elect 
either  consuls  —  that  is,  patricians  according  to 
the  old  law  —  or  in  their  place  other  officers  under 
the  title  of  'military  tribunes  with  consular 
power,'  consisting  of  patricians  and  plebeians. 
...  It  is  not  reported  in  what  respect  the  official 
competency  of  the  consular  tribunes  was  to  differ 
from  that  of  tlie  consuls.  Still,  so  mucli  is  plain, 
that  the  dilTerence  consisted  not  alone  in  name. 
Tlie  number  of  the  consular  tribunes  was  in  the 
beginning  fixed  at  three." — W.  Ihne,  Ilitt.  of 
Rome.  Ilk.  2,  <•/(.  11. 

CONSULATE  GOVERNMENT  OF 
FRANCE,    The.      See    Fiianck:    A.   D.    1790 

(NoVK.MliKIl — DKCKMnKU). 

CONTINENTAL  ARMY.— "The  Con- 
tinentals "  of  the  American  Revolution.  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :   A.  I).    1775  (May — 

AUOUST). 

CONTINENTAL  CURRENCY,  The.  See 

United  St.vtes  ok  Am.  :  A.  1).  1780  (Januauv — 
Ami  I.). 

CONTINENTAL  SYSTEM  OF  NAPO- 
LEON, The.  See  France  :  A.  I).  1801-1802,  and 
1800-1810. 

CONTIONES,  OR  CONCIOKES.- The 
eontiones,  or  condones,  at  Rome,  were  assemblies 
of  the  people,  "less  formal  than  the  comitia," 
held  for  the  mere  purpose  of  discussing  public 
questions,  and  incapable  of  pissing  any  binding 
resolution.  "They  could  not  be  calleil  together 
by  anybody  except  the  magistrates,  neither  had 
every  man  the  liberty  of  speaking  in  tliem,  of 
making  proposals  or  of  declaring  his  opinion ; 
.  .  .  but  even  in  this  limited  manner  public 
questions  could  be  discussed  and  the  people 
could  be  enliglitened.  .  .  .  The  cu.stom  of  dis- 
cussing public  questions  in  tlie  eontiones  became 
general  after  the  comitia  of  the  tribes  had 
obtained  full  legislative  competency. " — W.  Ihne, 
IKH.  of  Rome,''bk.  0,  eh.  1. — See,   also,   Comitia. 

CUIllATA. 

CONTRABANDS.— In  the  early  part  of  the 
American  civil  war  of  180'-fl.5,  the  escaped  slave* 
of  the  Confederates,  who  came  witliin  tlie  Union 
lines,  were  called  contrabands.  General  Butler 
having  supplied  the  term  by  dcehiring  them  to. 
be  ' '  contraband  of  war. "  See  United  States  ov 
Am.  :  A.  D.  1801  (May). 

CONTRERAS,  Battle  of.  See  Mexico: 
A.  D.  1847  (Maucii— Septemheu). 

CONVENT.    Sec  Monakteuy. 

CONVENTICLE  ACT,  The.  See  Eno- 
i.anp:  A.  I).  1002-100.-). 

CONVENTION,  The  French  National,  of 
the  great  Revolution.  See  Fkance:  A.  D.  1792 
(Auoust),  and  1792  (SEPTEMmcu- Nove.mbeu), 

to  1795  (OlTOHEU— OECKMnEH). 

CONVOCATION.— The  a.s.scmblies  of  the 
clergy  in  the  two  ecclesiastical  jirovinccs  of 
England  arc  called  the  Convocation  of  Canter- 
bury and  the  Convocation  of  York.  The  former, 
which  is  tlie  superior  uody,  fre(iuently  receives 
thjnameof  Convocation,  simply.  It  is  consti- 
tuted upon  the  model  of  Parliament,  and  is,  in 
fact,  tlie  Parliament  of  the  Church  of  England. 
It  has  two  Houses :  the  upper  one  consisting  of 


611 


CONVOCATION. 


CORINTH. 


the  Archbishop  nnd  his  Bislmps;  tlie  lower  one 
composed  of  cieiuis,  arclidciicoim  and  proctors, 
TcprcHcnting  tlic  inferior  dcrffy.  'I'lie  Convoca- 
tion of  Yorlt  lias  Imt  one  Ilousc.  Since  1716 
Convocation  lias  possesscii  sligiit  powers. 

CONWAY  CABAL,  The.  See  United 
Statkh  OK  Am,  :  A.  I).  1777-1778. 

COOMASSIE,  Burning  of.  See  England: 
A.  I>.  1H7;!-1HH(). 

COPAIC  REEDS.     Sec  nauyriA. 

COPAN,  Ruins  of.  See  A.muhican  Aborig- 
inkm:  -Mayas;  and  .AIk.xico,  A.ncient. 

COPE  HAN  FA"  LY,  The.  See  Ameuican 
AiioiiKUM'.s:  Coi'KiiA.N  Family. 

COPENHAGEN:  A.  D.  1362.— Taken  and 
pillaged  by  the  Hanseatic  League.  Sec  Sc'an- 
DiNAViAN  Statios:  A.  I).  101H-i;)l)7. 

A.  D.  1658-1660.— Sieges  by  Charles  X.  of 
Sweden.  See Scandlnavian  States  (Sweden) : 
A.  I).  1044-1697. 

A.  D.  1700.— Surrender  to  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden.  Sec  Scandinavian  States  (Sweden): 
A.  I).  1(J'J7-17U(). 

A.  D.  1801. — Bombardment  by  the  English 
fleet.     See  Kuance:  A.  1).  1801-1803. 

A.  D.  1807.— Bombardment  of  the  [city  by 
the  English. — Seizure  of  the  fleet.  See  Scan- 
dinavian St.vtks;  A.  I).  1807-1810. 


COPPERHEADS.— During  the  American 
Civil  War,  tlieJDciiuKratic  I'arty  in  the  North- 
ern States  "comprised  two  well-recognized 
classes:  The  Anti-War  (or  Peace)  Democrats, 
coninioul^'  called  'Copperlicads,'  who  sympa- 
thized with  the  Rebellion,  and  opposed  the  War 
for  the  Union ;  nnd  the  War  (or  Union)  Demo- 
crats, who  favored  a  vigorc^us  prosecution  of  the 
War  for  the  preservation  of  the  Union." — J.  A. 
Logun,  I'he  Oreat  Coiisjiiracy,  jh  WIA,  foot-note. — 
See,  also.  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864 

(OCTOBEU). 

COPREDY  BRIDGE ,|Battle  of.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  D.  1044  (.January — July). 

COPTS,  The.— The  descendants  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptian  race,  who  form  to  this  da^  the 
laiger  part  of  the  population  of  Egypt.  See 
EoYiT:  Ohio  IN  of  the  Ancient  People. 

COPTOS.— Destroyed  by  Diocletian.  See 
Alexanduia:  A.  D.  296. 

COR,  The.     See  Epiiau. 

CORBIE,  Spanish  capture  of  (1636).  Sen 
Netiikuiands:  a.  D.  163S-1638. 

CORCYRA.     See  Koukyua. 

CORDAY,  Charlotte,  and  the  assassina- 
tion of  Marat.     Sue  Fmance:  A.  D.  1793  (July). 

CORDELIERS.     See  Mendicant  Ordeks. 

CORDELIERS,  Club  of  the.  SeeFRANCE: 
A.  D.  1700. 

CORDOVA  (Spain):  A.  D.  711.— Surrender 
to  the  Arab-Moors.     See  Spain:  .V  D.  711-713. 

A.  D.  756-1031.— The  Caliphate  at.  See 
Mahometan  Conquest  and  Empiue:  A.  D.  756- 
1031. 

A.  D.  1235.— Capture  by  the  King  of  Castile. 
See  Spain:  A.  D.  1212-1338. 


CORDOVA  (Mexico),  Treaty  of.  See  Mex- 
ico: A.  n.  1820-1830. 

CORDYENE.    See  Goudyknb. 

COREA.     See  Couea  in  Suppbment  (vol.  5). 

COREISH,  KOREISH.  See  Mahometan 
CONHUEST  AND  EMPIRE  :  A.  D.  609-633. 


COREY,  Martha  and  Giles,  The  execution 
for  witchcraft  of.  See  .Massachusetts:  A.  1). 
1693. 

CORFINIUM,  CKsar's  Capture  of.  See 
Rome:  H.  C.  W-i<i. 

CORFU,  Ancient.     See  Koukvka. 

A.  D.  1216-1880.— Since  the  fall  of  the  Greek 
Empire. — Corfu  was  won  liy  the  Veiietians  in 
the  early  years  of  the  Latin  coiuiuest  of  the 
Greek  empire  (1216),  but  was  presently  lost,  to 
come  back  again  into  tlie  possession  of  the  re- 
public 170 years  later.  ''  No  part  of  Greece  l.as 
iicen  so  often  cutoff  from  the  Greek  body.  Under 
Pvrrhoa  and  Agathoklfis,  no  less  than  under 
jfichnel  Angelos  and  Roger,  it  olx'j'ed :  n  Epeirot 
or  Sicilian  master.  .  .  .  At  la.st,  after  yet  another 
turn  of  Sicilian  rule,  it  passed  lor  400  years  [1380- 
1797]  to  the  great  conimonwealth  ["f  Venice]. 
In  our  own  day  Corfu  was  not  added  to  free 
Greece  till  long  after  the  deliverance  of  Atticii 
and  I'eloponnflsos.  But,  under  so  inaiiy  changes 
of  foreign  masters,  tlie  island  has  always  re- 
mained part  of  Europe  and  of  (Jhristendom. 
Alone  among  the  Greek  lands,  Corfu  has  never 
passed  under  barbarian  rule.  It  has  seen  the 
Turk  only,  for  one  moment,  as  an  invader  [see 
Turks:  A.  D.  1714^1718],  for  another  moment 
as  a  nominal  overlord." — E.  A.  Freeman.  His- 
torii'id  Gcog.  of  Europe,  p.  408. — See  Ionian  Isl- 
ands: To  1814.  ^ 

CORINIUM.— A  Roman  city  in  Britain,  on 
the  site  of  which  is  the  modern  city  of  Cirences- 
ter. Some  of  the  riclicst  mosaic  pavements  found 
in  England  have  been  uncovered  there. — T. 
Wright.  Celt,  Roman  and  Sdxon.  ch.  5. 

CORINTH.— Corinth,  the  chief  city  and  state, 
in  anc'''nt  times,  of  the  narrow  isthmus  which 
connecis  Peloponnesus  witii  northern  Greece, 
"owed  everything  to  her  situation.  Tlie  double 
sea  by  th  \  isthmus,  the  confluence  of  the  high 
road  of  the  whole  of  Hellas,  the  rocky  citadel 
towering  aloft  over  land  and  sea,  through  wliich 
rushed  —  or  around  which  flowed  —  an  abundance 
of  springs;  all  these  formed  so  extraordinary  a 
commixture  of  advantages,  that,  if  the  intercourse 
with  other  countries  remained  urlisturbed,  they 
could  not  but  call  forth  an  important  city.  As 
in  Argolis,  so  on  the  isthmus  also,  other  b(!sides 
Dorian  families  had  in  the  days  of  the  migration 
helped  to  found  the  new  state.  ...  By  tlie  side 
of  the  Dorian,  five  non-Dorian  tribes  existed  in 
Corinth,  attesting  the  multitude  and  variety  of 
population,  which  were  kept  together  as  one 
state  by  the  royal  power  of  the  Ileraclidic,  sup- 
ported by  the  armed  force  of  the  Dorians.  In 
the  ninth  centurv  [B.  C]  the  royal  power  passed 
into  the  hands  of  a  branch  of  the  IIcniclidiE  de- 
riv.  u^;  its  descent  from  Bncchis  [one  of  the  earliest 
of  the  kings] ;  and  it  was  in  the  extraordinary 
genius  of  this  royal  line  that  the  greatness  of  the 
city  originated.  The  Bacchiadie  opened  the  city 
to  the  immigration  of  the  industrious  settlers  who 
hoped  to  make  their  fortunes  more  speedily  than 
elsewhere  at  this  meeting  point  of  all  Greek  high- 
roads of  commerce.  They  cherished  and  ad- 
vanced every  invention  of  importance.  .  .  .  They 
took  commerce  into  their  ow:\  hands,  nnd  es- 
labli-'hed  the  tramway  on  the  isthmus,  along 
which  ships  were,  on  rollers,  transitorted  from 
one  gulf  to  the  other.  .  .  .  They  converted  the 

gulf  which  had   hitherto  taken  its  name  from 
risa  into  the  Corinthian,  and  secured  its  narrow 


612 


CORINTH. 


CORINTH. 


Inlet  by  mcnna  nf  tlio  fortified  place  of  Molycrla. 
.  .  .  Tliey  continued  tlielr  iidviiiice  ulong  tlio 
coast  and  occupied  the  most  Important  points  on 
the  Achcloua.'— E.  Curtiu.s,  Ilht.  of  Greece,  bk. 
2,  ch.  1. 

B.  C.  745-725.— Constitutional  Revolution. 
—End  of  Monarchy.— The  prytanes.— Com- 
mercial progress. — A  vio'eiit  contention  which 
arose  hetweeu  t\vo  branches  of  the  HacehUulu! 
"  no  doubt  gave  the  nobles  of  Corinth  power  and 
opportunity  to  end  the  struggle  by  a  change  in 
the  constitution,  and  by  the  <liscontniuance  of  the 
monarchy;  this  occurred  lu  the  year  745  B.  C, 
after  eight  generations  of  kings.  .  .  .  Yet  tlie 
place  at  tlie  'i-id  of  die  commonwealth  was  not 
to  be  entirely  taken  away  from  the  ancient  royal 
liousc.  A  presiding  chief  (a  prytanis),  newly 
elected  each  year  by  the  whole  nobility  from  tlu; 
members  of  the  royal  race,  was  henceforward  to 
conduct  the  government  [see  Puytanib].  It  was 
a  peculiar  arrangement  which  this  change  intro- 
duced Into  Corinth.  We  may  assume  that  the 
sovereignty  was  transferred  to  the  nobles  col- 
lectively, or  to  their  representative.  This  repre- 
sentation seems  to  have  been  so  regulated  that 
each  of  the  eight  tribes  sent  an  equal  number  of 
members  to  the  Qerousia,  1.  e.  the  council  of 
elders.  .  .  .  Hut  the  tirst  of  these  eight  tribes, 
to  which  belonged  tlie  royal  family,  was  privi- 
leged. From  it  was  chosen  the  head  of  the 
state,  an  office  for  which  only  a  Bacchiad  was 
eligible  —  that  l.s,  only  a  member  of  the  old  rryal 
house,  which  took  the  foremost  place  in  the  first 
tribe.  This  clan  of  the  Bacchiado;  is  said  to 
have  contained  200  men.  'They  were  numerous 
and  wealthy,'  says  Strabo.  Accordingly  the 
royal  house  did  not  exclusively  retain  the  first 
raiik  in  the  state,  but  only  In  conjunction  witii 
the  families  connected  with  it  by  kindred  and 
race.  .  .  .  The  new  constitution  of  Corinth,  the 
government  by  nobles,  under  the  dynastic  presi- 
dency of  ono  family,  became  n  type  for  other 
cantons.  I',  was  a  Corinthian  of  the  Bacchiadaj 
who,  twenty  or  thirty  years  after  the  intrmluc- 
tion  of  the  prytanes,  regulated  the  oligarchy  of 
the  Thebans  and  gave  them  laws  (about  725 
B.  C.)  .  .  .  The  fall  of  the  monarchy  In  Corinth 
at  first  brought  with  it  disastrous  consequences 
for  the  power  and  prestige  of  the  commonwealth. 
The  communities  of  the  Jlegarians  —  either  be- 
cause the  new  government  made  increa.sed  de- 
mands upon  them,  or  because  they  considered 
tlieir  allegiance  had  ceased  with  the  cessation  of 
monarchy,  and  thought  the  moment  was  favour- 
able —  deserted  Corinth  and  asserted  their  free- 
dom. The  five  communities  on  the  isthmus 
united  together  around  the  territory  of  Megara, 
lying  in  the  plain  by  the  Saronlc  Gulf,  where 
the  majority  of  the  Doric  tribes  had  settled ;  the 
city  of  Megara,  in  the  viciiity  of  two  ancient 
fortresses  .  .  .  became  the  chief  centre  of  the 
communities,  now  associated  in  one  common- 
wealth. .  .  .  The  important  progress  of  Corinth 
under  the  prytany  of  the  BacchladiB  was  not 
due  to  successes  upon  the  mainland,  but  in  an 
other  sphere.  For  navigation  and  commerce  no 
canton  in  Hellas  was  more  favourably  situated. 
Lying  on  the  neck  of  the  isthmus,  it  extended 
from  sea  to  sea,  an  advantageous  position  which 
had  Indeed  first  attracted  the  Phoenicians  thither 
in  ancient  times.  .  .  .  Corinth,  says  Thucy- 
dides,  was  always  from  the  first  a  centre  of 
commerce,  and  abounded  in  wealth ;  for  the  popu- 


lation within  and  without  the  Pcloponnp.iK.l 
communicated  with  each  other  more  In  ancient 
times  by  land  acro.ss  the  l.sthinim  than  by  sea. 
But  when  the  Hellenes  became  more  |  ractfsed  in 
navigation,  the  CorinlliiariH  with  their  .ships  put 
down  piracy  and  established  nmrlson  both  siiies; 
and  through  lliis  inllux  of  riches  Iheir  city  be- 
came very  powerful."- M.  Uimcker,  IUkI.  of 
Greece,  hk.  :i,  eli.  :i  (i\  2). 

^  B.  C.  509-506. — Opposition  to  the  desire  of 
Sparta  to  restore  tyranny  at  Athens.  See 
Atiik.ns:  H.  (;.  ,-|(m  ,")(ltl, 

B.  C.  481-479. — Coneress  and  organized 
Hellenic  union  against  Persia.  .See  Oukkck: 
B.  C.  481-ITy. 

B.  C.  458-456.--Alliance  with  iEgina  in  un- 
successful war  with  Athens  and  Megara.  Seo 
Gkkixic:  B.  C.  •l.'iH-.l,-))!. 

B.  C.  440. — Opposition  to  Spartan  interfer- 
ence with  Athens  in  Samos.  S<c  Atiii-.ns: 
B.  C.  440-4H7. 

B.  C.  435-432.— Quarrel  with  Korkyra.— In- 
terference of  Athens.— Events  leadini;  to  the 
Peloponnesian  War.  Hue  Uukkck:  B.  C.  435- 
4;i3. 

B.  C.  432.— Great  sea-fight  with  the  Kor- 
kyrians  and  Athenians.  See  (iUKICCK;  B.  C. 
432. 

B.  C.  429-^127.— The  Peloponnesian  War: 
sea-fights  ana  defeats. — Fruitless  aid  to  the 
Mitylenxans.     See  Oukkck:  B.  C.  429-427. 

B.  C.  421.— Opposition  to  the  Peace  of  Nic- 
ias.     SeeGitEKCE:  B.  C.  421-418. 

B.  C.  415-413.— Help  to  Syraruse  against 
the  Athenians.     See  SvitACusE:  B.  C.  415-413. 

B.  C.  395-387.— Confederacy  against  Sparta. 
—The  Corinthian  War.— Battle  on  the  Ne- 
mea. — The  Peace  of  Antalcidas.  See  Oukkce: 
B.  C.  399-387. 

B.  C.  368-365. — Attempt  of  Epaminondas  to 
surprise  the  city.— Attempt  of  the  Athenians. 
See  Gueece:  B.  C.  371-302. 

B.  C.  337. — Congress  of  Greek  states  to  ac- 
knowledge the  hegemony  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
dr  ..     See  Greece:  B.  C.  357-330. 

B.  C.  244. — Capture  by  Antigonus  Gonatus, 
king  of  Macedon.  See  M.\ceijonia,  &c.  :  B.  C. 
277-2i4. 

B.  C.  243-146. — In  the  Achaian  League. 
See  Greece:  B.  C.  280-140. 

B.  C.  146. — Sack  by  the  Romans.  See 
Greece:    B.  C.  280-140. 

B.  C.  44. — Restoration  by  Cssar. — "In 
the  desolate  land  of  Greece,  Ca;sar,  besides  other 
plans,  .  .  .  busied  himself  above  al)  with  tho 
restoration  of  Corinth.  Not  only  wds  a  con- 
siderable burgess-colony  conducted  thivher,  but 
a  plan  was  projected  for  cutting  through  tho 
isthmus,  so  as  to  avoid  the  dangerous  circum- 
navigation of  tho  Peloponnesus  and  to  make 
the  whole  traffic  between  Italy  and  Asia  p.iss 
through  the  Corintho-Saronic  gulf." — T.  Morom- 
sen.  Hist,  of  Botne,  bk.  5,  ch.  11. — "Ccesar  sent  to 
Corinth  a  large  number  of  freedmen,  and  other 
settlers  were  afterwards  sent  by  Augustus;  but 
it  is  certain  that  many  Greeks  came  to  live  in 
the  new  Corinth,  for  it  became  a  Greek  town. 
Corinth  was  a  mass  of  ruins  when  the  new  set- 
tlers came,  and  while  they  were  removing  the 
rubbish,  they  grubbed  up  the  burial  places,, 
where  they  found  a  great  number  of  earthen 
figures  and  bronze  urns,  which  they  sold  at 
a  high  price  and  filled   Rome  with   them." — 


613 


CORINTH. 


CORPUS  JURIS  CIVILIS. 


O.  Long,  DreUnf  of  thf  liimuin  JlrjnthUe,  «.  B,  eh. 
32.  —  "Corinth  nipiilly  row  under  tlicHC  auBplccs, 
Ix'Ciirne  ii  ccntrt'  of  coinmcroc  luul  art,  and  took 
the  leud  anions  tlie  rilieH  of  Kiiropean  HcIIuh. 
Here  was  estahhshed  the  M'at  of  the  Roman 
Kovonii.tcnt  of  Achaia,  and  its  popidation, 
though  the  representations  we  have  received  of 
It  are  extravagant,  undoubtedly  exceeded  tliat 
of  any  Grecian  rival." — C.  Merivalc,  I[i»t.  of  the 
lionutiiH.  <•/(.  40. 

A.  D.  367.— Ravaged  by  the  Goths.  See 
OoTlls:  A.  I).  258-207. 

A.  D.  395.— Plundered  by  the  Goths.  See 
(Jotmh:  a.  I).  m5. 

A.  D.  1 146.— Sacked  by  the  Normans  of 
Sicily. — Abduction  of  silk  weavers.  See 
Byzantine  E.mpihk:  A.  D.  1146. 

A.  D.  1445.— Destruction  by  the  Turks.— 
The  fortilications  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth  were 
Btonncd  and  tlic  Peloponnesus  invaded  by 
Ainurath  II.  in  1445.  "Corinth  itself,  a  city 
(>iui('tilled  by  Its  anti(iuity,  by  its  gods,  by  its 
arts,  by  the  beauty  of  its  women,  by  its  foun- 
tains, its  cypr(!8ses,  its  very  ruins  themselves, 
whence  its  imrivalled  situation  had  always  re- 
stored it,  fell  anev/,  buried  in  Its  llames,  by  the 
hands  of  Tourakhan,  thai  ancient  and  ambitious 
vizier  of  Amurath.  Its  flames  were  seen  from 
Athens,  from  yEgina,  from  Lepanto,  from  Cy- 
tlieron,  from  Piuuus.  The  inhabitants,  as  also 
those  of  Patras,  were  ted  into  slavery  in  Asia,  to 
the  number  of  60,000." — A.  Lamartinc,  Iliat.  of 
Turkey,  bk.  11,  »ect.  10. 

A.  D.  1463-1464.— Unsuccessful  siege  by  the 
Venetians. — Fortification  of  the  Isthmus.  See 
Ohekce:  a.  D.  14r)4-1479. 

A.  D.  1687.— Taken  by  the  Venetians.  Sec 
Ti'UKw:  A.  D.  1684-1096. 

A.  D.  1822. — Rc'Tolt,  siege  and  capture  by 
the  Turks.     See  Gueece:  A.  I).  1821-1829. 

CORINTH,  Miss.,  Siege  and  Battle.  Seo 
United  States  of  A.m.:  A.  1).  1863  (Apuil  — 
May:  Tennessee  —  Mississippi),  and  (Septem- 
MEH — OcTOBEii:  Mississippi). 

CORINTH  CANAL,  The.— "On  Sunday 
[August  6,  1893]  tlie  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth — [projected  by  Ca;sar  —  see  Rome: 
B.  C.  45-44]  begun  by  Nero,  and  completed, 
nearly  2,000  years  later,  by  a  Greek  engineer,  M. 
Matsos  —  wail  opened  by  the  King  of  Greece, 
wlio  steamed  through  the  canal  in  his  yacht, 
accompanied  by  a  procession  consisting  of  four 
Greek  tx)rpedo- boats  and  o:her  vessels.  Including 
three  English  men-of-war  and  an  English  des- 
patch-boat. The  canal  .  .  .  will  be  practicable 
for  all  but  the  largest  vessels." — The  Spectator, 
Aug.  13,  18i)o. 

CORINTHIAN   TALENT.    See  Talent. 

CORINTHIAN  WAR,  The.  See  Greece: 
B.  C.  399-387. 

CORIONDI,  The.  See  Ireland,  Tribes  of 
Ancient. 

CORITANI,  OR  CORITAVL— A  British 
tribe  whici-  occupied  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Trent  and  its  vicinity.  See  Britain,  Celtic 
Tribes. 

CORN  LAWS  (English^  and  their  repeal. 
See  Tariff  Leoislation  (Enolvnd):  A.  D. 
ISlC  1828;  1830-1839;  1842;  and  1845-1846. 

CORNABII,  OR  CORNAVII,  The.— An 
ancient  British  tribe  which  dwelt  near  the  mouchs 


of  the  Dee  and  the  Mersey.  Sec  Britain,  Cel- 
tic Thiues. 

CORNWALL,  Duchy  of.— In  the  division  of 
the  spoils  of  his  nnuiucst  of  England,  William 
the  ('omiueror  gave  to  his  brother  Robert  almost 
the  whole  shire  of  Cornwall,  besides  other  vast 
estates.  "  Out  of  those  possessions,"  savs  Mr. 
Freeman,  "arose  that  great  Earldom,  an(r  after- 
wanls  Duchv,  of  Cornwall,  whi<'h  was  deemed 
too  powerful  to  be  trusted  in  the  hands  of  .my 
but  men  closely  akin  to  the  ro^'al  house,  and  the 
remains  of  which  have  for  ages  formed  the 
appanage  of  the  heir-apparent  to  the  Crown." — 
See,  al.so,  Wales,  Prince  of. 

CORNWALLIS,  Charles,  Lcrd.-In  the 
War  of  the  American  Revolution.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1776  (Auoust),  (Septem- 
iiER — NovE.MHER);  1780  (Fehruary — August); 
1780-1781;  1781  (January- May);  1781  (May- 
October) Indian     administration.        See 

India:  A.  D.  1785-1703 Irish  administra- 
tion.   See  Ireland:  A.  I).  1798-1800. 

CORON,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  281).  See  Mace- 
donia, itc. :  B.  C.  297-280. 

CORONADO,  Expedition  of.  See  Ameri- 
can AiioRuiiNKs:  Pueblos. 

CORONATION.—"  The  royal  consecration 
in  its  most  perfect  form  inpiu(led  both  coronn- 
tion  and  tmction.  The  wearing  of  a  crown  was 
a  most  ancient  sign  of  royalty,  into  the  origin  of 
which  it  is  u"'  '  •sa  now  to  inquire ;  but  the 
solemn  rite  of  crowning  was  borrowed  from  the 
Old  Testament  by  the  Byzantine  Cfcsars;  the 
second  Theodosius  was  the  first  emperor  crowned 
with  religious  ceremonies  in  Christian  times. 
The  introduction  of  the  rite  of  anointing  is  less 
certainly  ascertained.     It  did  not  always  accom- 

finny  coronatiim.  and,  although  usual  with  the 
Btcr  emperors  i.-i  not  recorded  In  the  case  of  the 
earlier  ones." — W.  Stubbs,  Const,  Uist.  of  E)ij},, 
eh.  6,  sect.  60. 

CORONATION  STONE.  See  Scotland: 
8tii-0tii  Centuries;  also,  Lia  Fail. 

CORONEI A,  Battles  of  (B.  C.  447  and  B.  C. 
394).  See  Greece:  B.  C.  449-445;  and  B.  C. 
399-387 

CORPS  DE  BELGIQUE.  See  Unitkd 
Stateh  op  Aji.  :  A.  I).  1864  (October). 

CORPUS  JURIS  CIVILIS,  The.— "The 
Corpus  Juris  Ci  villa  represents  the  Roman  law  in 
the  form  which  it  assumed  at  the  close  of  the 
ancient  period  (a  thousand  years  after  the 
decern  viral  legislation  A  the  Twelve  Tables),  and 
Uirough  whicli  mainly  it  has  acted  upon  modern 
times.  It  was  compded  in  the  Eastern  Roman 
Empire  (the  Western  ceased  in  476  A.  D.)  under 
the  Emperor  Justinian,  .  .  .  who  reigned  537- 
565  A.  D.  The  plan  of  the  work,  as  laid  out  by 
[his  great  law-minister]  Tribonian,  Included  two 
principal  parts,  to  be  made  from  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Roman  emperors,  and  from  the 
treatises  of  the  Roman  lawyers.  The  '  constitu- 
tiones '  (law-utterance.s)  of  the  emperors  consisted 
of — 1.  'Orationes,' proposals  of  law,  submitted 
to  and  adopted  by  the  S  ;uate  ;  2.  '  Edicta,'  laws 
issued  directly  by  the  emperor  as  head  of  the 
stntc;  3.  'Mandata,'  instructions  addressed  by 
the  emperor  to  high  ofTicers  of  law  and  justice; 

4.  '  Dccreta, '  decisions  given  by  the  emperor  in 
cases  brought  before  him  by  appeal  or  otherwise ; 

5.  '  Rescripta,'  answers  returned  by  the  emperor 
when  consulted  on  questions  of  law  by  parties  in 


614 


C0UPU8  JURIS  CIVILI9. 


CORSICA. 


a  Bult  or  by  miiRlstrates.  .  .  .  Three  or  (our  col- 
lections IiikI  iilreiiily  )H>eii  iiiiule,  in  wliieli  the 
most  importimt  constitutions  were  selected  from 
llie  mass,  presented  in  i.  condensed  form,  and 
arranged  according  to  tlicir  sulHccts.  Tlie  last 
ami  most  elaborate  of  tlieso  collections  was  the 
Tliemiosian  Co<lo,  compiled  about  a  century 
lM-foru  tlio  accession  of  Justinian;  it  is  still  in 
great  part  extant.  .  .  .  Tlie  new  (-Vxlex  Con- 
stitutioneni,  pr  'pared  in  little  more  than  a  year, 
was  publislici  in  April,  530.  The  next  work 
was  to  digest  the  treatises  of  the  most  eminent 
law  writers.  Tlilrty-nine  were  selected,  nearly 
all  of  whon>  lived  between  100  H.  C.  and  SW) 
A.  D.  Thuir  books  (2,000  in  number)  were 
divided  among  a  body  of  collaborators  (sixteen 
besides  Tribonian),  each  of  whom  from  the  books 
assigned  to  liim  extracted  what  he  thought 
proper  .  .  .  and  putting  the  extracts  (9,000  in 
all)  under  an  arranged  series  of  heads.  .  .  .  The 
Digest  —  or  Pandects  (all-receiving),  ns  it  is  also 
called  from  the  multiplicity  of  its  sources  —  was 
issued  with  authority  of  law,  in  December,  SiUJ. 
.  .  .  While  the  Digest  or  Pandects  forms  much 
tlie  largest  fraction  of  the  Corpus  Juris,  its 
relative  value  and  importance  are  far  more  than 
proportionate  to  its  extent.  The  Digest  is,  in 
fact,  the  soul  of  the  Corpus.  ...  To  bring  the 
Codex  Constitutionem  into  better  conformity 
with  th(!  Digest,  it  was  revised  in  534  and  issued 
1^  we  now  have  it  in  November  of  tliat  year. 
.  .  .  The  Corpus  Juris  includes  also  an  elemen- 
tary text-book,  tlio  Institutiones  (founded  on  the 
'  iastitutiones '  of  Oaius,  who  flourished  about 
150).  .  .  .  Tlio  Institutes,  Digjst  and  Codex 
were  given,  as  a  complete  body  of  law,  to  the 
law-scliools  at  Cons'autiiiople,  Home,  lierytus, 
Alexandria,  Ciesana,  to  be  studied  in  their  five 
years'  curriculum.  In  the  courts  it  was  to  super- 
sede all  earlier  authorities.  .  .  .  Later  statutes 
of  Justinian,  arranged  in  order  of  time,  form  the 
Novels  ('novellae  constitutione,'  most  of  them  in 
Greek),  the  hist  component  of  tlie  Corpus  Juris." 
— J.  Iladley,  Int.  to  Raman  I^iw,  led.  1. 

Ai.so  in:  J.  E.  Goudsmit, r/ztf  J'ltmkcta. 

CORREGIDOR.     See  Alcalde. 

CORSICA:  Early  history.— "  Tlic  original 
inliabitants  of  Corsica  are  supposed  to  have 
been  Ligurians,  but  at  a  very  early  period  the 
people  had  commercial  intercoui-se  with  Spain, 
Ionia  and  Tuscany.  Tlie  island  was  subsequently 
occupied  by  tlio  Carthaginians,  who,  however, 
were  expelled  by  the  Romans  during  the  first 
Punic  war.  A  few  years  later  Corsica  came 
under  tile  dominion  of  Rome,  and  tiiatsway  was 
nominally  maintained  until  the  (loi^nfall  of  the 
Empire.  It  then  fell  i:  der  the  dominion  of  tlie 
Vandals,  and  after  tlijir  expulsion  owned  suc- 
cessively tlic  rule  of  tlie  Goths,  the  Saracens 
and  the  Pisiins,  and  finally  of  the  Genoese.  It 
came  into  the  possession  of  tlie  laiter  people  in  the 
year  1120.  Pisii  subsequently  made  several 
attempts  to  drive  out  her  rivals,  but  tliey  wore 
in  tlie  end  void  of  results.  But  in  1448,  Genoa, 
having  sustained  great  losses  In  the  constant 
wars  in  wliicli  she  was  engaged,  was  induced  to 
surrender  the  administration  of  Corsica  and  of 
lier  co!  ..ies  in  tlie  Lerant  to  a  corporation  known 
as  tlie  Bhuk  of  St  George.  From  that  time  the 
island  was  administered  by  governors  appointed 
by  the  Bank  of  St  George,  almost  precisely  ii: 
the  manner  in  which,  in  i!..igland,  up  to  '851*,  the 
East  Indies  were  administered  by  an  '  imperium 


In  Imperlo.'"— O.  B.  Malleson,  .'^iKtieii  from 
(tenoftf  Ilinton).  eh.  3. 

A.  D.  1558-1559.— Revolt  against  the  Geno- 
ese rule,  and  re-subjection.  See  Oknoa:  .V.  1). 
15'J«-1.W1);  and  Fua.nck:  A.  I).  1.547- 15.')U. 

A.  D.  1720-1769.— The  Struggle  for  inde- 
pendence.— Romance  of  King  Theodore. — 
The  Paoiis.— Cession  to  France.— The  ri'volt 
of  1.5.5H  was  renewed  in  1504,  but  ended  in  1507, 
upon  the  death  of  its  leacK  r,  Hampicro.  For  the 
next  century  and  a  half,  Corsica  reniaincci  in- 
active ;  "depressed  and  miserable  under  renewed 
Genoese  exactiims  and  tyninnies,  but  t(K) 
exhausted  to  resume  hoslilifies.  In  1720,  how- 
ever, fighting  again  broke  out,  suddenly  roused 
by  (me  of  the  many  nrivate  wrongs  then  pres.sing 
upcm  tlie  lower  orders,  and  the  rebellion  soon 
spread  over  the  whole  island.  It  was  well  organ- 
ized under  two  leaders  of  energy  and  ability, 
and  was  more  determined  in  its  measures  than 
ever.  .  .  .  Genoa  had  recourse  to  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  from  whom  she  bought  several  thou- 
sand mercenaries,  who  were  sent  across  tlie  sea  to 
try  tlieirskill  upon  tliesc  unconquerable  islwiders. 
.  .  .  The  courage  and  chivalry  of  Ids  insular 
foes  .  .  .  won  for  them  the  regard  of  the 
opposing  Oenenil  Wachtendonk ;  and,  chiefly 
through  his  mediation,  a  treaty,  sujjposed  to 
bo  favourable  to  the  islanders,  was  concluded 
between  Genoa  and  the  Corte  legislative  assembly 
in  1733.  Wachtendonk  remained  in  tlic  island 
another  year  to  see  the  treaty  carrieil  out,  and  in 
June,  1734,  the  German  general  returned  to  his 
own  country.  .  .  .  Bu'  lie  had  scarcely  retired 
before  the  treaty  was  broken.  Genoa  began 
anew  her  system  of  illegal  arrests  and  attempted 
r.ssassi nations  ;  and,  once  more,  the  people  arose 
under  Ilyacintli  Piioli,  an  obscure  native  of  tlie 
little  village  of  Morosaglia,  but  a  man  of  spirit 
and  talent,  and  a  scholar.  Under  the  direction 
of  tills  man,  and  of  GialTeri,  his  colleague,  a 
democratic  constitution,  in  tlie  highest  degree 
prudent  and  practical,  was  framed  for  the 
Corsican  jieople.  .  .  .  Early  in  tlie  next  year 
occurred  a  stninge  and  romantic  adventure  in 
tills  adventureful  country.  A  man,  haiiv^some 
and  well-dressed,  surrounded  by  obse(juious 
courtiers,  and  attended  by  every  luxury,  landed 
in  tlie  island  from  a  vessel  well-furnislied  with 
gold,  ammunition,  and  arms.  Tliia  man  was  a 
German  adventurer.  Baron  Theodore  von  N'ui- 
hoff,  who,  after  a  romantic  youth,  had  suddenly 
conceived  a  desire  to  become  king  of  Corsica. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  talent  and  personal 
fascination,  of  good  judgment,  and  entiiusiiastic 
disposition.  He  iiad  fallen  in  love  with  the 
bravery  and  determination  of  the  Corsicans,  uiid 
longed  to  head  such  a  nation.  ^le  had  put  liiiu- 
self  into  communication  with  the  leading  island- 
ers ;  and,  having  really  some  little  influence  at 
the  continent4il  courts,  persuaded  them  that  he 
had  much  more.  He  offered  to  obtain  sucli 
assistance  from  foreign  potentates,  by  liis  per- 
suasions, as  sliould  effectually  oust  the  Genoese ; 
and,  in  return,  requested  tlie  crown  of  Corsica. 
His  genius  and  his  enthusiasm  were  so  great,  and 
his  promises  so  dazzling,  that,  after  some  hesi- 
tation, the  pool  Corsicans,  in  their  despair, 
seized  upon  this  last  straw;  and  in  Marcii,  1730, 
Theodore  was  crowned  king.  His  exertions  for 
tlie  good  of  this  country  were  untiring.  He 
established  manufactures  and  promoted  witli  all 
his  power  art  and  commerce,  at  the  same  time 


615 


rORHICA. 


CORTES. 


timt,  with  nil  till'  force  of  IiIh  Ronlufi,  ho 
cnclriivoiirnl  to  pcrNiuicli'  forclffii  powcrH  to  lend 
their  iiHMiHtiuicc  to  Ijin  new  Hiii)Je('tN  in  tlie  Meld 
IIIn  Htyle  iif  living  iiieiinwliili'  wiih  refill  and 
HuiM|)t!ioiiH.  .  .  .  TowiirdH  tlie  coneliision  of  liiH 
(irsl  y<'iir  of  sovereignly,  Tlieodoro  left  ("orMlcii 
on  II  eonlinenlul  tour,  willi  the  avowed  object  of 
ImKteninK  th(!  proiuiHcd  Hiiecoiir.  In  two  yeurR  he 
returned,  hrlriKinff  vvilli  him  tliree  litrgo  and 
m-veriil  Hinalier  war  vessels,  handsomely  laden 
witli  iiiiuniinilion,  ivhicli  Imd  actuidlvtieen  raised 
bv  means  of  Ids  tjth'nts  iiinl  persuasive  faculties, 
eldetly  ainoii);st  the  Dutch.  Hut,  meitnwiiile, 
till!  C/'orsleiuis  had  had  oilier  iitTairs  to  which 
U)  attend.  France  had  iiiterfere<l  at  the  re- 
quest of  Oenoa;  and  nej;otiations  were  actively 
going  on,  whl(!h  tlie  arrival  of  the  pseudo-king 
couKl  only  interrupt.  Tiieodore,  although  now 
so  well  attended,  found  himself  unheeded  and 
disregarded;  and  after  a  few  nionlhs  was  forced 
to  leave  his  new  kingdom  to  its  fate,  and  to 
return  to  tlu!  continent.  Five  years  later,  in 
174!!,  he  again  returned,  again  well  e(|uipped, 
this  time  with  Englisli  vessels,  but  willi  the  same 
ill  success.  Convinced  now  that  his  cliance  was 
over  and  his  dream  of  royalty  destroynd,  Theo- 
dore returned  to  Kngland  with  a  sore  heart, 
spending  his  remaining  years  in  this  asylum  for 
dethrcmed  kings  and  ruined  adventurers.  His 
tomb  may  be  .seen  in  Westminster  Abbey.  For 
the  next  tive  and  twenty  years  the  war  continued 
between  Corsica  and  Oenoa,  still  fought  out  on  the 
blootl-deluged  plains  of  the  unhappy  little  island. 
But  the  republic  of  Genoa  was  now  long  past 
her  prime,  and  her  energies  were  fading  into 
senility  ;  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  evcr- 
lncrca.sir.g  assistance  of  France,  her  intn-pid  fm's 
would  long  ere  this  have  got  the  better  of  her. 
In  Jlay,  1708,  a  treaty  was  signed  between 
Geno:i  and  Fmnce,  by  which  the  republic  ceded 
her  now  enfeebled  claims  on  Corsica  to  lier  ally, 
and  left  lur  long-oppressed  victim  to  flght  the 
contest  out  with  the  French  troops.  During 
this  time,  first  GafTori,  then  Pasquale  Paoli,  were 
the  leaders  of  the  people.  GafTori,  a  man  of 
refinement,  and  a  hero  of  skill  and  intrepidity, 
was  murdered  in  a  vendetta  in  1753,  and  in  n.W 
Pasqufile,  yotmgest  son  of  the  old  patriot 
Hyacinth  Paoli,  left  his  position  as  ofilcer  in  the 
Neapolitan  service,  and  landed,  by  the  general 
desire  of  his  own  people,  at  Aleria,  to  undertake 
the  command  of  the  Corylcan  army.  .  .  .  From 
1764  to  1708  a  truce  was  concluded  between  the 
foes.  ...  In  August,  1768,  the  truce  was  to 
expire;  but,  before  the  appointed  day  bad 
arrived,  an  army  of  20,000  French  suddenly 
swooped  down  upon  the  luckless  island.  ...  It 
was  a  hopeless  stniggle  for  Corsica;  but  the 
heroism  of  the  uncfiiuntcd  people  moved  all 
Europe  to  sympathy.  .  .  .  The  Corsicans  at 
first  got  the  better  of  their  formidable  foe,  at 
the  Bridge  of  Gc),  in  tlie  taking  of  Borgo,  and 
in  other  les  •"•  actions.  .  .  .  Meanwhile,  the 
country  was  being  destroyed,  and  the  troops 
becoming  exhausted.  .  .  .  The  battle  of  Ponte 
Nuovo,  on  the  9th  of  May,  1769,  at  once  and 
forever  annihilated  the  Corsican  cause.  .  .  . 
After  this  victory,  the  French  rapidly  gained 
possession  of  the  whole  island,  and  shortly  after- 
wards tlie  struggle  was  abandoned.  ...  In  the 
same  year,  1709,  Napoleon  Buonaparte  was  born 
in  the  house  out  of  the  Place  du  Marclie  at 
Ajaccio.     'I   was    born,'  he  said  himself  in  a 


letter  to  Pnoli,  'the  year  my  ooiintry  dle<l."' — 
G.  Fordi?,  ,4   Liulifii  Tmir  in  ('omicii,  r.  'i.  eh.  If. 

Al.KO  IN;  I'.  FIt/.gcrald.  Kiui/ii  mid  Oueenii  of 
(in  //our,  r/i.  1. — J.  tioswell,  ,/oiirniil  of  a  Tour 
to  f/ormi'ii. 

A.  D.  1794.— Conquest  by  the  Eng;liih.  Bee 
FnAN(K:  A.  I).  17»nM.\H(  11— .h;i,v), 

A.  D.  1796.— Evacuated  by  the  Eneliih.— 
Reoccupied    by    the   French.       See   tjiANCK: 

A.    1).    179(1  (SKfTKMIIKH). 

CORTENUOVA,  Battle  of  (1236).  8co 
Italy:  A.  1).  llwt-lWd 

CORTES,  HERNANDO,  Conqueit  of 
Mexico  by.     See  Mkxico:  A.  I).  ir)19  to  1581- 

ma-t. 

CORTES,  The  early  Spanish.— The  old 
mjnarchical  constitutions  of  Castile  and 
Aragon, — "The  earliest  instance  on  record  of 
popular  representation  in  (.'astile  occurred  at 
IJurgos,  in  11(19;  nearly  a  century  aiiteceilent  to 
the  celebralcd  Leicester  parliament.  Kach  city 
had  but  one  vote,  whatever  niiglit  be  the  number 
of  its  representatives.  A  much  greater  irregu- 
larity, in  regard  to  tlie  number  of  cities  required 
to  send  deputies  to  cortes  [tlie  name  signifying 
'  court ']  on  ditl'erent  occasion.!,  ])revailed  in  Cas- 
tile, than  had  ever  existed  in  England;  though, 
previously  to  tlie  Ifltli  century,  this  floes  not 
seem  to  liavi^  proceeded  from  any  design  of  in- 
fringing on  tlie  liberties  of  the  people.  Tlio 
nomination  of  these  was  originally  vested  in  the 
householders  at  large,  but  was  afterwards  con- 
fined to  the  municipalities, —  a  most  mischievous 
alteration,  whidi  subjected  their  election  eventu- 
ally to  the  corrupt  inlliience  of  the  crown.  They 
assembled  in  the  same  chamber  wltli  the  higher 
orders  of  tlie  nobility  and  clergy,  but  or  (pies- 
tions  of  moment,  retireil  to  deliberate  by  them- 
selves. After  the  transaction  of  other  business, 
their  own  petitions  were  presented  to  the  sover- 
eign, and  his  assent  gave  them  the  validity  of 
laws.  The  Castilian  commons,  by  neglecting  to 
make  tlieir  money  grants  depend  on  correspond- 
ing concessions  from  the  crown,  relinquished 
that  powerful  check  on  its  operations  so  bene- 
ficially exerted  In  the  British  parliament,  but  in 
vain  contended  for  even  there  till  a  much  later 
period  than  that  now  under  consideration. 
Whatever  miy  have  been  the  right  of  the  no- 
bility and  clergy  to  attend  in  cortes,  their  sanc- 
tion was  not  deemed  essential  to  the  validity  of 
legislative  acts;  for  their  presence  was  not  even 
required  in  many  assemblies  of  the  nation  which 
occurred  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.  The 
extrnordinary  power  thus  committed  to  the  com- 
mons was,  on  the  whole,  unfavorable  to  their 
liberties.  It  deprived  them  of  the  sympathy  and 
cooperation  of  the  great  orders  of  the  state,  whose 
authority  alone  could  have  enabled  them  to  with- 
stand the  encroachments  of  arbitrary  power,  and 
who,  in  fact,  did  eventually  desert  them  in  their 
utmost  need.  .  .  .  Tlie  Aragonese  cortes  was 
composed  of  four  branches,  or  arms;  the  ricos 
hombres,  or  great  barons;  the  lesser  nobles,  com- 
prehending the  kniglits;  the  clergy;  and  the 
commons.  The  nobility  of  every  denomination 
were  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  legislature.  The 
ricos  hombres  were  allowed  to  appear  by  proxy, 
and  a  similar  privilege  was  enjoyed  by  baronial 
heiresses.  The  number  of  this  body  was  very 
limited,  twelve  of  them  constituting  a  quorum. 
The  arm  of  the  ecclesiastics  embraced  an  ample 


616 


CORTES. 


C'OUTES. 


delegation  from  llie  itiferior  ivs  well  an  liiglmr 
cler^.V.  It  Ih  iilllrnied  luit  to  have  been  n  nim- 
|i(iiieiit(if  the  niktioiiiil  IcKiHliituri'  until  more  Ihiiii 
It  century  iukI  ii  hiilf  nfter  (he  iiilniisHJon  r)f  IIk^ 
cominiinH.  Indeed,  the  intlucnei'  (if  the  ehureli 
was  much  Ichm  HenMilile  in  Aru)<(iii  than  in  tlie 
other  kinK<l'iii>t<)f  tlio  I'euinHulii.  .  .  .  Tli<!  com- 
inoiiM  enjoyed  Id^luT  cousideriition  mid  civil 
privile^fes.  For  tiiis  they  were  perlmpH  some 
wimt  indelili'cl  to  the  example  of  llieir  Cataliin 
neixhl)(ir«,  tlie  inlluence  of  wIiomc  demoerallc  in- 
Htitutlons  naturally  extendeil  to  other  parts  of 
the  AragonescnioiLarcliy.  The  ciiarters  of  certain 
cities  accorded  to  tlie  InhabitantH  privile);cH 
of  nobility,  ])articiiiarly  that  of  immunity  from 
taxation;  wiiile  the  maKlMtrates  of  others  were 
permitted  to  taki;  their  seats  in  the  order  of 
liidalKos.  From  a  very  early  nerlod  w  find 
them  employed  in  u!llcc»  of  i)ublli;  trust,  and  on 
lmp<irtaiit  missions.  The  epoch  of  their  admis- 
sion into  the  national  assembly  Is  traced  its  far 
back  as  HUH,  several  years  earlier  than  the  com- 
niencement  of  popular  representation  iu  Castile. 
Kach  city  had  the  rl^ht  of  sending  two  or  more 
deputies  selected  from  persons  clif^ilde  to  itr. 
magistracy;  but  with  the  privilege' of  only  one 
vote,  whatever  migiit  be  the  niimbeif  of  its  depu- 
ties. Any  place  whic'h  had  been  oiiro  represi'iited 
in  cortes  might  always  claim  to  be  so.  By  a 
statute  of  i;)()7,  the  convocation  of  the  states, 
which  had  been  annual,  was  declan^l  biennial. 
The  kings,  however,  paid  little  regard  to  this 
provision,  rarely  smnmoning  them  except  for 
some  specltic  uecessity.  The  great  olllcers  of 
the  crown,  whatever  might  be  tlieir  personal 
rank,  were  jealously  excluded  from  their  delib- 
erations. ...  It  was  in  the  power  of  any  mem- 
ber to  defeat  the  piLssage  of  it  bill,  by  opposing 
to  it  his  veto  or  dis.sent,  formally  registered  to 
that  effect.  lie  might  even  interpose  his  nega- 
tive on  tlie  proceeilinga  of  the  house,  and  thus 
put  a  stop  to  the  prosecution  of  all  further  busi- 
ness during  the  session.  This  anomalous  privi- 
lege, transcending  even  that  claimed  in  tlic 
Polish  diet,  must  have  been  too  invidious  In  its 
exercise,  and  too  pernicious  in  its  conseiiiiences, 
to  have  been  often  resorted  to.  This  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  it  was  not  formally  re- 
pealed until  the  reign  of  Philip  II.,  in  UiQ'i.  .  .  , 
The  cortes  exercised  the  highest  functions, 
whether  of  a  deliberative,  legislative,  or  judicial 
nature.  It  had  a.  right  to  be  consulteil  on  all 
matters  of  importance,  especially  on  those  of 
peace  and  war.  No  law  was  valid,  no  tax  could 
be  imposed,  without  its  consent ;  and  it  carefully 
provided  for  the  application  of  the  revenue  to 
Its  destined  uses.  It  determined  the  succession 
to  the  crown,  removed  obnoxious  ministers,  re- 
formed the  household  and  domestic  expenditure 
of  the  monarch,  and  exercised  the  power,  in  the 
most  unreserved  manner,  of  withholding  sup- 
plies, as  well  as  of  resisting  what  \l  regarded  as 
an  encroachment  on  the  liberties  of  the  nation. 
.  .  .  The  statute-book  affc.rds  the  moat  unequivo- 
cal evidence  of  the  fidelity  with  wliich  tlie 
guardians  of  the  realm  discharged  tlie  high  trust 
reposed  in  tliom,  in  the  numerous  enactments  it 
exhibits  for  tlie  security  both  of  person  and 
property.  Almost  the  first  page  wliich  meets 
the  eye  in  this  venerable  record  contains  the 
General  Privilege,  the  Magna  Charta,  as  it  has 
been  well  denominated,  of  Aragon.  It  was 
granted  by  Peter  the  Qreat  to  the  cortes  at  Saro- 


gosaii,  In  12mm.  It  iiiibnteefi  a  variety  of  pro- 
vIhIoiis  for  till'  fair  ami  open  administration  of 
Justice;  for  ascerlaining  tlie  legitimate  jiowen 
Intrusted  to  the  cortes;  for  the  security  of  prop- 
erty against  exactions  of  the  crown  ;  and  for  Iho 
con.servatlon  of  their  legal  immiiiiltles  to  the  mu- 
nlcliial  corporations  and  the  dilYerint  orders  of 
nobility,  .  .  .  The  Aragonese,  who  rightly  rc- 
gardeii  the  (Jeiieral  Privilege  as  the  broadest 
basis  of  'heir  liberties,  repeatedly  procured  lis 
eonllrmation  by  succeeding  sovereigns.  .  .  .  The 
Judicial  functions  of  the  cortes  have  not  been 
siilUeiently  noticed  by  writers.  They  were  ex- 
ten.sivo  In  their  operation,  and  gave  it  the  name 
of  the  Oenend  (lourt."— W.  II.  Prcscott,  lliit. 
<if  the  Ileir/n  of  Ferdinanil  itml  Jmi/ul/ii,  iiitrml., 
xert.  1-3. — "Castile  bore  a  closer  aiialogv  to  Kng- 
land  In  its  form  of  civil  polity  than  l''raiice  or 
even  Aragon.  Hut  the  fiei|ueiit  di.sordeis  of  its 
government  and  a  barbarous  state  of  manners 
rendered  violations  of  law  much  more  continual 
and  flagrant  than  they  were  In  Unghind  under 
the  Pl.mtagenet  dynasty.  And  besides  these 
practical  mi.'ichlefs,  there  were  two  essential  de- 
fects in  tlic  constitution  of  Casiile,  through  which 
perhaps  It  was  ultimately  subverted.  It  wanted 
tliose  two  brilliants  in  the  coronet  of  liritlsh  lib- 
erty, the  representation  of  freeholders  among  the 
commons,  and  trial  by  jury.  The  cortes  of  Cas- 
tile became  a  congress  of  deputies  from  a  few 
cities,  public  spirited,  indeeil,  and  intrepid,  as 
we  Iliid  tliem  in  bad  times,  to  an  eminent  degree, 
but  too  much  limited  in  number,  anil  too  uncon- 
nected with  the  territorial  aristocracy,  to  main- 
tain a  just  balance  against  the  crown.  .  .  .  Per- 
haps In  no  European  monarchy  except  our  own 
was  the  form  of  government  more  interesting 
than  in  Antgon,  as  a  fortunate  temperament  of 
law  and  justice  witli  the  royal  authority.  .  .  . 
IJliincas  quotes  a  noble  pa.ssiige  from  the  acts  of 
cortes  in  M")I.  'We  have  always  heard  of  old 
time,  and  it  is  found  by  experience,  that  seeing 
the  great  barrenness  of  this  land,  and  the  poverty 
of  the  realm,  if  it  were  not  for  tlic  liberties 
thereof,  the  folk  would  go  hence  to  live  and 
abide  in  other  realms  and  lands  more  fruitful.' 
This  high  spirit  of  freedom  had  long  animated 
the  Aragoncsi'  After  severid  contesi.s  witli  the 
crown  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  not  to  go  buck  t<> 
earlier  times,  they  compelled  Peter  III.  in  1283 
to  grant  a  law  called  the  Oenenil  Privilege,  the 
Magna  Charta  of  Aragon,  and  perhaps  a  more 
full  and  satisfactory  basis  of  civil  liberty  than 
our  own."  They  further  "established  a  positive 
right  of  maintaining  their  liberties  by  arrfis. 
Tliis  was  contained  in  the  Privilege  of  Union 
granted  by  Alfonso  III.  in  1287,  after  a  violent 
conflict  with  his  subjects ;  but  which  was  after- 
wards so  completely  abolished,  and  even  eradi- 
cated from  the  records  of  the  kingdom,  that  its 
precise  words  have  never  been  recovered.  .  .  . 
Tliat  watchfulness  over  public  liberty  which 
originally  belongeil  to  the  aristocracy  of  ricos 
iiombres  .  .  .  and  which  was  afterwards  main- 
tained by  the  dangerous  Privilege  of  Union,  be- 
came the  duty  of  a  civil  magistrate  whose  ofBce 
and  functions  are  tlie  most  pleasing  feature  in 
the  constitutional  history  of  Arugon.  The  Jiis- 
tiza  or  Justiciary  of  Aragon  has  been  treated  by 
some  writers  aa  a  sort  of  auonialous  magistrate. 
.  .  .  But  I  do  not  perceive  that  his  functions 
were,  in  any  essential  respect,  diHereut  from 
those  of  the  chief  justice  of  England,  divided. 


40 


617 


CORTES. 


COSSACKS. 


from  the  time  of  Kdward  I.,  among  the  judges 
of  the  Khig's  Bench.  .  .  .  All  the  royal  an  well 
118  territorial  judges  were  bound  to  apply  for  liis 
opinion  in  case  of  legal  diUicultie.s  arising  in  their 
courts,  which  he  was  to  certify  within  eight 
days.  By  suhseciueii.  statutes  of  the  same  reign 
it  was  made  penal  for  any  one  to  obtain  letters 
from  the  king,  impeding  the  execution  of  the 
Justiza's  process,  and  tliey  were  declared  null. 
Inferior  courts  were  forbidden  to  proceed  in  any 
business  after  Ills  prohibition.  .  .  .  There  are 
two  parts  of  his  remedial  jurisdiction  which  de- 
serve special  notice.  These  are  tlie  processes  of 
juris  tirnia,  or  lirnia  del  derechio,  and  of  manifes- 
tation. The  former  bears  some  analogy  to  the 
writs  of  '  pone '  and  '  certiorari '  in  Lngland, 
through  which  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  exer- 
cises Its  right  of  withdrawing  a  sidt  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  inferior  tribimals.  But  tlie  Ara- 
gonese  juris  Hrma  was  of  more  extensive  ojiera- 
tion.  .  .  .  The  process  termed  manifesUition 
afforded  as  ample  security  for  personal  liberty  as 
that  of  juris  firmadid  for  i)roperty. " — H.  Ilallam, 
The  Muhlle  Ages,  ch.  4  (v.  3).  —  For  some  account 
of  the  loss  of  the  old  constitutional  liberties  of 
Castile  and  Aragon,  under  Charles  V. ,  see  Spain  : 
A.  D.  1518-152SJ. — "  The  councils  or  meetings  of 
the  bishops  after  the  reconquest,  like  the  later 
Councils  of  Toledo,  were  always  'jussu  regis,' 
and  were  attended  by  counts  and  masjnates  '  ad 
videndum  sine  ad  audiendum  verbum  Domini.' 
But  when  the  ecclesiastical  business  was  ended, 
it  was  natural  that  the  lav  part  of  the  assem- 
bly should  discuss  the  alfairs  of  the  kingdom 
and  of  the  people;  and  insensibly  this  after- 
part  of  the  proceeding  j  grew  as  tlie  first  part 
diminished  in  importance.  The  exact  date  when 
the  Council  merged  into  the  Curia  or  Cortes 
is  difficult  to  determine ;  Sefior  Colmeiro  takes 
the  so-named  Council  of  Leon  in  1020  as  the 
true  starting-point  of  the  latter.  The  early 
monarchy  of  Spain  was  elective,  anu  the  accla- 
mation of  tlie  assembled  people  (plebs)  was  at 
least  theoretically  necessary  to  render  the  king's 
election  valid.  'The  presenca  of  the  citizens  at 
the  Cortes  or  Zamor.i,  though  stated  by  Sando- 
val and  Morales,  is  impugned  by  Sefior  Col- 
meiro; but  at  the  rouncil  of  Oviedo  in  1115  were 
present  bishops  of  Spain  and  Portugal  '  cum 
principibus  et  plebe  praedictae  regionis,'  and 
these  latter  also  subscribed  the  Acts.  Still, 
though  present  and  making  their  influence  more 
and  more  felt,  tliere  is  no  record  of  a  true  repre- 
sentation of  cities  until  Alfonso  IX.  convoked 
the  Cortes  of  Leon  in  1188,  '  cum  archiepiscopo, 
et  episcopis,  et  niagnatibus  regni  met  et  cum 
electis  civihus  ox  singulis  civitatibus ' ;  from  this 
time  the  three  estates — clergy,  nobles,  citizens 
—  were  always  represented  in  the  Cortes  of  Leon. 
Unfortunately,  the  political  development  of  Cas- 
tillo did  not  synchronise  with  that  of  Leon.  In 
general,  that  of  Castillo  was  fully  half  a  century 
later.  We  pass  by  ■■*  'nore  than  doubtful  the 
alleged  presence  of  citizens  at  Burgos  'n  1169; 
the  'majores  civitatum  et  villarum  at  the 
Cortes  of  Carrion  in  ll''  v.' ere  not  deputies,  but 
the  judges  or  governc  of  twenty-eight  cities. 
It  is  not  till  the  unite  1  Cortes  of  both  kingdoms' 
met  at  Seville  in  1!J50,  that  we  find  true  repre- 
sentation in  Castillo.  tIJastille  was  always  more 
feudal  than  Leon.  It  is  in  this  w!\nt  of  simul- 
taneous development,  and  in  the  presence  of 
privileged  classes,  that  we  find  the  germ  of  the 


evils  which  eventually  destroyed  the  liberties  of 
Spain.  Neither  the  number  of  d''r)"ties  nor  of 
the  cities  represented  was  ever  15:.t  i;  at  Burgos, 
in  1315,  we  find  200  deputies  (pi  vyci.radores)  from 
100  cities;  gradually  the  number  sank  till  sevcn- 
'x'en,  and  finally  twenty-two,  ciMes  alone  were 
represented.  The  deputies  were  chosen  from 
ho  municipality  either  by  lot,  by  rotation,  or  by 
election ;  they  were  the  mere  spokesmen  of  the 
city  councils,  whose  mandate  was  imperative. 
Their  payment  was  at  first  by  the  cities,  but, 
after  1422,  by  the  king;  and  tliere  are  constant 
complaints  that  the  salary  was  insufficient.  Tlie 
reign  of  Juan  II.  (1400-54)  was  fatal  to  the  liber- 
ties of  Castillo ;  the  answers  to  the  demands  and 
petitions  of  the  deputies  were  deferred;  and,  in 
fact,  if  not  in  form,  the  law  tliat  no  tax  should 
be  levied  without  consent  of  the  Cortes  was  con- 
stantly violated.  Still,  but  for  the  death  of 
Prince  Juan,  in  1497,  and  uie  advent  of  the 
Austrian  dj^nasty  with  th?  possession  of  the 
Low  Countries,  the  old  liberties  might  yet  have 
boon  recovered.  .  .  .  With  the  Cortes  of  Toledo, 
in  1538,  ended  the  meeting  of  the  three  estat'.  ■; 
The  nobility  first,  then  the  clergy,  were  elimi- 
nated from  the  Cortes,  leaving  only  the  proctors 
of  the  cities  to  become  servile  instruments  for 
the  purposes  of  taxation." — W.  Webster.  Review 
of  Colmeiro' 8  "Cortes  de  tos  Antiguos  Ueinoa  de 
Leonyde  CMtilla"  (Aeadumi/,  Aug.  IC   1884). 

CORUNNA,  Battle  of  (1809).  See  Spaim: 
A.  D.  1808-1809  (August— January). 

CORUPEDION,  Battle  of.— A  battle  fought 
in  western  Phrygia,  B.  C.  281,  in  wliich  Lysim- 
inachus,  one  of  the  disputants  for  Alexander's 
empire,  wiis  defeated  by  Seleucus,  and  slain. — 
C.  Thirlwall,  IliHt.  of  Greece,  ch.  60. 

CORVbE. — One  of  the  feudal  rights  possessed 
in  France  (under  tlie  old  regime,  before  the  Uevo- 
lution)  "by  the  lord  of  the  manor  over  his  sub- 
jects, by  means  of  which  he  could  employ  for 
his  own  profit  a  certain  number  of  their  days  of 
labour,  or  of  their  oxen  and  horses.  The  '  Cor- 
vee &  volonte,'  that  is  to  say,  at  the  arbitrary 
will  of  the  Seigneur,  liad  been  completely  abol- 
ished [before  the  Revolution] :  forced  labour  had 
boon  for  some  time  past  confined  to  a  certain 
number  of  days  a-year." — A.  de  Tocqueville,  On 
the  State  of  Society  in.  France  before  1789,  note 
4  E.  (p.  499). 

CORVUS,  The  Roman.  See  Punic  War, 
The  Fikst. 

COS,  OR  K  JS.— One  of  the  islands  in  the 
.iEgean  callc  '  the  Sporades,  near  the  Carian 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  The  island  was  sacred  to 
Asclepius,  or  Jisculapeus,  and  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  celebrated  physician  Hippocrates,  as 
well  as  of  the  painter  Apelles.  It  was  an  iEolian 
colony,  but  joined  the  Dorian  confederacy. 

COSIMO  DE'  MEDICI,  The  ascendancy 
at  Florence  of.  See  Florence:  A.  D.  1483- 
1464. 

COSMOS,  COSMIOS,  COSMOPOLIS. 
See  De.miiikoi. 

COSSACKS,  The.—"  The  origin  of  the  Cos- 
sack tribes  is  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  ages ;  and 
many  celebrated  historians  ui'e  still  divided  in 
opinion  as  to  whence  the  term  Cossack,  or  rather 
Kosaque,  is  properly  to  be  derived.  This  word, 
'  indeed,  is  susceptible  of  so  many  etymological 
explaiii^  Jons,  as  scarcely  to  offer  for  any  one  of 
them  decided  grounds  of  preference.  Every- 
thing, however,  would  seem  to  favour  the  belief 


618 


COSSACKS. 


COTARir. 


that  the  word  C.)ssark,  or  Kosntmc,  wns  in  much 
earlier  use  iu  the  vicinity  of  tlie  Caucasus  tliiin 
in  the  Uliraine.  .  .  .  Slierer,  in  liis  'Annals  of 
Russia  Minor,'  (La  Petite  HuskIc,)  traces  back 
the  origin  of  the  Cossacks  to  the  ninth  century ; 
but  he  does  not  support  his  assertion  by  any 
facts  clothed  with  the  dignity  of  historical  truth. 
It  appears  certain,  however,  tliat  the  vast  pas- 
ture lands  between  the  Don  and  the  Dnieper,  llie 
country  lying  on  the  soutli  of  KYow,  and  trav- 
ersed by  the  Dnieper  up  to  the  Black  Sea,  was 
the  principal  birthplace  of  the  Cos.sacks.  When, 
in  1243,  Batukhan  came  witli  500,000  men  to 
take  possession  of  the  empire  wliich  fell  to  his 
share  of  tlie  vast  inheritance  left  by  Tchingis 
Khan  [see  Mongols:  A.  D.  1229-1294],  he  extir- 
pated many  nations  and  displaced  many  others. 
One  portion  of  the  Komans  Hying  from  the 
horrors  of  this  terrific  storm,  and  arriving  on  tl>e 
borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  banks  of  tlie 
IiYk,  (now  Ouralsek,)  turned  to  the  left,  and  took 
refuge  between  the  embouchures  of  that  river, 
where  they  dwelt  in  small  numbers,  ai>art  from 
their  1  ethren,  in  a  less  fertile  climate.  These 
were,  incontestably,  tlie  progenitors  of  the  Cos- 
sacks of  the  laYk,  who  are,  historically,  scarcely 
impo''tant  enough  for  notice.  ...  At  the 
approach  of  this  formidable  invasion  towards  the 
Don,  that  portion  of  the  Komans  located  o  i  the 
left  bank  took  refuge  in  tlie  marshes,  and  in  the 
numerous  islands  formed  by  that  river  near  its 
embouchure.  Here  they  found  a  secure  retreat ; 
and  from  thence,  having,  from  their  new  posi- 
tion, acquired  maritime  habits  and  seafaring  ex- 
perience, thej'  not  only,  themselves,  resorted  to 
piracy  as  a  means  of  existence,  but  likewise  eii- 
listecl  in  a  formidable  confederacy,  for  purposes 
of  rapine  and  pillage,  all  the  roving  and  discon- 
tented tribes  in  their  surrounding  neighbour- 
hood. These  latter  were  very  numerous.  Tlie 
Tartars,  ever  but  indifferent  seamen,  had  not  the 
courage  to  join  them  in  these  iiiratical  expe- 
ditions. This  division  of  the  Komans  is  in- 
dubitably the  parent  stock  of  the  mwlem  Cos- 
sacks of  the  Don,  by  far  the  most  numerous  of 
the  Cossack  tribes:  by  amalgamation,  however, 
with  whole  hosts  of  Tartar  and  Calmuck  hordes, 
lawless,  desperate,  and  nomadic  as  themsel.es, 
they  lost,  in  some  degree,  the  primitive  and 
deeply  marked  distinctive  character  of  their  race. 
The  Komans  of  the  Dnieper  offered  no  more 
energetic  resistance  to  the  invading  hordes  of 
Batukhan  than  had  been  shown  by  tlieir  brethren 
of  the  Don :  they  dispersed  in  various  directions, 
and  from  this  peoplck  tiying  at  the  advance  of 
the  ferocious  Tartar*  descended  a  variety  of 
hordes,  who  occasionsnjy  figure  iu  history  as 
distinct  and  independenSkiiations.  .  .  .  [They] 
ultimately  found  a  per.niment  resHng-placc  in 
the  wild  islets  of  the  Dnieper,  below  the  cata- 
racts, where  dwelt  already  a  small  number  of 
their  ancient  compatriots,  who  had  escaped  the 
general  destruction  of  their  nation.  This  spot 
became  the  cradle  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine, 
or  of  the  tribes  known  in  after  times  as  the  Polish 
Cossacks.  When  Quedynun,  Grand  Duke  of 
Lithuania,  after  having  defeated  twelve  Russian 
princes  on  the  banks  of  the  PiCrna,  conquered 
liVow  with  its  dependencies  in  1320,  the  wander- 
ing tribes  scattered  over  the  steppes  of  the 
Ukraine  owned  his  allegiance.  After  the  vic- 
tories of  Olgierd,  of  Vitold,  and  of  Ladislas 
lagellon,   over  the   Tartars  and  the  Russians, 


large  bodies  of  Scytiiian  militia,  known  subse- 
(|uently  by  the  comprehensive  denomination  of 
Cossacks,  or  Kosaques,  served  under  these  con- 
querors: and  after  the  union  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Lithuania  with  Poland,  in  i:t80,  they 
c(mtinue<l  under  the  dominion  of  the  „'niiid  dukes 
of  Lithuania,  forming,  apparently,  an  intermedi- 
ate tribe  or  caste,  superior  to  the  peasuiitry  and 
inferior  to  the  nobles.  At  a  later  iieriod,  when 
the  Ukraine  was  annexed  to  the  Polish  crown, 
tliey  pas.sed  under  the  protection  of  the  kings  of 
Poland.  .  .  .  Although  there  may,  doubtless, 
exist  several  species  or  castes  of  Cossacks,  hnd  to 
wliom  Russia  in  order  to  impose  on  Europe,  is 
pleased  to  give  as  many  different  names,  yet 
there  never  have  been,  nor  will  there  ever  be, 
properly  speaking,  more  than  two  principal 
tribes  of  the  Co.ssack  nation,  namely  the  Cos- 
sacks of  the  Don,  or  Don-Cossaeks,  and  the  Cos- 
.sacks  of  the  Black  Sea,  known  in  ancient  times 
as  the  Polish  Cos.sacks,  or  Zajxirowscy  Kozacy. 
.  .  .  The  Cossacks  [of  the  Don]  .  .  .  have  ren- 
dered signal  service  to  Russia,  which,  ever  since 
tlie  year  1.549,  lias  taken  them  under  lier  protec- 
tion, without,  however,  the  existence  of  any 
official  act,  treaty,  or  stipulation,  confirming 
their  .submission  to  that  power.  .  .  .  The  Don- 
Co8.sacks  enjoy  a  certain  kind  of  liberty  and 
independence ;  they  have  a  hetman,  attaman,  or 
chief,  nominated  by  the  Emperor  of  Russia ;  and 
to  tills  cliief  tliey  yield  an  obeilience  more  or  less 
willing  and  implicit;  in  general,  th"y  are  com- 
manded only  by  Cossack  orticers,  who  take  equal 
rank  in  the  Russian  army.  They  have  a  sepa- 
rate war  administration  of  their  own ;  although 
they  are  compelled  to  furnish  a  stated  number  of 
recruits  wlio  serve  in  a  manner  for  life,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  rarely  discharged  before  attaining 
!Axty  years  of  age:  on  the  whole,  their  condition 
is  happier  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  Russian 
•population.  They  belong  to  the  Greek-Russian 
church.  The  existence  of  this  small  republic  of 
the  Don,  in  tlic  very  heart  of  tlie  nust  despotic 
and  most  extensive  empire  in  the  world,  appears 
to  constitute  a  problem,  the  solution  of  wiiich 
is  not  as  yet  definitely  known,  and  the  ultimate 
solution  of  which  yet  remains  to  be  ascertained." 
— II.  Krasinski,  T/ie  Cosmtcks  of  the  Ukraine,  ch. 
1. — Tlie  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine  transferred  their 
allegiance  from  the  King  of  Poland  to  the  Czar  of 
Russia  in  1654,  after  a  revolt  led  by  their  hetman, 
Bogdan  Khinelnitski,  in  which  they  were  assisted 
by  the  neighboring  Tartars,  and  whicli  was  ac- 
companied by  terrible  scenes  ot  slaughter  and 
destruction.     Sec  Poland:  A.  D.  1648-1054. 

COSSiEANS,  The.    See  Kos8*:ans. 

COSTA  RICA:  A.  D.  1502.— Discovery  by 
Columbus.     SeeAMEKicA:  A.  D.  1498-1.505. 

A.  D.  1813-1871.— Independence  of  Spain. — 
Brief  annexation  to  Mexico. — The  fai'ures  of 
federation,  the  wars  and  revolutions  of  Central 
America.  See  Central  America  :  A.  D.  1821- 
1871. 

A.  D.  1850.— The  Clayton  Bulwer  Treaty 
and  the  projected  Nicaragua  Canal.  See  Kic- 
auaoua:  A.  D.  1850. 


COSTANOAN  FAMILY,  The.  See  Amkiu- 
CAN  AiioiiidiNKS:  C08TANOAN  Family. 

COSTER,  Laurent,  and  the  invention  of 
printing.     See  Printing:  A.  D.  1430-1456. 

COTARII.  See  Slavery,  Medlkval  and 
Modern;  England. 


619 


COTIION  OP  CARTHAGE. 


COTTON  MANUFVCTUKK 


COTHON  OF  CARTHAGE,  The.— "  Tlicro 
were  two  liindlockccl  docks  or  Imrboiirs,  opening 
the  one  into  the  other,  uiui  botli,  it  would  seem, 
the  work  of  humun  hands.  .  .  .  Tlic  outer  hiirbour 
WU8  re<'tanguliir,  iibout  1,400  feet  long  and  1,100 
broad,  and  wan  appronriiitcd  to  merchant  vessels ; 
the  inner  was  circular  like  a  drinking  cup,  whence 
it  was,  called  the  Cothon,  and  was  reserved  for 
ships  'f  war.  It  could  not  be  approached  except 
through  the  merchant  harbour,  and  the  entrance 
to  this  last  was  only  70  feet  wide,  and  could  be 
closed  at  any  time  by  chains.  The  war  harbour 
was  entirely  surroini<led  by  quays,  containing 
tM^paratc  docks  for  220  ships.  In  front  of  each 
dock  were  two  Ionic  pillars  of  marble,  so  that 
the  whole  must  have  presented  the  appearance 
of  a  splendid  circular  colonnade.  Right  in  the 
centre  of  the  harbour  was  an  island,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  admiral." — R.  B.  Smith,  Carthage 
and  the  Carthaginians,  ch.  20. 

COTSETI.  See  8i.aveuy,  Medieval  and 
Modeun:  England. 

COTTON,  Rev.  John,  and  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts  Bay.  See  Mas-sachusetts:  A.I). 
1631-l«;i6. 

COTTON  FAMINE,  The.  Sec  England: 
A.  I).  1801-1865. 

COTTON-GIN  :  Eli  Whitney's  invention 
and  its  effects.  See  United  States  of  Am.  : 
A.  D.  1818-1821. 

COTTON  MANUFACTURE :  The  great 
inventions  in  spinning^  and  weaving. — ' '  Cotton 
had  been  used  in  the  extreme  East  aud  in  the  ex- 
treme West  from  the  earliest  periods  of  which 
we  have  any  record.  The  Spaniards,  on  their 
discovery  of  America,  found  the  Mexicans  clothed 
in  cotton.  .  .  .  But  though  the  use  of  cotton  had 
been  known  from  the  earliest  ages,  both  in  India 
and  America,  no  cotton  goods  were  Imported 
into  Europe ;  and  in  the  ancient  world  both  rich 
and  poor  were  clothed  in  silk,  linen,  and  wool. 
The  industrious  floors  introduceil  cotton  into 
Spain.  Many  centuries  afterwards  cotton  was 
imported  into  Italy,  Saxony  and  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. Isolated  from  the  rest  of  Europe,  with 
little  wealth,  little  industry,  and  no  roads;  rent 
by  civil  commotions;  the  English  were  the  last 
people  in  Europi  to  intrt  duce  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  goods  S^.to  their  own  homes.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  16th  century,  indeed,  cotton  gjods 
were  occasionally  mentioned  in  the  Statute  Book, 
anil  the  manufacture  of  the  cottons  of  Manches- 
ter was  regulated  by  Acts  passed  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  and  Elizabeth. 
But  there  seem  to  be  good  reasons  for  conclud- 
ing that  Manchester  cottons,  in  the  time  of  the 
Tudors,  were  -woollen  goods,  and  did  not  consist 
of  cotton  at  all.  More  than  a  century  elapsed 
before  any  consiucrable  trade  in  cotton  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  legislature.  The  woollen 
manufacttirers  complained  that  people  were  dress- 
ing their  children  in  printed  cottons ;  and  Par- 
liament was  actually  persuaded  to  prohibit  the 
introduction  of  Indian  printed  calicoes.  Even 
an  Act  of  Parliament,  however,  was  unable  to 
extinguish  the  growing  taste  for  Indian  cottons. 
.  .  .  The  taste  for  cotton  led  to  the  introduction 
of  calico-printing  in  London;  Parliament  in  order 
to  encourage  the  new  trade,  was  induced  to 
sanction  the  importation  of  plain  cotton  cloths 
from  India  under  a  dtity.  The  demand,  which 
was  thus  created  for  calicoes,  probably  pronioteil 
their  manufacture  at  home.  ...  Up  to  the  mid- 


dle of  the  last  century  cotton  goods  were  really 
never  made  at  all.  The  so-called  cotton  manu- 
factures were  a  combination  of  wool  or  linen  and 
cotton.  No  EnglishmaD  had  been  able  to  pro- 
duce a  cotton  thread  strong  enough  for  the  warp. 
.  .  .  The  superior  skill  of  the  Indian  manufac- 
turers enabled  them  to  u.sc  cotton  for  a  warp ; 
while  clumsy  workmanship  made  the  use  of  cot- 
tou  J  a  warp  unattainable  at  home.  In  the 
n-ii.ale  of  the  18th  century,  then,  a  piece  of  cot- 
ton cloth  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term,  had  never 
been  made  in  England.  The  so-called  cotton 
goods  were  all  made  in  the  cottages  of  the 
weavers.  The  yarn  was  carded  by  hand ;  it  was 
spim  by  hand ;  it  was  worked  into  cloth  by  a 
hand  loom.  .  .  .  The  operation  of  weaving  was, 
however,  much  more  rapid  than  that  of  spinning. 
The  weaver  consumed  more  weft  than  his  ov/n 
family  could  supply  him  with ;  and  the  weavera 
generally  experienced  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
obtiup'ng  sullicient  yarn.  About  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century  the  ingenuity  of  two  persons, 
a  father  and  a  son,  made  this  difference  more 
apparent.  The  shuttle  had  originE  lly  been  thrown 
by  the  liand  from  one  end  of  the  loom  to  the 
other.  John  Kay,  a  native  of  Bury,  by  his  in- 
vention of  the  ny-shultle  [patented  in  1733], 
saved  the  weaver  from  this  labour.  .  .  .  liobert 
Kay,  John  Kay's  son,  added  the  drop-box,  by 
means  of  which  the  weaver  was  able  '  ;a  use  any 
one  of  three  shuttles,  each  containing  a  different 
coloured  weft,  without  the  trouble  of  taking 
them  from  and  replacing  them  in  the  lathe. '  By 
means  of  these  inventions  the  productive  power 
of  each  weaver  was  doubled.  .  .  .  Carding  and 
roving  were  both  slowly  performed.  .  .  .  The 
t;ade  was  in  this  humble  and  primitive  state 
when  a  series  of  extraordinary  and  unparalleled 
inventions  revolutionised  the  conditions  on  which 
cotton  had  been  hitherto  prepared.  A  little 
more  than  a  century  ago  John  Ilargreaves,  a  poor 
weaver  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Blackburn,  was 
returning  home  from  a  long  walk,  in  which  he 
had  been  purchasing  a  furthur  supply  of  yarn 
for  his  loom.  As  he  entered  his  cottage,  his  wife 
Jenny  accidentally  upsc^  the  spindle  which  she 
was  using.  Ilargreaves  noticed  that  the  spindles 
which  were  now  thrown  into  an  upright  positiou, 
continued  to  revolve,  and  that  the  thread  was 
still  spinning  in  his  wife's  hand.  The  idea  im- 
mediately occurred  to  him  that  it  would  be  pos- 
sible to  connect  a  considerable  number  of  up- 
right spindles  with  one  wheel,  and  thus  multiply 
the  productive  power  of  each  spinster.  .  .  .  Har- 
greaves  succeeded  in  keeping  his  admirable  in- 
vention secret  'ir  a  time ;  but  the  powers  of  his 
machine  soon  became  known.  His  ignorant 
neighbours  hastily  concluded  that  a  machine, 
which  enabled  one  spinster  to  do  the  work  of 
eight,  would  throw  multitudes  of  persons  out  of 
employment.  A  mob  broke  into  his  house  and 
destroyed  his  machine.  Ilargreaves  himself  had 
to  retire  to  Nottingham,  where,  with  the  friendly 
assistance  of  another  person,  he  was  able  to  take 
out  a  patent  [1770^  for  the  spinning-jenny,  as  the 
machine,  in  compliment  to  his  industrious  wife, 
was  culled.  The  invention  of  the  spinning-jenny 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  cotton  manufacture. 
But  the  .  .  .  yarn  spun  by  the  jenny,  like  that 
which  had  previously  been  spun  by  hand,  was 
neither  fine  enough  nor  hard  enough  to  be  em- 
ployed as  warp,  and  linen  or  woollen  threads  had 
consequently  to  be  used  fur  this  purpose.     la 


620 


COTTON  MANTr^iCTURE. 


COUNT  AND  DUKE. 


the  very  ycnr,  liowevpr,  in  which  IlnrRrrnvps 
moved  from  Bli\cl<l)iirn  to  Nottinjrlmni,  liiRliiml 
Arltwriglit  [wlio  begnn  life  as  a  Ijiirber's  iissistnnt] 
took  out  n  [iiitent  [1709]  for  liin  still  more  cele- 
brated mnehine.  .  .  .  '  After  inunj'  years  i^.tensc 
and  painful  application,'  lie  invented  his  mem- 
orable machine  for  spinning  by  rollers;  and  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  gigantic  industry  which 
has  done  more  than  any  other  trade  to  concen- 
trate in  this  country  the  wealth  of  the  world. 
.  .  .  He  puosed  tiie  thread  over  two  pairs  of 
rollers,  one  of  which  was  made  to  revolve  much 
more  rapidly  than  the  other.     The  thread,  after 

eassiiig  the  pair  revolving  slowlv,  was  drawn 
ito  the  requisite  tenuity  by  the  rollers  revolving 
at  a  higher  rapidity.  By  this  simple  but  mem- 
orable invention  Arkwright  succeed-'d  in  pro- 
ducing thread  capable  of  employment  as  warp. 
From  the  circumstance  that  the  mill  at  which 
his  machinery  was  first  erected  was  driven  by 
water  power,  the  machine  received  the  somewhat 
inappropriate  name  of  the  water  fnune;  the 
thread  spun  by  it  was  usually  called  the  water 
twist.  Invention  of  the  spinning-jenny  and  Jie 
water  frame  would  have  been  useless  if  the  old 
system  of  hand-carding  liad  not  been  superseded 
by  a  more  eflicient  and  more  rapid  process.  Just 
as  Arkwright  applied  rotatory  motion  to  spin- 
ning, so  Lewis  Paul  introduced  revolving  cylin- 
ders for  carding  cotton.  .  .  .  This  extraordinary 
series  of  inventions  placed  an  almost  unlimited 
supply  of  yarn  at  the  disposal  of  the  weaver.  But. 
the  machinery,  which  had  thus  been  introduced, 
was  still  incapable  of  providing  yarn  tit  for  the 
finer  qualities  of  cotton  cloth.  .  .  .  This  defect, 
liowe ver,  was  removed  by  t  he  ingenuity  of  Samuel 
Crompton,  a  young  weaver  residing  near  Bolton. 
Crompton  succeeded  in  combining  in  one  machine 
the  various  excellences  '  of  Arkwright's  water 
frame  and  Hargreaves'  jenny.'  Like  the  former, 
his  machine,  which  from  its  nature  is  liappily 
C".';ed  the  mule,  '  has  a  system  of  ro!''.'rs  to  re- 
duce the  roving ;  and  like  the  latter  it  has  spin- 
dles without  bobbins  to  give  the  twist.  .  .  .  Tlie 
effects  of  Crompton's  great  invention  may  be 
stated  epigrammatically.  .  .  .  The  natives  of 
India  could  spin  a  pound  of  cotton  into  a  thread 
119  miles  long.'  The  inglish  succeed  in  spin- 
ning the  same  thread  to  a  length  of  100  miles. 
Yarn  of  the  finest  quality  was  at  once  at  the  di.-  - 
posal  of  the  weaver.  .  .  .  The  ingenuity  of  Har- 
greaves, Arkwright  and  Crompton  had  been 
exercised  to  provide  the  weaver  with  yarn.  .  .  . 
The  spinster  had  beaten  the  weaver.  .  .  .  Ed- 
mund Cartwright,  a  clergyman  residing  in  Kent, 
liappencd  to  be  staying  at  Matlock  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1784,  and  to  be  thrown  into  the  company 
of  some  Manchester  gentlemen.  The  conversa- 
tion turned  on  Arkwnghl's  machinery,  and  '  one 
of  tilt  company  observed  that,  as  soon  as  Ark- 
wright's patent  expired,  so  many  mills  would  be 
erected  and  so  much  cotton  spun  that  hands 
would  never  be  found  to  weave  it.'  Cartwright 
replied  '  that  Arkwright  must  then  set  his  wits  to 
work  to  invent  a  weaving  mill.'  .  .  .  Within 
three  years  he  had  himself  proved  that  the  in- 
vention was  practicable  by  producing  the  power- 
loom.  Subsequent  in-  entors  improved  the  idea 
which  Cartwright  had  originated,  and  within 
flfty  years  from  the  date  of  his  memorable  visit 
to  Matlock  there  were  not  less  than  100,000  power- 
looms  i  i  work  in  Groat  Britain  alone.  .  .  .  Other 
inventions,    leas   generally   remembered,    were 


hardly  less  wonderful  or  less  lieneflcial  than  these. 
.  .  .  Scheele,  the  Swedish  philosopher,  discovered 
in  1774  the  bleaching  properties  of  chlorine,  or 
oxy  muriatic  acid.  Bertliollet,  the  French  chem- 
ist, conceived  the  idea  of  applying  the  acid  to 
bleaching  cloth.  ...  In  th(^  same  year  in  which 
AVatt  and  Henry  were  introducing"  the  new  acid 
to  the  bleacher,  Bell,  a  Scotchman,  was  laying 
tlie  foundations  of  a  trade  in  printed  calicoes. 
'  The  old  method  of  printing  was  by  blocks  of 
sycamore.'.  .  .  This  clumsy  process  was  super- 
seded by  cylinder  printing.  .  .  .  Surh  are  the 
leading  inventions,  which  made  Great  Britain  in 
less  than  a  century  the  wealthiest  country  in  the 
world. "— S.  Walpole,  Ilist.  of  Eng.  from  1815, 
V.  1,  ch.  1. 

Also  in:  R.  W.  C.  Taylor,  Iiiti<Hl.  to  a  Hut. 
of  the  Factory  Syntem,  ch.  10. — E.  Baines,  Iliitt. 
of  the  Cotton  Manufacture  in  Oreat  Uritain. — A. 
Ure,  The  Cotton  Maiiiifactureof  Oreat  Britain. 

COULMIERS,  battle  of  (1870).  Sec 
Fhance:  a.  D.  1870-1871. 

COUNCIL  BLUFFS,  The  Mormons  at. 
Sc  ■  MoRMONlBM :  A.  D.  1840-1848. 

COUNCIL  FOR  NEW  ENGLAND.  See 
New  England:  A.  D.  1020-102:1;  1021-1031; 
and  1035. 

COUWCIL  OF  BLOOD,  The.  SeeNKrnKR- 
LANDS.   A.  D.  1507. 

COUNCIL  OF    FIVE   HUNDRED,  The 

Athenian.    Sen  Athens:  B.  C.  510-507 The 

French.  See  France:  A.  D.  1795  (.June— Sep- 
tember). 

COUNCIL  OF  TEN,  The.  See  Venice: 
A.  D.  1033-1319. 

COUNCIL  OF  THE  ANCIENTS,  The. 
See  France:  A.  D.  1795 (June — September). 

COUNCIL,  THE  PRIVY.  See  PiiiVi 
Council. 

COUNCILS  OF  THE  CHURCH,  General 
or  Ecumenical. — There  are  seven  councils  ad- 
mitted by  '.,oth  the  Greek  and  Latin  cliurclics  as 
a'cumenical  (or  ecumenical)  —  that  is  general,  or 
universal.  The  Roman  Catholics  recognize  thir- 
teen more,  making  twenty  in  all — as  follows: 
1.  The  synod  of  apostles  in  Jerusalem.  3.  The 
first  Council  of  Nice,  A.  T).  325  (see  Nic.«a, 
The  First  Council).  3.  The  first  Council  of 
Constantinople,  A.  D.  381.  4.  The  first  Coun- 
cil of  Ephesus,  A.  D.  431.  5.  The  Council  of 
Clialcedon,  A.  D.  451.  0.  The  second  Council 
of  ConstJintinople,  A.  D.  553.  7.  The  third 
Council  of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  081.  8.  The 
second  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  787.  9.  The 
fourth  Council  of  Constantinople,  A.  1).  809. 
10  The  first  Lateran  Council,  A.  D.  1123.  11. 
!ne  second  Lateran  Council,  A.  1).  1139.  12. 
The  third  Lateran  Council,  A.  D.  1179.  13. 
The  fourth  Lateran  Council.  A.  P.  1215.  14. 
The  first  cecumeiiical  synod  of  Lyon,  A.  D.  1245. 
15.  The  second  oecumenical  svnod  of  Lyon, 
A.  D.  1274.  10.  The  Synod  ofVienne  in  Gaul, 
A.  D.  1311.  17.  The  Council  of  Constance, 
A.  D.  1414  (.see  Papacy:  A.  D.  1414-1418). 
18.  The  Council  of  Basel,  A.  D.  1431  (see 
Papacy:  A.  D.  1431-1448).  19.  The  Council  of 
Trent,  A.  D.  1545  (.see  Papacy:  A.  D.  1537- 
1503).  20.  The  Council  of  the  Vatican,  A.  I). 
1869  (see  Papacy:  A.  I).  1869-1870). 

COUNT  AND  DUKE,  Roman.— Origin  of 
the  titles. — ''The  defence  of  the  Roman  empire 
was  at  length  committed  [under  Constantine  and 
his  successors]  to  eiglit  masters-general  of  the 


621 


COUNT  AND  DUKE. 


COURTRAI. 


cavalry  and  infiinfry,  I'mlcrlhcir  orders  tliirty- 
flvc  military  coniinaiKlcrs  wcri-  Mtatioucd  in  the 
provinces  —  tlirce  in  Hrilnin,  six  in  Gnul,  one  i'l 
Hpnin,  one  in  Italy,  live  on  tlie  Upper  and  fotir 
on  the  Lower  Danube,  in  Asia  eiglit,  three  in 
Egypt,  and  four  in  Africa.  The  titles  of  Counts 
and  Dultes,  by  wliidi  tliey  -verc  properly  dis- 
tinguislied,  liave  obtained  in  ni(Hlern  languages 
BO  v(!ry  different  u  sense  that  the  tiso  of  tliem 
may  occa.sion  some  surjirise.  Hut  it  should  be 
recollected  that  the  second  of  tliose  appellations 
is  only  a  corni]»tion  of  the  Latin  word  whidi 
was  indiscriminately  applied  to  any  military 
chief.  All  tliesc  provincial  generals  were  there- 
fore dukes;  but  no  more  llian  leu  among  them 
were  dignified  with  tlie  rank  of  counts  or  com- 
panions, a  title  of  honour,  or  rather  of  favour, 
which  had  been  recently  invented  in  the  court  of 
Constantine.  A  gold  belt  was  the  ensign  which 
distinguislicd  the  office  of  tlie  c(nint8  and  dukca." 
— E.  Gibbon,  Di'dine  and  Full  of  the  Jiirmiin  Em- 
pire, eh.  17. — "The  Duke  and  tlie  Count  of 
modem  Europe  —  wliat  are  they  but  the  Generals 
and  f 'ompanions  (Duces  and  Comitcs)  of  a  Roman 
province?  Why  or  wlien  they  dianged  places, 
the  Duke  climbing  up  into   such  uiKjuestioned 

F re-eminence  over  his  former  superior  tlic  Count, 
know  not,  nor  yet  by  what  procosn  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  latter  was  the  precise  equiva- 
lent of  the  Scandinavian  Jarl."— T.  Hotlgkin, 
Italy  ti  11(1  Her  InViidern,  bk.  t,  eh.  iJ. 

COUNT  OF  THE  DOMESTICS.— In  the 
organization  of  the  Imperial  Household,  during 
the  later  period  of  the  Roman  empire,  the 
olliccrs  called  Counts  of  the  Domestics  "com- 
manded tlie  various  divisions  of  the  household 
troops,  known  liy  the  names  of  Domestic!  and 
Protectores,  and  thus  together  replaced  tlie 
Pnetorian  Prefect  of  the  earlier  days  of  the 
Empire.  .  .  .  Theoretically,  their  duties  would 
not  greatly  differ  from  those  of  a  Colonel  in  the 
Guards." — T.  llodgkin,  Italy  and  Her  Invaders, 
bk.  I,  eh.  3. 

COUNT  OF  THE  SACRED  LARGES- 
SES.—  In  the  later  Roman  empire,  "the  Count 
who  had  charge  of  the  Sacred  (i.  e.  Imperial) 
Bounty,  should  have  been  by  his  title  simply 
the  Grand  Almoner  of  the  Empire.  ...  In 
practice,  however,  the  minister  who  took  charge 
of  the  Imperial  Largesses  had  to  find  ways  and 
means  for  every  other  form  of  Imperial  expendi- 
ture. .  .  .  The  Count  of  the  Sacred  Largesses 
was  therefore  in  fact  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  of  the  Empire." — T.  Hodgkin,  Italy 
and  Her  Inradem,  bk.  l,ch.  3. 

COUNT  OF  THE  SAXON  SHORE.  See 
Saxon  Suohe. 

COUNT  PALATINE.  See  Palatine, 
Counts. 

COUNTER-REFORMATION,  The.  See 
Papacy:  A.  D.  1534-1540;  1.537-1563;  1555-1603. 

COUNTR¥-PARTY,  The.  See  England: 
A.  D.  1672-1673^ 

COUP  D'  ETAT  OF  LOl  3  NAPO- 
LEON, The.  See  France:  A.  D.  1851;  and 
1851-1852. 

COUREURS  DE  BOIS.-'Out  of  the 
beaver  trade  [in  the  17th  century]  rose  a  huge 
evil,  baneful  to  the  growth  and  the  morals  of 
Canada.  All  that  was  most  active  and  vigorous 
in  the  colony  took  to  the  woods,  and  escaped 
from  tbe  control  of  intendants,  councils  and 
priests,  to  the  savage  freedom  of  the  wilderness. 


Net  only  were  the  possible  profits  great,  but,  in 
the  pursuit  of  tliem,  there  was  a  fascinating 
element  of  adventure  and  danger.  The  busn 
rangers,  or  courcurs  de  bois,  were  to  the  king  an 
object  of  horror.  They  defeated  his  plans  for 
tlie  increase  of  the  poiiulation,  and  shocked  his 
native  instinct  of  discipline  and  order.  Edict 
after  edict  was  directed  against  them;  and  moru 
tlian  once  the  colony  presented  the  extraordinary 
spectacle  of  the  greater  part  of  its  young  men 
turned  into  forest  outlaws.  .  .  .  We  hear  of 
seigniories  abandoned ;  farms  turning  again  into 
forests;  wives  and  children  left  in  destitution. 
The  exodus  of  the  courcurs  de  bois  would  take 
at  times  the  character  of  an  organized  move- 
ment. The  famous  Du  Lliut  is  said  to  have 
made  a  general  combination  of  tlic  young  men 
of  Canada  to  follow  him  into  the  woods.  Their 
plan  was  to  be  absent  four  years,  in  order  that 
the  edicts  against  tliem  might  have  time  to 
relent.  The  intendant  Duchesneau  reported  that 
800  men  out  of  a  ])opulation  of  less  than  10,000 
souls  had  vanished  from  sight  in  the  immensity 
of  a  boundless  wilderness.  Whereupon  the  king 
ordered  that  any  person  going  into  the  woods 
without  a  license  should  be  whipped  and  branded 
for  the  first  offence,  and  sent  for  life  to  tlie  gal- 
leys for  the  second.  .  .  .  Under  such  leaders  as 
DuLhut,  the  coureurs  de  bois  built  forts  of 
palisades  at  various  points  throughout  the  West 
and  Northwest.  They  had  a  post  of  this  sort 
at  Detroit  some  time  before  its  pennanent  settle- 
ment, as  well  as  otliers  on  Lake  Superior  and  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  They  occupied 
them  as  long  as  it  suited  their  purposes,  and 
tlien  abandoned  tliein  to  the  next  comer.  Mich- 
illimackinac  was,  however,  their  chief  i.sort.  ' 
—  F.  Parkman,  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada, 
eh.  17. 

COURLAND,  Christian  conquest  of.  See 
Livonia:  12Tn-13Tn  Centuuies. 

COURT  BARON.     See  Manokb. 

COURT  CUSTOMARY.    See  Manors. 

COURT-LEHT.  See  Manors,  and  Sac  and 
See. 

COURT  OF  CHANCERY.    SccChancel- 

LOIl. 

COURT    OF    COMMON    PLEAS.      See 

Curia  Regis. 

COURT  OF  HIGH  COMMISSION.  See 
England:  A.  D.  1.5.59;  and  A.  D.  1686. 

COURT  OF  KING'S  BENCH.  See  Curia 
Regis. 

COURT,  SUPREME,  of  the  United  States. 
See  Supreme  Cot:HT. 

COURTRAI:  A.  D.  1382.— Pillaged  and 
burned  by  the  French.  See  Flanders:  A.  D. 
1382. 

A.  D.  1646. — Siege  and  capture  by  the 
French.     See  Netherlands:  A.  D.  1045-1646. 

A.  D.  1648. — Taken  by  the  Spaniards.  See 
Netherlands  (Spanish  Provinces):  A.  D. 
1647-1648. 

A.  D.  1667.— Taken  by  the  French.  See 
Netherlands  (The  Sp.ujish  Provinces)  :  A.  D. 
1667. 

A.  D.  1668.— Ceded  to  France.  See  Nether- 
lands (Holland)  :  A.  D.  1668. 

A.  D.  1670.— Restored  to  Spain.  See  Nime- 
GUEN,  The  Peace  of. 


COURTRAI,  The  Battle  of.— The  battle  of 
Courtrai  (July  11,   A.   D.   1302),   in  which  the 


622 


COURXnAI. 


CREMONA. 


barons  and  kniglits  of  France  wpri'  fearfully 
Blaiiglitcrcd  by  the  sturdy  biirgliers  of  Flanders, 
was  sometimes  called  the  Day  of  the  Spurs,  on 
account  of  the  great  number  of  gilt  spurs  wliieh 
was  titken  from  the  bodies  of  the  dead  and  hung 
up  by  the  victors  in  Courtrai  cathedral. — G.  W. 
Kitchen,  IIM.  of  Fra'.e.  hk.  3,  eh.  10,  tect.  2.— 
Bee  Fi,.VNUKUs:  A.  I).  12U0-1304. 

COURTS  OF  LOVE.  See  Piiovence :  A.D. 
llT(»-t207. 

COUTHON.  2r.<i  the  French  Revolutionary 
Committee  o.  Public  Safety.  See  Fuance: 
A.  I).  1703  (.luiTE— OcToiiEii),  to  1704  (.July). 

COUTRAS,  Battle  of  (1587).  See  Fkance: 
A.  I).  1584-1. WO. 

COVADONGA,  Cave  of.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
71it-T37. 

COVENANT,  The  Halfway.  See  Boston: 
A.  D.  1057-1OOO. 

COVENANT,  "'he  Solemn  League  and. 
See  En<i[,and:   •'     J.  1043  (July— Septembeii). 

COVENANT  its.— The  name  given  to  the 
signers  and  supporters  of  the  Scottish  National 
Covenant  (see  SrjTLAUD:  A.  D.  1357,  1581  and 
1638)  and  after^-.ards  to  all  who  adhered  to  the 
Kirk  of  GcoUand.  The  war  of  Jlontrose  witli  the 
Covenanters  will  be  found  narrated  under  Scot- 
land: A.  D.  1644-1645.  For  the  story  of  the  per- 
secution which  they  suffered  under  the  restored 
Stuarts,  see  Scotland:  A.  D.  1680-1666;  1660- 
1679;  1670;  and  1681-1089. 

COVENANTS,  The  Scottish.  See  Scot- 
land: A.  I).  1557-1581;  and  1638. 

COWBOYS.— During  the  War  of  the  Ameri- 
can lie  volution,  "there  was  a  venal  and  bloody 
get  which  hung  on  the  skirts  of  the  British  array, 
well  known  as  Cow-boys.  They  were  plunderers 
and  ruffians  by  profession,  and  canic  to  have 
their  name  from  their  cattle-stealing.  Some  of 
the  most  cruel  and  disgraceful  murders  and  bar- 
barities of  the  war  were  perpetrated  by  them. 
Whenever  they  were  caught  they  were  hung  up 
at  once." — C.  W.  Elliott,  The  New  Eiig.  Ilist.,  v. 
2,  p.  372. — See,  also.  United  States  op  A.m.: 
A.  D.  1780  (August — September). 

COWPENS,  Battle  of  the  (1781).  See 
United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1780-1781. 

CRACOW :  A.  D.  1702.— Taken  ty  Charles 
Xn.  of  Sweden.  See  Scandi.n'avian  States 
(Sweden):  A.  D.  1701-1707. 

A.  D.  1793-1794. — Occupied  by  the  Russians. 
— Rising  of  the  citizens. — Surrender  and  ces- 
sion to  Austria.  See  Poland:  A.  D.  1703- 
1796. 

A.  D.  1815. — Creation  of  the  Republic.  See 
Vienna,  The  Congress  of. 

A.  D.  1831-1846. — Occupation  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  Russians  and  Prussians. — Extinction 
of  the  Republic. — Annexation  to  Austria.  Sec 
Austria:  A.  D.  1815-1846. 


CRADLE  OF  LIBERTY.  See  Fankuil 
Halt,. 

CRAFT-GUILDS.   See  Guilds,  Mkdleval. 

CRAGIE  TRACT,  The.  See  New  York: 
A.  D.  1786-1799. 

CRAL.— KRALE.— "The  princes  of  Servia 
(Ducange,  Famil,  Dalmaticas,  &,c.,  c.  2-4,  0) 
were  styled  '  despots '  in  Greek,  and  Cral  in  their 
native  idiom  (Ducange,  Gloss.  Gra;c.,  p.  751). 
That  title,  the  equivalent  of  king,  appears  to  be 
of  Sclavonic  origin,  from  whence  it  has  been 
borrowed  by  the  Hungarians,  the  modern  Greeks, 


and  even  by  the  Turks  (Leunelavius.  Pandect. 
Tare,  p.  422),  wlio  reserve  the  name  of  Padishah 
for  the  Emperor." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Jliiiniin  Empire,  ch.  03,  note. — See,  also, 
Balkan  and  Danuuian  States:  A.  D.  1341- 
13.56  (Skuvi.\). 

CRANNOGES.    See  Lake  Dwellings. 

CRANNON  (KRANNON),  Battle  of  (B.  C. 
322).     Sec  (Jukeck:  It.  C.  323-322. 

CRAONNE,  Battle  of.    See  France:  A.  D. 

1814  (.lANrAUY— MAItlll). 

CRASSUS  AND  THE  FIRST  TRIUM- 
VIRATE.    See  Home;  B.  C.  78-6H,  to  57-52. 
CRATER,  Battle  of  the  Petersburg.     See 

Unitkh   States  ok  Am.:    \.   J).    1864    (.July: 

VlK(lLMA). 

CRATERUS,  AND  THE  WARS  OF 
THE  DIADOCHI.  See  Mackdoma:  B.  C. 
323-31(1. 

CRANGALI  IDiE,   The.     See   Hiehoduli. 

CRAYFORD,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  457).— The 
second  battle  fought  between  the  Britons  and  the 
invading  Jutes,  under  Hengest,  for  the  possession 
of  soutlieastern  Britain.  See  England:  A.  D. 
440-473. 

CRECY,  Battle  of  (1346).  See  F.  ance: 
A.  D.  1337-1360. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER  SCANDAL.  — On 
the  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  tlie  United  States 
in  December,  1872,  attention  was  called  by  the 
Speaker  to  charges  made  in  the  preceding  can- 
vass "that  the  Vice-President,  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent elect,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  several 
Senators,  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  and  a  large 
number  of  Representatives  had  been  bribed, 
durinjj  the  years  1807  and  1868,  by  presents  of 
stock  in  a  corporation  known  as  the  Cre<lit  Mobi- 
lier  [organized  to  contract  for  building  the  Union 
Pacitic  Railroad]  to  vote  and  act  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company.  On  his 
motion,  an  investigating  committee  was  ap- 
pointed, L.  P.  Poland,  of  Vermont,  being  chair- 
man. The  Poland  Committee  reported  February 
18th,  1873,  recommending  the  expulsion  of  Oakes 
Ames,  of  Massachusetts,  for  '  selling  to  members 
of  Congress  shares  of  the  stock  of  the  Credit 
Jlobilier  below  their  real  value,  with  intent 
thereby  to  influence  the  votes  of  such  members,' 
and  of  James  Brooks,  of  New  York,  for  receiving 
such  stock.  The  House  modified  the  proposed 
expulsion  into  an  '  absolute  condemnation '  of 
the  conduct  of  both  members." — A.  Johnston, 
Hist,  of  Am.  Polities,  pp.  219-220.— /&;>(.  of  Select 
Com.  (42rf  Cong. ,  'M  seas. ,  JI.  R.  rept.  no.  77). 

Also  in  :  J.  B.  Crawford,  Th«  Credit  Mobilier 
of  Am. 

CREEKS,— Creek  Wars.  See  American 
Aborigines:  Mcskiiooean  Family  ;  also  United 
States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1813-1814  (August — 
April),  and  Florida:  A.  D.  1816-1818. 

CREES,  The.  See  American  Aborigines: 
ALGONquiAN  Family. 

CREFELD,  Battle  of.  See  Germany: 
A.  D.  17.58. 

CREMA,  Siege  of  (1159-1160).  See  Italy: 
A.  D.  1154-1162. 

CREMONA:  The  Roman  Colony.— Siege 
by  the  Gauls.     See  Rome;  B.  C.  295-101. 

A.  D.  69.— Destruction  by  the  Flavians.  See 
Rome:  A.  D.  69. 

A.  D.  1702.— Defeat  of  the  French.  See 
Italy  (Savoy  and  Piedmont):  A.  D.  1701- 
1718.  ... 


623 


CREOLE. 


CRETE. 


CREOLE.—"  In  Europe  it  Is  very  common  to 
attach  to  the  trrni  (.'rcole  the  Idea  of  ft  particiilnr 
coiiiplexion.  ThiHisu  niiHtakc.  The  designation 
(/'reole  [in  HpaniHli  Aniericiin  rr/^ions]  [jroperly 
l)c'lon)(s  to  all  the  natives  of  Aniericu  horn  of 
parents  who  have  emigniteil  from  the  Old  World, 
DC  tlio.se  parents  Europeans  or  Africans.  There 
are,  therefore,  white  as  well  as  black  Creoles. 
.  .  .  The  term  Cn'olc  is  a  corruption  of  the 
Spanisli  word  'criollo,'  which  is  aerived  from 
'criar,'  to  create  or  to  foster.  The  Spaniards 
apply  the  term  'criollo'  not  merely  to  the  human 
race,  but  also  to  animals  propagated  in  the  colo- 
nies, but  of  pure  European  blood :  thus  they  have 
Creole  horses,  bullocks,  poultry,  &c. " — J.  J. 
VonTschudi,  Tnmlnin  Peru,  eh.  ft,  and  fool-note. 
— "The  term  Creole  is  commonly  applied  in 
books  to  the  native  of  a  Spanish  colony  descended 
fn)m  European  ancestors,  while  often  tlie  popidar 
acceptation  conveys  the  idea  of  an  origin  partly 
African.  In  fact,  its  meaning  varies  in  different 
times  and  regions,  and  in  Louisiana  alone  lias, 
and  lias  liad,  its  broad  and  its  close,  its  earlier 
and  its  latiT,  significance.  For  instJince,  it  did 
not  here  llrst  belong  to  the  descendants  of 
Spanish,  bat  of  French  settlers.  But  such  a 
meaning  implied  a  certain  excellence  of  origin, 
and  so  came  early  to  include  any  native  of 
Frencli  or  Spanish  descent  by  either  parent, 
whose  pure  non-mixture  with  the  slave  race 
entitled  liim  to  social  rank.  Much  later  the 
term  was  adopted  by,  not  conceded  to,  tlie 
natives  of  European- African,  or  Creole-African 
blood,  and  is  still  so  used  among  themselves.  At 
length  the  spirit  of  commerce  availed  it.self  of 
the  money  value  of  so  honored  a  title,  and 
broadenecf  it?  meaning  to  take  in  any  creature  or 
thing  of  variety  or  mamifacture  peculiar  to 
Louisiana,  that  might  iiecome  an  object  of  sale, 
as  Creole  ponies,  chickens,  cows,  shoes,  eggs, 
wagons,  baskets,  cabbages,  etc.  .  .  .  There  are 
no  Englisli,  Scotch,  Irish,  Western,  or  Yankee 
Creoles,  tliese  all  Iwing  included  under  the  dis- 
tinctive term  'Americans.'.  .  .  There  seems  to 
bo  no  more  serviceable  definition  of  the  Creoles 
of  Louisiana  or  of  New  Orleans  than  to  say  tliey 
ars  ihe  French-speaking,  native,  ruling  class." 
— G.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  and  G.  W  Cable,  Jlist.  and 
Present  Condition  of  New  Orleans  (Tenth  Census 
of  the  r.  X,  r.  19,  p.  218). 

CREONES,  The.  See  Britain,  Celtic 
Tkibks. 

CRESCENT,  The  Order  of  the.— A  Turk- 
ish Order  instituted  in  1709  by  the  reforming 
sulUtn,  Sclim  III.  Lonl  Nelson,  after  the  vic- 
tory of  Aboukir,  was  the  first  to  receive  this 
decoration. 

CRESPY  IN  VALOIS,  Treaty  of  (1544). 
See  Fhance;  A.  1).  mi'i-\m. 

CRETAN  LABYRINTH.  See  Labyrinths. 

CRETE.— "The  institutions  of  the  Cretan 
state  show  in  many  points  so  great  a  simila.^ty 
to  those  of  Sparta,  that  it  is  not  surprising  if  it 
seemed  to  the  ancients  as  though  either  Crete 
were  a  copy  of  Sparta,  or  Sparta  of  Crete. 
Meanwhile  this  similarity  may  be  explained, 
apart  from  intentional  imitation,  by  the  commu- 
nity of  nationality,  which,  under  like  conditions, 
must  produce  like  institutions.  For  in  Crete,  as 
in  Laconia,  Dorians  were  the  ruling  people,  who 
bad  subdued  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  island 
and  placed  them  in  a  position  of  subordination. 
...  It  is,  however,  beyond  doubt  that  settle- 


ments were  made  In  Crete  by  the  Phoenicians, 
and  that  a  large  portion  of  the  Island  was  sub- 
ject to  them.  In  the  historical  period,  it  is  true, 
we  no  longer  lind  tliem  here;  wo  find,  on  tho 
contrary,  only  a  number  of  Greek  states,  all 
moreover  Dorian.  Each  of  these  consisted  of  a 
city  with  its  surrounding  district.  In  whieli  no 
doubt  al.so  smaller  cities  In  their  turn  were  found 
standing  In  a  relaticm  of  subordination  to  tho 
principal  city.  For  that  each  city  of  the  '  ninety- 
citied'or  'hundred-citied'  isle,  as  Homer  calls  It, 
formed  also  an  independent  state,  will  probably 
not  be  supposed.  As  independent  states  our 
autlioritles  give  us  reason  to  recognize  about 
seventeen.  The  most  important  of  these  were  in 
earlier  times  Cnossus,  Qortyn  ht  Oydonia." — 
G.  SchOmann,  Antiq.  ofOreeee:  Tiu  Stale,  pt.  8, 
f/i.  3. — See  Asia  Minor:  The  Gueii:k  Colonies. 

B.  C.  68-66.— The  Roman  Conquest. —The 
Romans  came  Into  collision  with  the  Cretans 
during  their  conflict  with  the  Cillcian  pirates. 
The  Cretans,  degenerate  and  half  piratical  them- 
selves, had  formed  an  alliance  with  the  profes- 
sional buccaneers,  and  defeoted,  oft  Cydonia,  a 
liomiin  fleet  that  had  been  sent  against  the  latter, 
B.  C.  71.  They  soon  repented  of  the  provoca- 
tion they  had  ollered  and  sent  envoys  to  Rome  to 
buy  peace  by  heavy  bribes;  but  neither  the 
penitence  nor  the  bribes  prevailed.  Three  years 
passed,  however,  before  the  proconsul,  Qulntus 
Jletellus,  appeared  In  Crete  (B.  C.  08)  to  exact 
satisfaction,  and  two  years  more  were  spent  in 
overcoming  the  stubborn  resistance  of  the  island- 
ers. Tlie  taking  of  Cydonia  cost  Metellus  a 
bloo<ly  battle  and  a  prolonged  siege.  Cnossus 
and  other  towns  held  out  with  equal  courage. 
In  the  end,  however,  Crete  was  added  to  tho 
conquered  dominions  of  Rome.  At  the  last  of 
the  struggle  there  occurred  a  conflict  of  jurisdic- 
tion between  Metellus  and  Pompey,  and  their 
respective  forces  fought  witli  one  another  on  tho 
Cretan  soil. — T.  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Home,  bk.  5, 
ch.  4. 

A.  D.  823.— Conquest  by  the  Saracens. — 
"The  reign  of  Al  Ilakem,  the  Ommiade  Caliph 
of  Spain,  was  disturbed  by  continual  troubles; 
and  some  theological  disputes  having  created  a 
violent  insurrection  in  the  suburb.^  'if  Cordova, 
about  15,000  Spanish  Arabs  were  •  ompcllod  to 
emigrate  in  the  year  815.  The  greater  part  of 
these  desperadoes  established  themselves  at 
Alexandria,  where  they  soon  took  an  active  part 
in  the  civil  wars  of  Egypt.  The  rebellion  of 
Thomas  [an  olHcer  who  disputed  the  Byzantine 
throne  with  Michael  II.],  and  the  absence  of  tho 
naval  forces  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  from  the 
Archipelago,  left  the  island  of  Crete  unpro- 
tected. The  Andalusian  Arabs  or  Alexandria 
availed  themselves  of  this  circumstance  to 
invade  the  island,  and  estobllsh  a  settlement  on 
It,  in  the  year  823.  Michael  was  unable  to  take 
any  measures  for  expelling  the  invaders,  and  an 
event  soon  happened   in    Egypt  which  added 

freatly  to  the  strength  of  this  Saracen  colony, 
he  victories  of  the  lieutenants  of  tho  Caliph 
Almomum  compelled  the  remainder  of  the 
Andalusian  Arabs  to  quit  Alexandria;  so  that 
Abou  Ilafs,  called  by  the  Greeks  Apochaps, 
joined  his  countrymen  in  Crete  with  forty  ships, 
determined  to  make  the  new  settlement  their 
permanent  home.  It  is  said  by  tho  Byzantine 
writers  that  they  commenced  their  conquest  of 
the  island  by  destroying  their  fleet,   and  con- 


624 


CRETE. 


CROWN  OF  INDIA. 


itructing  a  Btrone  fortified  cnmp,  suirmindofl  by 
an  immi'nsn  ditcli,  from  which  it  received  tlie 
name  of  Cliandult,  now  corrupted  by  tlie  western 
nations  into  Candiii.  .  .  .  Tlio  Samcens  retninerl 
posaession  of  Crete  for  135  years. " — O.  PIrdny, 
IlUt.  of  the  nyzantine  Empire,  from  716  to  lO.'iT, 
bk.  1,  eh.  3. —  During  tlio  stay  of  tliese  piratieal 
Andaliisian  Aralis  at  Alexandria,  "they  cut 
in  pieces  both  friends  and  foes,  pillaged  the 
churches  and  mosiiiies,  sold  above  0,000  Christian 
captives,  and  maintained  their  station  in  the  cap- 
ital of  Egypt  till  they  were  oppressed  by  the 
forces  ana  piosence  of  Almamon  himself." — E. 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  lioimin  Empire, 
ch.  53. 

Also  in:  S.  A.  Dunham,  Hist.  ?/  Spain  and 
Portii//nl,  hi:  3,  ch.  1. 

A.  D.  061-063. —  Recovery  from  the  Sara- 
cens,— "In  the  subordinate  station  of  great 
domestic,  or  general  of  the  East,  he  [Nicephorus 
Phocas,  afterwards  emperor,  on  the  Uyzantine 
throne],  reduced  the  island  of  Crete,  and  extir- 
pated the  nest  of  pirates  who  had  so  long  dciicd, 
with  impunity,  the  majesty  of  the  Empire.  .  .  . 
Seven  months  were  consumed  in  the  siege  of 
Candia;  tlie  despair  of  tlie  native  Cretans  was 
stimulated  by  the  frequent  aid  of  their  brethren 
of  Africa  and  Spain ;  and,  after  the  massy  wall 
and  double  ditch  had  been  stormed  by  the 
Greeks,  a  hopeless  conflict  was  still  maintained 
in  the  streets  and  houses  of  the  city.  The  whole 
island  was  subdued  in  the  capital,  and  a  sub- 
missive people  accepted,  without  resistance,  the 
baptism  of  the  conqueror." — E.  Gibbon,  JJecline 
and  Fall  of  the  Itomaii  Empire,  ch.  53. 

A.  D.  1204-1205. —  Acqu'-ed  by  the  Vene- 
tians.   See  Byzantine  EMriuE :  A.  D.  1204-1205. 

A.  D.  1645-1669.— The  long  siege  of  Can- 
dia.—  Surrender  to  the  Turks.  See  Turks: 
A.  D.  1645-1689. 

A.  D.  ^715.— Complete  Expulsion  of  the 
Venetians  by  the  Turks.  See  Turks:  A.  D. 
1714-171«. 

A.  D.  1866-1868.— Unsuccessful  revolt.— 
Struggle  for  independence. —  Turkish  conces- 
sion of  the  Organic  Regulation.    Sec  Greece: 

A.  D.  1862-1881. 

» 

CRETE,  Party  of  the.— Cretois.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1795  (April). 

CRIMEA,  OR  CRIM  TARTARY :  Early 
history.  See  Taurica;  also  Bosporus,  City 
AND  Kingdom. 

7th  Century. — Conquest  and  occupation  by 
the  Khazars.     Sec  Khazars.  . 

I2th-I3th  Centuries. — Genoese  commercial 
colonies.     See  Genoa:  A.  D.  1261-1299. 

I3th-I4th  Centuries. — The  khanate  to  Krim. 
See  MoNOOLs:  A.  D.  1288-1391. 

A.  D.  1475. — Conquest  by  the  Otloman 
Turks.  See  Turks  (The  Ottomans):  A.  D. 
1451-1481. 

A.  D.  1571.— Expedition  of  the  Khan  to 
Moscow. — The  city  stormed  and  sacked.  See 
Russia:  A.  D.  1569-1571. 

A,  D.  1735-1738. — Russian  invasions  and 
fruitless  conquests.  See  Russia:  A.  D.  1725- 
1739. 

A.  D.  1774. — The  khanate  declared  inde- 
pendent of  the  Porte.  See  Turks:  A.  D.  1768- 
1774. 

A.  D.  i;f76-i784. — "^he  process  of  acouisition 
by    Russia.— Final       ;cognition    of    Russian 


sovereignty  by  the  Sultan.    See  Turks:  A.  D. 
1776-1702. 

A.  D.  1853-1855.— War  of  Russia  with  Tur- 
key and  her  allies.— Siege  of  Sebastopol.    Bee 

Uussia:  a.  D.  1853-18.54,  to  IH,')4-18.56. 


CRISIS  OF  1837,  The.  See  United  Statm 
ov  Am.:  a.  1).  1835-1837. 

CRISIS  OF  185/.  See  Tariff  Legislation 
(Unitki)  Htatks):  A.  D.  1846-1H61. 

CRISSA.— Crissasan  or  Sacred  War.  Sea 
Dklpiii. 

CRITTENDEN  COMPROMISE,  The. 
See  United  States  OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  1800  (Deck.\i- 

BBR). 

CROATANS,  The.  See  America:  A.  D. 
1587-1590. 

CROATIA  :  7th  Century.— Sclavonic  oc- 
cupation and  settlement.  See  Balkan  and 
Danurian  States,  7tii  Century  (Servia, 
Cro.vtia,  Bosnia,  etc.) 

A.  D.  1 102.— Subjection  and  annexation  to 
Hungary,     SeeHuNOARY:  A.  D.  972-1114. 

A.  D.  1576.— Transferred  to  the  Duke  of 
Styria. — Military  colonization.  See  IIunoart : 
A.  D.  1567-1004. 

CROI  A,  Turkish  massacre  at.  See  Greece: 
A.  1).  1454-1479. 

CROMLECHS.  —  Rude  stone  monuments 
found  in  many  parts  o'  the  British  Islands, 
France,  and  clsewhero  usually  formed  by  three 
or  more  huge,  rou,";ii,  upright  stones,  with  a 
still  larger  stone  lying  natly  upon  them.  In 
Prance  these  are  called  Dolmens.  They  were 
formerly  thought  to  be  "  Druids  altars,"  to  which 
ruition  they  owe  the  name  Cromlechs ;  but  it  is 
now  very  generally  concluded  by  arcbaiologists 
that  they  were  constructed  for  burial  chambers, 
and  that  originally,  in  most  cases,  thev  were 
covered  with  mounds  of  earth,  forming  the  well 
known  barrows,  or  grave  mounds,  or  tumuli. — 
L.  Jewett,  Orate  Mounds. 

Also  in  :  T.  Wright,  The  Celt,  the  Roman  and 
the  Saxon. — Sir  J.  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Times, 
ch.  5. — See,  also,  Amorites. 

CROMPTON'S  MULE,  The  invention  of. 
See  Cotton  Manufactures. 

CROMWELL,  Oliver.—  Campaigns  and 
Protectorate.  See  England:  A.  1).  lOii  to 
16.5S-1660;  and  Ireland:  A.  D.  1649-1650. 

CROMWELL,  Thomas,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Monasteries.  See  England:  A.  D. 
1535-1539. 

CROMWr^LLIAN  SETTLEMENT  OF 
IRELAND,    '-'ee  Ireland:  A.  D.  1053. 

CROMWELL'S  IRONSIDES.  See  Eng- 
land: A.  D.  1643  (M.\y). 

CROSS,  The  "True."— Its  capture  by  the 
Persians  and  recovery  by  Heraclius.  See 
Uo.mb:  a.  D.  565-028;  and  Jerusalem:  A.  D. 
615. 

CROSS  KEYS,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1802  (May — June:  Vir- 
ginia). 

CROTON.— KROTON.    See  Sybaris. 

CROTONA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  983).  See 
Italy  (Southern):  A.  D.  800-1010. 

CROWN,  The  iron.  See  Lombardt,  Tms 
Iron  Crown  op. 

CROWN  OF  INDIA,  The  Order  of  the.— 
An  order,  for  women,  instituted  by  Queen  Vic- 
toria in  1878. 


625 


CROWN  POINT. 


CRUSADES,  1094. 


CROWN  POINT.:  A.  D.  1727.— Fort  built 
by  the  French.  ^Sl■l•  Canada  (Nkw  Fhance); 
A.  1>.  ITOO-lilir). 

A.  D.  1755.— EiiKliih  Expedition  against. 
Sec  Canada  (New  Fiianck):  A.  1).  1755  (Hei'- 

TEMDkll). 

A.  D.  1759. — Abandoned  to  the  English  by 
the  French.  8<'C'C!anai)A(Nk\v  FiiA.NtK);  A.  1). 
1750(.Iiii,v— Atoi;»T). 

A.  D.  1775. — Surprise  and  capture  by  the 
Americans.    S'ic  U.mted  ,St.\tk»  of  Am.  :  A.  D. 

1775  (May). 

« 

CROWS,   OR   UPSAROKAS,    The.     See 
A.MF,uirAN  AnoKiiiiNEs:  MioiiAN  Family. 
CRUITHNIGH.-CRUITHNIANS.— The 

Iri.'th  imme  of  the  I'iots  iiu(l  Seots  of  ancient  Ire- 
land hikI  .Scolhiiid.     Bee  Scotla.ni):  The  Puts 

AND  Hl'OTS. 

CRUSADES :  Causes  and  introductory 
events. — "  Like  all  the  great  movements  of  man- 
kind, the  Crusades  must  be  traced  to  the  coinci- 
dence of  many  causes  which  inlluenced  men  of 
various  nations  and  discordant  feelings,  at  the 
same  period  of  time,  to  pursue  one  common  end 
with  their  whole  heart.  lU'ligious  zeal,  tlie 
fashion  of  pilgrimages,  the  spirit  of  social  de- 
velopment, the  energies  that  lend  to  colonisation 
or  con(|uest,  and  commercial  relations,  only  lately 
extended  so  widely  nstoinlluencu  public  opinion, 
all  suddenly  received  a  deep  wound.  Every 
class  of  society  felt  injured  and  insulted,  and 
unity  of  action  was  created  as  if  bv  a  divine  im- 
pulse. The  movement  was  facilitated  bv  the 
circumstance  that  Europe  began  to  adopt  habits 
of  order  just  at  the  time  when  Asia  was  thrown 
into  a  state  of  anarchy  by  the  invasions  of  the 
Seljouk  Turks.  Groat  numbers  of  pilgrims  had 
always  pas.;"d  through  the  Byzantine  empire  to 
visit  "the  holy  places  in  Palestine.  We  still  pos- 
sess an  itinerary  of  the  road  from  Bordeau.v  to 
Jerusalem,  by  tlie  way  of  Constantinople,  written 
in  the  fourth  century  for  the  use  of  pilgrins 
Though  the  disturlieil  and  impoverished  st^ite  of 
Europe,  after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire, 
diminislied  the  number  of  pilgrims,  still,  even  in 
times  of  the  greatest  anarchy,  many  passed  an- 
nually through  the  Eastern  Empire  to  Palestine. 
The  improvement  which  dawned  on  the  western 
nations  during  the  eleventh  century,  and  the 
augmented  commerce  of  the  Italians,  gave  addi- 
tional importance  to  the  pilgrimage  to  the  East. 
About  the  year  10C4,  during  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantino X. ,  an  army  or  caravan  of  seven  thou- 
sand pilgrims  passed  tlirougli  Constantinople,  led 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Mentz  and  four  bisliops. 
They  made  their  way  through  Asia  Minor,  wliich 
was  then  under  the  Byzantme  government;  but 
in  the  neiglibourhood  of  Jerusalem  they  v/ere  at- 
tacked .by  the  Bedouins,  and  only  save:!  from 
destruction  by  the  Saracen  emir  of  liti  jila,  wlio 
liastened  to  their  assistance.  These  pilgrims  arc 
reported  to  liave  lost  3,000  of  their  number, 
witliout  being  able  to  visit  cither  the  Jordan  or 
the  Dead  Sea.  The  invasions  of  the  Seljouks 
[see  TuiiKS  (Tiie  Seljuks):  A.  D.  1073-1092] 
mereuscd  the  disorders  in  Palestine.  ...  In  the 
year  1076  the  Seljouk  Turks  took  possession  of 
Jerusalem,  and  immediately  commenced  harass- 
ing the  pilgrims  with  unheard-of  exactions.  The 
Saracens  had  in  general  viewed  the  pilgrims  with 
favour,  as  men  engaged  in  fulflUing  a  pious 
duty,  or  pursuing  lawful  gain  with  praiseworthy 


industry,  and  thev  had  levied  only  a  ronsonnbl© 
toll  on  till!  pilgrims,  and  a  nioderate  duty  on 
their  merchandise .  while  in  consideration  of 
these  imposts,  thev  had  established  guarils  to 
])rotect  them  on  the  roads  by  which  they  ap- 
proached the  holy  places.  Tli<!  Turks,  on  the 
contrary,  acting  Tike  mere  nonmd.t,  uncertain  of 
retaining  possession  of  the  city,  thought  only  of 
gratifying  their  avarice.  They  plundered  the 
rich  pilgrims  and  insidted  the  poor.  The  relig- 
ious feelings,  of  the  Christians  were  irritated, 
and  their  commerce  ruined;  a  cry  for  vengeance 
aro.se  throughout  all  Europe,  and  men's  minds 
were  fully  prepared  for  an  attempt  to  conquer 
Palestine,  when  Peter  the  Hermit  l)egan  to 
preach  that  it  was  a  sacred  <luty  to  deliver  the 
tomb  of  Christ  from  the  hands  of  the  InBdels. " 
—  O.  Fiiday,  Hint  of  the  /li/zttntiiie  iiiid  Greek 
Kmpiim,  l/k.  3,  rh.  2,  met.  1. 

A.  D.  1094.— The  Council  of  Clermont.— 
Pope  Urban  11.,  one  of  two  rival  pontifTs  then 
contending  for  iv  ^ni.ion  by  the  Cliurch,  en- 
tered with  great  eag^/ncss  into  the  movement 
stirred  by  Peter  the  Hermit,  and  gave  it  a 
powerful  impidse  through  his  support,  while 
obtaiumg  for  himself,  at  the  same  time,  a  de- 
cisive advantage  over  his  coinoetitor,  l)y  the 
popularity  of  the  agitation.  A  great  Council 
was  convened  at  Piacen/.ii,  A.  I).  1004,  and  a 
second  at  Clermont,  in  the  autumn  of  ilie  same 
year,  to  deliberate  tipon  the  action  to  be  taken. 
The  city  of  Clermont  coidd  not  contain  the  vast 
multitude  of  bishops,  clergy  and  laity  which 
assembled,  and  an  army  of  many  thousands  was 
tented  in  the  surrounding  country.  To  that  ex- 
cited congregation,  at  a  meeting  in  the  great 
B(iuarc  of  Clermont,  Pope  Urban  addressed  a 
speech  wliich  is  one  of  the  notable  utterances  of 
history.  "lie  began  by  detailing  the  miseries 
endured  by  their  brethren  in  the  Holy  Land; 
how  the  jilains  of  Palestine  were  desolated  by 
the  outrageous  heathen,  who  with  the  sword 
and  the  firebrand  carried  wailing  into  the  dwel- 
lings and  liaines  into  the  possessions  of  the 
faithful:  how  Cliristian  wives  and  daughters 
were  defiled  by  pagan  lust ;  how  the  altars  of 
the  true  God  were  desecrated,  and  the  relics  of 
the  saints  trodden  under  foot.  '  You,'  continued 
the  elo(juent  pontiff  (and  Urban  II.  was  one  of 
the  most  eloquent  men  of  the  day),  'you,  who 
hear  me,  and  who  have  received  the  true  faith, 
and  been  endowed  by  Go<l  with  i)ower,  and 
strength,  and  greatness  of  soul, — whose  ances- 
tors have  been  the  prop  of  Christendom,  and 
whose  kings  have  put  a  barrier  against  the  prog- 
ress of  the  infidel. —  I  call  upon  you  to  wipe  off 
these  impurities  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  and 
lift  your  oppressed  fellow-Christians  from  the 
depths  into  which  they  have  been  trampled.' 
.  .  .  The  warmth  of  the  pontiff  communicated 
itself  to  the  crowd,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
people  broke  out  several  times  ere  ho  concluded 
his  address.  lie  went  on  to  portray,  not  only 
the  spiritual  but  the  temporal  advantages  that 
would  accrue  to  those  who  took  up  arms  in  the 
service  of  the  cross.  Palestine  was,  he  said,  a 
land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey,  and  precious 
in  the  sight  of  God,  as  the  scene  of  the  grand 
events  which  liad  saved  mankind.  That  land, 
he  promised,  should  be  divided  among  them. 
Moreover,  they  should  have  full  pardon  for  all 
their  offences,  either  against  God  or  man.  '  Go, 
then,'  he  added,  '  in  expiation  of  your  sins;  and 


826 


CRU8ADKS.  1004. 


Prter 
the  Hermit. 


CRUSADES,  1000-1009. 


go  nmurcd,    thiit  nftcr  thlH  world   nIiiiII    linvc 

iti  the  world  whicli  is  to  coiik'.  '  The  ciiljiu'siiism 
WHS  no  longer  to  l)i>  ri'stniiiicil,  and  loud  slioiils 
Interrupted  the  speaker;  the  Jieople  e.xeluiniinjf 
as  if  with  one  voiee.  'Dieii  le  veiiltl  Dleu  le 
veulti'.  .  .  Tlio  news  of  tids  couneil  spread  to 
tlie  remotest  ])arts  of  Europe  in  an  ineredil)ly 
sliort  space  of  time.  Lonj;  before  tlie  tleetesl 
liorseman  eould  liave  broufflit  'lie  inlelligenee,  it 
was  Ivuowu  by  tlie  people  in  distant  provinces;  a 
fact  which  was  considered  as  notlunji;  less  than 
supernatural.  Hut  the  subject  was  in  every- 
body's mouth,  and  the  mind.s  of  men  were  pre- 
pared for  the  residt.  The  enthusiastic  mendy 
as.serted  what  they  wished,  and  llio  event  tallied 
with  tlieir  i)redic"tion." — (,'.  Mackav,  Miiiiain  af 
Eitmonlinani  Popular  Dclunintu :  The  Cnmuhs, 
(p.  2). 

Also  in;  II.  II.  Mihnan,  Hint,  of  IjiiUi  Chris- 
tianitji.  hk.  7,  eh.  6. 

A.  D.  lOpA-iOQS.— Peter  the  Hermit  and  his 
appeal. — "About  twenty  years  after  the  con- 
quest of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turks,  the  holy  sepul- 
chre was  visited  by  an  hermit  of  the  name  of  Peter, 
n  native  of  Amiens,  in  the  province  of  Picardy 
in  Franco.  His  resentment  and  symjiathy  were 
ctcited  by  his  own  injuries,  and  tlie  oppression 
of  tlie  Christian  name;  lu'  mingled  his  tears  with 
those  of  tlie  patriiircli,  and  earnestly  iii(|uire<l,  if 
no  hopes  of  relief  could  be  entertained  from  the 
Greek  emperors  of  the  East.  The  patriarch  ex- 
posed the  vices  and  weakness  of  the  successors 
of  Constantinc.  'I  will  rou.tc,'  exclaimed  the 
hermit,  'the  martial  nations  of  Europe  in  your 
cause;'  and  Europe  was  obedient  to  tlie  call  of 
the  hermit.  Tlie  astonished  itatriarcli  dismissed 
him  with  epistles  of  credit  and  complaint,  and 
no  sooner  did  he  land  at  Bari,  than  I'eter  lias- 
tened  to  kiss  the  feet  of  the  Itonian  ponlilT.  His 
stature  was  small,  his  appearance  coiitemptilile; 
but  his  eye  was  keen  and  lively,  and  he  pos- 
sessed that  vehemence  of  siieech  which  seldom 
fails  to  impart  the  persuasion  of  tlie  soul.  He 
was  born  of  a  gentleman's  family  (for  we  must 
now  adopt  a  modem  idiom),  and  his  military 
service  was  under  the  neighbourii.g  counts  of 
Boulogne,  the  heroes  of  the  first  crusade.  In- 
vigorated by  the  approbation  of  the  pontiff,  this 
zealous  missionary  traversed,  with  speed  and 
success,  the  provinces  of  Italy  and  France.  His 
diet  was  abstemious,  his  prayers  long  and  fer- 
vent, and  the  alms  which  he  received  with  one 
hand,  he  distributed  with  the  other;  his  head 
was  bare,  his  feet  naked,  his  meagre  body  was 
wrapt  in  a  coarse  garment;  he  bore  and  dis- 
played a  weighty  crucili.'c ;  and  tlio  ass  on  which 
he  rode  was  sanctified  in  the  public  eye  by  tlie 
service  of  the  man  of  God.  He  preached  to  in- 
numerable crowds  in  the  chiirches,  the  streets, 
and  the  highways.  .  .  .  When  he  painted  the 
sufferings  of  the  natives  and  ])ilgrims  of  Pales- 
tine, every  heart  was  melted  to  compassion; 
every  breast  glowed  with  indignation,  when  he 
challenged  the  warriors  of  the  ago  to  defend 
their  brethren  and  rescue  their  Saviour:  his 
ignorance  of  art  and  language  was  compensated 
by  figlis  and  tears,  and  ejaculations;  and  Peter 
supplied  the  deficiency  of  reason  by  loud  and 
frequent  appeals  to  Christ  and  his  Mother,  to 
the  saints  and  angels  of  paradise,  with  whom  he 
had  personally  conversed.  Tlie  most  perfect 
orator  of  Athens  might  have  envied  the  success 


of  his  cUxpicnce;  the  rustic  rntliuslast  inspired 
the  passions  wliich  he  felt,  and  Christendom  ex- 
pected with  impatience  the  counsels  and  decrees 
of  the  Kupreiiie  pontiff." — K.  Gibbon,  Dirline  and 
Full  of  the  Itoman  Kiii/iire,  ch.  58. 

Al,Hf)  IN;  .1.  C.  Uoberlson,  llUt.  oftht  Chrittiari 
Church.  U:  (I,  ch.  4  (r.  4). 

A.  D.  1096-1099.—  The  First  Great  Move- 
ment.—  Tlic  lirsl  army  if  Crusaders  to  s<a  out 
on  the  long  luar.li  to  .lerusalem  was  a  mob  of 
men,  women  and  children  wiiicli  had  not 
patience  to  wait  for  the  organized  movement  of 
the  military  leaders.  They  gathered  in  vast 
numliers  on  Hie  banks  of  "the  Jloselle  and  the 
Meuse,  in  the  spring  of  1006,  witli  Peter  the 
Hermit  for  tlieir  cliosc'ii  chief.  There  were  nine 
knights,  only,  in  the  swarm,  and  but  few  who 
had  horses  to  ride,  or  elllcieiit  arms  to  bear,  or 
provisions  to  Iced  upon.  Knowing  nothing, 
and  therefore  fearing  notliiiig,  tliey  niarcheil 
away,  through  France,  Germany,  Hungary  and 
beyond  begging  food  where  they  could  and 
sulisisi.iig  by  pillage  when  it  needed.  A  knight 
called  Walter  the  Penniless  led  the  van,  and 
Peter  followed,  witli  his  second  division,  by  a 
somewhat  different  route.  Walter  escaped  seri- 
ous trouliie  until  he  reached  the  country  of  tlie 
suvagc  Ui  Igarians.  Peter's  senseless  mob  pro- 
vok  !  ihe  just  wrath  of  the  Hungarians  by 
storming  the  small  city  of  Semlin  and  slaying 
4,000  of  its  inhabitants.  Tlie  route  of  both  was 
lined  with  tlie  bones  of  tliou.sa:.i<ls  who  perished 
of  hunger,  of  exposure,  of  disease,  and  by  tlie 
sworils  of  Hungarians  and  Bulgarians.  A  third 
and  a  fourth  ]iost  of  like  kind  followed  in  their 
wake,  led  by  a  monk,  Gol.schalk,  a  priest  named 
Volkmar,  and  a  Count  Eniicoii.  Tliese  ternir- 
ized  even  more  all  tlie  countries  tliroiigh  wliich 
they  liassed, —  especially  where  Jews  were  to 
be  hunted  and  killed, —  and  were  destroyed  in 
Hungary  to  almost  tliC  last  man.  Peter  and 
Walter  reached  Constantinople  with  100,000  fol- 
lowers, it  is  said,  even  yet,  after  all  who  had 
fallen  by  the  way.  Still  refusing  to  wait  for 
the  better  appointed  expeditions  that  were  iu 
progress,  and  still  appalling  ea.stern  Christen- 
dom liy  tlieir  lawless  barbarities,  they  passed 
into  Asia  Jlinor,  and  their  miserable  career  soon 
came  to  an  end.  Attacking  tlic  Turks  in  the 
city  of  Nicaia, —  which  had  become  the  capital 
of  the  Seljouk  sultan  of  Itoum, —  they  were 
beaten,  routed,  scattered,  slaughtered,  until 
barely  8,000  of  the  great  host  escaped.  "Of 
the  first  Crusaders, "  says  Oiblion,  "300,000  had 
already  perished  before  a  single  city  was  rescued 
from  the  infidels, —  before  their  graver  and  more 
noble  bretliren  had  completed  the  preparations 
of  their  enterprise."  Meantime  tlie  knights  and 
princes  of  the  crusade  had  gathered  their  armies 
i.ud  were  now  (in  the  summer  of  1006)  beginning 
to  move  eastward,  by  different  routes.  Kot  one 
of  t.ic  greater  sovereigns  of  Europe  had  enlisted 
?'!  the  undertaking.  The  chiefs  of  one  arnia- 
nient  were  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  duke  of  the 
Lower  Lorraine,  or  Brabant;  liis  brothers, 
Eustace,  couLt  of  Boulogne,  and  Baldwin;  his 
cousin,  Baldwin  de  Bourg,  with  Baldwin,  count 
of  Ilainaut,  Dudon  de  Contz,  and  other  knights 
celebrated  in  tlio  "Jerusalem  Delivered'  of 
Tiisso.  This  expedition  followed  nearly  the 
route  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  through  Hungarj' 
and  Bulgaria,  giving  hostages  for  its  orderly 
conduct  and  winning  the  good-will  of  those  coun- 


627 


CRU8ADE8,   1000-lOW. 


Jrrutalem 
IHlivtrtd. 


CRUSADES,  1101-1108. 


tries,  even  n.vlili-ncd  iw  tlicy  were  liy  the  fori'- 
ffiiiiif(  nioliN.  Aniitlicr  larKcr  follriwIiiK  fri>iii 
FraiK'(>  wiiH  It'll  by  lliiuli,  coiiiit  of  V'cniiiiiuloiH, 
lirDtlur  <>r  the  kliij{  <>f  T'nincc;  HoIhtI,  duki- of 
Niirnmiidy,  cldcul  wm  of  Williiun  llic  CoiKHicror; 
tttfplicn.  (ouiit  of  HIoIh,  till-  ('oni|iit'r(ir'H  Hon  In- 
liiw,  iiiid  Koliirl,  count  of  KlandcrH.  TIii'm.'  took 
the  road  into  Italy,  and  to  Marl,  wheiici',  after 
hlirndiiiK  the  winter,  wjdtinK  for  favorable 
weather,  tliey  were  tranH|«irted  by  Hblps  to 
Oreeee,  and  piirsueil  tlieir  inareli  to  Constanti 
iiople.  Tliey  were  followed  by  a  contlnKent 
from  Moiitliern  Italy,  under  Bolieniond,  the  Nor- 
iiinii  prince  of  Tarentuni,  son  of  Itobert  OiiiHcard, 
and  uIh  knightly  coiiHin,  Tancre<l.  A  f.iurth 
army,  gathered  In  Hoiithern  France  uy  count 
Kuymond  of  'rouloiiHc  and  HIhIioi)  Adliemer,  the 
appointed  le^jate  and  representative  of  the  l>ope, 
cho§e  Htill  another  route,  through  Lombardy, 
Dalmatia  and  Macedoniji,  into  Thrace.  ()n 
pnKttiiiK  throiif(li  the  territorieH  of  the  Hyzantinc 
emperor  (Alexius  I.),  all  the  crusaders  experl- 
tnccd  liix  distrust,  his  dtiplieity,  and  his  cau- 
tious ill  will  —  which,  tmder  the  circumstances 
were  initural  enough.  Alexius  mana^'cd  so  well 
that  lie  extorted  from  each  of  the  princes  an 
acknowledfrment  of  his  rlf;hts  of  sovcreij^nty 
over  the  region  of  their  expected  coiupiests,  with 
un  oath  of  fealty  and  honuiKe,  and  he  pushed 
them  across  \.\\v.  Hosphorus  so  adroitly  that  no 
two  had  the  opportuidty  to  mute  their  forces 
under  tlu'  walls  of  Constantinople.  Their  llrst 
undertaking  in  Asia  [May  and  June,  A.  I).  1U07] 
was  tlic  sicf^e  of  Niciea,  and  they  beleaguered  it 
with  an  army  which  (Jibbon  believes  to  have 
been  never  excee<led  within  the  compass  of  a 
single  camp.  Here,  again,  they  were  mastered 
by  the  cunning  diplomacy  of  the  Greek  emperor. 
When  the  sultan  of  Uoum  yielded  his  capital, 
he  was  ])ersuttded  to  stirrcnder  it  to  Alexius,  and 
the  imperial  banner  protected  it  from  the  rage  of 
the  discomdted  tru.saders.  Hut  they  revenged 
themselves  on  the  Turk  at  Dorylieum,  where  he 
attacked  them  during  tlieir  subseciuent  m  irch, 
and  where  he  siifTercd  a  defeat  which  ended  all 
tigliting  in  Asia  Minor.  Raldwin,  brother  of 
Godfrey,  now  improved  Iiis  opportunities  by 
stealing  awny  from  the  army,  with  a  few  liun- 
<lred  knights  and  men,  to  make  coiuiuests  on  his 
own  account;  with  such  success  that  he  won  the 
city  of  Edessa,  with  a  sweep  of  country  around  it, 
and  founded  a  principality  which  subsisted  for 
half  a  century.  The  rest  fared  on,  meeting  no 
opposition  from  infldcl  swonls,  but  sickening  and 
dying  by  thousands,  from  heat  and  from  want 
of  water  and  food,  until  they  came  to  Antioch. 
There,  the  Turkish  emir  in  command,  with  a 
stout  garrison  of  horse  and  foot,  had  prepared 
for  a  stubborn  defence,  and  he  held  the  besiegers 
at  bay  for  seven  months,  while  they  sturved  in 
their  ill-supplied  camps.  The  city  was  deliv- 
ered to  them  by  a  Ixtnor,  at  length,  but  prince 
Bohemond,  the  c  Ay  Tsorman,  secured  the  bene- 
fit of  the  treason  to  himself,  and  forced  his  com- 
patriots to  concede  to  l.dm  the  sovereignty  of 
Antioch.  The  sufferings  of  the  crusaders  did 
not  end  willi  the  taking  of  the  city.  They 
brought  famine  and  pestilence  upon  themselves 
anew  by  their  greedy  and  sensual  indulgence, 
and  they  were  soon  under  siege  in  their  own 
turn,  by  a  great  army  which  the  Turks  had 
brought  against  them.  Death  and  desertion 
were  in  rivalry  to  thin  their  wasted  ranks.    The 


survivors  were  in  gl(M)m  and  despair,  when  an 
opportune  miracle  occurped  to  excite  them 
afresh.  A  lance,  which  visions  an<l  apparitions 
certitled  to  be  tlie  very  spear  that  pierced  the 
Kedeemer's  side,  was  foimd  buried  in  a  church 
at  Antioch.  Under  the  Htimuius  of  this  amaz- 
ing <li.scovery  they  sallied  from  the  town  and 
dispersed  the  great  army  of  the  Turks  in  utter 
rout.  Htill  the  ipiarrels  of  tlie  leaders  went  on, 
and  ten  months  more  were  consumed  before  the 
remains  of  tlie  Latin  army  advaiu'ed  to  .lerusa- 
lem.  It  was  June,  A.  I).  lOOU,  when  they  saw 
the  Holy  City  and  a.ssalle(l  its  fornddable  walls. 
Their  number  wa.i  now  reduced  to  40,000,  but 
tlieir  devotion  and  their  ardor  rose  tr  '""nzy,  and 
after  a  siege  of  little  more  than  a  month  they 
forced  an  entnmce  by  storm.  Then  they  spared 
neither  age  nor  sex  until  they  had  killed  all  who 
ilenied  tlie  Savior  of  mankind  —  the  I'rince  of 
I'eace. —  E.  Gibbon,  DeeUn'-,  and  Fall  of  the 
Human  Kmpire,  eh.  58. 

Also  in:  J.  F.  Miclmud,  Hint,  of  the  Crusades, 
hk.  1. —  W.  lk's<int  and  E.  H.  I'almer,  Jeniiuikm, 
rh.  0.— (!.  Mills,  llht.  of  the  Vnimiku,  eh.  3-0. 
—  See,  also,  jKUt'HAl.KM:  A.  I).  lOOlt. 

A.  D.  I09ahii44. — The  Latin  conquests  in 
the  east. — The  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  See 
Jkih:sai,km:  a.  D.  1(H)U-I14.1, 

A.  D.  II0I-I102.— The  after-wave  of  the 
first  movement. —  "The  tales  of  victory  brought 
home  by  the  pilgrinu  excited  the  most  extrava- 
gant expectations  in  the  minds  of  their  auditors, 
and  nothing  was  deemed  ca])able  of  resisting 
European  valour.  The  pope  called  uiionall  who 
had  taken  the  cross  to  perform  their  vow,  the 
emperor  Henry  IV.  had  the  crusade  preached, 
in  order  to  gain  favour  with  the  clergy  and  laitv. 
Many  iirinces  now  resolved  to  visit  in  person  the 
new  empire  founded  In  the  East.  Three  great 
armicj  assembled:  tlio  first  In  Italy  under  the 
archlishop  of  Milan,  and  the  two  counts  of 
Hlam  rate;  the  second  in  France  under  Hugh  the 
Great  "ind  Stephen  of  IJlois  [who  had  deserted 
their  CO  nrades  of  the  first  expedition  at  Antioch, 
and]  wlu.T  shame  and  remorse  urged  to  perform 
their  vow,  William,  duke  of  Guienne  and  count 
of  Poitou,  who  mortgaged  his  territory  to 
AVilliam  Rufus  of  England  to  procure  funds, 
the  count  of  Nevers,  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  the 
bishops  oi  Laon  and  Soissons;  the  third  in  Ger- 
many, under  the  bishop  of  Saltzburg,  the  aged 
duke  Welf  of  Bavaria,  (,'onrad  the  master  of  the 
horse  to  tlie  emperor,  and  many  other  knights 
and  nobles.  Ida  also,  the  margravine  of  Austria, 
declared  her  resolution  to  share  tlie  toils  and 
dangers  of  the  way,  and  pay  her  vows  at  the 
tomb  of  Christ.  Vast  numbers  of  women  of  all 
ranks  accompanied  all  these  armies, — nay,  in 
that  of  the  duke  of  Guicmie,  who  was  inferior  to 
none  in  valour,  but  united  to  it  the  qualities  of  a 
troubadour  and  glee-man,  there  appeared  whole 
troops  of  young  women.  The  Italian  pilgrims 
were  the  first  to  arrive  at  Constantinople.  Tliey 
set  out  early  in  the  spring,  and  took  Iheir  way 
through  Carinthia,  Hungary,  and  Bulgaria. 
Though  the  excesses  committed  by  them  were 
great,  the  emperor  gave  them  a  kind  reception, 
and  tlic  most  prudent  and  friendly  advice  re- 
specting their  future  progress.  AVliile  they 
abode  at  Constantinople,  Conrad  and  the  count 
of  Blois,  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  arrived, 
and  at  Whitsuntide  they,  all  passed  over,  and 
encamped  at  Nicomedia.      With  ignorant  fatu 


628 


CRU8A.DE8,  UOl-llO'J. 


St.  tirrnnrd'i 
Pnachtny. 


CRUSADES,  1 147-1 140. 


Uy,  nml  ngniiixt  nil  cxiirricnccd  lulviri-,  llic  new 
t'rusiulcrs  rcBolvcd  to  ilirrct  llicir  iniircli  Id  Hiik- 
(liid  iiikI  to  overthrow  Hit!  I'lillpliiilc.  The  first 
iMMly  which  lulvmicccl  wii«  iiit  lo  pieces  liy  Hie 
Turks  on  the  liaiil<s  of  the  Miilys,  iiiid  only  ii  few 
thousiiiulg,  out  of  more  thtiii  one  hunilreil  thou- 
snnd,  lire  fiiil.l  to  hiive  niiide  their  esciipe  by  des- 
penile  tlighl.  The  second  and  third  iiniii's  were 
met  successively  hy  the  victorious  .M<isleiiiH, 
before  they  had  iidviinced  so  far,  and  wen'  even 
mor(!  completely  i.nnilillated.  The  latter  body 
contained,  according  to  the  chroniclers  of  tlio 
time,  t.lO.OOO  pilgriins,  of  whom  scanelv  one 
thoustinil  were  saved  from  slavery  or  death. 
The  men  fell  under  the  swords  of  the  Turks;  the 
women  and  girls,  in  great  numbers,  llnishetl  out 
their  days  in  the  liarems  of  the  East.  Out  of 
the  wreck  of  the  three  vast  nrmaments  a  Hieiider 
column  of  10,000  men  was  got  together  after 
some  weeks  at  Antio.h  and  led  to  Jerusalem 
(A.  I).  1102).  Most  of  these  pcrl.shed  in  subse- 
quent battles,  and  very  few  ever  saw  Europe 
ngnin.  "Huchwasthe  fruitless  tormiiiution  of 
this  second  great  movement  of  the  West,  in 
which  perhaps  a  tliird  of  a  inilliou  ot  pilgrin.s 
left  their  homes,  never  to  revisit  them.  — T. 
Keightley,  T/ie  CnimderK,  eh.  3. 

Ai.so  IN:  J.  F.  iMichaud,  Hid.  of  the  Cruamles, 
bk.  4. 

A.  D.  1104-1111.— Conquest  of  maritimr 
cities  of  Syria  and  Palestine.-  "destruction  of 
the  Library  of  Tripoli.— "  Tlie  pi  Dcrity  ami  the 
safety  of  Jerusalem  ap|)eared  dotuiy  connected 
with  the  conquest  of  the  maritime  cities  of  Syria 
and  Palestine;  it  beinj'  by  them  alone  that 
It  could  receive  succour,  or  establish  prompt 
and  easy  communications  witli  the  West.  The 
maritime  nathms  of  Europe  were  interested  in 
seconding,  in  this  instance,  the  enterprises  of  the 
king  of  Jerusalem.  .  .  .  From  the  period  of  the 
tirst  crusades,  the  Pisaus  and  the  Genoese  had 
cor.iitantly  sent  vessels  to  the  seas  of  the  East ; 
■■.ad  their  fleets  had  aided  the  Christians  in  several 
expeditions  against  the  Mussuls  ans.  A  Genoese 
fleet  had  just  arrived  in  the  heot.  of  Syria  wlien 
Baldwin  undertook  the  siege  of  PtolemaVs  [Acre]. 
The  Genoese  were  Invited  to  assist  in  this  con- 
quest ;  but  as  religion  was  not  the  principle  to 
bring  tluiin  into  action,  they  required,  in  return 
for  their  assistance  and  their  labour,  that  they 
should  have  a  third  of  the  booty;  they  likewise 
stipulated  to  have  a  separate  church  for  them- 
selves, and  a  national  factory  and  tribunal  in  the 
conquered  city.  PtolemaVs  was  besieged  by  land 
and  sea,  and  af*  jr  a  bloody  resistance  of  twenty 
days,  the  inhabitants  and  the  garrison  proposed 
to  surrender,  and  implored  the  clemency  of  the 
concpierors.  The  city  opened  its  gates  to  the 
Christians,  and  the  inhabitants  prepared  to  de- 
part, taking  with  them  whatever  they  deemed 
most  valuable ;  but  the  Genoese,  at  the  sight  of 
such  rich  booty,  paid  no  respect  to  the  capitula- 
tion, and  massacred  without  pity  a  disarmed  and 
defenceless  people.  ...  In  consequence  of  this 
victory,  several  ploces  which  the  Egyptians  still 
held  on  the  coasts  of  Syria  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Christians. "  Among  those  wos  the  city  of 
Tripoli.  "  Raymond,  Count  de  St.  Gilles  and  of 
Thoulouse,  one  of  the  companions  of  Godfrey, 
after  having  wandered  for  a  long  time  about 
Asia,  had  died  before  this  place,  of  which  he  had 
oomraenced  the  siege.  In  memory  of  his  exploits 
In  the  first  crusade,  'lie  rich  territory  of  Tripoli 


was  created  a  county,  and  became  the  Inheritance 
of  ills  family.  Tlifs  territory  was  celebrated  for 
its  productions.  .  .  .  A  library  established  in  this 
city,  and  celelimted  through  all  the  East,  con 
tained  Ihe  monuments  of  the  ancient  llleratiire  of 
the  Persians,  the  Arabians,  llie  Kgyplians,  and 
Wiv  Greeks.  A  hundred  copyists  were  llieie  con- 
stantly employed  in  transcribing  manuscripts. 
.  .  .  After  the  taking  of  the  city,  a  priest  at- 
laclie<l  to  Count  lleriiard  de  St.  Gilles,  entered 
Ihe  room  in  which  were  collected  avast  nuniberof 
copies  of  Ihe  Koran,  and  as  liedeclar<'il  tlci^  library 
of  Tripoli  contained  only  the  Impious  liooks  of 
.Mahomet,  it  was  given  up  to  the  tlames.  .  .  . 
llihiics,  situated  on  the  smiling  and  fertile  shores 
of  Pli(M'iiicia,  Sarepta,  where  St.  Jerome  saw  still 
in  his  day  the  tower  of  Isaiah;  and  llerytus, 
famous  in  the  early  days  of  the  chureli  for  its 
school  of  elo(|Uence,  shared  the  fate  of  Tripoli, 
and  becami!  baronies  bestowed  upon  Christian 
kniglils.  After  these  con(|uests,  tlii^  Pisans,  tho 
Genoesi',  and  several  warriors  wlio  had  followed 
lialdwin  in  his  expeditions,  returne<l  into  Europe; 
and  the  king  cf  .Jerusalem,  abaiuloned  by  theso 
u.seful  allies,  was  obliged  to  employ  the  forces 
wliieli  remaineil  in  repulsing  the  inva.sions  of  the 
Saracens." — J.  F.  Micliaud,  Hitt.  of  the  Vrusadet, 
r.  1,  U:  5. 

A,  D.  1 147-1 149.— The  Second  Great  Move- 
ment.— 1.  iring  tlie  reign  of  Fulk,  tlie  fourth 
king  of  Jerusalem,  the  Lat'n  power  in  Palestine 
and  its  neigliboring  territories  began  to  be  seri- 
ously shaken  by  n  vigorous  '1  urklsh  prince 
named  Zenglil,  on  whom  tho  sultan  Mahmoud 
had  conferre<l  the  government  of  all  the  country 
west  of  the  Tigris.  It  was  the  first  time  since 
the  coming  of  the  Christians  of  the  West  that 
the  whole  strength  of  Islam  in  that  region  had 
been  so  nearly  gatheretl  into  one  strong  hand,  to 
be  used  against  tliem,  and  they  felt  the  effect 
speedily,  being  themselves  weakened  by  many 
quarrels.  In  1143  King  Fulk  died,  leaving  tho 
crown  to  a  young  son,  Haldwin  III., —  a  boy  of 
thirteen,  whose  mother  governed  in  his  name. 
Tiie  next  year  Zenghi  captured  the  important 
city  of  Edessa,  and  consternation  was  produced 
by  his  successes.  Europe  was  then  .:ppealed  to 
for  help  against  the  advancing  Turk,  and  the 
call  froni  Jerusalem  was  taken  up  by  St  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaux,  'he  irresistible  enthusiast, 
whose  influence  accomplished,  in  his  lime,  what- 
ever he  willed  to  have  done.  Just  half  a  century 
after  Peter  the  Hermit,  St  Bernard  preaclied  a 
Second  Crusa<le,  and  with  almost  equal  effect, 
notwithstanding  the  better  knowledge  now  pos- 
sessed of  all  tile  hardships  and  perils  of  the 
expedition.  Tliis  time,  royalty  took  the  lead. 
King  Conrad  of  Germany  commanded  n  great 
army  from  that  country,  and  anotlicr  host  fol- 
lowed King  Louis  VII.  from  France.  "Both 
armies  marched  down  the  Danube,  to  Constanti- 
nople, in  the  summer  of  1147.  At  the  same 
moment  King  Roger  [of  Naples],  with  his  fleet, 
attacked,  not  tho  Turks,  but  the  Greek  seaport 
towns  of  the  Slorea.  Manuel  [the  Byzantine 
emperor]  thereupon,  convinced  that  the  large 
armies  were  designed  for  the  destruction  of  his 
empire  in  the  first  place,  with  the  greatest  exer- 
tions, got  togetiier  troops  from  all  his  jirovinces, 
and  entered  into  a  half-alliance  with  the  Turks  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  mischief  and  ill-feeling  was 
increased  by  the  lawless  conduct  of  the  Girman 
hordes;  the  Greek  troops  attacked  them  uioro 


629 


CRUSADES,  1147-1149. 


Kichard 
againit  HaUidin. 


CRUSADES,  1188-1103. 


than  once-  whereupon  numerous  voices  were 
raised  in  Louis's  liL-iidquiirtcrs  to  dcmnnd  open 
war  BKidnsl  tlic  fiiitldcss  Qrc-cks.  The  liings 
were  fuliy  ai^recd  not  to  permit  this,  but  on 
arrivinj^  in  (."onstantinople  tiiey  completely  fell 
oui,  for,  wliile  houis  made  no  secret  of  his  warm 
fricn>lsliip  for  Roger,  Conrad  ijromised  the 
Emperor  of  Constantinople  to  attacli  the  Nor- 
mans lis  soon  as  the  Crusade  should  be  ended. 
This  was  a  bad  beginning  for  u  united  campaign 
in  the  East,  and  moreover,  at  every  step  east- 
ward, new  difliculties  arose.  The  German  army, 
broken  up  into  s>'veral  detachments,  and  led 
without  ability  or  prudence,  wius  attacked  in 
Asia  Jlinor  by  the  Emir  of  Iconiuin,  and  cut  to 
pieces,  all  but  a  few  hundred  men.  The  F-ench, 
though  better  appointed,  also  suffered  severe 
losses  in  that  coui.  ry,  but  contrived  nevertheless, 
to  reach  Antioch  wltli  a  very  considerable  force, 
and  from  thence  niiglit  have  carried  the  project 
which  tlie  second  Ualdwiu  had  conceived  in  vain, 
namely,  the  defence  of  the  northeastern  frontier, 
upon  wliich,  especially  since  Zenki  [Zenghi]  had 
made  his  appearance,  the  life  or  death  of  the 
Christian  states  depended.  But  in  vain  did 
Prince  Raymond  of  Antioch  try  to  prevail  upon 
King  Louis  to  take  this  view,  and  to  attack  with- 
out delay  the  most  formidable  of  all  their  adver- 
saries, Noureddin  [son  of  Zenghi,  now  dead]. 
Louis  would  not  hear  or  do  anything  till  he  had 
seen  Jerusalem  and  prayed  at  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre. ...  In  Jerusalem  he  [King  Louis]  was 
welcomed  by  Queen  Melisonde  (now  regent, 
during  her  son's  minority,  after  Fulco's  death), 
with  praise  and  gratitude,  because  he  had  not 
taken  part  in  the  distant  wars  of  the  Prince  of 
Antiocli,  but  had  reserved  his  forces  for  the 
defence  of  the  holy  city  of  Jerusalem.  It  was 
now  resolved  to  lead  the  army  against  Damascus, 
the  only  Turkish  town  whose  Emir  hod  always 
refused  to  submit  to  either  Zenki  or  Noureddin. 
Nevertheless  Noureddin  instantly  collected  all 
his  av.iilable  forces,  to  succour  the  besieged 
town."  But  he  was  spared  furtiier  exertion  by 
the  jealous  disagreement  of  the  Christians,  who 
began  to  take  thought  as  to  what  should  be  done 
with  Damascus  when  they  took  it.  The  Svrian 
barons  concluded  that  they  would  prefer  to  leave 
the  city  in  Turkish  hands,  uud  by  treacherous 
manccuvres  they  forced  king  Louis  to  raise  the 
siege.  "The  German  king,  long  since  tired  of 
hio  powerless  position,  returned  home  in  the 
autumn  of  1148,  and  Louis,  after  much  pressing, 
stayed  a  few  months  longer,  and  reached  Europe 
in  the  following  spring.  The  whole  expedition 
.  .  .  had  been  wrecked,  without  honour  and 
without  result,  by  the  most  wretched  pe;rsonal 
passions,  and  the  most  narrow  and  selfish  policy." 
— H.  Von  Sybel,  Iliat.  and  Literature  of  i/ie  Cru- 
lades,  ch.  3. — "So  ended  in  utter  shame  and 
ignominy  the  Second  Crusade.  The  event 
seemed  to  give  the  lie  to  the  glowing  promises 
and  prophecies  of  St.  Bernard.  So  vast  had 
been  the  drain  of  population  to  feed  this  holy 
war  that,  in  the  phrase  of  an  eye-witness,  tlie 
cities  and  castles  were  empty,  and  scarcely  one 
man  was  left  to  seven  women;  and  v.  '\v  it  was 
known  that  the  lathers,  the  liusbands,  the  sons, 
or  the  brothers  of  these  miserable  women  would 
see  their  earthly  homes  no  more.  The  cry  of 
anguish  charged  Bernard  with  the  crime  of 
sending  them  forth  on  an  errand  in  which  they 
bad  done  absolutely  nothing  and  had  reaped  only 


wretchedness  and  disgrace.  For  a  time  Bernard 
hi  Tiself  was  struck  dumb :  but  he  soon  remem- 
bered that  he  had  spoken  with  the  uuthority  of 
God  and  his  vicegerent,  and  that  I  lie  guilt  or 
failure  must  lie  at  the  door  of  the  pilijrims." — G. 
W.  Cox,  T/ie  CnimdeH,  eh.  5. 

A.  D.  1 187.— The  loss  of  Jerusalem.  See 
Jeuusai,e.m:  A.  I).  1149-U87. 

A.  D.  1188-1193.— The  Third  Great  Move- 
ment.— When  the  news  readied  Europe  that 
Saladin,  the  redoubtable  new  cliampian  of  Islam 
had  expelled  the  Christians  and  the  Cross  from 
Jerusalem,  polluting  once  more  the  j^reclncts  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  the  cflect  proiluccd  was 
something  not  easily  understood  at  the  present 
day.  If  we  may  believe  historians  of  the  time, 
the  pope  (Urban  III.)  died  of  grief;  "Christians 
forgot  all  the  ills  of  their  own  country  to  weep 
over  Jerusalem.  .  .  .  Luxury  was  banished  from 
cities;  injuries  were  forgotten  and  alms  were 
given  abundantly.  Cliristians  slept  ujion  ashes, 
clothed  themselves  in  haircloth,  and  expiated 
their  disorderly  lives  by  fasting  and  mortifica- 
tion. The  clergy  set  the  example ;  the  morals  of 
the  cloister  were  reformed,  and  cardinals,  con- 
demning themselves  to  poverty,  promised  to  re- 
])air  to  the  Holy  Land,  supported  on  charity  by 
the  way.  These  pious  reformations  did  not  last 
long ;  but  men's  minds  were  not  the  less  prepared 
for  a  new  crusade  liy  them,  and  all  Europe  was 
soon  roused  by  the  voice  of  Gregory  VIII.,  who 
exhorted  the  faithful  to  assume  the  cross  and 
take  up  arms." — J.  F.  iMichaud,  Jlist.  of  the 
Crusader,  bk.  7. —  'The  emperor  Frederic  Barba- 
rossa  and  the  kings  of  France  and  England 
assumed  the  cross;  and  the  tanly  magnitude  of 
their  armaments  was  anticipated  by  the  moritime 
states  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  ocean.  The 
skilful  and  provident  Italians  first  embarked  in 
the  ships  of  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Venice.  They 
were  speedily  followed  by  the  most  CRger  pil- 
grims of  France,  Normandy  and  the  Wci^tem 
Isles.  The  powerful  succour  of  Flanders,  Frise, 
and  Denmark  filled  near  a  hundred  vessels;  and 
the  northern  warriors  were  distinguished  in  the 
field  by  a  lofty  stature  and  a  ponderous  battle- 
axe.  'Their  increasing  multitudes  could  no  longer 
be  confined  within  the  walls  of  Tyre  [which  the 
Latins  still  held],  or  remain  obedient  to  the  voice 
of  Conrad  [JIarquis  of  ]Montferrat,  who  had 
taken  command  of  the  place  and  repelled  the 
attacks  of  Saladin].  '^•ley  pitied  the  misfortunes 
and  revered  the  dignl  '  of  Lusignan  [the  nominal 
king  of  Jerusp'^m,  lately  captive  in  Saladin's 
hands],  wl'">  .as  ...eased  from  prison,  perhaps 
to  divide  t  j  army  of  the  Franks.  He  proposed 
the  recovery  of  Ptolemais,  or  Acre,  thirty  miles 
to  the  south  of  Tyre ;  and  the  ])lace  was  first  in- 
vested [July,  1189]  by  2,000  horse  and  30,000 
foot  under  his  nominal  command.  I  shall  not 
expatiate  on  the  story  of  this  memorable  siege, 
which  lasted  near  two  years,  and  consumed,  in  a 
narrow  space,  the  forces  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
...  At  the  sound  of  the  holy  trumpet  the 
Moslems  of  Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  and  the  Ori- 
ental provinces  assembled  under  the  servant  of 
the  prophet:  his  camp  was  pitched  and  removed 
within  a  few  miles  of  Acre ;  and  he  laboured, 
night  and  day,  for  the  relief  of  his  brethren  and 
the  annoyance  of  the  Franks.  ...  In  the  spring 
of  the  second  year,  the  royal  fleets  of  France  and 
England  cast  anchor  in  the  bay  of  Acre,  and  the 
siege  was  more  vigorously  prosecuted  by  the 


680 


CRUSADES,  1188-1192. 


Peacf  irUli 
the  Infidel. 


CRUSADES,  1201-1203. 


youthful  emulation  of  the  two  kings,  Philip 
Augustus  and  KIchnrd  Plnntngenet.  After  every 
resource  hud  been  tried,  and  every  hope  was  ex- 
hausted, tlie  defenders  of  A  :re  submitted  to  their 
fate.  .  .  .  By  the  conquest  of  Acre  the  Latin 
powers  acquired  a  strong  town  and  a  convenient 
harbour ;  hut  the  advantage  was  most  dearly  pur- 
chased. Tlie  minister  and  liistorian  of  Saladui 
computes,  from  tlie  report  of  tlio  enemy,  that 
their  numbers,  at  di/Terent  periods,  amounted  to  I 
600,000  or  600,000;  that  more  than  100,000  Chris-  | 
tians  were  slain ;  tliat  a  far  greater  nund)er  was 
lost  by  disease  ov  sliipwreck."  On  the  reduc- 
tion of  Acre,  king  Pliilip  Augustus  relurned  to 
France,  leaving  only  500  kniglits  and  10,000  men 
behind  him.  Meantime,  tlie  old  emperor,  Fred- 
crick  Barbarossa,  coming  by  the  landward  roule, 
througn  the  country  of  tlie  Greeks  and  Asia 
Minor,  witli  ii  well-tr  ined  army  of  20,000  kniglits 
and  50,000  men  on  fo  t,  had  perished  by  the  way, 
drowned  in  n  little  Cilician  torrent,  and  only 
5,000  of  his  troops  had  reached  the  camp  at  Acre. 
Old  as  ho  was,  (he  was  seventy  when  he  took 
the  cross)  Barbarossa  miglit  have  changed  the 
event  of  the  Crusade  if  lie  had  reached  the  scene 
of  conllict;  for  he  had  brains  with  his  valor  and 
character  with  his  ferocity,  wliicli  liicbard  Ca'ur 
de  Lion  had  not.  Tlio  latter  remained  another 
year  in  the  Holy  Land:  recovered  Ciesarea  and 
JafFa;  threatened  Saladin  in  Jerusalem  seriously, 
but  to  no  avail;  and  stirred  up  more  and  fiercer 
quarrels  among  the  Christians  tlian  had  been 
customary,  even  on  the  soil  which  was  sacred  to 
them.  In  tlie  end,  a  treaty  was  arranged  which 
displeased  tlie  more  devout  on  botli  sides.  "It 
was  stipulated  that  Jerusalem  and  the  holy  sepul- 
chre should  be  open,  without  tribute  or  vexa- 
tion, to  tlie  pilgrimage  of  the  Latin  Christians; 
that,  after  the  demolition  of  Ascalon,  they  sliould 
inclusively  possess  the  sea-coast  from  Jaffa  to 
Tyre;  that  the  count  of  Tripoli  and  the  prince  of 
Aiitioch  should  be  comprised  in  the  truce ;  and  that, 
during  three  years  and  tliree  montlis,  all  hostilities 
should  cease.  .  .  .  Rlcliurd  embarked  for  Europe, 
to  seek  along  captivity  and  a  premature  grave; 
and  the  space  of  a  few  months  concluded  the  life 
and  glories  of  Saladin." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  eh.  59. — "A  halo  of 
false  glory  surrounds  the  Third  Crusade  from  the 
associations  which  connect  it  with  the  lion-hearted 
king  of  England.  The  exploits  of  Richard  I.  have 
stirred  to  enthusiasm  the  dullest  of  chroniclers, 
have  furnished  themes  for  jubilant  cu  Jgies,  and 
have  shed  over  his  life  that  glamour  which  cheats 
even  sober-minded  men  when  they  read  thi  story 
of  his  prototype  Achilleus  in  the  tale  of  Troy .  .  .  . 
When  we  turn  from  tlie  picture  to  the  reali  y,  we 
shall  see  in  this  Third  Crusade  an  enterpiise  in 
which  the  fiery  zeal  which  does  somethin.t  to- 
wards redeeming  the  savage  brutalities  of  God- 
frey aud  the  first  crusaders  is  displaced  by  base 
and  sordid  greed,  by  intrigues  utterly  of  the  ei  rth 
earthy,  bv  wanton  crimes  from  which  we  mijlit 
well  suppose  that  the  sun  would  hide  away  its 
face ;  and"  in  the  leaders  of  this  enterprise  we  shall 
see  men  in  whom  morally  there  is  scarcely  a  single 
quality  to  relieve  the  monotonous  blackness  of 
their  infamy;  in  whom,  strategically,  a  very" 
little  generalship  comes  to  the  aid  of  a  blind 
brute  force." — Gf.  W.  Cox,  The  Crusades,  eh.  7. 

Also  in:  Mrs.  W.  Busk,  Mediaeval  Popes, 
Emperors,  Kifts  and  Onuaders,  bk.  2,  eh.  12,  a7id 
bk.  Z,ch.  1-2.  .-.      .     ,  ,  :    . 


A  D.  1196-1197.— The  Fourth  Expedition. 

— A  crusading  expedition  of  German  barons  aud 
their  followers,  which  wi-r.l  to  the  Holy  Land, 
by  way  of  Italy,  in  1100,  is  generally  counted  as 
the  Fourth  Crusade,  though  '-'mie  writers  look 
upon  it  as  a  movement  supplementiiry  to  tlio 
Third  Cru.sade.  The  Germans,  who  numbered 
some  40,000,  do  not  seem  t(  liiwe  been  welcomed 
by  the  Christians  of  Pii';s:ine,  Tlie  latter  jire- 
erred  to  maintain  the  state  of  peace  then  pre- 
vailing; but  the  new  crusaueis  forced  hostilities 
at  once.  Saladin  was  dead ;  his  brother  Saphadin 
accepted  the  challenge  to  warwitli  prompt  vigor 
and  struck  tlie  first  liard  blow,  taking  Jalfa,  with 
great  slaughter,  and  demolishing  its  fortifica- 
tions. But  .Sai)lia(lin  was  presently  defeated  in 
a  battle  fought  between  Tyre  and  Sldon,  and 
Jaffa  was  recovered,  together  witli  other  towns 
and  most  of  the  coast.  But,  a  little  later,  the 
Germans  suffered,  in  their  turn,  a  most  demoral- 
izing reverse  at  the  castle  of  Tlioron,  whiih  they 
besieged,  and  weve  further  disturbed,  in  the 
midst  of  their  depression,  by  news  of  tlie  death 
of  their  emperor,  Henry  VI.  A  great  part  of 
them,  thereupon,  returned  home.  Those  who  re- 
remained,  or  many  of  them,  occui)icd  Jaffa,  wliere 
they  were  attacked,  a  few  montlis  later,  'ind  cut 
to  pieces. — G.  \V.  Cox,  The  Crusades,  eh.  6. 

A.  D.  1201-1203.— The  Fifth  Movement. — 
Treachery  of  the  Venetians. —  Conquest  of 
Constantinople. —  "Every  traveller  returning 
from  Syria  brouglit  a  prayer  for  immediate  help 
from  tiie  survivors  of  the  Third  Crusade.  It 
was  necessary  to  act  at  once  if  any  portion  even 
of  the  wreck  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  were 
to  be  saved.  Innocent  the  Third,  aud  some,  at 
least,  of  the  statesmen  of  the  WdSt  were  fully 
alive  to  the  progress  which  Islam  had  mudo 
since  the  departure  of  the  Western  kings.  In 
1197,  however,  after  five  yearsof  weary  waiting, 
the  time  seemed  opportune  for  striking  a  new 
blow  for  Christendom.  Saladin,  the  great  Sultan, 
had  died  in  1193,  and  his  two  sons  were  already 
quarreling  about  the  partition  of  his  empire. 
The  contending  divisions  of  the  Arab  MosIeAs 
were  at  this  moment  each  bidding  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  Christians  of  Syria.  The  other  great 
race  of  Mahometans  which  had  threatened 
Europe,  the  Seljukian  Turks,  had  made  a  halt 
in  their  progress  through  Asia  Minor.  .  .  . 
Other  special  circumstances  wliich  rendered  the 
moment  favourable  for  a  new  crusade,  com- 
bined with  the  profound  conviction  of  the  states- 
men of  the  West  of  the  danger  to  Christendom 
from  the  progress  of  Islam,  urged  Western 
Europe  to  tiike  part  in  the  new  enterprise.  The 
reigning  Pope,  Inncent  III.,  was  the  great 
moving  spirit  of  the  Fourth  Crusade."  The 
popular  preacher  of  the  Crusade  was  found  in  an 
Ignorant  priest  named  FulH,  of  Neuilly,  whose 
success  in  kindling  puulic  enthusiasm  was 
almost  equal  to  that  of  Peter  the  Hermit.  Vast 
numbers  took  the  cross,  with  Theobald,  count 
of  Champagne,  Louis,  count  of  Blois  and  Char- 
tres,  Simon  de  Montfort,  Walter  of  Erienne, 
Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  Hugh  of  St.  Pol, 
Geoffrey  de  Villehardouin,  marshal  of  Champagne 
and  future  historian  of  the  Crusade,  and  many 
other  prominent  knights  and  princes  among  the 
leaders.  The  young  count  of  Champagne  was 
the  chosen  chief ;  but  he  sickened  and  died  and 
his  place  was  taken  by  Boniface,  marquis  of 
Montferrat.    It  was  the  decisiou  of  the  leaders 


631 


CRUSADES,  1201-1203. 


Taking  of 
CotutantinopU. 


CRUSADES,  1212. 


thnt  the  expedition  should  be  directed  i}\  the  first 
instance  ngiiinst  tlie  Moslem  power  in  Egypt,  and 
tliat  it  sliould  he  conveyed  to  tlie  attack  of 
Egypt  by  sea.  Venice,  alone,  seemed  to  hcnhlc 
to  furnish  sliips,  sailors  and  supplies  for  so  gn'ut 
a  movement,  and  a  contract  with  Venice  for  the 
servire  was  concluded  in  the  spring  of  1201. 
But  Venice  was  mercenarv,  unscrupulous  and 
treuc'ierous,  caring  for  nothiiig  hut  commercial 
gains.  Before  the  crusaders  could  gather  at  her 
port  for  embarkation,  slie  had  lietrayed  them  to 
the  Moslems.  By  a  secret  treaty  with  the  sultan 
of  Egypt,  the  fact  of  which  is  coming  more  and 
more  conclusively  to  light,  she  had  undertaken 
to  frustrate  the  Crusade,  and  to  receive  import- 
ant commercial  privileges  at  Alexandria  as  com- 
pensation for  her  treachery.  AVhen,  therefore, 
in  tlie  early  summer  of  1202,  the  army  of  the 
Crusade  was  collected  at  Venice  to  take  ship,  it 
encountered  difBculties,  discouragements  and  ill- 
treatments  which  thickened  daily.  The  number 
assembled  was  not  equal  to  expectation.  Some 
had  gone  by  sea  from  Flanders ;  some  by  other 
routes.  But  Venice  had  provided  transport  f  jr 
the  whole,  and  inflexibly  demanded  pay  for  '»he 
whole.  The  money  in  hand  was  not  equnl  to 
this  claim.  Thv;  suninicr  was  lost  in  disputes 
and  attempted  compromises.  Many  of  the  cru- 
saders withdrew  in  disgust  and  went  home.  At 
length,  in  defiance  of  the  censures  of  the  pope 
and  of  the  bitter  opposition  of  many  leaders  and 
followers  of  the  expedition,  there  was  a  bargain 
struck,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  crusaders  were 
to  assist  the  Venetians  in  taking  and  plundering 
the  Christian  city  of  Zara,  a  dreaded  commerciiil 
rival  on  the  Dalmatian  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  be- 
longing to  the  king  of  Hungary,  himself  one  of 
the  promoters  of  the  very  crusade  which  was 
now  to  be  turned  against  him.  The  infamous 
compact  was  carried  out.  Zara  was  taken,  and  in 
the  end  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  th*!  Venetians. 
In  the  meantime,  the  doomed  city  was  occupied 
by  the  crusading  army  through  the  winter,  while 
a  still  more  perfidious  plot  was  being  formed. 
Old  Dandolo,  the  blind  doge  of  Venice,  was  the 
master  spirit  of  it.  He  was  helped  by  th<!  in- 
fluence of  Philip,  one  of  the  two  rivals  then 
fighting  for  the  imperial  crown  In  Germany  and 
Italy.  Philip  had  married  a  daughter  of  Isaac 
II.  (Angelos),  made  emperor  at  Constantinople 
on  the  fall  of  the  i  j'nasty  of  Comnenus,  and  that 
feeble  prince  had  lately  been  dethroned  by  his 
brother.  The  son  and  heir  of  Isaac,  named 
Alexius,  had  escaped  from  Constantinople  and 
had  made  his  way  to  Philip  imploring  help. 
Either  Pliilip  conceived  the  idea,  or  it  was  sug- 
gested to  him,  that  the  armament  of  tlie  Crusade 
might  be  employed  to  place  the  young  Alexius 
on  the  throne  of  his  father.  To  the  v  enetians 
the  scheme  was  more  than  accepiable.  It  would 
frustrate  the  Crusade,  wliicli  they  had  pledged 
themselves  to  the  sultan  of  Egypt  to  accomplisli ; 
it  would  satisfy  their  ill-will  towards  the  By- 
zantines, and,  more  important  than  all  else,  it 
would  give  them  an  opportunity  to  secure  im- 
measurable advantages  over  their  rivals  in  the 
great  trade  which  Constantinople  lieKl  at  com- 
mand. The  nianiuis  of  Jlontferrat,  commander 
of  the  Crusa<ic,  hail  some  grievances  of  his  own 
and  some  ambitions  of  his  own,  wli'ch  made  him 
favorable  to  the  new  project,  and  he  was  easily 
won  to  it.  The  three  influences  thus  combined  — 
those  of  Philip,  of  Daudolo,  and  of  Moutferrat — 


overcame  all  opposition.  Some  who  opposed 
were  bribed,  some  were  intimidated,  some  were 
deluded  by  promises,  some  deserted  the  r.'\nk8. 
Pope  Innocent  remonstnited,  appealed  and  threat- 
ened in  vain.  The  pilgrim  liost,  "  changed  from 
a  crusading  army  into  a  filibustering  expedition," 
set  sail  from  Zara  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1203, 
ond  was  landed,  the  following  June,  iiot  on  the 
shores  of  Egypt  or  Syria,  but  under  the  walls 
of  Constintinople.  Its  conquest,  pillage  and 
brutally  destructive  treatment  of  the  great  city 
are  described  in  another  place. —  E.  Pears,  The 
Fall  of  Constantinople,  eh.  8-13. 

Also  in:  G.  Finlay,  J/int.  of  the  Byzantine  and 
Greek  Empires,  71«-14r)3.  bk.  3,  eh.  3.— E.  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  lioman  Empire,  eh.  59. — 
See,  also,  Byzantpne  E.\tpinE:  A.  D.  1203-1204. 

A.  D.  1201-1283.— Against  the  heathen  Scla- 
Tonians  on  the  Baltic.  Sec  Livonia:  12Tii-13Tn 
Centuiues;  and  Pkussia:  13tii  Centuuy. 

A.  D.  1209-1242.— Against  the  Albigenses. 
See  Albioenses. 

A.  D.  1212.— The  Children's  Crusade.— "The 
religious  wars  fostered  and  promoted  vice ;  and 
the  failure  of  army  after  army  was  looked  on  as 
a  clear  manifestation  of  God's  wrath  against  the 
sins  of  the  camp.  This  feeling  was  roused  to  its 
highest  pitch  when,  in  the  year  1212,  certaio 
priests  —  Nicolas  was  the  name  of  one  of  these 
mischievous  madmen  —  went  about  France  and 
Germany  calling  on  the  children  to  perform 
what  the  fathers,  through  their  wickedness,  had 
been  unable  to  effect,  promising  that  the  sea 
should  be  dry  to  enable  them  to  march  across ; 
that  the  Saracens  would  be  miraculously  stricken 
with  a  panic  at  the  sight  of  them;  that  God 
would,  through  the  hands  of  children  only, 
whose  lives  were  yet  pure,  work  the  recovery  of 
the  Cross  and  the  Sepulchre.  Thousands — it  is 
said  fifty  thousand  —  children  of  both  sexes  re- 
sponded to  the  call.  They  listened  10  the  im- 
passioned preaching  of  the  monks,  believed  their 
lying  miracles,  their  visions,  their  portents,  their 
references  to  the  Scriptures,  and,  in  spite  of  all 
that  their  parents  could  do,  rushed  to  take  the 
Cross,  boys  and  girls  together,  and  streamed 
along  the  roads  which  led  to  Marseilles  and 
Genoa,  singing  hymns,  waving  brandies,  reply- 
ing to  those  who  asked  whither  they  were  going, 
'  We  go  to  Jerusalem  to  deliver  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre,' and  shouting  their  rallying  cry,  'Lord 
Jesus,  give  us  back  thy  Holy  Cross. '  They  ad- 
mitted whoever  came,  provided  he  took  the 
Cross;  the  infection  spread,  and  the  children 
could  not  be  restrained  from  joining  them  in  the 
towns  and  villages  along  their  route.  Their 
miserable  parents  put  them  in  prison;  they  es- 
caped; they  forbade  them  to  go;  the  children 
went  in  spite  of  prohibition.  They  had  no 
money,  no  provisions,  no  leaders ;  but  the  charity 
of  the  towns  they  passed  through  supported 
them.  At  their  rear  streamed  the  usual  tail  of 
cnmp  followers.  .  .  .  There  were  two  main  bodies. 
One  of  these  directed  its  way  through  Germany, 
across  ll'e  Alps,  to  Genoa.  On  the  road  they 
were  robbed  of  all  the  gifts  whicli  hud  been  pre- 
sented them;  they  were  exposed  to  heat  and 
want,  an  1  very  many  either  died  on  the  march 
or  wandered  away  from  the  road  and  so  became 
lost  to  sight;  when  they  reached  Italy  they  dis- 
persed obout  the  country,  seeking  food,  were 
stripped  by  the  villagers,  and  In  some  cases  were 
reduced  to  slavery.     Only  seven  thousand  out  of 


682 


CRUSADES,  131  >. 


Traaedu  of 
the  Children. 


CRUSADES,  1216-1229. 


their  Li  imbcr  arrived  (it  Ocnon.  Ilcrp  they  stayed 
for  some  (hiys.  They  looked  down  upon  the 
Med.:errftnean,  hoping  that  Its  bright  waves 
woukl  divide  to  let  them  pass.  But  tliey  did 
not;  tiiero  was  no  miracle  wrought  in  th'Ar 
favour;  a  few  of  noble  birtli  were  received  simong 
the  Genoese  families,  and  have  given  rise  to  dis- 
tinguislied  houses  of  Genoa ;  among  them  is  the 
house  of  Vivaldi.  The  rest,  disappointed  aud 
disheartened,  made  their  way  back  again,  and 
got  liome  at  length,  the  girls  with  the  loss  of 
their  virtue,  tlie  boys  witli  tlic  loss  of  tlieir  be- 
lief, all  barefooted  and  in  rags,  lauglied  at  by 
the  to.wns  they  went  through,  and  wondering 
why  they  had  ever  gone  at  all.  This  was  the 
end  of  the  German  army.  That  of  the  French  was 
not  so  fortunate,  for  none  of  them  ever  got  back 
again  at  all.  When  they  arrived  at  Marseilles, 
thinned  probably  by  the  same  causes  as  those 
which  had  dispersed  the  Germans,  they  found, 
like  tlioir  brethren,  that  tlie  sea  did  not  open  a 
path  for  them,  as  had  been  promised.  Perhaps 
some  were  disheartened  and  went  home  again. 
B\it  fortune  appeared  to  favour  them.  Tliere 
were  two  worthy  merchants  at  Jlarseilles,  named 
Hugh  Perrens,  and  "Villiam  Porcus,  Iron  Ilugli 
aud  Pig  William,  who  traded  with  the  East,  and 
had  in  port  seven  ships,  in  whicli  they  proposed 
to  convey  the  children  to  Palestine.  With  a 
noble  generosity  they  offered  to  take  them  for 
nothing,  all  for  love  of  religion,  and  out  of  the 
pure  kindness  of  tlieir  hearts.  Of  course  this 
offer  was  accepted  with  joj',  and  the  seven  ves- 
sels laden  with  tlie  happy  little  Crusaders,  sing- 
ing their  hymns  and  flying  their  banners,  sailed 
out  from  Marseilles,  bound  for  the  East,  accom- 

fanied  by  William  tlio  Good  and  Hugh  the  Pious, 
t  was  not  known  to  the  children,  of  course,  that 
the  chief  trade  of  these  merchants  was  the  lucra- 
tive business  of  kidnapping  Christian  cliildren 
for  the  Alexandrian  market.  It  was  so,  however, 
and  these  respectable  tradesmen  had  never  be- 
fore made  so  splendid  a  coup.  Unfortunately, 
off  tlio  Island  of  St.  Peter,  they  encountered  bad 
weather,  and  two  ships  went  down  with  all  on 
board.  What  must  have  been  the  feelings  of 
the  pliilanthropists.  Pig  William  and  Iron  Hugh, 
at  this  misfortune?  They  got,  however,  five 
ships  safely  to  Alexandria,  and  sold  all  their 
cargo,  the  Sultan  of  Cairo  buying  forty  of  the 
boys,  whom  he  brought  up  carefully  and  apart, 
intending  them,  doubtless,  for  his  best  soldiers.. 
A  dozen  refusing  to  change  their  faith  were 
martyred.  None  of  the  rest  ever  came  back. 
Nobody  in  Europe  seems  to  have  taken  much 
notice  of  this  extraonlinary  episode." — AV.  Be- 
sant  and  E.  H.  Palmer,  Jerusalem,  ch.  18. 

Also  in:  J.  H.  Michaud,  Hint,  rrfthe  Crunculcs, 
app.  110.  28. — G.  Z.  Gray,  The  Children's  Cru- 
sade, 

A.  D.  i2i2. — Against  the  Moors  in  Spain. 
See  Spain:  A.  D.  1146-1232. 

A.  D.  1216-1229. — The  Sixth  Movement. — 
Frederic  II.  in  Jerusalem. — For  six  years  after 
the  betrayal  of  the  vows  of  the  crusaders  of  1202- 
1204  —  who  sacked  Constantinople  instead  of 
rescuing  Jerusalem  —  the  Christians  of  Palestine 
were  protected  by  a  truce  with  Saphadin,  the 
brother  of  Saladin,  who  had  succeeded  the  latter 
in  power.  Hostilities  were  then  rashly  provoked 
by  the  always  foolish  Latins,  and  they  soon 
found  themselves  reduced  to  sore  straits,  calling 
upon  Europe  for  fresh  help.  Pope  Innocent  III. 
41 


did  not  scruple  to  second  their  appeal.  A  new 
crusade  was  preached  with  great  earnestness,  and 
a  general  Council  of  the  Church  —  the  Fourth  of 
Lateran  —  was  c(mvened  for  the  stimulation  of 
it.  "The  Fifth  Crusade  [or  the  Sixth,  as  more 
commonly  numbered],  tlie  result  of  tliis  resolu- 
tion, was  divided  in  tlic  sequel  into  tliree  mari- 
time expeditions:  tlie  tlrst  [A.  D.  1216]  consist- 
ing principally  of  Hungarians  under  their  king, 
Andrew;  the  second  [A.  D.  12181  composed  of 
Germans,  Italians,  French  and  Kngiisli  nobles- 
and  their  followers;  and  the  third  [A.  D.  1228] 
led  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  11.  in  person.  .  .  . 
Though  the  King  of  Hungary  was  attended  by 
the  flower  of  a  nation  which,  before  its  con- 
version to  Cliristianity,  had  been  the  scourge 
and  terror  of  Western  Europe,  the  arms  of  that 
monarch,  even  aided  by  the  junction  of  numer- 
ous German  crusaders  under  the  dukes  of  Aus- 
tria and  Bavaria,  performed  nothing  worti:y  of 
notice :  and  after  a  single  campaign  in  Palestine, 
in  which  the  Jlussuhnan  territories  were  ineffect- 
ually ravaged,  tho  tickle  Andrew  deserted  the 
cause  and  returne.l  with  his  forces  to  Europe. 
His  defection  did  not  prevent  the  duke  of  Aus- 
tria, with  the  German  crusaders,  from  remaining, 
in  concert  with  the  King  of  Jerusalem,  his  barons, 
and  the  knights  of  tho  three  religious  orders, 
for  tlie  defence  of  Palestine;  and,  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  tlie  constancy  of  these  faithful  cham- 
pions of  tlie  Cross  was  rewarded  by  the  arrival 
of  numerous  reinforcements  from  Germany.  .  .  . 
It  was  resolved  to  change  the  scene  of  warfare 
from  the  narrow  limits  of  the  Syrian  shore  to 
the  coast  of  Egypt,  .  .  .  and  the  situation  of 
Damietta,  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  Nile,  jiointed  out 
tliat  city  as  the  first  object  of  attack."  After  a. 
siege  of  seventeen  months,  during  which  both, 
the  besieged  and  the  besiegers  sulTered  horribly, 
from  famine  and  from  pestilence,  Damietta  was- 
taken  (A.  D.  1219).  Nine-tenths  of  its  popula- 
tion of  80,000  had  perished.  "  Both  during  tlie 
siege  and  after  the  capture  of  Damietta,  tlie  in- 
vasion of  Egypt  had  tilled  the  infidels  with  con- 
sternation ;  and  the  alarm  which  was  betrayed  ia 
tlieir  counsels  proved  that  tlic  crusaders,  in 
clioosing  that  count-y  for  tlie  theatre  of  opera- 
tions, had  assailed  the  Mussulman  power  m  its- 
most  vital  and  vulnerable  point.  Of  the  two 
sons  of  Saphadin,  Coradiniu  and  Camel,  who 
were  now  uneasily  seated  on  the  thrones  of  Da- 
mascus and  Cairo,  the  former,  in  despair  of  pre- 
serving .Jerusalem,  had  already  demolished  ita 
fortifications;  and  the  brothers  agreed  in  re- 
peatedly offering  the  cession  of  tlie  lioly  city  and 
of  all  Palestine  to  the  Christians,  ujiou  Lhe  single 
condition  of  their  evacuating  Egypt.  Every 
object  whicli  had  been  ineffectually  proposed  in 
repeated  Crusades,  since  the  fatal  battle  of 
Tiberias,  might  now  liave  been  gloriously  ob- 
tained by  the  acceptance  of  these  terms,  and  the 
King  of  Jerusalem,  the  .t'rench  and  English, 
leaders,  and  the  Teutonic  knights,  all  eagerly 
desired  to  embrace  the  offer  of  the  Sultana.  But 
the  obstinate  ambition  and  cupidity  of  the  sur- 
viving papal  legate.  Cardinal  Pelagius,  of  tho 
Italian  cliief  tains,  and  of  the  kniglits  of  the  other 
two  religious  orders,  by  holding  out  the  rich 
prospect  of  the  conquest  and  plunder  of  Egypt, 
overruled  every  wise  and  temperate  argument  in 
the  Christian  councils,  and  jiroduced  a  rejection 
of  all  compromise  witli  the  infidels.  After  a 
winter  of  luxurious  inaction,  the  legate  led  the 


633 


CRTT8ADE8,  1216-1229. 


St,  Louu  In 
Eui/pt. 


CRUSADES,  1248-1254. 


crugndini^  host  from  Dnmictta  townnl  Cairo 
(A.  I).  1220)."  The  expedition  wiia  lis  disiis- 
troiiH  in  it8  result  as  it  was  imbecile  in  its  leader- 
sliip.  Tlie  whole  army,  caught  l)y  the  rising  of 
the  Nile,  was  placed  in  so  helpless  a  situation  that 
it  was  glad  to  purc^hase  escape  Ijy  the  surnmder  of 
Daniielta  and  the  evacuation  of  Egypt.  The 
retreat  of  tlie  greater  part  of  these  crusaders  did 
not  end  until  they  had  reached  home.  Pojie 
Honorius  III.  (who  had  succeeded  Innocent  III. 
in  1210)  strove  to  shift  respousiliility  for  the 
failure  from  liis  wretched  legate  to  the  Emperor 
Frederic  II..  who  had  thus  far  evaded  tlie  ful- 
filment of  his  crusading  promises  and  vows, 
being  occupied  in  struggles  with  the  papacy. 
At  length,  in  1328,  JVederic  embarked  for 
Palestine  witli  a  small  force,  pursued  l)y  the 
maledictions  of  the  |)ope,  who  denouncecl  him 
for  daring  to  assume  the  Cross  while  under  tlie 
ban  of  the  church,  as  much  as  he  had  denounced 
him  before  for  neglecting  it.  But  the  free- 
thinking  1  lolieustauiTen  cared  little,  apparently, 
and  went  his  way,  shunned  scrupulously  by  all 
pious  souls,  inchuling  the  knights  of  Palestine, 
<?xcept  those  of  the  Teutonic  order.  Witli  the 
help  of  the  latter  lie  occupied  and  rcfortified 
Jafia  and  succeijded  in  concluding  a  treaty  with 
the  Sultan  whicli  restored  Jerusalem  to  the 
Christians,  reserving  certain  riglits  to  the  Ma- 
hometans; giving  up  likewise  Bethlehem,  Naz- 
areth and  some  other  places  to  the  Christians, 
and  securing  |ieace  for  ten  years.  Frederic 
liad  married,  a  few  years  before,  for  his  second 
empress,  lolantc,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the 
titular  k'jg  of  Jerusalem,  Jolm  de  Brienne. 
AVith  t',0  hand  of  this  princess,  he  received  from 
her  f  .dier  a  solemn  transfer  of  all  his  riglits  to 
that  shadowy  throne.  lie  now  claimed  those 
rights,  and,  entering  Jerusalem,  witli  the  Teu- 
tonic knights  (A.  1).  1329),  lie  crowned  himself 
its  king.  The  patriarch,  the  Templars  and  the 
Hospitallers  refused  to  take  part  in  the  ceremony ; 
the  popo  denounced  Frederic's  advantageous 
trratj^  as  soon  as  lie  liad  news  of  it,  and  all  that 
it  gained  for  the  Christians  of  Palestine  was 
thrown  away  by  tliem  as  speedily  as  possible. — 
Major  Procter,  Ilist.  of  the  CrustKlen,  ch.  5,  sect. 
3. — "No  Crusader,  since  Godfrey  dc  Bouillon, 
had  effected  so  much  as  Frederick  tlie  Second. 
What  would  he  not  have  obtained,  had  the 
Pope,  the  Patriarcii  and  the  Orders  given  him 
their  ■  hearty  cooperation  ?  " — T.  L.  Kington, 
Uht.  of  Frederick  II.,  ch.  8. 

A.  b.  1 238- 1 280. —  Against  the  Bogomiles, 
See  Balk.\n  and  Danuiiian  States:  9th-16tu 
Centuuies  (Bosnia,  etc.) 

A.  D.  i;!42. —  The  Invasion  of  Palestine  by 
the  Carismians.     See  Jehusalem:  A.  D.  1343. 

A.  D.  1248-1254.— The  Seventh  Movement. 
—  Expedition  ofSaint  Louis  to  E^pt. —  The 
Seventh  Crusade  was  undertaken,  with  little  aid 
from  other  countries,  by  the  devout  and  wonder- 
fully Christian-like  young  king  of  France,  Louis 
IX.,  afterwards  canonized,  and  known  ia  history 
as  St.  Louis.  "  He  carried  it  out  witli  a  picked 
army,  furnished  by  tlie  feudal  chivalry  and  by 
the  religious  and  military  orders  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  the  Holy  Land.  Tlie  Isle  of 
Cyprus  was  the  trystiug-'place  appointed  for  all 
the  forces  of  the  expedition.  Louis  arrived 
there  on  the  12th  of  September,  1248,  and  reck- 
oned upon  remaining  there  only  a  few  days ;  for 
it  was  Egypt  that  he  was  in  a  hurry  to  reach. 


The  Christian  world  was  at  that  time  of  opinion 
thiit,  to  deliver  the  Holy  Land,  it  was  necessary 
first  of  all  to  strike  a  blow  at  Islamism  in  Egypt, 
wlierein  its  cliief  strength  resided.  But  scarcely 
had  tlie  crusaders  formed  a  junction  in  Cyprus, 
when  the  vices  of  the  expetiition  and  the  weak- 
nesses of  its  chief  liegan  to  be  manifest.  Louis, 
unshakable  in  his  religious  zeal,  was  wanting  in 
clear  ideas  and  fixed  resolves  as  to  the  carrying 
out  of  his  design.  .  .  .  He  did  not  succeed  in 
winning  a  majority  in  the  council  of  chiefs  over 
to  his  opinion  as  to  the  necessity  for  a  speedy 
departure  for  Egypt ;  it  was  decided  to  pass  the 
winter  in  Cyprus.  ...  At  last  a  start  was  made 
from  Cyprus  in  May,  1249,  and,  in  spite  of  vio- 
lent gales  of  wind  which  dispersed  a  large  num- 
ber of  vessels,  they  arrived  on  the  4th  of  June 
liefore  Damietta.  .  .  .  Having  become  mas- 
ters of  Damietta,  St.  Louis  and  the  crusaders 
committed  tlie  same  fault  there  as  in  the  Isle  of 
Cyprus:  they  halted  there  for  an  indefinite  time. 
They  were  expecting  fresh  crusaders;  and  they 
spent  the  time  of  expectation  in  (luarieling  over 
the  partition  of  tlie  booty  taken  in  the  city. 
Tliey  made  away  with  it,  they  wasted  it  blindly. 
.  .  .  Louis  saw  and  deplored  these  irregulari- 
ties, without  being  in  a  condition  to  stop  them. 
At  length,  on  the  20th  of  November,  1249,  after 
more  than  five  months'  inactivity  at  Damietta, 
the  crusaders  put  themselves  once  more  in 
motion,  with  the  determination  of  marching 
upon  Babylon,  that  outskirt  of  Cairo,  now  called 
Old  Cairo,  which  tlie  greater  part  of  them,  in 
tlieir  ignorance,  mistook  for  the  real  Babylon, 
and  where  they  flattered  themselves  they  would 
find  immense  riclies,  and  avenge  the  olden  suffer- 
ings of  the  Hebrew  captives.  The  Mussulmans 
liad  found  time  to  recover  from  their  first  fright, 
and  to  organize,  at  all  points,  a  vigorous  resist- 
ance. On  the  8tli  of  February,  1250,  a  battle 
took  place  twenty  leagues  from  Damietta,  at 
Mansourali  ('the  city  of  victory'),  on  tlie  right 
bank  of  the  Nile.  .  .  .  The  battle-fleld  was  left 
that  day  to  thi)  crusaders;  but  they  were  not 
allowed  to  occupy  it  as  conquerors,  for,  three 
days  afterwanis,  on  the  11th  of  February,  1250, 
the  camp  of  St.  Louis  was  assailed  by  clouds 
of  Saracens,  horse  and  f'lot,  Mamelukes  and 
Bedouins.  All  surprise  liad  vanished,  tlie  Mus- 
sulmans measured  at  a  glance  the  numbers  of 
the  Christians,  and  attacked  them  in  full  assur- 
ance of  success,  whatever  lieroism  tliey  might 
display ;  and  the  crusaders  tliemselves  indulged 
in  no  more  self-illusion,  and  tliought  only  of 
defending  tliemselves.  Lack  of  provisions  and 
sickness  soon  rendered  defence  almost  as  impos- 
sible as  attack;  every  day  saw  the  Cliristian 
camp  more  and  more  encumbered  witli  the 
famir  stricken,  tlie  lying,  and  the  dead;  and 
the  cessity  for  retreating  became  evident." 
An  attempt  to  negotiate  with  the  enemy  failed, 
because  they  insisted  on  tlie  surrender  of  tlio 
king  as  liostage, —  whicli  none  would  concede. 
"On  the  5th  of  April,  1250,  the  crusaders 
decided  upon  retreating.  This  was  the  most 
deplorable  scene  of  a  deplorable  drama ;  and  at 
the  same  time  it  was,  for  tlie  king,  an  occasion 
for  displaying,  in  their  mo^t  sublime  and 
attractive  traits,  ail  the  virtues  of  the  Christian. 
Whilst  sickness  and  famine  were  devastating  the 
camp,  Louis  made  himself  visitor,  pliysician 
and  comforter;  and  his  presence  and  his  words 
exercised  upon  the  worst  cases  a  searching  influ- 


634 


CUU8ADE8,  1248-1254. 


St.  LohU 
at  I'unU. 


CRUSADES,  1270-1271. 


ence.  .  .  .  Wlion  tho  5tli  of  April,  the  di  y  thicd 
for  the  retrent,  had  come,  Loiiia  liitiiK'lf  was 
ill  and  much  enfeeblod.  IIo  was  urgwl  to  go 
cboani  one  of  the  vessels  which  were  to  descend 
the  Nile,  carrying  the  wounded  and  tho  most 
suffering;  but  he  refused  absolutely,  saying,  'I 
don't  aeparato  from  my  people  in  the  hour  of 
danger.'  IIo  remained  on  land,  and  wlien  he 
had  to  move  forward  he  fainted  away.  When 
Ue  came  to  himself,  he  was  amongst  the  last  to 
leave  the  camp.  ...  At  four  lcag\ies  distance 
from  the  canip  it  had  just  left,  the  rear-guard  of 
tho  crusaders,  harassed  by  clouds  of  Saracens, 
was  obliged  to  halt.  Louis  could  no  longer 
keep  on  his  horse.  '  He  was  put  up  at  a  house,' 
says  .loinvillc,  'and  laid,  almost  dead,  upon  tho 
lap  of  a  tradeswoman  from  Paris;  and  it  was 
believed  that  he  would  not  last  till  evening.'" 
The  king,  in  this  condition,  with  tho  whole 
wreck  of  his  army, —  only  10,000  in  number 
remaining  to  him, —  were  taken  prisoners.  Their 
release  from  captivity  was  purchased  a  month 
later  by  the  surrender  of  Damietta  and  a  ran- 
som-payment of  500,000  livres.  They  made 
their  way  to  St.  Jean  d'  Acre,  in  Palestine, 
whence  many  of  them  returned  home.  But 
King  Louis,  with  some  of  his  knights  and  men- 
at-arms —  how  many  is  not  known  —  stayed  yet 
in  the  Holy  Land  for  four  years,  striving  and 
hoping  against  hope  to  accomplish  something 
for  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem,  and  expending 
"in  small  works  of  piety,  sympathy,  protection, 
and  caro  for  tho  future  of  tho  Christian  popula- 
tion in  Asia,  his  time,  his  strength,  his  pecun- 
iary resources,  and  tho  ardor  of  a  soul  which 
could  not  remain  idly  abandoned  to  sorrowing 
over  great  desires  unsatisfied."  The  good  and 
pious  but  ill-guided  king  returned  to  France 
in  the  summer  of  1254,  and  was  received  with 
great  joy. —  P.  P.  Guizot,  Popular  Hist,  of  France, 
ch,  17. 

Also  in  :  Sire  Do  Joinville,  ^femoirs  of  Saint 
Louis,  pt.  2.  —  J.  F.  Miclmud,  Hist,  of  the  Cru- 
sades, bks.  13-14. 

A.  D.  lasa.— The  movement  of  "the  Pas- 
tors."—On  the  arrival  in  Fnuice  of  the  news  of 
tho  disastrous  failure  of  Saint  Louis's  expedition 
to  Egypt,  there  occurred  an  outbreak  of  fanati- 
cism as  insensate  as  tliat  of  the  children's  crusade 
of  forty  years  before.  It  was  said  to  have 
originated  with  a  Hungarian  named  Jacob,  who 
began  to  proclaim  that  Christ  rejected  the  great 
ones  of  the  earth  from  His  service,  and  that  the 
deliverance  of  tho  Holy  City  must  bo  accom- 
plished by  the  poor  and  luunble.  "Shepherds 
left  their  flocks,  labourers  laid  down  the  plough, 
to  follow  his  footsteps.  .  .  .  The  name  of  Pastors 
was  given  to  these  village  crusaders.  ...  At 
length,  assembled  to  the  nimiber  of  more  than 
100,000,  these  redoubtable  pilgrims  left  Paris  and 
divided  themselves  into  sevend  troops,  to  repair 
to  the  coast,  whence  they  were  to  embark  for  tlie 
East.  The  city  of  Orleans,  which  happened  to 
be  in  their  passage,  became  the  theatre  of  fright- 
ful disorders.  Tho  progress  of  their  enormities 
at  length  created  serious  alarm  in  the  govern- 
ment and  the  magistracy;  orders  were  sent  to 
the  provinces  to  pursue  and  disperse  these  turbu- 
lent and  seditious  bands.  Tho  most  numerous 
assemblage  of  the  Pastors  was  fixed  to  take  place 
at  Bourges,  where  the  'master  of  Hungary' 
[Jacob]  was  to  perform  miracles  and  communi- 
cate the  will  of  Heaven.    Their  arrival  in  that 


city  was  the  signal  for  murder,  fire  and  plllnge. 
The  irritated  people  took  up  arms  and  marched 
against  these  disturbers  of  the  public  peace; 
I  hey  overtook  them  between  Mortemer  and 
Villeneuvc-sur-le-Cher,  where,  in  spite  of  their 
numbers,  they  were  routeil,  and  received  the 
punishment  due  to  their  brigandages.  Jacob  had 
Ills  head  cut  off  by  tho  blow  of  an  axe ;  many  of 
his  companions  and  disciples  met  with  ileath  on 
the  Held  of  battle,  or  were  consigned  to  punish- 
ment; tho  remainder  took  to  flight.  "—J.  P. 
Jlicliaud,  Ifisl.  of  the  Criimtdts,  bk.  14. 

A.  D.  1256-1259.  —  Against  Eccelino  di 
Romano.     SeeVKUoN.v:  A.  I).  12:«l-l'25i). 

A.  D.  1270-1271.— The  last  undertakings. — 
Saint  Louis  at  Tunis.  —  Prince  Edward  in 
Palestine. — "For  seven  years  after  his  return  to 
Fmncc,  from  12.54  to  1201,  Louis  seemed  to  think 
no  more  about  them  [the  crusades],  and  there  Is 
nothing  to  show  that  he  spoke  of  them  even  to 
his  most  intimate  conhdants;  but,  in  spite  of  his 
apparent  calmness,  he  was  living,  so  far  as  they 
were  concerned,  in  a  continual  ferment  of 
imaginatio-^  and  internal  fever,  even  flattering 
himself  that  some  favorable  circumstance  would 
call  him  back  to  his  interrupted  work.  ...  In 
1261,  Louis  held,  at  Paris,  a  Parliament,  at  which, 
without  any  talk  of  a  new  crusade,  measures 
were  taken  which  revealed  an  idea  of  it.  .  .  .  In 
1203  tho  crusade  was  openly  preached.  ...  All 
objections,  all  warnings,  all  anxieties  came  to 
notliing  in  tho  face  of  Louis's  fixed  idea  and 
pious  passion.  He  started  from  Paris  on  the  16th 
of  March,  1270,  a  sick  man  almost  already,  but 
with  soul  content,  and  probably  the  only  ono 
without  misgiving  in  the  midst  of  all  his  com- 
rades. It  was  once  more  at  Aigues-Mortes  that 
he  went  to  embark.  All  was  as  j'ct  dark  and 
undecided  as  to  the  plan  of  tho  expedition.  .  .  . 
Steps  wore  taken  at  hap-hazard  with  full  trust 
in  Providence  and  utter  forgetfulness  that  Provi- 
dence does  not  absolve  men  from  foresight.  .  .  . 
It  was  only  in  Sardinia,  after  four  days'  halt  at 
Cagliari,  that  Louis  announced  to  tho  chiefs  of 
tlic  crusade,  assembled  aboard  liis  ship,  tho 
'Mountjoy,'  that  ho  was  making  for  Tunis,  and 
that  their  Christian  work  would  commence  there. 
The  king  of  Tunis  (as  he  was  then  called),  Mo- 
hammed Mostanser,  had  for  some  time  been  talk- 
ing of  his  desire  to  become  a  Christian,  if  ho 
could  be  efficiently  protected  against  the  seditions 
of  his  subjects.  Louis  welcomed  with  transport 
the  prospect  of  Mussulman  conversions.  .  .  . 
But  on  the  17th  of  July,  when  tho  fleet  arrived 
before  Tunis,  the  admiral,  Florent  de  Varennes, 
probably  without  the  king's  orders,  and  with 
that  want  of  reflection  which  was  conspicuous  at 
each  step  of  the  enterprise,  immediately  took 
possession  of  tlie  harbor  and  of  some  Tunisian 
vessels  as  prize,  and  sent  word  to  the  king  '  that 
he  had  only  to  support  him  and  that  tlie  dis- 
embarkation of  the  troops  might  be  effected  with 
perfect  safety.'  Thus  war  was  commenced  at 
the  very  first  moment  against  tho  JIussulman 
prince  whom  tliere  had  been  promise  of  seeing 
before  long  a  Christian.  At  the  end  of  a  fort- 
night, after  some  fight  between  the  Tunisians 
and  the  crusaders,  so  much  political  and  military 
blindness  produced  its  natural  consequences. 
The  re-enforcements  promised  to  Louis  by  his 
brother  Charles  of  Anjou,  king  of  Sicily,  had 
not  arrived;  provisions  were  falling  short;  and 
tho  heats  of  an  African  summer  were  working 


635 


CRUSADES,  1270-1271. 


Thellnd. 


CRUSADES. 


havoc  amongst  tliu  army  witli  such  rapidity  tliiit 
befori!  Ion)?  there  wiis  no  time  to  l)iiry  tlie  (iead; 
but  tlicy  were  cost  pi'llinell  into  tlie  diteli  wliieli 
surrounded  tlie  cunip,  and  tliu  uir  was  tainted 
thereby.  On  the  3d  of  August  Louis  wiis 
attaclied  by  the  epidemic  fever."  On  the  25tli 
of  August  he  died.  I  lis  son  and  successor, 
Philip  til.,  lield  liis  ground  l)efore  Tunis  until 
November,  when  lie  gladly  accepted  a  payment 
of  money  from  the  Tunisian  prince  for  with- 
drawing his  army.  Disaster  followed  him.  A 
storm  destroyed  part  of  his  lleet,  with  4.000  or 
5,000  men,  and  sunk  all  the  treiisure  lie  had 
received  from  the  iMoslenis.  On  the  journey 
home  through  Italy  his  wife  met  witli  an  acci- 
dent which  ended  her  life  and  that  of  her  prema- 
turely born  child.  The  young  king  arrived  at 
Paris,  May,  1271,  bringing  the  remains  of  five  of 
his  family  for  burial  at  St  Denis:  his  wife,  liis 
ion,  his  father,  his  brother,  and  his  brother-in- 
law, —  all  victims  of  the  fatal  crusade.  While 
France  was  thus  burying  the  last  of  her  crusad- 
ers. Prince  Edwanl  (afterwards  King  Edward  I.) 
of  England,  landed  in  Syria  at  the  head  of  a  few 
hundred  knights  and  men  at  arms.  Joined  by 
the  Templars  and  Hospitallers,  he  had  an  army 
of  0,000  or  7,000  men.  with  which  he  took  Naza- 
reth and  made  there  a  blomly  sacrifice  to  the 
memory  of  the  gi'utle  Nazarene.  lie  did  nothing 
more.  Being  wounded  by  an  assassin,  he  ar- 
ranged a  truce  with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  and 
returned  home.  His  expedition  was  the  last 
from  Europe  which  strove  with  the  Moslems  for 
the  Holy  Land.  The  Christians  of  Palestine, 
who  still  held  Acre  and  Tyre,  Sidon  and  a  few 
other  coast  cities,  were  soon  afterwards  over 
whelmed,  and  the  dominion  of  the  Crescent  in 
Syria  was  undisputed  any  more  by  force  of  arms, 
though  many  voices  cried  vainly  against  it.  The 
spirit  of  the  Crusades  had  "expired. — F.  P. 
Quizot,  Popular  Hist,  of  France,  eh.  17. 

Also  in  :  J.  F.  Micbuud,  IIM.  of  the  Cnmules, 
bk.  15. 

A.  D.  1291. — The  end  of  the  Christian  King- 
dom of  Jerusalem.  See  Jerusalem:  A.  D. 
1291. 

A.  D.  1299. — The  last  campaign  of  the 
Templars. — "After  the  fall  of  Acre  [A.  D. 
1291]  the  headquarters  of  the  Templars  were 
established  at  Limisso  in  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
and  urgent  letters  were  sent  to  Europe  for 
succour."  In  1395,  James  de  Molay,  the  head  of 
the  English  province,  became  Grand  JIaster,  and 
soon  alter  his  arrival  in  Palestine  he  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Ghazan  Khan,  the  Slongol  ruler 
of  Persia,  who  had  married  a  Christian  princess 
of  Armenia  and  was  not  unfriendly  to  the 
Christians,  as  against  tlic  ]\Iamelukes  of  Egypt, 
with  whom  he  was  at  war.  The  Mongol  Khan 
invited  the  Templars  to  join  him  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  and  they  did  so  in 
the  spring  of  1299,  at  Antioch.  "An  army  of 
30,000  men  was  placed  by  the  Mogul  empcor 
under  the  command  of  the  Grand  Master,  and 
the  combined  forces  moved  up  the  valley  of  the 
Orontes  towards  Damascus.  In  a  great  battle 
fought  at  Hems,  the  troops  of  the  sultans  of 
Damascus  and  Egypt  were  entirely  defeated  and 
pursued  with  great  slaughter  until  nightfall. 
Aleppo,  Hems,  Damascus,  and  all  the  principal 
cities,  surrendered  to  the  victorious  arras  of  the 
Moguls,  and  the  Templars  once  again  entered 
Jerusalem  in  triumph,  visited  the  Iloly  Sepulchre 


and  celebrated  Easter  on  Mount  Zion."  The 
khan  sant  ambassadors  to  Europe,  offering  the 
possession  of  Palestine  to  the  Christian  powers 
if  they  would  give  him  their  alliance  and  sup- 
port, but  none  responded  to  the  call.  Ghazan 
Khan  fell  ill  and  withdrew  from  Syria;  the 
Templars  retreated  to  Cyprus  once  more  and 
their  military  career,  as  the  champions  of  the 
Cross,  was  at  an  end. — C.  G.  Addison,  The 
Knights  Templarii,  eh.  6. 

Also  in;  II.  II.  Ilowarth,  Hist,  of  the  Mongols, 
pt.  3,  eh.  8. 

Effects  and  consequences  of  the  Crusades 
in  Europe. — "The  principle  of  the  crusades 
was  a  savage  fanaticism ;  and  the  most  import- 
ant effects  were  analogous  to  the  cause.  Each 
pilgrim  was  ambitious  to  return  with  bis  sacred 
spoils,  the  relics  of  Greece  and  Palestine,  and 
each  relic  was  preceded  and  followed  by  a  train 
of  miracles  and  visions.  The  belief  of  the 
Catholics  was  corrupted  by  new  legends,  their 
practice  by  new  suiierstitions ;  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  in((uisition,  the  mendicant  orders 
•A  monks  and  friars,  the  last  abuse  of  indulgences, 
and  the  final  progress  of  idolatry,  flowed  from 
the  baleful  fountain  of  the  holy  war.  The 
active  spirit  of  the  Latins  preyed  on  the  vitals  of 
their  reason  and  religion ;  and  if  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  were  the  times  of  darkness,  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  were  the  age  of 
absurdity  and  fable.  .  .  .  Some  philosophers 
have  applauded  the  propitious  influence  of  these 
holy  wars,  which  appear  to  me  to  have  checked 
rather  than  forwarded  the  maturity  of  Europe." 
— E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Pall  of  the  Roman 
Emjrire,  eh.  61. — "The  crusades  may  be  con- 
sidered as  material  pilgrimages  on  in  enormous 
scale,  and  their  influence  up'  n  general  morality 
seems  to  liav.  been  altogether  pernicious.  Those 
who  served  under  the  cross  would  not  indeed 
have  lived  very  virtuously  at  home;  but  the 
confidence  in  their  own  merits  which  the  prin- 
ciple of  such  expeditions  inspired  must  have 
aggravated  the  ferocity  and  dissoluteness  of 
their  ancient  habits.  Several  historians  attest 
the  depravation  of  momls  which  existed,  both 
among  the  crusaders  and  in  the  states  formed 
out  of  their  conquests." — H.  Hallam,  The  Middle 
Ages,  eh.  9.  pt.  1. — "  It  was  not  possible  for  the 
crusaders  to  travel  through  so  many  countries, 
and  to  behold  their  various  customs  and  insti- 
tutions, without  acquiring  information  and  im- 
provement. Their  views  enlarged;  their  pre- 
judices wore  off;  new  ideas  crowded  into  their 
minds;  and  they  must  have  been  sensible,  on 
many  occasions,  of  the  rusticity  of  their  own 
manners  when  compared  with  those  of  a  more 
polished  people.  .  .  .  Accordingly,  we  discover, 
soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  crusades, 
greater  splendour  in  the  courts  of  princes,  greater 
pomp  in  public  ceremonies,  a  more  refined  taste 
in  pleasure  and  amusements,  together  with  a 
more  romantic  spirit  of  enterprise  spreading 
gradually  over  Europe ;  and  to  these  wild  expe- 
ditions, the  effect  of  superstition  and  folly,  we 
owe  the  first  gleams  of  light  which  tended  to 
dispel  barbarism  and  ignorance.  But  the  bene- 
ficial consequences  of  the  crusades  took  place 
slowly ;  their  influence  upon  the  state  of  property, 
and,  consequently,  of  power,  in  the  different 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  was  more  immediate  as 
well  as  discernible." — W.  Robertson,  View  of  the 
Progress  of  Soc,  in  Europe,  sect.  1. — "The  cra- 


636 


CRUSADES. 


Kffeett  and 
CoHieqUi-nces. 


CRUSADES. 


Radcs  «rfi  not,  in  my  mind,  eitlior  tlip  populiir 
delusions  tlmt  our  cliciip  literiitun!  liiis  dotcrmiticd 
them  to  be,  nor  pi;pnl  coiispinieieH  ugiiinst  kings 
unci  peoples,  us  they  appeiir  to  tli(!  Frotestiint 
contn)vcrsiiilist ;  nor  tlie  ssivftgo  outlireiiks  of 
expiring  lmrl)arism,  thirsting  for  bloixl  nnd 
plunder,  nor  volciudc  explosions  of  religious 
intolerance.  I  l)eliev(!  them  to  have  been,  in 
their  deep  sources,  and  in  the  minds  of  their  best 
champions,  and  in  the  main  tendency  of  their 
results,  capable  of  ample  justification.  They 
were  the  first  great  effort  of  mediieval  life  to  go 
beyond  the  pursint  of  selfish  and  isolatt^d 
nnd>itions;  they  were  the  trial-feat  of  the  young 
world,  essaying  to  use,  to  the  glory  of  Uod 
and  the  benefit  of  man,  the  arms  of  Jts  new 
knighthood.  .  .  .  That  in  the  end  they  were  a 
benefit  to  the  world  no  one  who  reads  can  doubt; 
and  that  in  their  course  they  brought  out  a  love 
for  all  that  is  heroic  in  human  nature,  the  love 
of  freedom,  the  honour  of  prowess,  sympathy 
with  sorrow,  perseverance  to  the  last  and 
patient  cnduniuee  without  hope,  t!ie  chronicles 
of  the  age  abundantly  prove;  proving,  more- 
over, that  it  was  by  the  experience  of  those 
times  that  the  forms  of  those  virtues  were 
realized  and  presented  to  posti^rity. " — W.  Stubbs, 
Seventeen  Lects.  on,  the  Study  of  Mcdundl  nnd 
Modern  Hist.,  led.  8. — "Though  begun  imder 
the  name  and  influence  of  religious  belief,  the 
crusades  deprived  religious  ideas,  I  shall  not 
say  of  their  legitimate  share  of  influence,  but  of 
their  exclusive  and  despotic  poH.se.ssion  of  the 
human  mind.  This  result,  though  undoubtedly 
unforeseen,  arose  from  various  causes.  The  first 
was  evidently  the  novelty,  extent,  and  variety  of 
the  scene  winch  displayed  itself  to  the  crusaders; 
what  generally  happens  to  travellers  liappened 
to  them.  It  is  mere  common-jjlaee  to  saj',  that 
travelling  gives  freedom  to  the  mind;  that  the 
habit  of  observing  different  nations,  different 
manners  and  different  opinions,  enlarges  the 
ideas,  and  disengages  tlie  judgment  from  old 
prejudices.  The  same  thing  happened  to  those 
nations  of  travellers  who  have  been  called  the 
crusaders;  their  minds  were  opened  and  raised 
l)y  having  seen  a  multitude  of  different  things, 
by  having  become  acquainted  with  other 
manners  than  ♦heir  own.  They  found  tliem- 
selves  also  placed  in  connexion  with  two  states 
of  civilization,  not  only  different  from  their  own, 
but  .nore  advanced — the  Greek  state  of  society 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Mussulraun  on  the 
other.  ...  It  is  curious  to  observe  in  the 
chronicles  the  impression  made  by  the  crusaders 
on  the  Mussulmans,  who  regarded  them  at  first 
as  the  most  brutal,  fcocious,  and  stupid  bar- 
barians they  liad  ev'  seen.  The  crusaders,  on 
their  part,  were  struck  with  the  riches  and 
elegance  of  manners  which  they  observed  among 
the  Mussulmans.  These  first  impressions  were 
succeeded  by  frequent  relations  between  the 
Mussulmans  and  Christians.  These  became  more 
extensive  and  important  than  is  commonly 
believed.  .  .  .  There  is  another  circumstance 
whicli  is  worthy  of  notice.  Down  to  the  time  of 
the  crusades,  the  court  of  Rome,  the  centre  of 
the  Church,  had  been  very  little  in  communi- 
cation with  the  lait> ,  unless  through  the  medium 
of  ecclesiastics ;  either  legates  sent  by  the  court 
of  Rome,  or  the  whole  body  of  the  bishops  and 
clergy.  There  were  always  some  laymen  in 
direct  relation  with  Rome ;  but  upon  the  whole, 


it  was  by  mrnnfi  of  churf'hmpn  tlmt  Rome  had 
any  communication  with  the  people  of  difTcn'nt 
countries.  Durinij,'  the  crusades,  on  the  contrary, 
Itome  became  a  halting-place  for  a  great  portion 
of  the  crusaders,  either  in  going  or  returning. 
A  multitude  of  laymen  were  spectators  of  it;, 
poHcT  an<l  its  manners,  and  were  able  to  discover 
the  share  which  personal  interest  had  in  religious 
disputes.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  newly- 
acipiired  knowledge  inspired  many  minds  with 
a  boldness  hitherto  unknown.  When  we  con- 
sider the  state  of  the  general  mind  at  the  termin- 
ation of  the  crusiulcs,  especially  in  regard  to 
ecclesiastical  matters,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck 
with  a  singular  fact:  religious  notions  underwent 
no  change,  and  were  not  replaced  by  contrary  or 
even  diflercnt  opinions.  Thought,  notwithstand- 
ing, had  become  more  free;  religious  creeds 
were  not  the  only  subject  on  which  the  human 
mind  exercised  its  faculties ;  without  abandoning 
them,  it  began  occasionally  to  wander  from  them, 
and  to  take  other  directions.  .  .  .  The  social 
state  of  society  had  undergone  an  analogous 
change.  .  .  .  Without  entering  into  the  details 
.  .  .  wo  may  collect  into  a  few  general  facts 
the  influence  of  the  crusades  on  the  social  state 
of  Europe.  They  greatly  diminished  the 
number  of  petty  fiefs,  petty  domains,  and  petty 
|)roprietors;  they  concentrated  property  ^nd 
power  in  a  smaller  number  of  hands.  It  is  from 
the  time  of  the  crusades  that  we  may  observe  the 
forniati<m  and  growth  of  great  fiefs  —  the  exist- 
ence of  feudal  power  on  a  large  scale.  .  .  .  This 
was  one  of  the  most  important  results  of  the 
crusades.  Even  in  those  cases  where  small 
proprietors  preserved  their  fiefs,  they  did  not 
live  upon  them  in  such  an  insulated  state  as 
formcrlj'.  The  possessors  of  great  fiefs  became 
so  many  centres  around  which  the  smaller  ones 
were  gathered,  and  near  which  obey  came  to 
live.  During  the  crusades,  small  proprietors 
found  it  necessary  to  place  themselves  in  the 
train  of  some  rich  and  powerful  chief,  from  whom 
they  received  assistance  and  support.  They 
lived  with  him,  shared  his  fortune,  and  passed 
through  the  same  adventures  that  he  did.  When 
the  crusaders  returned  home,  this  social  spirit, 
this  habit  of  living  in  intercourse  with  superiors 
continued  to  subsist,  and  had  its  influence  on  the 
manners  of  the  age.  .  .  .  The  exten.sion  of  the 
great  flefs,  and  the  creation  of  a  number  of 
central  points  in  society,  in  place  of  the  general 
dispersion  which  previously  existed,  were  the 
two  principal  effects  of  the  crusades,  considered 
with  respect  to  their  influence  upon  feudali.sm. 
As  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns,  a  result  of 
the  same  nature  may  easily  be  perceived.  The 
crusades  created  great  civic  communities.  Petty 
commerce  and  petty  industry  were  not  sufficient 
to  give  rise  to  communities  such  as  the  great 
cities  of  Italy  and  Flanders.  It  was  ci,mmerce 
on  a  great  scale — maritime  commerce,  and, 
especially,  the  commerce  of  the  East  and  West, 
which  gave  them  birth;  now  it  was  the  crusades 
which  gave  to  the  maritime  commerce  the 
greatest  impulse  it  had  yet  received.  On  the 
whole,  when  we  survey  the  state  of  society  at 
the  end  of  the  crusades,  we  find  that  the  move- 
ment tending  to  dissolution  and  dispersion,  the 
•jiovement  of  universal  localization  (if  I  may  be 
allowed  such  an  expression),  liad  ceased,  and  had 
been  succeeded  by  a  movement  in  the  contrary- 
direction,  a  movement   of   centralization.     All 


637 


CRUSADES. 


CUBA. 


thlnff*  tended  to  miitunl  apprnximntion ;  Rnmll 
tliliiKH  were  ahuortx'd  In  ifrvnt  ont'H,  or  jfiithcrcd 
round  tlicni.  Hucli  vvuh  tlio  dircrlion  then 
tiikfu  by  till!  profcrcHH  of  sodi'ty." — K.  Oiii/.r)t, 
y/iW.  i<f  <'irilk(itioi>.  Irrt.  H  (r.  1). 

A.  D.  1383.— The  Bishop  of  Norwich's 
Crusade  in  Flanders.  Sec  I'i.andkuh:  A.  IV 
i;tH:t. 

A.  D.  1430-1431.— Crusade  asrainst  the  Hus- 
sites.    Hoc  Uoiikmia:  A,  I).  14111-14:14. 

A.  D.  1442-1444.— Christian  Europe  against 
the  Turks.  Si'o  Ti'iiKt*  (Tiik  Ottdmanh): 
A.  I).  14oa-ll.".l. 

A.    D.    1467-1471.— Crusade    Instigated  by 
the  Pope  asrainst  George  Podiebrad,  king  of 
Bohemia.    Sec  Hoiie.mia;  A.  I).  14.58-1471. 
♦ — - 

CRYPTEIA,  The.    Hw  KiivrrKiA. 

CTESIPHON.— 'Tho  Parthian  nionarclm, 
like  the  Mogul  sovereigns  of  Ilindostan,  delighted 
In  the  pastoral  life  of  their  Hcythinn  ancestors, 
and  the  imperial  eanip  was  fro(iuently  pitched  in 
the  plain  of  Ctesiphoii,  on  the  eastern  banks  of 
the  Tigris,  at  the  distance  of  only  three  miles 
from  Heleucia.  The  innumerable  attendants  on 
luxury  and  despotism  resorted  to  the  cotirt,  and 
the  little  village  of  Ctesiphon  insensibly  swelled 
into  n  great  city.  Under  tho  reign  or  Marcus, 
the  Roman  generals  penetrated  as  far  as  Ctesiphon 
and  Selcucia.  They  were  received  as  friends  by 
tho  Greek  colony ;  they  attacked  as  enemies  the 
scat  of  the  Parthian  kings;  yet  both  cities  ex- 
perienced the  same  treatment.  The  sack  and 
conflagration  of  Seleucia,  with  tho  massacre  of 
300,000  of  the  inhabitants,  tarnished  tlie  glory  of 
the  Roman  triumph,  Seleucia,  already  exhausted 
by  the  neighborhood  of  a  too  powerful  rival,  sunk 
under  the  fatal  blow;  but  Ctesiphon,  in  about 
tliirty-three  years,  liad  sulllciently  recovered  its 
strength  to  maintain  an  obstinate  siego  against 
the  emperor  Severus.  The  city  was,  however, 
taken  by  assault;  the  king,  who  defended  it  in 
person,  escaped  with  precipitation;  100,000  cap- 
tives and  a  rich  booty  rewarded  the  fatigues  of 
the  Roman  soldiers.  Notwithstaniiiug  these  mif  • 
fortunes,  Ctesiphon  succeeded  to  Babylon  and  'o 
Seleucia  as  oue  of  the  great  capitals  of  tlio  Kas'.." 
— E.  Gibbon,  Decline  aiui  Fall  of  the  lioman  Um- 
pire, ch.  8. — In  637  A.  D.  Ctesiphon  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  Saracens.  See  MAUOMiiTAN 
Conquest  and  Empire:  A.  D.  633-651. 

Also  i;i:  G.  Rawlinson,  Sixth  Oreat  Oriental 
Monarch//,  ch.  6. — Sec,  also,  Medain. 

CUAi'OS,  The.  See  Amehican  ABORiarNEs: 
Pampas  TiunKS. 

CUBA :  A.  D.  1493-1493.— Discovery  by 
Columbus.  See  Ameuica:  A.  U.  14'i2;  and 
1493-1496. 

A.  D.  151 1. —Spanish  conquest  and  occupa- 
tion of  the  island. — "Of  the  islands,  Cuba  was 
the  second  discovered;  but  'ri  attempt  had  beeu 
made  to  plant  a  colony  ther,'  during  Uie  lifetime 
of  Columbus;  who,  indeed,  after  skirting  tho 
whole  extent  of  its  southern  coast,  died  in  the 
conviction  tliat  it  was  part  of  the  continent.  At 
length,  in  1511,  Diego,  tiie  son  and  successor  of 
the  '  admiral,'  who  still  maintained  tlio  seat  of 
government  in  Ilispaniola,  finding  the  mines  much 
exhausted  there,  proposed  to  occupy  tho  neigh- 
bouring island  of  Cuba,  or  Pernandina,  as  it  is 
called,  in  compliment  to  the  Spanish  mon:  ■  ' 
He  prepared  a  small  force  for  the  conquest,  w 
he  placed  under  tUe  command  of  Don  Dit^, 


Vclttgqunz.  .  .  .  Velasquez,  or  rather  his  lieuten- 
ant Narvaez,  who  t<K)k  tho  o(llc<!  on  himself  of 
scouring  tlio  country,  in(  t  with  no  seriouH  oppo- 
r.ition  from  the  Inliubitanls,  who  were  of  the  same 
family  wi'ii  t\w  elTeminate  natives  of  Ilispaniola. " 
After  '.lie  coniiucst,  Velas(|uez  was  appointi'd 
governor,  and  established  his  scat  of  government 
at  St.  Jago,  on  the  soulliiast  corner  of  the  island. 
— W.  II.  Prescott,  C'omjitett  of  Mexico,  bk.  3, 
ch.  1. 

Also  in:  Sir  A.  Helps,  Siianith  ConqueH  in 
America,  bk.  7. 

A.  D.  1514-1851.— Slow  development  of  the 
island. — Capture  of  Havana  by  the  English. 
— Discontent  with  Spanish  rule. — Conspira- 
cies of  revolution.— "  Vela.s(jrcz  founded  nuiny 
of  the  towns  of  tlin  island,  tin  lirst  of  which  was 
Baracoa,  then  Bayamo,  and  in  1514  Trinidad, 
Santo  Espiritu,  Puerto  Priiicipe;  next,  in  1515, 
Santiago  do  (-'uba,  as  also,  in  the  same  year,  tlio 
town  of  Halmiia.  .  .  ,  This  peri(Mi  (1511-1607)18 
particularly  interesting  10  the  general  reader 
from  the  fact  that  in  it  tlie  exploi,.tions  of  Her- 
nandez do  Cadoba  and  Grijalva  to  Darien,  Yuca- 
tan, etc.,  wcit!  inaugurated,  — events  which  had 
so  much  to  do  with  the  spread  of  Spanish  rule 
and  discovery,  paving  the  way  as  they  did  for 
tlio  exploration  of  Mexico  under  Hernando 
Cortes,  wlio,  in  the  early  history  of  Cuba,  fig- 
ures largely  as  tho  lieutenant  of  the  Governor 
Velasquez.  ...  In  1534,  Diego  Velasquez  died, 
—  his  death  haflened,  it  is  said,  by  the  troubles 
brought  upon  him  by  his  disputes  with  his 
insubordinate  lieutenant,  Cortea.  ...  In  the 
history  of  tho  improvement  of  the  island,  his 
government  will  bear  favorable  comparison  with 
m  iny  of  tho  later  governments ;  and  while  tliat 
great  evil,  slavery,  was  introduced  into  tho 
inland  in  his  time,  so  also  was  tiie  sugarcane. 
...  Up  to  1588,  there  seems  to  bo  nothing 
specially  striking  in  the  general  history  of  the 
island,  if  we  except  tho  constant  attacks  with 
lire  and  sword  of  the  '  fllibusteros, '  or  pirates  of 
all  nations,  from  which  most  all  the  sea-coast 
towns  suffered  more  or  less;  but  in  that  year 
there  arrived  at  Santiago  dc  Cuba  a  man 
destined  to  play  an  importuut  part  in  the 
history  and  discovery  of  the  new  world,  and 
named  as  Provincial  Governor  of  Florida  as 
well  .IS  of  Cuba, —  I  allude  to  Hernando 
do  Soto,  who  brought  with  him  10  large 
vessels,  prepared  and  fitted  out  expressly  for  the 
conquest  of  tho  new  Spanish  territory  of  Florida. 
A^tor  much  care  and  preparation,  this  expe- 
dition started  out  from  the  city  of  Ilabana, 
tho  13th  of  May  [see  Florida:  A.  D.  1528-1513]. 
...  In  this  period,  also,  was  promulgated  that 
order,  secured,  it  is  believed,  by  the  noble  efforts 
of  Padro  Las  Casas,  prohibiting  the  enslaving  of 
the  aborigines ;  while,  also,  such  had  become  its 
importance  as  a  town,  all  vessels  directed  to  and 
from  Mexico  were  ordered  to  stop  at  Havana. 
In  tho  period  of  years  that  elapsed  from  1607  to 
1762,  the  island  seems  to  have  been  in  a  perfect 
state  of  lethargy,  except  tho  usual  changes  of 
its  many  Governors,  and  the  raids  made  upon  It 
by  pirates,  or  by  more  legalized  enemies  in  the 
form  of  French  and  English  men-of-war.  In 
this  latter  year,  however,  occurred  an  event  of 
much  import,  from  tho  fact  that  after  it,  or 
upon  its  occurrence,  the  Government  of  Spain 
was  led  to  see  tho  great  importance  of  Cuba,  and 
particularly  Havana,  as  the  'Key  to  the  New 


638 


CUBA. 


CUBA. 


World,' — thin  event  wiis  the  tnklnjf  of  TTnvnnn 
by  llio  EnKHsh.  On  tlio  Otii  of  June,  1702,  tliorc 
nrrived  olT  tlio  port  of  Iliivunii  lui  Knglisli 
H(|Uitilr(>n  of  :I2  HliipH  nnd  frlKutos,  willi  Homo  'HW 
tniiisporU,  bringing  witii  tlicin  ii  force  of  nciirly 
2(),0()U  men  of  all  arms,  iindcr  coniinand  of  tlic 
Duku  of  Albomarle.  Tbis  forniidabU!  arma- 
ment, tliu  larKOtt  I'luit  America  bad  ever  seen, 
laid  Hiego  to  tlic  clly  of  Havana,  wbose  v^flson 
consisted  at  that  tine  of  oidy  abo\it  2,70>)  rcgn- 
Inrs  and  the  volunteers  tbat  tool<  up  arms  imme- 
diately for  the  defense  of  tlie  place.  .  .  .  Tlie 
garrison,  however,  made  a  very  gallant  and  \nn- 
longed  defense,  nctwithstanding  the  sniallness 
of  their  numbers,  and  finally,  surrendering, 
were  permitted  to  inarch  out  with  the  honors  of 
war,  the  Knglish  thus  coming  into  possession  of 
the  most  important  defences  on  the  coast,  and, 
Bubseiiuentiy,  tnklna;  possession  of  llie  town  of 
Matan/.as.  Kemain.ng  in  possession  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  Island  of  Cuba  for  many  months 
(until  July  6,  ITflIt),  the  English,  by  Importing 
negro  labor  to  cultivi.te  the  largo  tracts  of  wihl 
land,  nnd  by  shipoing  largo  quantities  of 
European  merchandize,  gave  a  start  to  the  trade 
and  trafllc  of  tho  island  tliat  ]nighed  it  far  on  its 
way  to  tho  state  of  prosperity  it  has  now 
reached;  but  by  the  trtaty  of  peace,  at  Paris,  in 
February,  1768  [see  Soven  Years  War],  was 
restored  to  Spain  the  portion  of  tho  island 
wrested  from  her  by  the  Er-'lsh.  ...  In  this 
period  (1763-1801)  the  isir.n.  iiado  rapid  ad- 
vances in  improvement  and  civilization,  many  of 
the  Captains-General  of  this  period  doing  much 
to  improve  the  towns  and  the  people,  beatitify- 
ing  tho  streets,  erecting  b\iildingg,  etc.  In  170!!, 
a  large  emigration  toolv  place  from  Florida,  and  in 
179.')  the  French  emigrants  from  Santo  Djiidngo 
cameon  to  tlic  island  in  large  numbers.  .  .  From 
1801.  rapid  increase  in  the  prosperit;  of  tl.<! 
island  has  taken  place.  ...  At  varicus  times 
insurrections,  some  of  them  ((uite  serio'is  in  their 
nature,  have  shown  what  tho  natura.  desire  of 
tho  native  population  is  for  greater  privileges 
and  freedom.  .  .  In  1823,  there  wi  s  a  society 
of  'soles,'  as  it  >vas  called,  formed  f  jr  tho  pur- 
pose of  freeing  the  island,  having  at  its  head 
young  D.  Francisco  Lemus,  and  lnving  for  its 
pretext  that  the  island  was  about  to  be  sold  to 
England.  In  1829,  there  was  ('iscovrred  tho 
conspiracy  of  tho  Black  Ivigle,  a^  it  was  called 
(Aguila  Negra),  an  attempt  on  ■ho  part  of  the 
population  to  obtain  their  freed  jm,  seme  of  tho 
Mexican  settlors  in  the  island  being  prominent 
in  it.  Tlie  insurrection,  or  a' tempt  tt  one,  by 
the  blacks  in  1844,  was  rema'  kable  for  its  wide- 
spread ramiflcAtions  among  the  slaves  of  tho 
island,  as  we'd  as  its  thorcjgh  organization, — 
the  intention  being  to  mui  dor  all  the  whites  on 
the  island.  Other  mino.'  insurrections  there 
were,  but  it  remained  for  Kixrciso  Lopez,  with  .^ 
force  of  some  300  mc.  to  i.-^ake  tlio  most  im 
portant  attempt  [1851],  in  wbieli  he  lost  his  life, 
to  free  the  island."— S.  Hazard,  Cuba  with  Pen 
and  Pencil,  pp.  547-550. 

Also  in:  M.  M.  Ballon,  Hint,  of  Cuba,  eh.  1-8. 
—Lord  Mahon  (Earl  Stanhope),  Hist,  of  Eng., 
1713-1783,  ch.  38  {v.  4).— J.  Entick,  Hist,  of  the 
Late  War,  v.  5,  pp.  863-386.— D.  Tumbull,  Cuba, 
ck.  22-24. 

A.  D.  1843-1860. — Acquisition  coveted  by 
the  slave-power  in  the  United  States. — At- 
tempted purchase.— Filibustering  schemes. — 


The  Oitend  Manifesto.- "When  the  Spanish 
colonies  ill  America  brcaiii'  inde|M'ndeiit,  they 
abolished  slavery.  AppnlKihsive  that  tlie  re- 
publics of  Mexico  anil  ''''.  inbia  woiilil  lio 
anxious  to  wrest  (,'ulia  ii.ii*  7'orto  liico  from 
Spain,  secure  their  independence,  and  intnxiuce 
into  those  islanils  the  idea,  if  tliey  did  not  estab- 
lish the  fact,  of  freed<mi,  the  slave-masters  [of  the 
I'nitcd  States]  at  once  souglit  to  guard  against 
what  lliey  deemed  so  calamitous  an  event.  .  .  . 
Hut  after  the  annexaticm  of  Texa.s.  there  was  a 
change  of  feeling  and  purpose,  and  (,'uba,  from 
being  an  object  of  dn'ad,  became  an  object  of 
vehement  desire.  The  propagandists,  strengtli- 
encd  and  emboldened  by  that  signal  triumph, 
now  turned  their  eyes  towanis  this  beautiful 
'  isle  of  the  sen,'  as  the  theatre  of  new  exploits; 
and  they  iletermlned  to  secure  the  '  gem  of  the 
Antilles '  for  the  coronet  of  their  great  and  grow- 
ing power.  During  Mr.  I'o'k's  administration 
an  attempt  was  niacle  to  purdiase  it,  and  tho  sum 
of  $1(10,000, (MX)  was  olTered  therffor.  Hut  the 
offer  was  promptly  declined.  AVIiat,  however, 
could  not  be  bought  it  was  determined  to  steal, 
and  filibustering  movements  and  expeditions  be- 
came tlu^  order  of  the  day.  For  no  sooner  was 
President  Taylor  inaugurated  than  he  found 
movements  on  foot  in  that  direction;  and,  in 
August,  1840,  he  issued  a  proclamation,  atllrm- 
ing  his  belief  that  an  'armed  expedition'  was 
being  Htled  out  'against  Cuba  or  some  of  tho 
provinces  of  Mexico,'  and  calling  upon  idl  good 
citizens  '  to  discountenance  and  prevent  ony  such 
enterpris(;. '  In  1851  an  expedition,  c<msisting  of 
some  500  men,  sailed  from  Now  Orleans  under 
Jjoppz,  a  Cuban  adventurer.  But  though  it 
effected  a  landing,  it  was  easily  defeated,  and  Its 
leader  and  a  few  of  his  followers  were  executed. 
Soim  afterward,  a  secret  association,  styling 
itself  the  Order  of  the  Lone  Star,  was  formed  in 
several  of  the  Southern  cities,  having  a  similar 
object  in  view ;  but  it  attracted  little  notice  and 
arcomplislied  nothing.  ...  In  August,  1854, 
Pre3ident  Pierce  instructed  Mr.  Miircy,  l^is  Seore- 
tary  of  State,  to  direct  Buchanan,  Mason  and 
Soul6,  ndnisters  respectively  at  fb.e  courts  of 
London,  Paris  and  Madrid,  to  convene  in  some 
European  city  and  confer  with  eacli  other  in  re- 
gard to  the  matter  of  gaining  Cuba  to  the  United 
States.  They  met  accordingly,  in  October,  at 
Ostend.  The  results  of  their  (feliberntions  wore 
published  in  a  manifesto,  in  which  the  reasons 
are  set  forth  for  the  ncquisiticn ;  and  the  declara- 
tion was  made  that  flic  Union  could  never  enjoy 
repose  and  security  'as  long  as  Cuba  is  not  em- 
braced within  its  boundaries.'  But  the  gmat 
source  of  anxiety,  the  controlling  motive,  was 
the  apprclicnsion  that,  unless  so  annexed,  she 
would  'be  Africanized  and  become  a  second  San 
Domingo,'  thus  'seriously  to  endanger'  the 
Union.  This  pape,-  attracted  great  attention  and 
caused  much  a.stonishment.  It  was  at  first  re- 
ceived with  incredulity,  as  if  there  had  been  some 
inistttko  or  imposition  practised.  .  .  .  But  there 
was  no  mistake.  ...  It  was  the  deliberate  utter- 
ance of  the  conference,  and  it  received  tho  in- 
dorsement of  Mr.  Pierce  and  his  administration. 
The  Democratic  national  conventions  of  1850  and 
of  1860  were  quite  as  explicit  as  were  the  authors 
of  the  Ostend  manifesto  '  in  favor  of  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Cuba.'"— H.  Wilson,  Hist,  of  the  Rise 
and  Fall  of  tlie  Slave  Power  in  America,  v.  2, 
ch.  47. 


639 


CUBA. 


CUMBEIILAND  OAP. 


Aimtn:  II.  Von  nnNt,  Cmut.  and  Pol.  IIM. 
of  the  U.  S.,  r.  4,  f/i.  2.  nnd  r.  (5.  r/i.  1.— (J,  T. 
Ourtlii,  Liff  (if  Jamft  Hiiehnunn,  r.  'i,  eh,  tl, — 
M.  M.  Hnliftu,  //(■»<.  nfCulHt.fh.  a— J.  J.  liwlic', 
The  Htory  of  the  h\lihuiiter;  eh.  8. 

CUBIT,  The.— "Tlu  UiikHi  of  tlip  Egyptian 

fiHtt  is  .  .  .  Nliriwii  to  Im'  ('i|Uitl  to  l.Olil  LukUhIi 
foot,  or  12.  lU  iticlu'H  (().;i()HII  iiD'trc)  mid  the  dibit 
to  1H.24  KiikHhIi  iiiclu'H,  or  ().4IKI  iiictro.  TIiIh 
cubit  wiiM  idcnticiil  witb  tlic  I'bii'niciiui  or  Olym- 
pic cubit,  iiftcrwimlH  uiloptol  In  (Inrco.  .  .  . 
The  wcoikI  of  tlic  two  Ktfyptliin  culiltH  wiis  tlic 
royiil  cubit,  or  cubit  of  McmplilM,  of  m'vni  jialiiiH 
or  twcnty-clj^lit  (HxitH.  .  .  .  Tim  mean  Iciigtli  of 
tlic  KKvptiiin  royal  cubit  \»  .  .  .  aHccrtulncd  to 
Ik-  20.tl7  KniillMh  Inches,  or  523  mm.  .  .  .  There 
Is  much  conllict  of  opinion  as  to  the  actual  length 
of  the  s<'veral  ciibltH  In  us<'  by  the  tiews  at  dif- 
ferent peri(«lH;  but  the  fact  that  Moses  always 
montlons  the  KKyp'ian  nieaaures  ...  as  well  as 
tie  Egyptian  weights  .  .  .  proves  that  the  He- 
brews origlnallv  Hirought  their  weights  and 
measures  from  Kgypt.  ...  In  his  dissertation 
on  cubits.  Sir  Isaiu  Newton  states  grounds  for 
his  opinion  that  the  sacred  cubit  of  the  Jews  was 
equal  to  24.7  of  our  Inches,  and  that  the  royal 
cubit  of  jMeniiihls  was  e(iiiivalent  to  tlvc-si.xths 
of  this  sacred  Jewish  cubit,  or  20.0  Inches." — 
H.  W.  ('hisholm,  On  tite  Science  of  Weighing  and 
Mcamiiiif/,  eh.  2. 

CUCUTA,  The  Convention  of.  See  Colom- 
iiiAN  Htatks:  a.  1).  1819-1880. 

CUFA.     Hce  nusHOHAH  and  Kuka. 

CUICIDH    The.     Hee  Tuatii,  Tire. 

CULDEEb,  The.— It  used  to  be  set  forth  by 
n'llglous  historians  that  the  Culdees  were  an  an- 
cient religious  fraternity  In  Scotland,  probably 
founded  by  Columba,  the  saintly  Irish  missionary 
of  the  si.xth  century,  and  having  Its  principal 
seat  in  lon.i;  that  they  "were  the  lights  of 
Scotland  in  a  dark  and  superstitious  age";  that 
they  struggled  for  several  centuries  against  the 
errors  and  the  oppressive  jiretenslons  of  Kome, 
and  that  "the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Scotland,  where  the  Papal  power  re- 
ceived its  first  and  most  decisive  check,  may  be 
traced  not  indirectly  to  the  faith,  the  doctrines, 
and  the  sjilrit  of  the  ancient  Culdees."  It  was 
claimed  for  the  Presbyterian  Church  that  its 
form  of  church  government  prevailed  among  the 
Culdees,  while  the  supporters  of  Eplscojiacy 
found  evidences  to  the  contrary.  Hut  all  these 
views,  with  all  the  controversies  fomented  by 
them,  have  been  dissipated  by  modern  historical 
investigation.  The  facts  gathered  by  Dean 
Reeves  and  publi-shed  in  1864,  in  his  work  on  the 
"Culdeesof  the  British  Islands,"  supported  by 
the  more  recent  studies  of  Mr.  W.  F.  Skene,  are 
now  generally  accepted.  Says  Mr.  Skene,  (Celtic 
.Scotland,  bk.  2,  ~h.  6) :  "  It  is  not  till  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  tilt  Joluniban  monks  from  the  king- 
dom of  the  Picts,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
cerlury,  that  the  name  of  Culdee  appears.  To 
Adamnan,  ^to  Eddi  and  to  Bcde  it  was  totally 
unknown.  '  They  knew  of  no  body  of  clergy 
who  bore  this  name,  and  in  the  whole  range  of 
ecclesiastical  history  there  is  nothing  more  utterly 
destitute  of  authority  than  the  application  of  this 
name  to  the  Columban  monks  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries,  or  more  utterly  baseless  than 
the  fabric  which  has  been  raise(l  upon  that  as- 
sumption."   Mr.  Skene's  conclusion  is  that  the 


Culdees  sprang  from  an  ascetic  onlcr  called 
Delcolii'  or  ()o*l  worshlpperH;  that  in  Irish  tho 
name  Ix'came  Celle  l)e,  thence  corrupted  Into 
('uldee;  that  they  were  hermits,  who  became  in 
time  associated  In  communities,  and  wen!  finally 
brought  under  the  canonical  rule  of  the  Roman 
church,  aloni;  with  the  secM.lar  clergy, 

CULEUS,  The.    See  Amimioua. 

CULHUACAN.     See    Mexico,    Ancient: 

TlIK  Tol.TKC  KmI'IHK. 

CULLODEN,  Battle  of  (1746).  See  Scot- 
I.AM);   A.  I),  174.'V-174tl, 

CULM,  OR  KULM,  Battle  of.  See  Obii- 
many;  a.  1).  IHIH  (Ai(nisT). 

CULTURKAMPF,  The.  See  Geiimahy: 
A.  I).  lH7!t-lHH7. 

CUMiE.— CUMiEAN  SIBYL. —  "  Earlier 

than   TM  l\.  V though   we  <h>  not  know 

the  precise  era  of  its  coniniencement,  tliere  existed 
one  solitary  Orecian  establishment  In  (be Tyrrhe- 
nian Sea, —  the  Campanian  Cumii",  near  Capu 
MIscnum;  which  the  more  common  opinion  of 
chronologists  suppo.sed  to  have  been  founded  in 
lO.TOB.  C.  and  which  has  even  been  carried  back 
by  some  authors  to  1 180  B.  C  .  .  .  Wo  may  at 
least  feel  certain  that  it  is  the  most  ancient' 
(irecian  establishnent  In  any  i)art  of  It.ily.  .  .  . 
The  (.'ampiinian  Cunue —  known  almosi,  (  ntlrely 
by  this  its  Latin  di'slgnatlon —  received  its  name 
and  a  portion  of  its  Inhabitants  from  the  ./Eolic 
KymO  In  Asia  Minor.  .  .  .  (Juimc,  sl'.uated  on 
the  neck  of  the  peninsula  which  terminates  in 
Cape  MIsenum,  occupied  a  lofty  and  rocky  hill 
overhanging  the  sea  and  dlllicult  of  accesii  on  tho 
land  side.  .  .  .  In  the  hollow  rock  under  the  very 
walls  of  the  town  was  situated  the  cavern  of  tho 
prophetic  Sibyl, —  a  parallel  and  repro<lucfion  of 
the  Gergilhian  Sibyl,  near  KymC  In  iEolis:  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood,  too,  sIockI  the  wild 
woods  and  dark  lake  of  Avernus,  consecrarcd  to 
the  subterranean  gods,  and  offering  an  estab- 
lishment of  priests,  with  ceremonies  evoking 
the  dead,  for  purposes  of  prophecy  or  for  solving 
doubts  and  mysteries.  It  was  here  that  Grecian 
imagination  localized  the  Cimmerians  and  tho 
fable  of  Odysseus;  and  the  Cumteans  derived 
gains  from  the  numerous  visitors  to  this  holy 
spot,  perhaps  hardly  less  than  those  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Krissu  from  the  vicinity  of  Delphi. 
Of  the  relations  of  these  Cumicans  with  the  IIol- 
lenic  world  generally,  we  unfortunately  know 
nothing ;  but  they  seem  to  have  been  in  intimate 
connection  with  Rome  during  the  time  of  tho 
kings,  and  especially  during  that  of  the  last  king 
Tarquin, — forming  the  intermediate  link  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  world,  whereby  the  feelings 
of  the  Teukrians  and  Gergitheans  near  the  MoXxc 
Kym6  and  the  legendary  stories  of  Trojan  as 
well  as  Grecian  heroes, — ./Eneas  and  Odysseus  — 
passed  Into  the  antiquarian  imagination  of  Rome 
and  Latium.  The  writers  of  the  Augustan  ago 
know  CunicD  only  in  its  decline,  and  wondered  at 
the  vast  extent  of  its  ancient  walls,  yet  remain- 
ing in  their  time.  But  during  the  two  centuries 
prior  to  500  B.  C.  these  walls  inclosed  a  full  and 
thriving  population,  in  the  plenitude  of  pros- 
perity. —O.  Grote,  Hist:  of  O  recce,  pt.  2,  eh. 
22. —  See,  also,  Siuvi.s. 

CUMANS,  OR  ROMANS,  The.  See  IIun- 
oauv:  A.  D.  1114-1301. 

CUMBERLAND  GAP,  The  capture  of. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1863  (Au- 
gust— SEPTEMJiEK:  Tennessee). 


640 


CUMBRIA. 


OXJNEIPORM  WRITINO. 


CUMBRIA:  The  Britith  king;dora.— " Tlio 

nritons  (if  ('iimlii'iik  ix'CMipy  a  tiilcnihly  |jiri;i' 
■pikcc  on  tlii'iniip,  hiitavcrvHiniill  oik^  in  lilHlory  ; 
—  their  niumU  Imvu  cntlrt'ly  pcriMlird ;  —  mul 
nntliiiif(  tuitlii'titit;  n'MiJiiim  ('(inccriiiii;;  tlicin, 
cxicpt  a  very  few  paNsni?cs,  wliolly  coiiNlstinn 
of  incidental  noticeit  relatliiu;  to  tlieir  siihjertioii 
anil  tlieir  misfortunes.  Koinance  wmilil  fiirnl.Hli 
miU'li  niort';  for  it  was  in('uniliriatliat  Uliyilere, 
or  Hoderic  tlicmnKnilirent.  Is  therein  representecl 
to  have  reijfiied,  ami  Merlin  to  have  proplie.si"(l. 
Artliur  lie'l  hia  eourt  In  merry  Carlisle;  and 
Pcrcdur,  the  I'rinee  of  Sunshine,  whrisn  name 
we  find  amongst  the  princes  of  Stnithclyde,  Is 
one  of  tiu-  Krcat  hero(;s  of  the  '  Mahinogirin,'  or 
tales  of  youth,  lon;^  preserved  by  tradition 
amuDgst  tho(,'ynirl.  These  fantastic  personages, 
however,  are  of  ImporUince  In  one  pouit  of  view, 
because  they  show,  what  we  might  otherwise 
forget — tliat  from  the  Kibble  in  Lancashire,  or 
thereabouts,  up  to  the  Clyde,  there  existed  u 
dense  population  composed  of  Britons,  who  i)re- 
Hervc('.  their  natio ml  language  and  customs, 
agreeing  In  nil  respects  with  the  Welsh  of  tlie 
present  day.  So  that  even  In  the  tei.  li  century, 
the  ancient  Britons  still  Inhabited  tlie  greater 
part  of  the  western  coast  ot  the  island,  however 
much  they  had  been  compi  lied  to  yield  to  the 
political  supremacy  of  the  Saxon  Invaders.  The 
'  Itegnu'n  (Jumbrense '  comprehended  many  dis- 
tricts, probably  governed  by  petty  princes  or 
Rcguli,  in  subordination  to  a  chief  monarch  or 
Pendragon.  Heged  appears  to  have  been  some- 
where in  the  vicinity  of  Annandale.  Strathclyde 
Is  of  course  tiie  district  or  vale  of  Clydesdale. 
In  this  district,  or  state,  was  sitiuitcd  Alcluyd, 
or  Dunbritton,  now  Dumbarton,  where  the 
British  kings  usually  resided;  and  the  whole 
Cumbrian  kingdom  was  not  infre(|uenlly  called 
Strathclyde,  from  the  ruling  or  principal  .state; 
just  as  tlie  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  is  often  designated  in  common  language 
as  'England,'  because  England  is  the  portion 
where  the  monarch  and  legislature  are  found. 
Many  dependencies  of  the  Cumbrian  kingdom 
extended  into  modem  Yorkshire,  and  Leeds  was 
the  frontier  town  between  the  Britons  and  the 
Angles.  .  .  .  The  kings  of  Cumbria  became  the 
vassals,  or  'men,'  of  the  Anglo-Haxim  kings. 
Eugenius  had  thus  submitted  to  Athelstane.  Of 
the  nature  of  tl\e  obligation  I  shall  speak  here- 
after. The  Anglo-Sa.xon  kings  appear  to  have 
been  anxious  to  extend  and  conlirm  their  su- 
premacy; Edmund  proceeded  against  Donald,  or 
Dumhnail,  the  Scottish  King  of  Cumbria  (A.  D. 
945),  witli  the  most  inveterate  and  implacable 
Iiostility.  .  .  .  Edmund,  having  thus  obtained 
possession  of  Cumbria,  graiite(i  the  country  to 
Malcolm,  King  of  the  Scots,  upon  condition,  as 
the  chronicles  say,  of  being  liis  co-operator,  both 
by  sea  and  by  land.  .  .  .  From  this  period  the 
right  of  the  Scottish  kings  or  princes  to  the 
kingdom  of  Cumbria,  as  vassals  of  the  English 
crown,  seems  to  liavc  been  fully  admitted :  and 
the  rights  of  the  Scottish  kings  to  the  '  Earldom 
of  Cumberland ' —  for  such  it  was  afterwards 
termed  —  were  founded  upon  Edmund's  grant. 
The  Britons  of  Strathclyde,  and  Ucged,  and 
Cumbria,  gradually  melted  away  into  the  sur- 
rounding population;  and,  losing  their  language, 
ceased  to  be  discernible  as  a  separate  race,  'i  et 
it  is  most  probable  that  this  process  was  not 
wholly  completed  until  a  comparatively  recent 


perlfvi." — F.  Palgrnve,  ITitlon/  of  the  Anglo- 
HiTDin,  eh.  II. — Cumbria  and  Cambria  (Wales), 
the  two  states  long  maintained  by  the  Britoim, 
agairiHl  the  Angh's  and  Saxon.s.  iMire,  in  reality, 
the  sjinie  iiaine.  Cumbria  being  the  more  correct 
form  of  It.  The  earliest  development  of  the  so- 
called  WcImIi  poetrv  seems  to  have  been  In  Cum- 
bria rather  tlnin  inVVnIes.  Tallesen  and  Aneiirin 
were  Cumbrian  bards,  anci  Arthur,  if  anv  his- 
torical personage  Ntaiids  behind  his  I  ^ly 
shadow,  was  probably  a  Cunibriau  hero. — .f. 
Itliys,  Viitic  JIn'liiiii. 

Also  i.>;  W.  F.  Skene,  Tht  Fimr  Aneieiit 
H'Ki/cn  of  H'ulm. — See,  also,  KvMUV,  Au'LYDB, 
and  SciVn.ANi);  KH'ii-llril  Ci;nt(uikh. 

CUNARD  LINE,  The  foundin«rof  the.  See 
Stkam  N'.vvioation:  On'  riiK  Ockan. 

CUNAXA,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  401).  See  Pen- 
sia:  H.  C.  -toi-liM), 

CUNEIFORM  WRITING.— Theclmracters 
employed  for  the  written  languages  of  ancient 
Babylonia  and  Ass^-ria,  have  been  called  cunei- 
form, from  the  I,atin  cuneiis,  a  wedge,  lieeause 
the  marks  composing  them  are  wedge-shaped, 
All  knowledge  of  lUose  cliaract<'rs  and  of  the 
languages  expressed  in  them  had  Iicen  lost  for 
many  centuries,  anil  its  recent  recovery  is  one  of 
the  most  marvelous  achievements  of  our  age. 
"  Travellers  had  discovered  in.scriptions  engraved 
in  cuneiform,  or,  astliey  were al.so  termed,  arrow- 
headed  charaeters,  on  the  ruined  monuments  of 
Persepolis  and  other  ancient  sites  in  I'ersia.  Some 
of  these  monuments  were  known  to  have  been 
erected  by  tlie  Achicmenian  princes — Darius,  the 
son  of  Hyslaspes,  and  his  successors  —  and  it  was 
therefore  inferred  that  the  inscrlptiims  al.so  had 
been  carved  by  order  of  the  same  kings.  The 
inscriptions  wi^e  in  three  different  systems  of 
cuneiform  writing;  and  since  the  three  kinds  of 
inscription  were  always  placed  side  by  side,  it 
was  ('vidcnt  that  they  represented  different  ver- 
sions of  the  same  text.  ...  It  was  clear  that  the 
three  versions  of  the  Achicmenian  inscriptions 
were  addressed  to  the  tliree  chief  populations  of 
the  Persian  Enii)ire,  and  ili  it  the  one  which  in- 
variably came  first  was  composed  in  ancient  Per- 
sian, the  language  of  the  sovereign  himself.  Now 
this  Persian  version  happened  to  offer  the  de- 
cipherer lessdilliculties  tlian  the  twoothers  which 
accompanied  it.  The  number  of  distinct  charac- 
ters employed  in  writing  it  did  not  exceed  forty, 
while  the  words  were  divided  from  one  another 
by  a  slanting  wedge.  Some  of  the  words  con- 
tained so  many  characters  that  it  was  plain  that 
these  latter  must  denote  letters  and  not  syllables, 
and  that  conseiiuently  tho  Persian  cuneiform 
system  must  have  consisted  of  an  alphabet,  and 
not  of  a  syllabary.  It  was  further  plain  that  the 
inscriptions  h.til  to  be  read  from  left  to  right, 
since  the  ends  of  all  the  lines  were  exactly  under- 
neath one  another  on  the  left  side,  whereas  they 
terminated  irregularly  on  the  right.  .  .  .  Tlie 
clue  to  the  decipherment  of  tlie  inscriptions  was 
tiret  discovered  by  the  successful  gues-s  of  a  Ger- 
man scholar,  Orotefend.  Grotefeud  noticed  that 
the  inscriptions  generally  began  willi  three  or 
four  words,  one  of  which  varied,  while  the  others 
remained  unchanged.  The  variable  word  had 
three  forms,  though  the  same  form  always  ap- 
peared on  the  same  monument.  Grotefend, 
therefore,  conjectured  that  this  word  represented 
the  name  of  a  king,  the  words  which  followed 
it  being  royal  titles.      Working  on  this  conject- 


641 


/^ 


CUNEIFORM  WHITINO. 


CURIA. 


(irc,  hi'  Identlflrd  thit  thrro  nrnnei  with  D«rliiii, 
Xerxes  and  Artaxcrxrii,  iiiid  one  of  the  HiipiMmcil 
titles  Willi  II  7aiii\  word  for  "kiiix,"  which  Kiive 
him  a  ('onslilrralili' piirt  of  tlie  cunelfurm  iil|iliii- 
bet.  lie  was  followed  in  the  work  Uy  liiinioiif, 
IjAHwn  aricl  .Sir  llinry  KtiwiiiiHoii,  until,  tliially, 
AlHyriaii  iiiHoriptioiis  were  read  with  "  altuimt  us 
miieh  I'lTtnliity  as  a  piiueof  the  Olil  TeNtuiiieiit." 
— A.  II.  Hiiyce,  /Vi'iA  Lii/hl  from  lltt  nneient 
moniinientii,  f/i.  I. 

CUNiBERTUS,  King  of  the  Lomb*rdi, 
A.  1).  (llM-70<(. 

CUNIMARE,  The.  Heo  AMKniciU4  Auoiiiu- 
nir.H:  OfcK  oil  Coco  Oiidi'P. 

CURDS,  OR  KURDS,  The.   8ce  CAuntciii, 

CURFEW-BELL,  The.—"  E.xeept  from  Its 
lafliieiu'c  iiiioii  the  im»f;'»»tl'>n,  It  would  lie 
honlly  worth  while  to  notice  the  legend  of  the 
(•urfewlx'll,  so  coiiimonly  supposed  to  have  been 
Imposed  by  Willium  [the  (/'oixiiicror]  upon  the 
English,  HSU  token  <u  degradation  nnd  shivery; 
but  tho  'Hquilludi  lontano,  die  puju  11  giorno 
piangcr  rhu  si  muorc,'  was  n  iinlviirsal  ciistoin  of 
policcthroughoiitthu  whole  of  mediaeval  Europe, 
not  unconr.eclt'd  with  devotional  feeling." — Sir 
F.  I'ttlgruve,  llitt.  of  Niirmiindji  ami  Kmj..  r.  !), 
p.  iSiT.  —  "  In  the  year  IKXIlj  after  King  Henry's 
death  [Henry  1.  of  France'  In  u  Synod  held  ut 
Caen  by  Ihe'Duki^'s  uuthorlty  [Duke  William  of 
Normandy,  who  beciimo  In  100(1  the  (.'oniiueror 
and  King  of  Kiiglandl,  and  uttended  bylSishops, 
Abbots,  and  Harons,  It  was  ordered  tliat  u  bell 
Hhouid  bu  rung  every  evening,  ut  hearing  of 
which  prayer  should  bo  olTered,  and  ull  people 
Bhould  get  within  tlieir  houses  and  shut  their 
doors.  Tlds  «xUl  mixture  or  piety  and  police 
seems  to  be  the  origin  of  the  fanious  and  mis- 
represented Curfew.  Whatever  was  its  object, 
it  was  at  least  not  ordained  as  any  special  hard- 
ship on  William's  English  subjects." — E.  A.  Free- 
man, //»■«<.  of  tlie  Norman  (Jonqueat  of  Eiig.,  ch.  13, 
MCt.  8  (f.  8). 

CURIA,    Ancient    Roman.      Sec    Comiti.v 

CCKIATA. 

CURIA,  Municipal,  of  the  later  Roman  cn- 
pire. —  Decuriones. — "It  is  only  necessaiy  in 
this  work  to  describe  the  geneml  type  of  the 
municipal  organization  which  existed  in  the  prov- 
inces of  the  lioman  Empire  after  the  time  of 
Constantine.  .  .  .  The  proprietors  of  land  'u  the 
Roman  provinces  genemlly  dwelt  in  town  t  and 
cities,  lis  a  protection  against  brigands  am',  miui- 
stealcrs.  Every  town  had  an  agricultural  dis- 
trict which  formed  its  territory,  and  the  landed 
proprietors  constituted  the  municipality.  Tne 
whole  local  authority  was  vested  in  an  oligarch- 
ical senate  colled  tho  Curia,  consisting  probably 
of  one  hundred  of  the  wealthiest  lauded  proprie- 
tors lu  the  city  or  township.  This  body  elected 
the  municipal  authorities  and  officers,  ami  filled 
up  vacancies  in  its  own  body.  It  was  therefore 
independent  of  the  proprietors  from  among 
whom  it  was  taken,  and  whose  interests  it  ought 
to  have  represented.  The  Curia — not  the  body 
of  landed  proprietors  —  formed  therefore  the 
Roman  municipality.  The  Curia  was  used  by 
the  imperial  government  as  an  instrument  of 
fiscal  extortion."— Q.  Finlay,  Greece  under  the 
Uomans,  ch.  2,  sect.  1. — "When  the  progress  of 
fiscal  tyranny  had  almost  sapped  the  vigor  of 
society,  the  decuriones  [members  of  the  munici- 
pal curioe,  called,  also,  curiales]  .  .  .  being  held 
Joiutly  rctiponBible  for  the  taxation,  became  the 


veriest  slaves  of  th<>  rmplre.  Ttrspontible  Jointly 
f<ir  the  taxcH,  tin  y  \m  rr.  I>y  the  same  token,  re- 
NponKllile  for  their  I'lilliii^'iic^  mid  theirHucceiiaors; 
their  estates  were  iiiiide  tlie  wciiritles  of  the  Im- 
iicrlal  dues;  and  if  any  estate  was  abandoned  by 
Its  proprietor,  they  were  conipellcd  to  (M'cupy  ft 
and  meet  the  Imposts  exigible  from  It.  Yet  they 
could  not  reliiiiiuish  their  olllces;  they  could  not 
leave  the  city  except  by  Kteallh  ;  they  could  not 
enter  the  army,  or  tin-  pricHthiMid,  or  any  olllce 
which  might  relieve  them  from  municipal  func- 
tioiiH.  .  .  .  Even  the  cliil<in'i>  of  the  (Juriul  were 
iidscribed  to  his  functions,  and  rouhl  engugo  In 
no  course  of  life  liiconHlstent  willi  the  onerous 
and  Intoh'rable  duty.  In  short,  this  dignity  was 
so  much  aliliorred  that  the  lowest  plebeian 
shunned  adinlHsion  to  It,  the  membeiH  of  It  made 
tlieiiiselves  lioiiilincn,  married  slave-wotnen,  or 
jcjined  the  barliaric  hordes  in  order  to  escape  it; 
and  malefactors,  .lews  and  heretics  were  somo- 


tiines  condemned  to  it,  as  an  approjirlate  penalty 

for  their  otrenses." — I*.  Oim 

Aiiriiiit  (Iniil.  hk.  3,  c//.  8. 


I  api)roi 
wlu,  lli 


'int.  ofr^anee: 


.\i.Ho  I.N:  T.  H(Klgkiii,  Itnlji (imlher  Intadert, 
Ilk.  II,  (7(.  0. —  V.  (}ui/,ot,  llint.  of  Cmlitntion,  e.  2 
(r.  1,  Fniinr),  Icrt.  3.— .Sec,  also  HoMK:  A.  D. 
illlH-^HTK. 

CURIA,  Papal.— College  of  Cardinals.— 
Consistory. — "The  C'ourt  of  Rome,  commonly 
called  the  lioman  (,'uria,  consisted  of  u  number 
of  illgnified  ecclesiastics  who  iissist^-d  tho  Pope 
in  the  executive  administration.  The  FontllT's 
more  intimate  advisers,  or,  us  wo  should  say,  his 
privy  council,  were  the  College  of  C'ardinulH  [see 
P.vp.vcv:  A.  1).  lO.lU],  consisting  of  a  certain 
number  of  cardinal  bi.sliops,  cardinal  priests,  and 
cardinal  deacons.  The  cardinal  deacons,  at  first 
seven  and  afterwards  fourteen  in  number,  wero 
originally  ecclesiastics  appointed  as  overseers  and 
guardians  of  the  sick  and  poor  in  the  dllTercnt 
districts  of  Rome.  Equal  to  them  In  rank  were 
the  fifty  cardinal  priests,  as  the  chief  priests  of 
the  principal  liomuu  churches  were  called ;  who, 
witli  the  cardinal  deacons,  formed,  in  very  early 
times,  the  presbytery,  or  senate  of  the  liishop 
of  Home.  .  .  .  According  to  some  authorities, 
cardinal  bishops  were  instituted  in  tlie  0th  cen- 
tury;  according  to  otliers  not  till  the  llth,  when 
seven  bishops  of  the  dioceses  nearest  to  Romo 
—  Ostiu,  Porto,  Velitriie,  Tusculum,  Pncncste, 
Tibur,  and  the  Sabincs  —  wcw.  adopted  by  tho 
Pope  partly  us  his  assistaiils  in  the  service  of  the 
Liiteran,  and  partly  in  the  general  administration 
of  the  Church.  In  process  of  time,  the  appoint- 
ment of  such  cardinal  bishops  was  extended  not 
oidy  to  the  rest  of  Italy  but  ulso  to  foreign 
ciiuncries.  Though  the  youngest  of  the  cardinals 
in  point  of  time,  cardinal  bishops  wero  the  high- 
est in  rank,  and  enjoyed  tho  pre-eminence  in  tlie 
(\)llege.  'i'lieir  titles  were  derived  from  their 
dioceses.  .  .  .  But  they  were  ulso  called  by 
their  own  names.  The  number  of  the  cardinals 
was  indefinite  and  varying.  The  Council  of 
Basle  endeavoured  to  restrict  it  to  24.  But  this 
was  not  carried  out,  and  Pope  Sixtus  V.  at 
length  fixed  the  number  at  70.  Tho  Council 
called  the  Consistory,  which  advised  with  the 
Pope  both  in  temiwral  and  ecclesiastical  matters, 
was  ordinarily  private,  and  confined  to  the  car- 
dinals alone ;  though  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
and  for  solemn  purposes  of  state,  as  in  the 
audiences  of  foreign  ambassadors,  &c.,  other 
prelates,  and  even  distinguished  laymen,  might 


642 


cunrA. 


CYHOncrPflKLM. 


unprar  In  It."— T.    II.    Tyor,   FTM    of  MiMkrn 

KiiroiM',  «i.  1,  /).  IW. 

CURIA  REGIS  OP  THB  NORMAN 

KINGS.-" Tlu-  Ciirlii  llcRiH  (imil.r  tlir  Nor- 
iiijtri  KliiK*  •>'  llnKliiiiil),  llic  HiipiciiK'  trilxinul 
iif  JiKlicjitiirt',  of  which  the  KxchciiiKr  wiih  the 
hniUK'iiil  iK'imrtrnciil  or  wHsimi,  wiix  .  .  .  thi> 
I'oiirt  iif  the  kinff  Hllthijt  to  aihiihihtcr  JiiMticr 
whh  the  itdvlccof  hU  <'()iitiH('ll<)rN:  thrmc  (.'tniii' 
M-llorg  lx'hi)(,  III  thu  whIcMt  itcccptatioii,  the 
whole  iHidy  uf  tciinntii-in-i'lilcr,  but  in  tin*  iiiori> 
liiiiltcd  iisiiKo,  the  Kro't  otIlccrH  nf  thu  household 
and  HiK'clally  appointed  judjfi'H.  The  Kreat 
j;atlierinKH  of  the  national  council  may  l)u  re- 
yarded  as  full  gcwiions  of  thi'  Curia  Heuls,  or  the 
Curia  \it'nU  an  a  perpetual  coiinniltee  of  tlie 
national  council." — W.  Htulilw,  I'oiiiit.  Hint,  nf 
Hmj.,  cli.  11,  HfCt.  127.— "Not  lonj?  after  the 
Kinntliiju;  of  Sla^na  ('harta,  the  Curia  I{<'kIh  wn>, 
pcrinaiiently  divided  into  three  coinuillteeN  o. 
uuurtii,  each  taking  a  certain  portion  of  llie  husi. 
neM:  (1)  Fiscal  matters  wen-  conllned  to  llic 
ExcliC(|iier;  ('i)  civil  disputes,  where  neither  Hie 
lUnjr's  interest  nor  anv  matter  savouriiiK  of  a 
criminal  nalurn  were  (nvolved,  were  decided  in 
tliu  ('(Miimon  Pleas;  and  (!))  the  court  of  Kind's 
liencli  lelained  all  11>  vemalninK  liusiiu'ss  and 
Hoon  ac(|uired  the  cxciuHlve  denomination  of  tlie 
nnrient  Curia  Uej,'ls,  Hut  the  Haine  stalf  of 
Judf^es  was  still  retained  for  all  three  courts. 
Willi  the  chief  ju.slieiar  at  their  head.  Towards 
the  end  of  Henry  III.'s  reign,  the  three  courts 
received  each  a  distinct  statT,  anil  on  tlie  abolition 
by  Edward  I.  of  the  olllce  of  chief  1usti<'iar,  tlio 
only  remaining  bond  of  union  beiiiK  severed, 
they  became  completely  sejianited.  Some  trace 
of  their  ancient  unity  of  orKaiil/.alion  always 
Hurvived,  however,  in  tlie  court  of  Kxclieiiuer 
Chamber;  until  at  lcii);tli  after  six  centuries  of 
independent  existence  they  were  a^aiii  united  by 
tlie  Judi'  ituru  Act,  1873.  Together  wilii  the 
Court  of  ( ■littiiccry  and  the  Probate,  I)lvor('e  and 
Admintlly  courts,  (hey  now  form  divisions  of 
u  con.solidated  High  Court  of  Justice,  itself  a 
branch  of  the  Supreme  (,'ourt  of  Judicature." — 
T.  P.  Taswcli-Laugmead,  Eny.  Count.  Hint.,  p. 
154.— "The  Aula  Regia,  or  Curia  Hegis  .  .  . 
ha.s  been  described  in  various  and  at  lirst  siglit 
coutmdictorv  terms.  Thus  it  lias  been  called 
tlio  higliest  Law  Court,  the  Ministry  of  the  King, 
u  Legislative  Assembly,  &c.  The  apparent  iu- 
conslsteney  of  these  (lescriptions  vanislies  <«i 
closer  inspection,  mid  throw.s  great  light  on  ine- 
(liieval  history.  For  the  Curia  Regis  possessed 
every  attribute  which  has  been  ascribed  to  it." — 
A.  V.  Dicey,  rZ/f  Privy  Vouneil,  jit.  1. 

Also  in  :  R.  Queist,  Hist,  of  tite  Eng.  Count. , 
eh.  19. 

CURIALES.    See  Cimiia,  Municipal. 

CURIOSOLITiE,  The.  See  Venkti  ok 
Westeiin  GAfl.. 

CURTIS,  George  W.,  and  Civil-Service 
Reform.  See  Civil  Seiivice  Rekoiim  i.n  the 
United  States. 

CURULE  iEDILES.  See  Rome:  n.  C. 
404-493. 

CURULE  CHAIR.  — In  ancient  Rome, 
"certain  high  olflcos  of  state  conferred  upon 
the  hohler  the  right  of  using,  upon  public 
occasions,  an  ivory  ciinir  of  iieculiar  form.  Tliis 
chair  was  termed  Sella  C'urulis.  .  .  .  This  was 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  modern  camp-stool. " — 
W.  Ramsay,  ManualofRmnanAntiq.,  ch.  2an<i4. 


CURZOLA,  Battle  of  (tao8).    flco  Genoa: 
A,  I).  1 '.'(1 1-121)1). 
CUSCO :  The  Capital  of  the  Incas  of  Peru. 

See  I'l :i(i::   A.  1),   I.Vlll-l.MN. 

CUSH.— CUSHITES.- '(lemMls,  like  the 
Hebrews  of  lalir  dale.  Includes  under  Hie  name 
of  Ciish  the  natliiiiH  dwelling  to  the  Snuth,  the 
-Nubiiiiih.  Kthiipphins  and  tribesof  South  Arabia." 
— .M.  Diincker,  Hint.  <f  .liili,/,iil!/,  M:  2,  <■//.  1.— 
See,  also,  Hamitkm.  and  Aiiaiu.v. 

CUSHING,  Lieutenant  William  B.— De- 
struction of  the  ram  Albemarle.  See  Tnitei) 
Statkhok  Am.  :  A.  I).  IHdl  (0(  hmikii:  Noiitii 
Cauom.na). 

CUSTER'S  LAST  BATTLE.  Heo United 
SrvTKh  iiK  Am.:  .\.  1).  1h;(1. 

CUSTOMS   DUTIES.     See  Taiiikk. 

CUSTOMS  UNION,  The  German  (Zoll- 
verein).     See  Tauikk  ;  .\.  1).  |n:i;i. 

CUSTOZZA,  Battles  of  (1848  and  1866). 
SeelTAl.v:   A.  D.   |M|.S-1HII);  and  |H(IMM(1(I. 

CUTLER,  Manasseh,  and  the  Ordinance  of 

1787.       See     NoKTIIWUHT    TKIlUITUltY    OK    THE 
r.  S. :  A.  I).  17H7. 
CUYRIRI.The.    See  A.mkuican  Aiiouioinem: 

(iVJCK  OH  ('(MO  (illoir 

CYCLADES,  The.-SPOKADES,  The.- 

"  Among  tlie  Ionic  porlioii  of  Hellas  an-  to  be 
reckoned  (besides  Alliens)  KulHca,  and  the  nu 
inenais  gnmp  of  Islands  included  between  the 
southernmiist  Kubiean  pniiiiontory,  thu  caxterii 
coast  of  Peloponnesus,  anil  the  northwestern 
coa.st  of  KrOle.  Of  these  islands  some  are  to  be 
considered  as  eiiillyiiig  pniloiigatioiis,  in  a  south 
easterly  direction"  of  the  mountain-system  of 
.\lliea;  olliers  of  that  of  Kiiliiea:  wliile  a  certain 
launlier  <d'  them  lie  apart  from  eillier  system,  and 
seem  refenible  to  a  volcahic  ori^'iii.  To  tlie  lirst 
class  belong  Keos,  Kythnus,  Sirlplius.  Pliolegau- 
driis,  Sikinus,  Oya  119,  Syra,  Pan>s,  and  Aniipa- 
ros;  to  the  second  class  Andnis,  TOnos,  Alykonos, 
I)(''los,  Naxos,  Amorgos;  to  the  thini  class  Kimo- 
Ills,  Mil'los,  Tliera.  These  islands  pa.s.sed  amongst 
the  luicienls  by  the  geiienil  name  of  the  Cyclades 
and  the  Sporades;  the  former  denominalioii  being 
coniinonly  understood  to  compii.se  tliose  wliiili 
imuiedialely  siirnmnded  the  sacred  i.sland  of 
DOlos, —  the  latter  being  given  to  those  whidi  lay 
more  scattered  and  apart.  Hut  the  names  are 
not  appl'  .  witli  uniformity  or  steadiness  even  in 
uiiciei'  (in.  s:  at  present,  tliu  whole  group  are 
V  y  kno  n  by  the  title  of  (H'ciiuh'S.  — G. 
linite.  If  int.  <; '  (iiiici;  pi.  2,  e/i,  12" 

CYDONIA,  Battles  and  siege  of  (B.  C.  71- 
68).     See  C    ETK;  11.  C.  (W-liO. 

CYLON,  Conspiracy  of.    See  Athens:  B.  C. 

fll2-r.9.-,, 
CYMBELINE,  Kingdom  of.    See  Culciieb- 

TEII,  OllKlIN  OK. 

CYMRY,  The.    See  Kv-Mitv,  The. 
CYNOSARGES  AT  ATHENS,  The.    Sec 
Gymnasia,  Giikkk. 
CYNOSCEPHALiE,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  364). 

— The  battle  in  which  IVIopiilas,  the  Theban 
patriot,  friend  and  colleague  of  Epaminondas, 
was  slain.  It  was  fimglil  15.  C.  304,  in  Tiiessaly, 
near  I'liarsalus,  on  the  lieiglits  called  Cynoscep- 
Iiala;,  or  the  Dog's  Heads,  and  delivered  the 
Thcssalian  cities  fnim  tlic  encroachments  of  the 
tyrant  of  Phcra;.- C.  Thirlwall,  Hint,  of  Greece, 
ch.  40. 
(B.  C.  197).    See  Greece:  B.  C.  214-146. 


(i4a 


/ 


J 


CTNOSSEMA. 


0YPRU8. 


CYNOSSEMA,  Naval  battle  of.— Two  sue- 
ccssivo  niival  bitttlcs  foiiglit,  one  iu  -Inly  mid  the 
Bccond  ill  OctolKT,  IJ.  C.  411,  liclwceu  ilic  Adie- 
niiiDs  1111(1  the  I'uloponiicsiiiii  nllk's,  in  the  Ilellt'S- 
pout,  uro  jointly  ciillcd  tlic  Battle  of  Cynosseiiia. 
The  name  was  taken  from  the  headland  called 
Cynossemn,  or  the  "  Dog's Tomh,"  "ennobled  by 
the  legend  and  the  chapel  of  the  Trojan  queen 
Ileciilm."  The  Atlienians  had  thi^  advantage  in 
both  encounters,  csjieeially  in  the  latter  one. 
when  they  were  joined  by  Aleibiades,  with  re- 
enforceiiients,  just  in  time  to  decide  the  doubtful 
fortunes  of  the  day. — E.  Curtius,  Hist,  of  Greece, 
hk.  4,  eh.  5. 

Ai-so  in:  G.  Orotc,  Hixt.  nf  Greece,  pt.  2, 
ch.  03. —Sec  Ohf.kck;  B.  C.  411-407. 

CYNURIANS,  The.    See  Kynuiii.\ks. 

CYPRUS:  Origin  of  the  name. —  "The 
Greek  name  of  the  island  was  derived  from  the 
abundance  in  which  it  produced  the  beautiful 
plant  ('  Cojdier ' )  which  furni.shes  the  '  al-henna,' 
coveted  throughout  the  Kast  for  the  yellow  dye 
which  it  communicates  to  the  nails.  It  was  rich 
io  mines  of  copjier,  which  has  obtained  for  it  the 
name  by  which  it  is  known  in  the  modern  lan- 
guagesof  the  West." — .1.  Kenrick,  P/ia'niciii,  ch.  4. 

Early  History. — "Tlic  lirst  authentic  record 
witli  regard  to  (!yprus  is  an  inscription  on  an 
Egyptian  tombstone  of  the  ITtli  century  IJ.  C, 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  island  was 
comiuered  by  Thotlimes  III.  of  Egypt,  in  whose 
reign  tlio  e.xodiis  of  the  Children  of  Israel  is 
supposed  to  have  taken  jilace.  Tliis  was  no  doubt 
anterior  to  the  establishinent  of  any  Greek  colo- 
nies, and  ])robal)ly,  also,  before  the  PlKrnicians 
had  settled  in  the  island.  ...  As  appears  from 
various  inscriptions  and  other  records,  Cyprus 
became  subject  successivelv  to  Egypt,  as  just 
mentioned,  to  Assyria,  to  fcgypt  again  in  508 
B.  C,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Amasis,  and  in 
'j25  B.  C.  to  Persia.  Jleanwhile  the  power  of 
the  Grec!-s  had  been  increasing.  .  The  civili- 
zation of  the  West  was  about  to  ssert  itself  at 
Marathon  and  Siilaniis;  and  Cyprus,  being  mid- 
wiiy  betw(!en  East  and  West,  could  not  fail  to  lie 
involved  iu  tir  coming  conflict.  On  the  occa.sion 
of  the  Ionic  revolt  [see  Pkhsia:  B.  C.  521-490] 
the  Greek  element  in  Cyprus  sliowed  its  strength : 
ttud  in  502  IJ.  C.  the  whole  island,  with  tlie  single 
exception  of  the  Pha'nieian  town  of  Amathus, 
took  part  with  the  lonians  in  renouncing  the 
authority  of  the  Persian  king."  But  in  the  war 
wliicli  followed,  the  Persians,  aided  by  the  Plue- 
nicians  of  the  mainland,  iccoii((Uei'ed  Cyprus, 
and  the  Cyprian  Greeks  were  long  disheartened. 
Tliey  recovered  tlieir  courage,  however,  about 
410  B.  C.  when  Evagoras,  ft  Greek  of  the  royal 
liou.se  of  Teuccr.  made  him.self  master  of  Sidaniis, 
and  finally  establislied  a  general  sovereignty  over 
the  island  —  even  e.vtending  his  power  to  tlie 
mainland  and  subjugating  Tyre.  "Tiie  reign 
of  Evagoras  is  periiaps  the  most  brilliant  period 
In  tlie  history  of  Cyprus.  Before  his  deatli, 
wliicli  took  place  in  374  B.  C,  he  had  raised  the 
island  from  the  position  of  a  mere  dependency  of 
one  or  oilier  of  the  great  Eav.tcrn  monarchies,  had 
gained  for  it  a  nlacc  among  the  leading  states  of 
Greece,  and  had  solved  the  (piestion  as  to  which 
division  of  the  raicient  world  the  Cyprian  people 
should  be  assigned.  Consc(piently  when,  some 
forty  years  later,  the  power  of  Persia  was  sliat 
teied  by  Ale.Miuder  the  Great  at  the  battle  of 
Issus,  the  kings  of  the  island  hastened  to  oScr 


him  their  submisaion  as  the  leader  of  the  Greek 
race,  and  sent  120  slii|)s  to  a.s.  'st  him  in  the  siege 
of  Tyre."  After  Alexander  death,  Cyprus 
was  disputtd  between  Antigon..s  and  Ptolemv. 
(See  MACFiDONi.v:  B.  C.  310-;i01.)  The  kino;  of 
Egypt  secured  llie  jirize,  and  the  island  reniained 
under  the  Greek-Egyptian  crown,  until  it  passed, 
V,  itli  the  rest  of  the  heritage  of  the  Ptoleinys  to 
the  Romans.  "  When  the  [Homan]  empire  was 
iiivided,  on  the  death  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
C^ypriis,  like  Malta,  passed  into  tlic  hands  of  the 
Byzantine  Emperors.  Like  Malta,  also,  it  was 
exposed  to  frequent  attacks  from  the  Araiis:  but, 
although  they  several  times  occupied  the  island 
and  once  held  it  for  no  less  than  100  years,  they 
were  always  expelled  again  by  the  Byzantine 
Emperors,  and  never  established  themselves  there 
as  firmly  as  they  did  in  Malta.  Tlie  crusades 
first  brought  Cyprus  into  contact  with  the  western 
nations  of  modern  Europe." — C.  P.  Lucas,  Iliat. 
Gc(>;i.  of  liriliKh  Colonies,  sect.  1,  ch.  3. 

Also  in:  U.  II.  Lai'g,  Ci/prtia,  ch.  1-8. — F. 
Von  Loher,  C'l/priis,  ch.  13  niul  30.— L.  P.  Dl 
Cesnola,  Vjiprns ;  its  itiiciciit  cities,  if-c. 

B.  C.  58.— Annexed  to  the  Roman  Do- 
minions.— "The  annexation  of  Cyprus  was 
decreed  in  090  [B.  C.  58]  by  the  iieople  [of 
Home],  that  is,  by  the  leailers  of  the  democracy, 
the  support  given  to  piracy  by  tlie  Cypriots 
being  alleged  as  the  olliciiil  reason  why  that 
course  should  now  be  adopted.  Jlareus  Cato, 
intrusted  by  his  opponents  with  the  execution  of 
tills  measure,  came  to  tlie  island  witliout  an 
army ;  but  he  had  no  need  of  one.  The  king  [a 
brotlier  of  the  king  of  Egypt]  took  poison;  the 
inliabitants  submitted  witliout  offering  resist- 
ance to  tlieir  inevitable  fate,  and  were  placed 
under  the  governor  of  Cilicia. " — T.  Monimsen, 
JIi.st.  of  litmc,  bk.  5,  ch.  4. 

A.  "D.  117. — Jewish  insuriection. —  "This 
rich  and  ph'usant  territory  [tlic  island  of  Cyprus] 
had  afforded  a  refuge  to  the  lews  of  the  contin- 
ent tlirough  three  generations  of  disturbance  and 
alarm,  anil  the  Hebrew  race  was  now  [A.  D.  117] 
probably  not  inferior  tliere  in  number  to  the 
native  Svrians  or  Greeks.  On  the  first  outburst 
of  a  .lewish  revolt  [againstthe  Roman  domination, 
in  the  last  year  of  tiie  reign  of  Trajan]  tlie  wliole 
island  fell  into  tlie  hands  of  the  insurgents,  and 
became  an  arsenal  and  rallying  point  for  the 
insurrection,  wliicli  soon  spread  over  Egypt, 
(/'yreiu!  and  Mesopotamia.  The  leader  of  the 
revolt  iu  Cyprus  bore  the  name  of  Artemion, 
but  we  know  no  particulars  of  the  war  iu  this 
(luarter,  except  that  340,000  of  the  native  popii- 
lati(ra  is  said  to  Iiave  fallen  victims  to  the  exter- 
minating fury  of  the  insurgents.  When  the 
rebellion  was  at  last  extinguished  in  blood,  the 
Jews  were  forbidden  tlicnceforth  to  set  foot  on 
the  island;  and  even  if  driven  thither  by  stress 
of  weather,  the  penalty  of  deatli  was  mercilessly 
enforced.  .  .  .  The  .lewish  population  of  Cyre- 
iiaica  outnumbered  the  natives.  .  .  .  The  hostility 
of  the  .Jews  in  tliesc  parts  was  less  directed 
against  the  cntral  government  and  the  Roman 
residents  than  the  native  race.  ...  Of  thtse 
220,000  arc  said  to  have  perished." — C.  Merivulc, 
Ilist.  of  the  Romans,  ch.  05. 

A.  D.  1 191. —Conquest  by  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion. — Founding  of  the  Latin .  Kingdom. — 
Duri;ig  the  civil  strife  and  confusion  of  tlie  las*, 
years  of  the  Comuenian  dynasty  of  emperors  at 
Constantinople,  one  of  the  members  of  the  family. 


644 


CYPRUS. 


CYRENAICA. 


Isaac  Comnenos,  secured  the  Bovcreigntv  of 
Cyprus  nnd  assumed  the  title  of  emperor.  With 
the  alliance  of  tl  e  king  of  Sicily,  he  defeated  the 
Byzantine  forces  scut  against  him,  and  was 
planted  securely,  to  all  appearance,  on  his  newly 
bidlt  throne  at  the  time  of  the  Tliird  Crusade. 
Circumstances  at  that  time  (A.  D.  1101)  gave  him 
a  fatal  opportunity  to  provoke  the  Engli.sh  cru- 
saders. First,  lie  seized  the  property  and  im- 
prisoned the  crews  of  three  Knglish  sliips  tliat 
were  wrecked  on  the  Cyprian  coast.  Not  satisfied 
with  that  violence,  he  refused  slielter  from  the 
storm  to  a  vessel  which  bore  Berengaria  of  Na- 
varre, the  intended  wife  of  King  Hichanl.  "The 
kicj  of  England  immediately  sailed  to  Cyprus ; 
and  when  Isaac  refused  to  deliver  up  the  ship- 
wrecked crusaders,  and  to  restore  their  property, 
Richard  landed  his  army  and  commenced  a  series 
of  operations,  which  ended  in  his  conquering  the 
whole  island,  in  which  he  abolished  the  adminis- 
trative institutions  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  en- 
slaving the  Greek  race,  introducing  the  feudal 
system,  by  which  he  riveted  the  chains  of  a 
foreign  domination,  and  tlie;  -ave  it  as  a  present 
to  Guy  of  Lusignan,  the  titi-l  king  of  Jerusalem, 
who  became  the  founiicr  c  d ''nasty  of  Frank 
kings  in  Cyprus." — O.  Pinlay,  llut.  of  the  Jlj/znn- 
tine  and  Oreek  Empires,  from  716  to  1453,  bk.  8, 
ell.  3,  sect,  1. — Before  giving  Cyprus  to  Guy  of 
Lusignan,  Richard  had  sold  -ho  island  to  the 
Templars,  and  Guy  had  to  pay  the  knights 
heavily  for  the  extinguishment  of  their  rights. 
Richard,  therefore,  was  mther  a  negotiator  than 
a  giver  in  the  transaction. — W.  Stubbs,  Seventeen 
Leets.  on  the  Study  of  Mcdiaval  and  Modern  His- 
tory, leet.  8. 

A.  D.  1 192-1489. — The  kingdom  under  the 
house  of  Lusignan. — "The  house  of  Lusignan 
inaiiitaineil  itself  in  Cyprus  for  nearly  three  cen- 
turies, during  which,  although  fallen  somewhat 
from  the  blessedness  which  had  been  broken  up 
by  Isaac  Comnenus,  the  island  seems  to  have  re- 
tained so  much  fertility  and  prosperity  as  to 
make  its  later  history  very  dark  by  contrast. 
.  .  .  Guy,  we  arc  told,  received  Cyprus  for  life 
only,  and  did  homage  for  the  island  to  Richard. 
As  lie  already  bore  the  title  of  king,  the  question 
whether  he  should  hold  Cyprus  as  a  kingdom 
does  not  seem  to  have  arisen.  ...  On  his  death, 
in  April,  1194,  Richard  putting  in  no  claim  for 
the  reversion,  his  brother,  Amalric  of  Lusignan, 
constable  of  Palestine,  entered  on  the  possession 
as  his  heir.  .  .  .  Amalric  succeeded  to  the  crown 
of  Jerusalem;  the  crown  of  Jerusalem,  «'hich, 
after  the  year  1269,  became  permanently  united 
with  that  of  Cyprus,  was  an  independent  crown, 
and  the  king  oi'  Jerusalem  an  anointed  king :  the 
union  of  the  crowns  therefore  seems  to  have  pre- 
cluded any  question  as  to  tlie  tenure  by  which 
the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  should  be  held.  .  .  . 
The  homage  then  due  to  Richard,  or  to  the  crown 
of  England,  ceased  at  the  death  of  Guy." — W. 
Stubbs,  Seventeen  Leets.  on  the  Study  of  Mediaml 
and  Modern  Hist.,  lect.  8. —  See,  also,  .Tehusaleji: 
A.  D.  1291. 

A.  D.  1291-1310. — The  Knights  Hospitallers 
of  St.  John.  See  Hospitalleus  op  St.  John  : 
A.  D.  1118-1310. 

A.  D.  1489-1570.— A  Veoetian  dependency. 
—  The  last  reigning  king  of  Cyprus  was  James 
II.,  a  bastard  orother  of  Queen  Charlotte,  whom 
he  drove  from  the  Cyprint  throne  in  1464.  This 
king  married  a  Venetian  lady,  Caterina  Comaro, 


in  1471  and  was  declared  to  be  "  the  son-in-law 
of  the  Republic."  The  un.scrupulous  republic  is 
said  to  have  poi.soned  its  sonin-law  in  order  to 
secure  the  succes-sion.  He  died  in  1473,  and  a 
i,on,  uorn  afti;r  his  death,  lived  but  two  years. 
Cyprus  was  then  ruled  by  the  Vem^tians  for 
fifteen  years  in  the  name  of  Caterina,  who  finally 
renounced  her  rights  wholly  iu  favor  of  the  re- 
public. After  1480,  until  "its  conquest  by  the 
Turks,  Cyprus  was  a  Venetian  dependency,  in 
form  as  well  as  in  fact,  but  tributary  to  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt. — W.  Stubbs,  Seventeen  Leets.  on 
the  Study  (f  Medicpval  and  Modern  Hist.,  leH.  8. 

A.  D.  1570-1571.— Conquest  by  the  Turks. 
SeeTuuKs:  A.  I).  1.166-1.')71. 

A.  D.  1821. —  Turkish  massacre  of  Chris- 
tians.   SeeGuEECE:  A.  D.  1821-1839. 

A.  D.  1878. — Control  surrendered.by  Turkey 
to  England.  See  Tukks:  A.  D.  1878,  The 
theatieb  ok  San  Stefano  and  Beiilin. 


CYREANS,  The.     See  Peksia:  B.  C.  401^ 
400. 
CYRENAICA.  -  CYRENE.—  KYRENE. 

— A  city,  growing  into  a  kingdom,  which  was 
founded  at  an  early  day  by  the  Greeks,  on  that 
projecting  part  of  "the  coast  of  Libya,  or  northern 
Africa,  winch  lies  opposite  to  Greece.  The  first 
settlers  were  said  to  liavg  been  from  the  little 
island  of  Tliera,  whose  people  were  bold  and 
enterprising.  The  site  they  chose  "was  of  an 
unusual  nature,  especially  for  islanders,  and  lay 
several  miles  away  from  the  sea,  the  shores  of 
which  were  devoid  of  natunil  bays  for  anchor- 
age. But,  with  this  exception,  every  advantage 
was  at  hand :  instead  of  tlio  narrow  stony  soil 
of  their  native  land,  they  found  the  most  fertile 
corn-flelds,  a  broad  table-land  with  a  healthy  at- 
mosphere and  watered  by  fresh  springs;  a  well- 
wooded  coast-land,  uni'.aually  well  adapted  for 
all  the  natural  products  which  the  Hellenes 
deemed  essential ;  while  in  the  background  spread 
mysteriously  the  desert,  a  world  passing  the  com 
prehension  of  the  H'jllenes,  out  of  which  the  Libyan 
tribes  came  to  the  shore  with  horses  and  camels, 
^  Itli  black  slav'js,  with  apes,  parrots  and  other 
w  'uderful  animals,  with  dates  and  rare  fruits. 
.  .  .  An  abundant  spring  of  water  above  the 
shore  was  the  natural  point  at  which  the  brown 
men  of  the  deserts  and  the  mariners  assembled. 
Here  ref'ular  meetings  became  customary.  The 
bazaar  became  a  permanent  market,  and  the 
mai'kct  a  city  which  arose  on  a  grand  scale, 
broad  and  lofty,  on  two  rocky  heights,  which 
jut  out  towards  the  sea  from  tlie  plateau  of  the 
desert.  This  city  was  called  Cyrene.  .  .  .  Largo 
numbers  of  population  immigrated  from  Crete, 
the  islands  and  Pelopoi:ncsus.  A  large  amount 
of  new  land  was  parcelled  out,  the  Libyans  were 
driven  back,  the  landin;  place  became  the  port 
of  Apollonia,  and  the  tir.itory  occupied  by  the 
city  itself  was  largely  extended.  Cyrene  be- 
came, like  Massalia,  the  starting  point  of  a  group 
of  settlements,  the  centre  of  a  oiuall  Greece: 
Barca  and  Hespcrides  [afterwards  called  Bere- 
nice] were  her  daughters.  Gradually  a  nation 
grew  up,  whidi  extended  itself  and  its  agricul- 
ture, and  contrived  to  cover  a  large  division  of 
African  land  with  Hellenic  culture.  This  v.as 
the  new  era  which  commenced  for  Cyrene  v.ith 
the  reign  of  the  third  king,  the  Battus  who,  on 
account  of  the  marvellously  rapid  rise  of  his 
kingdom,  was  celebrated  as  "^the  fortunate '  in  all 


645 


CYIIENAICA. 


DACIA. 


Hellas.  The  Battiodn;  [the  family  or  dynasty  of 
Battus]  were  soon  regarded  as  a  great  power. " — 
E.  (;iirtiii8,  Hist.  ofOrreee,  bk.  2,  ch.  8. — Cyrciinicu 
became  subject  to  Egypt  un(ier  the  Ptolcmys, 
and  was  then  usually  culled  Pcntnpolis,  from  the 
five  cities  of  Cyrene,  ApoUonia,  ArsinoO  (lor- 
merly  Teuchira),  Berenice  (formerly  Ilesperis,  or 
Hesperides)  and  PtolcmaTs  (the  port  of  Barca). 
Later  it  became  a  province  of  tlie  Roman  Em- 
pire, and  linally,  passing  under  Mahometan  rule, 
sank  to  its  present  state,  as  a  district,  called 
Barca,  of  the  kingdom  of  Tripoli.  — Cyreno  was 
csnecially  famous  for  the  pnxluction  of  a  plant 
called  silphium  —  supposed  to  be  nssafcetida  — 
on  whicli  the  ancients  seem  to  liave  set  an  extra- 
ordinary value.  This  was  one  of  tlie  principal 
sources  of  the  wealtli  of  Cyrene. — E.  H.  Bun- 
bury,  Hist,  of  Ancient  Oeog.,  ch.  8,  sect.  1,  and 
eh.  12,  «a(.  2. 

B.  C.  525. — Tributary  to  Persia.  Sec  Egypt  : 
B.  C.  525-382. 

B.  C.  322. — Absorbed  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagus.  See  Eoyi't  :  B.  C. 
323-30. 

B.  C.  97. — Transferred  to  the  Romans  by 
will. — "In  tlie  middle  of  this  reign  [of  Ptolemy, 
called  Lathyrus,  king  of  Egypt]  died  Ptolemy 
Apion,  king  of  Cvrene.  He  was  the  half-brother 
of  Lathyrus  and  Alexander,  and  having  been 
made  king  of  Cyrene  by  liis  father  EuergetesH., 
he  had  there  reigned  quietly  for  twenty  years. 
Being  between  Egypt  and  Carthage,  then  called 
the  lioman  province  of  Africa,  and  having  no 
army  which  he  could  lead  against  the  Koman 
legions,  he  had  placed  himself  under  the  guar- 
dianship of  Borne ;  he  had  bought  a  truce  during 
his  lifetime,  by  making  the  Roman  people  his 
heirs  in  his  will,  so  that  on  his  death  they  were 
to  have  his  kingdom.  Cyrene  had  been  part  of 
Egypt  for  above  two  hundred  years,  and  was 
usually  governed  by  a  younger  son  or  brother  of 
the  king.    But  on  tibe  death  of  Ptolemy  Apion, 


the  Roman  scnat*",  who  had  latterly  been  grasp- 
ing at  everything  witliin  their  reacli,  claimed  his 
kingdom  as  tlieir  inheritance,  and  in  the  flatter- 
ing language  of  their  decree  by  which  the  coun- 
try was  enslaved,  they  declared  Cyrene  free." — 
8.  Sharpe.  J/iiit.  of  Kuypt,  eh.  11. 

A.  D.  117. — Jewish  insurrection.  See  Cv- 
nius:  A.  D.  117. 

A.  D.  016. — Destroyed  by  Chosroes.  See 
Eoyi'T:  a.  I).  616-028. 

7th  Century. — Mahometan  conquest.  See 
Mahometan  Conquest  :  A.  D.  647-709. 

CVRUS,  The  empire  of.  Sec  Persia:  B.  C. 
549-521. 

CYRUS  THE  YOUNGER,  The  expedi- 
tion of.     See  Peusia:  B.  C.  401-400. 

CYZICUS :  B.  C.  411-410,  Battles  at.  See 
Gueece:  B.  C.  411-407. 

B.  C.  74.— Siege  by  Mithridateg. — Cyzicus, 
which  had  then  become  one  of  the  largest  and 
wealthiest  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  was  besieged  for 
an  entire  year  (B.  C.  74-73)  by  Jlithridates  in  tho 
third  Alilhridatic  war.  The  Roman  Consul 
LucuUus  came  to  the  relief  of  the  city  and  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  a  position  which  blockaded  the 
bosiegers  and  cut  off  their  supplies.  In  the  end, 
Mitliridates  retreated  with  a  small  remnant  only, 
of  his  great  armament,  and  never  recovered  from 
the  disaster. —  G.  Iiong,  Decline  of  the  lloman 
Republic,  v.  3,  ch.  1. 

A.  D.  267.— Capture  by  the  Goths.  See 
Goths:  A.  1).  258-267. 


CZAR,  OR  TZAR.  See  Russia:  A.  D. 
1547. 

CZARTORISKYS,  The,  and  the  fall  of 
Poland.    See  Poland:  A.  D.  1763-1773. 

CZASLAU,  OR  CHOTUSITZ,  Battle  of 
(A.  D.  1742).  See  Austkia:  A.  D.  1742  (Janu- 
auy — May). 

CZEKHS,  The,    See  Bohemia :  Its  peofle. 


D. 


DACHTELFIELD,    The.      See    Saxons: 

A.  D.  772-804. 

DACIA,  The  Dacians. —  Ancient  Dacia  em- 
braced the  district  north  of  the  Danube  between 
the  Theiss  and  the  Dneister.  "  The  Dacians  [at 
the  time  of  Augustus,  in  the  last  half  century 

B.  C]  occupied  the  whole  of  what  now  forms 
the  southern  part  of  Hungary,  the  Banat  and 
Transylvania.  .  .  .  The  more  prominent  part 
which  they  henceforth  assumed  in  Roman  history 
■was  probably  owing  principally  to  the  immediate 
proximity  in  which  they  now  found  themselves 
to  the  Roman  frontier.  The  question  of  the  re- 
lation in  which  the  Dacians  stood  to  the  Qetie, 
•whom  we  find  in  possession  of  these  same  coun- 
tries at  an  earlier  period,  was  one  on  which  there 
existed  considerable  difference  of  opinion  among 
ancient  writers:  but  tlie  prevailing  conchision 
was  that  they  were  only  different  names  applied 
to  the  same  people.  Even  Strabo,  who  describes 
them  as  distinct,  though  cognate  tribes,  states 
that  they  spoke  the  same  language.  According 
to  his  distinction  the  Qeta>  occupied  ♦'^  /re 
easterly  regions,  adjoining  the  Euxine,  .  Die 
Dacians  the  western,  bordering  on  the  Ger- 
mans." —  E.  H.  Bunbury,  Uitt.  of  Amnent  Oeog., 
eh.  20,  sect.  1. 


A.  D.  102-106.— Trajan's  conquest. —  At  tho 

beginning  of  the  second  century,  when  Trajan 
conquered  the  Dacians  and  added  their  country 
to  the  Roman  Empire,  "they  may  be  considered 
as  occupying  tho  broad  block  of  land  bounded 
by  the  Theiss,  the  Carpathians,  the  lower 
Danube  or  Ist'er,  and  the  Pruth."  In  his  first 
campaign,  A.  D.  102,  Trajan  penetrated  the 
country  to  the  heart  of  modern  Transylvania, 
and  forced  the  Dacians  to  give  him  battle  at  a 
place  called  Tapoe,  the  site  of  which  is  not 
known.  He  routed  them  with  much  slaughter, 
as  they  had  been  roated  at  tho  same  place,  TapoB, 
sixteen  years  before,  in  one  of  the  ineffectual 
campaigns  directed  by  Domitian.  They  sub- 
mitted, and  Trajan  established  strong  Roman 
posts  in  the  country ;  but  he  had  scarcely  reached 
Rome  and  celebrated  his  triumph  there,  before 
the  Dacians  were  again  in  arms.  In  tho  spring 
of  the  year  104,  Trajan  repaired  to  the  lower 
Danube  in  person,  once  more,  and  entered  the 
Dacian  country  with  an  overwhelming  force. 
This  time  the  subjugation  was  complete,  and  the 
Romans  established  their  occupation  of  tlie  coun- 
try by  the  founding  of  colonies  and  the  building 
of  roads.  Dacia  was  now  made  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, nad  "the  language  of  the  Empire  became, 


646 


DACIA. 


DALRIADA. 


and  to  this  day  substantially  remains,  the  na- 
tional tongue  of  the  inlmbitnntB.  ...  Of  the 
Dnc'an  province,  the  last  acquired  and  the  first 
to  be  surrendered  of  the  Koman  possessions,  if 
we  CACcpt  some  transient  occupations,  soon  to  be 
commumorated,  in  the  East,  not  many  traces 
nowtxist;  but  even  these  may  sufflro  to  mark 
the  moulding  power  of  Ronin:;  civilization.  .  . 
The  accents  of  the  Komar  tongue  still  echo  in 
the  valleys  of  Hungary  and  Wallachia;  the  de- 
scendants of  the  Dacians  at  the  present  day 
ronudiate  the  appellation  of  Wallaclis,  or  stran- 
gers, and  8ti'!  claim  the  uame  of  Komuni. — C. 
Merivale,  Ilitt.  of  tlie  Jicinaiis,  ch.  63. 

A.  D.  270.— Given  up  to  the  Goths.  Sec 
GoTlis:  A.  D.  268-370. 

4th  Century.— Conquest  by  the  Huns.  See 
GoTli8(Vi8iooTHs):  A.  D.  376,  and  IIuns:  A.  D. 
433^53. 

6th  Century.— Occupied  by  the  Avars.    See 

AVAUS. 

Modem  history.    See  Balkan  and  Danubian 

States. 

* 

DACOITS.    See  Dakoits. 

DACOTAS.  See  A.MEUICAN  ABORiorNEs; 
Siouan  P.\  y,  and  Pawnee  (Caddoan) 
Family. 

DiEGSAS  i  AN,  Battle  of.— Fought,  A.  D. 
603,  Ixitween  the  Northumbrians  and  the  Scots 
of  Dalriada,  the  army  of  tlio  latter  being  almost 
wholly  destroyed. 

DAGOBERT  I.,  King  of  the  Franks  (Neus- 
tria),    A.    D.    63(M}38;    (Austrasia),    633-633; 

(Burgundy),  638-638 Dagobert  II.,  King  of 

the  Franks   (Austrasia),   A.    D.   673-678. 


Dagobert  III,,  King^of  the  Franks  (Neustria 
DAHIS,  The.    See  Balkan  and  Danubian 


and  Burgundy), 


King  ( 
,  A.  D. 


711-715. 


States,  14Tii-19Tn  CENTuniEs  (Seuvia). 

DAHLGREN,  Admiral  John  A.— Siege  of 
Charleston.  See  United  States  ov  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1863  (July,  and  August— Decembeh:  S.  Cauo- 
lina). 

DAHLGREN,  Ulric— Raid  to  Richmond. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1864  (Feb- 
ruauy— Mahcii:  Virginia). 

DAKOITS.— DAKOITEE.—Tlie  Dakoits  of 
India,  who  were  suppressed  soon  after  the 
Thugs,  were  "robbers  by  profession,  and  even 
by  birth."  Dakoitee  "was  established  upon  a 
broad  basis  of  hereditary  caste,  and  was  for  the 
most  part  an  organic  state  of  society.  '  I  have 
alwajjs  followed  the  trade  of  my  ancestors, 
Dakoitee,'  said  Lukha,  a  noted  Dakoit,  who 
subsequently  became  approver.  '  JI.v  ancestors 
held  this  profession  before  me,'  said  another, 
'  and  we  train  boys  in  the  same  manner.  In  my 
caste  if  tliere  were  any  honest  persons,  i.  e. ,  not 
robbers,  they  would  be  turned  out.'  "  The  hunt- 
ing down  of  the  Dakoits  was  begun  in  1838, 
under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Sleeinan,  who  had 
already  hunted  down  the  Thugs. — J.  W.  Kaye, 
The  Administration  of  the  East  India  Co. ,  pt.  3, 
c!i.  3. 

DAKOTA,  North  and  South  :  A.  D.  1803.— 
Embraced  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  See 
Louisiana:  A.  D.  1798-1803. 

A.  D.  1834-1838. — Partly  joined,  in  succes- 
sion, to  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa 
Territories.     See  Wisconsin:  A.  D.  1805-1848. 

A.  D.  1889.— Admission  to  the  Union.  See 
United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1889-1890. 


647 


DAKOTAS.  Sec  American  Anoninmns; 
SiorAN  Family  and  Pawnee  (Caddoan)  Family. 

DALAI   LAMA.     See  Lamas. 

DALCASSIANS.  — The  people  of  North 
Munster  liguie  jjrominently  under  that  name  in 
ear'y  Ir:;h  history. — T.  Moore,  Jlist.  of  Inland, 
r.  3. 

DALHOUSIE,  Lord,  The  India  adminis- 
tration of.  See  India:  A.  D.  1845-1849;  .'848- 
1856;  and  1853. 

DALMATIA.— "The  narrow  strip  of  land  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Iladriatic  on  which  the 
name  of  Dalmatia  has  settle<l  down  has  a  history 
which  is  strikingly  analogous  to  its  scenery.  .  .  . 
As  the  cultivation  and  civilization  of  the  land 
lies  in  patches,  as  harbours  and  cities  alternate 
with  barren  hills,  so  Dalmatia  has  played  a  part 
in  history  only  by  fits  and  starts,  "fhis  fitful 
kind  of  history  goes  on  from  the  days  of  Qrcek 
colonics  and  Illyrian  piracy  to  the  last  war 
between  Italy  and  Austria.  But  of  continuous 
history,  steadily  influencing  the  course  of  the 
world  s  progress,  Dalmatia  has  none  to  show. " — 
E.  A.  F'  I'einan,  Subject  and  Neighbour  Land*  of 
Venice,  ^  p.  85-87. 

Also  in:  T.  G.  Jackson,  Dalmatia,  the  Qttar- 
nero  and  htria,  eh.  1-3. — See,  also,  Illyricum 
OF  the  Ro.MANS;  Salgna  ;  and  Balkan  and 
Danubian  States. 

6th-7th  Centuries :  Slavonic  occupation.  See 
Slavonic  Peoples:  6tii  and  7tii  Centuries; 
also,  Balkan  and  Danubian  States:  7tii  Cen- 
tury. 

A.  D.  944. — Beginning  of  Venetian  Con- 
quest.   S-'e  Venice:  A.  1).  810-901. 

A.  D.  1 102. — Conquest  by  the  king  of  Hun- 
gary.    See  Hungary:  A.  D.  973-1114. 

14th  Century. — Conquest  from  the  Venetians 
by  Louis  the  Great  of  Hunga.  Sec  Hun- 
gary: A.  D.  1301-1443. 

i6th  Century. — The  Uscocks.    See  Uscockb. 

A.  D.  1694-1696. — Conquests  by  the  Vene- 
tians.   See  Turks:  A.  D.  1684-1606. 

A.  D.  1699. — Cession  in  great  part  to  Venice 
by  the  Turks.    See  Hungary:  1683-1699. 

A.  D.  1797. — Acquisition  by  Austria.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1797  (May— October). 

A.  D.  1805. —Ceded  by  Austria  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.     See  Germany:  A.  D.  1805-1806. 

A.  D.  1809. — Incorporated  in  the  Illyrian 
Provinces  of  Napoleon.  See  Germany:  A.  D. 
1809  (July — September). 

A.  D.  1814. — Restored  to  Austria. —  Austria 
recovered  possession  of  Dalmatia  under  the  ar- 
rangements of  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 


DALRIADA.—"  A  district  forming  tlie  north- 
east corner  of  Ireland  and  comprising  the  north 
half  of  the  county  of  Antrim,  was  called  Dal- 
riada. It  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest 
settlements  of  the  Scots  among  the  Picts  of  Ulster 
and  to  have  derived  its  name  from  its  supposed 
founder  Cairbre,  surnamed  Kighfhada  or  Hiada. 
It  lay  exactly  opposite  the  peninsula  of  Kintyre 
[Scotland]  from  whence  it  was  separated  by  a 
part  of  the  Irish  channel  of  no  greater  breadth 
than  about  fourteen  miles ;  and  from  this  Irish 
district  the  colony  of  Scots,  which  was  already 
Christian  [fifth  century]  passed  over  and  settled 
in  Kintyre  and  in  the  island  of  Isla  " —  establish- 
ing a  Scotch  Dalriada. — W.  P.  Skene,  Celtic 
Scotland,  bk.  1,  ch.  3. — For  some  account  of  the 
Scotch  Dalriada,  see  SccTi,AND:  7th  Century. 


DAMASCUS. 


DANTZIC. 


DAMASCUS,  Kingdom  of.— The  kingdom 
of  I)anui8ciis,  or  "  Aram  of  Damascus"  as  it  was 
entillc'il,  was  formed  soon  after  tliat  Syrian  region 
threw  olT  tlie  yoke  of  dependence  wliicli  David 
and  Solomon  liad  imposed  upon  it.  "  Hezon, 
the  outhiw,  was  its  founder.  Huder,  or  Hadad, 
and  Himmon,  were  tliccliief  divinities  of  tlie  race, 
and  from  tliem  the  line  of  its  kings  derived  tlieir 
names, —  Hadnd,  Ben-hadad,  Hwlad-ezer,  Tab- 
rimnion.  — Dean  Stanley,  LecU.  on  the  Ilist.  of 
the  JewUh  Church,  led.  33. — "  Though  frequently 
captured  and  plundered  in  succeedmg  centuries 
by  Kgypt  and  Assyria,  neither  of  those  nations 
■was  able  to  hold  it  long  in  sul)jcction  because  of 
the  other.  It  was  probably  a  temporary  repulse 
of  the  Assyrians,  under  Sfialmaneser  II.,  by  the 
Damascene  general  Naaman  to  which  reference 
is  made  in  2  Kings  v.  1 :  '  by  him  the  Lord  had 
given  deliverance  unto  Syria.'  .  .  .  After  the 
great  conquerors  of  Egypt  and  Asia,  each  in  liis 
day,  had  captured  and  plundered  Damascus,  it 
was  taken  without  resistance  by  Pannenio  for 
Alexander  the  Great  [B.  C.  3381  In  it  Pompey 
spent  the  proudest  year  of  his  life,  64  B.  C,  dis- 
tril)uting  at  his  pleasure  the  thrones  of  the  East 
to  the  vassals  of  Borne.  Cleopatra  liad  received 
tlie  city  lis  a  love-gift  from  Mark  Antony,  and 
Tiberius  had  bestowed  it  upon  Herod  the  Great, 
before  Aret  is  of  Petra,  the  father  of  the  princess 
whom  IIerip<l  Antipas(livorced  for  Herodias' sake, 
and  the  rule."  whose  olHcers  watched  the  city  to 
prevent  the  esuape  of  Paul,  made  it,  we  know 
not  how,  a  part  of  his  dominions." — W.  B, 
Wright,  Ancient  Cities,  ch.  7. 

A.  '3,  634. — Conquest  by  the  Arabs.  See 
MAMj.MbiAN  Conquest:  A.  D.  638-639. 

A.  D.  661. — Becomes  the  seat  of  the  Cali- 
phat'i.     See  Maho.metan  Conquest:  A.  D.  661. 

A.  D.  763.— The  Caliphate  transferred  to 
Bag<lad.  See  Mahometan  Conquest:  A.  D. 
763. 

A.  D.  1 148-1217.— Capital  of  the  Atabeg 
and  t:he  Ayoubite  sultans.  Sec  Saladin,  The 
Empike  ok. 

A.  D.  1401. — Sack  and  massacre  by  Timour. 
See  TiMouii. 

A.  D.  1832.— Capture  by  Mehemed  Ali. 
See  Turks:  A.  D.  1831-1840. 

DAMASUS  II.,  Pope,  A.  D.  1048,  July  to 
August. 

DAMIETTA:  A.  D.  1219-1220.— Siege, 
capture  and  surrender, by  the  Crusaders.  Sec 
Ckubades:  a.  1).  1216-1229. 

A.  D.  I249-I250.— Capture  and  loss  by  Saint 
Louis.     See  Cuusades:  A.  D.  1248-1254. 

A.  D.  1252.— Destruction  by  the  Mamelukes. 
— "Two  years  after  the  deliverance  of  the  king 
[Saint  Louis],  and  whilst  he  was  still  in  Pales- 
tine, the  Mamelukes,  fearing  a  fresh  invasion  of 
the  Fronks,  in  order  to  prevent  their  enemies 
from  taking  Damietta  and  fortifying  themselves 
in  that  city,  entirely  destroyed  it.  Some  years 
after,  as  their  fears  were  not  yet  removed,  and 
the  second  crusade  of  Louis  IX.  spread  fresh 
alarms  throughout  the  East,  the  Egyptians 
caused  immense  heaps  of  stone  to  be  cast  into 
the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  in  order  that  the  Christian 
fleets  might  not  be  able  to  sail  up  the  river. 
Since  that  period  a  new  Damietta  has  been  built 
at  a  small  distance  from  the  site  of  the  former 
city." — J.  F.  Michaud,  Hist,  of  the  Ci-usade*,  6A.14. 

DAMNONIA.    See  Britain :  6th  Centubt. 


DAMNONII,    OR    DAMNII,   The.       ^ee 

Dumnonii. 

DAMOISEL.  —  DAMOISELLE.  —  DON- 
ZELLO. — "In  medinsval  Latin  'domicella'  is 
used  for  the  immarried  daugliter  of  a  prince  or 
noble,  and  'domicelliis,' contracted  from  'dom- 
nicellus,'  the  diminutive  of  'dominus,'  for  the 
s.in.  These  words  are  the  forerunners  of  the  old 
French  'dftmoisel '  in  the  masculine,  and  'damoi- 
sclle  '  in  tlie  feminine  gender.  Froissart  calls 
Hichard,  prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Edward :  '  le 
jeune  damoisil  Richart.'  In  Romance  the  word 
is  indifferently  'dainoiscl'  and  'danzel,'  in  Ital- 
ian '  donzello.  All  of  these  are  evidently  titles 
imder  the  same  notion  as  that  of  child  and 
'  enfant,'  of  whicli  the  idea  belongs  to  the  knights 
of  an  earlier  period." — R.  T.  Hanipson,  Oriyine* 
Patriciip,  p.  328. 

DANAID.£,  The.    See  Anaos.- Ahgous. 

DANCING  PLAGUE.  See  Plaque,  A.  D. 
1374. 

DANDRIDGE,  Engagement  at.  Sec  United 
States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1803-1864  (Decembeu— 
ApittL :  Tennessee — Mississippi). 

DANEGELD,  The.— "A  ta.\  of  two  shillings 
on  the  hide  of  hiLii,  originally  levied  as  tribute  to 
the  Danes  under  Ethelred,  but  continued  [even 
under  the  Plantagenets],  like  the  income  tax,  as 
a  convenient  ordinary  resource." — W.  Stubbs, 
The  Early  Plantagenets,  p.  53. — See  England: 
A.  D.  979-1016. 

DANELAGH,  OR  DANELAGA,  OR 
DANELAU.— The  district  in  England  held  l-y 
the  Danes  after  their  treaty  with  Alfred  the 
Great,  extending  south  to  tlie  Thames,  the  Lea 
and  the  Ouse ;  north  to  the  Tynt; ;  west  of  the 
mountain  district  of  Yorkshire,  Westmoreland 
and  Cumberland.  "Over  all  this  region  the 
traces  of  their  colonization  abound  in  the  vil- 
lages whose  names  end  in  by,  the  Scandinavian 
equivalent  of  the  English  tun  or  ham." — W. 
Stubbs,  Const.  Hist.  qfEng.,  ch.  7,  sect.  77.— See, 
also,  England:  A.  D.  855-880. 

DANES  AS  VIKINGS.  See,  also,  Kor- 
MAN8.  — Northmen. 

In  England.  See  England:  A.  D.  855-880, 
979-1016,  and  1016-1042;  also  Normans:  A.  D. 
787-880. 

In  Ireland.  Sec  Ireland:  Oth-IOth  Cen- 
turies. 

• 

DANITES,  The.  See  Mormonism:  A.  D. 
1830-1846. 

DANTE  AND  THE  FACTIONS  OF 
FLORENCE.  See  Florence:  A.  D.  1295- 
1300;  und  1301-1313. 

DANTON  AND  THE  FRENCH  REVO- 
LUTION. See  France  :  A.  D.  1791  (October), 
to  1793-1794  (November— .luNE). 

DANTZIC :  In  the  Hanseatic  League.  See 
Hansa  Towns. 

A.  D.  1577. — Submission  to  the  king  of  Po- 
land.    See  Poland:  A.  D.  1574-1590. 

A.  D.  1793. — Acquisition  by  Prussia.  See 
Poland:  A.  D.  1793-1790. 

A.  D.  1806-1807.— Siege  and  capture  by  the 
French.  See  Germany  :  A.  D.  1807  (Pebruakt 
-June). 

A.  D.  1807.— Declared  a  free  state.  See 
Germany  :  A.  D.  1807  (June— July). 

A.  D.  1813. — Siege  and  capture  by  the  Al- 
lies. See  Germajjy:  A.  D.  18113  (October — 
December). 


648- 


ETAKA. 


DEBT. 


DARA,— One  of  tlio  capitals  of  the  Parthian 
kings,  the  site  of  which  has  not  ''?en  identifled. 

DARA,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  529).  See  Pehsia  : 
A.  I).  2a(M!27. 

DARDANIANS  OF  THE  TROAD.  See 
Tkoja;  and  Asia  Minou:  Tiik  Urekk  Colonies; 
also,  Amoiiiteb. 

DARIEN,  The  Isthmus  of.    See  Panama. 

The  Scottish  colony.    See  Scotland:  A.  D. 

loy.'i-iniM). 

DARINI,  The.     See  Ikbland,  Tribes   of 

EAULY  O.LTIC  INUAHITANTS. 

DARIUS,  King  of  Persia,  B.  C.  .'531-486 

Darius    II.,     B.    C.    42.5-405 Darius    III. 

(Codomannus),  B.  C.  336-331. 

DARK  AGES,  The.— Tlie  historical  period, 
so-called,  is  nearly  identical  with  that  more  com- 
monly named  the  Middle  Ages;  but  its  duration 
may  be  properly  considered  as  less  by  a  century 
or  two.  Prom  tlie  5th  to  the  13th  century  is  a 
definition  of  the  pcrio<l  which  most  historians 
would  probably  accept.     See  Middlk  Ages. 

DARORIGUM.— Modem  Vannes.  See 
Vexeti  op  Westekn  Gaul. 

DAR-Ul.-ISLAM  AND  DAR-UL-HARB. 
— "The  Koran  divides  the  world  into  two 
portions,  the  House  of  Islam,  Dar-ul-Islam,  and 
the  House  of  War,  Dar-ul-hurb.  It  has  generally 
been  represented  by  Western  writers  on  the  in- 
stitutes of  >Iahometanism  and  on  the  habits  of 
JIaliometan  nations,  tluit  the  Dar-ul-harb,  the 
House  of  War,  comprises  all  lands  of  the  mis- 
believers. .  .  .  There  is  even  a  widely-spread 
idea  among  superticial  talkers  and  writers  that 
the  lioly  iiostility,  the  .Jehad  [or  Dhihad]  of 
M\issulman8  against  non-Mussulmans  is  not 
limited  to  warfare  between  nation  and  nation; 
but  that  '  it  is  a  part  of  tlie  religion  of  every 
Maliometan  to  kill  as  many  Christians  as  pos- 
sible, and  that  by  counting  up  a  certain  num- 
ber killed,  tliey  think  themselves  secure  of 
heaven.'  But  careful  historical  investigators, 
and  statesmen  long  practically  conversant  with 
Mahometan  populations  have  exposed  the  fallacy 
of  such  charges  against  those  who  hold  the 
creed  of  Islam.  ...  A  country  which  is  under 
Cliristian  rulers,  but  in  which  Mahometans  are 
allowed  free  profession  of  their  faith,  and  peace- 
able exercise  of  their  ritual,  is  not  a  portion  of 
the  House  of  War,  of  the  Dar-ul-harb ;  and  there 
Is  no  religious  duty  of  warfare,  no  Jehad,  on  the 
part  of  true  Mussulmans  against  such  a  state. 
This  has  been  of  late  years  formally  determined 
by  the  chief  authorities  in  Mahometan  law  with 
respect  to  British  India."— Sir  E.  S.  Creasy, 
JIut.  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  eh.  6. 

DASTAGERD.— Tlie  favorite  residence  of 
the  last  great  Persian  king  and  conqueror,  Chos- 
roes  (A.  D.  590-028),  was  fixed  at  Dastagerd, 
or  Artemita,  sixty  miles  north  of  Ctesiphon, 
and  east  of  tlie  Tigris.  His  palaces  and  pleasure 
grounds  were  of  extraordinary  magnificence. — 
E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Uoman  Em- 
pire, eh.  46. 

DASYUS.  See  India  :  The  aboriginal  in- 
habitants. 

DAUPHINS  OF  FRANCE.— DAU- 
PHINE.— In  1349,  Philip  VI.,  or  Philip  de 
\'alois,  of  France,  acquired  by  purchase  from 
Humbert  II.,  count  of  Vienno,  tlie  sovereignty 
of  the  province  of  Dauphine.  This  principality 
became  from  that  time  the  appanage  of  the 
eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  France  and  gave  them 

'''  649 


their  pcewHar  tinmfi  or  title  of  the  DniiphioK 
The  title  in  question  had  been  borne  by  th? 
counts  of  Vieune  (in  Dauphine),  "on  account 
of  the  dolphin  which  they  carried  upon  their 
helmets  and  on  their  armorial  bearings." — E. 
De  Bonnechose,  Jliiit.  of  France,  bk.  2,  eh.  'i,  foot- 
note. 

Also  in:  E.  Smedley,  llUt.  of  France,  pt.  I, 
eh.  9.— See,  also,  Buikuwdy:   A.  D.  1137-1378. 

DAVENPORT,  John,  and  the  founding  of 
New  Haven  Colony.  See  Connecticut:  A.I). 
1038,  and  1039. 

DAVID,  King  of  Israel  and  Judah.  See 
Jews:  The  Kingdoms  of  Iskaei.    ind  Judaii, 

and  jEnuRALEM:   Conquest,  &c David  I.,. 

King  of  Scotland,  A.  D.  1124-1153 David 

II.,  1329-1370. 

DAVIS,  Jefferson.— Election  to  the  Presi- 
dency of  the  rebellious  "  Confederate  States." 
See  United  States  ok  Am.  :  A.  D.   1861  (Fkb- 

iiuahy) Flight  and  capture.    See  United 

States  op  Am.  :  A.  I).  1865  (Ariui .May). 

DAVOUT,  Marshal,  Campaigns  of.  Sec 
Germany:  A.  D.  1806  (Octobkk);  1806-1807; 
1807  (February — June);  also  Russia:  A.  D. 
1812;  and  Germany:  A.  D.  1813-1813;  18!a 
(Auoust),  (October — December). 

DAY  OF  BARRICADES,  The.  See 
France:  A.  D.  1.5H4-1.589. 

DAY  OF  DUPES,  The.  See  France:  A.  D. 
1030-10.'}3. 

DAY  OF  THE  SECTIONS,  The.  Sec 
France:  A.  I).  1795  (October — December). 

DAYAKS,  OR  DYAKS,  The.  See  Ma- 
layan Kace. 

DEAK,  Francis,  and  the  recovery  of  Hun- 
garian nationality.  See  Austria  :  A.  D.  1800- 
1867. 

DEAN  FOREST.— The  "Royal  Forest  of 
Dean,"  situated  in  the  southwestern  angle  of  the 
county  of  Gloucester,  Eftgland,  between  the 
Severn  and  tlie  Wye,  is  still  so  extensive  that  it 
covers  some  23,000  acres,  though  much  reduced 
from  its  original  dimensions.  Its  oaks  and  its 
iron  mines  have  played  important  parts  in  British 
history.  The  latter  were  worked  by  the  Romans 
and  still  give  employment  to  a  large  number  of 
miners.  The  former  were  thought  to  be  so  es- 
sential to  the  naval  power  of  England  that  the 
destruction  of  the  Forest  is  said  to  have  been  one- 
of  the  special  duties  prescribed  to  the  Spanish 
Armada. — J.  C.  Brown,  Forests  of  Eng. 

DEANE,  Silas,  and  the  American  transact 
tions  with  Beaumarchais  in  France.  See 
United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  I).  1776-1778. 

DEARBORN,  General  Henry,  and  the  War 
of  1812.  See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1812  (June — October),  (Septe.mber — Novem- 
ber); A.  D.  1813  (October — November). 

DEBRECZIN,  Battle  of  (1849).  See  Aus- 
tria: A.  D.  1848-1849. 

DEBT,  Laws  concerning:  Ancient  Greek.. 
— At  Athens,  in  the  time  of  Solon  (Otii  century, 
B.  C.)  the  Tlictes — "the  cultivating  tenants, 
metayers  and  small  proprietors  of  the  country 
.  .  .  are  exhibited  as  weighed  down  by  debts 
and  dependence,  and  driven  in  large  numbers 
out  of  a  state  of  freedom  into  slavery  —  the 
whole  mass  of  them  (we  are  told)  being  in  debt 
to  the  rich,  who  were  proprietors  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  soil.  They  Iiad  either  borrowed 
money  for  their  own  necessities,  or  they  tilled 
the  lauds  of  the  rich  as  dependent  tenants,  pi>y- 


DEBT. 


DEBT. 


Ing  a  Btlpuliitod  portion  of  the  produce,  and  in 
thJH  capiicity  they  were  largely  in  arrear.  All 
the  calnniitouH  ellectH  were  liere  seen  of  the  old 
harsh  law  of  debtor  and  creditor  —  once  prevalent 
in  Greece,  Italy,  Asia,  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
world  —  combined  with  the  recognition  of  slavery 
as  a  legitimate  status,  and  of  the  right  of  one  man 
to  sell  himself  as  wi^ll  as  that  of  another  man  to 
buy  him.  Every  debtor  unable  to  fulfil  his  con- 
tract WHS  liable  to  bo  adjudged  as  the  slave  of  his 
creditor,  until  he  could  find  meanseitherof  paying 
it  or  working  it  out;  and  not  only  ho  himself, 
but  his  minor  sons  and  unmarried  daughters  and 
sisters  al.so,  whom  the  law  gave  him  the  power 
of  selling.  T!ie  poor  man  tluis  borrowed  upon 
the  security  of  his  body  (to  translate  literally  the 
Greek  phrase)  and  upon  that  of  the  persons  in 
his  family.  So  severely  had  these  opiiressive  con- 
tracts been  enforced,  that  many  debtors  had 
been  reduced  from  freedom  to  slavery  in  Attica 
itself, — manj-  others  bad  been  sold  for  expor- 
tation,—  and  some  had  oidy  hitherto  preserved 
their  own  freedom  by  selling  their  children. 
...  To  their  relief  Solon's  first  measure,  the 
memorable  Seisachtheia,  shaking  off  of  burthens, 
was  directed.  The  relief  which  it  afforded  was 
complete  and  immediate.  It  cancelled  at  once 
all  those  contracts  in  which  the  debtor  had 
borrowed  on  the  security  either  of  his  person  or 
of  his  land :  it  forbade  all  future  loans  or  con- 
tracts in  wlrfcli  the  person  of  the  debtor  was 
pled  ijed  as  security:  it  deprived  the  creditor  in 
luturo  of  all  power  to  imprison,  or  enslave,  or 
extort  work  from,  his  debtor,  and  C(raflned  him 
to  an  effective  judgment  at  law  authorizing  the 
seizure  of  the  property  of  the  latter.  It  swept  off 
all  the  numerous  mortgage  pillars  from  the  landed 
properties  in  Attica,  leaving  the  land  free  from 
all  past  claims.  It  liberated  and  restored  to  their 
full  rights  all  debtors  actually  in  slavery  under 
previous  legal  adjudication ;  and  :t  even  provided 
the  means  (we  do  not  know  how)  of  re-purchas- 
ing in  foreign  lands,  and  bringing  back  to  a 
renewed  life  of  liberty  in  Attica,  many  insolvents 
who  had  been  sold  for  exportation.  And  while 
Solon  forbad  every  Athenian  to  pledge  or  sell 
his  own  person  into  slavery,  he  took  a  step 
farther  in  the  same  direction  by  forbidding  him 
to  pledge  or  sell  his  son,  his  daughter,  or  an 
unmarried  sister  under  his  tutelage  —  excepting 
only  the  case  ir.  which  either  of  the  latter  might  be 
detected  in  uncbastity.  .  .  .  One  thing  is  never  to 
be  forgotten  in  regard  to  this  measure,  combined 
with  the  concurrent  amendments  introduced  by 
Solon  in  the  law  —  it  settled  finally  the  question 
to  wliich  it  referred.  Never  again  do  we  hear 
of  the  law  of  debtor  and  creditor  as  disturbing 
Athenian  tranqviility.  The  general  sentiment 
which  grew  up  at  Athens,  under  the  Solonian 
money-law  and  under  the  democratical  govern- 
ment, was  one  of  high  respect  for  the  sanctity  of 
contracts.  .  .  .  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
under  the  Solonian  law,  which  enabled  the 
creditor  to  seize  the  property  of  his  debtor,  but 
gave  him  no  power  over  the  person,  the  system 
of  money-lending  assumed  a  more  beneficial 
character." — G.  Groto,  Hist,  of  Oreece,  pt.  3,  e/i. 
11  (v.  8). 

Ancient  Roman.— "The  hold  of  the  creditor 
was  on  the  person  of  the  debtor.  The  obliga- 
tion of  a  debt  was  a  tying  up  or  binding,  or  bond- 
age, of  the  person:  the  payment  was  a  solu- 
tion, a  loosing  or  release  of  the  person  from  that 


bondage.  The  property  of  the  debtor  was  not  a 
pledge  for  the  debt.  It  could  be  made  bo  by 
speciitl  agreement,  though  in  the  earliest  law 
only  by  transferring  it  at  once  to  the  ownership 
of  the  creditor.  Without  such  special  agree- 
ment, the  creditor  whose  debtor  failed  to  pay 
could  not  touch  his  property.  Even  when  the 
debtor  had  been  prosecuted  and  condemned  to 
pay,  if  he  still  failed,  the  creditor  could  not 
touch  his  property.  lie  could  seize  his  person  — 
I  speak  now  of  the  early  law,  in  the  first  cen- 
turies of  the  republic  —  and  after  holding  him 
in  rigorous  confinement  for  sixty  days,  with 
opportunities,  however,  either  to  pay  himself  or 
get  somebody  to  pav  for  him,  if  p.iyment  still 
fulled,  he  could  sell  him  as  a  slave,  or  ]>ut 
him  to  death;  if  there  were  several  creditors, 
they  could  cut  his  bmiy  into  pieces  and  divhio 
it  among  them.  This  extreme  severity  was 
afterward  softened;  but  tlie  principle  ninaincd 
long  unchanged,  that  the  hold  of  the  creditor 
was  on  the  person  of  the  debtor.  If  the  debto"- 
obstinately  and  to  the  last  refused  to  sunen- 
dcr  his  property,  the  creditor  could  not  touch 
it." — J.  Iladley,  Intvod.  to  Jioinan  Imw,  lect.  10. 
— "During  the  first  half  of  the  Samnitc  war 
[B.  C.  326-304],  but  in  what  year  is  uncertain, 
there  was  passed  that  famous  law  which  pro- 
hibited personal  slavery  for  debt.  No  creditor 
might  for  the  future  attach  the  person  of  his 
debtor,  but  he  might  only  seize  his  property; 
and  all  those  whose  personal  freedom  was 
pledged  for  their  debts  (nexi),  were  released 
from  their  liability,  if  they  could  swear  that  they 
had  property  enough  to  meet  their  creditors 
demands.  It  docs  not  appear  that  this  great 
aitenition  in  the  law  was  the  work  of  any  tribune, 
or  that  it  arose  out  of  any  general  or  deliberate 
desire  to  soften  the  severity  of  the  ancient  prac- 
tice. It  was  occasioned,  we  are  told,  by  one 
scandalous  instance  of  abuse  of  power  on  the 
part  of  a  creditor.  .  .  .  But  although  personal 
slavery  for  debt  was  thus  done  away  with,  yet 
the  consequences  of  insolvency  were  much  more 
serious  at  Home  than  they  are  in  modern  Europe. 
He-  vhose  property  had  once  been  made  over  to 
his  creditors  by  the  praetor's  sentence,  became, 
ipso  facto,  infamous;  he  lost  his  tribe,  and  with 
it  all  his  political  riglits ;  and  the  forfeiture  was 
irrevocable,  even  though  he  might  afterwards 
pay  his  debts  to  the  full ;  nor  was  it  oven  in  the 
power  of  the  censors  to  replace  him  on  the  roll  of 
citizens.  So  sacred  a  thing  did  credit  appear  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Romans." — T.  Arnold,  Ilkt.  of 
liome,  ch.  33  {v.  2). 

In  England. — "Debt  has  been  regarded  as  a 
crime  by  primitive  society  in  every  part  of  the 
world.  In  Palestine,  as  in  Rome,  the  creditor 
had  power  over  tlie  person  of  the  debtor,  and  mis- 
fortune was  commonly  treated  with  a  severity 
which  was  not  always  awarded  to  crime  [Levit. 
XXV.,  39-41,  and  3  Kings  iv.,  1].  In  this 
country  [England]  the  same  system  was  grad- 
ually introduced  in  Plantagenet  times.  The 
creditor,  who  had  been  previously  entitled  to 
seize  the  goods,  or  even  the  land  of  the  debtor, 
was  at  last  authorised  to  siize  his  person.  In 
one  sense,  indeed,  the  English  law  was,  in  this 
respect,  more  irrational  than  the  cruel  code  of 
the  Jews,  or  the  awful  punishment  [death  and 
dismemberment  or  slavery  —  Gibbon,  ch.  441 
which  the  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  reserved 
for  debtors.    lu  Palestine  the  creditor  was,  at 


650 


DEBT. 


DEBT. 


least,  entitled  Ui  the  service  of  the  debtor  or  of 
Ills  cliiUlrcn,  und  the  hIuvu  liiul  tlie  prospect  of 
nil  Insolvent  Debtor's  Relief  Act  in  tlie  8iil)- 
biUiciil  yt'iir.  Even  tlie  law  of  tlie  Twelve 
Tallies  allowed  the  creditors  to  sell  tlie  debtor 
Into  slavery,  instead  of  r  sorting  to  the  horrible 
alternative  of  partitioniiij;  his  Ixnly.  But  in 
England  the  creditors  had  no  such  choice.  They 
had  notliing  to  do  but  to  throw  the  debtor  Into 
prison;  and  by  his  iiniirisonment  deprive  them- 
selves of  the  only  chance  of  his  earning  money 
to  pay  their  deb's.  \  law  of  this  kind  was 
intolerable  to  a  commercial  people.  The  debtor 
laugulslicd  lu  gaol,  the  creditor  failed  to  obtain 
payment  of  Ills  debt.  Wlien  trmle  increased  in 
Tudor  times,  the  wits  of  legislators  were  exer- 
cised In  devising  some  expedient  for  satisfying 
tlie  creditor  without  imprisoning  the  debtor. 
The  Chancellor  was  authorised  to  appoint  com- 
niissloncrs  empowered  to  divide  the  debtor's 
property  among  the  creditors.  By  an  Act  of 
Anne  the  debtor  who  complied  with  the  law  was 
released  from  further  liability,  and  was  prac- 
tically enabled  to  commence  life  anew.  In  1820, 
a  debtor  was  allowed  to  procure  his  own  banlc- 
ruptcy;  while  in  1831,  commissioners  were  ap- 
pointed to  carry  out  the  armngements  which 
had  been  previously  conducted  under  tlie  Court 
of  Chancery.  The  law  of  bankruptcy  wliich 
was  thus  gradually  developed  by  the  legislation 
of  three  centuries  only  applied  to  persons  in 
trade.  No  one  who  was  not  a  trader  could 
become  a  bankrupt ;  the  onllnary  debtor  became 
as  a  matter  of  course  an  insolvent,  and  passed 
under  the  insolvent  laws.  The  statutes,  more- 
over, omitted  to  give  any  very  plain  definition 
of  a  trader.  The  distinction  between  trader  and 
non-trader  which  had  been  gradually  drawn  by 
the  Courts  was  not  based  on  any  very  clear  prin- 
ciple. A  person  who  made  bricks  on  his  own 
estate  of  his  own  clay  was  not  a  trader ;  but  a 
person  who  bought  tlie  clay  and  then  made 
the  bricks  was  a  trader.  Farmers,  again,  were 
exempt  from  the  bankruptcy  law ;  but  farmers 
who  purchased  cattle  for  sale  at  a  profit  were 
liable  to  it.  The  possibility,  moreover,  of  a 
trader  being  made  a  bankrupt  depended  on  the 
size  of  his  business.  A  petitioning  creditor  in 
bankruptcy  was  required  to  be  a  person  to  whom 
at  least  £100  was  due;  if  two  persons  petitioned, 
tlieir  debts  were  required  to  amount  to  £150;  if 
more  tlian  two  persons  petitioned,  to  £200.  A 
small  shopkeeper,  therefore,  wlio  could  not  hope 
to  obtain  credit  for  £200,  £150,  or  £100,  could 
not  become  a  bankrupt ;  he  was  forced  to  become 
an  insolvent.  The  treatment  of  the  insolvent 
was  wholly  different  from  that  of  tlie  bankrupt. 
The  bankruptcy  law  was  founded  on  the  prin- 
ciple tiiat  the  goods  and  not  the  person  of  the 
debtor  should  be  liable  for  the  debt;  the  insol- 
vency law  enabled  the  person  of  the  debtor  to  be 
seized,  but  provided  no  maclilnery  for  obtaining 
his  goods.  ...  Up  to  1838  the  first  step  in  insol- 
vency was  the  arrest  of  tlio  debtor.  Any  person 
who  made  a  deposition  on  oath  tliat  some  other 
person  was  in  debt  to  him,  could  obtain  bis 
arrest  on  what  was  known  as  'mesne  process.' 
The  oath  might  possibly  be  untrue;  the  debt 
might  not  be  due;  tiie  warrant  issued  on  the 
sworn  deposition  as  a  matter  of  course.  But,  in 
addition  to  the  imprisonment  on  mesne  process, 
the  insolvent  could  be  imprisoned  for  a  furtlier 
period  on  what  was  known  as  'final  process.' 


Imprisonment  on  mesne  process  was  the  course 
whieli  llie  creditor  t(M)k  to  prevent  thellightof 
the  debtor;  imprisonment  on  final  process  was 
the  punishment  which  the  Court  awarded  to  the 
crime  of  debt.  Siicli  a  system  woiikl  Iiave  lieen 
bad  enough  If  the  debtors'  prisons  had  been  well 
managed.  The  actual  eondl.lon  of  these  prisons 
almost  exceeds  belief.  Dickens,  indeed,  has 
made  tlie  story  of  a  debtor's  iiiipris(mment  In 
the  Marshalsea  familiar  to  a  worlii  of  readers. 
.  .  .  The  Act  of  1813  had  done  something  to  mltl- 

gate  the  misery  which  the  law  occasioned.  The 
ourt  which  was  constituted  by  It  released 
50,000  debtors  in  13  years.  But  large  numbers 
of  pi^rsons  were  still  detained  in  pri.son  for  debt. 
In  1827  nearly  6,000  persons  were  committed  In 
Ijondon  alone  for  delit.  The  Common  Law  Com- 
missioners, reporting  In  1830,  declared  that  the 
loud  and  (,"iieral  omplaints  of  the  law  of  insol- 
vency were  well  founded;  and  Cottenlmm,  in 
1838,  Introduced  a  bill  to  abollsli  imprisonment 
for  debt,  in  ad  cases.  Tlie  Lonls  were  not  pre- 
pared for  so  complete  a  remedy ;  they  declined 
to  abolish  Imprisonment  on  final  process,  or  to 
exempt  from  imprisonment  on  mesne  process, 
persons  who  owed  more  than  £20,  and  who  were 
about  to  leave  the  country.  Cottenhaiii,  disap- 
pointed at  tliese  amendments,  decided  on  strength- 
ening his  own  liands  by  instituting  a  fresh 
in(|uiry.  He  appointed  a  commission  in  1831), 
wlilch  reported  in  1840,  and  which  recommendeil 
the  abolition  of  imprisonment  on  final  process, 
and  the  union  of  bankruptcy  and  insolvency. 
In  1841,  in  1842,  In  1843,  and  in  1844  Cottenlmm 
intr(xluced  bills  to  carry  out  this  report.  The 
bills  of  1841,  1843,  and  1843  were  lost.  Tlie  bill 
of  1844  was  not  much  more  successful.  Brough- 
am declared  that  debtors  who  refused  to  dis- 
close their  property,  who  refused  to  answer 
questions  about  it,  wlio  refused  to  give  it  up,  or 
who  fraudulentlv  made  away  with  It,  as  well  as 
debtors  who  had  been  guilty  of  gross  extrava- 
gance, deserved  Imprisonment.  He  introduced 
an  alternative  bill  giving  tlio  Court  discretionary 
power  to  Imprison  them.  The  Lords,  bewildered 
by  the  contrary  counsels  of  two  such  great  law- 
yers as  Cottenham  and  Brougham,  decided  on 
referring  botii  bills  to  one  Select  Committee. 
The  Committee  preferred  Brougham's  bill, 
amended  it,  and  returned  it  to  the  House.  This 
bill  became  ultimately  law.  It  enabled  both 
private  debtors  and  traders  whose  debts 
amounted  to  less  tlian  the  sums  named  in  tlie 
Bankruptcy  Acts  to  become  bankrupts;  and  it 
abolished  imprisonment  In  all  coses  where  the 
debt  did  not  exceed  £20."— S.  Wolpole,  Hist,  of 
Eng.from  1815,  ch.  17  (».  4). 

In  the  United  States. — "In  New  York,  by 
the  act  of  April  30,  1831,  c.  300,  and  which  went 
into  operation  on  Marcli  1st,  1833,  arrest  and 
imprisonment  on  civil  process  at  law,  and  on  exe- 
cution In  equity  founded  upon  contract,  were 
abolished.  The  provision  under  the  act  was  not 
to  apply  to  any  person  who  should  have  been  a 
non-resident  of  the  state  for  a  month  preceding 
(and  even  this  exception  was  abolished  by  the 
act  of  April  25tli,  1840);  nor  to  proceedings  as 
for  a  contempt  to  enforce  civil  remedies;  nor  to 
actions  for  fines  and  penalties;  nor  to  suits 
founded  in  torts  .  .  .  nor  on  promises  to  marry ; 
or  for  moneys  collected  by  any  public  officer;  or 
for  misconduct  or  neglect  in  office,  or  in  any  pro- 
fessional employment.    The  plaintiff,  however, 


661 


DEBT. 


DECLARATION  OF  PARIS. 


In  any  »ijlt,  or  upon  any  Ju<lgmcnt  or  docrpc, 
mny  apply  U)  a  ju  'i;e  for  a  warnuit  to  arrcHt  tlio 
dcf(tn(lant,  upon  attldavit  Htntinf^  a  debt  or  de- 
mand due,  to  more  than  l)5U;  and  that  the  de- 
fendant Is  alK)Ut  to  remove  property  out  of  the 
iuriiwliction  of  the  court,  with  intent  to  defraud 
his  creditors;  or  tliat  ho  has  property  or  riglits 
in  action   which   lie   fraudulently   conceals;   or 


public  or  corporate  stock,  money,  or  evidences  of 
"  Ich  he  unj 

the  plalntllT ;  or  tliat  lie  has  assigned,  or  is  about 


debt,  which  lie  unjustly  refuses  to  apply  to  the 
payment  of  the  Judgment  or  decree  in  favor  of 


to  assign  or  dispose  of  his  property,  with  intent 
to  def  niud  Ills  creditors ;  or  has  fraudulently  con- 
tracted the  debt,  or  Incurred  the  obligation  re- 
Bpecting  which  the  suit  Is  brought  If  the  judge 
Buall  be  satisfied,  on  due  examination,  of  the 
truth  of  the  charg(!,  hi:  Is  to  commit  the  ilebtor  to 
Jail,  unless  he  complies  with  certain  prescribed 
conditions  or  some  one  of  tliem,  and  which  are 
calculated  for  the  security  of  the  plaintiff's  claim. 
Nor  is  any  execution  against  the  body  to  be  Is- 
sued on  justices'  judgments,  except  in  cases 
essentially  the  same  with  those  above  sttkted. 
...  By  the  New  York  act  of  1848,  c.  150,  the 
defendant  Is  liable  for  Imprisonment  as  in  actions 
for  wrong,  if  he  be  sue<l  and  judgment  pass 
against  him  In  actions  on  contracts  for  moneys 
received  by  him  (and  it  applies  to  all  male  per- 
sons) in  a  nduciary  character.  The  legislature  of 
Massacliusetts,  In  1834  and  1842,  essentially  abol- 
ished arrest  and  imprisonment  for  debt,  unless  on 
proof  that  the  debtor  was  about  to  abscond.  As 
early  as  1790,  the  constitution  of  Pennsylvania 
established,  as  a  fundamental  principle,  that 
debtors  should  not  be  continued  in  prison  after 
surrender  of  tlieir  estates  in  the  mode  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  law,  unless  in  cases  of  a  strong  pre- 
sumption of  fraud.  In  February,  1819,  the  leg- 
islature of  that  state  exempted  women  from 
arrest  and  imprisonment  for  debt ;  and  this  pro- 
vision as  to  women  was  afterwards  applied  In 
New  York  to  all  civil  actions  founded  upon  con- 
tract. .  .  .  Females  were  first  exempted  from 
imprisonment  for  debt  in  Louisiana  and  Missis- 
sippi ;  and  imprisonment  for  debt,  in  all  cases  free 
from  fraud,  is  now  abolished  in  each  of  those 
states.  The  commissioners  in  Pennsylvania,  In 
their  report  on  the  Civil  Code,  in  January,  1885, 
recommended  that  there  be  no  arrest  of  the  bo<ly 
of  the  d'  lor  on  mesne  process,  without  an  am- 
davit  of  ilie  debt,  and  that  the  defendant  was  a 
non-resident,  or  about  to  depart  without  leaving 
sufficient  property,  except  in  cases  of  force, 
fraud,  or  deceit,  verified  by  affidavit.  This  sug- 
gestion was  carried  into  effect  bv  the  act  of  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  of  July  12th,  1842,  en- 
titled '  An  Act  to  abolish  imprisonment  for  debt, 
and  to  punish  fraudulent  debtors.'  In  New 
Hampshire,  imprisonment  on  mesne  process  and 
execution  for  debt  existed  under  certJiin  qualifi- 
cations, until  December  23,  1840,  when  it  was 
abolished  by  statute,  in  cases  of  contract  and 
debts  accruing  after  the  first  of  March,  1841.  In 
Vermont,  imprisonment  for  debt,  on  contracts 
made  after  first  January,  1889,  is  abolished,  as  to 
resident  citizens,  unless  there  be  evidence  that 
they  are  about  to  abscond  with  their  property ; 
so,  also,  the  exception  in  Mississippi  applies  to 
cases  of  torts,  frauds,  and  meditated  conceal- 
ment, or  fraudulent  disposition  of  property." 
— J.  Kent,  Commentaries  on  American  Law; 
td.  by  0,  W,  Holmes,  Jr.,  v.  H  (foot-note).— •'In 


many  states  the  Constitution  provides  (A)  that 
there  shall  be  no  Imprisonment  for  debt:  Ind. 
C.  1,  22;  Minn.  C.  1,  12;  Kan.  C.  B.  Rts.  18; 
Md.  C.  8,  88;  N.C.  C.  1,  10;  Mo.  C.  2,  18;  Tex. 
C.  1,  18;  Ore.  C.  1,  19;  Nov.  C.  1,  14;  8.  C.  C. 
1,  20;  Oa.  C.  1,  1,  21;  Ala.  C.  1,21;  Miss.  C.  1, 
11;  Fla.  C.  Decl'n  Rts.  15.  (B)  That  there  shall 
be  no  Imprisonment  for  debt  (1)  In  any  civil  action 
on  mesne  or  final  process,  in  seven  states:  O.  C. 
1,  15;  lo.  C.  1,  10;  Neb.  C.  1,  20;  Tenn.  C.  1,  18^ 
Ark.  C.  2,  10;  Cal.  C.  1,  15;  Ore.  C.  1,  15;  Ariz. 

B.  Rts.  18.  (2)  In  any  action  or  Judgment 
founded  upon  contract,  in  three  states:  N.J.  C. 
1,  17;  Mich.  C.  0,  83;  Wis.  C.  1,  18.  (C)  In  six, 
that  there  shall  be  no  person  imprisoned  for  debt- 
in  any  civil  action  when  he  has  delivered  up 
his  property  for  the  l)enefit  of  his  creditors  in  the- 
manner  pret  ribed  by  law:  Vt.  C.  2,  88;  R.  I. 

C.  1,  11;  Pa.  C.  1,  16;  111.  C.  2,  12;  Ky.  C.  13, 
19;  Col.  C.  2,  13.  ,  .  .  But  the  above  principle* 
are  subject  to  the  following  exceptions  in  the 
several  states  respectively:  (1)  a  debtor  maybe 
imprisoned  in  criminal  actions ;  Tenn.  So  (2)  for 
the  non-payment  of  fines  or  penalties  imposed  by 
law:  Mo.  So  (3)  generally,  in  civil  or  criminal 
actions,  for  fraud  :Vt.,  R.  1,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  O.,  Ind., 
111.,  Mich.,  lo.,  Minn.,  Kan..  Neb.,  N.  C,  Ky., 
Ark.,  Cal.,  Ore.,  Nev.,  Col.,  8.  C,  Fla.,  Ariz. 
And  so,  in  two,  the  legislature  has  power  to  pro- 
vide for  the  punishment  of  fraud  and  for  reach- 
ing property  of  the  debtor  concealed  from  hi* 
creditors:  Ga.  C.  1,  2,  8;  La.  C.  223.  So  (4)  ab- 
sconding debtors  may  be  imprisoned :  Ore.  Or 
debtors  (5)  in  cases  of  libel  or  slander:  Nev.  (8) 
In  civil  cases  of  tort  generally:  Cal.,  Col.  (7> 
In  cases  of  malicious  m.schief:  Cel.  (8)  Or  of 
breach  of  trust:  Mich.,  Ariz.  (0)  Or  of  moneys- 
collected  by  public  officers,  or  in  any  professional 
employment:  Mich.,  Ariz." — F.  J.  Stimson,  .4m. 
Statute  Law :  Digest  of  Const' s  and  Civil  Pxtblie 
Statutes  of  all  the  States  and  Territories  relating 
to  Persons  and  Property,  in  force  Jan.  1,  1886, 
art.  8. 

« 

DECADI  OF  THE  FRENCH  REPUB- 
LICAN CALENDAR.  See  Fkance:  A.  D. 
1703  (OcToiiEii).     The  new  republican  calendar. 

DECAMISADOS,  The.  See  Spain:  A.  D. 
1814-1827. 

DECATUR,  Commodore  Stephen.— Burn- 
ing  of    the    "Philadelphia."     See   Barbaht 

States:   A.   D.   1803-1805 In  the  War  of 

x8i2.  See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D.  1818- 
1813;  1814. 

DECCAN,  The.  See  India:  The  Name; 
and    Immiqbation    and    conquests    of    thb- 

DECELIAN  WAR,  The.  See  Greece: 
B.  C.  413. 

DECEMVIRS,  The.  See  Rome:  B.  C.  451- 
449. 

DECIUS:  Roman  Emperor.   A.  D.  249-251. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 
(American).  See  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1776  (January— June),  and  (July)  ;  also,  Inde- 
pendence Hall. 

DECLARATION  OF  PARIS,  The.— "At 
the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856,  subsequently  to 
the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  which  ended  the 
Crimean  war  [see  Russia:  A.  D.  1854-1856],  a 
declaration  of  principles  was  signed  on  April 
16th,  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  all  the  powers 
represented  there,  which  contained  four  articles; 


652 


DECLARATION  OF  PARIS. 


DEIRA. 


'First,  PrlvntotTins  Ib  and  rpmninfi  nboliitlipd. 
Scroml,  The  lU'utraT  (lag  covers  enemies'  groxls, 
with  the  exception  of  contrubunil  of  wiir.  Third, 
N(!Utnil  g(X)dH,  except  of  contralxiiid  of  war,  are 
not  liable  tn  capture  under  an  enemy's  Mag. 
Fourth,  Blockades,  to  he  hiniling,  must  he 
effective  —  tliat  is  to  say,  maintained  hy  a  force 
really  sufficient  t^)  prevent  access  to  tlie  coast  of 
tlie  enemy.'  The  mlhercnco  of  other  nowers  was 
requestedf  to  these  principles,"  nnd  all  Joined  In 
signing  It  except  the  United  Ste'es,  Spain,  and 
Mexico.  The  objection  on  the  pait  of  the  United 
States  was  stated  in  a  circular  letter  hy  Mr. 
Marcy,  then  Secretary  of  Staic,  who  "  maintained 
tliat  the  right  to  resort  to  privateers  Is  as  incon- 
testable as  any  other  right  appertaining  to  bel- 
ligerents; and  reasone(l  that  the  effect  of  the 
declaration  would  be  to  Increase  the  maritime 
preijonderance  of  Great  lirltnln  and  France,  with- 
out even  Iwnefiting  the  general  cause  of  civiliza- 
tion; while.  If  public  ships  retjilned  the  right  of 
capturing  privaK!  property,  the  United  States, 
which  had  at  that  time  a  large  mercantile  marine 
and  a  comnaratively  small  navy,  would  be  de- 
prived of  all  means  of  retaliation.  .  .  .  The  Presi- 
dent proposes,  therefore  [wrote  Mr.  Marcy]  to 
add  to  the  first  proposition  contained  in  the  decla- 
ration of  the  Congress  of  Paris  the  following 
words:  'and  that  the  private  property  of  tlie 
subjects  and  citizens  of  a  belligerent  on  the  high 
seas  shall  be  exempted  from  seizure  by  public 
armed  vessels  of  the  other  belligerent,  except  It 
be  contraband.'.  .  .  Among  the  minor  states  of 
Europe  there  was  complete  unanimity  and  a 
general  readiness  to  accept  our  amendment  to 
the  rules";  but  England  opposed,  and  the  of- 
fered amendment  was  subsequently  withdrawn. 
"Events  .  .  .  have  shown  that  .  .  .  our  refusal 
to  accept  the  Declaration  of  Paris  hi.s  brought 
the  world  nearer  to  the  principles  which  we  pro- 
posed, which  became  known  as  the  '  Marcy 
amendment  for  the  abolition  of  war  against  pri- 
vate property  on  the  seas.''' — E.  Schuyler, 
Amencan  Diplomacy,  ch.  7. 

Also  in  :  F.  Wharton,  IHgMt  of  the  Interna- 
tional law  of  the  U.  8.,  eh.  17,  sect.  342  (».  8).— 
H.   Adams,  Historical  Essays,  ch.  6. — See,  also, 

Pll  I V  AT  EK  Rfi. 

DECLARATION  OF  RIGHTS.    See  Eng 
LAND:  A.  D.  1689  (Januauv— Februatiy). 

DECLARATION  OF  THE  RIGHTS  OF 
MAN,  French  Revolutionary.  See  France: 
A.  I).  1780  (AiiotisT — OcTonKH). 

DECLARATORY  ACT,  The.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1766. 

DECRETA,  Roman  imperial.  See  Corpus 
Juris  Civilis. 

DECRETALS,  The  False.  See  Papacy: 
A.  D.  829-847. 

DECUMiE.    See  Vfxtioal. 

DECUMATES  LAND.  See  Aori  Dkcu- 
MATES,  also  Alemanni  ;  and  Scevi. 

DECURIONES.  Sec  Curia,  Municipal,  op 
THE  later  Roman  Empire. 

DEDITITIUS.—  COLONUS.—  SERVUS. 
—"The  poor  Provincial  [of  the  provinces  of  the 
Roman  empire  at  the  time  of  the  breaking  up  In 
the  fifth  century]  who  could  not  fly  to  the  Goths 
because  his  whole  property  was  in  land,  hunted 
to  despair  by  the  tax-gatherer,  would  transfer 
that  land  to  some  wealthy  neighbour,  appar- 
ently on  condition  of  receiving  a  small  life 
annuity  out  of  it.    He  was  then  called  the  Dediti- 


tlus  (or  Surrenderer)  of  the  new  owner,  towards 
whom  he  sttKul  in  a  position  of  a  Certain  degree 
of  dependence.  Not  yet,  how.ver,  were  his  sor- 
rows or  those  of  his  family  at  an  end,  for  the 
t4ix-gathcrer  still  regarded  hint  as  responsible  for 
his  land.  ...  On  his  death  his  sons,  wlio  had 
utterly  lost  their  paternal  Inheritance,  and  sfill 
found  themselves  confronted  with  the  claim  for 
taxes,  were  obviously  without  reso\irce.  The 
next  stage  of  the  pnJcess  acconllngly  was  that 
they  abdicated  the  position  of  free  citizens  and 
implored  the  great  man  to  accept  theui  as  ColonI, 
a  class  of  labourers,  half-free,  half-enslaved, 
who  may  perhaps  with  sutllclent  accuracy  be 
comiiared  to  the  serfs  '  adscrlpti  glebie '  of  the 
middle  ages.  .  .  .  Before  long  they  became 
mere  slaves  (Servi)  without  a  shadow  of  right  or 
claim  against  their  new  lonls." — T.  Ho<Igkin, 
Italy  and  her  Invaders,  bk.  1,  ch.  10.— With  the 
"Increase  of  great  estates  and  simultaneous  in- 
crease In  the  number  of  slaves  (so  many  Goths 
were  made  slaves  by  Claudius  [A.  D.  268-270], 
to  give  one  Instance,  that  there  was  no',  a  district 
wlUiout  them),  the  small  proprietors  co\d(l  no 
longer  maintain  the  fruitless  struggle,  and,  as  a 
class,  wholly  disappeared.  Some,  no  doubt,  be- 
came soldiers;  others  crowded  into  the  already 
overflowing  towns;  while  others  voluntarily  re- 
signed their  freedom,  attached  themselves  to  the 
land  of  some  rich  proprietor,  and  became  his 
villeins,  or  colonl.  But  this  was  not  the  chief 
means  by  which  this  class  was  formed  and  in- 
creased. .  .  .  After  a  successful  war  these  serfs 
were  given  ...  to  landed  proprietors  without 
payment ;  and  in  this  way  not  only  was  the  class 
of  free  peasants  diminished  or  altogether  de- 
stroyed — a  ha;3pier  result — the  slave  system  was 
directly  attacked.  The  colonl  themselves  were 
not  slaves.  The  codes  directly  dlstiiii,'ulsh  them 
from  slaves,  and  In  several  imperial  constitutions 
they  are  called  'iugenui.'  They  could  contract 
a  legal  marriaf;e  and  could  hold  property.  .  .  . 
On  the  other  hind,  the  coloni  were  like  slaves  in 
that  they  were  liable  to  personal  punishment. 
...  A  colonun  was  indissolubly  attached  to  the 
land,  and  could  not  get  quit  of  the  tie,  even  by 
enlisting  as  a  soldier.  The  proprietor  could  sell 
him  wiUi  the  estate,  but  had  no  power  whatever 
of  selling  him  without  it;  and  if  he  sold  the 
estate,  he  was  compelled  to  sell  the  coloni  along 
with  it.  .  .  .  The  position  of  these  villeins  was 
a  very  miserable  one.  .  .  .  These  coloni  in  Gaul, 
combined  together,  were  joined  by  the  free 
peasants  still  left  [A.  D.  287],  whose  lot  was  not 
less  wretched  than  their  own,  and  forming  into 
numerous  bands,  spread  themselves  over  the 
country  to  pillage  and  destroy.  They  were 
called  Uagauela!,  from  a  Celtic  word  meaning  a 
mob  or  riotous  assembly;  and  under  this  name 
recur  often  In  the  course  of  the  next  century 
both  in  Gaul  and  Spain."— W.  T.  Arnold,  T/ie 
Soman  System  of  Provincial  Administration, 
eh.  4. 

DEEMSTERS.    See  Manx  Kingdom,  The. 

DEFENDERS.    See  Ireland:  A.  I).  1784. 

DEFENESTRATION  AT  PRAGUE, 
The.    See  Bohemia:  A.  D.  1611-1618. 

DEFTERDARS.    See  Sublime  Porte. 

DEICOLiE,  The.    See  Culdees. 

DEIRA,  The  kingdom  of.— One  of  the  king- 
doms of  the  Angles,  covering'what  is  now  called 
the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  with  some  terri- 
tory beyond  it.    Sometimes  it  was  united  with 


653 


DBIRA. 


DELAWARE,  1688-1640. 


thn  klnf^dom  of  B<'nilcla,  north  of  It,  to  form  the 
greater  kingdom  of  Nortliuin1)riit.  Hvu  Eno- 
land:  a.  I)  r)47-«.I!l. 

DEKARCHIES.  8to  Hpaiita:  H.  C.  404- 
4o:i. 

DEKELEIA.-DEKIiLEIANWAR.  H(<. 
Ghkkck;  H.  C.  4i;J. 

DELATION.  -  DELATORS.  —  I'lidir  Hid 
empire,  tlieru  was  H'Min  lircd  iit  Home  an  Infii- 
mouH  claxM  of  nu-n  v.  ho  lM)ro  u  certain  reitcmbliinee 
—  witli  sifrnitlcani.  cimtrastH  liltewlse  —  to  the 
aynopliantii  of  Atliens.  Tliev  were  l<nown  an 
dclatora,  and  'Jieir  occnpation  v/m  dehition. 
"Tlie  delator  ivas  properly  one  who  gave  notice 
to  the  fiscal  olllcen*  of  moneys  that  had  Iwcome 
due  to  the  treasury  of  ihi^  state,  or  more  strictly 
to  the  emperor's  tlsciiH. "  Hut  the  title  was  ex- 
tended to  Informers  generally,  who  dragged  their 
fellow-citizens  before  the  trilnmalfl  for  alleged 
vlolutl'ins  of  law.  Augustus  miule  delatiim  a 
profe'islon  by  attAching  rewards  to  the  Informa- 
tion given  against  transgressors  of  his  marriage 
laws.  Under  the  successor  of  Augustus,  the 
sullen  and  suspicious  Tiberius,  delation  received 
its  greatest  encouragement  and  di^velopment. 
'Aca)rdlng  to  the  spirit  of  Roman  criminal  pro- 
ce<lure,  the  Informer  and  the  pleader  were  one 
and  the  same  person.  There  was  no  publk;  ac- 
cuser, .  .  .  but  the  spy  who  discovered  the 
delinquency  was  himself  the  man  to  demand  of 
the  scnatt',  the  prwtor  or  the  judge,  an  oppor- 
tunity of  proving  it  by  his  own  eloquence  and 
Ingenuity.  The  otiium  of  prosecution  was  thus 
removed  from  tlio  government  to  the  private 
delator." — C.  Merlvole,  Jliit.  of  t/u  Romans,  ch. 
44.— See,  also,  Rome:  A.  D.  14-87. 

DELAWARE  BAY:  A.  D.  1609.— Dis- 
covered by  Henry  Hudson.  >See  A.hkrica: 
A.  I).  1009. 

The  error  perpetuated  in  its  name. — "Al- 
most every  writer  on  American  history  that  I 
have  met  with  appears  to  have  taken  pains  to 
perpetuate  the  stereotyped  error  that '  Lord  Dela- 
warr  touched  at  this  bay  In  his  passage  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1610.'  .  .  .  Lord  Dclaworr  himself,  in 
his  letter  of  the  7Ui  of  July,  1610,  giving  an 
account  of  his  voyage  to  Virginia,  not  only 
makes  no  mention  of  that  bay,  or  of  his  ap- 
proaching it,  but  expressly  speaks  of  his  first 
reaching  the  American  coast  on  the  '  6th  of  June, 
at  what  time  we  made  land  to  the  southward  of 
our  harbor,  the  Chosiopiock  Bay.'  The  first 
European  who  is  really  known  to  have  entered 
the  bay,  after  Hudson,  was  Capt.  Samuel  Argall 
[July  1610].  .  .  .  The  name  of  Lord  Delawarr, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  given  to  the  bay 
soon  afterwanls  by  the  Virginians. " — J.  R.  Broti- 
head,  Ilitt.  of  the  State  of  N.  Y.,  v.  1 ,  apj). ,  note  D. 


DELAWARE:  A.  D.  1620-1631.— The 
Dutch  occupancy  and  first  settlement. — The 
first  attempt  at  settlement  on  the  Delaware  was 
made  by  the  Dutch,  who  claimed  tlie  country  in 
right  of  Hudson's  discovery  and  Mey's  explora- 
tion of  the  Bay,  notwithstanding  the  broad  Eng- 
lish claim,  which  covered  the  whole  of  it  as  part 
of  an  indefinite  Virginia.  In  1629,  pursuant  to 
the  patroon  ordlaance  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company,  which  opened  New  Netherland  terri- 
tory to  private  purchasers,  "Samuel  Godyn  and 
Samuel  Blommaert,  both  directors  of  the  Amster- 
dam Chamber,  bargained  with  the  natives  for 
the  soil  from  Cape  Henlopen  to  the  mouth  of 


DoIaw;irc  river ;  in  July,  1680,  this  purchnsr  of 
an  eslate  more  than  thirty  miles  long  was  ratitled 
at  Fort  Amsterdam  by  MInidt  [then  Governor  of 
New  Netherland]  and  his  council.  It  Is  tliu 
oldest  deed  for  land  In  Delaware,  and  comnriHes 
the  water-line  of  the  two  southern  counties  <if 
that  slate.  ...  A  ('ompany  was  s<K)n  forn\ed  to 
colimize  the  tract  acquired  by  Oodyn  and  Hloni- 
maert.  The  first  settlement  in  Delaware,  older 
than  any  In  Pennsylvania,  was  undertaken  Ity 
a  (!onii)any,  of  which  GcMlyn,  Van  Rensselaer, 
Blommaert,  the  historian  De  Laet,  and  a  new 
partner,  Davh'  Petersen  de  Vries,  were  n«'ml)erH. 
By  joint  enterprise,  In  December,  16!M),  a  ship  of 
18  guns,  commanded  by  Meter  Ileyes,  and  laden 
with  emigrants,  store  of  seeds,  cattle  and  agricul- 
tural implements,  embarked  from  the  Texel, 
Sartly  to  cover  the  southern  shore  of  Delawara 
ay  with  fields  of  wheat  and  tobacco,  and  partly 
for  a  whale  fishery  on  the  coast.  .  .  .  Early  In 
the  spring  of  1031,  the  .  .  .  vessel  reached  its 
destination,  and  just  within  Cape  Henlopen,  <m 
Lewes  Creek,  planted  a  colony  of  more  than 
thirty  soids.  The  superintendence  of  the  settle- 
ment was  intrusted  to  Gillis  Ilosset.  A  little  fort 
was  built  and  well  beset  with  palisades:  the  arms 
of  Holland  were  affixed  to  a  pillar;  the  country 
receivi'd  the  name  Swaanendael;  the  water  that 
of  Godyn's  Bay.  The  voyage  of  Heyes  was  the 
cradling  of  astute.  That  Delaware  exists  as  a 
separate  commonwealth  is  due  to  this  colony. 
Accoriling  to  English  rule,  occupancy  was  neces- 
sary to  ccmiplete  a  title  to  the  wlldenicss;  and  the 
Dutch  now  occupied  Delaware.  On  the  5th  of 
May,  Heyes  ond  Hosset,  in  behalf  of  Godyn  and 
Blommaert,  made  a  further  purchase  from  Indian 
chiefs  of  the  opposite  coast  of  Cape  May,  for 
twelve  miles  on  the  bay,  on  the  sea,  and  in  tlie 
interior;  and,  in  June,  this  sale  of  a  tract  twelve 
miles  square  was  formally  attested  at  Manhat- 
tan. Animated  by  the  rciuuge  of  Godyn,  tho 
patroons  of  8waanei;iiael  fitted  out  a  second  ex- 
pedition under  the  command  of  De  Vries.  But, 
iwfore  he  set  sail,  news  was  received  of  the  de- 
struction of  the  fort,  and  the  murder  of  its  people. 
Hassct,  the  commandant,  had  caused  the  death 
of  an  Indian  chief;  and  the  revenge  of  the  sav- 
ages was  not  appeased  till  not  one  of  the  emi- 
grants remained  alive.  De  Vries,  on  his  orrival, 
found  only  the  ruins  of  the  house  and  its  pali- 
sades, half  consumed  by  fire,  and  hero  and  there 
the  bones  of  the  colonists." — Q.  Bancroft,  UUt. 
of  the  IT.  S.,  pt.  2,  ch.  13  (».  1). 

Ahso  IN:  J.  R.  Brodhead,  Hist,  of  the  State  at 
N.  Y.,  r,.  1,  ch.  7. 

A.  D.  1632. — Embraced  in  the  Maryland 
erant  to  Lord  Baltimore.  Sec  Makyland: 
A.  D.  1633. 

A.  D.  163^. — Embraced  in  the  Palatine  grant 
of  New  Albion.    See  New  Aluion. 

A.  D.  1638-1640.  —  The  planting  of  the 
Swedish  colony. — "William  Usselmx,  a  dis- 
tinguished merchant  in  Stockholm,  was  the  first 
to  propose  to  the  Swedish  government  a  schemo 
for  planting  a  colony  in  America.  He  was  a 
native  of  Antwerp,  and  had  resided  in  Spain, 
Portugal  and  the  Azores,  at  a  time  wlien  the 
spirit  of  foreign  adventure  pervaded  every  cloas 
of  society.  ...  In  the  year  1624  he  proposed 
to  the  Swedish  monorch,  Qustavus  Adolphus, 
a  plan  for  the  organization  of  a  trading  com- 
pany, to  extend  its  operations  to  Asia,  Africa, 
America  and  Terra  Magellanica.  .  .  .  Whether 


654 


DELAWARE,  l«88-lft40. 


DELAWARE,  l(M(V-lMfl. 


Ussclliix  Imd  pvor  l)Opn  in  Amrrini  i<i  tmrrrtnln. 
bill  III'  IiikI,  fxioii  uftcr  tlip  or^'iiiii/.ittioii  nf  the 
Diitrli  SVi'st  Iiiillii  (,'ompiiny,  si.im'  connrctioii 
witli  it,  unit  by  tliix  iiiiil  oilier  iiu'iinN  wiih  uIiIc 
to  Kivu  iiiiipitt  infiinimtion  In  relation  to  tlie 
country  lK)r(ierin(;  on  tlu^  Deliiwiire,  IIm  soil, 
clinmtc,  1111(1  |ir<Kliu'lions.  .  .  .  His  plnii  unit 
contract  weri)  IninHliited  into  the  SwedlNli  inn- 
gunge  l>y  Scliniiler,  tlic  royal  interpreter,  and 
pulilislied  to  tlie  nation,  witli  an  uddretiH  8tron>{ly 
appealing  iKitli  to  their  piety  and  tlieir  love  of 
gain.  Tlie  kinjf  reconiniended  it  to  tlie  States, 
and  nn  edict  dated  at  Htoel<liolni,  .Inly  M,  Witt, 
waB  iKHiied  by  royal  authority,  in  wlileh  people 
of  all  ranks  were  invited  to  encouniue  tlie  pro- 
ject and  8upiM)rt  the  Company.  IJooks  were 
opened  for  subscription  to  tlii!  stock  .  .  .  and 
(iiistavus  pledged  the  royal  treasure  for  its  sup- 
port to  tliu  amount  of  400,(H)0  dollars.  .  .  .  Tlie 
work  was  ripe  for  e.\eciitii)n,  wlicn  tlie  (icrinan 
war  ftho  Thirty  Years  War],  and  afterwards  the 
king  8  deatli,  prevented  it,  and  rendered  tlu^  fair 
prospect  fruitless.  .  .  .  Tlie  next  iittempt  on  the 
part  of  the  Swedes  to  plant  a  colony  in  America 
was  more  successful.  But  there  has  lieen  much 
difference  among  liistorians  in   relation  to  the 

fiuriod  when  that  settlement  was  made.  ...  It 
sowing  to  the  preservation,  among  the  Diitcli 
rcconls  at  Albany,  of  an  oHicial  protest  Issued 
by  Kieft,  the  Governor  at  New  Amsterdam,  tliat 
wo  do  certainly  know  the  SwedeS  were  here  in 
the  spring  of  1038.  Peter  Minuit,  who  conduct. d 
to  our  sliorc  the  first  Hwedisli  colony,  liad  been 
Commercial  Agent,  and  Director  General  of  the 
Dutch  West  Indio  Company,  and  Governor  of 
the  New  Netherlands.  ...  At  this  time  Christina, 
tlie  infant  daughter  of  Qustiivus  Adolphus,  had 
ascended  the  throne  of  Sweden.  .  .  .  Under  the 
direction  of  O.xenstiern,  the  celebrated  chancellor 
of  Sweden,  whoso  wisdom  and  virtue  liave  shed 
a  glory  on  the  oge  in  which  lie  lived,  the  patent 
which  had  been  granted  in  the  reign  of  Oiistavus 
to  the  company  formed  under  the  influence  of 
Usselinx  was  renewed,  and  its  privileges  extended 
to  the  citizens  of  Germany.  Minuit,  being  now 
out  of  employment,  and  probably  deeming  him- 
self injured  by  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch  Com- 
pany [which  had  displaced  him  from  the  gov- 
ernorship of  tlie  New  Netherlands,  tlirougli  the 
influence  of  the  patroons,  and  appointed  Wouter 
Van  Twiller,  a  clerk,  to  succeed  him],  had 
determined  to  offer  his  services  to  tlie  crown 
of  Sweden.  .  .  .  Minuit  laid  before  tlie  clian- 
cellor  a  plon  of  procedure,  urged  a  settlement 
on  the  Delaware,  and  offered  to  conduct  the 
enterprise.  Oxenstiern  represented  the  case  to 
the  queen  .  .  .  and  Minuit  was  commissioned  to 
command  and  direct  the  expedition." — B.  Ferris, 
Hist,  of  the  Original  Settlements  vn  the  Delaware, 
pt.  1,  ch.  2-3. — "  Witl.  two  ships  laden  with  pro- 
visions and  other  supplies  requisite  for  the  settle- 
ment of  emigrants  in  a  new  country,  and  with 
fifty  colonists,  Minuit  sailed  from  Sweden  late  in 
1637,  and  entered  Delaware  Bay  in  April,  ^838. 
He  found  the  country  as  he  had  left  it,  without 
white  inhabitants.  Jlinqua  Kill,  now  Wilming- 
ton, was  selected  as  the  place  for  the  tirst  settle- 
ment, where  he  bought  a  few  acres  of  land  of 
the  natives,  landed  his  colonists  and  stores, 
erected  a  fort,  and  began  a  small  plantation.  He 
had  conducted  his  enterprise  with  some  secrecy, 
that  he  might  avoid  collision  with  the  Dutch ; 
but  the  watchful  eyes  of  their  agents  soon  dis- 


covered him,  and  reported  his  presenon  to  the 
direriorat  New  AniHtenlaiii.  Kieft  I siicceNsor to 
Van  Twiller]  had  just  arrived,  and  it  became 
one  of  his  first  duties  to  notify  a  man  who  had 
preceded  lilni  in  ofllce  that  be  was  a  trespasser 
and  warn  liini  off.  Miiiiiil,  knowing  that  Kieft 
was  powerless  to  enforic  his  protest,  being  with- 
out troops  or  money,  paid  no  attention  to  his 
missive,  and  kciit  on  with  his  work.  ...  Ho 
erected  a  fort  of  coiiHiderable  strength,  named 
I  i^ristina,  for  flu-  Swedish  (|ueeii,  and  garrisoned 
it  with  'J4  soldiers.  Understanding  the  character 
of  the  Indians,  lie  conciliated  their  sachems  by 
liberal  presents  and  secured  llw'  trade.  In  a  few 
montlis  he  was  eiuihleil  to  loud  Ills  ships  witli 
peltries  and  despatch  them  to  ids  patrons.  .  .  . 
Tlie  colony  had  to  all  appearance  a  promising 
future.  .  .  .  Within  two  years,  however,  their 
prospects  were  clouded.  Tlie  Company  had 
failed  to  send  out  another  ship  with  sujipiles  and 
nierchaiidise  for  the  Indian  traiU'.  i'rovisiona 
failed,  trade  fell  otT,  and  sickness  began  to  pre- 
vail. .  .  .  They  resolved  to  remove  to  Manhattan, 
where  they  could  at  least  have  "enough  to  eat.' 
On  the  eve  of  '  breaking  up  '  to  carry  their  res- 
olution into  effect,  succor  came  from  an  un- 
expected (piarter.  Tlie  fame  of  New  Sweden, 
as  the  colony  was  called,  of  its  fertile  lands 
and  profitable  trade,  had  reached  other  nations 
of  Kurope.  Tn  Holland  itself  a  company  was 
formed  to  esti'  blisli  a  settlement  under  tlie  pat- 
ronage of  the  Swedish  Company."  This  Dutch 
company  "freighted  o  sliip  witii  colonists  and 
supplies,  wliich  fortunately  arrived  when  the 
Swedisli  colony  was  about  to  be  broken  up  and 
the  country  abandoned.  The  spirits  of  the 
Swedes  were  revived.  .  .  .  Their  projected  re- 
moval was  indefinitely  deferred  and  they  con- 
tinued their  work  with  fresii  vigor.  The  Dutch 
colonists  were  located  in  a  Kettlcmeul  by  tiieni- 
selves,  only  a  few  miles  from  Fort  Christina. 
Tliey  were  loyal  to  the  Swedes.  ...  In  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year,  1640,  I'eter  Hollacnd- 
arc,  who  liad  been  iijipointed  deputy  governor 
of  the  colony,  and  Moens  Kling,  arrived  from 
Sweden  witli  three  ships  laden  with  provisions 
and  merchandise  for  the  straitened  colonists. 
They  also  brought  out  a  considerable  company 
of  new  emigrants.  New  Sweden  was  now  well 
established  and  prosperous.  More  lands  were 
bought,  and  new  settlements  were  made.  Peter 
Minuit  died  tlie  following  year." — G.  W.  Schuy- 
ler, Colonial  New  York,  v.  1,  introd.,  sect.  2. 

Also  in:  I.  Acrelius,  Hist,  of  New  Sweden 
(Penn.  Hist.  Soe.  Mem.,  v.  11)  ch.  1. — Docs,  rela- 
tive to  Col.  Hist.  ofN.  Y  V.  12.— O.  B.  Keen, 
New  Sweden  {Narrative  a  k/  Critical  Hist,  of  Am., 
V.  4,  ch.  9).  —  J.  F.  Jameson,  Willem  Usselinx 
(Papers  of  the  Am.  Hist.  Assn.,  v.  3,  tio.  8). 

A.  D.  1640-1643.— Intrusions  of  the  English 
from  New  Haven.  See  New  Jeksey:  A.  D. 
1640-1655. 

A.  D.  1640-1656.— The  stmegle  between  the 
Swedes  and  the  Dutch  and  tne  final  victory  of 
the  latter. — "The  [Swedish]  colony  grow  to 
such  importance  that  John  Printz,  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  cavalry,  was  sent  out  in  1642  as  gov- 
ernor, with  orders  for  developing  industry  and 
trade.  He  took  pains  to  command  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  although  the  Dutch  had  established 
Fort  Nassau  on  its  eastern  bank,  and  the  Swedish 
settlements  wore  on  the  western  bank  exclusively. 
Collisions  arose    between  the    Dutch  and    the 


656 


DELAWARE,  l(MO-lflfl«. 


DELAWARE,  IflM-lTM. 


0Mta|  nnil  whi'ii  tlio  rirnii-r  put  up  thn  nmii 
OfuMBtati-H  Oi'iiiTiil  on  tliciompli'tliin  of  n  nur- 
ohaM  of  Iniidit   from   lint   IikIIuiim,   I'riiitz  In  ii 

SaMion  oriU'ri'd  tlii'ni  to  tut  torn  down.  Tliu 
wihIpd  K'dnrd  in  Ntrfn^tli  while  tlic  Dutch  Itmt 
Kround  In  tlni  vicinity.  In  UMH  tlitt  Dutch 
uttt'Miptcd  to  hulld  a  triidlriK  poNt  on  thcHchuyl- 
kill,  when  they  were  repulw'd  hy  force  by  the 
HweiU'H.  IndlvldiiiilH  HeckhiK  to  erect  Iioumch 
were  treated  In  the  Hunie  wuy.  The  Sweden  In 
turn  Het  up  It  Htockiide  on  the  diNpuled  ground. 
Dlri'ctor  Hluyvewmt  found  It  neccHSiiry  in  1(151 
to  go  to  confer  with  I'rint/,  with  u  view  to  hold- 
ing the  country  ugidnMt  the  iif^greHMlve  KngllHli. 
The  Indliiu.s  were  called  Into  council  una  con- 
tinned  the  Dutch  titli',  allowing  the  8w(Mleg 
little  more  than  the  Kite  of  Fort  Christina.  Fort 
Cusimir  wan  erected  lower  down  the  river,  to 
protect  Dutch  IntereatH.  The  two  rulers  agreed 
to  be  frienclH  and  allicH,  and  bo  continued  for 
three  yearB.  Tlit'  dlHtrcHH  if  the  Swedinh  colony 
led  to  appoaU  for  aid  from  the  honiu  country 
whitlier  Uovemor  I'rint/.  had  returned.  In  1054 
help  wiiH  given,  and  a  new  governor,  Jolui 
Claude  Uygingh,  marked  IiIh  coming  liy  tlic  cap- 
ture of  Fort  Caaimir,  pretending  that  tlie  Dutch 
AVest  India  Company  authorized  tlio  act.  Tho 
only  revenge  tlie  Dutch  could  take  wa»  the 
seizure  of  a  HwedlHh  vessel  wlilch  by  mistako 
ran  into  Manhattan  Day.  But  tliu  next  year 
orders  came  from  Holland  exposing  the  fraud  of 
Uyslngh,  and  directing  the  expulsion  of  the 
Swedes  from  the  South  Ulver.  A  fleet  was 
organized  and  Director  Stuyvesant  recovered 
Fort  Caslmir  without  flrlng  a  gun.  After  some 
parley  Fort  Christina  was  also  surrendered. 
Sucli  Swedes  as  would  not  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  tho  Dutch  authorities  were  sent  to  the 
home  country.  Only  twenty  persons  accepted 
the  oath,  and  of  three  c'ergymen  two  were  ex- 
pelled, and  the  third  cscajied  like  treatment  by 
the  sudden  outbreak  of  Indian  troubles.  In 
1656  the  States  General  and  Sweden  made  these 
transactions  matter  of  international  discussion. 
The  Swedes  presented  a  protest  against  the  action 
of  the  Dutch,  and  it  was  talked  over,  but  the 
mattt'r  was  Unally  dropped.  In  the  same  year 
tho  West  India  Company  sold  its  Interests  on  the 
South  HiviT  to  the  city  of  '  insterdam,  and  the 
colony  of  New  Amstel  was  erected,  so  that  the 
authority  of  New  Nethorland  was  extinguished." 
— E.  II.  Roberta,  Neto  Y(n-k,  v.  1,  ch.  7. 

Also  in  :  E.  Armstrong,  Introd.  to  the  Record 
of  Upliind  (Iliit.  Soc.  of  J'enn.  Memoirs,  v.  7). — 
H.  Fcrr;  .V.'oi.  ^f  wV  0,  iyl.^l  ^knunnentt  on  the 
Delawai;,  /it.  1,  ch.  6-7. — S.  Hazard,  Annals  of 
Penn.,  pp.  63-328.— JJ«p<.  of  the  Ainsterdam 
Chamber  of  the  ^Y.  I.  Co.  {Dors,  relative  to  Col. 
Hist.  <fy.  r.,v.\,  pp.  ,■587-640). 

A.  D,  1664, — Conquest  by  the  English,  and 
annexation  to  New  York.— "Five  days  after 
the  capitulation  of  New  Amsterdam  [surrendered 
by  the  Dutch  to  the  English,  Aug.  29,  1664— 
see  New  York:  A.  D.  1664]  Nlcolls,  with  Cart- 
wright  and  Maverick  .  .  .  commissioned  their 
colleague.  Sir  Robert  Carr,  to  go,"  with  three 
ships  and  on  adequate  militory  force,  "and  re- 
duce the  Delaware  settlements.  Carr  was  in- 
structed to  promise  the  Dutch  the  possession  of 
all  their  property  and  all  their  present  privileges, 
'  only  that  they  change  their  masters. '  To  the 
Swedes  he  was  to  'remonstrate  their  happy 
return  under  a  monarchical  government,  and  his 


majesty's  giHxl  inclination  to  that  nation.'  To 
Lonl  licltii  ire  H  olllccni  in  Maryland,  he  was  to 
declare  that  their  proprietor's  tiretended  right 
to  the  Delaware  being  'a  doubtful  case,'  poHHCH- 
Hlon  would  be  kept  for  the  king  'till  his  majesty 
is  Informed  and  satiHtled  otherwise.'.  .  .Tho 
Swedes  were  Himn  niaile  friends,"  but  the  Dutch 
attempted  [()elolM'r|  some  rcHlstance,  and  yielded 
iiiiiv  after  a  couple  of  broailHldeH  from  the  ships 
iiiul  killed  three  and  wounded  ten  of  their  garrl- 
Hon.  "Carr  now  landed  .  .  .  and  chilmeil  the 
pillage  for  hliiiHelf  as  'won  l)y  the  sword.' 
Assiuning  an  autliority  independent  of  Nlcolls, 
he  claimed  to  tie  the  '  sole  ami  chief  conunander 
and  (lispoNer'  of  all  alTalrs  011  the  Delaware." 
Ills  acts  of  mpaclty  and  violeiu'e,  when  reported 
to  his  fellow  ciinunlssloners,  at  Now  York,  were 
condemned  and  repudiated,  am!  Nlcolls,  tho 
prcHlding  conunisHloP'T,  went  to  tho  Delaware  In 
jierson  to  displace  him.  "Carr  was  severely  rn- 
iiuked,  and  obliged  to  give  up  much  of  his  ill- 
gotten  spoil.  Nevertheless,  lie  could  not  be  per- 
suaded to  leave  the  place  for  some  time.  The 
name  of  New  Amstel  was  now  changed  to  New 
(.'ikstie,  and  an  Infantry  garrison  established 
tiiere.  .  .  .  Captain  Jolin  Carr  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Delaware,  in  sulxirdination  to 
tlie  government  of  New  York,  to  whldi  it  was 
annexed  'as  an  appendage';  and  tiius  iilTairs  re- 
mained for  sevenil  years." — .1.  R.  Urixlhead, 
Jlint.  of  the  StUte  ofN.  Y.,  v.  2,  ch.  2. 

A.  D.  1673.— The  Dutch  reconquest.  Seo 
New  YoKK    A.  D.  U173. 

A.  D.  1674.— Final  recovery  by  the  Engliih. 
See  Nktiikulaniw  (Holland):  A.  I).  1074. 

A.  D.  1674-1760.-10  dispute  between  the 
Duke  of  York  and  the  Proprietary  of  Maryland. 
— Grant  by  the  Duke  to  William  Penn.  Bee 
Pennsylvania:  A.  D.  1682;  1085;  and  176O-1707. 

A.  D.  1691-1702.- The  practical  independ- 
ence of  Penn's  "  lower  counties "  acquired. 
— "  In  April,  1691,  with  tho  reluctant  consent  of 
William  Penn,  the  'territories,'  or  'lower  coun- 
ties,' now  known  as  tho  State  of  Delaware,  bo- 
came  for  two  years  a  government  by  themselves 
under  Markham.  .  .  .  Tho  disturbance  by  Keith 
[see  Pennsylvania:  A.  D.  169'J-10!)6]  creating 
questions  as  to  the  administration  of  justice, 
confirmed  tho  disposition  of  the  English  govcrn- 
mc"*,  t'>  subject  Pennsylvania  to  a  royal  com- 
missior;  and  in  April  1093,  Benjamin  Fletcher, 
appointed  governor  by  Wlliiom  and  Mi>r',  once 
more  united  Delaware  to  Penns^-lvnn'i  But 
Penn,  restored  to  his  authority  .  .  IGbl,  could 
not  resist  the  Jealousies  which  tended  so  Btrongly 
to  divide  the  Delaware  territories  from  Pennsyl- 
vania proper.  "In  1708,  Pennsylvania  convened 
its  legislature  apart,  and  tlie  two  colonies  were 
never  again  united.  The  lower  counties  became 
almost  an  independent  republic;  for,  as  they 
were  not  included  In  the  charter,  the  authority 
of  the  proprietary  over  them  was  by  suflcrunce 
only,  and  the  executive  power  intrusted  to  the 
governor  of  Pennsylvania  was  too  feeble  to  re- 
strain the  power  of  tlieir  people.  The  legisla- 
ture, tho  tribunals,  the  subordinate  executive 
offlcers  of  Delaware  knew  little  of  external  con- 
trol."—G.  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the  U.  S.  (author's 
last  revision),  pt.  3,  ch.  3  (v.  2). — The  question  of 
J  urisdiction  over  Delaware  was  inyolved  through- 
out in  tho  boundary  dispute  between  tho  pro- 
prietaries of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  See 
Pennbtlvasia:  A.  D.  1685;  and  1760-1767. 


656 


DELAWARE,  17*)-nM. 


DEL08. 


A.  D.  1760-17M.— The  queition  of  taxation 
bj  Parliament.— The  Stamp  Act  and  its  re- 
peal.—The  Declaratory  Act.— The  Pint  Con- 
tinental Congreif.  Her  I'nitkii  St.vtkmiik  Am.  : 
A.  I).  I7«()-Ii7r.;  I7flil-17(M;  17«.">;  mid  I7mi. 

A.  D.  1766-1771.— Opening  event*  of  the 
Revolution.  Hit  Unitkd  Htatkmdi' Am.  ;  A.I). 
178»l-17«7  t<»1774;  ami  lk)«TON:  A.  I).  1768  to 
177!«. 

A.  D.  1775.— The  beg^innins  of  the  war  of 
the  American  Revolution,— Lexingfton.— Con- 
cord.—Action  taken  on  the  newi.- Ticon- 
deroga.- The  *i^Ke  of  Boston.  — Bunker  Hill. 
— The  Second  Continental  Congreai.  Sec 
United  ^TATKn  OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  1775. 

A.  D.  I?  5.— Purthcr  introduction  of  slaves 
prohibited.  Seo  Hlavbhy,  Nkoho:  A.  D.  1776- 
1808. 

A.  D.  1776-1783.— The  War  of  Independ- 
ence.—Peace  with  Great  Britain.  Hcu  L'.nitki) 
Statkh  ok  Am.  :  A.  1).  177tl  to  17M;t. 

A.  D.  1777-1779.— Withholding  ratification 
:he    Articles    of    Confederation.      See 


from    the 

United  States  ok  Am 


A.  1).  17MI-178«. 


A.  D.  1787.— The  adoption  and  ratification 
of  the  Federal  Constitution.  Sic  United 
States  ok  Am.  :  A.  1).  17H7.  mid  1787-1789. 

A.  D.  1861  (Aprils— Refusal  of  troops  on  the 
call  of  President  Lincoln.  Scu  United  St.vieh 
OK  Am.  :  A.  I).  1801  (Armi,). 

DELAWARE  RIVER,  Washington's  pas- 
sage of  the.  Sco  United  States  ok  A.m.  ;  A.  I). 
1776-1777. 

DELA WARES,  The.  See  Ameiucan  Ado- 
nidiNKs;  Dei.awakks. 

DELPT:  Assassination  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  (1584).  See  Nethkklandh:  A.  D.  1581- 
1584. 

DELHI:  nth  Century.- Capture  by  Mab- 
moud  of  Gazna.     See  Tuuks:  A.  U.  U9U-118. 

A.  D.  1193-1290.— The  capital  of  the  Mame- 
luke or  Slave  dynasty.  See  India:  A.  U.  977- 
1290. 

A.  D.  1399.— Sack  and  massacre  by  Timour. 
See  TiMot'K. 

A.  D.  1526-1605.— The  founding  of  the  Mo- 
g^l  Empire  by  Babar  and  Akbar.    See  India: 

A.  D.  lS99-l«05. 

A.  D.  1739.— Sack  and  massacre  by  Nadir 
Shah.     See  India:  A.  I).  1002-1748. 

A.  D.  1760-1761.— Taken  and  plundered  by 
the  Mahrattas.- Then  by  the  Afghans.- Col- 
lapse of  the  Mogul  Empire.  See  India:  A.  U. 
1747-1701 

A.  D.  i;57.— The  Sepoy  Mutiny.— Massacre 
of  Europeans.— Explosion  of  the  magazine. — 
English  siege  and  capture  of  the  city.*  See 
India:  A.  D.  1857  (May— August)  und  (June- 
September). 

» 

DELI  AN  CONFEDERACY.   Sec  Greece: 

B.  C.  4VS-477;  and  Athens:  IJ.  C.  406-454,  and 
.after. 

DELIAN  FESTIVAL.    See  Delos. 

DELIUM,  Battle  of  (B.  C.  434).— A  serious 
defeat  suffered  by  the  Athenians  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  B.  C.  424,  at  t"  9  hands  of  the  Tlie- 
bans  and  other  Boeotians.  It  was  consequent 
upon  the  seizure  by  the  Athenians  of  the  Boeo- 
tl.nn  temple  of  Delium  —  a  temple  of  Apollo  —  on 
the  sea-coast,  about  tlve  miles  from  Tanagra, 
which  they  fortified  and  intended  to  hold.   After 


thp  defeat  of  thn  army  which  was  rrttimlnjf  from 
IIiIm  exploit,  the  KnrrlHon  left  at.  l>eliiiiii  wiih  Im>- 
Nie)(f<l  anil  iiiiMtrv  ciiptiiri'd.  AnmnK  the  Iwip- 
liteN  who  fouKht  at  Delliim  wiih  the  philimopher 
ScH'rntrs.  Tlio  coniinandcr  IlippiKTaleH  was 
Hialn.— Thiirydldes,  J/iflnri/.  hk:  i.fi-t.  89  100. 

Al,»()  in  :  (J.  (}role,//M<.  (//"  Hreece,  /it.  2,  cA.  53. 
— S<.e  (}kee<E:  II.  C.  424-l'21. 

DELOS.— DeliiK,  the  Niiinllefit  ImIhikI  of  the 
Kroiip  railed  the  CyelaileM,  hut  the  mii.it  Import- 
ant III  the  eyei  of  the  lonimi  OrcekH,  lieiiix  their 
Hiicred  iHle,  the  fiililed  lilrlliplace  iif  A|)ollo  and 
liiiiK  the  (liief  Meat  and  eenler  of  IiIh  worship. 
"'I  he  lIoTiierle  Hymn  lo  .Vpollo  jireHents  to  us 
tile  iHlmid  of  DOIiiM  IIS  the  ceiitre  of  a  Kreat  perl- 
(Nlieal  festival  in  honour  of  Apollo,  eelehnited  by 
all  the  cities,  Insiilar  iin<l  eoiitinen'itl,  of  the 
lonle  name.  What  the  date  of  this  Iiymn  Is,  we 
have  no  means  of  deterininin^:  ThueydldCs 
quotes  it,  without  hesitation,  as  thi^  priHluctlon 
of  Homer,  and,  doubtless,  it  was  In  his  tinio 
iiiilverHally  accepted  as  such, —  though  modern 
critics  concur  in  n'^arilin);  both  tliat  and  tho 
other  hymns  us  much  later  than  the  Iliad  ami 
Odyssey.  It  cannot  probably  be  later  than  UiH) 
B.  v.  Tho  description  of  the  Ionic  visitors  pre- 
sented to  us  III  this  hymn  Is  splendid  and  Impos- 
ing; the  number  of  their  ships,  the  display  of 
their  llnorv,  the  beauty  of  their  \  'nnen,  tho 
athletic  exhibitions  as  well  as  tlii^  matches  of 
soiiK  and  dance,  —  all  these  are  represented  aa 
making  an  iiielTaceablo  impression  on  the  spec- 
tator: 'the  assembled  lonlans  look  as  If  tliey 
were  beyond  the  reach  of  old  ago  or  death.' 
Hiieh  was  the  maji^nltlceucc  of  which  Df'los  was 
tho  perimlical  theatre,  and  which  called  forth  tho 
voices  and  poetical  genius  not  inerel  v  of  Itinerant 
liarils,  but  also  of  tho  Delian  maidens  in  tho 
tempio  of  Apollo,  during  tho  century  preceding 
500  U.  C.  At  that  time  it  was  the  great  centriH 
festival  of  tho  lonlans  In  Asia  and  Europe." — 
a.  Grote,  Jliii.  of  Greece,  pt.  3,  eh.  12.— During 
tho  war  with  Persia,  Dulos  was  made  the  com- 
mon treasury  of  the  Greeks ;  but  Athens  subse- 
(luently  took  tho  custody  and  management  of 
the  treasury  to  herself  and  reduced  Delos  to  a 
de|)endency.  Tho  Island  was  long  th^"  seat  of  an 
oxtens''.e  commerce,  and  Uelian  broh/.e  was  of 
note  in  the  arts. 

B.  C.  490.— Spared  by  the  Persians.  See 
e:  H.  C.  

177-' 
Gueece:  H.  C.  478-477;  and  Athens:  B.  C.  466- 


Ghkece;  U.  C.  490. 
B.  C.  477.— The  Delian  Confederacy.     See 


454,  and  after. 

B.  C.  461-454  (?).— Removal  of  the  Confed- 
erate treasury  to  Athens.  See  Athens:  B.  C. 
400-454. 

B.  C.  435-422.— Purifications.— "  In  the  midst 
-'  the  losses  and  turmoil  of  tlie  [Pelopoiinesian] 
war  it  had  been  determined  [at  Athens]  to  offer 
a  solemn  testimony  of  homage  to  Apollo  on  Delos, 
[B.  C.  425]  —  a  homage  doubtless  connected  with 
tho  complete  cessation  of  tho  pestilence,  which 
hiul  lasted  as  long  as  the  fifth  year  of  the  war. 
The  solemnity  consisted  in  the  renewed  consecra- 
tion of  the  entire  island  to  the  divine  Giver  of 
grace ;  all  the  coffins  containing  human  remains 
being  removed  from  Delos,  and  Ilhenea  appointed 
to  be  henceforth  the  sole  burial-place.  This 
solemnity  supplemented  the  act  formerly  per- 
formed by  the  orders  of  Pisistratus,  and  it  was 
doubtless  in  the  present  instance  also  intended, 
by  means  of  a  brilliant  renewal  of  the  Dclibn 


657 


/f^ 


DELOS. 


DEMIURGI. 


celebration,  to  strengthen  the  power  of  Athens 
In  the  island  sen,  to  give  a  fest've  centre  to  the 
Ionic  world.  .  .  .  llut  the  mn  n  purpose  was 
clearly  one  of  morality  and  religion.  It  was  in- 
temled  to  calm  and  edify  the  minds  of  the  citi- 
zens."— E.  Curtiiis,  Hut.  of  Oreece,  bk.  4,  eh.  2. 
—Three  years  Inter  (B.  C.  422)  the  Athenians 
found  some  reason  for  another  purification  of 
Delos  which  was  more  radical,  consisting  in  tlie 
expulsion  of  all  the  inhabitants  from  the  island. 
Tlie  unfortunate  Delians  found  an  asylum  at 
Adramyttium  in  Asia,  until  they  were  restored 
to  tlieir  homes  ne.xt  year,  througli  the  influence  of 
the  Delphic  orucle. — Thucydides,  Jlistory,  b/c.  5, 
»ect.  1. 

B.  C.  88.— Pontic  Massacre.— Early  in  the 
first  war  of  Mitliridati>s  with  the  Komans  (B.  C. 
88),  Delos,  which  had  been  made  a  free  port  and 
had  become  the  emporium  of  it«uiitn  commerce 
in  the  east,  was  seized  by  u  Pontic  fleet,  and 
pillaEcd,  20,000  Italians  being  massacred  on  tlie 
island.  The  treasures  of  Delos  were  sent  to 
Athens  and  the  island  restored  to  the  Athenian 
control.— W.  Ihne,  J/ist.  of  Home,  bk.  7,  ch.  17. 

B.  C.  69. — Ravaged  by  Pirates. — "  Almost 
under  the  eyes  of  the  fleet  of  Lucullus,  the  pirate 
Athenodorus  surprised  in  OS.')  [B.  C.  69]  the  island 
of  Delos,  destroyed  its  far-famed  shrines  and 
temples,  and  carried  off  the  whole  population 
into  slavery. " — T.  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Home,  bk. 
5,  rh.  2. 

Slave  Trade  under  the  Romans. — "  Th-ace 
and  Sarmatia  were  the  Guinea  Coast  ol  tlio 
Romans.  Tlie  entrepot  of  this  trade  was  Delos, 
which  had  been  made  a  free  port  by  Rome  after 
the  conquest  of  Macedonia.  Strabo  tells  us  that 
in  one  day  10,000  slaves  were  sold  there  in  open 
market.  Such  were  the  vile  uses  to  whicli  was 
put  the  Sacred  Island,  once  the  treasury  of 
Greece."— H.   G.  Liddell,   Hist,  of  Rome,  bk.  5, 

ch.  48. 

■•■ 

DELPHI.— KRISSA  (CRISSA).  - 
KIRRHA(CIRRHA).— "In  those  early  times 
when  the  Homeric  Hymn  to  Apollo  was  composed 
the  town  of  Krissa  [in  Phocis,  near  Delphi]  ap- 
pears to  have  been  great  and  powerful,  possea«  - 
ing  all  the  broad  plain  between  Parnassus,  Kir- 
phis,  and  the  gulf,  to  which  latter  it  gave  1*^3  name, 
—  and  possessing  also,  what  was  a  property  not 
less  valuable,  the  adjoining  sanctuary  of  Pytlio 
itself,  which  the  Hymn  identities  witli  Krissa, 
not  indicating  Delphi  as  a  separate  place.  The 
Krissieans,  doubtless,  derived  great  profits  from 
the  number  of  visitors  who  came  to  visit  Delphi, 
both  by  land  and  by  sea,  and  Kirrlia  was  origin- 
ally only  the  name  for  their  seaport.  Gradually, 
however,  the  port  appears  to  liave  grown  in  im- 
portance at  tlie  expense  of  the  town ;  .  .  .  w  hile 
at  the  game  time  the  sanctuary  of  Pytho  wjtli  its 
administrators  expanded  into  the  town  of  Delphi, 
and  came  to  claim  an  independent  existence  of 
Its  own.  ...  In  addition  to  tlie  above  facts,  al- 
ready sufficient  in  themselves  as  seeds  of  quarrel, 
we  are  told  that  tlie  Kirrha;ans  abused  their  posi- 
tion as  masters  of  the  avenue  to  the  temple  by 
sea,  and  levied  exorbitant  tolls  on  the  visitors 
who  landed  there.  .  .  .  Besides  sucli  offence 
against  the  general  Grecian  public,  they  had  also 
incurred  the  enmity  of  their  Phocian  neiglibours 
by  outrages  upon  women,  Phocian  as  well  as 
Argeian,  who  were  returning  from  the  temple. 
Thus  stood  the  case,  apparently,  about  595  B.  C. , 


when  the  Amphiktyonlc  meeting  interfered  .  ,  . 
to  punisli  tlie  Kirrhieans.  After  a  war  of  ten 
years,  tlie  first  Sacred  War  in  Greece,  this  object 
was  completely  aecomplislied,  by  a  joint  force 
of  Thessniians  under  Eurylochus,  Sikyonians 
under  Kloisthcncs,  and  Athenians  under  Alk- 
nueon ;  the  Athenian  Solon  bein^  the  person  who 
originated  and  enforced,  in  the  Amphiktyonic 
council,  the  proposition  of  interference.  Kirrha 
.  .  .  was  destroyed,  or  left  to  subsist  merely  as 
a  landing  place :  and  the  whole  adjoining  plain 
was  consecrated  to  the  Delphian  god,  whose  do- 
mains thus  touched  the  sea.  .  .  .  The  fate  of 
Kirrha  in  this  wnr  is  ascertained :  that  of  Krissa 
is  not  80  cleai ,  nor  do  we  know  whether  it  was 
destroyed,  or  left  subsisting  in  a  position  of  in- 
feriority with  reganl  to  Delphi.  From  this 
time  forward,  the  Delphian  community  appears 
08  substantive  and  autonomous,  exercising  in 
their  own  riglit  the  management  of  the  temple ; 
tliough  we  sliall  find,  on  more  than  one  occasion, 
tliat  the  Pliocians  contest  tills  right.  .  .  .  The 
spoils  of  Kirrha  were  employed  by  the  victorious- 
allies  in  founding  the  Pytliian  Games.  The  oc- 
tennial festival  hitlierto  celebrated  at  Delphi  in 
honour  of  the  god,  including  no  other  competi- 
tion except  in  tlie  harp  and  tlie  prean,  was  ex- 
panded into  comprehensive  games  on  the  model 
of  tlie  Olympic,  witli  matches  not  only  of  music, 
but  also  of  gymnastics  and  chariots, —  celebrated, 
not  at  Delphi  itself,  bi-  >  on  the  maritime  plain 
near  the  ruined  Kirrha, —  and  under  tlie  direct 
superintendence  of  tlie  Amphiktvons  tliemseives. 
.  .  .  They  were  celebrated  in  the  latter  h.^lf  of 
summer,  or  first  half  of  every  third  Olympic 
year.  .  .  .  Nothing  was  conferred  but  wreaths 
of  laurel." — G.  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece,  pt.  3,  ch. 
28.— See,  also,  Athens:  B.  C.  610-586;  Pytho; 
Okaclks  op  the  Greeks;  and  Amphiktyonic 
Council. 

B.  C.  357-338.— Seizure  by  the  Phocians. — 
The  Sacred  Wars.— Deliverance  by  Philip  of 
Macedon. — War  with  Amphissa.  See  Gubecb  : 
B.  C.  357-330. 

B.  C.  379. — Discomfiture  of  the  Gauls.  See 
Gauls:  B.  C.  280-279. 


DELPHIC  ORACLE,  The.    See  Oracled 

OF  TIIK  G  keeks. 

DELPHIC  SIBYL,  The.    See  Sibyls. 

DEMES.— DEMI.  See  Pifyla;  also,  Ath- 
ens: B.  C.  510-507. 

DEMETES,  The.— One  of  the  tribes  of  an- 
cient AVales.     See  Britain,  Celtic  Tkibeb. 

DEMETRIUS,  the  Impostor.    See  Russia: 

A.  D.    1533-1682 Demetrius    Poliorcetes, 

and  the  wars  of  the  Diadochi.  See  Mace- 
donia:  B.  C.  315-310,310-301;   also  Greece: 

B.  C.  307-197;  and  Rhodes:  B.  C.  305-304. 
DEMIURGI.  — COSMOS.  — TAGOS    OR 

TAGUS. — Of  the  less  common  titles  applied 
among  tlie  ancient  Greeks  to  their  supreme 
magistrates,  are  "Cosmos,  or  Cosmios  and 
Tagos  (signifying  Arranger  and  Commander), 
the  form('r  of  which  we  find  in  Crete,  tlie  latter 
in  the  Thcssalian  cities.  V/ith  the  former  we 
may  compare  the  title  of  Cosmopolis,  which  waa 
in  use  among  the  Epizephyrian  Locrians.  A 
more  frequent  title  is  tliat  of  Demiurgi,  a  name 
which  seems  to  imply  a  constitution  no  longer 
oligarchical,  but  which  bestowed  certain  rights 
on  the  Demos.  In  the  time  of  the  Pelopon- 
ncsian  war  magistrates  of  this  kind  existtd  la 


658 


DEMiunai. 


DETROIT. 


Elis  (inrt  in  tlio  Arcadian  Mantintrn.  .  .  .  Tlie 
title  is  declared  by  OnimmiirinMS  to  linve  been 
commonly  used  among  the  Dorians.  ...  A 
similar  title  is  tliat  of  Demuclius,  wliicli  tlie 
supreme  magistrates  of  Tliespiic  in  Bcrotia  seem 
to  have  borne.  .  .  .  The  Artyni  at  Epidaurus 
and  Argos  wo  have  already  mentioned." — 0. 
flchOmann,  Antiq.  of  Oreeci;  Tlte  titate,  pt.  2, 
ch.  5. 

DEMOCRATIC.  OR  DEMOCRATIC 
REPUBLICAN  PARTY  OFTHE  UNITED 
STATES.  Hee  Unitkd  Status  OK  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1789-1792;  1825-1828;  1845-1840. 

DEMOSTHENES,  the  general,  at  Sphac- 
teria  and  at  Syracuse.  BeoGiiEECE:  B.  C.  425, 
and  Sykacuse:   B.    C.   415-413;  and   Athens: 

B.   C.   415-413 Demosthenes   the    orator, 

The  Phillipics,  and  the  Death  of.  8ee  Orbece  : 
B.  C.  357-336,  351-348,  and  323-322;  aud  Ath- 
ens: B.  C.  359-338,  and  330-322. 

DfiMOTIC      WRITING.      See       Hiero- 

OLYPHtCS. 

DEMUCHUS.     See  DKMtUROi. 

DENAIN  Battle  of  (1712).  See  Nether- 
lands: A.  D.  1710-1712. 

DENARIUS,  The.     See  As. 

DENDERMONDE.— Surrender  to  the 
Spaniards  (1584).  Sec  Netherlands:  A.  I). 
1584-1585. 

DENIS,  King  of  Portugal,  A.  D.  1279-1323. 

DENMARK.    See  Scandinavian  States. 

DENNEWITZ,OR  JOTERBOGK,  Battle 
of.    See  Germany:  A.  D.  1813  (September — 

OCTOUER). 

DENNIKCN,  Peace  of  (1531).  See  Swit- 
zerland: A.  I).  1531-1048. 

DENVER,  The  founding  of.  See  Colorado: 
A.  D.  1806-1870. 

DEORHAM,  Battle  of.— 1  ought  A.  D.  577, 
near  Bath,  England,  between  the  invading  West 
Saxons  and  the  Britons.  The  victory  of  the 
former  gave  tlicm  possession  of  the  lower  valley 
of  the  Severn  and  practically  completed  the 
Saxon  conquest  of  England.— J.  U.  Green,  Tlie 
Makiiir/  of  Knf/Uiml,  pp.  125-131. 

DERBEND,  Pass  of.    See  .Juroipach. 

DERBY-DISRAELI  MINISTRIES,  The. 
See  England:  A.  D.  1851-1852;  1858-1859;  and 
1808- 1870. 

DERRY.    See  Londonderry. 

DE  RUSSY,  Fort,  Capture  of.  See  United 
States  op  Am.:  A.  I).  1804  (March — May: 
Louisiana). 

DESERET,  The  proposed  state  of.  See 
Utah:  A.  D.  1849-1850. 

DESMONDS,  The.    See  Geraldinks. 

DESMOULINS,  Camille,  and  the  French 
Revolution.  See  France:  A.  D.  1789  (July); 
1790;  1792  (August),  to  1793-1794  (November- 
June). 

DESPOT  OF  EPIRUS.— "The  title  of 
despot,  by  which  they  [tlie  medireval  princes 
of  Epirue]  are  generally  distinguisiied,  was  a 
Byzantine  honorary  distinction,  never  borne  by 
the  earlier  members  of  tlie  family  until  it  had 
been  conferred  on  them  by  the  Greek  Emperor." 
— G.  Finiay,  Hist,  of  Greece  from  Us  conquest  hy 
the  Crumders,  dt.  6,  sect.  1.— See  Epirus:  A.  D. 
1204-13.50. 

DESPOTS,  Greek.    See  Tyrants ItU- 

ian.     See  Italy  :  A.  D.  1250-1520. 

DESSAU,  Battle  of  (1626).  See  Gbrmant: 
A.  D.  1624-1626. 


DESTRIERS.- PALFREYS.-"  A  cava. 

liore  or  manaturms  was  accompanied  by  one 
'  Uestriero '  or  strong  war-horse,  and  one  or  two, 
sometimes  three,  mounted  sijuires  who  led  the 
animal  fully  caparisoned ;  or  carried  llie  helmot, 
lance  and  shield  of  their  master:  tlieso  '  Destrieri' 
('rich  and  great  horses '  as  Villani  calls  them), 
were  so  named  because  they  were  led  on  the 
riglit  hand  witliout  any  rider,  and  all  readv  for 
mounting:  the  squire's  horses  were  of  an  inferior 
kind  called  '  Ronzini,'  and  on  the  '  Palafreni '  or 
palfrejs  tlie  kniglit  rode  when  not  in  battle." 
— II.  15.  Napier,  Florentine  History,  v.  1,  p. 
033. 

DESTROYING  ANGELS,  OR  DAN- 
ITES.    See  Mormonism:  A.  D.  1830-1840. 

DETROIT  :  First  occupied  by  the  Coureurs 
de  Bois.    See  Coureurs  de  Bois. 

A.  D.  1686-1701.— The  first  French  forts.— 
Cadillac's  founding  of  the  city. —  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war  called  "Queen  Anne'a 
War"  (1702)  "Detroit  liad  already  been  cstab- 
lislied.  In  June,  1701,  la  Mothe  Cadillac,  with 
a  Jesuit  father  and  100  men,  was  icnt  to  con- 
struct a  fort  and  occupy  tlie  country ;  hence  he 
Is  spoUen  of  as  tlic  founder  of  the  city.  In  1080, 
a  fort  [called  Fort  St.  Joseph]  had  been  con- 
structed to  the  south  of  the  present  city,  where 
Fort  Gratiot  now  stands,  but  it  soon  fell  into 
decay  and  was  abandoned.  It  was  not  the  site 
selected  by  Cadillac." — W.  Kingsford,  Hist,  of 
Cantula,  v.  2,  p.  408. — "Fort  St.  Joseph  was 
abandoned  in  the  year  1688.  The  establishment 
of  Cadillac  was  destined  to  a  better  fate  and  soon 
rose  to  distinguisiied  importance  among  the 
westerr.  outposts  of  Canada." — P.  Parkman,  The 
CoMpirttcy  of  Pontine,  v.  1,  p.  213. 

A.  D.  1701-1755.- Importance  to  the  French. 
See  Canada:  A.  I).  1700-1735. 

A.  D.  17 12. — Siege  by  the  Foxes  and  Mas- 
sacre of  that  tribe.  See  Canada:  A.  1).  1711- 
1713. 

A.  n.  1760.—  The  French  settlement  when 
surrendered  to  the  English. — "The  French  in- 
habitants here  are  settled  on  both  siues  of  the 
river  for  about  eight  miles.  When  I  took  pos- 
session of  the  country  soon  after  the  surren- 
der of  Canada  [see  Canada:  A.  D.  1700],  they 
were  about  2,500  in  number,  there  being  near 
500  that  bore  arms  (to  whom  I  administered 
oatlis  of  allegiance)  and  near  300  dwelling  houses. 
Our  fort  hero  is  built  of  stockadoes,  is  about  25- 
feet  high,  and  1,2)0 yards  In  circumference.  .  .  . 
The  inhabitants  raise  wheat  and  other  grain  In 
abundance,  and  have  plenty  of  cattle,  but  they 
enrich  themselves  chiefly  by  their  trade  with  the 
Indians,  which  is  here  very  large  and  lucrative." 
— Major  R.  Rogers,  Concise  Acet.  '>*'  /'.  Am.,  p. 
168. 

A.  D.  1763. — Pontiac's  Siege.  SeePoNTiAc's 
War. 

A.  D.  1775-1783.— Held  by  the  British 
throughout  the  War  of  Independence.  Sec 
United  States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  1778-1779, 
Clark's  conquest. 

A.  D.  1805. — Made  the  seat  of  government 
of  the  Territory  of  Michigan.  See  Indiana  : 
A.  D.  1800-1818. 

A.  D.  1812. — The  surrender  of  General  Hull. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  ;  A.  D.  1812  (June — 
October). 

A.  D  1813.—  American  recovery.  Sc^ 
United  States  or  Am.  :  A.  D.  1812-1818. 


659 


DETTINGEN. 


DIET. 


DETTINGEN,  Battle  of  (1743).  See  Aus- 
tria: A.  D.  1743. 

DEUSDEDIT,  Pope,  A.  D.  "15-618. 

DEUTSCH .  Origin  of  the  name.  Sec 
Geii.many:  Tub  national  n/. me. 

DEUTSCHBROD,  Bat.le  of  (1432).  Sec 
Bohemia:  A.  D.  1419-1434. 

DEVA. — One  of  tlie  Ro'nan  garrison  towns  in 
Britain,  on  tlie  site  of  wl'icli  is  modern  Cliester, 
taliing  its  name  from  tlic  eastra  or  fortifled 
station  of  tlie  legions.  It  was  tlie  station  of 
the  20tli  legion.— T.  Mommsen,  Uist.  of  Rome, 
bk.  8,  eh.  5. 

DEVE-BOYUN,  Battle  of  (1878).  See 
Tduks:  a.  D.  1877-1878. 

DEVIL'S  CAUSEWAY,  The.— The  popu- 
lar name  of  an  old  Roman  road  in  England  which 
runs  from  Silchestcr  to  London. 

DEVIL'S  HOLE,  The  ambuscade  and 
massacre  K.t. — On  the  13tli  of  September,  1763, 
during  the  progress  of  Pontiac's  War,  a  train  of 
wagons  and  packhorses,  traversing  the  Niagara 
portage  between  Lcwiston  and  Fort  Schlosser, 
guarded  by  an  escort  of  24  soldiers,  was  ambus- 
caded by  a  party  of  Seneca  warriors  at  the  place 
called  the  Devil's  Hole,  three  miles  below  the 
Niagara  cataract.  Seventy  of  the  whites  were 
slain,  and  only  three  escaped. — P.  Parkman,  Tlie 
ConnjnrtKi/  of  Pontiae,  ch.  21  (».  2). 

DEVON  COMMISSION,  The.  See  Ire- 
land: A.  D.  1843-1848. 

DEVONSHIRE,  in  the   British  age.    See 

Du.MNONII. 

DE  WITT,  John,  the  administration  and 
the  murder  of.  Sec  Netherlands:  A.  D.  16S1- 
1660,  to  1672-1674. 

DHIHAD.    See  Dar-ul-Islam. 

DIACRII,  The.    See  Athins:  B.  C.  594. 

DIADOCHI,  The.— The  i'  'diate  successors 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  win  ivided  his  empire, 
are  sometimes  so-called.  "Tlie  word  diadoch! 
means  'successors,'  and  is  used  to  include  An- 
tigonus,  Ptolemy,  Selcucus,  Lysimachus,  etc. — 
the  actual  companions  of  Alexander." — J.  P. 
Mahaffy,  Story  of  Alexander's  Empire,  ch.  5. — 
See  Macedonia:  B.  C.  323-316. 

DIAMOND,  Battle  of  the  (1795).  See  Ire- 
land: A.  D.  1795-1796. 

DIAMOND  DISCOVERY  IN  SOUTH 
AF  R I C A  ( 1 867).     See  QRiquAS. 

DIAMOND  NECKLACE,  The  affair  of 
the.    See  France:  A.  D.  1784-1785. 

DIASPORA,  The.— A  name  applied  to  the 
Jews  scattered  throughout  the  Roman  world. 

DIAZ,  Porfirto,  The  Mexican  presidency 
«f.     See  Mexico:  A.  D.  1867-1888. 

DICASTERIA.— The  great  popular  court, 
or  jury,  in  ancient  Athens,  called  the  Helioea,  or 
HeliastO!  consisting  at  one  time  of  six  thousand 
chosen  citizens,  was  divided  into  ten  sections, 
called  Dicasteria.  Their  places  of  meeting  also 
bore  the  same  name.— Q.  F.  SchOmann,  Antiq. 
of  Greece:  Tlie  State,  pt.  3,  ch.  3.— See  Athens: 
B.  C.  44^431. 

DICKINSON,  John,  in  the  American  Revo- 
lution. See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1767- 
1768;  1774(Septembeii);  1776  (July). 

DICTATOR,  Roman.   See  Consuls,  Roman. 

DIDIAN  LAW,  The.  See  Orcuian,  Fan- 
HiAN,  DiDiAN  Laws. 

DIDIER,  OR  DESIDERIUS,  King  of  the 
Lombards,  A.  D.  759-774. 


DIDYMiEUM,  The  oracle  of.  Sec  Oracles 
OK  THE  (}hi;i;kh. 

DIEDENHOFEN,  Battle  of  (1639).  See 
German v:  A.  I).  1634-1039. 

DIEPPE.— Bombardment  and  destruction 
by  an  English  fleet.  See  France:  A.  D. 
1694. 

DIES  ATRI.— Tliedayson  which  the  Romans 
thought  it  unlucky  to  undertake  business  of 
importance  —  for  example,  the  day  after  the 
Calends,  Nonci  and  Ides  of  each  month  —  were 
called  Dies  Atri. — W.  Ramsay,  Manual  ofJioman 
Antiq.,  ch.  11. 

DIES  FASTI.— Dies  Nefasti.— Dies  Festi. 
See  Fasti,  and  Ludi. 

DIET. — "  An  assembly,  council,  .  .  .  Parlia- 
ment. .  .  .  The  peculiar  senf  ^  of  the  word  un- 
doubtedly arose  from  a  popular  etymology  th  .t 
connected  it  with  the  Lat.  'dies,'  a  day,  esp.  a 
set  day,  a  day  appointed  for  public  business; 
whence,  by  extension,  a  meeting  for  business,  an 
assembly." — W.  W.  Skeat,  Etymoloijicul  diet. 

The  Germanic. — "The  annual  general  coun- 
cils and  special  councils  of  Charles  the  Great  did 
not  long  survive  him,  and  neither  his  descend- 
ants nor  their  successors  revived  them.  Tliey 
were  compelled,  to  be  sure,  both  by  custom  and 
by  policy  to  advise  with  the  chief  men  of  the 
kmgdom  liefore  taking  any  important  step  or 
doing  auythiug  that  depended  for  success  on 
their  consent  and  cooperation,  but  they  varied 
the  number  of  their  counsellors  and  the  time, 
place,  and  manner  of  consulting  them  to  suit 
their  own  convenience.  Great  formal  assemblies 
of  counsellors  summoned  from  all  parts  of  the 
realm  were  termed  Imperial  Diets  (Reichstage) ; 
small,  or  local,  or  informal  assemblies  of  a  simi- 
lar kind  were  known  as  Court  Diets  (Hoftage). 
Princes  and  other  royal  vassals,  margraves,  pals- 
graves. Graves,  barons,  and  even  royal  Dienst- 
mannen  were  indiscriminately  summoned,  but 
the  Diets  were  in  no  sense  representative  bodies 
until  tlie  Great  Interregnum  [see  Germany  :  A.  D. 
1250-1272]  when  certain  citie„  acquired  such 
influence  in  public  affairs  that  they  were  invited 
to  send  delegates.  The  first  Diet  in  which  they 
participated  was  held  at  Worms  in  February, 
1255,  by  King  AVilliam  of  Holland.  Most  of  the 
cities  of  the  Rhenish  League  were  there  repre- 
sented, and  they  constituted  an  important  factor 
of  the  assembly.  The  affairs  of  the  church 
shared  attention  with  temporal  affairs  in  the 
Dieti  until  the  Popes  succeeded  in  making  good 
their  claims  to  supremacy  in  spiritual  mutters. 
Thereafter  they  were  altogether  left  to  synods 
and  church  councils.  .  .  .  Imperial  Diets  and 
Court  Diets  continued  to  be  held  at  irregular 
intervals,  whenever  and  wherever  it  pleased  the 
king  to  convene  them,  but  Imperial  Diets  were 
usually  held  in  Imperial  cities.  These  were  not 
such  heterogenous  assemblies  as  formerly,  for 
few  royal  vassals,  except  princes,  and  no  royal 
Dienstmannen  whatever  were  now  invited  to 
attend.  Graves  and  barons,  and  prelates  who 
were  not  princes,  continued  to  be  summoned, 
but  the  number  and  influence  of  the  Graves  and 
barons  in  the  Diets  steadily  waned.  Imperial 
cities  were  for  many  years  only  occasionally 
asked  to  participate,  that  is  to  say,  only  when 
the  king  had  especial  need  of  their  good  ofBces, 
but  in  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century  they 
began  to  be  regularly  summoned.  Imperial 
Diets  were  so  frequently  held  during  the  Hussite 


660 


DIET. 


DINAN. 


War  and  thereafter,  that  it  became  pretty  well 
settled  what  persons  and  wliat  cities  sliould  take 
part  in  them,  and  only  ti.'uBu  persons  and  those 
cities  that  were  entitled  to  take  part  in  tlicni 
were  regarded  as  Estates  of  the  realm.  In  the 
15th  century  they  developed  into  three  chambers 
or  colleges,  viz.,  the  College  of  Electors  [see 
Qebmany:  a.  D.  1125-1153],  the  College  of 
Princes,  Graves,  and  Barons,  usually  called  the 
Council  of  Princes  of  the  Empire  (RcichsfUrs- 
tenrath),  and  the  College  of  Imperial  Cities. 
Tlie  Archbishop  of  Mentz  presided  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Electors,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg 
and  the  Duke  of  Austria  presided  alternately  in 
the  Council  of  Princes  of  the  Empire.  Tlic  office 
of  presiding  in  the  College  of  Imperial  Cities 
devolved  \ipon  the  Imperial  city  in  which  the 
Diet  sat.  The  king  and  members  of  both  the 
upper  Colleges  sometimes  sent  deputies  to  repre- 
sent them,  instead  of  attending  in  person.  In 
1474  tlie  cities  adopted  a  metliod  of  voting  which 
resulted  in  a  division  of  their  College  into  two 
Benches,  called  the  Rhenish  Bench  and  the 
tiwabian  Bench,  because  the  Rhenish  cities  were 
conspicuous  members  of  the  one,  and  the  Swabian 
cities  conspicuous  members  of  the  other.  In  the 
Council  or  Princes,  at  least,  no  regard  was  had 
to  the  number  of  votes  cast,  but  only  to  the 
power  and  influence  of  the  voters,  whence  a 
measure  might  pass  the  Diet  by  less  than  a 
majority  of  the  votes  present.  Having  passed, 
it  was  proclaimed  as  the  law  of  the  realm,  upon 
receiving  the  king's  assent,  but  was  only  effective 
law  in  so  far  as  the  members  of  the  Diet,  present 
or  absent,  assented  to  it.  .  .  .  Not  a  single 
Imperial  Diet  was  summoned  between  1613  and 
1640.  The  king  held  a  few  Court  Diets  dur- 
ing that  long  interval,  consisting  either  of  the 
Electors  alone,  or  of  the  Electors  and  such  other 
Princes  of  the  Empire  as  he  chose  to  summon. 
The  conditions  of  membership,  and  the  manner 
of  voting  in  the  College  of  Electors  and  the  Col- 
lege of  Imperial  Cities  remained  unchanged. 
.  .  .  The  cities  long  strove  in  vain  to  have 
their  votes  recognized  as  of  equal  weight  witli 
the  others,  but  the  two  upper  Colleges  insisted 
on  regarding  them  as  summoned  for  consultation 
only,  until  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  settled  the 
matter  by  declaring  that  '  a  decisive  vote  (votum 
decisivum)  shall  belong  to  the  Free  Imperial 
Cities  not  less  than  to  the  rest  of  the  Estates  of 
the  Empire.'  Generally,  but  not  always,  the 
sense  of  each  College  was  expressed  by  the 
majority  of  votes  cast.  Tlie  Peace  of  West- 
phalia provided  that  'in  religious  matters  and 
all  other  business,  when  the  Estates  cannot  be 
considered  one  body  (corpus),  as  •.  Iso  when  the 
Catholic  Estates  and.  those  of  tlie  Aui^sburg  Con- 
fession go  into  two  parts  (in  duas  partes  eun- 
tibus),  a  mere  amicable  agreement  shall  settle 
the  differences  without  regard  to  majority  of 
votes.'  When  the  'going  into  parts,  (itio  in 
partes)  took  place  each  College  deliberated  in 
two  bodies,  the  Corpus  Catliolicorum  and  the 
Corpus  Evangelicorum.  The  king  no  longer 
attended  the  Imperial  Diets  in  person,  but  sent 
commissioners  instead,  and  it  was  now  the  com- 
mon practice  of  members  of  both  the  upper  Col- 
leges to  send  deputies  to  represent  them." — S.  E. 
Turne-,  Sketch  ^  the  Oermanic  Constitution,  eh. 
4,  5,  anrf  6. — "The  establishment  of  a  perma- 
nent diet,  attended,  not  by  the  electors  in  person, 
but  by  their  representatives,  is  one  of  the  most 


striking  peculiarities  of  Leopold's  reign"  (Leopold 
I.,  1657-1705).  This  came  about  ratlipr  aceiilent- 
ally  thau  witli  intention,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
unusual  prolongation  of  the  session  of  a  general 
diet  which  Rudolph  convoked  at  Hatisbon,  soon 
after  his  accession  to  the  throne.  '"So  many 
new  and  important  objects  .  .  .  occurred  in  tlie 
course  of  tlio  deliberations  that  the  diet  was 
unusually  prolonged,  and  at  last  rendered  per- 
petual, as  it  exists  at  present,  and  distinguishes 
tlie  Germanic  constitution  as  the  only  one  of  its 
kind  —  not  only  for  a  certain  lengtli  of  time,  as 
was  formerly,  and  as  diets  are  generally  held  in 
other  countries,  where  there  are  national  states ; 
but  the  diet  of  tlie  Germanic  empire  was  estab- 
lished by  this  event  for  ever.  The  diet  acquired 
by  tills  circumstance  an  entirely  different  form. 
So  long  as  it  was  only  of  short  duration,  it  was 
always  expected  that  tlie  emperor,  as  well  as 
the  electors,  princes,  counts  and  prelates,  if  not 
all,  yet  the  greatest  part  of  them,  sliould  attend 
in  jierson.  ...  It  is  true,  it  had  long  been  cus- 
tomary at  the  diets  of  Germany,  for  the  states 
to  deliver  the'  votes  occasionally  by  means  of 
])k'iiipotentiarics ;  but  it  was  then  considered  only 
as  an  exception,  wliereas  it  was  now  established 
as  a  general  rule,  that  all  the  states  should  send 
their  plenipotentiaries,  and  never  appear  them- 
selves. .  .  .  The  whole  diet,  therefore,  imper- 
ceptibly acquired  tlie  form  of  a  congress,  con- 
sisting solely  of  ministers,  similar  in  a  great 
degree  to  a  congress  where  several  powers  send 
their  envoys  to  treat  of  peace.  In  otlier  respects, 
it  may  be  compared  to  a  congress  held  in  the 
name  of  several  states  in  perpetual  alliance 
with  each  other,  as  in  Switzerland,  the  United 
Provinces,  and  as  somewhat  of  a  similar  nature 
exists  at  present  in  North  America;  but  with 
this  difference, —  that  in  Germany  the  cjisembly 
is  held  under  the  authority  of  one  common 
supreme  head,  and  that  the  members  do  not 
appear  merely  as  deputies,  or  representatives 
invested  with  full  power  by  their  principals, 
which  is  only  the  case  with  the  imperial  cities ; 
but  so  that  every  member  of  the  two  superior 
colleges  of  the  empire  is  himself  an  actual  sover- 
eign of  a  state,  who  permits  his  minister  to 
deliver  his  vote  in  his  name  and  only  accord- 
ing to  his  prescription.'" — S.  A.  Dunham,  Ilist. 
of  tlie  Oermanic  Empire,  hk.  3,  ch.  3  {v.  Z)-— {quot- 
ing Putter's  Historical  Development  of  tlie  Oer- 
manic Const.) — Of  the  later  Diet,  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation,  something  may  lie  learned  under 
Germany:  A.  D.  1814-1820,  end  1848  (March- 
September). 

DIFFIDATION,  The  Right  of.    See  Land- 

FRIEDE. 

DIGITI.    See  Foot,  The  Roman. 

DIJON,  Battle  at.  See  Bubgundians:  A.  D. 
500. 

DIJON,  Origin  of.— Dijon,  tlie  old  capital  of 
the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  was  originally  a  strong 
camp-city — an  "  urbs  quadrata" — of  the  Ro- 
mans, known  as  the  Castrum  Divionense.  Its 
walls  were  80  feet  high,  15  feet  thick,  and 
strengthened  with  33  towers.  —  T.  Hodgkin, 
Italy  and  Her  Invaders,  hk.  4,  eh.  9. 

DILEMITES,  The.  See  Mahometan  Con- 
quest: A.  D.  815-945. 

DIMETIA.     See  Britain  :  6th  Centoby. 

DINAN,  Battle  A  (iS97).  See  Francb: 
A.  D.  1593-1598. 


661 


DIN  ANT. 


DIRECTORY. 


DINANT,  Destruction  of.— In  the  15th  cen- 
tury, down  to  the  yeur  1466,  Dinant  wns  a  popu- 
lous and  thriving  town.  It  wiih  inchidcd  in  the 
little  state  of  the  prince-hishop  of  Liege,  and 
•was  involved  in  tlie  war  of  tlie  Dulic  of  Bur- 
gundy witli  Liege,  -wliicli  ruined  hoth  Liege  and 
Dinant.  "  It  was  inluil)ited  bv  a  race  of  in- 
dustrious artisans,  preeminent  for  tlieir  sliill  in 
the  manufacture  of  copper.  Tlie  excellence  of 
their  workmanship  is  attested  by  existing  speci- 
mens—  organ-screens,  baptismal  fonts,  and  other 
ecclesiastical  decorations.  But  the  fame  of 
Dinant  had  been  chiefly  spread  by  its  produc- 
tion of  more  common  and  useful  articles,  es- 
pecially of  kitchen  utensils, — '  pots  and  pans 
and  similar  wares,' — which,  under  the  name 
of  'Dinanderie,'  were  known  to  housewives 
throughout  Europe."  In  the  course  of  the  war 
a  party  of  rude  young  men  from  Dinant  gave 
deep,  unforgivable  provocation  to  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy  by  caricaturing  and  questioning  tlie 
paternity  of  his  son,  the  count  of  Charolais, 
afterwards  Duke  Charles  the  Bold.  To  avenge 
this  insult  nothing  less  than  the  destruction  of 
the  whole  city  would  satisfy  the  implacable  and 
ferocious  Burgundians.  It  was  taken  by  the 
count  of  Charolais  in  August,  1466.  His  first 
proceeding  was  to  sack  the  town,  in  the  most 
thorough  and  deliberate  manner.  Then  800  of 
the  more  oliuoxious  citizens  were  tied  together 
in  pairs  and  drowned  in  the  Meuse,  while  others 
were  hanged.  This  accomplislied,  the  surviving 
women,  children  and  priests  were  expelled  from 
the  town  and  sent  empty-handed  to  Liege,  while 
the  men  were  condemned  to  slavery,  witli  the 
privilege  of  ransoming  tliemselves  at  a  heavy 
price,  if  they  found  anywhere  the  means. 
Finally,  the  torch  was  applied,  Dinant  was 
burned,  ond  contractors  were  subsequently  em- 
ployed by  the  Duke  for  several  months,  tc  de- 
molish the  ruins  and  remove  the  very  materials 
of  which  the  city  had  been  built. — J.  F.  Kirk, 
Hut.  of  Charles  the  Bold,  bk.  1,  ch.  8-9. 

Also  in  :  E.  de  Monstrelet  (Johnes),  Chronicles, 
bk.  3,  e?i.  138-189.— Philip  de  Commines,  iMem- 
oirs,  bk.  2,  ch.  1. 

DINWIDDIE  COURT  HOUSE,  Action  at. 
See  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1865  (Mahch 
— April:  Viuoinia). 

DIOBOLY,  The.— Pericles  "was  the  pro- 
poser of  the  law  [at  Athens]  which  instituted  the 
'  Dioboly,'  or  free  gift  of  two  obols  to  each  poor 
citizen,  to  enable  him  to  pay  the  entrance-money 
at  the  theatre  during  the  Dionysia." — C.  W.  C. 
Oman,  Hist,  of  Greece,  p.  271. —  See  Athens: 
B.  C.  435-481. 

DIOCESES  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 
— "The  civil  government  of  the  empire  wns  dis- 
tributed [under  Constantine  and  his  successors] 
into  thirteen  great  dioceses,  each  of  which  equalled 
the  just  measure  of  a  powerful  kingdom.  The 
first  of  these  dioceses  was  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Count  of  the  East.  The  place 
of  Augustal  Prasfect  of  Egypt  was  no  longer 
filled  by  a  Roman  knight,  but  the  name  was 
retained.  .  .  .  Tlie  eleven  remaining  dioceses  — 
of  Asiana,  Pontica,  and  Thrace ;  of  Macedonia, 
Dacia  and  Pannonia,  or  Western  Illyricum;  of 
Italy  and  Africa;  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain 
—  were  governed  by  twelve  vicars  or  vice- 
proefects.  — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Jioman  Empire,  ch.  17. — See  Pii^aiTOBiAN  Pb.*:- 

FECTB. 


DIOCLETIAN,    Roman    Emperor.      See 

Rome:    A.   I).  284-305 Abdication.— "The 

ceremony  of  Ids  abdication  was  performed  in  a 
spacious  plain  about'threc  miles  from  Nicomedia 
[May  1,  A.  D.  305].  The  Emperor  ascended  a 
lofty  throne,  and,  in  a  speech  lull  of  reason  and 
dignity,  declared  his  intention,  both  to  the  people 
and  to  the  soldiers  who  were  assembled  on  this 
extraordinary  orjasion.  As  soon  as  he  had 
divested  hinis'.'if  of  the  purple,  he  withdrew 
from  the  gazing  multitude,  ami,  traversing  the 
city  in  a  covered  chariot,  proceeded  without 
delay  to  the  favourite  retirement  [Salona]  which 
he  had  chosen  in  his  native  country  of  Dalma- 
tia." — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  oft/ie  Rinnan. 
Empire,  eh., IS. — See,  also,  Salona. 

DIOKLES,  Laws  of. — A  cotle  of  laws  framed 
at  Srracuse,  immediately  after  the  Athenian 
siege,  by  a  commission  of  ten  citizens  tlie  chief 
of  wliom  was  one  Diokl6s.  These  laws  were 
extinguished  in  a  few  ye.irs  by  the  Dyonisian 
U'ranny,  but  revived  after  a  lapse  of  sixty  years. 
The  code  is  "also  said  to  have  been  copied  in 
various  other  Sicilian  cities,  and  to  have  re- 
mained in  force  until  the  absorption  of  all  Sicily 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans." — G.  Grote, 
Hist,  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch.  81. 

DldNYSIA  AT  ATHENS.— "The  four 
principal  Attik  Dionysiak  festivals  were  (1)  the 
Dionysia  Mikra,  the  Lesser  or  Rural  Dionysia ; 
(2)  the  Dionysia  Lenaia ;  (8)  the  Anthesteria ;  and 
(4)  tlie  Dionysia  Megala,  the  Greater  or  City 
Dionysia.  The  Rural  Dionysia,  celebrated  yearly 
in  the  month  Posideon  (Dec— Jan.)  throughout 
the  various  townships  of  Attike,  was  presided 
over  by  the  demarch  or  mayor.  The  celebration 
occasioned  a  kind  of  rustic  carnival,  distinguished 
like  almost  all  Bakchik  festivals,  by  gross  intem- 
perance and  licentiousness,  and  during  which 
slaves  enjoyed  a  temporary  freedom,  with  licence 
to  insult  their  superiors  and  beliave  in  a  boister- 
ous and  disorderly  manner.  It  is  brought  vividly 
before  us  in  the  'Acharnes'  of  Aristophanes. 
.  .  .  The  Anthesteria,  or  Feast  of  Flowers,  cele- 
brated yearly  in  the  month  Anthesterion  (Feb. — 
March),  .  .  .  lasted  for  three  days,  the  first  of 
which  was  called  Pithoigia,  or  Tap -barrel -day, 
on  which  they  opened  the  casks  and  tried  the 
wine  of  the  previous  year.  .  .  .  The  Dionysia 
Megala,  the  Greater  or  City  Dionysia,  celebrated 
yearly  in  the  month  Elapbebolion  (March — April) 
was  presided  over  by  the  Archon  Epocymos,  so- 
calltd  because  the  year  was  registered  in  his 
name,  and  who  was  first  of  the  nine.  The  order 
of  the  solemnities  was  as  follows: — I.  The  great 
public  procession.  ...  II.  The  chorus  of  Youths. 
III.  The  Komos,  or  band  of  Dionysiak  revellers, 
whose  ritual  is  best  illustrated  in  Milton's  exqui- 
site poem.  IV.  The  representation  of  Comedy 
and  'Tragedy ;  for  at  Athcnai  the  stage  was  re- 
ligion and  the  theatre  a  temple.  At  tlie  time  of 
this  great  festival  the  capital  was  filled  with 
rustics  from  the  country  townships,  and  strangers 
from  all  parts  of  Hellas  and  the  outer  world." 
— R.  Brown,  Tlie  Great  Di      nak  Myth,  ch.  6. 

DIONYSIAN    TYP  Y    AT    SYRA- 

CUSE, The.    See  Sv  :  B.   C.   397-396, 

and  344. 

DIPLAX,  The.    See  i       xm. 

DIPYLUM,The.  SeeCEUAMicusop  Athen& 

DIRECTORY,  The  French.  See  Fbancb: 
A.  D.  1795  (June— Septembeb)  ;  (Octobeb — 
December);  1797  (Septembeb), 


662 


DISINHERITED  BARONS. 


D0NEL80N. 


DISINHERITED  BARONS,  The.  See 
Scotland :  A.  I).   i;f!!3-1333. 

DISRAELI-DERBY  AND  BEACONS- 
FIELD  MINISTRIES.  Stc  England:  A.  D. 
1851-1852;  1858-1851);  1808-1870;  and  187:}-1880. 

DISRUPTION  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF 
SCOTLAND.     See  !»oti,and:  A.  D.  1843. 

DISSENTERS,  OR  NONCONFORM- 
ISTS, English :  First  bodies  organized.— 
Persecutions  under  Charles  II.  ana  Anne. — 
Removal  of  Disabilities.  See  Eniiland:  A.  D. 
1559-1506;  1602-1005;  1073-1073;  1711-1714; 
1827-1828. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  SURPLUS, 
The.  Sec  United  States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  188^ 
1837. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  The.  See 
WA8iiiN(iroN(CiTY):  A.  D.  1791. 

DIVAN,  The.    Sec  Summme  Poute. 

DIVODURUM.— The  Gallic  name  of  the 
city  afterwards  called  Mcdiomatrici  —  now  Metz. 

DIVONA. —  Modern  Cahors.     Sec  Cadurci. 

DIWANI.     Sec  India:  A.  D.  1757-1772. 

DIX,  General  John  A.:  Message  to  New 
Orleans.  Sec  United  States  op  Am.  :  A.  D. 
1860-1801  (December— Fedruauy). 

DIEM,  OR  JEM,  Prince,  The  Story  of. 
See  Turks:  A.  1).  1481-1520. 

DOAB,  The  English  acquisition  of  the.  See 
India:  A.  D.  1798-1805. 

DOBRIN,  Knights  of  the  Order  of  the 
Brethren  of.    SeePiiussLA:  13Tn  Century. 

DOBRUDJA,  The.— The  peninsula  formed 
between  the  Danube,  near  its  mouth,  and  the 
Black  Sea. 

DOBUNI,  The.— A  tribe  of  ancient  Britons 
who  held  a  region  between  the  two  Avons.  See 
Britain,  Celtic  Tribes. 

DOCETISM.— "  We  note  another  phase  of 
gnosticism  in  the  doctrine  so  directly  and  warmly 
combated  in  the  epistles  of  John;  wc  refer  to 
docetism  —  that  is,  the  theory  which  refused  to 
recognize  the  reality  of  the  human  body  of 
Christ." — E.  Reuss,  Hist,  of  Chriatian  Theology 
in  the  Apostolic  Age,  p.  323. 

DODONA.    See  Hellas. 

DOGE.    Sec  Venice:  A.  D.  097-810. 

DOGGER  BANKS,  Naval  Battle  of  the 
(1781).  bee  Netherlands  (Holland):  A.  D. 
1740-1787. 

DOKIMASIA.— "  All  magistrates  [in  ancient 
Athens]  whether  elected  by  cheirotonia  or  by- 
lot,  were  compelled,  before  entering  upon  their 
office,  to  subject  themselves  to  a  Dokimasia,  or 
scrutiny  into  their  fitness  for  the  post." — G.  F. 
Schumann,  Antiq.  of  Greece :  The  State,  pt.  3,  ch.  3. 

DOLICHOCEPHALIC  MEN.— A  term 
used  in  ethnology,  signifying  "long-headed," 
as  distinguishing  one  class  of  skulls  among  the 
remains  of  primitive  men,  from  another  class 
called  brachycephalic,  or  "broad-headed." 

DOLLINGER,  Doctor,  and  the  dogma  of 
Papal  Infallibility.  See  Papacy:  A.  D.  1869- 
1870. 

DOLMENS.    See  Cromlechs. 

DOMESDAY,  OR  DOOMSDAY  BOOK. 
See  England:  A.  D.  1085-1086. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC,  The.  See 
Hayti:  a.  D.  1804-1880. 

DOMINICANS.  See  Mendicant  Orders; 
also,  Inquisition:  A.  D.  1203-1525. 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA.— DOMINION 
DAY,    See  Canada:  A.  D.  1867. 


DOMINUS.    See  Imperator,  Final  Sioni- 

FICATION  OF  THE  Uo.MAN  TiTLE. 

DOMITIAN,  Roman  EmpeiC,  A.  D,  81-06. 

DOMITZ,  Battle  of  (1635).  See  Germany: 
A.  D.  16;M-1639. 

DON  JOHN  OF  AUSTRIA.  See  John 
(Don)  of  Austria. 

DON  PACIFICO  AFFAIR,  The.  See 
Enoland:  a.  D.  1840-1850;  and  Greece:  A.  I). 
1840-1850. 

DONALD  BANE,  King  of  Scotland,  A.  D. 
109:!-1098  (expelled  during  part  of  the  period 
by  Duncan  II.) 

DON  ATI,  The.  See  Florence:  A.  1).  1295- 
1300,  and  1301-1313. 

DONATION  OF  CONSTANTINE.  See 
Papacy:  A.  I).  774(?). 

DONATION  OF  THE  COUNTESS  MA- 
TILDA.    See  Papacy:  A.  D.  1077-1102. 

DONATIONS  OF  PEPIN  AND  CHAR- 
LEMAGNE.    See  Papacy:  A.  D.  755-774. 

DONATISTS,  The.— "The  Donatist  contro- 
versy was  not  one  of  doctrine,  but  of  ecclesias- 
tical discipline;  the  contested  election  for  the 
archbishopric  of  Carthage.  Two  competitors, 
Cecilius  and  Donatus,  had  been  concurrently 
elected  while  the  church  was  yet  in  a  depressed 
state,  and  Africa  subject  to  the  tynmt  Maxen- 
tius  [A.  D.  300-312].  Scarcely  had  Constantino 
subdued  that  province,  when  the  two  rivals 
referred  their  dispute  to  him.  Constantine,  who 
still  publicly  professed  paganism,  but  had  shown 
himself  very  favourable  to  the  Christians,  insti- 
tuted a  careful  examination  of  their  respective 
claims,  which  lasted  from  the  year  312  to  815, 
and  finally  decided  in  favour  of  Cecilius.  Four 
hundred  African  bishops  protested  against  this 
decision;  from  that  time  they  were  designated 
by  the  name  of  Donatists.  ...  In  compliance 
with  an  order  of  the  emperor,  solicited  by  Ceci- 
lius, the  property  of  the  Donatists  was  seized 
and  transferred  to  the  antagonist  body  of  the 
clergy.  They  revenged  themselves  by  pronounc- 
ing sentence  of  excommunication  against  all  tho 
rest  of  the  Christian  world.  .  .  .  Persecution  on 
one  side  and  fanaticism  on  the  other  were  per- 
petuated through  three  centuries,  up  to  the  period 
of  the  extinction  of  Christianity  in  Africa.  The 
wandering  preachers  of  the  Donatist  faction 
had  no  other  means  of  living  than  the  alms  of 
their  flocks.  ...  As  might  be  expected,  they 
outdid  each  other  in  extravagance,  and  soon  gave 
in  to  the  most  frantic  ravings :  thousands  of  peas- 
ants, drunk  with  the  effect  of  these  cxortations, 
forsook  their  ploughs  and  fled  to  the  deserts  of 
Getulia.  Their  bishops,  assuming  the  title  of  cap- 
tains of  the  saints,  put  themselves  at  their  head, 
and  they  rushed  onward,  carrying  death  and  deso- 
lation into  the  adjacent  provinces;  they  were 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  Circumcelliones : 
Africa  was  devastated  by  their  ravages." — J.  C. 
L.  de  Sismondi,  Fall  of  the  liotnan  Empire,  ch.  4. 

Also  in:  P.  Schaff,  Jlist.  of  the  Christian 
Church,  V.  2,  ch.  0. 

DONAUWORTH  :  A.  D.  1632.— Taken  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  Sec  Germany:  A.  D. 
1631-1633. 

A.  D.  1704. — Taken  by  Marlborough.  See 
Germany:  A.  D.  1704. 


DONELSON,  Fort,  Capture  of.  See  United 
States  of  Am.  :  A.  D.  1862  (January— Pebbu- 
aby:  Kentucky— Tennessee). 


663 


DONOAN  CHARTER. 


DORIANS  AND  I0NIAN8. 


DONGAN    CHARTER,    The.     Sec   New 

YouK(('iTY);  A.  I).  1086. 

DONUM.    Sec  Taij,a(ik. 

DONUS  I.,  Pope,  A.  D.  670-678 Donus 

II.,  Pope,  A.  I).  l(74-«7r). 

DONZELLO.    Hcc  Damoihkl. 

DOOMS  OF  INE,  The.—"  These  laws  were 
rciiublished  by  King  Alfreifaa  'The  Dooms  of 
Ine '  wlio  fine]  cnme  to  the  tlirone  in  A.  D.  688. 
In  tlieir  first  eliiuse  tliey  clnim  to  have  been 
recorded  by  King  Inc  witli  the  counsel  and  teach- 
ing of  his  fatlier  Cenrcd  and  of  Hedde,  his  bishop 
(wlio  was  Bishop  of  Windicster  from  A.  D.  676 
to  705)  and  of  Korcenweld,  his  bishop  (who 
obtained  the  see  of  London  in  675);  and  so,  if 
genuine,  tliey  seem  to  represent  what  was  settled 
customary  law  in  Wessex  during  the  last  half  of 
the  seventh  century." — F.  Seebolim,  ErtglUh 
Villnne  Vinniminity,  cli.  4. 

DOOMSDAY,  OR  DOMESDAY  BOOK. 
SeeENCii-ANu:  A.  I).  1085-1086. 

DOORANEES,  OR  DURANEES,  The. 
Bee  India:  A.  I).  1747-1761. 

DORDRECHT,  OR  DORT,  Synod  of.  See 
DouT;  also,  Netiieulands:  A.  D.  1603-1619. 

DORIA,  Andrew,  The  deliverance  of  Genoa 
by.    See  Itai-V:  A.  D.  1527-1529. 

DORIANS  AND  lONIANS,  The.— "Out 
of  the  great  Pelaaginn  population  [see  Pelasgi- 
ANs],  which  covered  Anterior  Asia  Minor  and 
the  whole  European  peninsular  land,  a  younger 
people  had  issued  forth  separately,  which  we 
find  from  the  first  divided  into  two  races.  These 
main  races  we  may  call,  according  to  the  two 
dialects  of  the  Greek  language,  the  Dorian  and 
tlic  Ionian,  altliough  these  names  are  not  gener- 
ally used  until  a  later  period  to  designate  the 
division  of  the  Hellenic  nation.  No  division  of 
so  thorough  a  bearing  could  have  taken  place 
unless  accompanied  by  an  early  local  separation. 
We  assume  that  the  two  races  parted  company 
while  yet  in  Asia  Minor.  One  of  them  settles  in 
the  mountain-cantons  of  Northern  Hellas,  the 
other  along  the  Asiatic  coast.  In  the  latter  the 
historic  movement  begins.  With  the  aid  of  the 
art  of  navigation,  learnt  from  the  Phccnicians  the 
Asiatic  Greeks  at  an  early  period  spread  over  the 
sea;  domesticating  themselves  in  lower  Egypt, 
in  countries  colonized  by  the  Phccnicians,  in  tlie 
whole  Archipelago,  from  Crete  to  Thrace ;  and 
from  their  original  as  well  as  from  their  subse- 
quent scats  send  out  numerous  settlements  to  the 
coast  of  European  Greece,  first  from  the  East 
side,  next,  after  conquering  the;r  timidity,  also 
taking  in  the  country,  beyond  Cape  Malea  from 
the  West.  At  first  they  land  as  pirates  and 
enemies,  then  proceed  to  permanent  settlements 
in  gulfs  and  straits  of  the  sea,  and  by  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  where  they  unite  with  the  Pelasgian 
population.  The  different  periods  of  this  colo- 
nization may  be  judged  of  by  the  forms  of 
divine  worship,  and  by  the  names  under  which 
the  maritime  tribes  were  called  by  the  natives. 
Their  nidest  appearance  is  as  Carians ;  as  Leleges 
their  influence  is  more  beneficent  and  perma- 
nent."— Dr.  E.  Curtius,  7/i'«<.  0/  Greece,  bk.  1,  ch. 
2. — In  the  view  of  Dr.  Curtius,  the  later  migra- 
tion of  Ionian  tribes  from  Southern  Greece  to 
the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor, — which  is  an  undoubted 
historic  fact, —  was  really  a  return  "into  the 
home  of  their  ancestors  — "tlie  ancient  home 
of  tlie  great  Ionic  race."  Whether  that  be  the 
true  view  or  not,  the  movement  in  question  was 


connected,  apparently,  with  important  move- 
ments among  tlie  Dorian  Greeks  in  Greece  itself. 
These  latter,  according  to  all  accounts,  and  the 
agreement  of  all  historians,  were  long  settled  in 
Tliessaly,  at  the  foot  of  Olympus  (see  Gheeck  : 
The  Migrations).  It  was  there  that  their  moral 
and  political  developmentrbegan ;  there  that  tliey 
learned  to  look  at  Olympus  as  tlie  home  of  the 
go<ls,  which  all  Greeks  afterwards  learned  to  do 
from  them.  "The  service  rendered  by  the 
Dorian  tribe,"  says  Dr.  Curtius,  "lay  in  having 
carried  the  germs  of  national  culture  out  of 
Tliessaly,  where  the  invasion  of  ruder  peoples 
disturbed  and  hindered  their  farther  growth,  into 
the  land  towards  the  south,  where  these  germs 
received  an  unexpectedly  new  and  grand  de- 
velopment. ...  A  race  claiming  descent  from 
Heracles  united  itself  in  this  Thessaliaii  coast-dis- 
trict with  the  Dorians  and  established  a  royal 
dominion  among  them.  Ever  afterwards  Herac- 
lido!  and  Dorians  remained  together,  but  with- 
out ever  forgetting  the  original  distinction  be- 
tween them.  In  their  seats  by  Olympus  the 
foundations  were  laid  of  the  peculiarity  of  the 
Dorians  in  political  order  and  social  customs ;  at 
the  foot  oi  Olympus  was  their  real  home." — 
The  same,  bk.  1,  ch.  4. — From  the  neighborhood 
of  Olympus  the  Dorians  moved  soutliwards  and 
found  another  home  in  "the  fertile  mountain- 
recess  between  Parnassus  and  ffita,  .  .  .  the 
most  ancient  Doris  known  to  us  by  name." 
Their  final  movement  was  into  Peloponnesus, 
which  was  "  the  most  Important  and  the  most 
fertile  in  consequences  of  all  the  migrations  of 
Grecian  races,  and  which  continued,  even  to  the 
latest  periods  to  exert  its  influence  upon  the  Greek 
character. "  Thencef orwards  the  Dorians  were  the 
dominant  race  in  Peloponnesus,  and  to  their  chief 
state,  Lacedwmonia,  or  Sparta,  was  generally  con- 
ceded the  headship  of  the  Hellenic  family.  This 
Doric  occupation  of  Peloponnesus,  the  period  of 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  about  1100  B.  C, 
no  doubt  caused  the  Ionic  migration  from  that  part 
of  Greece  and  colonization  of  Asia  Minor. — C.  O. 
MUller,  But.  and  Antiquities  of  the  Doric  race, 
bk.  1,  ch.  8. — The  subsequent  division  o'  the 
Hellenic  world  between  loiiians  and  Dorians  is 
thus  defined  by  Schomann:  "To  the  lonians 
belong  the  inhabitants  of  Attica,  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  population  of  Euboca,  and 
the  islands  of  the  .£gean  included  under  the 
common  name  of  Cyclades,  as  well  as  the  colo- 
nists both  on  the  Lydian  and  Carian  coasts  of 
Asia  Minor  and  in  the  two  larger  islands  of  Chios 
and  Sanios  which  lie  opposite.  To  the  Dorians 
within  the  Peloponnese  belong  the  Spartans,  as 
well  as  the  dominant  populations  of  Argos, 
Sicyon,  Philus,  Corinth,  Troezene  and  Epidau- 
rus,  together  with  the  island  of  .^^ina ;  outside 
the  Peloponnese,  but  nearest  to  it,  were  the 
Megarid,  and  the  small  Dorian  Tetranolis  [also 
called  Pentapolis  and  Tripolis]  near  Mount  Par- 
nassus; at  a  greater  distance  were  tlie  majority 
of  the  scattered  islands  and  a  latge  portion 
of  the  Carian  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 
neighbouring  islands,  of  which  Cos  and  Rhodes 
were  the  most  important.  Finally,  the  ruling 
portion  of  the  Cretan  population  was  of  Dor- 
ian/descent."—  G.  F.  SchOmann,  Antiquities  of 
Ortece:  The  State,  pt.  1,  ch.  1.— See,  also, 
Gkeece:  The  Miorationb;  Asia  Minor:  The 
Greek  Colonies;   HERACLiDiS;  Sparta;  and 


664 


DORIS  AND  DRYOPia. 


DRESDEN. 


DORIS  AND  DRYOPIS.—  "  The  little  terri 
tory  [in  imciont  QrecciO  called  Doris  and  Dryo- 
pis  occupied  the  fiouthern  declivity  of  Mount 
(Eta,  dividing  Phokig  on  the  north  and  northwest 
from  the  ./Etnlians,  J^niiines  and  Malians.  That 
which  was  called  Doris  in  the  historical  times, 
and  which  reached  in  the  times  of  Herodotus 
nearly  ns  far  eastward  as  the  Xaliac  gulf,  is  said 
to  liavc  formed  a  part  of  what  had  been  once 
called  Dryopis ;  a  territory  which  had  comprised 
the  summit  of  (Eta  as  far  as  the  Sperchius, 
northward,  and  which  had  been  inhabited  by  an 
old  Hellenic  tribe  called  Dryopes.  The  Dorians 
acquired  their  settlement  in  Dryopis  by  gift  from 
HCniklCs,  who,  along  with  the  Malians  (so  ran 
the  legend),  had  expelled  the  Dryopes  and  com- 

Fielle(i  them  to  flntl  for  themselves  new  scats  at 
lermionC,  and  AsinO,  in  the  Argolic  peninsula  of 
Peloponnesus, — at  Styraand  Karystus  in  Euba>a, 
—  and  in  the  island  of  Kythnus;  it  is  only  in 
these  five  last-mentioned  places  tliat  history 
recognizes  them.  The  territory  of  Doris  was 
distributed  into  four  little  townships, — -Pindus, 
or  Akyphas,  BcEon,  Kytinion  and  Erineon.  .  .  . 
In  itself  this  tetrapolis  is  so  Insignificant  that  we 
shall  rarely  find  occasion  to  mention  it ;  but  it 
acquired  a  factitious  consequence  by  being 
regarded  as  the  metropolis  of  the  great  Dorian 
cities  in  Peloponnesus,  and  receiving  on  that 
ground  special  protection  from  Sparta." — O. 
Grote,  Hiit.  of  Greece,  pt.  2,  ch.  3. 

Also  in;  C.  O.  Mllller,  Hist.  andAntiq.  oftlie 
Doric  Race,  bk.  1,  ch.  2. — See  also,  DoniANS  and 

lONIANS. 

DORMANS,  Battle  of  (1575).  See  France: 
A.  D.  ir)7;i-ir)76. 

DORN ACH,  Battle  of  (1499).  See  Switzek- 
land:  a.  D.  1306-1499. 

DORR  REBELLION,  The.  See  Rhode 
Island-.  A.  D.  1841-1843. 

DORT,  OR  DORDRECHT,  The  Synod  of. 
— "  In  the  low-countries  the  supreme  govern- 
ment, the  states  general,  interfered  [in  the  Cal- 
vlnistlc  controversy],  and  in  the  year  1618 
convoked  the  first  and  only  synod  bearing  some- 
thing of  the  character  of  a  general  council  that 
•  has  been  convened  by  protestants.  It  assembled 
at  Dort,  and  continued  its  sittings  from  Novem- 
ber till  May  following.  Its  business  was  to  decide 
the  questions  at  issue  between  the  Calvinists  and 
Armmians;  the  latter  party  were  also  termed 
remonstrants.  James  [I.]  was  requested  to  send 
over  representatives  for  the  English  Church,  and 
chose  four  divines :  —  Carlton  bishop  of  Llandalf , 
Hall  dean  of  Worcester,  afterwards  bishop  suc- 
cessively of  Exeter  and  Norwich,  Davenant 
afterwards  bishop  of  Salisbury,  and  Dr.  8.  Ward 
of  Cambridge.  They  were  men  of  learning  and 
moderation.  .  .  .  The  history  of  this  famous 
synod  is  told  in  various  ways.  Its  decisions  were 
in  favour  of  the  doctrines  termed  Calvinistic,  and 
the  remonstrants  were  expelled  from  Holland. 
.  .  .  The  majority  were  even  charged  by  the 
other  party  with  having  bound  themselves  by  an 
oath  before  they  entered  upon  business,  to  con- 
demn the  remonstrants.  "—J.  B.  Marsden,  Hist, 
of  Early  Piirilang,  p.  829.— See  Netherlands: 
A.  D.  1603-1619. 

DORYLAEUM,  Battle  of  (1097).  See  Cru- 
sades: A.  D.  1096-1099. 

DOUAI :  A.  D.  1667.— Taken  by  the  French. 
See  Netherlands  (The  Spanish  Provinceb): 
A.  D.  mi. 

43  665 


A.  D.  1668.— Ceded  to  France.  See  Nether- 
lands (Holland):  A.  1).  16(1H. 

A.  D.  1710. — Siege  and  capture  by  Marlbor- 
ough.   See  Netueklands:  A.  D.  1710-1712. 

DOUAI,  The  Catholic  Seminary  at.  Sco 
Enoland;  A.  I),  1.172-1«();(. 

DOUBLOON.  — DOBLON.  See  Spanish 
Coins. 

DOUGHFACES.  — The  "Missouri  Compro- 
mise," of  1820,  in  the  United  States,  "was  a 
Northern  measure,  carried  by  Northern  votes. 
With  some  the  threats  of  di-sunion  were  a  suf- 
ficient influence ;  some,  whom  in  the  debate  Ran- 
dolph [.Tohn  liandolph,  of  Virginia]  called 
doughfaces,  did  not  need  even  that.  .  .  .  There 
has  been  always  a  singular  servility  in  the  char- 
acter of  a  portion  of  the  American  people.  In 
that  class  the  slaveholder  has  always  found  his- 
Northern  servitor.  liundolph  first  gave  it  a 
name  to  live  by  in  the  term  doughface." — W.  C. 
Bryant  and  S.  II.  Gay,  IbpularJUist.  oftlie  IT.  S., 
V.  4,  ;)/).  270  ami  294. 

DOUGLAS,  Stephen  A.,  and  the  doctrine 
of  Squatter  Sovereignty.     See  United  States 

OF  A.M. :  A.  D.  1854 Defeat  in  Presidential 

election.  See  United  States  op  A.m.  :  A.  D. 
1860  (ArniL — November). 

DOURO,  Battle  of  the  (1580).  See  Por- 
tugal: A.  D.  1579-1580 Wellington's  pas- 
sage of  the.  See  Spain  :  A.  D.  1809  (Februart 
—July). 

DOVER,  Roman  Origin  of.    See  Dubris. 

DOVER,  Tenn.,  Battle  at.  See  United 
States  OF  Am.  :  A.  D.  1863  (February — April: 
Tennessee). 

DOVER,  Treaty  of.  See  England:  A.  D. 
1668-1670. 

DOWLAH,  Surajah,  and  the  English  in 
India.    See  India:  A.  D.  1755-1757,  and  1757. 

DRA  3HMA.    See  Talent. 

DRACONIAN  LAWS.  See  Athens:  B.  C. 
624. 

DRAFT  RIOTS,  The.  See  New  York 
(City):  A.  D.  1863. 

DRAGON.— PENURAGON.— A  title  some- 
times given  in  Welsh  poetry  to  a  kin^  or  great 
military  leader.  Supposed  to  be  derived  from 
the  figure  f  a  dragon  on  their  flags,  which  they 
borrowed  imm  the  Romans.    See  Cumbria. 

DRAGONNADES,  The.  See  Prance: 
A.  D.  1681-1698. 

DRAKE'S  PIRACIES,  and  his  famous 
voyage.     See  Amekica:  A.  D.  1572-1580. 

DkANGIANS,  The.    See  Sarangians. 

DRAPIER'S  LETTERS,  The.  See  Ire- 
land: A.  D.  1722-1724. 

DRAVIDIAN  RACES.  See  Turanian 
Races;  also,  India:  The  aboriginal  inhabit- 
ants. 

DRED  SCOTT  CASE,  The.  See  United. 
States  op  A.m.  :  A.  D.  1857. 

DREPANA,  Naval  battle  at,  B.  C.  249. 
See  Punic  War,  The  First. 

DRESDEN:  A.  D.  1756.- Capture  and  oc- 
cupation by  Frederick  the  Great.  See  Ger- 
many: A.  D.  1756, 

A.  D.  1759-1760. — Capture  by  the  A  strians. 
—Bombardment  by  Frederick.  See  Germany: 
A.  D.  1759  (July— November),  and  1760. 

A.  D.  1813.— Occupied  by  the  Prussians  and 
Russians. — Taken  by  the  French. — Invested 
by  the  Allies.— Great  battle  before  the  city^ 


DRESDEN. 


DUBHIS. 


and  victory  for  Napoleon. — French  reverses. — 
St  Cyr'a  surrender.  Hto  Okkmany:  A.  I).  1H12- 
l«i:i;  IMlIi  (Ai'uii.— May);  (Auouhi);   (Seitkm- 

BEIl — OCTOIlKIl);    lllltl  (OCTOIIEII — DKCKMIIKK). 

DRESDEN,  Treaty  of.    ScoAubthia:  A.  D. 
1744-17-1.'). 
DREUX,   Battle  of  (1563).     8co  France: 

A.  I),  \m\-\rm. 

DROGHEDA,  OR  TREDAH,  Cromwell's 
massacre  at.     See  Iiiki,am>:  A.  I>.  t(i4U-H!oU. 

DROITWICH,  Origin  of.     S™  Haling. 

DROMONES.— A  iianie  givtri  to  the  light 
gnllcys  of  Die  liyzaiitiiiu  I'liipirc. — K.  Oibbon, 
I>efUi)e  iinil  Full  of  the  Homaii  Empire,  ch.  53, 

DRUIDS.— The  pricsthocKl  of  a  religion  which 
■existed  nmong  the  Celts  of  Quul  and  Britain  he- 
fore  they  were  Christianized.  "  Greelt  and  Ro- 
man writers  give  us  very  little  information  on 
tlds  subject  and  the  early  Welsh  records  and 
poetry  none  at  all.  Modern  Welsh  writers  have, 
however,  made  up  for  this  want  in  their  genidno 
literature  by  inventing  an  elaborate  Druidical 
system  of  religion  and  philosophy  which,  they 
pretend,  survived  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
and  was  secretly  upheld  by  the  Welsh  bards  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  Thi.s  Neo-Druidic  imposture 
has  found  numerous  adherents." — AV.  K.  Suili- 
•van.  Article,  "  Celtic  Literature,"  Kncijr.  Brit. — 
"  Pliny,  alluding  to  the  Druids'  predilection  for 
groves  of  oak,  tttlds  the  words:  '  lit  inde  appellati 
quoquc  interpretationc  Gneca  possint  Druidai 
videri.' .  .  .  Had  he  possessed  knowledge  enough 
•of  the  Qaulisli  language,  he  would  have  seen  that 
it  supplied  an  explanation  which  rendered  it 
needless  to  have  recourse  to  Greek,  namely  in  the 
native  word  *  dru,'  which  we  have  in  '  Druneme- 
ton,'  or  tlie  sacred  Oak-grove,  given  by  Strabo 
as  the  name  of  the  place  of  assembly  01  the  Qa- 
hitians.  In  fact,  one  has,  if  I  am  not  mistaken, 
been  skeptic  with  regard  to  tills  etymology,  not 
80  much  on  phonological  grounJs  as  from  lulling 
•exactly  to  see  how  the  oak  could  have  given  its 
name  to  such  a  famous  organization  asthcdruidic 
•one  must  be  admitted  to  have  been.  But  the 
parallels  just  indicated,  as  showing  the  import- 
ance of  the  sacred  tree  in  the  worship  of  Zeus 
and  the  gods  representing  him  among  nations 
■other  than  the  Greek  one,  help  to  throw  some 
light  on  this  point.  According  to  the  etymology 
here  oUuded  to,  the  Druids  would  be  the  priests 
of  the  god  associated  or  identified  with  the  oak ; 
that  is,  as  we  are  told,  the  god  who  seemed  to 
those  who  were  familiar  with  the  pagan  theology 
-of  the  Greeks,  to  stand  in  the  same  position  in 
•Gaulish  theology  that  Zeus  did  in  the  former. 
This  harmonizes  thorouglily  with  all  tliat  is 
known  about  the  Druids." — J.  Rhys,  Ilibbert 
Lects.,  1886,  on  Celtic  Heathendom,  lect.  3,  pt.  2. — 
"  Our  traditions  of  the  Scottish  a  1  Irish  Druids 
«re  evidently  derived  from  a  time  wlien  Chris- 
tianity had  long  been  established.  These  insular 
Druids  are  represented  as  being  little  better  than 
-conjurors,  and  their  dignity  is  as  mucli  dimin- 
ished as  the  power  of  tlic  king  is  exaggerated. 
^  .  .  He  is  a  Pharaoh  or  Belshazzar  with  a  troop 
of  wizards  at  his  command;  but  his  Druids  are 
sorcerers  and  rain-doctors.  .  .  .  The  Druids  of 
.Strabo's  description  walked  in  scarlet  and  gold 
brocade  and  wore  golden  collars  and  bracelets; 
but  their  doctrines  may  have  been  much  the 
same  as  those  of  the  soothsayers  by  the  Severn, 
■the  Irish  medicine-men  or  those  rustic  wizards  by 


the  Loire.  .  .  .  After  the  conversion  of  Ireland 
was  accomplished  the  Druids  disappear  from 
history.  Tlieir  mystical  powers  were  tmnsferred 
without  much  alteration  to  tlie  abbots  and  bishops 
who  ruled  the  'families  of  the  sahits.'" — C. 
Elton,  Origins  of  Kntjlish  Hint. ,  eh.  10. 

Also  in:  Julius  Cu;.sar,  Udllie  War,  bk.  0,  eh. 
13-18.— Strabo,  «<■<«/..  bk.  4,  ch.  4,  »eet.  4-6.— For 
an  account  of  the  final  destruction  of  the  Druids, 
in  their  last  retreat,  on  the  island  of  Mona,  or 
Anglesey,  see  Bkitain:  A.  D.  61. 

DRUMCLOG,  The  Covenanters  at.  See 
Scotland:  A.  1).  1670  (May- .June). 

DRURY'S  BLUFF,  Battle  of.  See  United 
States  of  Am.:  A.  D.  1864  (May:  Viuoinia) 
The  AiiMY  of  the  James. 

DRUSUS,  Germanic  campaigns  of.  See 
Oeumany:  H.  C.  12-0. 

DRYOPIANS,  The.— One  of  the  aboriginal 
nations  of  ancient  Greece,  whose  territory  was  in 
the  valley  of  the  Spercheiis  ond  extended  as  far  as 
Parnassus  and  Thermonylie ;  but  who  were  after- 
wards widely  dispersed  in  many  colonies.  It  is, 
says  C.  O.  Mtlller,  "historically  certain  that  a 
great  part  of  tlie  Dryopians  were  consecrated  os  a 
subject  people  to  the  Pythian  Apollo  (an  usage 
of  ancient  times,  of  wliich  there  are  many 
instances)  and  that  for  a  long  time  they  served 
as  such." — Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  the  Doric  Jiace,  bk. 
1,  ch.  3. — See,  also,  Donis;  and  IIiekodum. 

DUBARRY,  Countess,  Ascendancy  of.  Sec 
Phance:  A.  D.  1723-1774. 

DUBH  GALLS.  See  Ireland:  Otii-IOth 
Centuiuks. 

DUBIENKA,  Battle  of  (1792).  SeePoLAND: 
A.  D.  1791-1703. 

DUBITZ  A :  Taken  by  the  Austrians  (1787). 
SeeTuHKS:  A.  D.  1776-1703. 

DUBLIN :  The  Danish  Kingdom.  Sec 
Ireland:  Oth-IOtii  Centuries;  also  Normans. 
— Noutumen:  8th-0tii  Centuries. 

A.  D.  1014.— The  battle  of  Clontarf  and  the 
great  defeat  of  the  Danes.  See  Ireland: 
A.  D.  1014. 

A.  D.  1 170.— Taken  by  the  Norman-English. 
See  Ireland:  A.  D.  1160-117,'). 

A.  D.  1646-1640.— Sieges  in  the  Civil  War. 
See  Ireland:  A.  D.  1646-1649. 

A.  D.  1750. — The  importance  of  the  city. 
—  "In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  it  was  In 
dimensions  and  population  the  second  city  in  the 
empire,  containing,  according  to  the  most  trust- 
worthy accounts,  between  100,000  and  130,000 
inhabitants.  Like  most  things  in  Ireland,  it 
presented  vivid  contrasts,  ana  strangers  were 
equally  struck  with  the  crowds  of  beggars,  the 
inferiority  of  the  inns,  tlie  squalid  wretchedness 
of  tlio  streets  of  the  old  town,  and  with  the 
noble  proportions  of  the  new  quarter,  and  the 
brilliant  and  hospitable  society  that  inhabited  it. 
The  Liffey  was  spanned  by  four  bridges,  and 
another  on  a  grander  scale  was  undertaken  in 
1753.  St.  Stephen's  Green  was  considered  the 
largest  square  in  Europe.  The  quoys  of  Dublin 
were  widely  celebrated."— W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Hist. 
of  Eng.,  18</t  Century,  ch.  7  {v.  3). 


DUBRIS,  OR  DUBR.^.— The  Roman  port 
on  tlie  eost  coast  of  Britain  which  is  now  known 
as  Dover.  In  Roman  times,  as  now,  it  was 
the  principal  landing-place  on  the  British  side 
of  the  channel.— T.  Wright,  Celt,  lioman  and 
Saxon,  ch.  5. 


666 


DUOAT. 


DURHAM. 


DUCAT,  Spanish.    8co  SpANitn  Coras. 

DUCES.    Sec  Count  and  Dukk. 

DUDLEY,  Thomas,  and  the  colony  of  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay.  Hoc  Mahhaciichktth:  A.  I). 
ltl'Jl)-l(i:to.  1111(1  iiftiT. 

DUFFERIN,  Lord.— The  Indian  Adminis- 
tration of.     Sec  India:  A.  I).  Imhd-IHnh. 

DU  GUESCLIN'S  CAMPAIGNS.  Sec 
Fuance:  A.  1).   11)00- 13H(). 

DUKE,  The   Roman.— Origin  of  the  title. 

Set'  ('OI'NT  and  DlKK. 

DUKE'S   LAWS,   The.     Sec   Nkw   Yohk: 
A.  I).  1003. 
DULGIBINI    AND   CHASAURI,    The.— 

"Tlii'se  pooplo  [tribes  of  thu  iiiiciciit  Ofrmaiis] 
rtrnt  rositled  near  the  head  of  the  Lippe,  mul  ''  (,'u 
removed  to  tlic  settlementH  of  tlie  C^lmmnvi  iind 
the  Angrevarii,  who  had  expelled  the  Bructeri." 
— Tacitus,  Oermany,  eh.  84,  Ojford  trans.,  note. — 
Sec,  also,  Saxons. 

DUMBARTON,  Origin  of.     Sec  Ai.clyde. 

DUMBARTON  CASTLE,  Capture  of 
(1571). — Dumbarton  Castle,  held  by  the  party  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  in  the  civil  war  which  fol- 
lowed her  deposition  and  detention  in  England, 
was  captured  in  1571,  for  tlic  regent  Lennox,  by 
an  extraordinary  act  of  daring  on  the  part  of  one 
Cunt.  Crawford.— P.  F.  Tytler,  Iliat.  of  Hcoiland, 
u.  3,  c/i.  10. 

DUMNONIA,  OR  DAMNONIA,  The 
kingdom  of.    See  England:  A.  D.  477-527. 

DUMNONII,  The.— "It  is  ...  a  remark- 
able circumsUmcc  that  the  Dumnonii,  whom  we 
find  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  occupying  the  whole 
of  the  southwestern  extremity  of  Britain,  includ- 
ing both  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  and  who  must 
therefore  have  been  one  of  the  most  powerful  na- 
tions in  the  island,  are  never  once  mentioned  in 
the  history  of  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
Horn  .  lis ;  nor  is  their  name  found  in  any  writer 
before  Ptolemy.  .  .  .  The  conjecture  of  Mr. 
Beale  Poste  .  .  .  that  they  were  left  in  nominal 
independence  under  a  native  liing  .  .  .  appears 
tome  highly  probable." — E.  H.  Bunbury,  JIM. 
of  Ancient  Ueog.,  ch.  23,  note  B. — There  appears 
to  have  been  a  northern  branch  of  the  Dumnonii 
or  Damnonii,  which  held  an  extensive  territory 
on  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth.  See  Britain,  Cel- 
tic Tribes. 

DUMOURIEZ,  Campaigns  and  treason  of. 
See  France:  A.  D.  1793  (Skitember— Decem- 
ber); 1702-1798;  and  1708  (February— April). 

DUNBAR,  A.  D.  1296.— Battle.  See  Scot- 
land: A.  D.  1200-1305. 

A.  D.  X339. — Siege. — The  fortress  of  Dunbar, 
besieged  by  the  English  under  the  Eurl  of  Salis- 
bury in  1330,  was  successfully  defended  in  the 
absence  of  the  governor,  tlie  Earl  of  March,  by 
ills  wife,  known  afterwards  in  Scotch  history  and 
tradition  us  "Black  Agnes  of  Dunbar." 

A.  D.  1650.— Battle.  See  Scotland:  A.  D. 
1650  (September). 

♦ 

DUNCAN  I.,  King  of  Scotland,  A.  D.  1033- 
1030 Duncan  II.,  A.  D.  1094-1005. 

DUNDALK,  Battle  of  (1318).  See  Ireland: 
A.  D.  1314-1318. 

DUNDEE  (CLAVERHOUSE)  AND  THE 
COVENANTERS.  See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1670 
(May— June);  1681-1680;  and  1689  (July). 

DUNDEE  :  A.  D.  1645.— Pillaged  by  Mont- 
rose.   See  Scotland:  A.L).  1644-1645. 


A.  D.  1651.— Storm  and  massacre  by  Monk. 

See  Scotland:  A.  I).   1051  (August — Septbu- 

BER). 

♦     ■ 

DUNES,  Battle  of  the  (1658).  Sec  Enq- 
LAND:  A.  I).  105.5-16.58. 

DUNKELD,  Battle  f.  See  Scotland: 
A.  I).  1680  (Auouht). 

DUNKIRK:  A.  D.  1631.  —  Unsuccessful 
siege  by  the  Dutch.  See  Netiibhlands:  A.  D. 
1031-1633. 

A.  D.  1646. — Siege  and  capture  by  the 
French.— Importance  of  the  port. — Its  harbor- 
age of  pirates.  See  Netherlands:  A.  1).  1645- 
1040. 

A.  D.  165a.— Recovered  by  the  Spaniards, 
.See  France:  A.  I).  10,52. 

A.  D.  1658.— Acquired  by  Cromwell  for  Eng- 
land. See  England:  A.  D.  105.V1658;  and 
France:  A.  D.  105,5-16.58. 

A.  D.  1663.— Sold  by  Charles  II.  to  France. 
See  England;  A.  D.  1603. 

A.  D.  1713.— Fortifications  and  harbor  de- 
stroyed.    Sic  Utrecht;  A.  D.  1712-1713. 

A.  D.  1748.— Demolition  of  fortifications 
again  stipulated.    See  Aix-la-Cuafelle  :  The 

t'ONOREBH. 

A.  D.  1763.— The  demolition  of  fortiuca- 
tions  pledged  once  more.  See  Seven  Years 
War:  The  treaties. 

A.  D.  1793.— Unsuccessful  siege  by  the 
English.  Sec  France:  A.  D.  1703  (July- 
December);  Progress  ok  the  War. 


DUNMORE,  Lord,  and  the  end  of  royal 
government  in  Virginia.  See  Viroima:  A.  D. 
1775  (June);  and  1775-1776. 

DUNMORE'S  WAR.  Sec  Ohio  (Valley): 
A.  D.  1774. 

DUNNICHEN,  Battle  of  (A.  D.  685).  See 
Scotland:  7tii  Century. 

DUPLEIX  AND  THE  FRENCH  IN 
INDIA.     See  India:  A.  D.  1743-1752. 

DUPONT,  Admiral  Samuel  F.  — Naval 
attack  on  Charleston.  Sec  United  States  ok 
Am.:  a.  D.  1868  (April:  South  Carolina). 

DUPPEL,  Siege  and  capture  of  (1864).  See 
Germany:  A.  D.  1861-1866. 

DUPPELN,  Battle  of  (1848).  See  Scandi- 
navian States  (Denmark)  :  A.  D.  1848-1862. 

DUPPLIN  MOOR,  Battle  of  (1333).  See 
Scotland:  A.  D.  1832-1333. 

DUQUESNE,  Fort.    See  Pittsbuugu. 

DURA,  Treaty  of.— The  humiliating  treaty 
of  peace  concluded  with  'he  Persians,  A.  D. 
363,  after  the  defeat  and  death  of  the  Roman 
emperor  Julian,  by  his  successor  Jovian. — Q 
Rawlinson,  Seventh  Great  Oriental  Monarchy 
ch.  10. 

DURANEES,  OR  DOORANEES,  Tht 
See  India:  A.  D.  1747-1761. 

DURAZZO,  Neapolitan  dynasty  of.  See 
Italy  (Southern):  A.  D.  1343-1389;  1380-1414, 
and  Italy:  A.  D.  1412-1447. 

DURBAR,  OR  DARBAR.— An  audience 
room  in  the  palace  of  an  East  Indian  prince. 
Hence  applied  to  a  formal  audience  or  levee 
given  by  the  governor-general  of  India,  or  by 
one  of  the  native  princes. — Century  Dictionary 

DURHAM,  OR  NEVILLE'S  CROSS, 
Battle  of  (A.  D.  1346).  See  Scotland:  A.  D. 
1833-1370. 


667 


DURODRIViB. 


EARTHQUAKE. 


DUROBRIViC.— A  numo  givrn  to  two 
Roman  tuwim  in  liritiiin,  out'  of  which  hiiH  been 
Idcntillcd  witlt  nuMii'rn  i{o<'h(Htcr,  thu  other  with 
tho  town  of  Ciislor,  neiir  I'i'tcrhoroiigli. 

DUROBRIVIAN  WARE.  8vu  Cahtoii 
Wahk. 

DUROCOBRIViE.— An  important  mnrkot- 
t^iwn  in  Itonmn  Ilrituin,  HU|)poH<'(l  to  hitvu  Iwcn 
Hitimtrd  lit  or  ni'iir  mcHlcru  I)nnHtiil)lc. — T. 
Wri^flit,  ('fit,  HoiiKin  ami  Siitdii,  eh.  5. 

DUROTRIGES.— One  of  tlio  tribes  of  an- 
cient liritiiin  wIiohc  liomo  wiih  in  thu  modern 
county  of  Dorw't.     8co  Bkitain,  C'ki.ticTiiibkb. 

DUROVERNUM.— ARomiuitowninUritiiln. 
Identitlud  willi  the  nuxlcrn  Ciinterlmry.  I)ur- 
overnuni  was  destroyed  t)y  tlie  Jutes  in  455. 
See  Knoi.and!  a.  1).  JIO-IW. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY.  Sec 
East  I.ndia  Comi'Any,  Tmio  Dutch. 

DUTCH  GAP  CANAL.  See  Unitkd 
Stateh  OF  Am.  :  A.  1).  lHtt4(AuoUBT:  Viu(iinia). 

DUTCH  REPUBLIC,  The  conttitution 
and     declared     independence    of    the.      Sec 


NKTnKni.ANDH:  A.  I).  1577-1581,  and  1584- 
15M5. 

DUTCH  WEST  INDIA  COMPANY.Seo 
Nkw  Yohk:  a,  I).  1«21-1(I4«;  ami  Uiiazii,:  A.  I). 
151()-lfl«l. 

DOTLINGEN,  or  TUTTLINGEN,  Bat- 
tle of  (1643).     See  (Ikrmany:  A.  I).  1048-1044. 

DYAKS,  or  DAYAKS,  The.  See  Ma- 
layan Hack. 

DYRRHACHIUM:  The  founding  of.    See 

KollKYHA. 

Provoking  cause  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
SeeGiiKKtK:  U.  C.  435-1H2. 

B.  C.  48.— CKsar'a  reverse.  See  Rohb: 
B.  C.  48. 

A.  D.  io8i-io8a.— Siege  bv  Robert  Guiscard. 
SeeBY/.ANTiNK  E.MIMIIK:   A.  I).  lO'U-lOH.-), 

A.  D.  1304. —  Acquired  by  the  Despot  of 
Epirus.     See  Eimkls:  A.  D.  1204-1350. 

DYRRHACHIUM,  Peace  of.    ScoGheece: 
B.  C.  214-140. 
DYVED.    SeeBiuTAiN:  6tu  Centuhy. 


£. 


EADMUND,  EADWINE,  ETC.  See  Ed- 
mund, ETC. 

EALDORMAN.  —  "  Tlie  chieftains  of  the 
first  settlers  in  our  own  island  boro  no  higher 
title  than  Kaldomian  or  Hcretoga.  .  .  .  The 
nnmo  of  Ealdorman  is  one  of  a  largo  class; 
among  a  primitive  people  ago  implies  command 
anil  command  implies  age;  hence  in  a  somewhat 
later  stage  of  language  the  elders  arc  simply  the 
rulers  and  the  eldest  are  the  highest  in  rank, 
without  any  thought  of  the  number  of  years 
which  they  may  really  have  lived.  It  is  not  per- 
fectly clear  in  what  the  authority  or  dignity  of 
the  King  exceeded  that  of  the  Ealdorman.  .  .  . 
Even  the  smallest  Kingdom  was  probably  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  districts  of  several  Ealdor- 
nien." —  E.  A.  Freeman,  Norman  Conquest,  eh.  3, 
»eet.  1. — "The  organisation  of  the  shire  was  of 
much  the  same  character  as  that  of  the  hundred 
[each  shire  containing,  however,  a  number  of 
hundreds],  but  it  was  ruled  by  an  ealdorman  as 
well  as  by  a  gercfa,  and  in  some  other  respects 
bore  evidence  of  its  previous  existence  as  an  in- 
dependent unity.  Its  gemot  was  not  only  the 
scir-gemot  but  the  folc-gemot  also,  the  assembly 
of  the  people;  its  cnluonnau  commanded  not 
merely  the  military  force  of  the  hundreds,  but 
the  lords  of  the  franchises  and  the  church  vassals 
with  their  men.  Its  gerefa  or  sheriff  collected 
the  fiscal  as  well  as  the  local  imposts.  Its  eal- 
dorman was  one  of  the  king's  witan.  The  eal- 
dorman, the  princeps  of  Tacittis,  and  princeps, 
or  satrapa,  or  subregulus  of  Bede,  the  dux  of 
the  Latin  chroniclers  and  the  comes  of  the  Nor- 
mans, was  originally  elected  in  the  general  as- 
sembly of  the  nation.  .  .  .  The  hereditary  prin- 
ciple appears  however  in  the  early  days  of  the 
kingdom  as  well  as  in  those  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor; in  the  case  of  an  under-kingdom  being 
annexed  to  a  greater  the  old  royal  dynasty 
seems  to  have  continued  to  hand  down  its  dele- 
gated authority  from  father  to  son.  The  under- 
kings  of  Hwiccia  thus  continued  to  act  as  eal- 
dormen  under  Slercia  for  a  century;  and  the 
ealdormanship  of  the  Gyrwas  or  fen-countrymen 
seems  likewise  to  have  been  hereditary.    The 


I  title  of  ealdorman  is  thus  much  older  than  the 
existing  division  of  shires,  nor  was  it  ever  the 
rule  for  every  shire  to  have  an  ealdorman  to  it- 
self as  it  had  its  sheriff.  .  .  .  But  each  shire 
WHS  imder  an  ealdorman,  who  sat  with  the 
sheriff  and  bishop  in  the  folkmoot,  received  a 
third  part  of  the  profits  of  the  jurisdiction,  and 
commanded  the  military  force  of  the  whole  di- 
vision. From  the  latter  character  ho  derived  the 
name  of  heretoga,  leader  of  the  host  ('  here  '),  or 
dux,  which  is  occasionally  given  him  in  char- 
ters."— W.  Stubbs,  Oonst.  Iliat.  of  Eng.,  eh.  6, 
sects.  48-49. 

EARL. —"The  title  of  earl  had  begun  to 
supplant  that  of  ealdorman  in  the  reign  of  Ethel- 
red;  and  the  Danish  jar!,  from  whom  its  tise  in 
this  sense  was  borrowed,  seems  to  liave  been 
more  certainly  connected  by  the  tie  of  comitatus 
with  his  king  than  the  Anglo-Saxon  ealdorman 
need  be  supposed  to  have  been. " —  W.  Stubbs, 
Const.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  eh.  0,  seet.  66. — See,  also, 
EouL  and  Ealdouman. 

EARLDOMS,  English  :  Canute's  creation. 
See  England:  A.  D.  1016-1042. 

The  Norman  change.  Sec  Palatike,  Tub 
Enolisii  Counties. 


EARLY,  General  Tubal,  Campaigns  in  the 
Shenandoah.  See  United  States  op  Am.  : 
A.  D.  1864  (May— June:  Viiiginia);  (July: 
ViBOf NiA  —  Maryland)  ;  (August  —  October  : 
Virginia);  and  1865  (February — March:  Vir- 
ginia). 

EARTHQUAKE:  B.  C.  464.— Sparta.  See 
]\Ie88enian  Wau,  The  Third. 

A.  D.  115. — At  Antioch.  See  Antioch:  A.  D. 
115. 

A.  D.  365. — In  the  Roman  world.— "In  the 
second  year  of  the  reign  of  Vaientinian  and 
Valens  [A.  D.  365],  on  the  morning  of  the  2l8t 
day  of  July,  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman 
world  was  shaken  by  n  violent  and  destructive 
earthquake.  Tlie  impression  was  communicated 
to  the  waters ;  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
were  left  dry  by  the  sudden  retreat  of  the  sea. 
.  .  .  But  the  tide  soon  returned  with  the  weight 


668 


EARTHQUAICK. 


EBIOJnflM. 


of  an  Immrniio  and  InrdiHlblo  drliipo,  whlrh 
wan  Hcvert'ly  felt  on  tlio  roiiHtH  of  Hlclly,  of  Dal- 
mntln.  of  Oroc™  and  of  Kgypt.  .  .  .  Tlui  city 
of  Ali'xandrlii  anniiiilly  commciiioratod  tlio  fatal 
day  on  which  no.lMH)  pcrnonH  liad  hmt  their  IIvch 
in  the  Inuiidiilion." — K.  (}llil>on,  Ikeline  and 
Full  of  the  lloniiin  Kmpire.  r/i.  'in. 

A.  D.  536.— In  the  reign  of  Justinian.  Hcc 
Antkh'Ii:  a.  I).  53(1;  also,  Hkuytiih. 

A.  D.  1693.— In  Jamaica.  Hee  .Jamaica:  A.  D. 
1093. 

A.  D.  1755.— At  Lisbon.  Hce  Lisbon:  A.  D. 
I7r.r.. 

A.  D.  i8i3.— In  Venezuela.  Sec  ('olomdian 
Statkb:  a.  I).  1810-1810. 

EAST  AFRICA  ASSOCIATIONS, British 
and  German.    Hcc  Akiuca:  A.  I).  1H84-1HM0. 

EAST  ANGLIA.— Tho  kingdom  formed  in 
Britain  by  that  body  of  the  Angles  which  set 
lied  In  tho  eastern  district  now  embraced  In  tli(! 
coimties  of  Norfolk  and  SulTolk  (North-folk  and 
Houthfolk). 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  The  Dutch: 
A.  D.  1603. — Its  formation  and  first  enter- 
prises.    See  NKTirEiii.ANDs:  A.  I).  1094-1(130. 

A.  D.  1653.— Settlement  at  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.     .SeoHouTil  Akiuca:  A.  P.  1486-18()((. 

A.  D.  1790.— Its  dissolution.     8eo  Fkancf,: 

A.   I).    1790  (SKPTE.MnKK— OCTOIIEU). 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  The  English: 
A.  D.  1600-1703. — Its  rise  and  early  under- 
takings.    HcelNDrA:  A,  I).  lfi(IO-17()3, 

A.  D.  1773. — Constitution  of  the  Company 
changed  by  the  Acts  of  Lord  North.  See  In- 
dia: A.  D.  1770-1773. 

A.  D.  1813-1833.— Deprived  of  its  monopoly 
of  trade. — Reconstitution  of  government.  See 
India:  A.  I).  183;l-18:ia 

A.  D.  1858.— The  end  of  its  rule.  See  In- 
dia: A.  D.  1858. 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  The  French. 

See  India:  A.  I).  1005-174H. 

EAST  INDIES,  Portuguese  in  the.  Sec 
India:  A.  D.  1 498-1  r,80. 

EASTERN  CHURCH,  The.  See  Cimis- 
tianity:  a.  D.  330-1054. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE,  The.  Sec  Rome: 
717-800 ;  and  Byzantine  Empiue. 

EASTERN  QUESTION,  The.  — "For  a 
number  of  generations  in  Europe  there  has  been 
one  question  that,  carelessly  or  maliciously 
touched  upon,  lias  never  failed  to  stimulate  strife 
and  discord  among  the  'nations.  Tills  is  '  the 
Eastern  Question, '  the  problem  Iiow  to  settle  the 
disputes,  political  and  religious,  in  the  east  of 
Europe."  —  H.  Murdock,  7 he  Reconstruction  of 
Europe,  p.  17. — The  first  occasion  in  European 
politics  on  which  the  problems  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  received  the  name  of  the  Eastern  Ques- 
tion seems  to  have  been  that  connected  with  the 
revolt  of  Mehemet  All  in  1831  (see  Turks:  A.  D. 
1831-1840).  M.  Guizot,  in  his  "  Memoirs,"  when 
referring  to  that  complication,  employs  the  term, 
and  remarks:  "I  say  the  Eastern  (Question,  for 
this  was  in  fact  the  name  given  by  all  the  world 
to  tho  quarrel  between  the  Sultan  Mahmoud, 
and  his  subject  the  Pacha  of  EiE;ypt,  Mehemet 
Ali.  Why  was  this  sounding  title  applied  to 
a  local  contest  ?  Egypt  is  not  the  whole  Otto- 
man empire.    The  Ottoman  empire  is  not  the 


entire  Kast.  Tho  reliellion,  even  the  dlsmembrr- 
nicnt  of  a  pnivincc,  cnnnot  coniprlHe  the  fate 
of  a  doveri'lgnly.  The  great  Ktates  of  Wesleni 
Kiiropo  have  alternately  lost  or  aenulred,  either 
by  internal  diHseiiHinn  or  war,  considerable  terri- 
toricK;  yet  under  tlu^  aspect  o  thes*!  cireiim- 
Mtaiires  no  one  has  H|)(iki'ii  of  the  Western 
iiuesllcm.  Why  then  has  a  term  never  used  in 
the  territorial  crises  of  Christian  Europe,  been 
considered  and  admitted  to  be  perfectly  natural 
and  legitimate  when  the  Ottoman  empire  Is  In 
argument?  It  Is  that  there  Is  at  present  In  the 
Ottoman  empire  no  local  or  partial  question.  If 
a  shock  is  felt  in  a  enriier  of  the  edifice,  If  a 
single  stone  Is  detached,  the  enti'o  building 
appears  to  be,  and  Is  In  fact,  n'ady  tr  fall.  .  .  . 
'I  he  Egyptian  <|iieslirm  was  in  1839  the  question 
of  the  Ottoman  empire  Itself.  And  the  (luestion 
of  the  Ottoman  empire  Is  In  reality  the  Eastern 
(lUestion,  not  only  of  the  European  but  of  tho 
Asiatic  East;  for  Asia  Is  now  the  theatre  of  the 
leading  ambitions  and  rivalries  of  the  great 
powers  of  Europe;  and  the  Ottoman  empire  Is 
the  highway,  the  gate,  and  the  key  of  Asia." — 
F.  P.  Oiiizot,  ^femoirH  to  Illuitrnti  the  Ilintory  of 
^fl|  Own  Time,  p.  4,  p.  322.  —  The  several  occa- 
sions since  1840  on  which  the  Piastern  Questi(m 
has  troubled  Europe  may  be  found  narrated 
under  the  following  captions:  Ui'shia:  A.  I). 
18:(3-18.54,  to  18r)4-185(J;  TiiUKs:  A.  D.  1861- 
1H77,  1877-1878,  and  1878;  also  Balkan  and 
Uanuiiian  8t.\te8.  —  Anumg  English  writers, 
the  term  "tlie  Eastern  Question"  has  acquired  a 
larger  meaning,  whicli  takes  in  <iiiestioiis  con- 
necled  with  tlio  advance  of  Itussia  upim  the 
Afghan  and  Persian  frontiers. — Duke  of  Argyll, 
The  KiiHtcrn  yHc^^i'on.— See  Afghanistan  :  A.  D. 
1809-1881. 

EATON,  Dorman  B.,  and  Civil-Service 
Reform.  Sec  CiviL-SEnvicE  Uekou.m  in  the 
United  Ht.\tes. 

EBBSDORF,  OR  LUNEBURG  HEATH, 
Battle  of. — X  great  and  disastrous  battle  of  the 
(Jcrmans  with  tho  Danes,  or  Northmen,  fought 
Feb.  3,  880.  Tho  Germans  were  terribly  beaten, 
and  nearly  all  who  survived  the  fight  were  swept 
away  into  captivity  and  slavery.  The  slain  re- 
ceived "martyrs 'honours;  and  their  commemora- 
tion was  celebrated  in  the  Sachseu-Iand  churelies 
till  comparatively  recent  times.  An  unexampled 
sorrow  was  created  throughout  Saxony  by  this  cn- 
lamlty,  whieli,  for  a  time,  exhausted  the  country ; 
—  Scandinavia  and  Jutland  and  the  Baltic  isles 
resounded  with  exultation." — Sir  F.  Palgrave, 
Hint,  of  Kontuttidii  and  England,  hk.  1,  ch.  4. 

EBBSFLEET.— The  supposed  first  landing- 
place  in  Britain  of  the  Jutes,  under  Hengest, 
A.  D.  449  or  450,  when  English  history,  as  Eng- 
lish, begins.  It  was  also  the  landing-place,  A.  D. 
597,  of  Augustine  and  his  fellow  missionaries 
when  they  entered  the  island  to  undertake  the 
conversion  of  Its  new  Inhabitjints  to  Christianity. 
Ebbsflcet  is  in  the  Isle  of  Tlianet,  at  the  mouth 
of  tlie  Thames.  See  England:  449-473,  and 
597-685. 

EBERSBURG,  Battle  of.  See  Germany: 
A.  I).  IHOO  (.Ianuary— June). 

EBIONISM.— Tho  heresy  (so  branded)  of  a 
sect  of  Jewish  Christians,  which  spread  some- 
what extensively  in  the  second,  third  and  fcmrth 
centuries.  "  The  characteristic  marks  of  Ebion- 
ism  in  all  its  forms  are:  degradation  of  Chris- 
tianity to  thp  level  of  Judaism ;  the  principle  of 


669 


EniONISM. 


ECUADOa 


tlic  unlvrrHiil  iiiiil  |M'r|M'timl  viillclity  nf  tlin 
Moiuiic  liiw;  mill  cniiiity  to  tlic  iipoNtli-  I'aul." 
Tlio  rmniu  of  tliu  KhioiiltcH  chiik!  froiii  ii  Ilclin'w 
woni  HlKiilfviriK  "  i)<M)r."— 1»,  HclmIT,  Hint,  of  the 
C/irinliiin  (  liiirrh,  urmnil  jm-HimI,  fli.  4,  feet.  (W. 
EBLANI,  The.    Hen   Ikki.anu,   Tkiiikh  ok 

EAItl.V  ('Kl.'lK'  INIIAIIITANTH. 

EBORACUM,    OR    EBURACUM.  — Tlio 

liiilllitry  ciipiUil  of  Kdinitii  liritiiin,  and  iiftcr- 
wiinlN  (if  till!  AiikIIiiii  kiiiK<l(iniH  of  Drim  iiiiil 
N<irtliuinliria.  In  Old  KiikHhIi  its  iiaiiio  liccuiiio 
E(irf(irwl(k,  wlicncc,  by  fiirlliur  cornipti<in,  rc- 
gtiltod  the  imxlcrn  KnEmli  name  York.  The  city 
was  one  of  couHidcnihU'  HplcniUir  in  Itonian  tiiiicH, 
contahiing  the  imperial  palaco  with  many  tcinplcH 
and  otiicr  InipoHlug  buildlngH.  tJco  Lnulanu: 
A.  I).  ir.T-fl:):!. 

EBURONES,  Destruction  of  the.— The 
Ebiironcg  weri-  a  strong  Oennanic  trllio,  wlio 
occupied  in  CivHar's  time  Min  country  Iwtween 
Li6ffe  and  Cologne,  anil  lioBo  ancestors  were 
said  to  iiavo  formcil  part  of  tlio  great  migrant 
horde  of  tlio  (Mmhrl  and  Teutones.  Under  a 
young  chief,  Ambiorix,  they  had  taken  the  lend 
ID  the  formidable  revolt  which  occurred  among 
the  Ik'lgle  tribes,  IJ.  C.  54-53.  C'lesar,  when  hu 
hod  suppressed  the  revolt,  determined  to  bring 
destruction  on  tlie  Kburones,  and  lio  executed 
his  purpose  in  a  singular  manner.  lie  circulated 
a  proclamation  through  all  the  neighboring  parts 
of  Oaul  and  Qermnny,  declaring  the  Eburones 
to  be  •raltors  to  Homo  and  outlaws,  and  offering 
them  and  their  ginxls  lis  common  prey  to  any 
who  would  full  on  them.  This  drew  tho  sur- 
rounding barbarians  like  vultures  to  a  feast,  and 
the  wretched  Eburones  were  mnm  hunted  out  of 
existence.  Their  name  disappeared  from  tho 
annalsof  Oaul. — C.  Merivale,  llitt.  oftheRomam, 
eh.  10. 

Also  in:  Ctesar,  Oallie  War»,  bk.  5,  ch.  85-58; 
bk.  0,  ch.  1-84. — G.  Long,  Decline  of  the  Jluinan 
Ilemhlic,  f>.  4,  ch.  13-14. — See,  also,  Beix>/B. 

ECBATANA.— "The  Southern  Ecbatana  or 
Agbatana, —  which  the  diodes  and  Persians  them- 
selves knew  as  Hagmat&n,  —  was  situated,  as 
we  learn  from  Polybius  and  Diodorus,  on  a  plain 
at  tho  foot  of  Mount  Orontes,  a  llttlo  to  the  cast 
of  the  Zagros  range.  Tho  notices  of  these 
authors  .  .  .  and  others,  render  it  as  nearly  cer- 
tain as  possible  that  the  site  was  that  of  the 
mixlern  town  of  Ilumiulan.  .  .  .  The  Median 
capitp'  has  never  yet  attracted  a  sclcntiflc  ex- 
pedition. .  .  .  Tho  chief  city  of  northern  Media, 
which  bore  in  later  times  the  names  of  Qaza, 
Gazaca,  or  Canzac^,  is  thought  to  have  been  also 
called  Ecbatana,  and  to  have  been  occasionally 
mistaken  by  tho  Greeks  for  tho  southern  or  real 
capital." — Q.  Kawlinson,  Five  Qreat  Monarchies: 
Media,  ch.  1. 

ECCELINO,  OR  EZZELINO  DI  RO- 
MANO, The  tyranny  of,  and  the  crusade 
against.    See  Veuona:  A.  D.  1236-1258. 

ECCLESIA.— The  general  legislative  assem- 
bly of  citizens  in  ancient  Athens  and  Sparto. — 
G.  F.  SchOmann,  Antiq.  of  Greece:  Tlie  State,  pt.  3. 

Also  in:  G.  Grote,  IIi»t.  of  Greece,  ch.  31. — See 
Athens:  B.  C.  445-429. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  TITLES  BILL,The. 
See  Papacy:  A.  D.  1850. 

ECENI,  OR  ICENI,  The.  See  Britain: 
A.  D.  61. 

ECGBERHT,  King  of  Wessex,  A.  D.  800- 
886. 


ECKMOHL,    Battle   of.      See    GBnMANT: 

A.    1).    IMimi.lANUAUY— .IlNK). 

ECNOMUS,  Naval  battle  of  (B.  C.  256). 
Hee  I'i'Nic  VVaii,  Tiik  FiiisT. 

ECORCHEURS,  Les.— In  the  later  periixl 
of  the  Hundred  Veam  War,  ttft<!r  the  death  of 
the  Maid  of  Orleans,  when  the  English  wero 
Ixilng  driven  from  France  and  the  authority  of 
the  king  waHnotyctestabli.slied,  lawless  violence 
prevailed  widely.  "Adventurers  spread  tliem- 
si'lves  over  thi'  pmvinees  under  a  name,  'the 
Hkinnerx,'  Ia%  Ecorcheurs,  which  sutllclently  lio- 
tokens  the  savage  nature  of  their  outrages.  If  wo 
trace  it  to  oven  its  mildest  derivation,  stripping 
shirts,  not  skins."— E.  Smedloy,  Iliit.  of  trance, 
pi.  1,  eh.  14. 

ECTHESISOFHERACLIUS.  See  Mono- 

TIIBI.ITK  (."ONTUdVKKHY. 

ECU,  The  order  of  the.    See  Bouiidon,  Tiik 
iiousK  of. 
ECUADOR:    Aboriginal  inhabitants.    Seo 

A.MKItlCAN  AllOHlaiNKS:   Andehians. 

The  aborig  nal  kingdom  of  Quito  and  its 
conquest  by  the  Peruvians  and  the  Spaniards. 
— "(Jf  the  old  Qiiitu  nation  which  inhabited  the 
highlands  to  tho  north  and  south  of  tho  present 
capital,  nothing  is  known  to  tradition  but  tlio 
name  of  its  last  king,  (Qiiitu,  after  whom  hlssub- 
lecta  were  probably  called.  His  domains  were 
invaded  ana  conquered  by  the  nation  of  the  Caras, 
or  C.'arans,  who  had  como  by  sea  in  balsas  (rafts) 
from  parts  unknown.  These  Caras,  or  Cantns, 
oHtjiblished  the  dynasty  of  the  Scyris  at  Quit", 
and  extended  their  conquests  to  the  north  and 
south,  until  checked  by  the  warlike  nation  of  the 
Puruhas,  who  inhabited  the  present  district  of 
Riobamba.  ...  In  the  reign  of  Ilualcopo  Duclii- 
cela,  the  18th  Scyri,  the  Peruvian  Incas  com- 
menced to  extend  their  conquests  to  the  north, 
.  .  .  About  the  middle  of  tlio  15th  century  the 
Inca  Tupac  Yupanqul,  father  of  Huaynucapac, 
invaded  the  dominions  of  the  Scyris,  and  after 
many  bloody  battles  and  sieges,  conqiiered  the 
kingdom  of  Puruha  and  returned  in  triumph  to 
Cuzco.  Hualcopo  survived  his  loss  but  a  few 
years.  He  is  said  to  have  died  of  grief,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Cacha,  the  15th  and  last  of 
the  Scyris.  Cacha  Duchiccia  at  once  set  out  to 
recover  his  paternal  dominions.  Although  of 
feeble  health,  he  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of 
(,  at  energy  and  intrepidity.  He  fell  upon  the 
garrison  which  the  Inca  had  left  at  Mocha,  put  it 
to  the  Bword,  and  rcoccupied  the  kingdom  of 
Puruha,  where  he  was  received  with  open  arms. 
He  even  carried  his  banners  further  south,  until 
checked  by  the  Caiiares,  tho  inhabitants  of  what 
is  now  tho  district  of  Cuenco,  who  had  volun- 
torlly  submitted  to  the  Inca,  and  now  detained 
the  Scyri  until  Huaynacapac,  tho  greatest  of  tho 
Inca  dynasty,  came  to  their  rescue.'  On  tho 
plain  of  TiocaJ.18,  and  again  on  the  plain  of 
Hatuntaqui,  grei.\t  battles  were  fought,  in  both 
of  which  the  Scyri  was  beaten,  and  in  the  last  of 
which  he  fell.  "  On  the  very  field  of  battle  the 
faithful  Caranquis  proclaimed  Pacha,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  fallen  king,  as  their  Scyri.  Huayna- 
capac now  regulated  his  conduct  by  policy.  Ho 
ordered  the  dead  king  to  be  buried  with  all  the 
honors  due  to  royalty,  and  made  offers  of  mar- 
riage to  young  Pacha,  by  whom  he  was  not  re- 
fused. .  .  .  The  issue  of  the  marriage  was  Ata- 
huallpa,  the  last  of  the  native  mlers  of  Peru. 
...  As  prudent  and  highly  politic  as  the  con- 


670 


ECUADOR 


EDDAS. 


(liirt  of  nunynnrupnr  Ih  goncmllr  r<p>l<d  to 
Imvo  lH>i'n,  Ml)  imi'riiilciit  unci  iinpolltto  WM  the 
iliviHion  of  tilt-  t'liiiiirc  whicli  he  niailo  nn  1>ii< 
ilciith  Im'iI,  lM'(|iii'iitliin)(  IiIh  pjitiTiiiil  iloiiiinloim  to 
IiIm  llrHt  lM)rii  Jitid  uriiloiihUMlly  lri;ititiiiiti!  son, 
iliiiuu'ltr,  iiikI  to  Atiiliiiiill|iii  the  kiii)(iloin  of 
Quito.  II(!  iiiiKlit  liikvu  forcHi'i'ii  the  rvll  coiim.'' 
<)ut'iic('H  of  HtK'li  »  purtitlon.  Ili.H  (lentil  tiNik 
pliico  al«mt  tli«  yeiir  1525.  For  (Ivu  or  m-vi'ii 
yciirit  tim  hrothurg lived  In  pciu'c, "  Then  <|ii<krrelH 
urime,  leiidinK  to  dvll  war,  rexultinK  in  tli<!  de- 
feiitand  deutli  of  lluuiwur.  .Vtiiliuiillpa  had  JuHt 
IxM-oine  niiiMter  of  the  weiikeiied  iind  Nliitken  em- 
pire of  the  InciiH,  when  the  inviidliiK  HpiinliirdM, 
under  l'i/,iirro,  ft  II  on  the  d(Hinied  litnd  iind  nindu 
itM  rielieo  their  own.  The  (MUKiiieHt  of  the  Hpiin- 
iunU  did  not  Include  the  kingdom  of  Quito  iit 
first,  hut  was  extended  to  the  latter  In  151)3  by 
Bcbastian  <lu  Kenalea/ar,  whom  Pi/arro  had  put 
In  command  of  thu  Port  of  Han  MIkucI.  Excited 
by  sto.ies  of  the  riches  of  (J\dto,  and  invited  by 
amliasHiidors  from  the  ('aflari.'S,  thu  old  enendi'S 
of  the  Quito  tribes,  Henulcazur,  "  without  orders 
or  permTsslon  from  Fi/arro  .  .  .  left  San  Miguel, 
at  the  head  of  about  150  men.  His  second  In 
commatxl  vas  the  monster  Juan  do  Ampudla." 
The  fate  of  Quito  was  again  dccUIiMl  on  the  ;>laln 
of  Tidcajas,  where  Itummugui,  a  i;hief  who  h.'ul 
sei/.cd  thu  vac4tnt  throne,  made  a  desperate  but 
vain  resistance,  lie  gained  time,  however,  to 
remove  whatever  treasures  there  may  have  been 
at  Quito  l)cyon<l  the  reach  of  Its  rapacious  con- 
querors, and  "  where  he  bill  tlicm  Is  a  secret  to 
Uie  present  day.  .  .  .  Traditions  of  the  great 
treasures  hidden  in  the  moimtains  by  Rumlflagui 
are  eagerly  repeated  and  believed  at  Quito.  .  .  . 
Having  removed  the  gold  and  killed  the  Virgins 
of  the  Sun,  and  thus  pTaced  two  objects  so  eagerly 
coveted  by  the  Invaders  beyond  their  reach, 
Kundftagui  set  lire  to  the  town,  and  evacuatc(l 
It  with  all  his  troops  and  followers.  It  would 
l>e  diftlcult  to  describe  the  rage,  mortlflcatloa  and 
despair  of  the  Bpanlanis,  on 'finding  smoking 
ruins  Instead  of  the  treasures  which  they  hod  ex- 
pected. .  .  .  Thousands  of  innocent  Indians  were 
sacrificed  to  their  disappointed  cupidity.  .  .  . 
Every  nook  and  corner  of  the  province  was 
searched ;  but  only  In  the  sepulchres  some  little 
gold  was  found.  ...  Of  the  ancient  buildings  of 
Quito  no  stone  was  left  upon  the  other,  and  deep 
excavations  were  made  under  them  to  search  for 
hidden  treasures.  Hence  there  is  no  vestige  left 
at  Quito  of  its  former  civilization ;  not  a  ruin,  not 
a  wall,  not  a  stone  to  which  the  traditions  of  the 
past  might  cling.  ...  On  the  28th  of  August, 
1534,  tlie  Spanish  village  of  Quito  [San  Francisco 
de  Quito]  was  founded."— F.  Ilassaurek,  Four 
Yean  among  Smnuh  Aineriama,  ch.  16. 

Also  in:  W.  H.  Prescott,  Hint,  of  Cong,  of 
Peru,  bk.  3,  eh.  i  (i\  1).  and  ch.  9  (p.  2). 

In  the  empire  of  the  Incas.  See  Peru;  Tire 
EMPIRE  OP  THE  Incas. 

A.  D.  1542.— The  Audiencia  of  Quito  estab- 
lished,    ^-e  AuuiKNci.\s. 

A.  D.  1821-1854. — Emancipation  of  slaves. 
See  Colombian  St.vtes:  A.  X).  1821-1854 

A.  D.  1822-1888.— Confederated  with  New 
Granada  and  Venezuela  in  the  Colombian 
Republic— Dissolution  of  the  Confederacy.— 
The  rule  of  Flores.— In  1822  "  the  Province  of 
Quito  was  incorporated  into  the  Colombian  Re- 
public [see  Colombian  States:  A.  D.  1819- 
1830],    It  was  now  divided  into  three  depart. 


ments  on  the  Frrneh  system:  and  the  southern- 
miiHtof  llies<!  received  Its  name  from  the  Kouutor 
(Kcuador)  which  paHses  through  it.  Shortly 
after  V'eiu'/ucla  had  declared  ilHelf  indi  pend- 
ent iif  the  C'oliindiian  Uepublic  [IN2(I  —  K4'e,  a* 
alHive],  the  old  ))roviiie(*  of  Quito  did  the  winu-, 
and  phx'ed  its  fortuneM  In  the  handn  of  oni^  of 
Itolivar's  lieutenantx,  named  Flores.  The  name 
of  Keuador  was  now  extended  to  all  three  depart- 
ments. Flori'S  exercised  the  chief  authority  for 
15  years.  The  constitution  Ihnited  the  Pn'sl- 
deney  to  four:  but  Flores  made  an  arrangement 
with  one  of  his  lieutenants  called  Uoca  Fuertc, 
by  whieli   they  Hucce<'ded  each  other,  the  out- 


going President  beeomiuK  governor  of  Ouayu- 
(|uil.  In  18-1<I  Flores  found  himself  strong 
enough  to  Improve  upon  this  system.     He  called 


a  convention,  which  reformed  the  constitution  in 
a  reactionary  sense,  and  named  him  dlitalor  for 
ten  years.  In  1845  the  lilieral  reaction  had  set 
'.'.  oil  over  (.'olcmbia;  an<l  it  sckmi  becanx'  too 
strong  for  Flores.  Kven  his  own  supporters 
iH'gnn  to  fall  him,  anil  he  agreed  to  (|uit  the 
(•oiintry  mi  iM^ing  paid  an  indemnity  of  l|ttJ(t,<H)0." 
During  the  next  15  years  Kcuador  was  troubletl 
by  the  plots  and  attempts  of  Flores  to  regain  his 
lost  power.  In  1800,  with  Peruvian  help,  he 
succeeded  in  pkcing  one  of  his  party,  Dr. 
Moreno,  in  the  presidency,  and  he,  himself,  l)e- 
caine  governor  )f  Uuayanuil.  In  August,  1875, 
Moreno  was  a."  otssinated. — G.  .1.  Payne,  IIM. 
of  Kiiri>)>enii  (  doniet,  pp.  251-253.  —  After  the 
a89a88iu..Ll(m  o.  President  Jloreno  "the  clergy 
I'ucceeded  In  seating  Dr.  Antoi.io  Uarrero  in 
Mic  pr';sidcntial  chair  by  a  peaceful  and  over- 
whelming election.  .  .  .  Against  his  govern- 
ment the  lil)eral  party  made  a  revolution,  and, 
SeptemlHT  8,  18TU,  succeeded  in  driving  1dm 
from  power,  seating  In  his  place  Qcneral  Vgnacio 
de  Veintemilla,  who  was  one  o'  Harrero's  otlicers, 
bound  to  him  by  many  ties.  ...  He  called  an 
obedient  convention  at  Ambato,  in  1878,  which 
named  him  President  ad  interim,  and  framed  a 
constitution,  thu  republicanism  of  which  it  Is  dif- 
ficult to  find.  Under  this  he  was  elected  Presi- 
dent for  four  years,  terminating  30th  August, 
1882,  without  right  of  re-election  except  after 
on  interval  of  four  ,  irs." — O.  E.  Church,  Hept. 
on  Ecutulor  (Henate  Ex.  Doe.  69,  U.  R  4^th  Cong, , 
2d  Seaa.,  v.  3).  —  President  Veintemilla  seized 
power  as  a  Dictator,  by  a  pronunclamento,  April 
2,  1882 ;  but  civil  war  ensued  and  he  was  over- 
thrown in  1883,  Senor  Jose  M.  P.  C'aamailo 
was  then  chosen  I'rovisional  President,  and  in 
February,  1884,  lie  was  elected  President .  by  the 
Legislative  bo<iy.  He  was  succeeded  in  1888 
by  Don  Antonio  Flores. —  Statesman's  Year-book, 
1889. 

• 

ECUMENICAL,  OR  (ECUMENICAL 
COUNCIL. — A  general  or  unlversid  council  of 
the  Christian  Churcti.  See  Councils  of  tub 
Church. 

EDDAS,  The.— "  The  chief  depositories  of 
the  Norse  mytliology  are  the  Elder  or  Saenuind's 
Edda  (poetry)  and  the  Younger  or  Snorre's  Edda 
(prose).  In  Icelandic  Edda  means  '  great-grand- 
mother,'and  some  think  tins  appellation  refers 
to  the  ancient  origin  of  the  myths  it  contains. 
Otliers  connect  It  with  the  Indian  'Veda'  and 
the  Norse  '  vide,'  (Swedish  'vela,'  to  know)." — 
R.  B.  Anderson,  Norse  Mytlwlogy,  eh.  7. — "The 
word  Edda  la  never  found  at  all  in  any  of  the 


671 


EDDAS. 


EDINBURGH. 


dialects  of  tlie  Old  Northern  tongue,  nor  indeed 
in  any  otlicr  tongue  linown  to  us.  The  first 
time  it  is  met  with  is  in  tlie  Lay  of  Itigh,  where 
it  is  used  as  a  title  for  grc'at-gran<hnotlier,  and 
from  tliis  jioem  the  word  is  cited  (witli  other 
terms  from  tl:e  same  souree)  in  the  collection  at 
the  end  of  Scaldscaparmal.  How  or  why  Snorri's 
book  on  the  Poetic  Art  came  to  be  called  Edda 
■we  have  no  actual  te8tini()ny.  .  .  .  Snorri's  work, 
especially  the  second  part  of  it,  Scaldscaparmal, 
handed  down  in  copies  and  abridgments  through 
the  Middle  Ages,  was  looked  on  as  setting  the 
standard  and  ideal  of  poetry.  It  seems  to  have 
kept  up  indeed  the  very  remembrance  of  court- 
poetry,  the  memory  of  which,  but  for  it,  would 
otherwise  have  perished.  But  though  the  mcdi- 
Oival  poets  do  not  copy  Edda  (i.  e.,  Snorri's  rules) 
they  constantly  allude  to  it,  and  we  have  an  un- 
broken series  of  phrases  from  1340  to  1(540  in  which 
Edda  is  used  as  a  synonym  for  the  technical 
laws  of  the  court- metre  (a  use,  it  may  be  observed, 
entirely  contrary  to  that  of  our  own  days). " — G. 
Vigfusson  and  P.  Y.  Powell,  Corpus  Poeticum 
Boretile,  v.  1,  iiitrod.,  sect.  4. 

EDESSA  (Macedonia). —  Edcssa,  or  ^gie, 
the  ancient  INIacedonian  capital,  "a  place  of 
primitive  antiquity,  according  to  a  Phrygian 
legend  the  site  of  the  gardens  of  JNIidas,  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  Mount  Bermius,  where 
the  Lydias  comes  forth  from  the  raountainj,  .  .  . 
jEgoc  was  the  natural  capital  of  the  land.  With 
its  foundation  the  history  of  Macedonia  had  its 
beginning ;  MgsB  is  the  germ  out  of  which  the 
Macedonian  empire  grew." — E.  Curtius,  Hist,  of 
Ch'eece,  bk.  7,  ch.  1. — See,  also,  Macedonia. 

EDESSA  (Mesopotamia).  SecOsRUCBNE. 

The  Church.  See  C'uuistianity  :  A.  D.  33- 
100,  and  100-31'3. 

The  Theological  School.    See  Nkstokianb. 

A.  D.  260.— Battle  of.  See  Pbrsia:  A.  D. 
228-627. 

A.  D.  1097-1 14/!.— The  Frank  principality.— 
On  the  m-  of  tlie  armies  of  the  First  Crusade, 
as  tlK.j  approached  Syria,  Baldwin,  the  able,  self- 
ish and  self-willed  brother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon, left  the  main  body  of  the  crusaders,  with  a 
band  of  foMowers,  and  moved  ofif  eastwards, 
seeking  the  prizes  of  a  very  worldly  ambition, 
and  leaving  his  devouter  comrades  to  rescue  the 
holy  sepulchre  without  his  aid.  Good  fortune 
rewardt  is  enterprise  and  he  secured  possession 
of  the  i  portant  city  of  Edessa.  It  was  governed 
by  a  Gri.uk  prince,  who  owed  allegiance  to  the 
Byzantine  emperor,  but  who  paid  tribute  to  the 
Turks.  "It  had  surrendered  to  Pouzan,  one  of  the 
generals  of  Slalck-shah,  in  the  year  1087,  but  dur- 
ing the  contests  of  the  Turks  and  Saracens  in 
the  north  of  Syria  it  had  recovered  its  independ- 
ence. Baldwin  now  sullied  the  honour  of  the 
Franks,  by  exciting  the  peojile  to  murder  their 
governor  Theodore,  and  rebel  against  the  Byzan- 
tine authority  [other  historians  say  that  he  was 
*  guilty  of  no  inr.re  than  a  passive  permission  of 
these  acts] ;  he  then  took  possession  of  the  place 
in  his  own  name  and  founded  the  Frank  prin- 
cipality of  Edcssa,  which  lasted  about  47  years." 
— G.  Finlay,  Ilist.  of  Byzantine  and  Oreek  Em- 
pires, A.  D.  710-1453,  bk.  3,  ch.  3,  sect.  1.— Sec, 
also,  CUU8ADE8 :  A.  D.  1096-1099,  and  1147-1149 ; 
also,  Jekubalem:  A.  D.  1099-1144. 


EDGAR,  King  of  Scotland,  A.  D.  1098-1107. 
. . .  .Edgar,  King  of  Wesseac,  A.  D.  058-975. 


EDGECOTE,  Battle  of.  Sec  Banboiiy, 
Batti.k  ok. 

EDGEHILL  OR  KEYNTON,  Battle  of. 
See  England:  A.  D.  1642  (Octoueu — Decem- 

BEH). 

EDHEL    See  Adel. 

EDHILING,  OR  iEDHILING,  The.  See 
Etheling. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES,  and  its  revocation. 
See  Fiiance:  A.  D.  1598-1.')09.  and  1681-1698. 

EDICT  OF  RESTITUTION,  The.  See 
Gkkmany:  a.  D.  1637-1629. 

EDICTS,    Roman   imperial.     Sec   Coupua 

JUUIS  C1VILI8. 

EDINBURGH  :  Origin  of  the  city.  See 
England:  A.  1).  547-633. 

nth  Century. — Made  the  capital  of  Scot- 
land.    See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1066-1093. 

A.  D.  1544.— Destroyed  by  the  English. 
Sec  Scotland:  A.  D.  1544-1548. 

A.  D.  1559-1560.— Seized  by  the  Lords  of 
the  Congregation. — The  Treaty  of  July,  1560. 
See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1558-1500. 

A.  D.  1572-1573.— In  the  civil  war.  See 
Scotland:  A.  D.  1570-1573. 

A.  D.  1637. — Laud's  Liturgy  and  the 
tumult  at  St,  Giles'.  See  Scotland:  A.  D. 
1637. 

A.  D.  1638.— The  signing  of  the  National 
Covenant.     See  Scotland:  A.  1).  1638. 

A.  D.  1650.  — Surrender  to  Cromwell.— 
Siege  and  reduction  of  the  Castle.  Sec 
Scotland:  A.  D.  1650  (SEPTKMnn);  and  1651 
(August). 

A.  D.  1688. — Rioting  and  revolution.  Sec 
Scotland:  A.  D.  1688-1690. 

A.  D.  1707.— The  city  at  the  time  of  the 
union. — "Edinburgh,  though  still  but  a  small 
town,  excited  the  admiration  of  travellers  who 
were  acquainted  with  the  greatest  cities  of 
England  and  the  Continent ;  nor  was  their  admi- 
ration entirely  due  to  the  singular  beauty  of  its 
situation.  The  quaint  architecture  of  the  older 
houses — which  sometimes  rose  to  the  height  of 
nine,  ten  or  eleven  stories — indeed,  carried  back 
the  mind  to  very  barbarous  times;  for  it  was 
ascribed  to  the  desire  of  the  population  to  live 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  protection  of  the 
castle.  The  fllth  of  the  streets  in  the  early 
years  of  the  ICtli  century  was  indescribable. 
.  .  .  The  new  quarter,  which  now  strikes  every 
stranger  by  its  spacious  symmetry,  was  not 
begun  till  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  century,  but 
as  early  as  1723  an  English  traveller  described 
the  High  Street  as  '  the  stateliest  street  in  the 
world. ' .  .  .  Under  the  influence  of  the  Kirk  the 
public  manners  of  the  town  were  marked  by 
much  decorum  and  even  austerity,  but  the 
populace  were  unusually  susceptible  of  fierce 
political  entliusiasm,  and  when  excited  they 
were  extremely  formidable.  ...  A  city  guard, 
composed  chiefly  of  fierce  Highlanders,  armed 
and  disciplined  like  regular  soldiers,  and  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  magistrates,  was  es- 
tablished in  1696;  and  it  was  not  finally  abol- 
ished till  the  present  century.  Edinburgh,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  was  more 
than  twice  as  large  as  any  other  Scotch  town. 
Its  population  at  the  time  of  the  union  slightly 
exceeded  30,000,  while  that  of  Glasgow  was  not 
quite  15,000,  that  of  Dundee  not  quite  10,000, 
and  that  of  Perth  about  7,000.  "—W.  E.  H.  Lecky, 
Uist.  of  Eng.  in  tlie  Vith  Century,  ch.  5  (v.  2). 


672 


EDINBURGH. 


EDUCATION. 


A.  D.  1736.— The  Porteous  Riot.— "The  cir- 
cumstances of  the  Porteous  Uiot  are  faniiliiir 
wherever  the  EngUsli  tongue  is  spoken,  because 
tlicy  were  made  tlie  dramatic  opening  of  one  of 
ilia  finest  stories  l)y  tliat  admirable  genius  who, 
like  Shakespeare  in  his  plays,  lias  conveyed  to 
plain  men  more  of  the  spirit  and  action  of  the 
past  in  noble  Action,  than  they  would  find  in 
most  pro'csst;?  chronicles  of  fact.  The  early 
scenes  o'  the  '  Heart  of  Midlothian '  are  an  accu- 
rate account  of  the  transaction  which  gave  so 
much  trouble  to  Queen  Caroline  and  the  min- 
ister [Walpole].  A  smuggler  who  had  excited 
tlic  popular  imagination  by  his  daring  and  his 
chivalry  was  sentenced  to  be  hanged ;  after  his 
execution  the  mob  pressed  forward  to  cut  down 
his  body:  Porteous,  the  captai-.  of  the  City 
Guard,  ordered  hiS'mcn  to  fire,  and  several  per- 
sons were  shot  dead:  he  was  tried  for  murder, 
convicted,  and  sentenced,  but  at  the  last  moment 
a  reprieve  arrived  from  London,  to  the  intense 
indignation  of  a  crowd  athirst  for  vengeance: 
four  days  later,  under  m.  iterious  ringleaders 
who  could  never  afterwards  be  discovered,  fierce 
throngs  suddenly  gathered  together  at  nightfall 
to  the  beat  of  drum,  broke  into  the  prison, 
dragged  out  the  unliappy  Porteous,  and  sternly 
hanged  him  on  a  dyer's  pole  close  by  the  com- 
mon place  of  public  execution." — J.  Morley, 
Wal}X)le,  ch.  0. 

Also  in:  J.  McCarthy,  Hist,  of  the  Four 
Oeorges,  ch.  24  (b.  2). 

A.  D.  1745.— The  Young  Pretender  in  the 
«itT.    See  Scotland:  A.  D.  1745-1746. 

A.  D.  1779. — No-Popery  riots.  See  England  : 
A.  D.  1778-1780. 

» 

EDINGTON,  OR  ETHANDUN,  Battle  of 
<A.  D.  878).    See  Englamd:  A.  D.  855-880. 


EDMUND,  KinpofWessex.A.  D.  040-947. 
. . .  .Edmund  Ironside,  King  of  Wessex,  A.  D. 

1016. 
EDOMITES,    OR    IDUMEANS,    The.— 

"From  a  very  early  period  the  Edomites  were 
the  chief  of  the  nations  of  Arabia  Petnea. 
Amongst  the  branches  sprung,  according  to 
Arab  tradition,  from  the  pnmitive  Amalikii  they 
correspond  to  the  Arcam,  and  the  poster  ty  of 
Esau,  after  settling  amongst  them  as  we  have 
seen,  became  the  dominant  family  from  which 
the  chiefs  were  chosen.  The  original  habitation 
of  the  Edomites  was  Mount  Seir,  wliencc  they 
spread  over  all  the  country  called  by  the  Greeks 
Qehalene,  that  is  the  prolongation  of  the  moun- 
tains joining  on  the  north  the  land  of  Mo 
into  the  Valley  of  Arabah,  and  the  surrounding 
heights.  .  .  .  Saul  successfully  fought  the 
Edomifs;  under  David,  Joab  and  Abishai,  his 
generals,  completely  defeated  them,  and  David 
placed  garrisons  in  their  towns.  In  their  porta 
of  Elath  and  Eziongeber  were  built  the  fieefs 
sent  to  India  by  Iliram  and  Solomon.  .  .  .  After 
the  schism  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  Edomites  re- 
mained dependent  on  the  King  of  Judah. " — F. 
Lenormant,  Manual  of  Ancient  IIi»t.  of  the  East, 
hk.  7,  ch.  4.— See,  also,  Nabatiieans;  Jkws;  The 
Eakly  Hebukw  IIistouv  ;  and  Amalbkites. 

EDRED,  King  of  Wessex,  A.  D.  947-055. 

EDRISITES,  The.— After  the  revolt  of 
Moorish  or  Mahometan  Spain  from  the  caliphate 
of  Bagdad,  the  African  provinces  of  tlie  Mos- 
lems assumed  independence,  and  several  dynas- 
ties Iwcame  seated  —  among  them  t-hat  of  tlie 
Edrisites,  which  founded  the  city  and  kingdom 
of  Fez,  and  which  reigned  from  A.  D.  829  to 
907. — E.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  oftlieltoman 
Emp.,  ch.  52.— See,  also,  MAnosfETAK  Conquest: 
A.  D.  715-750. 


EDUCATION. 


Ancient. 
Egypt. — "In  the  education  of  youth  [the 
Egyptians]  were  particularly  strict;  and  'they 
knew,'  says  Plato,  'that  children  ought  to  be 
early  accustomed  to  such  gestures,  looks,  and 
motions  as  are  decent  and  proper;  and  not  to  be 
Buffered  either  to  hear  or  learn  any  verses  and 
songs  other  than  those  which  arc  calculated  to 
insiiire  them  with  virtue ;  and  they  consequently 
took,  care  that  every  dance  and  ode  introduced  at 
their  feasts  or  sacrifices  should  be  subject  to  cer- 
tain regulations.'"— Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  The 
Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians, 
D.  1,  p.  321. — "The  children  were  educated  ac- 
cording to  their  station  and  their  future  position 
in  life.  They  were  kept  in  strict  subjection  by 
their  parents,  and  respect  to  old  age  was  par- 
ticularly inculcated ;  the  children  o?  the  priests 
were  educated  very  tlioroughly  in  writing  of  all 
kinds,  hieroglyphic,  hieratic,  and  demotic,  and 
In  the  sciences  of  astronomy,  mathematics,  etc. 
The  Jewish  deliverer  Moses  was  educated  after 
the  manner  of  the  priests,  and  the  'wisdom  of 
the  Egyptians'  became  a  proverbial  expression 
among  the  outside  nations,  as  indicating  the 
utmost  limit  of  liumau  knowledge." — E.  A.  W. 
Budge,  The  Dwellers  on  the  Nile,  ch.  10.— "On 
the  education  of  the  Egyptians,  Diodorus  makes 
the  following  remarks:- 'The  children  of  the 


priests  are  taught  two  different  kinds  of  writing, 
—  what  is  called  the  sacred,  and  the  more  general ; 
and  they  pay  great  attention  to  geometry  and 
arithmetic.  For  tlie  river,  changing  the  appear- 
ance of  the  L.,untry  very  materially  every  year, 
is  the  cause  of  many  and  various  discussions 
among  neighbouring  proprietors  about  the  ex- 
tent of  their  property ;  and  it  would  be  difficult 
for  any  person  to  decide  upon  their  claims  with- 
out geometrical  reasoning,  founded  on  actual  ob- 
servation. Of  arithmetic  they  have  also  frequent 
need,  both  in  their  domestic  economy,  and  in  the 
application  of  geometrical  theorems,  besides  its 
utility  in  the  cultivation  of  astronomical  studies; 
for  the  orders  and  motions  of  tlie  stars  •^ro  ob- 
served at  least  as  industriously  by  the  Egyptians 
as  by  any  people  whatever;  and  they  keep  record 
of  the  motions  of  each  for  an  incredible  number 
of  years,  the  study  of  this  science  liaving  been, 
from  the  remotest  times,  an  object  of  national 
ambition  with  them.  .  .  .  But  the  generality  of 
the  common  people  learn  only  from  their  parents 
or  relations  tliat  which  is  required  for  the  exer- 
cise of  their  peculiar  professions,  ...  a  fevr 
only  being  taught  anything  of  literature,  and 
those  principally  the  better  class  of  artificers.' 
Hence  it  appears  they  were  not  confined  to  any 
particular  rules  in  the  mode  of  educating  their 
cli  ildren,  and  it  depended  upon  a  parent  to  choose 


673 


EDUCATION. 


Ancient. 


EDUCATION. 


the  degree  of  instruction  he  deemed  most  suit- 
able to  their  motlo  of  life  and  occupations,  as 
among  otlicrcivilise*!  nations." — Sir  .J.  O.  Wilkin- 
8un,  f'/ie  Manners  and  Cuttom*  of  the  Kgyptiant, 
«.  1,  pp.  175-176.— '"Tliere  isnotliing  lilie  being 
ascribe,'  tlie  wise  sny;  'tlio  scribe  gets  all  that  is 
uponearth.'.  .  .  The  scribe  is  simply  a  man  who 
knows  how  to  read  and  write,  to  draw  up 
administrative  formulas,  and  to  calculate  inter- 
est. The  Instruction  which  he  has  received  is  a 
necessary  complement  of  his  position  If  lie  be- 
longs to  a  good  family,  whilst  if  he  be  poor  it 
enables  him  to  obtain  a  lucrative  situation  in  the 
administration  or  at  the  house  of  a  wealthy  per- 
sonage. There  is,  therefore,  no  sacrifice  which 
the  smaller  folk  deem  too  great,  if  it  enables 
them  to  give  their  sons  the  ac((uirements  which 
may  raise  them  above  the  common  people,  or  at 
least  Insure  a  less  miserable  fate.  It  one  of 
them,  in  Ills  infancy,  displays  any  intelligence, 
they  send  him,  when  about  six  or  eight  years 
old,  to  the  district  school,  where  an  old  peda- 
gogue teaches  Iilm  the  rudiments  of  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic.  Towards  ten  or  twelve 
years  old,  they  withdraw  him  from  the  care  of 
this  lirst  teacher  and  apprentice  him  to  a  scribe 
in  some  olHce,  who  undertakes  to  make  him 
a  'learned  scribe.'  The  child  accompanies  his 
master  to  his  office  or  work-yard,  and  there  passes 
entire  mouths  in  copying  letters,  circulars,  legal 
documents,  or  accounts,  which  he  does  not  at 
first  understand,  but  which  he  faithfully  remem- 
bers. Tiiere  ore  books  for  his  use  fifll  of  copies 
taken  from  well-known  authors,  which  he  studies 
perpetually.  If  he  requires  a  brief,  precise  re- 
port, this  Is  how  Ennana  worded  one  of  his :  — 
'  I  reached  Elephantlao  and  accomplished  my 
mission.  I  reviewed  the  infantry  and  the  chariot 
soldiers  from  the  temples,  as  well  as  the  servants 
and  subordinates  who  are  in  the  hou.ses  of  Phar- 
aoh's .  .  .  offlclals.  As  my  journey  Is  for  the 
Eurpose  of  making  a  report  in  the  presence  of 
is  Majesty,  .  .  .  the  course  of  my  business  is  as 
rapid  as  that  of  the  Nile ;  you  need  not,  there- 
fore, feel  anxious  about  me.'  There  is  not  a 
superfluous  word.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  pe- 
tition in  a  poetical  stylo  be  required,  see  how 
PentoVrIt  asked  for  a  holiday.  '  My  heart  has 
left  me,  it  is  travelling  and  does  not  know  how 
to  return,  it  sees  Memphis  and  hastens  there. 
Would  that  I  were  in  Its  place.  I  remain  here, 
busy  following  my  heart,  which  endeavours  to 
draw  me  towanls  Memphis.  I  have  no  work  in 
hand,  my  heart  is  tormented.  May  It  please  the 
god  Ptah  to  lead  me  to  Memphis,  and  do  thou 
grant  that  I  moy  be  seen  walking  there.  I  am 
at  leisure,  my  heart  is  watching,  my  heart  Is  no 
longer  in  my  bosom,  languor  has  seized  my 
limbs;  my  eye  '-  dim,  my  ear  hardened,  my 
voice  feeble,',  i:-  '  failure  of  all  my  strength. 
I  pray  thee  remcuy  all  this. '  The  pupil  copies 
and  recopies,  the  master  inserts  forgotten  words, 
corrects  the  faults  of  spelling,  and  draws  on  the 
margin  the  signs  or  groups  unskilfully  traced. 
When  the  book  is  duly  fluisbed  and  the  appren- 
tice can  write  all  the  formulas  from  memory, 
portions  of  phrases  are  detached  from  them, 
which  he  must  join  together,  so  as  to  combine 
new  formulas;  the  master  then  entrusts  him 
with  the  composition  of  a  few  letters,  gradually 
increasing  the  number  and  adding  to  the  ditn- 
culties.  As  soon  as  he  has  fairly  mastered  the 
oniiuary  daily  routine  his  education  is  ended, 


and  an  unimportant  post  is  sought  for.  lie  ob- 
tains it  antl  then  marries,  becoming  the  liead  of 
a  family,  sometimes  before  he  is  twenty  years 
old ;  lie  has  no  f  urtlier  ambition,  but  is  content 
to  vegetate  quietly  in  the  obscure  circle  where 
fate  has  thrown  him." — Q.  Maspero,  Life  in, 
Ancient  Eyypt  and  Assyria,  eh.  1.  —  "In  the 
schools,  where  the  poor  scribe's  child  sat  on  the 
same  bench  beside  the  offspring  of  the  rich,  to  bo 
trained  in  discipline  and  wise  learning,  the  mas- 
ters knew  how  by  timely  wonls  to  goad  on  the 
lagging  diligence  of  the  ambitious  scliolars,  by 
holuing  out  to  them  the  future  reward  which 
awaited  youths  skilled  in  knowledge  and  letters. 
Thus  the  slumbering  spark  of  self-esteem  was 
stirred  to  u  flame  In  the  youthful  breast,  and 
emulation  was  stimulated  among  the  boys.  The 
clever  son  of  the  poor  man,  too,  might  hope  by 
his  knowledge  to  climb  the  ladiicr  of  the  higher 
o." '  jes,  for  neither  his  birth  nor  position  raised 
any  barrier.  If  only  the  youth's  mental  power 
justified  fair  hopes  for  the  future.  In  this  sense, 
the  restmiuts  of  caste  did  not  exist,  and  neither 
descent  nor  family  hampered  the  rising  career  of 
the  clever.  Many  a  monument  consecrated  to 
the  memory  of  some  nobleman  gone  to  his  long 
home,  who  during  life  had  held  high  rank  at  the 
court  of  Pharaoli,  Is  decorated  with  the  simple 
but  laudatory  inscription,  'His  ancestors  were 
unknown  people.'  It  is  a  satisfaction  to  avow 
that  the  training  and  instruction  of  the  young 
interested  the  Egyptians  in  tlie  highest  degree. 
For  they  fully  recognised  in  this  tlie  sole  means 
of  cultivating  their  national  life,  and  of  fulfilling 
the  high  civilizing  mission  which  Providence 
seemed  to  have  placed  in  their  hands.  But 
above  all  things  they  regarded  justice,  and  virtue 
had  the  highest  price  in  their  eyes. " — H.  Brugsch- 
Bey,  Ui»t.  of  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,  v.  1,  p. 
23. 

Babylonia  and  Assyria. —  "The  primitive 
Chaldeans  were  pre-eminently  a  literary  people, 
and  it  is  by  their  literary  relics,  by  the  scattered 
contents  of  their  libraries,  that  we  can  know  and 
judge  them.  As  befitted  tlie  inventors  of  a  sys- 
tem of  writing,  like  the  Chinese  they  set  the 
highest  value  on  education,  even  though  exam- 
inations may  have  been  unknown  among  them. 
Education,  however,  was  widely  diffused.  .  .  . 
Assur-bani-pal's  library  was  open  to  the  use  and 
enjoyment  of  all  his  subjects,  undthe  syllabaries, 
grammars,  lexicons,  and  reading-books  that  it 
contained,  show  the  extent  to  whicli  not  only 
their  own  language  was  studied  by  the  Assyrians, 
but  the  dead  language  of  ancient  Accad  as  well. 
It  became  as  fasfiionable  to  compose  in  this  ex- 
tinct tongue  as  it  is  now-a-days  to  display  one's 
proficiency  in  Latin  prose,  and  '  dog-Accadlan ' 
was  perpetrated  with  as  little  remorse  as  '  dog- 
Latin  '  at  the  present  time.  One  of  the  Babylon- 
ion  cylinders  found  by  General  di  Cesnola  in  the 
temple-treasure  of  Kurium,  which  probably  be- 
longs to  the  period  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  dynasty, 
has  a  legend  which  endeavours  to  imitate  the 
Inscriptions  of  the  early  Accadian  princes;  but 
the  very  first  word,  by  an  unhappy  error,  be- 
trays tlie  insufficient  knowledge  of  the  old  lan- 
guage possessed  by  Its  composer.  Besides  a 
knowledge  of  Accadian,  the  educated  Assyrian 
was  required  to  hove  also  a  knowledge  of  Ara- 
maic, which  had  now  become  tlie  '  lingua  franca ' 
of  trade  and  diplomacy ;  and  we  find  the  Rab- 
shakeh  (Rab-saUd),  or  prime  minister,  who  was 


m 


EDUCATION. 


Ancient. 


EDUCATION. 


sent  against  HcKckiah  by  Sennacherib,  iicquainted 
with  llebrew  as  well.  The  grammiticnl  and 
lexical  works  in  the  library  of  Nineveh  arc  es- 
pecially interesting,  as  being  the  earliestattempts 
of  the  kind  of  which  we  know,  and  it  is  curious 
to  find  the  Haniiltonian  method  of  learning 
languages  forestalled  by  the  scribes  of  Assur- 
br.nipal.  In  this  case,  as  in  all  others,  the  first 
enquiries  into  the  nature  of  speech,  and  the  first 
grammars  and  dictionaries,  were  duo  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  comparing  two  languages  together ;  it 
was  the  Accadian  whicli  forced  the  Semitic  As- 
syrian or  Babylonian  to  stiuiy  his  own  tongue. 
And  already  in  these  first  efforts  tlie  main  princi- 
ples of  Semitic  grammar  are  laid  down  clearly 
and  definitely." — A.  II.  Sayco,  Bibyloniaii Litera- 
ture, pp.  71-73. — "The  Babylonians  were  the 
Chinese  of  the  ancient  world.  They  were  es- 
sentially a  reading  and  writing  people.  .  .  .  The 
books  were  for  the  most  part  written  upon  clay 
with  a  wooden  reed  or  metal  stylus,  for  clay  was 
cheap  and  plentiful,  and  easily  impressed  ivith 
the  wedge-shaped  lines  of  whicli  the  characters 
were  composed.  But  besides  clay,  papyrus  and 
possibly  also  parcliment  were  employed  as  writ- 
ing materials.  .  .  .  The  use  of  clav  for  writing 
purposes  extended,  along  with  Babylonian  cul- 
ture, to  the  neighbouring  populations  of  the 
East.  ...  It  is  astonishing  how  much  matter 
can  be  compressed  into  the  compass  of  a  single 
tablet.  The  cuneiform  system  of  writing  allowed 
the  use  of  many  abbreviations  —  thanks  to  its 
'  ideographic '  nature  —  and  the  characters  were 
frequently  of  a  very  minute  size.  Indeed,  so 
minute  is  the  writing  on  many  of  the  Assyrian 
(as  distinguished  from  the  Babylonian)  tablets 
that  it  is  clear  not  only  that  the  Assyrian  scribes 
and  readers  must  have  been  decidedly  short- 
sighted, but  also  that  they  must  have  made  use  of 
magnifying  glasses.  We  need  not  be  surprised, 
therefore,  to  learn  that  Sir  A.  H.  Layard  dis- 
covered a  crystal  lens,  which  had  been  turned 
on  a  lathe,  upon  the  site  of  the  great  library  of 
Nineveh.  ...  To  learn  the  cuneiform  syllabary 
was  a  task  of  much  time  and  labour.  Tlie  stu- 
dent was  accordingly  provided  with  various 
means  of  assistance.  Tlio  characters  of  the  syl- 
latiary  were  classified  and  named;  they  were 
further  arranged  according  to  a  certain  order, 
which  partly  depended  on  the  number  of  wedges 
or  lines  of  which  each  was  composed.  Moreover, 
what  we  may  term  dictionaries  were  compiled. 
...  To  learn  the  signs,  however,  with  their  mul- 
titudinous phonetic  values  and  ideographic  sig- 
nifications, was  not  the  whole  of  the  labour  which 
the  Babylonian  boy  had  to  accomplish.  The 
cuneiform  system  of  writing,  along  with  tlio  cul- 
ture which  had  produced  it,  had  been  the  inven- 
tion of  the  non-Semitic  Accado-Sumerian  race, 
from  whom  it  had  been  borrowed  by  the  Semites. 
In  Semitic  hands  the  syllabary  underwent  further 
modifications  and  additions,  but  it  bore  upon  it 
to  the  lost  the  stamp  of  its  alien  origin.  On  this 
account  alone,  therefore,  the  Babylonian  student 
who  wished  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  reading 
and  writing  was  obliged  to  learn  the  extinct  lan- 
guage of  the  older  population  of  the  country. 
There  was,  however,  another  reason  which  even 
more  imperatively  obliged  him  to  study  the 
earlier  tongue.  A  large  proportion  of  the  an- 
cient literature,  more  especially  that  which  re- 
lated to  religious  subjects,  was  written  in  Accado- 
Sumerian.    Evec  the  law-cases  of  earllgr  times, 


which  formed  precedents  for  the  law  of  a  later 
age,  wore  in  the  same  langnace.  In  fact,  Accado- 
Sumeriun  stood  in  much  the  same  relation  to  the 
Semitic  Babylonians  tliat  Latin  has  stood  to  tlio 
modern  inliabitants  of  Europe.  .  .  .  Besides 
Icaniing  the  syllabary,  therefore,  the  Babylonian 
boy  liacl  to  learn  the  extinct  language  of  Accad 
antl  Sumer.  .  .  .  The  study  of  foreign  tongues 
naturally  brought  with  it  an  inquisitiveness  about 
tlic  languages  of  other  people,  as  well  as  a  pas- 
sion for  etymology.  .  .  .  But  there  were  other 
things  besides  languages  which  the  young  stu- 
dent in  the  schools  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  was 
called  upon  to  learn.  Geography,  history,  the 
names  and  nature  of  plants,  birds,  animals,  and 
stones,  as  well  as  the_  elements  of  law  and  re- 
ligion, were  all  objects  of  instruction.  The  Brit- 
ish Museum  possesses  what  may  be  culled  the 
historical  exercise  of  some  Babylonian  lad  in 
the  age  of  Nebucl'adne/.zar  or  Cyrus,  consist- 
ing of  a  list  of  the  kings  belonging  to  one  of 
the  early  dynasties,  which  he  hail  been  required 
to  learn  by  heart.  ...  A  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  Babylonia  could  read 
and  write.  The  contract  tablets  are  written  in 
a  variety  of  running  hands,  some  of  which  are 
as  !)ad  as  the  worst  that  passes  through  the  mod- 
ern post.  Every  legal  document  required  the 
signatures  of  a  number  of  witnesses,  and  most 
of  these  were  able  to  write  their  own  names. 
...  In  Assyria,  however,  education  was  by  no 
means  so  widely  spread.  Apart  from  the  upper 
and  professional  classes,  including  the  men  of 
business,  it  was  confined  to  a  special  body  of 
men  —  the  public  scribes.  .  .  .  There  was  none 
of  that  jealous  exclusion  of  women  in  ancient 
Babylonia  which  characterizes  tlie  East  of  to- 
day, and  it  is  jirobable  that  boys  and  girls  pur- 
sued their  studies  at  the  same  schools.  The  edu- 
cation of  a  child  must  have  begun  early. " —  A. 
H.  Sayce,  Social  Life  among  tlie  Bahyloniaiis, 
eh.  3. 

China. — "It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known 
that  Peking  contains  an  ancient  university ;  for, 
though  certain  buildings  connected  with  it  have 
been  frequently  described,  the  institution  Itself 
has  been  but  little  noticed.  Itgives,  indeed,  so  few 
signs  of  life  that  it  is  not  surprising  it  should  bo 
overlooked.  .  .  .  If  a  local  situation  be  deemed  an 
essential  element  of  identity,  this  old  university 
must  yield  the  palm  of  age  to  many  in  Europe, 
for  in  its  present  site  it  dates,  at  most,  only  from 
the  Yuen,  or  Mongol,  dynasty,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  But  as  an  imperial 
institution,  having  a  fixed  organization  and  def- 
inite objects,  it  carries  its  history,  or  at  least  its 
pedigree,  buck  to  a  period  far  anterior  to  the 
founding  of  the  Great  Wall.  Among  the  Regu- 
lations of  the  House  of  Chow,  which  flourished  a 
thousand  years  before  the  Christian  em,  wo  meet 
witli  it  already  in  full-blown  vigor,  and  under  the 
identical  name  which  it  now  bears,  that  of  Kwots- 
zekien,  or  'School  for  the  Sons  of  the  Empire.' 
It  was  in  its  glory  before  the  light  of  science 
dawned  on  Greece,  and  when  Pythagoras  and 
Plato  were  pumping  their  secrets  from  the  priests 
of  Heliopolis.  And  it  still  exists,  but  it  is  only 
an  embodiment  of  'life  in  der.th:'  its  halls  arc 
tombs,  and  its  officers  living  mummies.  In  the 
latli  Book  of  the  Cliowle  (see  Kites  do  Tclieou,  tra- 
duction par  fidouard  Blot),  we  find  the  functions 
cf  the  heads  of  the  Kwotszekien  laid  down  with  a 
good  deal  cl  minuteness.    The  presidents  were  to 


675 


EDUCATION. 


Ancient. 


EDUCATION. 


admonish  tho  Emperor  of  that  which  18  good  and 
just,  iimi  to  instruct  tlio  Sons  of  tlie  State  in  the 
'three  constant  virtues'  and  tlic  'three  practical 
duties ' — in  other  words,  to  give  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  moral  philosophy.  The  vice-presidents 
were  to  reprove  the  Emperor  for  his  faults  (i.  e., 
to  jjcrform  the  duty  of  oflicial  censors)  and  to  dis- 
cipline 'he  Sous  of  the  State  in  the  sciences  and 
arts  —  viz.,  in  arithmetic,  writing,  music,  arch- 
<'ry,  lu)rsemunship  and  ritual  ceremcuios.  .  .  . 
The  old  curriculum  is  religiously  adhered  to,  but 
greater  latitude  is  given,  as  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  observe,  to  tlie  term  '  Sons  of  the  State. '  In 
the  days  of  Cliow,  this  meant  the  heir-apparent, 
princes  of  the  blood,  and  children  of  the  nobility. 
Under  the  Tafsing  dynasty  it  signifies  men  of 
defective  scholarship  througliout  the  provinces, 
who  purchase  literari'  degrees,  and  more  specific- 
ally certain  indigent  students  of  Peking,  wlio 
are  aided  by  the  imperial  bounty.  Tlie  Kwotszc- 
kicn  is  located  in  the  northeastern  angle  of  the 
Tartar  city,  with  a  temple  of  Confucius  attached, 
which  is  one  of  the  finest  in  tlie  Empire.  The 
main  edifice  (that  of  the  temple)  consists  of  a  sin- 
gle story  of  imposing  height,  with  a  porcelain  roof 
of  tent-like  curvature.  ...  It  contains  no  seats, 
as  all  comers  are  expected  to  stand  or  kneel  in 
presence  of  the  Great  Teacher.  Neither  does  it 
boast  anything  in  the  way  of  artistic  decpration, 
nor  exhibit  any  trace  of  that  nentness  and  taste 
which  wo  look  for  in  a  sacred  place.  Perhaps  its 
vast  area  is  designedly  left  to  dust  and  emptiness, 
in  order  that  nothing  may  intervene  to  disturb 
the  mind  in  the  contemplation  of  a  great  name 
which  receives  the  homage  of  a  nation.  ...  In 
an  adjacent  block  or  square  stands  a  pavilion 
known  as  the  'Imperial  Lecture-room,'  because 
it  is  incumbent  on  each  occupant  of  the  Dragon 
throne  to  go  there  at  least  once  in  his  life-time  to 
hear  a  discourse  on  the  nature  and  responsibilities 
of  liis  office.  ...  A  canal  spanned  by  marble 
bridges  encircles  the  pavilion,  and  arches  of  glit- 
tering porcelain,  in  excellent  repair,  adorn  the 
grounds.  But  neither  these  nor  the  pavilion  it- 
self constitutes  the  chief  attraction  of  the  place. 
Under  a  long  corridor  which  encloses  the  entirs 
space  may  be  seen  as  many  as  one  hundred  and 
eighty-two  columns  of  massive  granite,  each  in- 
scribed with  a  portion  of  the  canonical  books. 
These  are  the  'Stone  Classics' — the  entire  'Thir- 
teen,' which  formed  the  staple  of  a  Cliinese  edu- 
cation, being  here  enshrined  in  a  material  supposed 
to  be  imperishable.  Among  all  the  Universities 
in  the  world,  the  Kwotszekien  is  unique  in  the 
possession  of  such  a  library.  This  is  not,  indeed, 
the  only  stone  library  extant  —  another  of  equal 
extent  being  found  at  Singanf  u,  the  ancient  capi- 
tal of  the  Tangs.  But,  that  too,  was  the  property 
of  the  Kwotszekien  ten  centuries  ago,  when  8in- 
gan  was  the  seat  of  empire.  The  '  School  for 
the  Sons  of  the  Empire '  must  needs  follow  the 
migrations  of  tlie  court ;  and  that  library,  costly 
as  It  was,  being  too  heavy  for  transportation,  it 
was  thought  best  to  supply  its  place  by  the  new 
edition  which  we  have  been  describing.  ...  In 
front  of  the  temple  stands  a  forest  of  columns  of 
scarcely  inferior  interest.  They  are  three  hundred 
and  twenty  in  number,  and  contain  the  univers- 
ity roll  of  "honor,  a  complete  list  of  all  who  since 
the  founding  of  the  institution  have  attained  to 
the  dignity  of  the  doctorate.  Allow  to  each  an 
average  of  two  hundred  names,  and  we  have  an 
urmy  of  doctors  sixty  thousand  strong  1    (By  the 


doctorate  I  mean  the  third  or  highest  degree.)  All 
these  received  their  investiture  at  the  Kwotsze- 
kien, and,  throwing  themselves  at  the  feet  of  its 
president,  enrolled  themselves  among  the  '  Sons 
of  the  Empire.'  Tiiey  were  not,  however  —  at 
least  the  most  of  them  were  not —  in  any  proper 
sense  alumni  of  the  Kwotszekien,  having  pursued 
their  studies  in  private,  and  won  their  lionors  by 
public  competition  in  the  halls  of  the  Civil-serv- 
ice Examining  Board.  .  .  .  There  is  an  immense 
urea  occupied  by  lecture-rooms,  examination-halls 
and  lodging-apartments.  But  the  visitor  is  liable 
to  imagine  that  i,!iese,  too,  are  consecrated  to  a 
monumental  use  —  so  rarely  is  a  student  or  a  pro- 
fessor to  be  seen  among  them.  Ordinarily  they 
are  as  desolate  as  the  halls  of  Baalbec  or  Pal- 
myra. In  fact,  tliis  great  school  for  the  'Sons 
of  the  Empire '  has  long  ceased  to  be  a  seat  of 
instruction,  and  degenerated  into  a  mere  append- 
age of  the  civil-service  competitive  examinations 
on  which  it  hangs  as  a  dead  weight,  corrupting 
and  debasing  instead  of  advancing  the  standard 
of  national  education." — W.  A.  P.  JIartin,  The 
Chinese,  ilieir  Education,  Philosophy  and  Letters, 
pp.  85-00. 

Persia. — "All  the  best  authorities  are  agreed 
that  great  pains  were  taken  by  the  Persians  — 
or,  at  any  rate,  by  those  of  the  leading  clans  —  in 
the  education  of  their  sons.  During  the  first 
five  years  of  his  life  the  boy  remained  wholly 
with  the  women,  and  was  scarcely,  if  at  all,  seen 
by  his  father.  After  that  time  his  training  com- 
menced. He  was  expected  to  rise  before  dawn, 
and  to  appear  at  a  certain  spot,  where  he  was 
exercised  with  other  boys  of  his  age  in  running, 
slinging  stones,  shooting  with  tlie  bow,  and 
throwing  the  javelin.  At  seven  he  was  taught 
to  ride,  and  soon  afterward  he  was  allowed  to 
begin  to  hunt.  The  riding  included,  not  only 
the  ordinary  management  of  the  horse,  but  the 
power  of  jumping  on  and  off  his  back  when  he 
was  at  speed,  and  of  shooting  with  the  bow  and 
throwing  the  javelin  with  unerring  aim,  while 
the  horse  was  still  at  full  gallop.  The  hunting 
was  conducted  by  state-oliicers,  who  aimed  at 
forming  by  its  means  in  the  youths  committed  to 
their  charge  all  the  qualities  needed  in  war. 
The  boys  were  made  to  bear  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  to  perform  long  marches,  to  cross  rivers 
without  wetting  their  weapons,  to  sleep  in  the 
open  air  at  night,  to  be  content  with  a  single 
meal  in  two  days,  and  to  support  themselves 
occasionally  on  the  wild  products  of  the  country, 
acorns,  wild  pears  and  the  fruit  of  the  terebinth- 
tree.  On  days  when  there  was  no  hunting  they 
passed  their  mornings  in  athletic  exercises,  and 
contests  with  the  bow  or  the  javelin,  after  which 
they  dined  simply  on  the  plain  food  mentioned 
above  as  that  of  the  men  in  the  early  times,  and 
then  employed  themselves  during  the  afternoon 
in  occupations  regarded  as  not  illiberal  —  for  in- 
stance, in  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  planting, 
digging  for  roots,  and  the  like,  or  in  the  con- 
struction of  arms  and  hunting  implements,  such 
as  nets  and  springes.  Hardy  and  temperate 
habits  being  secured  by  this  training,  the  point 
of  morals  on  which  their  preceptors  mainly  in- 
sisted was  the  rigid  observance  of  truth.  Of  in- 
tellectual education  they  had  but  little.  _  It  seems 
to  have  been  no  part  of  the  regular  training  of  a 
Persian  youtli  that  he  should  learn  to  read.  He 
was  given  religious  notions  and  a  certain  amount 
of   moral   knowledge  by  means  of   legendary 


676 


EDUCATION. 


Ancient. 


EDUCATION. 


poems,  in  which  tlie  deeds  of  gods  and  hcriH'S 
were  set  liefore  liini  by  liis  teachers,  who  recited 
or  Sling  them  in  Ids  presence,  and  afterwards  re- 
quired him  to  repent  wliat  he  lind  heard,  or,  at 
any 'rate,  to  give  some  account  of  it.  This  educa- 
tion continJied  for  fifteen  years,  ('onunencing 
when  the  boy  was  five,  and  terminating  wlieu  lie 
readied  the  age  of  twenty.  Tlie  effect  of  tliis 
training  was  to  render  tlie  Persian  an  excellent 
soldier  and  a  most  accomplished  horseman.  .  .  . 
At  fifteen  years  of  age  the  Persian  was  con- 
sidered to  have  attained  to  manluxxl,  and  was 
enrolled  in  the  ranks  of  the  army,  continuing 
liable  to  military  service  from  that  time  till  he 
reached  the  age  of  fifty.  Those  of  the  highest 
mnk  became  the  body-guard  of  the  king,  and 
these  formed  the  garrison  of  the  capital.  .  .  . 
Others,  though  liable  to  military  service,  did  not 
adopt  arms  as  their  profession,  but  attached 
themselves  to  the  Court  and  looked  to  civil  em- 
ployment, as  satraps,  secretaries,  attendants, 
ushers,  judges,  inspectors,  messengers.  .  .  .  For 
trade  and  commerce  the  Persians  were  wont  to 
express  extreme  contempt." — Q.  Rawlinson,  The 
Mve  Oreat  Monarchien  of  the  Ancient  Eastern 
World,  V.  3,  pp.  238-242.  — After  the  death  of 
Cyrus,  according  to  Xenophon,  the  Persians  de- 
generated, in  the  education  of  their  youth  and 
otlierwlse.  "  To  educate  the  youth  at  the  gates 
of  the  palace  is  still  the  custom,"  he  says;  "but 
the  attainment  and  practice  of  liorsemanship  are 
extinct,  because  they  do  not  go  where  they  can 
gain  applause  by  exhibiting  skill  in  that  exercise. 
Whereas,  too,  in  former  times,  the  boys,  hearing 
causes  justly  decided  there,  were  considered  by 
that  means  to  learn  justice,  that  custom  is  alto- 
gether altered ;  for  they  now  sec  those  gain  their 
causes  who  offer  the  highest  bribes.  Formerly, 
also,  Ijoys  were  taught  the  virtues  of  the  various 
proauctions  of  the  earth,  in  order  that  they  might 
use  the  serviceable,  and  avoid  the  noxious ;  but 
now  they  seem  to  be  taught  those  particulars 
that  they  may  do  as  much  harm  as  possible ;  at 
least  there  are  nowhere  so  many  killed  or  injured 
by  poison  as  in  that  country." — Xenophon,  Gyro- 
padia  and  Hellenics ;  trans,  by  J.  S.  Watson  and 
H.  Dale,  pp.  284-285. 

Judxa. — "According  to  the  statement  of  Jo- 
sephud,  Moses  had  already  prescribed  '  that  boys 
should  learn  the  most  important  laws,  because 
that  is  the  best  knowledge  and  the  cause  of  pros- 
perity.' '  He  commanded  to  instruct  children  in 
the  elements  of  knowledge  (reading  and  writ- 
ing), to  teach  them  to  walk  according  to  the 
laws,  and  to  know  the  deeds  of  their  forefathers. 
The  latter,  that  they  might  imitate  them;  the 
former,  that  growing  up  with  the  laws  they 
might  not  transgress  them,  nor  have  the  excuse 
of  ignorance.'  Josephus  repeatedly  commends 
the  zeal  with  which  the  instruction  of  the  young 
was  carried  on.  '  We  take  most  pains  of  all  with 
the  instruction  of  cliildren,  and  esteem  the  ob- 
servance of  the  laws  and  the  piety  corresponding 
with  them  the  most  important  ailair  of  our  whole 
life. '  '  If  any  one  should  question  one  pf  us  con- 
cerning the  laws,  he  would  more  easily  repeat 
all  than  his  own  name.  Since  wo  learn  them 
from  our  first  consciousness,  we  have  them,  as  it 
were,  engraven  on  our  souls ;  and  a  transgression 
is  rare,  but  the  averting  of  imnishment  impossi- 
ble. '  In  like  manner  does  Philo  express  himself : 
'  Since  the  Jews  esteem  their  laws  as  divine  reve- 
lations, and  are  instructed  iu  the  knowledge  of 


them  from  their  earliest  youth,  they  bear  the 
image  of  the  law  in  their  souls. '  ...  In  view  of, 
all  this  testimony  it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  in 
the  circles  of  genuine  Judaism  boys  were  from 
their  tenderest  childhood  made  acquainted  with 
the  demands  of  the  law.  That  this  education  in 
the  law  was,  in  the  first  place,  the  duty  and 
task  of  parents  is  self-evident.  But  it  appears, 
that  even  in  the  age  of  Christ,  care  was  also 
taken  for  tlie  instruction  of  youth  by  the  erec- 
tion of  schools  on  the  part  of  the  community.  .  .  . 
Tlie  later  tradition  that  Joshua  ben  Gnmla  (Jesus 
the  son  of  Gamaliel)  enacted  that  teachers  of  boys 
.  .  .  should  bo  api)<)inted  in  evfry  jirovince  and 
in  every  town,  and  tliat  children  of  the  age  of  six 
or  seven  should  be  brought  to  them,  is  by  no 
means  incredible.  The  only  Jesus  the  son  of 
Gamaliel  known  to  history  is  the  high  priest  of 
that  name,  about  03-05  after  Christ.  ...  It  must 
therefore  be  he  who  is  intended  iu  the  above  no- 
tice. As  his  measures  presuppose  a  somewhat 
longer  existence  of  boys'  schools,  we  may  with- 
out hesitation  transfer  them  to  the  age  of  Christ, 
even  though  not  ns  a  general  and  established  in- 
stitution. The  subject  of  instruction,  as  already 
appears  from  the  above  passages  of  Josephus 
and  Philo,  was  as  gcod  as  exclusively  tl;c  law. 
For  only  its  inculcation  in  the  youthful  mind, 
and  not  the  means  of  general  education,  was 
the  aim  of  all  this  zeal  for  the  instruction  of 
youth.  And  indeed  the  earliest  instruction  was 
in  the  reading  and  inculcation  of  the  text  of 
scripture.  .  .  .  Habitual  practice  went  hand  in 
hand  with  theoretical  instruction.  For  though 
children  were  not  actually  bound  to  fulfil  the 
law,  they  were  yet  accustomed  to  it  from  their 
youth  up." — E.  SchUrcr,  History  of  the  Jewish 
People  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  v.  8,  pp.  47-50. 
— In  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  the  Council  of  Sev- 
enty Elders  "instituted  regularly  appointed 
readings  from  the  Law ;  on  every  sabbath  and  on 
every  week  day  a  portion  from  the  Pentateuch 
was  to  be  read  to  the  assembled  congregation. 
Twice  a  week,  when  the  country  people  came 
up  from  the  villages  to  market  in  the  neighbour- 
ing towns,  or  to  appeal  at  the  courts  of  justice, 
some  verses  of  the  Pentateuch,  however  few, 
were  read  publicly.  At  first  only  the  learned 
were  allowed  to  reod,  but  at  last  it  was  looked 
upon  as  so  great  an  honour  to  belong  to  the 
readers,  that  every  one  attempted  or  desired  to 
do  so.  Unfortunately  the  characters  in  which 
the  Torah  was  written  were  hardly  readable. 
Until  that  date  the  text  of  the  Torah  had  been 
written  in  the  ancient  style  with  Phieniciaii 
or  old  Babylonian  characters,  which  could  only 
be  deciphered  by  practised  scribes.  .  .  .  From 
the  constant  reading  of  the  Law,  there  arose 
among  the  Juda;ans  an  intellectual  activity  and 
vigour,  which  at  last  gave  a  special  character 
to  the  whole  nation.  The  Torah  became  their 
spiritual  and  intellectual  property,  and  their  own 
inner  sanctuary.  At  this  time  there  sprang  up 
other  important  institutions,  namely,  schools, 
where  the  young  men  could  stimulate  their  ar- 
dour and  increase  their  knowledge  of  the  Law 
and  its  teachings.  The  intellectual  leaders  of 
the  people  continually  enjoined  on  the  rising 
generation,  'Bring  up  a  great  many  disciples.' 
And  what  they  enjoined  so  strenuously  they 
themselves  must  have  assisted  to  accomplish. 
One  of  these  religious  schools  (Beth-Waad)  was 
probably  established  iu  Jerusalem.    The  teach- 


677 


EDUCATION. 


Meat  of 
Plato  and  AriilotU. 


EDUCATION. 


era  were  cnllcil  scribes  (soplieriin)  or  wise  men; 
the  disciples,  pupils  of  tlic  wise  (Tnlniude  (.'liii- 
chiimim).  The  wise  men  or  scribes  hud  ii  two- 
fold work;  on  tlic  one  hiiiid  tlicy  bud  to  cx])litin 
the  Tornh,  and  on  the  other,  to"  make  the  laws 
applicuble  to  eacli  individual  anu  to  the  commu- 
nity at  large.  This  supplementary  interpreta- 
tion was  called  'explanation'  (Midrash);  it  was 
not  altogether  arbitrary,  but  rested  upon  certain 
rules  laid  down  for  the  proper  interpretation  of 
tlic  law.  The  supreme  council  and  the  bouses  of 
learning  worked  together,  and  one  completed  the 
other.  A  hardly  perceptible,  but  most  import- 
ant movement  >yas  the  result;  for  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Juda'ans  of  that  age  were  endowed 
with  a  characteristic,  which  they  might  other- 
wise have  claimed  as  inborn,  the  talent  for  re- 
search and  the  intellectual  penetration,  needed 
for  turning  and  returning  words  and  data,  in 
onlcr  to  discover  some  new  and  hidden  mean- 
ing."— H.  Qraetz,  Hist,  of  the  Jew«,  v.  1,  ch.  20. 
— Schools  of  the  Prophets. — "  In  his  [Samuel's] 
time  we  first  hear  of  what  in  modern  phraseology 
are  called  the  Schools  of  the  Prophets.  What- 
ever be  the  precis"'  meaning  of  the  peculiar  word, 
which  now  came  first  into  use  as  the  designation 
of  these  companies,  it  is  evident  that  their  im- 
mediate ml'i»i'-,n  consisted  in  uttering  religious 
hymns  or  songs,  accompanied  by  musical  instru- 
ments —  psaltery,  tabret,  pipe  and  harp,  and  cym- 
bals. In  them,  as  in  the  few  solitary  Instancf;<i 
of  their  predecessors,  the  characteristic  elemenL 
was  that  the  silent  seer  of  visions  found  an  articu- 
late voice,  gushing  forth  in  a  rhythmical  flow, 
which  at  once  riveted  the  attention  of  the  hearer. 
These,  or  such  as  these,  were  the  gifts  which 
under  Samuel  were  now  organized,  if  one  may 
say  so,  into  a  system." — Dean  Stanley,  Lecta.  on 
the  Hist,  of  the  Jewish  Church,  led.  18. 

Greece. — A  description  of  the  Athenian  educa- 
tion of  the  young  is  given  by  Plato  in  one  of  his 
dialogues:  "Education,"  he  says,  "and  admoni- 
tion commence  in  the  first  years  of  childhood, 
and  last  to  the  very  end  of  life.  Mother  and 
nurse  and  father  and  tutor  are  quarrelling  about 
the  improvement  of  the  child  as  soon  as  ever  he 
is  able  to  understand  them :  he  cannot  say  or  do 
anything  without  their  e^tting  forth  to  him  that 
this  is  just  and  that  is  unjus^;  this  is  honourable, 
that  is  dishonourable ;  this  is  holy,  that  is  unholy ; 
do  this  and  abstain  from  that.  And  if  be  obeys, 
well  and  good;  if  not,  he  is  straightened  by 
threats  and  blows,  like  a  piece  of  warped  wood. 
At  a  later  stage  they  send  him  to  teachers,  and 
enjoin  them  to  see  to  his  manners  even  more  than 
to  his  reading  and  music;  and  the  teachers  do  as 
they  arc  desired.  And  when  the  boy  has  learned 
his  letters  and  is  beginning  to  uiulerstand  what  is 
written,  as  before  he  understoi  only  what  was 
spoken,  they  put  into  his  bands  the  works  of  great 
poets,  which  he  reads  at  school ;  in  these  are  con- 
tained many  admonitions,  and  many  tales,  ond 
praises,  and  encomia  of  ancient  famous  men, 
which  he  is  required  to  learn  by  heart,  in  order 
that  he  may  imitate  or  emulate  them  and  desire 
to  become  like  them.  Then,  again,  the  teachers 
of  the  lyre  take  similar  care  that  their  young  dis- 
ciple is  temperate  and  gets  into  no  mischief;  and 
when  they  have  taught  him  the  use  of  the  lyre, 
they  introduce  him  to  the  poems  of  other  excel- 
lent poets,  who  are  the  lyric  poets;  and  these 
they  set  to  music,  and  make  their  harmonies  and 
rhythms  quite  familiar  to  the  children,  in  order 


that  they  may  leorn  to  be  more  gentle,  and  har- 
monious, an<f  rhythmical,  and  so  more  fitted  for 
speech  and  action ;  for  the  life  of  men  in  every 
part  has  need  of  harmony  and  rhythm.  Then 
they  send  them  to  the  master  of  gymnastic,  in  order 
that  their  bodies  may  better  minister  to  the  vir- 
tuous mind,  and  that  the  weakness  of  their  bodies 
may  not  force  them  to  play  the  coward  in  war  or 
on  any  other  occasion.  This  is  what  is  done  by 
those  who  have  the  means,  and  those  who  have 
the  means  are  the  rich;  their  children  begin  edu- 
cation soonest  and  leave  off  latest.  When  they 
have  done  with  masters,  the  state  again  compels 
them  to  learn  the  laws,  and  live  after  the  pattern 
which  they  furnish,  and  not  after  their  own  fan- 
cies; and  just  as  in  learning  to  write,  the  writing- 
master  first  draws  lines  with  a  style  for  the  use 
of  the  young  beginner,  and  gives  him  the  tablet 
and  makes  him  follow  the  lines,  so  the  city  draws 
the  laws,  which  were  the  invention  of  good  law- 
givers who  were  of  old  times ;  these  are  given  to 
the  young  man,  in  order  to  guide  him  in  liis  con- 
duct whether  as  ruler  or  ruled ;  and  he  who  trans- 
gresses them  is  to  be  corrected,  or,  in  other  words, 
called  to  account,  which  is  ii  term  used  not  only 
in  your  country,  but  also  in  many  others.  Now 
when  there  is  all  this  care  about  virtue  private 
and  public,  why,  Socrates,  do  you  still  wonder  and 
doubt  whether  virtue  can  be  taught?" — Plato, 
Protagoras  (Dialogues;  trans,  by  Joicett,  v.  1). — 
The  ideas  of  Aristotle  on  the  subject  are  in  the 
following ;  "  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  children 
should  be  taught  those  useful  things  which  are 
really  necessary,  but  not  all  things;  for  occupa- 
tions arc  divided  into  liberal  and  illiberal ;  and  to 
young  children  should  be  imparted  only  such 
kinds  of  knowledge  as  will  be  useful  to  them 
without  vulgarizing  them.  And  any  occupation, 
art,  or  science,  which  makes  the  body  or  soul  or 
mind  of  the  freeman  less  fit  for  the  practice  or 
exercise  of  virtue,  's  vulgar;  wherefore  we  call 
those  arts  vulgar  which  tend  to  deform  the  body, 
and  likewise  all  paid  employments,  for  they  ab- 
sorb and  degrade  the  mind.  There  are  also  some 
liberal  arts  quite  proper  for  a  freeman  to  acquire, 
but  only  in  a  certain  degree,  and  if  he  attend 
to  them  too  closely,  in  order  to  obtain  perfection 
in  them,  the  same  evil  effects  will  follow.  The 
object  also  which  a  man  sets  before  him  makes  a 
gR'Ot  difference;  if  he  does  or  learns  anything 
for  his  own  sake  or  for  the  sake  of  his  frieuds,  or 
with  a  view  to  excellence,  the  action  will  not  ap- 
pear illiberal ;  but  if  done  for  the  sake  of  others, 
the  very  same  action  will  lie  thought  menial  and 
servile.  The  received  subjects  of  instruction,  as 
I  have  already  remarked,  are  partly  of  a  liberal 
and  partly  of  an  illiberal  character.  The  custom- 
ary branches  of  education  are  in  number  four; 
they  are — (1)  reading  and  writing,  (2)  gymnastic 
exercises,  (3)  music,  to  which  is  sometimes  added 
(4)  drawing.  Of  these,  reading  and  writing  and 
drawing  are  regarded  as  useful  for  the  purposes 
of  life  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  gymnastic  exer- 
cises are  thought  to  infuse  courage.  Concerning 
music  a  doubt  may  be  raised — in  our  own  day 
most  men  cultivate  it  for  the  sake  of  pleasure, 
but  originally  it  was  included  in  education,  be- 
cause nature  herself,  as  has  been  often  said,  re- 
quires that  we  should  be  able,  not  only  to  work 
well,  but  to  use  leisure  well ;  for,  as  I  must  re- 
peat once  and  agi>in,  the  first  principle  of  all 
action  is  leisure.  Both  are  required,  but  leisure 
is  better  than  occupation ;  and  therefore  the  ques- 


678 


EDUCATION. 


Oreek 
Schootll/e. 


EDUCATION. 


Hon  mugt  be  asked  In  gocnl  carnc8t,  what  ought 
we  to  do  wlien  at  leisure  ?  Clearly  we  ought 
not  to  be  amusing  ourselves,  for  then  amusement 
would  be  the  end  of  life.  But  if  this  is  in- 
conceivable, and  yet  amid  serious  occupations 
amuseitient  is  needed  more  than  at  other  times 
(for  he  who  is  hard  at  work  has  need  of  rcla.\- 
ation,  and  amusement  gives  relaxation,  whereas 
occupation  is  always  accompanied  witli  exertion 
and  effort),  at  suitable  timed  wc  should  intrwluce 
amusements,  and  they  should  be  our  medicines, 
for  tlie  emotion  which  they  create  in  the  soul  is  a 
relaxation,  and  from  the  pleasure  we  obtain  rest. 
...  It  is  clear  then  that  there  are  branches  of 
learning  and  education  whicli  we  must  study 
with  a  view  to  the  enjoyment  of  leisure,  and 
these  are  to  be  valued  for  their  own  sake ;  whereas 
those  kinds  of  knowledge  which  are  useful  in 
business  are  to  be  deemed  necessary,  and  exist 
for  the  sake  of  other  things.  And  therefore  our 
fathers  admitted  music  into  education,  not  on  the 
ground  eitlier  of  its  necessity  or  utility,  for  it 
is  not  necessary,  nor  indeed  useful  in  the  same 
manner  as  reading  and  writing,  which  are  useful 
in  money-making,  in  tlic  management  of  a  hou.se- 
hold,  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  in 
political  life,  nor  like  drawing,  useful  for  a  more 
correct  judgment  of  the  works  of  artists,  nor 
again  like  gymnastic,  which  gives  health  and 
strength;  for  neither  of  these  is  to  be  gained 
from  music.  There  remains,  then,  the  use  of 
music  for  intellectual  enjoyment  in  leisure; 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  reason  of  its  in- 
troduction, this  being  one  of  the  ways  in  which  it 
is  thought  that  a  freeman  should  pass  his  leisure. 
.  .  .  We  arc  now  in  a  position  to  say  that  the 
ancients  witness  to  us;  for  their  opinion  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  tl.at  music  is  one  of  the 
received  and  traditional  branches  of  education. 
Further,  it  is  clear  that  children  should  be  in- 
structed in  some  useful  things, —  for  example,  in 
reading  and  writing, — not  only  for  their  useful- 
ness, but  also  because  many  other  sorts  of  knowl- 
edge are  acquired  through  them.  With  a  like 
view  they  may  be  taught  drawing,  not  to  pre- 
vent their  making  mistakes  in  their  own  pur- 
chases, or  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  imposed 
upon  in  the  buying  or  selling  of  articles,  but 
rather  because  it  makes  them  j  udges  of  the  beauty 
of  the  human  form.  To  be  always  seeking  aft  >• 
the  useful  does  not  become  free  and  exalted  souls. 
.  .  .  We  reject  the  professional  instruments  and 
also  the  professional  mode  of  education  in  music  — 
and  by  professional  we  mean  that  which  is  adopted 
in  contests,  for  in  this  tlie  performer  practises  the 
art,  not  for  the  sake  of  his  own  "norovement,  but 
in  order  to  give  pleasure,  and  that  of  a  vulgar 
sort,  to  his  hearers.  For  this  reason  the  execu- 
tion of  such  music  is  not  the  part  of  a  freeman 
but  of  a  paid  performer,  and  the  result  is  that  the 
performers  are  vulgarized,  for  the  end  at  which 
they  aim  is  bad." — Aristotle,  Politics  (Jowett's 
Translation),  bk.  8.— "The  most  striking  differ- 
ence between  early  Greek  education  and  ours  was 
undoubtedly  this :  that  the  physical  development 
of  boys  was  attended  to  in  a  special  place  and  by 
a  special  master.  It  was  not  thouglit  sufficient 
for  them  to  play  the  chance  games  of  childhood ; 
they  underwent  careful  bodily  training  under  a 
very  fixed  system,  which  was  determined  by  the 
athletic  contests  of  after  life.  .  .  .When  we  com- 
pare what  the  Greeks  afforded  to  their  boys,  we 
find  it  divided  into  two  contrasted  kinds  of  exer- 


ci.so :  hunting,  which  was  practised  by  the  Spar- 
tans very  keenly,  and  no  doubt  also  by  the 
Eleans  and  Arcadians,  as  may  be  seen  from 
Xenophor'  "Tract  on  (Hare)  Hunting';  and 
gymnastics,  which  in  the  ca.sc  of  boys  were  car- 
ried on  in  the  so-called  paliehi  ra,  a  sort  of  open- 
air  gymnasium  (in  our  sense)  U<pt  by  private  in- 
dividuals as  a  si)erulation,  and  lo  which  the  l")y8 
were  sent,  as  they  were  to  their  ordinary  school- 
master. We  find  tliat  the  Spartiiiis,  who  had 
ample  scope  for  hunting  with  dogs  in  the  glens 
ami  coverts  of  Mount  Taygetus,  rather  despised 
mere  exercises  of  dexterity  in  the  pala'stra,  just 
as  our  sportsmen  would  think  very  little  of  spend- 
ing hours  in  a  gymnasium.  But  those  Greeks  who 
lived  in  towns  "like  Athens,  and  in  the  midst  of  a 
thickly  populated  and  well-cultivated  country, 
could  not  possibly  obtain  hunting,  and  therefore 
found  the  most  elllcient  substitute.  Still  we  find 
them  very  far  behind  the  English  in  their  knowl- 
edge or  taste  for  out-of-door  games.  .  .  .  The 
Greeks  had  no  playgrounds  beyond  the  paliestra 
or  gynuiasiimi ;  they  had  no  playgrounds  in  our 
sense,  and  thougli  a  few  proverbs  speak  ul  swim- 
ndng  as  a  universal  accomplishment  which  boys 
learned,  the  silence  of  Gresk  literature  on  the 
subject  makes  one  very  suspicious  as  to  the  gen- 
erality of  such  training.  ...  In  one  point,  cer- 
tainly, the  Greeks  agreed  more  with  the  motlcrn 
English  than  with  any  other  civilised  nation. 
They  regarded  sport  as  a  really  serious  thing. 
.  .  ''^he  names  applied  to  the  exercising-places 
inaicate  their  principal  uses.  Palxstro  means  a 
wrestling  place ;  gymnasium  originally  a  place  for 
naked  exercise,  but  the  word  early  lost  this  con- 
notation and  came  to  mean  mere  physical  train- 
ing. ...  In  order  to  leave  home  and  reach  the 
paliestra  safely  as  well  as  to  return,  Greek  boys 
were  put  under  the  charge  of  a  pedagogue,  in  no 
way  to  be  identified  (as  it  now  is)  with  u  schoolmas- 
ter. .  .  .  I  think  wc  may  be  justiflcd  in  asserting 
that  the  study  of  the  epic  poets,  especially  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  was  the  earliest  intellectual 
exercise  of  schoolboys,  and,  in  the  case  of  fairly 
educated  parents,  even  anticipated  the  learning  of 
letters.  For  the  latter  is  never  spoken  of  as  part 
of  a  mother's  or  of  home  education.  Reading  was 
not  so  universal  or  so  necessary  as  it  now  is.  .  .  . 
We  may  assume  that  books  of  Homer  were  read 
or  recited  to  growing  boys,  and  that  they  were 
encouraged  or  required  to  learn  them  off  by  heart. 
This  is  quite  certain  to  all  who  estimate  justly 
the  enormous  influence  ascribed  to  Homer,  and 
the  principles  assumed  by  the  Greeks  to  have 
underlain  his  work.  He  was  universally  con- 
sidered to  be  a  moral  teacher,  whose  characters 
were  drawn  with  a  moral  intent,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  example  or  avoidance.  .  .  .  Accordingly 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were  supposed  to  contain 
all  that  was  usei'ul,  not  only  for  godliness,  but 
for  life.  All  the  arts  and  sciences  were  to  be  de- 
rived (by  interpretation)  from  these  sacred  texts. 
...  In  early  days,  and  in  jioor  towns,  tlie  place 
of  teaching  was  not  well  appointed,  nay,  even  in 
many  places,  teaching  in  the  open  air  prevailed. 
.  .  .  This  was  .  .  .  like  the  old  hedge  schools  of 
Ireland,  and  no  doubt  of  Scotland  too.  They 
also  took  advantage,  especially  in  hot  weather,  of 
colonnades,  or  shady  corners  among  public  build- 
ings, as  at  Winchester  the  summer  term  was  called 
cloister-time,  from  a  similar  practice,  even  in  that 
wealthy  foundation,  of  instructing  in  the  cloisters. 
On  the  other  hand,  properly  appointed  schools  in 


679 


EDUCATION. 


The  Oreek 
School-room. 


EDUCATION. 


rcspcctJiWc  towns  were  furnished  with  some  tnstfl, 
ami  ncponiInK  to  trnilitional  notions.  .  .  .  We 
niiiy  1)0  Hur(!  tlmt  there  were  no  tables  or  desks, 
such  furniture  bcin(;  unusual  in  Greek  houses; 
it  was  the  universal  custom,  while  rending  or 
writing,  to  hold  the  book  or  roll  on  the  knee 
—  to  u«  an  inconvenient  thing  to  do,  but  still 
common  in  the  East.  Tliere  are  some  interesting 
8<'ntences,  given  for  e.xercise  in  Oreek  and  Latin, 
in  the  little  known  '  Intcrprctamenta '  of  Dosi- 
thcus,  now  edited  and  e.xpinined  by  German 
scholars.  The  entry  of  tlie  boy  is  th\is  described, 
in  parallel  Greek  and  Latin :  '  First  I  salute  the 
master,  who  returns  my  sahite:  Good  morning, 
master;  good  morning,  school  fellows.  Give  me 
my  place,  my  seat,  my  stool.  Sit  closer.  Move 
up  that  way.  This  is  my  place,  I  took  it  first.' 
This  mixture  of  politeness  and  wrangling  is  amus- 
ing, and  no  doubt  to  be  foimd  in  all  ages.  It 
seems  that  tlie  seats  were  movable.  .  .  .  The 
usual  subdivision  of  education  was  into  three 
parts;  letters,  .  .  .  including  reading,  writing, 
counting,  and  learning  of  tlic  poets ;  music  in  the 
stricter  sense,  including  singing  and  playing  on 
the  lyre;  and  lastly  gymnastic,  which  included 
duncmg.  ...  It  is  said  that  at  Sparta  tlie  edu- 
cation in  reading  and  writing  was  not  tliought 
necessary,  and  there  liave  been  long  discussions 
among  tlie  learned  whether  the  ordinary  Spar- 
tan in  classical  days  was  able  to  read.  We  find 
that  Aristotle  adds  a  fourth  subject  to  the  three 
above  named  —  drawing,  wliich  lie  tliinks  requi- 
site, like  music,  to  enable  the  educated  man  to 
judge  riglitly  of  works  of  art.  But  there  is  no 
evidence  of  a  wide  diffusion  of  drawing  or  paint- 
ing among  the  Greeks,  as  among  us.  .  .  .  Later 
on,  under  the  learned  influences  of  Alexandria, 
and  the  paid  professoriate  of  Roman  days,  sub- 
jects multiplied  with  tlie  decline  of  mental 
vigour  and  spontaneity  of  the  age,  and  children 
began  to  be  postered,  as  tliey  now  are,  with  a 
quantity  of  subjects,  all  thought  necessary  to  a 
proper  educr.t;on,  and  accordingly  all  imperfectly 
acquired.  This  was  called  the  encyclical  edu- 
cation, which  is  preserved  in  our  Encyclopsedia 
of  knowledge.  It  included, (1)  grammar,(3)  rheto- 
ric, (3)  dialectic,  (4)  arithmetic,  (5)  music,  (6)  ge- 
ometry, (7)  astronomy,  and  these  were  divided 
into  the  earlier  Trivium,  and  the  later  Quadri- 
vium."— J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Old  Oreek  Ediicatton,  ch. 
3-5. — "Reading  was  taught  with  the  greatest 
pains,  the  utmost  care  was  taken  with  the  in- 
tonation of  the  voice,  and  the  articulation  of  the 
throat.  We  have  lost  the  power  of  distinguish- 
ing between  accent  and  quantity.  The  Greeks 
did  not  acquire  it  without  long  and  anxious  train- 
ing of  the  ear  and  the  vocal  organs.  This  was 
the  duty  of  the  phonascus.  Homer  was  the  com- 
mon study  of  all  Greeks.  The  Iliad  and  Odys- 
see  were  at  once  the  Bible,  the  Shakespeare,  the 
Robinson  Crusoe,  and  the  Arabian]  Nights  of  the 
Hellenic  race.  Long  passages  and  indeed  whole 
books  were  learnt  by  heart.  The  Greek,  as  a 
nile,  learnt  no  language  but  his  own.  Next  to 
reading  and  repetition  came  writing,  which  was 
carefully  taught.  Composition  naturally  fol- 
lowed, and  the  burden  of  correcting  exorcises, 
wliicli  still  weighs  down  the  backs  of  schoolmas- 
ters, dates  from  these  early  times.  Closely  con- 
nected with  reading  and  writing  is  the  art  of 
reckoning,  and  the  science  of  numbers  leads  us 
easily  to  music.  Plato  considered  arithmetic  as 
the  best  spur  to  a  sleepy  and  uuinstructed  spirit; 


wo  see  from  the  Platonic  dialogues  how  mathe- 
matical problems  employed  the  mind  and  thoughts 
of  young  Athenians.  Many  of  the  more  difficult 
aritlimetical  operations  were  solved  by  geomet- 
rical methods,  but  the  Greeks  carried  the  art 
of  teaching  numbers  to  considorabio  refinement. 
Tliey  used  the  abacus,  and  had  an  elaborate 
metliod  of  finger  reckoning,  which  was  service- 
able up  to  10,000.  Drawing  was  the  crowning 
accomplishment  to  this  vestibule  of  training.  By 
the  time  the  fourteenth  year  was  completed,  the 
Greek  boy  would  have  begun  to  devote  himself 
seriously  to  the  practice  of  athletics. " — O.  Brown- 
ing, All  Introihietinn  to  the  IIi»tory  of  Ediieational 
Theories,  ch.  1. — "It  has  sometimes  been  imagined 
that  in  Greece  separate  edifices  were  not  erected 
as  with  us  expressly  for  school -houses,  but  that 
both  tlie  didnskalos  and  the  philosopher  taught 
their  pupils  in  fields,  gardens  or  shady  groves. 
But  this  was  not  the  common  practice,  though 
many  schoolmasters  appear  to  have  had  no  other 
place  wherein  to  assemble  their  pupils  than  the 
portico  of  a  temple  or  some  sheltered  corner  in 
the  street,  where  in  spite  of  the  din  of  business 
and  the  tlirong  of  passengers  the  worship  of  learn- 
ing was  publiclv  performed.  .  .  .  But  these  were 
the  schools  of  the  humbler  classes.  For  the  chil- 
dren of  the  noble  and  the  opulent  spacious 
structures  were  raised,  and  furnished  with  tables, 
desks, —  for  that  peculiar  species  of  grammateion 
whicli  resembled  the  plate  cupboard,  can  have 
been  nothing  but  a  desk, —  forms,  and  whatsoever 
else  their  studies  required.  Mention  is  made  of  a 
school  at  Chios  wliicli  contained  one  hundred  and 
twenty  boys,  all  of  whom  save  one  were  killed  by 
the  falling  in  of  the  roof.  .  .  .  The  apparatus  of 
an  ancient  school  was  somewhat  complicated: 
there  wore  mathematical  instruments,  globes, 
maps,  and  charts  of  the  heavens,  together  with 
boards  whereon  to  trace  geometrical  figures,  tab- 
lots,  large  and  small,  of  box-wood,  fir,  or  ivory, 
triangular  in  fonn,  some  folding  witli  two,  and 
others  with  many  leaves ;  books  too  and  paper, 
skins  of  parchniont,  wax  for  covering  the  tablets, 
which,  if  we  may  believe  Aristophanes,  people 
sometimes  ate  when  they  were  hungry.  To  the 
above  were  added  rulers,  reed-pens,  pen-cases, 
pen-knives,  pencils,  and  last,  though  not  least,  tho 
rod  which  kept  thorn  to  the  steady  use  of  all  these 
tilings.  At  Athens  these  schools  were  not  pro- 
vided by  the  ~*ate.  They  were  private  specu- 
lations, and  each  master  was  regulated  in  his 
charges  by  the  reputation  he  had  acquired  and 
the  fortunes  of  his  pupils.  Some  appear  to  have 
been  extremely  moderate  in  their  demands.  .  .  . 
The  earliest  task  to  be  performed  at  school  was  to 
gain  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  characters,  large 
and  small,  to  spell  next,  next  to  read.  ...  In 
teaching  tlie  art  of  writing  their  practice  nearly 
resembled  our  own.  .  .  .  These  things  were  neces- 
sarily the  first  step  in  the  first  class  of  studies, 
which  were  denominated  music,  and  compre- 
hended everything  connected  witli  the  develope- 
mcnt  of  the  mind;  and  they  were  carried  to  a 
certain  extent  before  the  second  division  called 
gymnastics  was  commenced.  They  reversed  tho 
plan  commonly  adopted  among  ourselves,  for 
with  them  poetry  preceded  prose,  a  practice  which, 
cooperating  with  their  susceptible  temperament, 
impressed  upon  the  national  mind  that  imagina- 
tive character  for  which  it  was  preeminently  dis- 
tinguished. And  the  poets  in  whose  works  they 
were  first  initiated  were  of  all  the  most  poetical^ 


680 


EDUCATION. 


Spartan 
Training. 


EDUCATION. 


the  nuthors  of  lyrlcnl  nnd  dithyromblc  pieces, 
Bclcctions  from  whose  verses  they  cotiimitted  to 
memory,  thus  actiuiring  eiirly  a  rich  tore  of 
sentences  and  imagery  ready  to  Imj  aiianced  in 
nrgiimcntor  illustration,  to  funiish  familiar  allu- 
sions or  to  bo  woven  into  the  texture  of  their 
style.  .  .  .  Among  the  other  branches  of  knowl- 
eiigo  most  necessary  to  \m  studied,  and  to  which 
they  applied  themselves  nearly  from  the  outset, 
wtt»  arithmetic,  without  some  inkling  of  which,  a 
man,  in  I'lato's  opinion,  could  scarcely  be  a  citi- 
zen at  nil.  .  .  .  The  importance  attached  to  this 
branch  of  education,  nowhere  more  apparent  tlian 
in  the  dialogues  of  Plato,  furnislies  one  proof  tliat 
tlie  Athenians  were  preeminently  men  of  business, 
who  ;in  all  their  admiration  for  the  good  ami 
beautiful  never  lost  sight  of  those  things  which 
promote  the  comfort  of  life,  and  enable  a  man 
effectually  to  perform  his  ordinary  duties.  With 
tlie  same  views  were  geometry  and  astronomy 
pursued.  .  .  .  Thoiimportanco  of  music,  in  the 
education  of  tlio  Greeks,  is  generally  understood. 
It  wos  employed  to  eiTect  several  purposes.  First, 
to  sooth  oud  mollify  the  llerccness  of  the  national 
character,  and  iirepare  tlie  way  for  the  lessrms  of 
the  poets,  whicli,  delivered  amid  tlio  sounding  of 
melodious  strings,  when  the  soul  was  rapt  and 
elevated  by  harmony,  by  the  excitement  of  num- 
bers, by  the  magic  of  the  sweetest  associations, 
took  a  firm  hold  upon  the  mind,  and  generally 
retained  it  during  life.  Secondly,  it  enabled  the 
citizx'ns  gracefully  to  perform  their  part  in  the 
amusements  of  social  life,  every  person  being  in 
his  turn  called  upon  at  entertainments  to  sing  or 
play  upon  the  lyre.  Thirdly,  it  was  necessary  to 
enable  them  to  join  in  the  sacred  choruses,  ren- 
dered frequent  by  the  piety  of  the  state,  and  for 
the  due  performance  in  old  ago  of  many  offices  of 
religion,  the  sacerdotal  character  belonging  more 
or  less  to  all  the  citizens  of  Athens.  Fourthly, 
as  much  of  the  learning  of  a  Greek  was  r.iartiol 
and  designed  to  fit  him  for  defending  his  country, 
ho  required  some  knowledge  of  music  that  on 
the  Held  of  battle  his  voice  might  liarmoniously 
mingle  with  those  of  his  coimtrymen,  in  cliaunt- 
ing  those  stirring,  impetuous,  and  terrible  melo- 
dies, called  poeans,  which  preceded  the  first  shock 
of  flght.  For  some,  or  all  of  these  reasons,  the 
science  of  music  began  to  be  cultivated  among 
the  Hellenes  at  a  perio<l  almost  beyond  the  reach 
even  of  tradition." — J.  A.  St.  John,  T/ie  Hellenes, 
bk.  2,  ch.  4. — "  In  tliinking  of  Greek  education  as 
furnishing  a  possible  model  for  us  moderns,  there 
is  one  point  which  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind : 
Greek  education  was  intended  only  for  the  few, 
for  the  wealthy  and  well-born.  Upon  all  others, 
upon  slaves,  barbarians,  the  working  and  trading 
classes,  and  generally  upon  all  persons  spending 
their  lives  in  pursuit  of  wcaltli  or  any  private  ends 
whatsoever,  it  would  have  seemed  to  be  thrown 
away.  Even  well-born  women  were  generally 
excluded  from  most  of  its  benefits.  The  subjects 
of  education  were  the  sons  of  full  citizens,  them- 
selves preparing  to  bo  full  citizens,  and  to  e.xor- 
ciso  all  the  functions  of  such.  Tlie  duties  of  such 
persons  were  completely  summed  up  under  two 
heads,  duties  to  tlie  family  and  duties  to  the 
State,  or,  as  the  Greeks  said,  (economic  and  polit- 
ical duties.  The  free  citizen  not  only  acknowl- 
edged no  other  duties  besides  these,  but  he  looked 
down  upon  persons  who  sought  occupation  in 
any  other  sphere.  (Economy  and  Politics,  how- 
ever, were  very  comprehensive  terms.    The  for- 


mer included  the  tlirec  n'hitions  of  husband  Xx> 
wife,  father  to  children,  and  iiia.ster  to  slaves  and 
property  ;  the  latter,  three  public  functions,  legis- 
lative, administrative,  and  judiciary.  All  ikcu- 
patioiiM  not  included  under  these  six  heads  the 
free  citizen  left  to  slaves  or  resident  foreigners. 
.Money-making,  in  the  modern  sense,  he  despised, 
and,  if  lie  devoted  himself  to  art  or  philosophy, 
ho  did  so  only  for  the  benefit  of  the  State. "— T. 
Davidson,  AntMle,  hk.  1,  eh.  4. — Spartan  Train- 
ing.— "From  his  birth  every  Spartan  l)elonged 
to  tlie  state,  which  decided  .  .  .  whether  ho  was 
likelv  to  prove  a  useful  memlier  of  the  com- 
munity, and  extinguished,  the  life  of  the  sickly 
or  deformed  infant.  To  the  ago  of  seven  how- 
ever the  care  of  the  child  was  delegated  to  it* 
natural  guardians,  yet  not  so  as  to  be  left  wholly 
to  their  discretion,  but  subject  to  certain  estab- 
lished rules  of  treatment,  whicli  guarded  against 
every  mischievous  indulgence  of  parental  tender- 
ness. At  the  end  of  seven  years  began  a  long 
course  of  public  discipline,  which  grew  constantly 
more  and  more  severe  as  the  boy  approached 
toward  manhood.  The  education  of  tlic  young 
was  in  some  degree  the  business  of  all  the  elder 
citizens;  for  there  was  none  who  did  not  con- 
tribute to  it,  if  not  by  his  active  interference,  at 
least  by  his  presence  and  inspection.  But  it  was 
placed  under  the  especial  superintendence  of  an 
officer  selected  from  the  men  of  most  approved 
wortli ;  and  he  again  chose  a  number  of  youtlis, 
just  past  the  ago  of  twenty,  and  who  most  emi- 
nently united  courage  with  discretion,  to  exercise 
a  more  immediate  command  over  the  classes,  inta 
which  the  boys  were  diviiled.  The  leader  of  each 
ela.ss  directed  the  sports  and  tasks  of  his  young 
troop,  and  punished  their  offences  with  military 
rigour,  but  was  himself  responsible  to  his  elders 
for  the  mode  in  which  he  discharged  his  ofiice. 
The  Spartan  education  was  simple  in  its  objects ; 
it  was  not  the  result  of  any  general  view  of  human 
nature,  or  of  any  attempt  to  unfold  its  various 
capacities:  it  aimed  at  training  men  who  were  to 
live  in  tlio  midst  of  difficulty  and  danger,  and  who 
could  only  be  safe  themselves  while  they  held 
rule  over  others.  The  citizen  was  to  bo  always 
ready  for  the  defence  of  himself  and  his  country, 
at  home  ond  abroad,  and  ho  was  therefore  to  bo 
equally  fitted  to  command  and  to  obey.  His  body, 
his  mind,  and  his  character  were  formed  for  this 
purpose,  and  for  no  otiier:  and  hence  the  Spartan 
system,  making  directly  for  its  main  end,  and  re- 
jecting all  that  was  foreign  to  it,  attained,  within 
its  own  sphere,  to  a  perfection  wliich  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  admire.  The  young  Spartaa 
was  perhaps  unable  either  to  read  or  write :  ho 
scarcely  possessed  the  elements  of  any  of  the 
arts  or  sciences  by  which  society  is  enriched  or 
adorned:  but  he  could  run,  leap,  wrestle,  hurl 
the  disk,  or  the  javelin,  and  wield  every  other 
weapon,  with  a  vigour  and  agility,  and  grace 
which  were  no  where  surpassed.  These  however 
were  accomplishments  to  be  learnt  in  every 
Greek  pala;stra:  he  might  find  many  rivals  in  all 
that  he  could  do ;  but  few  could  approach  him  in 
the  firmness  with  whicli  ho  was  taught  to  sulfer. 
Prom  the  tender  age  at  whicli  he  left  his  mother's 
lap  for  the  public  schools,  his  life  was  one  con- , 
tinned  trial  of  patience.  Coarse  and  scanty  fare, 
and  this  occasionally  withheld,  a  light  dress, 
without  any  change  in  the  depth  of  winter,  a  bed 
of  reeds,  which  lie  himself  gathered  from  tho 
Eurotos,  blows  exchanged  with  his  comrades, 


44 


681 


EDUCATION. 


tyrrtich'tvl  liUat. 


EDUCATION. 


ittrippfi  Inflirlcil  by  IiIh  ftovcrnors,  iiioro  by  wiiy 
of  cxcrriHi'  I  ban  of  piiiiiHhmcnt,  inured  him  to 
every  form  of  iHiin  unit  liiinlgliip.  .  .  .  TIk;  Muhcm 
were  upproprliitely  liononrcil  nt  Spiirtn  witli  a 
Hiuritln-  on  tlic  eve  of  ii  Imttlp,  anil  the  union  of 
tlic  Nprar  ami  tlit;  lyre  wuh  a  favourite  tiieme  witli 
tlie  l/icotiian  piM-tH,  anil  tliime  wlio  Han^  of  Hpjir- 
tan  (  UNloniH.  Tliou>;li  l)r)Mi  In  the  ilJHi'lplliK^  of 
tile  camp,  llie  younj?  Spartan,  like  the  hiToof  tlie 
lllwl,  wag  not  a  HtninKer  to  muKic  anil  poetry,  lie 
was  tauKlit  to  RinK.  anil  to  play  on  the  llute  and 
the  lyre:  1)ut  the  Ntrains  with  which  his  memorv 
was  Htoreil,  and  to  wiileli  hU  voire  was  fornietl, 
were  eitiier  Harrcd  liyinng,  or  1)reathi'il  a  martial 
Hpirit;  and  it  was  iM'cause  they  cherislied  Hiuii 
wntimentH  that  the  Ilomerle  lays,  If  not  intro- 
duced l)y  Lyeurj?us,  were  early  welcomed  at 
Hparta.  ...  As  these  musical  exercises  were  de- 
signed to  cultivate,  not  so  mud  an  intellectual, 
as  a  moral  taste;  bo  it  was  ;  >)  nbly  less  for  the 
sake  of  sharpening  their  ingenuity,  than  uf  pro- 
moting presence  of  mind,  and  promptness  of 
decision,  that  the  boys  were  led  into  the  labit  of 
answering  all  <|iic8tions  proposed  to  tlicm,  with 
a  ready,  pointed,  sententious  brevity,  wliieh  was 
a  ]>roverl)iai  characteristic  of  Spartan  conversa- 
tion, liut  the  lessons  which  were  most  studi- 
ously inculcated,  more  indeed  by  example  than 
by  precept,  were  those  of  mcxlesty,  obedience, 
and  reverence  for  age  and  rank ;  for  these  were  the 
qualities  on  which,  above  all  others,  the  stability 
of  the  commonwealth  reposed.  The  gait  and 
look  of  the  Spartan  youths,  as  they  passed  along 
the  streets,  observed  Xenophon,  breathwl  modesty 
and  reserve.  In  the  presence  of  their  elders  they 
were  bashful  as  virgins,  and  silent  as  statues, 
save  when  a  question  was  put  to  them.  ...  In 
trutli,  the  respect  for  tlie  laws,  which  rendered 
the  Spartan  averse  to  innovation  at  home,  was 
little  more  than  anotlier  form  of  that  awe  with 
which  his  early  habits  inspired  him  for  the  magis- 
trates and  tiie  aged.  With  this  feeling  was  in- 
timately connected  that  quick  and  deep  sense  of 
slianie,  whicli  shrank  from  dishonour  as  the  most 
dreadful  of  evils,  and  enabled  him  to  meet  death 
so  calmly,  when  he  saw  in  it  the  will  of  Ins 
country.  —C.  Thirl  wall.  Hut.  of  Greece,  v.  1,  ch.  8. 
— Free-School  Ideas  in  Greece. — ' '  It  is  a  preva- 
lent opinion  tliat  common  schools,  as  we  now 
have  them,  were  an  American  invention.  No  leg- 
islation, it  is  asserted,  taxing  all  in  order  that  all 
may  be  taught  can  be  traced  back  further  than  to 
theeorly  lawsof  Massachusetts.  Those  who  deny 
this  assertion  are  content  with  showing  something 
of  tlie  sort  in  Scotland  and  Germany  a  generation 
or  two  before  the  landing  of  the  Plymouth  pil- 
grims. The  truth  is,  however,  that,  ns  mucli  of 
our  sociiil  wit  is  now  credited  to  the  ancient 
Greeks,  something  of  our  educational  wisdom 
ought  to  Ix'.  Two  centuries  ago  John  Locke,  as 
an  able  political  writer,  was  invited  to  draw  up 
a  code  of  fundamental  laws  for  the  new  colony 
of  Carolina,  and  in  like  manner,  more  than  3,300 
years  ago,  Ciiarondas,  a  master  of  a  similar  type 
in  Magna  Gnuciu,  was  called  to  a  similar  task. 
This  was  to  frame  a  series  of  statutes  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  a  Greek  colony  founded  about  446 
,  B.  C,  in  the  foot  of  Italy.  This  colony  was 
Thurii,  and  conspicuous  among  the  enactments 
of  Charoudas  was  the  following:  '  Charondas 
made  a  law  unlike  those  of  lawgivers  before 
him,  for  he  enacted  that  the  sons  of  the  citi- 
zeos  should  all  learn  letters  (or  writing)  ,  .  . 


the  city  making  payment  to  the  teachers.  IIo 
thought  tliat  \\h'  piM)r,  not  able  to  pay  wages 
tliems<dve8,  would  otherwise  fall  of  the  best  train- 
ing. IIo  counted  writing  the  most  important 
study,  and  with  reason.  Tiirough  writing,  most 
things  in  life,  and  thorn;  tlie  most  useful,  are  ac- 
complished—  as  ballots,  epistles,  laws,  covenants. 
Who  can  sutllclently  |)raise  tliu  learning  of  let- 
ters t  .  .  .  Writing  alone  preserves  the  most  bril- 
liant utterances  of  wise  men  and  tiie  oracles  of 
giMis,  nay  nhilosophy  and  all  culture.  All  these 
things  it  alone  hands  down  to  all  future  genera- 
tions. Wherefore  nature  should  be  viewed  as 
the  source  of  life,  but  the  source  of  living  well 
we  should  consider  the  culture  derived  from  writ- 
ing. Inasmuch,  then,  as  illiterates  are  deprived 
of  a  great  giHxl,  (Miarondas  came  to  their  liel|), 
ludging  them  worthy  of  public  care  and  outlay. 
Former  legislators  had  caused  the  sick  to  bo  at- 
tended by  physicians  at  the  public  expense,  tliink- 
ing  their  boiflcs  worthy  of  cure.  lie  did  more, 
for  lio  cured  souls  atlllctcd  with  ignorance.  Tlio 
doctors  of  the  body  we  pray  that  we  may  never 
need,  while  we  would  fain  abide  for  ever  with 
tho.se  wlio  minister  to  the  mind  diseased. ' — This 
extract  is  from  the  '  Bibliotheca  Historica '  of 
DiiMiorusSiculus(Uook  x.  J5 13),  who  was  nourish- 
ing at  tiie  birth  of  Clirist  and  was  the  most 
painstaking  chronicler  of  the  Augustiui  age. 
The  legislation  is  worth  notice  for  more  than 
one  reason.  It  rebukes  tho  self-conceit  of  those 
wlio  hold  that  the  education  of  all  at  the  charge 
of  all  is  an  idea  born  in  our  own  time  or  coun- 
try. It  has  also  been  strangely  unnoticed  by 
historians  who  ought  to  have  kept  it  before  the 
people."— 7Vi«  Nation,  March  24,  1892,  pp.  230- 
231.— Socrates  and  the  Philosophical  Schools. 
— "Before  the  rise  of  pliliosopliy,  tho  teacher  of 
tho  people  had  been  the  riinnsode,  or  public 
reciter;  after  thot  event  ho  gradually  gives  place 
to  the  sophist  (.  .  .  one  who  makes  wise),  or,  as 
he  later  with  more  modesty  calls  himself,  tho 
philosopher  (.  .  .  lover  of  wisdom).  Tho  history 
of  Greece  for  centuries  is,  on  its  inner  side,  a 
history  of  the  struggle  between  what  tho  rhap- 
sixle  represents  and  what  the  philosopher  repre- 
sents, between  popular  tradition  and  common 
sense  on  the  one  hand,  and  individual  opinion 
and  philosophy  on  the  other.  The  transition 
from  the  first  to  tlic  second  of  these  mentol  con  ■ 
ditions  was  accomplished  for  the  world,  once  f o  ■ 
all,  by  thcGreeks.  — T.  Davidson,  Aristotle,  ftfc  1, 
ch.  5. — "There  is  no  instance  on  record  of  a 
philosopher  wlioso  importance  as  a  thinker  is  ao 
closely  bound  up  witli  the  personality  of  the  ir.an 
as  it  was  in  the  case  of  Socrates.  .  .  .His  tear  hing 
was  not  of  a  kind  to  be  directly  imparted  and 
faithfully  handed  down,  but  could  only  be  left  to 
propagate  itself  freely  by  stirring  up  others  to  a 
similiar  self-culture.  .  .  .  Tho  youth  and  early 
manhoml  of  Socrates  fall  in  the  most  brilliant 
period  of  Grecian  liistory.  Born  during  tlie  last 
years  of  tlie  Persian  war,  he  was  a  near  con- 
temporary of  all  those  great  men  who  adorned 
the  age  of  Pericles.  As  a  citizen  of  Atliens  he 
could  enjoy  the  opportunities  afforded  by  a  city, 
wliicli  united  every  means  of  culture  by  its  un- 
rivalled fertility  of  thought.  Poverty  and  low 
birtii  were  but  slender  obstacles  in  tho  Atliens  of 
Pericles.  .  .  .  Socrates,  no  doubt,  began  life  by 
learning  his  father's  trade,  .  .  .  which  he  prob- 
ably never  practised,  and  certainly  soon  gave  up. 
U^a  considered  it  to  be  his  special  calling  to  labour 


682 


EDUCATION. 


The  tItUotophlcal 
OehooU. 


EDUCATION. 


for  tliv  moral  nnd  Intcllvcttml  improvement  of 
liliiiwlf  mill  ollicrs  — 11  L'onvlrtion  which  lie  fi'lt 
80  Htron^iy  tliut  it  iip|>vurc(l  to  him  iti  tliu  lixlit 
of  II  illvlnL'  ri-velatioii.  Slorcovcr  lie  wii.s  coii- 
tiriiirii  ill  it  tiy  u  DL'lpliic  oriicli',  wliicii,  of 
coiirsi',,  iiiiiHl  not  l)v  reguniod  as  tiiu  ciulsu  of, 
but  nttliiT  uH  III!  iiciilitioniil  Hupport  to  his  re- 
forming  zt'iil.  ...  To  bo  indcpfiiilciit,  Ik  tried, 
lllti'  till!  ()(m1h,  to  ri»i'  HUpi-rior  to  Ids  wiiMl.s;  iiiul 
by  I'lirc'fiiiiy  pnictlitiMK  tu'lf-dt'iiiiil  and  almti'iiii- 
oilHiit'SM,  111!  was  really  able  to  boast  that  his  life 
WHS  more  pleasant  and  more  free  from  troubles 
thiiii  that  of  the  rest  of  mankind.  Tims  he  was 
able  to  devote  his  wliole  [lowers  to  the  serviee  of 
otiiers,  witliout  asking  or  tukinj;  reward;  ami 
thus  ho  became  ho  en;?rossed  by  his  labours  for 
his  native  city,  tliat  he  rarely  passed  Its  bound- 
aries or  even  went  outside  its  Kates.  He  did  not, 
however,  feel  himself  called  upon  to  take  part  in 
the  allalrs  of  the  state.  .  .  .  An  one  eonvineed 
us  he  was,  tiiat  care  for  one's  o  culture  mu.>>t 
precede  care  for  public  busiui  ^s,  nnd  tliat  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  self,  together  with  a 
deep  anil  many-sided  experience,  wasu  necessary 
condition  of  public  activity,  must  have  thought 
that,  to  educate  Individuals  by  intluence,  was 
the  more  pressing  need,  and  have  held  that  he 
was  doing  his  country  a  better  service  by  edu- 
cating able  statesmen  for  it,  than  by  actually 
discharging  a  statesman's  duties.  Accordingly, 
Socrates  never  aimed  nt  being  anytliing  but  a 
private  citizen.  .  .  .  Just  as  little  was  he  desir- 
ous of  being  a  public  teaclier  like  the  Sophists. 
He  not  only  took  no  pay,  but  he  gave  no  me- 
thodical course.  He  did  not  profess  to  tcacli, 
but  to  learn  In  common  with  others,  not  to  force 
his  convictions  upon  them,  but  to  examine  theirs ; 
not  to  pass  tlio  truth  that  came  to  hand  llko  a 
c«la  fresh  from  the  mint,  but  to  stir  up  a  desire 
for  truth  and  virtue,  to  point  out  the  way  to  It, 
to  overthrow  what  was  spurious,  and  to  seek  out 
real  knowledge.  Never  weary  of  talking,  ho 
was  on  the  look  out  for  every  opportunity  of 
giving  an  instructive  and  moral  turn  to  the  con- 
versation. Day  by  day  ho  was  about  in  tho 
market  and  public  promenades,  in  sciiools  and 
worksliops,  ever  ready  to  converse  with  friends 
or  strangers,  with  citizens  and  foreigners,  but 
always  prepared  to  lead  them  to  higher  subjects; 
and  whilst  thus  in  his  higher  calling  serving  Ood, 
ho  was  persuaded  that  he  was  also  serving  his 
country  in  a  way  tiiat  no  one  else  could  do. 
Deeply  as  he  deplored  the  decline  of  discipline 
and  education  in  his  native  city,  ho  felt  that  ho 
could  depend  but  little  on  the  Sophists,  tho 
moral  teachers  of  his  day.  The  attractive  pow- 
ers of  his  discourse  won  for  him  a  circle  of 
admirers,  for  tho  most  port  consisting  of  young 
men  of  family,  drawn  to  him  hy  the  most  varied 
motives,  standing  to  him  in  various  relations,  and 
coming  to  him,  some  for  a  longer,  others  for  a 
shorter  time.  For  his  own  part,  ho  made  it  his 
business  not  only  to  educate  these  friends,  but 
to  advise  tliem  in  everything,  even  in  worldly 
matters.  But  out  of  this  changing,  and  in  part 
loosely  connected,  society,  a  nucleus  was  gnuiu- 
ally  formed  of  decided  admirers, —  a  Socratic 
school,  which  we  must  consider  united  far  less 
by  a  common  set  of  doctrines,  than  by  a  common 
love  for  the  person  of  Socrates." — E.  Zeller, 
Socrates  and  the  Socratic  Schools,  ch.  3. — "No- 
where, except  in  Alliens,  do  we  hear  of  a  philo- 
sophic body  with  endowments,  legal  succession, 


and  tho  otlier  rights  of  a  rorporntion.  This  idea, 
which  has  never  since  died  out  of  the  world, 
was  due  to  Plato,  who  beoiieathed  Ills  garden 
and  aiipolntmi'iil.'t  in  the  place  called  after  the 
hero  llekadi'iniis,  to  his  followers.  Hut  he  was 
obligrd  to  do  it  in  the  only  form  possible  at 
Atlieiis.  He  made  it  a  religious  foiindiitioii,  on 
the  basis  of  a  tl.xed  worship  to  the  Mii.scs.  ,  .  . 
The  lieaii  or  I'nsident  of  I'lato's 'Assoiiiition  of 
the  Muses,'  was  tile  treasurer  and  manager  of  the 
eoninioii  fund,  who  invited  guests  to  their  feasts, 
to  which  lai  li  iiienibcr  coiitriliiiliil  his  sliare. 
.  .  .  'i'lic  niembers  liiid,  moreover,  a  rlgiil  to 
atti'iid  lertiires  and  use  the  lilirary  or  scientilio 
appointnieiits,  such  as  maps,  which  liclonged  to 
the  scliiMil.  It  was  this  endowiiicnt  on  a  religious 
basis  wliicli  saved  the  Income  and  position  of 
I'lato's  school  for  centuries.  .  .  .  Tills  then  Is 
the  (Irst  Academy,  so  often  imitatid  in  ho  many 
lands,  and  of  which  our  colleges  are  the  direct 
descendants,  .  .  .  The  school  of  I'lato,  then  gov- 
erned by  Xenocrates,  being  the  bei|iiest  of  an 
Athenian  citi/en  who  understoiMl  the  law,  seems 
never  to  have  been  assailed.  The  schools  of 
Kpicurus  and  Zeiio  were  perliaps  not  yet  recog- 
nised. Hut  that  of  Tlieophrastus,  perhaps  tlio 
mo.st  crowded,  certainly  tlie  most  (iistii  ctly  pliilo- 
Macedonian,  .  .  .  this  was  tlio  school  whlcli  was 
exiled,  and  which  owed  its  reliabilitation  not 
only  to  the  legal  decision  of  the  courts,  but  .still 
more  to  the  large  views  of  King  Demetrius,  who 
would  not  tolerate  the  persecution  of  opinion. 
But  it  was  the  otiier  Demetrius,  the  philosopher, 
the  pupil  of  Aristotle,  the  friend  of  Tlieophrastus, 
to  whom  the  school  owed  most,  nnd  to  whom 
the  world  owes  most  in  tlie  matter  of  museums 
and  academies,  next  after  I'lato.  For  this  was 
the  man  who  took  care,  d>;r'".'^  Ms  Protectorate 
of  Athens  in  the  interest  of  Casander,  to  estab- 
lish a  garden  and  '  peripatos'  for  the  Peripatetic 
school,  now  under  Tlieophrastus.  ...  It  Is  R'- 
markable  that  the  Stoic  school — It  too  the  school 
of  aliens  —  did  not  establish  a  local  foundation 
or  succession,  but  taught  in  public  places,  sucli 
as  tho  Painted  Portico.  In  tills  the  Cynical  tone 
of  tlio  Porch  comes  out.  Hence  the  succession 
depended  upon  the  genius  of  the  leader. " — J.  P. 
Mahaff}',  (Jreck  Life  and  Thomjht,  ch.  7. — An 
account  of  the  Academy,  tho  Lyceum,  etc.,  will 
be  found  under  the  caption  Ovmnasia. — Univer- 
sity of  Athens. — "  Some  scholars  .  .  .  may  doubt 
If  there  was  anything  at  Atliens  which  could 
answer  to  tho  College  Life  of  mixlern  times.  In- 
deed It  must  bo  owned  that  formal  history  Is 
nearlv  silent  on  the  subject,  tliat  ancient  writers 
take  little  notice  of  it,  and  sucli  evidences  as  wo 
luivo  are  drawn  almost  entirely  from  a  scries  of 
inscriptions  on  the  marble  tablets,  which  were 
covered  \nW\  the  ruins  and  tho  dust  of  ages,  till 
one  after  another  came  to  light  in  recent  days, 
to  add  fresh  pages  to  tlie  story  of  the  past. 
Happily  they  are  botli  numerous  and  lengthy, 
and  may  be  already  pieced  together  in  an  order 
which  extends  for  centuries.  Tliey  are  known 
to  Epigrapliic  students  as  the  records  which  deal 
with  tho  so-called  Ephebi;  with  tlie  youths,  tliat 
is,  just  passing  into  nianliood,  for  whom  a  spe- 
cial discipline  was  iirovided  by  the  State,  to 
fit  them  for  the  responsibilities  of  active  life. 
It  was  a  National  system  with  a  many-sided 
training ;  the  teachers  were  members  of  the  Civil 
Service;  the  registers  were  public  documents, 
and,  as  such,  belonged  to  the  Archives  of  the 


683 


EDUCATION. 


Tk*  Vnlv*ntly 
of  Alhent. 


EDUCATION. 


8talc  Tin;  carlltr  IniirriplldDH  of  tliu  kt\v»  ilutc 
fn)in  till)  imtUkI  of  Miu'cdonlan  iiHccmloncy,  but 
In  iniii'li  I'lirlk-r  times  tlicn;  liiul  been  forniH  of 
public  ilriil  iircHcrilK-d  for  tliv  Kplicbi.  .  .  .  We 
mill  from  it  ilin'ri'i-.  wliirli,  if  geniiinr,  ilnti-*  oven 
fn)m  till'  (iiiyH  of  IVrlrlcs,  that  the  yoiitijf  men 
of  (;oH  were  iiiloweil  by  h|>i ciiil  favour  to  HJiure 
the  lilmloline  of  the  Atheiiiiin  Kpliel)i.  Hooli 
afterwiirim  otIierN  were  itilmitteil  on  nil  hIiIch. 
Till!  iklieiiM  who  hull  giiineil  h  compelenro  iiH  nier- 
chuntH  or  iw  Imiikem,  foiinil  tlieir  hohh  welcomeil 
in  the  riinlcN  of  tlie  olilcHt  familieH  of  Athens; 
itronKiTM  tliieked  thither  from  iliHtiint  countrieH, 
not  only  'roll!  the  IhIch  of  (Sreece,  luiil  from  the 
coiiHlH  oi  tlie  .'Kki'iiii,  hut,  lis  Hellenic  culture 
mode  itH  way  tlirouKh  the  far  Kiwt,  Htuilents  even 
of  the  Hemltle.  race  were  jjlaii  to  enrol  their  names 
upon  the  ('olletfe  registerB,  when-  wc  may  still 
see  them  with  tiie  marks  of  their  several  nation- 
iilitles  iiinxed.  The  youiijj  men  were  no  longer, 
like  soldiers  upon  actual  service,  beginning 
already  the  real  work  of  life,  and  on  tliat  account, 
perhaps,  the  term  was  shortened  from  the  two 
years  to  one;  but  the  old  associations  lasted 
on  for  ages,  even  in  realistic  Atliens,  which  in 
early  politics  at  least  had  made  so  clean  a  sweep. 
The  outward  forms  were  still  preserved,  the 
soldier's  drill  was  still  enforced,  and  though 
many  another  feature  hwl  been  added,  the  whole 
institution  bore  upon  its  face  the  look  rather  of 
a  Military  College  than  of  a  training  school  for  a 
scholar  or  a  statesman.  The  C'ollcge  year  began 
somewhat  later  than  the  opening  of  tliu  civil 
year,  and  it  was  usual  for  all  the  students  to 
matriculate  togetlier;  that  is,  to  enter  formally 
their  names  upon  the  registers,  ■which  were 
copied  afterwards  upon  the  marble  tablets,  of 
which  largo  fragments  have  survived.  ...  'To 
jiut  the  gown  on,'  or,  as  wo  should  say,  'to  be  a 
gownsman,'  was  the  phrase  which  stood  for 
being  a  member  of  the  College ;  and  the  gown, 
too,  was  of  blail .  as  commonly  among  ourselves. 
Hut  I'hilostratus  tells  us,  by  the  way,  thot  a 
change  was  made  from  black  to  white  at  tho 
prompting  of  Ilorodes  Atticus,  the  munificent 
and  learned  subieot  of  the  Antonines,  wlio  woa 
for  many  yeors  the  presiding  genius  of  tho  Uni- 
versity of  Athens.  The  fragment  of  an  inscrip- 
tion lately  found  curiously  contlrms  and  supple- 
ments tho  writer's  statement.  .  .  .  The  members 
of  the  College  aro  spoken  of  as  '  friends '  and 
'  messmates ' ;  and  it  is  probable  that  some  form 
of  conventual  life  prevailed  omong'thcm,  with- 
out which  the  drill  and  supervision,  which  are 
constantly  implied  in  the  inscriptions,  could 
scarcely  have  been  enforced  by  the  oflicials.  But 
we  know  nothing  of  any  public  buildings  for 
their  use  save  the  gymnasia,  which  in  all  Greek 
towns  were  the  centres  of  educational  routine, 
and  of  whicli  there  were  several  well  known  at 
Athens.  .  .  .  The  College  did  not  try  to  monopo- 
lise tho  education  of  its  students.  It  had, 
indeed,  its  own  tutors  or  instructors,  but  they 
were  kept  for  humbler  drill;  it  did  not  even  for 
a  long  time  keep  an  organist  or  choirmaster  of 
its  own ;  it  sent  its  students  out  for  teaching  in 
philosophy  and  rhetoric  and  grammar,  or,  in  a 
word,  for  all  the  larger  and  more  liberal  studies. 
Nor  did  it  favour  any  special  set  of  tenets  to  tlie 
exclusion  of  the  rest.  It  encouraged  impartially 
all  the  schools  of  higher  thought.  .  .  .  The  Head 
of  the  College  held  the  title  of  Cosmetes,  or  of 
rector.  .  .  .  The  Rector,  appointed  only  for  a 


year  by  popular  election,  was  no  merolv  honorary 
head,  out  t<M>k  an  important  part  in  the  real 
work  of  cdiicntion.  He  was  sometimes  clothed 
with  priestly  function'  .  .  .  The  system  of  edu- 
catiini  thus  deHcrib  d  was  under  the  control  of 
the  governmi'iit  throughout.  ...  It  may  sur- 
prise us  that  our  information  comes  almost  en- 
tin'ly  irom  the  Inscriptions,  and  that  ancient 
writers  are  ail  nearly  silent  on  tlie  subject.  .  .  . 
Hut  there  was  little  to  attract  the  literary  circles 
in  arrangements  so  mi'i'iianical  and  formal;  there 
was  tix)  much  of  outward  pageantry,  and  too 
little  of  real  character  evolved." — W.  \V.  Capes, 
Unitertity  Life  in  Aneient  At/teim,  ch.  1. — J.  II. 
Newman,  llitturir.d  Sketehfi,  ch.  4. — Tho  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Justiniaa  "  may  be  Hignalised  us 
the  fatal  epoch  at  which  several  of  the  noblest 
institutions  of  antiquity  were  aboli.shed.  lie 
shut  the  schools  of  Atliens  (A.  I).  Ti'JU),  in  which 
an  uninterrupted  successiim  of  philosophers,  sup- 
ported by  a  public  stipend,  had  taught  the  (h)C- 
trines  of  I'lato,  Aristotle,  Zeiio,  and  Epicurus, 
ever  since  the  time  of  the  Antonines.  They 
wen-,  it  is  true,  Htill  attached  to  iiaganisni,  and 
even  to  tlie  arts  of  magic." — J.  C.  L.  dcSismoudi, 
Fall  of  the  Iti>ma)i  Kinjnrt,  t.  1,  eh.  10. — See 
Athens:  A.  I).  520. 

Alexandria.  —  "Ptolemy,  upon  whom,  on 
Alexander's  death,  devolved  the  kingdom  of 
Egypt,  supi)liea  us  with  tlie  first  great  instance 
of  what  may  be  called  the  establislimcnt  of  Let- 
ters. He  and  Eumencs  may  be  considered  tho 
first  founders  of  public  libraries.  .  .  .  A  library, 
however,  was  only  one  of  two  great  conceptions 
brought  into  execution  by  the  first  Ptolemy ; 
and  as  the  first  was  the  embalming  of  dead 
genius,  so  the  second  was  the  endowment  of 
living.  .  .  .  Ptolemy,  .  .  .  prompted,  or  at  least, 
encouraged,  by  the  celebrated  Demetrius  of  Plia- 
lerus,  put  into  execution  a  plan  for  the  formal 
endowment  of  literature  and  science,  Tlic  fact 
indeed  of  tho  possession  of  an  immense  librory 
seemed  sulllcient  to  render  Alexandria  a  Univer- 
sity ;  for  what  could  bo  a  greater  attraction  to 
tlie  students  of  all  lands,  than  the  opportunity 
allortled  them  of  intellectual  converse,  not  only 
with  the  living,  but  witli  the  dead,  with  all  who 
had  anywhere  at  any  time  thrown  light  upon 
any  subject  of  inquiry?  But  Ptolemy  deter- 
mined that  his  teachers  of  knowledge  should  be 
as  stationary  and  as  permanent  as  his  books ;  so, 
resolving  to  make  Alexandria  the  scat  of  a  '  Stu- 
dium  Qenorale,'  he  founded  a  College  for  its 
domicile,  and  endowed  that  College  with  ample 
revenues.  Here,  I  consider,  he  did  more  than 
has  been  commonly  done,  till  modern  times.  It 
requires  considerable  knowledge  of  medieval 
Universities  to  be  entitled  to  give  an  opinion ;  as 
regards  Germany,  for  instance,  or  Poland,  or 
Spain ;  but,  as  far  as  I  have  a  right  to  speak, 
such  an  endowment  has  been  rare  down  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  as  well  as  before  Ptolemy. 
...  To  return  to  tho  Alexandrian  College.  It 
was  called  the  Sluseum, —  a  name  since  appro- 
priated to  another  institution  connected  with  the 
seats  of  science.  .  .  .  There  was  a  quarter  of  the 
city  so  distinct  from  the  rest  in  Alexandria, 
that  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  suburb.  It 
was  pleasantly  situated  on  the  water's  edge,  and 
had  been  set  aside  for  ornamental  buildings,  and 
W08  traversed  by  groves  of  trees.  Here  stood 
the  royal  palace,  here  the  theatre  and  amphi- 
theatre; here  the  gymnasia  and  stadium;  here 


684 


EDUCATION. 


MrhnoU  of 
Alejandrla, 


EDUCATION. 


the  fftmouH  ScriiiMMim.  Ami  here  It  wuh,  dime 
upon  tlio  I'ort,  tliiit  I'tolcniy  placi'd  lilit  Ijil)rnrv 
mill  C<illrK<^  Ah  mlKlit  Ih<  HiippoKcil,  tlit!  liuil(I- 
Inn  WHS  worthy  of  IIh  piirpimc;  ii  iiolilu  portico 
Htrotclicd  ftloiiK  its  front,  for  cxitcIim!  or  conver- 
iiation,  nnd  opi'iicil  upon  tlic  public  rooiim  de- 
voted tn  diHpiitittloiiH  and  IcctiircH.  A  certain 
niimbf.'r  of  rrofcHsoni  were  liKl^cd  wltliln  tli(! 
pn-clnctfi,  and  n  handftonie  liall,  or  refectory,  waH 
proviiled  for  tbo  common  meal.  The  I'refect  of 
thu  boUHo  was  a  pricgt,  whoNe  apiiointment  lay 
with  tb(^  government.  Over  the  Library  n  dlff- 
nlfled  person  nresldod.  ...  As  to  the  Profes- 
HorH,  so  libertil  wiui  their  maintenance,  that  n 
plilloHonher  of  tht!  very  a^u  of  the  first  founda- 
tion called  th'-  place  a  '  bread  basket,'  or  a  '  bird 
coop';  yet,  in  gpltu  of  accidental  exceptions,  so 
enreful  on  the  whole  was  their  selection,  that 
even  BIX  hundred  years  afterwnnls,  Ammianus 
describes  the  Museum  under  the  title  of  '  the  last- 
Ihk  abode  of  distinguished  men.'  Fhllostratus, 
too,  about  a  century  before,  calls  it  '  a,  tablj 
gathering  together  celebrated  men.'.  .  .  As 
time  went  on  new  Colleges  were  added  lo  the 
original  Museum;  of  which  one  was  a  foutida- 
tlon  of  tbo  Emperor  Claudius,  and  called  after 
hig  name.  ...  A  diversity  of  teaclK^rs  secured 
an  abundance  of  students.  '  Hither,' says  Cave, 
'as  to  a  public  emporium  of  polite  literature, 
congregated,  from  every  ]iart  of  the  world, 
youthful  students,  and  attended  the  lectures  in 
Grammar,  Uhctoric,  P<x!try,  Philosophy,  Astron- 
omy, Music,  Medicine,  and  other  arts  and  sci- 
ences'; and  hence  proceeded,  as  it  would  ap- 
pear, the  great  Christinn  writers  and  doctors, 
Clement,  .  .  .  Orlj.'en,  Anatolius,  and  Athana- 
slus.  Ht.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  In  the  third 
century,  may  be  added;  he  camo  across  Asia 
Minor  and  Syria  from  Pontus,  an  to  a  place,  says, 
his  namesake  of  Nyssa,  '  to  which  young  men' 
from  all  parts  gathered  together,  who  were  ap- 
plying thcmBclves  to  nhilosophy.'  As  to  the 
subjects  taught  in  tlio  Museum,  Cave  has  already 
enumerated  the  principal ;  but  he  hns  not  done 
ju.stico  to  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Alexan- 
drian school.  Prom  the  time  that  Fclcnce  got 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  pure  Greeks,  into  those 
of  a  power  which  had  a  tulent  for  administra- 
tion, it  became  less  theoretical,  and  bore  more 
distinctly  upon  definite  and  tangible  objects. 
.  .  .  Egyptian  AntiquiUcs  were  investigated,  at 
least  by  the  disciples  of  the  Egyptain  Manetho, 
fragment  of  whose  history  ore  considered  to  re- 
main; while  Carthaginian  and  Etruscan  liatl  a 
place  in  the  studies  of  the  Claudian  College. 
The  Museum  was  celebrated,  moreover,  for  its 
grammarians;  the  work  of  Hephirstion  'deMe- 
tris' still  affords  matter  of  though  I  to  a  living 
Professor  of  Oxford;  and  Aristarchus,  like  the 
Athenian  Priscian,  has  almost  become  the  nick- 
name for  a  critic.  Yet,  eminent  as  is  the  Alex 
andrian  school  in  these  deportments  of  science, 
its  fame  rests  still  more  securely  upon  its  pro- 
ficiency in  medicine  and  mathematics.  Among 
its  physicians  is  tho  celebrated  Qolen,  who  -was 
attracted  thither  from  Pergamus;  and  we  are 
told  by  a  writer  of  the  fourth  century,  that  In 
his  time  the  very  fact  of  a  physician  having 
studied  at  Alexandria,  was  an  evidence  of  his 
science  which  superseded  further  testimonial. 
As  to  Mathemotics,  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that, 
of  four  greot  ancient  names,  on  whom  the  mod- 
cm  science  Is  founded,  three  came  from  Alexan- 


dria. ArchimedcH  lnde«'d  was  n  Syracusan ;  but 
the  Museum  may  boast  of  A|H)lloniuii  of  Perga, 
DiophantUM,  a  native  Alexandrian,  and  Euclid, 
whose  country  Is  unknown.  To  thetm  Illustri- 
ous names,  nuiy  be  added,  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene, 
to  whom  astronomy  hiis  obligations  ho  consider- 
able; Pappus;  Theon;  and  Ptolemy,  said  to  b« 
of  PeluHluni,  whose  O'lelimted  Hysteni,  call' 
after  him  the  Ptolemaic,  reigned  in  the  scbooU 
ti'l  the  time  of  Copernicus,  atid  whoso  Qeog- 
laphy,  dealln  ;  with  facts,  not  theories,  Is  m 
ri'pute  still.  Hu<'h  was  the  celebrated  '  Htudlum ' 
or  University  of  Al'xandria;  for  a  while  in  tho 
course  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries.  It  waa 
subject  to  reverses,  principally  from  war.  Tho 
whole  of  the  DrueJiion,  the  ((uarter  of  the  city  in 
which  It  was  situated,  was  given  to  the  (lames; 
and,  when  llilarhm  came  to  Alexandria,  tho 
holy  hennit,  wliose  :  lie  of  life  did  not  sufTcr  him 
to  iiMlge  in  cities,  took  up  his  liMlgment  with  a 
few  8ollt4trieH  among  the  ruins  of  Its  edifices. 
The  schools,  however,  and  the  library  continued; 
the  library  waa  reserved  for  the  Caliph  Omar's 
famous  judgment;  as  ti.  ihe  schools,  even  as  late 
as  the  twelfth  century,  the  Jew,  I.enjamiu  of 
Tiidela,  gives  us  a  surprising  report  of  what  he 
found  In  Alexandria." — J.  it.  Newman,  Jliiitor- 
tail  Skftchen :  nine  and  l^rogreim  of  Unirerntien,  ch. 
8. — "In  the  three  centuries  which  Intervened  be- 
tween Alexander  and  Augustus,  Athens  was 
prePndnently  the  training  scIkk)!  f<>r  philosophy, 
Ilhodcs,  on  tho  other  hand,  as  the  only  Greek 
state  of  political  importance  in  which  a  ca-.eer  of 
grand  ond  dignified  activity  was  open  for  tho 
orator,  distinguished  Itself  In  the  study  of  elo- 
quence, while  Alexandria  rested  its  f.imo  chiefly 
on  tho  excellence  of  its  Instruction  In  Philology 
and  Medicine.  At  a  subsequent  period  the  last 
mentioned  University  obtained  even  greater  celeb- 
rity as  having  given  birth  to  a  school  of  philoso- 
phers who  endeavored  to  combine  into  a  species 
of  theosophic  doctrine  the  mental  science  of 
Europe  with  the  more  spiritual  minded  iintl  pro- 
foundly human  religions  of  tlie  East.  In  the 
third  century  Alexandria  became  consplc  lous  as 
the  headquarters  of  the  Eclectics  and  NeoPloto- 
nists."— E.  Kirkpatrick,  nut'l  Development  of 
Superior  Iiitt ruction  Uiarnard't  Am.  Journal  of 
Education,  v.  24,  ;)/).  466-467). 

Rome. — "If  we  casta  final  glance  at  tho  ques- 
tion of  education,  we  shall  fin(i  but  little  tt.  say 
of  it,  as  far  as  regards  the  period  licfore  C;i(  cro. 
In  the  republican  limes  the  state  did  not  trouble 
itself  about  the  training  of  vouth :  o  few  prohibit- 
ory regulations  were  laid  down,  ond  the  rest  left 
to  private  Individuals.  Thus  no  public  instruc- 
tion was  ^iven;  public  schools  tliere  were,  but 
only  as  private  undertakings  for  the  sake  of  tho 
children  of  the  rich.  All  depended  on  the  father ; 
his  personal  character  and  the  care  taken  by  the 
mother  in  education  decided  the  development  of 
tho  child's  disposition.  Books  there  were  none ; 
and  therefore  they  could  not  be  put  Into  the  hands 
of  children.  A  few  rugged  hymns,  such  as  those 
of  the  Salii  and  Arval  brothers,  with  the  songs 
in  Ecscennine  verse,  sung  on  festivals  and  at  ban- 
q>iet«,  formed  tlie  poetical  literoture.  A  child 
would  hear,  besides,  the  dirges,  or  memorial 
verses,  composed  by  women  In  honourof  the  dead, 
ond  sometimes,  too,  the  public  panogvrics  pro- 
nounced on  their  departed  relatives,  a  distinction 
accorded  to  women  also  from  the  time  of  Camll- 
lus.    Whatever  was  taught  a  boy  by  father  or 


685 


EDUCATION. 


Ancient 
Roman  teaching. 


EDUCATION. 


mother,  or  acquired  extemnlly  to  the  house,  was 
cttlculntod  to  make  the  Uoinan  '  virtus '  appear 
in  his  eyes  tlie  lii)7liest  aim  of  his  ambition;  tlie 
term  including  self-mastery,  an  unbending  lirm- 
ness  of  will,  with  patience,  and  an  iron  tenacity 
of  purpose  in  carrying  through  whatever  was 
onee  acknowledged  to  be  right.  The  Greek  pa- 
1(  tra  and  its  naked  combatants  always  seemed 
strange  and  offensive  to  Homan  eyes.  In  the 
republican  times  the  exercises  of  the  gymnasium 
were  but  little  in  fashion;  though  riihug,  swim- 
ming, and  other  warlikf>  exercises  were  indus- 
triously practised,  as  preparations  for  the  cam- 
paign. The  slave  pa-dagogus,  assigned  to  young 
people  to  take  charge  of  them,  had  a  higher  posi- 
tion witli  the  Komans  than  the  Greeks;  and  was 
not  allowed  to  let  his  pupils  out  of  his  sight  till 
their  twentieth  year.  The  Latin  Odyssey  of  Li  vius 
Andronieus  was  the  scliool-book  first  in  use ;  and 
this  and  Enniiis  were  the  only  two  works  to  create 
and  foster  a  literary  taste  before  the  destruction 
of  Carthage.  The  freedman  Sp.  Carvilius  was 
the  first  to  open  a  school  for  higlier  education. 
After  this  the  Greek  language  and  literature  came 
Into  the  circle  of  studies,  and  in  consequence  of 
tho  wars  in  Sicily,  Macedon,  and  Asia,  families 
of  distinction  kept  slaves  who  knew  Greek. 
Teachers  quickly  multiplied,  and  were  either 
liberti,  or  their  descendants.  No  free-bom  Roman 
would  consent  to  bo  a  paid  teacher,  for  that 
was  held  to  be  a  degradation.  The  Greek  lan- 
guage remained  throughout  the  classical  one  for 
Romans:  they  even  made  their  children  begin 
with  Homer.  As.  by  the  seventh  century  of  the 
republic,  J<;nnius,  I'la'utus,  Pacuvius,  and  Terence, 
had  already  become  old  poets,  dictations  were 
given  to  scho.ars  from  their  writings.  The  inter- 
pretation of  Virgil  began  under  Augustus,  and 
by  this  time  the  younger  Romans  were  resorting 
to  Athens,  Rhodes,  ApoUonia,  and  Mitylene,  in 
order  to  make  progress  in  Greek  rhetoric  and 
philosophy.  As  Roman  notions  were  based  en- 
tirely on  the  practical  and  the  useful,  music  was 
neglected  as  a  part  of  education ;  while,  as  a  con- 
trast, boys  were  compelled  to  learn  the  laws  of 
tho  twelve  tables  by  heart.  Cicero,  who  had 
gone  through  this  discipline  with  other  boys  of 
his  time,  complains  of  the  practice  having  begun 
to  bo  set  aside ;  and  Scipio  .^mUianus  deplored, 
as  an  evil  omen  of  degeneru  'he  sending  of 
boys  and  girls  to  the  academies  . .  actors,  where 
they  learnt  dancing  and  singing,  in  company  with 
young  women  of  pleasure.  Ic  one  of  these  schools 
were  to  be  found  as  many  as  five  hundred  young 
persons,  all  being  instructed  in  postures  and 
motions  of  the  most  abandoned  kind.  .  .  .  On  the 
other  hand,  the  gymnastic  exercises,  which  had 
once  served  the  young  men  as  a  training  for  war, 
fell  into  disuse,  having  naturally  become  object- 
less and  burdensome,  now  that,  under  Augustus, 
no  more  Roman  citizens  cliose  to  enlist  in  the 
legions.  Still  slavery  was,  and  continued  to  be, 
the  foremost  cause  of  the  depravation  of  youth, 
and  of  an  evil  education.  ...  It  was  no  longer 
the  mothers  who  educated  their  own  children: 
they  had  neither  inclination  nor  capacity  for  such 
duty,  for  mothers  of  the  stamp  of  Cornelia  had 
disappeared.  Immediately  on  its  birth,  the  child 
was  intrusted  to  a  Greek  female  slave,  with  some 
male  slave,  often  of  the  worst  description,  to  help 
her.  .  .  .  The  young  Roman  was  not  educated 
in  the  constant  companionship  of  youths  of  his 
own  age,  under  equal  discipline :  surrounded  by 


his  father's  slaves  and  parasites,  and  always 
accompanied  by  a  slave  when  he  went  out, 
he  hardly  received  imy  other  impressions  tlian 
such  as  were  calculated  to  foster  conceit,  in- 
dolence, amd  pride  in  him." — .1.  J.  I.  DOllinger, 
The  Gentile  and  the  Jew,  v.  2,  pp.  279-281.— 
Higher  Education  under  the  Empire. — "De- 
sides  schools  of  high  eminence  in  Mytilene,  Ephe- 
sus,  Smyrna,  Sidon,  etc.,  we  read  that  Apollouia 
enjoyed  so  high  a  reiiutation  for  elocpience  and 
])olitical  science  as  to  be  entrusted  with  the  educa- 
tion of  the  heir-apparent  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Antioch  was  noted  for  a  Aluseum  modelled  after 
that  of  the  Egyptian  metropolis,  and  Tarsus 
boasted  of  Gynmasia  and  a  University  which 
Strabo  does  not  hesitate  to  describe  as  more  than 
rivaling  those  of  Athens  and  Alexandria.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  philosophers,  rheto- 
ricians, and  grammarians  who  swarmed  in  the 
l)riucelv  retinues  of  the  great  Roman  aristocracy, 
and  whose  schools  abounded  in  all  tiie  most 
wealthy  and  populous  cities  of  the  empire  east 
and  west,  were  prepared  for  their  several  call- 
ings in  some  one  or  other  of  these  institutions. 
Strabo  tells  us  .  .  .  that  Rome  was  overrun 
with  Alexandrian  and  Syrian  grammarians,  and 
Juvenal  describes  one  of  tlie  Quirites  of  tho 
ancient  stamp  as  emigrating  in  slieer  disgust 
from  a  city  which  from  these  causes  had  become 
thoroughly  and  utterly  Greek.  .  .  .  That  exter- 
nal inducements  were  held  out  amply  sufflcient 
to  prevail  upon  poor  and  ambitious  men  to 
qualify  themselves  at  some  cost  for  vocations  of 
this  description  is  evident  from  tlie  wealth  to 
which,  as  we  are  told,  many  of  them  rose  from 
extreme  indigence  and  obscurity.  Suetonius,  in 
the  still  extant  fragment  of  his  essay  'de  Claris 
rhetoribus,' after  alluding  to  the  immense  num- 
ber of  professors  and  doctors  met  with  in  Rome, 
'draws  attention  to  the  frequency  with  which  in- 
dividuals who  had  dist^inguished  themselves  as 
teachers  of  rhetoric  had  been  elevated  into  the 
senate,  and  advanced  to  tlie  higliest  dignities  of 
the  state.  That  the  profession  of  a  philologist 
was  occasionally  at  least  well  remunurated  is 
evident  from  the  facts  recorded  by  the  same 
author  in  his  work  'de  Claris  grammaticis,'  sect. 
3.  He  there  mentions  that  there  were  at  one 
time  upwards  of  twenty  well  attended  schools 
devoted  to  this  subject  at  Rome,  and  that  one 
fortunate  individual,  Q.  liemmius  Palacmon,  de- 
rived four  hundred  thousand  sesterces,  or  con- 
siderably above  three  thousand  a  year,  from 
instruction  in  philology  alone.  Julius  Caesar 
conferred  tlie  citizensliip,  together  with  large 
bounties  in  money,  and  immunity  from  public 
burtliens,  on  distinguished  rhetoricians  and  phi- 
lologists, in  order  to  encourage  their  presence  at 
Rome.  .  .  .  That  individuals  who  thus  enjoyed 
an  income  not  greatly  below  the  revenues  of  an 
English  Bishopric  were  not,  as  the  name  might 
lead  us  to  imagine,  employed  in  teaching  the 
accidents  of  grammar,  but  possessed  considerable 
pretensions  to  that  higher  and  more  tho.  ghtful 
character  of  the  scholar  which  it  has  been  re- 
served for  modern  Europe  to  exhibit  in  perfec- 
tion, is  not  only  in  itself  highly  probable,  but 
supported  by  the  distinctest  and  most  unim- 
peachable evidence.  Seneca  tells  us  that  history 
was  amongf'  the  subjects  professed  by  gram- 
marians, anc  oero  regards  the  most  thorough 
and  refined  perception  of  all  that  pertains  to  the 
spirit  and  individuality  of  the  author  as  an  in- 


686 


EDUCATION. 


The  Early 
Middle  Ayeit. 


EDUCATION. 


dispensable  requisite  in  those  who  undcrtnko  to 
give  instruction  in  tliis  subject.  .  .  .  The  griun- 
mntici  appear  to  linve  occupied  a  position  very 
closely  analogous  to  that  of  the  ttacliers  of  colle- 
giate schools  in  England,  and  the  gymnasial  pro- 
fessors in  Germany." — E.  Kirkpatrick,  lliat'l  De- 
velopment of  Superior  Instruction  {JJdrnard's  Am. 
Journal  of  Education,  v.  24,  pp.  408-470. 

Mediaeval. 

The  Chaos  of  Barbaric  Conquest. — "The 
utter  confusion  subsequent  \ipon  the  downfall 
of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  irruption  of  the 
Germanic  races  was  causing,  by  tlie  mere  brute 
force  of  circumstance,  a  gradual  extinction  of 
scholarship  too  powerful  to  be  arrested.  The 
teaching  of  grammar  for  ecclesiastical  purposes 
was  insufllcient  to  check  the  inHuenc:e  of  many 
causes  leading  to  this  overthrow  of  learning. 
It  was  impossible  to  conmtunicate  more  than 
a  mere  tincture  of  knowledge  to  students  sepa- 
rated from  the  classical  tradition,  for  whom  the 
anteccdcnr  history  of  Home  was  a  dead  letter. 
The  meaning  of  Latin  words  derived  from  tlie 
Greek  was  lost.  .  .  .  Theological  notions,  gro- 
tesque and  childish  beyond  description,  found 
their  way  into  etymology  and  grammar.  Tlie 
three  persons  of  the  Trinity  were  discovered  in 
the  verb,  and  mystic  numbers  in  tlio  parts  of 
speech.  Thus  analytical  studies  like  that  of  lan- 
guage came  to  be  regarded  as  an  open  lield  for 
the  exercise  of  the  mythologising  fancy ;  and  ety- 
mology was  reduced  to  a  system  of  ingenious 
punning.  .  .  .  Virgil,  the  only  classic  who  re- 
tained distinct  and  living  personality,  passed 
from  poet  to  philosopher,  from  philosopher  to 
Sibyl,  from  Sibyl  to  magician,  by  successive 
stages  of  transmutation,  as  the  trutii  about  him 
grew  more  dim  and  the  faculty  to  apprehend 
him  weakened.  Forming  the  stai)le  of  education 
in  the  schools  of  the  grammarians,  and  meta- 
morphosed by  the  vulgar  consciousness  into  a 
wizard,  he  waited  on  the  extreme  verge  of  the 
da-k  ages  to  take  Dante  by  the  hand,  and  lead 
him,  as  the  ivpe  of  human  reason,  through  the 
realms  ot  Hell  and  Purgatory." — J.  A.  Symonds, 
lie     ismneein Italy:  the l{er>iv(dof  Learning, ch.'i. 

ft  \\:  Ath-Sth  Centuries. — "If  institutions 
cou  do  all,  if  laws  supplied  and  the  means  fur- 
nisliLu  to  society  could  do  everything,  the  in- 
tellectual state  of  Gaulish  civil  society  at  this 
epoch  [4th-5tli  centuries]  would  have  been  far 
superior  to  that  of  the  religious  soeietjr.  The 
first,  in  fact,  alone  possessed  all  the  institutions 
proper  to  second  the  development  of  mind,  the 
progress  and  empire  of  ideas.  Itomau  Gaul  was 
covered  with  large  schools.  The  principal  were 
those  of  Treves,  Bordeaux,  Autuu,  Toulouse, 
Poitiers,  Lyons,  Narbonne,  Aries,  Marseilles, 
Vienne,  Besan^on,  &c.  Some  were  very  ancient ; 
those  of  Marseilles  and  of  Autun,  for  example, 
dated  from  the  first  century.  They  were  taught 
philosophy,  medicine,  jurisprudence,  literature, 
grammar,  astrology,  all  the  sciences  of  the  age. 
In  the  greater  part  of  these  schools,  indeed,  they 
at  first  taught  only  rlietoric  and  grammar;  but 
towards  the  fourth  century,  professoia  of  phi- 
losophy and  law  were  everywhere  introduced. 
Not  only  were  these  schools  numerous,  and  pro- 
vided with  many  chairs,  but  tlie  emperors  con- 
tinually took  the  professors  of  now  measures 
into  favor.  Theii  interests  are,  from  Constan- 
tine  to  Theodosius  the  younger,  the  subject  of 


fri'ciucnt  imperial  constitutions,  which  sometimes 
extended,  sometinies  conHnr".'(l  their  privileges. 
.  .  .  After  tlie  Empire  was  divi<Ie{l  among  many 
ina.stcrs,  each  of  them  concerned  himself  rather 
more  about  the  prosperity  of  his  states  and  the 
public  establishments  which  were  in  them, 
i'lieiice  arose  a  momentary  amelioration,  of  which 
the  schools  felt  the  effects,  particularly  those  of 
Gaul,  un<ler  the  administration  of  Constantius 
Clorus,  of  Julian,  and  of  Gnitian.  By  the  side 
of  the  schools  were,  in  gviicral,  placed  other 
analogous  establishments.  Thus,  at  Treves  there 
was  a  gnmd  library  of  the  imperial  iiaiace,  con- 
cerning which  no  special  information  lias  reached 
us,  but  of  which  we  may  judge  by  the  details 
which  have  reached  us  concerning  that  of  Con- 
stantinople. This  last  had  a  lilirarian  and  seven 
scribes  constantly  occupied  —  four  for  Greek,  and 
three  for  Latin.  Tliey  copied  both  ancient  and 
new  works.  It  is  probable  that  the  same  institu- 
tion existed  at  Treves,  and  in  the  great  towns  of 
Gaul.  (;ivil  society,  then,  was  provided  with 
means  of  instruction  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment. It  was  not  the  same  with  religious  so- 
ciety. It  had  at  this  epoch  no  institution  especi- 
ally devoted  to  teaching;  it  did  not  receivi  from 
the  state  any  aid  to  tliij  particular  aim.  Cliris- 
tiaus,  as  well  as  others,  could  frequent  the  public 
schools;  but  most  of  the  professors  were  still 
pajjans.  ...  It  was  for  a  long  time  in  the  in- 
ferior classes,  among  the  people,  that  Chris- 
tianity was  propagated,  especially  in  the  Gauls, 
and  it  was  tlie  suiierior  classes  which  followed 
the  great  schools.  Jlorcover,  it  was  hardly  until 
the  comnienccment  of  the  fourth  century  that 
the  Christians  appeared  tiiere,  and  tlicn  but  few 
in  number.  No  other  source  of  study  was  open 
to  them.  The  establishments  which,  a  little 
afterwards,  became,  in  tlie  Christian  church,  the 
refuge  and  sanctuary  of  ii.struetion,  the  monas- 
teries, were  hardly  commenced  in  the  Gauls.  It 
was  only  after  the  year  360  that  the  two  first 
were  founded  by  St.  !Martin  —  one  at  Liguge, 
near  Poitiers,  the  other  at  Marmoutiers,  near 
Tours;  and  they  were  devoted  rather  to  religious 
contemplation  than  to  teaching.  Any  great 
school,  any  special  institution  devoted  to  the 
service  and  to  the  progress  of  intellect,  was  at 
that  time,  therefore,  wanting  to  the  Cliristians. 
.  .  .  All  things  in  the  fifth  century,  attest  the 
decay  of  the  civil  schools.  The  contemporaneous 
writers,  Sidonius  ApoUinaris  and  Mamertius 
Claudianus,  for  example,  deplore  it  in  every  page, 
saying  that  the  young  men  no  longer  studied, 
that  iirofessors  were  without  pupils,  that  science 
languished  and  was  being  lost.  ...  It  was  es- 
pecially the  young  men  of  the  superior  classes 
who  freijueuted  the  schools;  but  these  classes 
.  .  .  were  in  rapid  dissolution.  The  schools  fell 
with  them ;  the  institutions  still  existed,  but  they 
were  void  —  the  soul  had  quitted  the  body.  The 
intellectual  aspect  of  Christian  society  was  very 
different.  .  .  .  Institutions  began  to  rise,  and  to 
be  regulated  among  the  Christians  of  Gaul.  The 
foundation  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  large 
monasteries  of  the  southern  provinces  belongs  to 
the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  .  .  .  The 
monasteries  of  the  south  of  Gaul  were  philosoph- 
ical schools  ot  Christianity;  it  was  there  that 
intellectual  men  meditated,  discussed,  taught ;  it 
was  from  thence  that  new  ideas,  daring  thoughts, 
heresies,  were  sent  forth.  .  .  .  Towards  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century,   everything  is  changed: 


687 


EDDCATION. 


Irish  Schooln  of  the 
8th  and  loth  Centuriet. 


EDUCATION. 


there  nre  no  longer  civil  schools;  ecclesiastical 
schools  alone  sulisist.  Those  great  municipal 
scli(x>l8  of  TrtSves,  of  Poitiers,  of  \'^ienne,  of  Bor- 
deaux, lie,  have  disappeared;  in  their  place 
have  arisen  schools  called  cathednil  or  episcopal 
schools,  because  each  cjjiscopal  sec  had  its  own. 
The  cathedral  school  was  not  always  alone ;  we 
find  in  certain  dioceses  other  schools,  of  an  un- 
certain nature  and  origin,  wrecks,  perhaps,  of 
some  ancient  civil  school,  which,  in  becoming 
metamorpliosed,  had  perpetuated  itself.  .  .  .The 
most  tlourishing  of  tlie  episcopal  schools  from 
the  sixtli  to  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century 
were  those  of:  1.  Poitiers.  There  were  many 
schools  in  the  monasteries  of  the  diocese  at  Poi- 
tiers itself,  at  Ligugc,  at  Ansion,  &c.  8.  Paris. 
8.  Leilans.  4.  Bourges.  5.  Clermont.  There 
was  another  school  in  the  town  where  they 
taught  the  Theodosian  code;  a  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance, wliich  I  do  not  lind  elsewhere.  6. 
Vienue.  7.  Chitlons-sur-Saone.  8.  Aries.  9.  Gap. 
The  ^lost  flourishing  of  the  monastic  schools  of 
the  same  epoch  were  those  of :  1.  Luxeuil,  in 
Franche-Comte.  2.  Fontenelle,  or  Saint  Van- 
drille,  in  Normandy;  in  which  were  about  HOO 
students.  3.  Sithiu,  in  Normandy.  4.  Siiuit 
Medard,  at  Soissons.  5.  Lerens.  It  were  easy 
to  extend  this  list ;  but  the  prosperity  of  monastic 
schools  was  subject  to  great  vicissitudes;  they 
flo'irished  under  a  distinguished  abbot,  and  de- 
clined \mder  his  successor.  Even  in  nunneries, 
study  was  not  neglected;  that  which  Saint 
Cesaire  founded  at  Aries  contained,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sixth  century,  two  hundred 
uuuo,  for  the  most  part  occupied  in  copying 
hooks,  sometimes  religious  books,  sometimes, 
probauly,  even  the  works  of  the  ancients.  The 
metamorphosis  of  civil  schools  into  ecclesiastical 
schools  was  complete.  Let  us  see  what  was 
tauglit  in  them.  We  shall  often  find  in  them 
the  names  of  sciences  formerly  professed  in  the 
civil  schools,  rhetoric,  lop  ■:,  grammar,  geome- 
try, astrology,  i&c. ;  but  these  were  evidently  no 
longer  taught  except  in  their  relations  to  the- 
ology. This  is  the  foundation  of  the  instruction : 
all  was  turned  into  commentary  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, historical,  philosophical,  allegorical,  moral, 
commentary.  They  desired  only  to  form  priests ; 
all  studies,  whatsoever  their  nature,  were  directed 
towards  this  result.  Sometimes  they  went  even 
further:  they  rejected  the  profane  sciences  them- 
selves, wlmtever  might  be  the  use  made  of  them. " 
— P.  Guizot,  Jliatory  of  Civilization  to  the  French 
Revolution,  n.  3,  lect.  4  and  16. 

Ireland.— Scotland.— Schools  of  lona. — Pop- 
ular accounts  represent  St.  Patrick  as  "found- 
ing at  least  a  liundred  monasteries,  and  even 
tliose  who  consider  that  the  greater  number  of 
the  Irish  colleges  were  raised  by  his  followers 
after  his  death,  admit  the  fact  of  his  having  es- 
tablished an  episcopal  monastery  and  school  at 
Armagh,  where  he  and  his  clergy  carried  out  the 
same  rule  of  life  that  he  had  seen  followed  in  the 
churches  of  Gaul.  .  .  .  The  school,  which  formed 
a  portion  of  the  Catliednd  establishment,  soon 
rose  in  importance.  Gildas  tauglit  here  for  some 
years  before  joining  St.  Cadoe  at  Llancarvan; 
and  in  process  of  time  the  number  of  students, 
both  native  and  foreign,  so  increased  that  the 
university,  as  we  may  justly  call  it,  was  divided 
into  three  parts,  one  of  which  was  devoted  en- 
tirely to  students  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race.  Grants 
for  uie  support  of  the  schools  were  made  by  the 


Irish  kings  in  the  eighth  century ;  and  all  through 
the  troublous  times  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centu- 
ries, when  Ireland  was  overrun  by  the  Danes, 
and  so  many  of  her  simctuaries  were  given  to  the 
flames,  the  succession  of  divinity  professors  at 
Armagh  n^nained  unbroken,  and  has  been  care- 
fully traced  by  Usher.  We  need  not  stop  to  de- 
termine how  many  other  establishments  similar 
to  those  of  Armagh  were  really  founded  in  the 
lifetime  of  St.  Patrick.  In  any  case  the  rapid 
extension  of  the  monastic  institute  in  Ireland, 
and  the  extraordinary  ardour  with  which  the 
Irish  coenobites  applied  themselves  to  the  culti- 
vation of  letters  remain  undisputed  facts.  '  Within 
a  century  after  the  death  of  St.  Patrick,'  says 
Bishop  Nicholson,  'the  Irish  seminaries  had  so 
increased  that  most  parts  of  Europe  sent  their 
children  to  be  educated  here,  and  drew  thence 
their  bishops  and  teachers. '  The  whole  country 
for  miles  round  Leighlin  was  denominated  the 
'  land  of  saints  and  scholars. '  By  the  ninth  cen- 
tury Armagh  could  boast  of  7,000  students,  and 
the  schools  of  Casliel,  Dindaleathglass,  and  Lis- 
more  vied  with  it  in  renown.  This  extraordinary 
multiplication  of  monastic  seminaries  and  schol- 
ars may  be  explained  partly  by  the  constant  immi- 
gration of  British  refugees  who  brought  with 
them  the  learning  and  religious  observances  of 
their  native  cloisters,  and  partly  by  that  sacred 
and  irresistible  impulse  which  animates  a  newly 
converted  people  to  heroic  acta  of  sacrifice.  In 
Ireland  the  infant  church  was  not,  as  elsewhere, 
watered  witli  the  blood  of  martyrs.  .  .  .  The 
bards,  who  were  to  be  found  in  great  numbers 
amon^  the  early  converts  of  St.  Patrick,  had  also 
a  considerable  share  in  directing  the  energies  of 
their  countrymen  to  intellectual  labour.  They 
formed  the  learned  class,  and  on  their  conversion 
to  Christianity  were  readily  disposed  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  culture  of  sacred  letters.  .  .  . 
It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  limits  of  a 
single  chapter,  to  notice  even  the  names  of  all 
the  Irish  seats  of  learning,  or  of  their  most  cele- 
brated teachers,  every  one  of  whom  has  his  own 
legend  in  whicli  sacred  and  poetic  beauties  are  to 
be  found  blended  together.  One  of  the  earliest 
monastic  schools  was  that  erected  by  Enda,  prince 
of  Orgiel,  in  that  western  island  called  from  the 
wild  flowers  which  even  still  cover  its  rocky  soil, 
Aran-of-the-Flowers,  a  name  it  afterwards  ex- 
changed for  that  of  Ara-na-naomh,  or  Aran-of- 
the-Saints.  ...  A  little  later  St.  Finian  founded 
his  great  school  of  Clonard,  whence,  says  Usher, 
issued  forth  a  stream  of  saints  and  doctors,  like 
the  Greek  warriors  from  the  wooden  horse.  .  .  . 
This  desolate  wilderness  was  soon  peopled  by  his 
disciples,  who  are  said  to  have  numbered  3,000,  of 
wliom  the  twelve  most  eminent  are  often  termed 
the  Twelve  Apostles  of  Ireland.  .  .  .  Among 
tliem  none  were  more  famous  than  St.  Columba, 
St.  Kieran,  and  St.  Brendan.  The  first  of  these 
is  known  to  every  English  reader  as  the  founder 
of  lona,  una  !«..>. "n,  the  carpenter's  son,  as  he  is 
called,  is  scarcely  less  renowned  among  his  own 
countrymen.  ...  It  was  in  the  year  563  that  St. 
Columba,  after  founding  the  monasteries  of  Doire- 
Calgaich  and  Dair-magh  in  his  native  land,  and 
incurring  the  enmity  of  one  of  the  Irish  kings, 
determined  on  crossing  over  into  Scotland  in 
order  to  preach  the  faith  to  the  Northern  Picts. 
Accompanied  by  twelve  companions,  he  passed 
the  Channel  in  a  rude  wicker  boat  covered  with 
skins,  and  landed  at  Port-ua  Currachan,  on  a  spot 


688 


EDUCATION. 


Charletnaffne'a 
School  of  the  Palace. 


EDUCATION. 


now  marked  by  a  heap  of  huge  conical  Htoncs. 
Conall,  king  of  the  Albanian  Scots,  granted  liim 
the  island  of  I,  Hi,  or  Ai,  hitherto  occupied  by 
the  Druids,  and  there  he  erected  tlie  monastery 
which,  in  time,  became  the  motlier  of  three  liun- 
drcd  religious  houses.  .  .  .  lona,  or  I-Colum-kil, 
as  it  was  called  by  the  Irisli,  came  to  be  looked  on 
as  the  chief  seat  of  learning,  not  only  in  Britain, 
but  in  the  whole  AVcstern  world.  '  Tliither,  as 
from  a  nest,'  says  Odonellus,  playing  on  the 
Latin  name  of  the  founder,  'thjse  sacred  doves 
took  their  flight  to  every  quarter. '  They  studied 
the  classics,  the  mechanical  arts,  law,  history, 
and  pliysic.  They  improved  tlie  arts  of  hus- 
bandry and  horticulture,  supplied  tlic  rude  peo- 
ple whom  they  had  undertaken  to  civilise  with 
plouglisliares  and  other  utensils  of  labour,  and 
tanglit  them  the  use  of  tlie  forge,  in  the  mysteries 
of  wliich  every  Irish  monk  wud  instructed  from 
his  boyhood.  They  transferred  to  their  new 
liomes  all  the  learning  of  Armagh  or  Clonard. 
...  In  every  college  of  Irisli  origin,  by  whom- 
soever they  were  founded  or  on  whatever  soil 
they  flourislied,  we  thus  see  study  blended  witli 
tlie  duties  of  the  missionary  and  the  ctcnobite. 
Tliey  were  religiius  houses,  no  doubt,  in  which 
tlie  celebration  of  the  Church  office  was  often  kept 
up  without  intermission  by  day  and  niglit ;  but 
they  were  also  seminaries  of  learning,  wherein 
sacred  and  profaao  studies  were  cultivated  with 
equal  success.  Not  only  tlicir  own  monasteries  but 
those  of  every  European  country  were  enriched 
witli  their  manuscripts,  and  the  researches  of 
modern  bibliopolists  arc  continually  disinterring 
from  German  or  Italian  libraries  a  Horace,  or  an 
Ovid,  or  a  Sat.'ed  Codex  whoso  Irish  gloss  betrays 
the  hand  which  traced  its  delicate  letters. " — A.  T. 
Drone,  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  ch.  3. 

Charlemagne. — "If  there  ever  was  a  man 
who  by  his  mere  natural  endowments  soared 
above  othtr  men,  it  was  Cliarleraagne.  His  life, 
like  his  stature,  was  colossal.  Time  never  seemed 
wanting  to  him  for  anytliing  that  he  willed  to 
accomplish,  and  during  his  ten  years  campaign 
against  the  Saxons  and  Lombards,  he  contrived 
to  get  leisure  enough  to  study  grammar,  and 
render  himself  tolcably  proficient  as  a  Latin 
writer  in  prose  and  verse.  He  found  his  tutors 
in  the  cities  tliat  he  conquered.  When  he  be- 
came master  of  Pisa,  lie  gained  tlie  services  of 
Peter  of  Pisa,  whom  he  set  over  llie  Palatine 
school,  which  had  existed  even  under  the  Me- 
rovingian kings,  though  as  yet  it  was  far  from 
en^oymg  the  fame  to  which  it  was  afterwards 
raised  by  the  teaching  of  Alcuin.  He  possessed 
the  art  of  ti  rning  enemies  into  friends,  and  thus 
drew  to  his  court  the  famous  historian,  Paul 
^^'^arnefrid,  deacon  of  the  Chijrch  of  Home,  who 
had  previously  acted  as  secretary  to  Didier,  king 
of  the  Lombards.  .  .  .  Another  Italian  scholar, 
St.  Paulinus,  of  Aquileja,  was  coaxed  into  the 
service  of  t)ie  Frankisli  sovereign  after  his  con- 
quest of  Friuli;  I  will  not  say  that  he  was 
bought,  but  he  was  "Ttainly  paid  for  by  a  large 
grant  of  confiscated  territory  made  over  by  di- 
ploma to  '  the  Venerable  Paulinus,  master  of  the 
art  of  grammar.'  But  none  of  tliese  learned  per- 
sonages were  destined  to  take  so  large  a  part  iu 
that  revival  of  learning  which  made  the  glory  of 
Charlemagne's  reign,  as  our  own  countryman 
Alcuin.  It  was  in  781,  on  occasion  of  the  king's 
second  visit  to  Italy,  that  the  meetinj_'-  tcok  place 
at  Parma,  the  result  of  which  was  to  fix  the 


English  scholar  at  the  Prankish  court.  Having 
ol)tained  the  consent  of  his  own  bishop  and  sover- 
eign to  this  arrangement,  Alcuin  came  over  to 
France  in  782,  bringing  with  him  several  of  the 
best  scholars  of  York,  among  whom  were  Wizo, 
Fredegis,  and  Sigulf.  Charlemagne  received 
him  witli  joy,  and  assigned  him  three  abbeys 
for  the  maintenance  of  himself  and  his  disciples, 
those  namely,  of  Ferrifires,  St.  Lupws  of  Troyes, 
and  St.  Josse  in  Pontliieu.  From  this  time  Al- 
cuin held  the  first  place  in  the  literary  society 
tliat  surrounded  the  Fronkish  sovereign,  and 
filled  an  ofliee  the  duties  of  which  were  as  vast 
as  they  were  various.  Three  great  works  at  once 
claimed  his  attention,  the  correction  of  the  litur- 
gical books,  the  direction  of  the  court  academy, 
and  tlie  establishment  of  other  pub'ic  sclioois 
throughout  the  empire.  .  .  .  But  it  wis  as  head 
of  the  Palatine  school  that  Alcuin's  inlluencc 
was  cliieliy  to  be  felt  in  tlie  restoration  of  letters. 
Charlemagne  presented  himself  as  Ills  first  pupil, 
together  with  the  three  princes,  Pepin,  Charles, 
and  Louis,  his  sister  Gisla  and  hiii  daughter 
Richtrude,  his  councillors  Adalard  aod  Angil- 
bert,  and  Eginhard  his  secretary.  Such  illus- 
trious scholars  soon  found  p.enty  to  imitaie  their 
example,  and  Alcuin  saw  liimself  called  on  to 
lecture  daily  to  a  goodly  crowd  of  bishops, 
nobles,  and  courtiei-s.  The  king  wished  to  trans- 
form liis  court  into  a  new  Athens  preferable  to 
tliat  of  aiicien;  Greece,  in  so  far  as  the  doctrine 
of  Clirist  is  to  ii  preferred  to  that  of  Plato.  All 
the  liberal  arts  ,,'ere  to  be  taught  there,  but  in 
such  a  way  as  tliat  each  should  bear  reference  to 
religion,  for  this  was  regarded  as  tlie  final  end  of 
of  all  learning.  Grammar  was  studied  in  order 
better  to  understand  tlie  Holy  Scriptures  and  to 
transcribe  tliem  more  correctly ;  music,  to  which 
much  attention  was  given,  was  chiefly  confined 
to  the  ecclesiastical  chant ;  and  it  was  principally 
to  explain  the  Fathers  and  refute  errors  contrary 
to  the  faith  that  rhetoric  and  dialectics  were 
studied.  'In  short,' says  Crevier,  'the  thought 
both  of  the  king  and  of  the  scholar  who  laboured 
with  him  was  to  refer  all  things  to  religion, 
nothing  being  considered  as  truly  useful  which 
did  not  bear  some  relation  to  tliat  end.'  At  first 
Alcuin  allowed  the  study  of  the  classic  poets, 
and  in  his  boyhood,  as  wo  know,  he  had  been  a 
greater  reader  of  Virgil  than  of  the  Scriptures. 
.  .  .  Tlie  authors  whose  study  Chp  lemagne  and 
Alcuin  desired  to  promote,  were  not  so  much 
Virgil  and  Cicero,  as  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Augus- 
tine ;  and  Charlemagne,  in  his  excessive  admira- 
tion of  tliose  Fathers,  gave  utterance  to  the  wish 
that  he  liad  a  dozen  such  men  at  his  court.  Tho 
'  City  of  God '  was  read  at  tlie  royal  tabic,  and 
the  questions  addressed  by  the  court  students  to 
their  master  turned  ratlier  on  the  obscurities  of 
Holy  Writ  than  the  difficulties  of  prosody.  In 
one  thing,  however,  they  betrayed  a  classic  taste, 
and  that  was  in  their  selection  of  names.  The 
Uoyal  Academicians  all  rejoiced  in  some  literary 
soubriquet ;  Alcuin  was  Flaccus ;  Angilbert,  Ho- 
mer; but  Charlemagne  himself  adopted  the  more 
scriptural  appellation  of  David.  "The  eagerness 
witli  which  this  extraordinary  .nan  applied  hini- 
■•eU  to  acquire  learning  for  himself,  and  to  ex- 
tend it  throughout  his  dominions,  is  truly  admir- 
able, when  we  remember  the  enormous  labours 
in  which  he  was  constantly  engaged." — A.  T. 
Drixne,  Chriitian  Sc!woLi  and  Scholars,  ch.  5. — See, 
also,  School  of  tue  Palace,  CnAKLEMAonE's. 


689 


EDUCATION. 


Schools  of 
King  Alfred. 


EDUCATION. 


England  :  King  Alfred.— King  Alfred  "  gatli- 
ercil  round  him  ut  Ins  own  rourt  the  sons  of  his 
nol)ility  to  receive,  in  conjunction  witli  his  own 
diildren,  ti  hetter  education  than  their  piirents 
woidd  be  aide  or  willing  to  give  them  in  their 
own  households.  To  this  assemblage  of  pupils 
Asser  has  attached  the  name  ot  school,  and  a 
violent  controversy  once  distractCL"  the  literary 
world  concerning  the  sense  in  which  the  word 
was  to  be  understood,  and  whether  it  was  not 
the  iM-'ginning  or  origin  of  a  learned  institution 
Ktill  existing.  In  speaking  of  this  subject,  Asser 
has  taken  occasion  to  enumerate  and  describe  the 
childreh  who  were  born  to  Alfred  from  his  wife 
Elswitha  daughter  of  Ethelred  the  '  Big,'  alder- 
man of  the  Gaini.  and  a  noble  of  great  wealth 
and  influence  in  Jlercia.  'The  sons  and  daugh- 
ters, '  says  Asser,  '  which  he  had  by  his  wife  above 
mentione  1,  were  Etheltlcd  the  eldest,  after  whom 
Clime  Edward,  then  Ethelgiva,  thenEthelswitha, 
and  Ethehverd,  besides  those  who  died  in  their 
infancy,  one  of  whom  was  Edmund.  Ethelfled, 
when  she  arrived  at  a  marriageable  age,  was 
tuiited  to  Ethelred,  earl  of  Mercia;  Ethelgiva  was 
dedicated  to  God,  and  submitted  to  the  rules  of 
a  monastic  life;  Ethehverd,  the  youngest,  by  the 
Divine  counsels  and  admirable  prudence  of  the 
king,  was  consigned  to  the  schools  of  learning, 
where,  with  the  children  of  almost  all  the  no- 
bility of  the  country,  and  many  also  who  were 
not  noble,  he  prospered  under  the  diligent  care 
of  his  teachers.  Books  in  both  languages,  namely, 
in  Latin  and  Saxon,  were  read  in  the  school. 
They  also  learned  to  write;  so  that,  before  they 
were  of  an  age  to  practise  manly  arts,  namely 
hunting  and  such  other  pursuits  as  beflt  hoble- 
ineii,  they  became  studious  and  clever  in  the  lib- 
erul  arts.  Edward  and  Ethelswitha  wjre  bred 
up  in  the  king's  court,  and  received  great  atten- 
tion from  their  servants  and  nurses;  nay,  they 
continue  to  this  day,  with  the  love  of  all  about 
them,  and  shew  affability,  and  even  gentleness, 
towarda  all,  both  foreigners  and  natives,  and  art 
in  complete  subjection  to  their  father ;  nor,  among 
their  other  studies  which  appertain  to  this  life 
and  are  fit  for  noble  youths,  are  they  suffered  to 
l)ass  their  time  idly  and  unprofltably,  without 
learning  the  liberal  arts;  for  they  have  carefully 
learned  the  Psalms  and  Saxon  books,  especially 
the  Saxon  Poems,  and  are  continually  In  the 
habit  of  making  use  of  books.'  The  schools  of 
learning,  to  which  Asser  alludes  in  this  passage, 
as  formed  for  the  use  of  the  king's  children  and 
the  sons  of  his  nobles,  are  again  mentioned  else- 
where by  the  same  author,  as  '  the  school  which 
he  had  studiously  collected  together,  consisting 
of  many  of  the  nobility  of  his  own  nation : '  and 
in  a  third  passage,  Asser  speaks  of  the  '  sons  of 
the  nobility  w-ho  were  bred  up  in  the  royal  house- 
hold.' It  13  clear,  then,  from  these  expressions, 
that  the  king's  exertions  tospread  learning  among 
his  nobles  and  to  educate  his  own  children,  were 
of  a  most  active  and  personal  nature,  unconnected 
with  any  institutions  of  a  more  public  character : 
the  school  was  kept  in  his  own  liousehold,  and 
not  in  a  public  sea"^  of  learning.  We  may  per- 
haps adduce  fhesc  expressions  of  Asser  as  militat- 
ing against  the  notion,  that  an  University  or 
Public  Semina.-y  of  Learning  existed  in  the  days 
of  Alfred.  Though  it  is  most  probable  that  the 
several  monasteries,  and  other  societies  of  monks 
and  churchmen,  would  employ  a  portion  of  their 
idle  time  in  tuachiL'g  youth,  and  prosecuting  their 


own  studies ;  yet  there  is  no  proof  that  an  author- 
ized scat  of  learning,  such  as  the  Universities  of 
Oxford  or  Cambridge,  existed  in  England,  until 
many  hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Alfred." — 
J.  A.  Giles,  JAfe  and  Times  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
ch.  'il. 

Saracenic  and  Moorish  learning. — "Even  as 
early  as  the  tenth  century,  persons  having  a  taste 
for  learning  and  for  elegant  amenities  found  their 
way  into  Spain  from  all  adjoining  countries;  a 
practice  in  subsequent  years  still  more  indulged 
in,  when  it  became  illustrated  by  the  brilliant  suc- 
cess of  Gilbert,  who  .  .  .  passed  from  the  Infidel 
University  of  Cordova  to  the  papacy  of  Rome. 
The  khalifs  of  the  West  carrie(i  out  the  precepts 
of  Ali,  the  fourth  successor  of  Mohammed,  in  the 
patronage  of  literature.  They  established  libra- 
ries in  all  their  chief  towns ;  it  is  said  that  not 
fewer  than  seventy  were  in  existence.  To  every 
mosque  was  attached  a  public  school,  in  which 
the  children  of  the  poor  were  taught  to  read  and 
write,  and  iu.structed  in  the  precepts  of  the  Koran. 
For  those  in  easier  circiimstanccs  there  were  acad- 
emies, usually  arranged  in  twenty-live  or  thirty 
apartments,  each  calculated  for  accommodating 
four  students ;  the  academy  being  presided  over 
by  a  recior.  In  Cordova,  Granada,  and  other 
great  cities,  there  were  universities  frequently 
under  the  superintendence  of  Jews ;  the  Moham- 
medan maxim  being  that  the  real  learning  of  a 
man  is  of  more  public  importance  than  any  par- 
ticular religious  opinions  he  may  entertain.  In 
this  they  followed  the  example  of  the  Asiatic 
khalif,  ifaroun  Alraschid,  who  actually  conferred 
the  superintendence  of  his  scliools  on  John  Masue, 
a  Nestorian  Christian.  The  Alohammedan  liber- 
ality was  in  striking  contrast  with  the  intolerance 
of  Europe.  ...  In  the  universities  some  of  the 
professors  of  polite  literature  gave  lectures  on 
Arabic  classical  works;  others  taught  rhetoric 
or  composition,  or  mathematics,  or  astronomy. 
From  these  institutions  many  of  the  practices  ob- 
served in  our  colleges  were  derived.  They  held 
Commencements,  at  which  poems  were  read  and 
orations  delivered  in  presence  of  the  public. 
They  had  also,  in  addition  to  these  schools  of  gen-, 
eral  learning,  professional  ones,  particularly  for 
medicine.  With  a  pride  perhaps  not  altogether 
inexcusable,  the  Arabians  boasted  of  their  lan- 
guage as  being  the  most  perfect  spoken  by  man. 
...  It  is  not  then  surprising  that,  in  the  Arabian 
schools,  great  attention  was  paid  to  the  study  of 
language,  and  that  so  many  celebrated  grammar- 
ians were  produced.  By  these  scholars,  diction- 
aries, similar  to  those  now  in  use,  were  composed ; 
their  copiousness  is  indicated  by  the  circumstance 
that  one  of  them  consisted  of  sixty  volumes,  the 
definition  of  each  word  being  illustrated  or  sus- 
tained by  quotations  from  Arab  authors  of  ac- 
knowledged repute.  They  had  also  lexicons  of 
Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew ;  and  cyclopedias  such  as 
the  Historical  Dictionary  or  Sciences  of  Mo- 
hammed Ibn  Abdallah,  of  Granada." — .1.  W. 
Draper,  Hut.  of  the  Intellectual  Developi  lent  of 
Europe,  v.  3,  ch.  ii. — "The  Saracenic  king.'  formed 
libraries  of  unparalleled  size  and  number.  That 
of  Hakem  amounted  to  600,000  volumes,  of  which 
44  were  employed  in  the  mere  catalogue.  Up- 
wards of  70  public  libraries  were  establLshed  in 
his  dominions.  100,000  volumes  v,  ere  numbered 
in  the  library  of  Cairo,  and  were  freely  lent  to 
the  studious  citizen.  'The  taste  of  the  sovereign 
communicated  itself  to  the  subject,  and  a  private 


690 


EDUCATION. 


fichoolmen  and 
Scholastici$ni. 


EDUCATION. 


doctor  (loclnrcd  tlmt  hla  books  were  suftloient  to 
loml  4(X)  cnmcls.  Nor  were  the  Saracens  less  at- 
tentive to  the  foundation  of  scliools  and  colleges. 
Eighty  of  twC  latter  institutions  adorned  Conlova 
in  tlin  reign  of  Hakem;  in  the  tifteenth  century 
iifty  w>..-  scattered  over  the  city  and  plain  of 
Granada.  "SOO.OOO  dinars  (abo\it  .£100,000  ster- 
ling) were  expended  on  the  foundation  of  a  single 
college  at  Baghdad.  It  was  endowed  with  an 
annual  revenue  of  15,000  dinars,  and  was  attended 
by  0,000  students.  Tlie  princes  of  the  house  of 
Onieya  honoured  the  Spanish  academies  by  their 
presence  and  studies,  and  competed,  not  without 
success,  for  the  prizes  of  learning.  Numerous 
schools  for  the  purpose  of  elementary  instruction 
were  founded  by  a  long  series  of  monarchs.  .  .  . 
in  tliis  manncL  .le  Arabians,  within  two  centuries, 
constructed  ■  '  apparatus  for  mental  imiirovc- 
nient  which  i..Jierto  had  not  been  equalled  save 
in  Alexandria,  and  to  which  the  Church,  after 
ruling  the  intellect  of  J^urope  for  more  than  five 
hundred  years,  could  offer  no  parallel." — The  In- 
tellertiial  Uetiml  of  the  Middle  Ayes  ()VesUninster 
lieriew,  JdiiiKui/,  1876). 

Scholasticism.  —  Schoolmen.  —  In  the  later 
times  of  tlie  Roman  empire,  "the  loss  of  the  dig- 
nity of  political  freedom,  the  want  of  the  cheer- 
fulness of  advancing  prosperity,  ami  thesubstitit- 
tion  of  the  less  philosophical  structure  of  the  Latin 
language  for  the  delicate  intellectual  meclianism 
of  the  Greek,  fixed  and  augmented  the  prevalent 
feebleness  and  barrenness  of  intellect.  Jlen  for- 
got, or  feared,  to  consult  nature,  to  seek  for  new 
truths,  to  do  what  the  great  dlscovcrere  of  other 
times  nad  done;  they  were  content  to  consult 
libraries,  to  study  and  defend  old  opinions,  to 
talk  of  what  great  geniuses  had  .said.  Tliey 
so\ight  their  philosophy  in  accredited  treatises, 
and  dared  not  question  such  doctrines  as  they 
t».ere  found.  .  .  .  In  the  mean  time  the  Christian 
religion  had  become  the  leading  subject  of  men's 
thoughts;  and  divines  had  put  forward  its  claims 
to  be,  not  merely  the  guide  of  men's  lives,  and 
the  means  of  reconciling  them  to  their  heavenly 
Master,  but  also  to  be  a  Philosophy  in  the  widest 
sense  in  whicli  the  term  had  been  used ; —  a  con- 
sistent speculative  view  of  man's  condition  and 
nature,  and  of  the  world  in  which  he  is  placed. 
...  It  was  held,  without  any  regulating  prin- 
ciple, tliat  the  philosophy  whicli  had  been  be- 
queathed to  the  world  by  the  great  geniuses  of 
heathen  antiquity,  and  the  philosophy  which  was 
deduced  from,  and  implied  by,  the  Revelations 
made  by  God  to  man,  must  bo  identical;  and, 
therefore,  that  Theology  is  the  only  true  philoso- 
phy. .  .  .  This  view  was  confirmed  by  the 
opmion  which  prevailed,  concerning  the  nature 
of  philosophical  truth;  a  view  supported  by  the 
theory  of  Plato,  the  practice  of  Aristotle,  and  the 
general  prope^isities  of  the  human  mind ;  I  mean 
the  opinion  that  all  science  may  be  obtained  by 
the  use  of  reasoning  alone;— that  by  analyzing 
and  combining  the  notions  wliicli  common  lan- 
guage brings  before  us,  we  may  learn  all  that  we 
can  know.  Thus  Logic  came  to  inclu  'e  the 
whole  of  Science;  and  accordingly  this  i».oelard 
expressly  maintained.  .  .  .  Thus  a  Universal 
Science  was  established,  with  the  authority  of  a 
Religious  Creed.  Its  universality  rested  on  er- 
roneous views  of  tlie  relation  of  words  and  truth ; 
its  pretensions  as  a  science  were  admitted  by  the 
servile  temper  of  men's  intellects;  and  its  re- 
ligious authori;y  was  assigned  it,  by  making  all 


truth  part  of  religion.  And  as  Religion  claimed 
assent  witliin  herown  jurisdiction  un<ler  the  most 
solenui  and  imperative  sanctions.  Philosophy 
sliaii'd  in  her  imperial  iiower,  and  dis.sent  from 
their  doctrines  was  no  longer  blameless  or  allow- 
able. Error  became  wicked,  dissent  becamo 
heresy;  to  reject  the  received  liuman  doctrines, 
was  nearly  the  same  as  to  doubt  the  Divine 
declarations.  The  Scholastic  Philosophy  claimed 
the  as-sent  of  all  believers.  The  external  form, 
the  details,  an<l  the  text  of  this  Pliilosophy,  were 
taken,  in  a  great  measure,  from  Aristotle ;  though, 
in  the  spirit,  llie  geia^al  notions,  and  the  style 
of  interpretation,  Plato  and  the  Platonists  liad 
no  inconsiderable  share.  ...  It  does  not  belong 
to  our  purpose  to  consider  cither  the  theological 
or  the  metaphysical  doctrines  which  form  so  large 
a  portion  of  the  treatises  of  the  schoolmen.  Per- 
haps it  may  hereafter  appear,  that  some  light  is 
thrown  on  some  of  the  (|ueNtions  which  have  oc- 
cupied metaphysicians  in  all  ages,  by  that  exam- 
ination of  the  liistoryof  the  Progressive  Sciences 
in  which  we  are  now  engaged;  but  till  we  are 
able  to  analyze  the  leading  controvei'sies  of  this 
kind,  it  would  be  of  little  service  to  speak  of 
tlicm  in  detail.  It  may  be  noticed,  however,  that 
many  of  the  most  prominent  of  them  refer  to  the 
great  qviestion,  '  What  is  the  relation  between 
actual  tilings  and  general  terms  T  Perhaps  in 
modern  times,  the  actual  things  would  be  niorj 
commonly  taken  as  the  point  to  start  from ;  and 
men  would  begin  by  considering  how  classes  and 
universals  are  obtained  from  individuals.  But 
the  .sclioolmen,  founding  their  speculations  on 
the  received  modes  of  considering  such  subjects, 
to  which  both  Aristotle  and  Plato  had  con- 
tributed, travelled  in  the  opposite  direction,  and 
endeavored  to  discover  liov.'  individuals  were  de- 
duced from  genr.'ra  and  species ; —  what  wiw  '  the 
Principle  of  Individuation.'  This  was  variously 
stated  by  dilTerent  reasoners.  Thus  Bonaventura 
solves  the  difliculty  by  the  aid  of  the  Aristotelian 
distinction  of  Matter  and  Form.  Tlie  individual 
derives  from  the  Form  the  property  of  being 
something,  and  from  the  Matter  the  ])roperty  of 
being  tliat  particular  tiling.  Duns  Scotus,  the 
great  adversary  of  Thomas  A((uinas  in  tlieology, 
placed  the  principle  of  Individuation  in  '  a  cer- 
tain determining  positive  entity, '  which  his  school 
called  Hfpcceity  or  'thisness.'  'Thus  an  in- 
dividual man  is  Peter,  because  his  humanity  is 
combined  with  Petrcity. '  Tlic  force  of  abstract 
terms  is  a  curious  question,  and  some  remarkable 
experiments  in  their  use  had  been  made  by  the 
Latin  Aristotelians  before  this  time.  In  the  same 
way  in  which  we  talk  of  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  a  thing,  they  spoke  of  its  'quiddity.'  AVe 
may  consider  the  reign  of  mere  disputation  as 
fully  established  at  tlie  time  of  which  we  arc  now 
speaking  [tlie  Middle  Ages] ;  and  the  only  kind  of 
philosophy  lieneeforth  studied  was  one  m  which 
no  sound  physical  science  had  or  could  have  a 
place." — W.  Wliewell,  Hist,  of  the  Iiuluctite 
Sciences,  hk.  4,  eh.  4  (f.  1). — "Scholasticism  was 
pliilosophy  in  the  .service  of  established  and  ac- 
cepted theological  (l<K;trines.  .  .  .  More  p;ir- 
ticularly.  Scholasticism  was  the  reproduction  of 
ancient  philosophy  under  the  control  of  ecclesi- 
astical doctrine.  .  .  .  The  name  of  Scholastics 
(doctores  scholastici)  which  was  given  to  the 
teachers  of  the  septem  lit)erales  artes  [seven  liberal 
arts]  (grammiir,  dialectic,  rhetoric,  in  tlie  Tri- 
vium;  arithmetic,  geometry,  music  and  astron- 


691 


EDUCATION. 


RUtnf 
Vniwnilit*. 


EDUCATION. 


omy,  In  the  Oiindrivium),  or  nt  leant  some  of 
them,  in  the  Clolster-Hehools  founded  l)y  Cliiirle- 
mngnc,  as  also  to  teachers  of  theology,  was  after- 
wards given  to  all  who  occupied  tlieniselves  with 
the  Bcienc(!s,  and  especially  with  philosophy. 
.  .  .  Johannes  Sc'otus,  or  Erigena[nintli century] 
is  the  earliest  noteworthy  ;.ihilosoplier  of  tlie 
Scliolastic  ix'Hod.  Ho  was  of  Scottish  nation- 
ality, but  was  i)robably  born  and  brought  up  in 
Ireland.  At  the  call  of  Charles  the  Baltl  ho  emi- 
grated to  France." — F.  Ueberweg,  Hint,  of  Phi- 
liimphu,  V.  1,  pp.  35.'>-484. — "Scholasticism,  nt  the 
Inst,  from  the  prodigious  mental  activity  which 
it  kept  up,  became  a  t^icit  universal  insurrection 
against  authority :  it  was  the  swelling  of  tlie 
ocean  before  the  storm.  ...  It  was  n  sign  of  n 
grent  nwakening  of  the  human  mind  when  theo- 
loginns  tliought  it  both  their  duty  and  tlieir 
privilege  to  philosophize.  There  was  n  vnst 
wnste  of  intellectual  labor,  but  still  it  was  intel- 
lectual labor,  and,  as  we  shall  see,  it  was  not  in  the 
end  tinf ruitf ul. " — C.  J.  Stille,  Stiidien  in  Mediiv- 
tal  Jlittor!/,  ch.  13.  —  "Scholasticism  hnd  its  hour 
of  glory,  its  erudite  d(  ctors,  its  elotjuent  pro- 
fessors, chief  among  whom  was  Abelnrd  (1079- 
1142).  ...  A.t  n  time  when  printing  did  not  ex- 
ist, when  manuscript  copies  were  rare,  a  teaclier 
who  combined  knowledge  with  the  gift  of  speech 
wns  n  phenomenon  of  incomparable  interest,  and 
students  Hocked  from  nil  parts  of  Europe  to  take 
advantage  of  his  lectures.  Abelard  is  the  most 
brilliant  representative  of  the  scholastic  peda- 
gogy, with  an  original  and  personal  tendency 
towards  the  emancipation  of  the  mind.  'It, is 
ridiculous,'  he  said,  'to  preach  to  others  what 
we  cnn  neither  make  them  understand  nor  under- 
stand ourselves.'  With  more  boldness  than  Saint 
Anselm,  he  applied  dialectics  to  theology,  and 
attempted  to  reason  out  the  grounds  of  his  faith. 
The  seven  liberal  arts  constituted  what  may  be 
called  the  secondary  instruction  of  the  Jliddle 
Age,  such  as  was  given  in  the  claustral  or  con- 
ventual schools,  and  later,  in  the  universities. 
The  liberal  nrts  wore  distributed  into  two  courses 
of  study,  known  as  the  '  trivium '  and  the  '  quad- 
rivium.'  The  'trivium'  comprised  grammar 
(Latin  grammar,  of  course),  dialectics,  or  logic, 
and  rhetoric ;  and  the  '  quadrivium,'  music,  anth- 
metic,  geometry,  nnd  astronomy.  It  is  important 
to  note  the  fact  that  this  programme  contains 
only  abstract  and  formal  studies, — no  real  nnd 
concrete  studies.  The  sciences  which  tcacli  us 
to  know  man  and  the  world,  such  as  history, 
ethics,  the  physical  and  natural  sciences,  were 
omitted  and  unknown,  save  perhaps  in  a  few  con- 
vents of  the  Benedictines.  Nothing  which  can 
truly  educate  man,  and  develop  his  faculties  as  a 
whole,  enlists  the  attention  of  the  Sliddle  Age. 
From  a  couree  of  study  tlius  limited  there  might 
•come  skillful  roasoners  and  men  formidable  'n 
argument,  but  never  fully  developed  men.  The 
methods  employed  in  the  ecclesiastical  schools  of 
the  Middle  Ago  were  in  accord  with  tlie  spirit  of 
the  times,  when  men  were  not  concerned  about 
liberty  and  intellectual  freedom ;  nnd  when  they 
thought  more  about  the  teaching  or  dogmas  than 
about  the  tmining  of  the  Intelligence.  The 
teachers  recited  or  read  their  lectures,  and  the 
pupils  learned  by  heart.  The  discipline  was 
harsh.  Corrupt  human  nature  was  distrusted.  In 
1863,  pupils  were  forbidden  the  use  of  benches 
and  chairs,  on  the  pretext  that  such  high  sents 
were  an  encouragement  to  pride.     For  securing 


obedience,  corporal  chastisements  were  used  and 
abused.  The  rod  is  in  fasldou  in  the  fifteenth  as 
it  was  in  the  fourteenth  century.  'Tliere  is  no 
other  dilfcrcnce,' says  an  historian,  'except  that 
the  rods  in  the  fifteenth  century  are  twice  as  long 
as  those  in  the  fourteenth.'  " — O.  Compayre,  The 
Hint.  <if  l\(liiflo!iy  ;  traim.  by  W.  II.  Payne,  ch.  4. 

Universities, Their  Rise. — Abelard. — "Up  to 
the  eiul  of  the  eleventh  century  the  instruction 
was,  speaking  generally,  and  allowing  for  transi- 
tory periods  of  revival,  and  for  a  few  excep- 
tional schools,  a  shrunken  survival  of  the  old 
'  trivium  et  quadrivium.'  The  lessons,  when  not 
di(^tated  .ind  lea'-nt  by  heart  from  notes,  were  got 
lip  from  bald  epitomes.  Alltliat  was  taught,  more- 
over, wau  tauglitsolely  with  a  view  to '  pious  uses.' 
Criticism  did  not  exist;  the  free  spirit  of  specu- 
lation could  not,  of  course,  exist.  ...  As  we 
approach  the  jieriod  which  saw  the  birth  of  those 
institutions  known  as  Studia  Publica  or  Qener- 
alia,  and  ere  long  to  bo  known  as  '  universities," 
we  have  to  extend  our  vision  and  recognize  tlio 
circumstances  of  the  time,  and  those  changes  in 
the  social  condition  of  Europe  which  made  great 
central  schools  possible  —  schools  to  bo  frequented 
not  merely  by  the  young  ecclesiastic,  but  by  lay- 
men. Among  other  cau.ses  wliich  led  to  the  dif- 
fusion of  a  demand  for  education  among  the  laity, 
wns,  I  think,  the  institution  or  reorganization  of 
municipalities.  It  was  about  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century  that  the  civic  Communes  (Com- 
munia)  began  to  seek  and  obtain,  from  royal  and 
other  authorities,  charters  of  incorporation  con- 
stituting their  internal  government  and  confer- 
ring certain  freedoms  and  privileges  as  against 
tlie  encroachment  of  lay  and  ecclesiastical  feudal 
barons.  .  .  .  About  the  same  time,  nnd  sonie- 
wlint  prior  to  this,  trade  guilds  had  been  formed 
in  many  cities  for  mutual  protection,  the  advanco- 
ment  of  commerce,  and  the  internal  regulation  of 
the  various  crafts.  There  immediately  followed 
a  desire  for  schools  in  the  more  importiuit  com- 
mercial towns.  In  Italy  such  schools  arose  in 
Bologna,  Milan,  Brescia,  and  Florence;  and  in 
Germany  they  arose  in  Lttbeck,  Ham'mrg,  Bres- 
lau,  Nordhausen,  Stettin,  Leipsic,  and  NUrn- 
berg.  The  distinctive  characteristic  of  tliese 
city  schools  was,  that  thoy  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Church, 
or  to  have  been  always  taught  by  priests;  fur- 
ther, that  the  native  tongue  (German  or  Italian, 
as  tlie  case  might  be)  was  taught.  Reading, 
writing,  and  a  little  arithmetic  seem  to  have 
formed  the  staple  of  the  instruction.  The  cus- 
tom of  dictating,  writing  down,  and  then  learn- 
ing by  heart  what  was  written  —  universal  in 
tlie  schools  of  the  preceding  centuries  —  was, 
of  course,  still  followed  in  these  burgh  schools. 
This  custom  was  almost  inevitable.  .  .  .  The  in- 
crensed  communicntion  with  Africa  nnd  the  Enst 
through  the  Crusades  had  introtluced  men  to  a 
standard  of  learning  among  the  Arabs,  unknown 
in  i'urope.  Outside  the  school,  the  order  of  chiv- 
alry had  introduced  a  now  and  higher  ethical 
spirit  than  had  been  known  in  the  previous  cen- 
turies. Civic  communities  and  trade  guilds  were 
forming  themselves  and  seeking  cliarters  of  in- 

rporation.  Above  all,  the  Crusades,  by  stimu- 
ing  the  ardour  nnd  exciting  the  intellects  of 
men,  hnd  unsettled  old  convention  by  bringing 
men  of  nil  ranks  within  the  sacred  circle  of  a  com- 
mon enthusiasm,  and  into  contact  with  foreign 
civilizations.    The  desire  for  a  higher  education. 


692 


EDUCATION. 


The  injluetice 
of  Aoelard. 


EDUCATION. 


and  tho  impulse  to  moro  profound  Investigation, 
tlmt  clinmclcrizeii  tlio  beginning  iimi  course  of 
tlic  tweiftli  century,  wus  tlius  only  ii  part  of  u 
widespread  movement,  political  and  moral.  .  .  . 
While  tlio  Romano-Hellenic  schools  had  long  dis- 
appeared, tliero  still  existed,  in  many  towns, 
episcopal  schools  of  a  high  class,  many  of  whieli 
might  bo  regarded  as  continuations  of  the  old 
Imperial  provincial  inatitutions.  ...  In  Bologna 
and  Paris,  Rheims  and  Naples,  it  was  so.  The 
arts  curriculum  jirofe.ssed  in  these  centres  was,  for 
the  time  and  state  of  knowledge,  good.  Tliese 
schools,  indeed,  had  never  quite  lost  the  fresh 
impulse  given  by  Charlemagne  and  his  successors. 
.  .  .  Accordlngtomy  view  of  educational  history, 
tho  great '  studia  publica '  or  '  generalia '  arose  out 
of  them.  The  v  were  themselves,  in  a  narrow  sense, 
already  'studia  publica.'  .  .  .  Looking,  first,  to 
the  germ  out  of  which  tho  universities  grew,  I 
think  we  must  say  that  the  universities  may  be 
regarded  as  a  natural  development  of  the  cathe- 
dral and  monastery  schools;  but  if  wo  seek  for  an 
external  motive  force  urging  men  to  undertake 
the  more  profound  and  independent  study  of  the 
liberal  arts,  we  can  find  it  only  in  the  Saracenic 
schools  of  Bagdad,  Babylon,  Alexandria,  and 
Cordova.  ...  To  fix  precisely  the  date  of  the 
rise  of  the  first  specialized  schools  or  universities 
is  impossible,  for  tlie  simple  reason  tliat  they 
were  not  founded.  .  .  .  The  simplest  account  of 
the  new  university  origins  is  the  most  correct. 
It  would  appear  that  certain  active-minded  men 
of  marked  eminence  liegan  to  give  instruction  in 
medical  subjects  ot  Salerno,  and  in  law  at  Bo- 
logna, in  a  spirit  and  manner  not  previously 
attempted,  to  youths  who  had  left  tlie  monastery 
and  cathedral  schools,  and  who  desired  to  equip 
tliemselves  for  professional  life.  Pupils  flocked 
to  tliem ;  and  the  more  able  of  these  students, 
finding  that  tliere  was  a  public  demand  for  this 
kiglicr  specialized  instruction,  remained  at  head- 
quarters, and  themselves  became  teachers  or 
doctors.  The  Church  did  not  found  universities 
any  moro  tlian  it  founded  the  order  of  chivalry. 
They  were  founded  by  a  concurrence  (not  wholly 
fortuitous)  of  able  men  who  had  something  they 
wished  to  teach,  and  of  youtlis  who  desired  to 
learn.  None  the  less  were  the  acquiescence  and 
protection  of  Cliurch  and  State  necessary  in  those 
days  for  tlio  fostering  of  these  infant  seminaries. 
...  Of  tho  three  great  schools  whicli  we  have 
named,  there  is  sufflcient  ground  for  believing 
that  the  first  to  reach  such  a  development  as  to 
entitle  it  to  the  name  of  a  studium  generalo  or 
university  was  tho  '  Schola  Salernitana,'  although 
it  never  was  a  imiversity,  technically  specking." 
— 8.  8.  Laurie,  liise  and  Early  Constitution  of  Uni- 
versities, lect.  6-7. — "Ideas,  till  this  time  scat- 
tered, or  watched  over  in  the  various  ecclesiastical 
schools,  began  to  converge  to  a  common  centre. 
The  great  name  of  University  was  recognised  in 
the  capital  of  Prance,  at  the  moment  that  the 
French  tongue  had  become  almost  universiii. 
The  conquests  of  the  Normans,  and  the  first  cru- 
sade, had  spread  its  powerfully  philosopliic  idiom 
in  every  direction,  to  England,  to  Sicily,  and  to 
Jerusalem.  This  circums'.mco  alone  invested 
France,  central  Prance,  Paris,  with  an  immense  at- 
tractive power.  By  degrees,  Parisian  Frencii  be- 
came a  proverb.  Feudalism  liad  found  its  political 
centre  in  the  royai  city ;  and  this  city  was  about  to 
become  the  capital  of  human  thought.  The  be- 
ginner of  this  revolutiou  was  not  a  priest,  but  a 


handsome  young  n\an  of  brilliant  talents,  ami- 
able and  of  noble  family.  None  wrote  love 
verses,  like  his,  in  the  vulgar  tongue;  he  sang 
them,  too.  Besides,  his  erudition  was  extraordl- 
narv  for  that  day.  lie  ahme,  of  his  time,  knew 
both  Greek  imd  llebnjw.  May  be,  he  had  studied 
ut  tho  .Jewish  scliools  (the.'o  were  many  in  tho 
South),  or  under  the  rabbins  of  Troyes,  Vitry, 
or  of  Orleans.  There  were  then  in  Paris  twi) 
leading  schools-  the  old  Episcopal  school  of  tlio 
parvis  Notre  Dame,  and  that  of  St.  OeneviiVe, 
on  the  hill,  where  shone  William  of  Champeaux. 
Abelard  joined  his  pupils,  submitted  to  him  his 
doubts,  puzzled  him,  laughed  at  him,  and  closed 
his  mouth.  IIo  would  have  served  Anselm  of 
Luon  the  same,  had  not  tho  professor,  being  a 
bishop,  expelled  him  from  his  diocese.  In  this 
fashion  this  knight-errant  of  logic  went  on,  un- 
horsing tho  most  celebrated  champions.  He  him- 
self declared  that  he  had  only  renounced  tilt  and 
tourney  through  his  passion  for  intellectual  com- 
bats. Henceforward,  victorious  and  witliout  a 
rival,  ho  taught  at  Paris  and  Melun,  the  residence 
of  Louis-io-Qros,  and  the  lords  flocked  to  hear 
him;  anxious  to  encourage  ono  of  themselves, 
who  had  discomfited  tlio  priests  on  their  own 
grouiKl,  and  had  silenced  the  ablest  clerks.  Abel- 
ard's  wonderful  success  is  easily  explained.  All 
the  lore  and  learning  wliich  had  been  smothered 
under  the  heavy,  dogmatical  forms  of  clerical 
instruction,  and  hidden  in  the  rude  Latin  of  tho 
middle  age,  suddenly  appeared  arrayed  in  tho 
simple  elegance  of  antiquity,  so  that  men  seemed 
for  the  first  time  to  hear  and  recognise  a  human 
voice.  The  daring  youth  simplified  and  explained 
everything ;  pniseiiting  philosophy  in  a  familiar 
form,  and  bringing  it  home  to  men's  bosoms. 
^  He  liardly  suffered  the  oi)scuro  or  supernatu- 
ral to  rest  on  the  hardest  mysteries  of  faith.  It 
seemed  as  if  till  then  the  Church  had  lisped  and 
stammered ;  wliile  Abelard  spoke.  All  was  made 
smooth  and  easy.  He  treated  religion  courte- 
ously and  handled  her  gently,  but  she  melted 
away  in  his  hands.  Nothing  embarrassed  the 
fluent  speaker:  ho  reduced  religion  to  philoso- 
phy, and  morality  to  humanity.  'Crime,'  lie 
said,  'consists  not  in  the  act,  but  in  the  inten- 
tion.' It  followed,  that  there  was  no  such  thing 
as  sins  of  habit  or  of  ignorance — 'They  wlio 
crucified  Jesus,  not  knowing  him  to  have  been 
the  Saviour,  were  guilty  of  no  sin.'  What  is 
original  sin? — 'Less  a  sin,  than  a  punishment.' 
But  then,  wherefore  the  redemption  and  tho  pas- 
.sion,  if  there  was  no  sin  ? — '  It  was  an  act  of  pure 
love.  God  desired  to  substitute  the  law  of  love 
for  that  of  fear. ' " — .1.  Jlichelet,  History  of  France, 
v.  1,  bk.  4,  ch.  4. — "  It  is  difficult,  by  a  mere  peru- 
sal of  Abelard's  works,  to  understand  the  effect 
he  produced  upon  his  liearers  by  the  force  of  his 
argumentation,  whether  studied  or  improvised, 
and  by  the  ardor  and  animation  of  liis  eloquence, 
and  the  grace  and  attractiveness  of  his  person. 
But  tlie  testimony  of  his  contemporaries  is  unani- 
mous; even  liis  adversaries  tliemselves  render 
justice  to  his  liigh  oratorical  qualities.  No  one 
ever  reasoned  with  moro  subtlety,  or  handled  the 
dialectic  tool  with  more  address;  and  assuredly, 
something  of  these  qualities  is  to  bo  found  in  the 
writings  lie  1.  is  l"ft  us.  But  the  intense  life,  the 
enthusiastic  ardo.  whicli  enlivened  liis  discourses, 
tlio  beauty  of  his  face,  and  the  cliarra  of  his 
voice  cannot  be  imparted  by  cold  manuscripts. 
Iloloiso,  whose  name  is  inseparably  linked  with 


693 


EDUCATION. 


lAitin  fAinfjHtifif  uml 
Learning. 


EDUCATION. 


that  of  licr  tinfortunnto  husband,  and  whom 
ChnrlcH  lie  ItCmiiHiit  dtx's  not  hesitate  to  {'iill  '  th{! 
first  of  women ' ;  who,  In  any  case,  wiis  a  superior 
person  of  her  time;  Heloise,  who  loved  Al)elard 
with  'an  immmlerate  love,' and  who,  under  the 
veil  of  a  '  religieuse '  and  throughout  the  practice 
of  devotional  duties,  remaincu  faitliful  to  him 
imtil  death:  Heloise  said  to  him  in  her  famo\is 
letter  of  llUfl:  '  Thou  hast  two  thinj^s  especially 
■which  coidd  instantly  win  tliee  the  liearts  of  all 
women :  the  charm  thou  knowest  how  to  impart 
to  thy  voice  in  speaking  and  singing.'  E.xternal 
gifts  combined  with  intellectual  (juaiitics  to  make 
of  Aheljird  an  incomparable  seducer  of  minds 
and  liearts.  Add  to  tlds  an  astonishing  memory, 
a  knowledge  as  profound  as  was  compatible  with 
the  resources  of  his  time,  and  a  vast  erudition 
which  caused  Ids  contemporaries  to  consider  him 
a  nuister  of  universal  knowledge.  .  .  .  How  can 
one  be  astonished  tliat  with  sucli  qualities  Abel- 
ard  gained  an  extraordinary  ascendency  over  his 
age;  that,  having  become  tlie  intellectual  ruler 
and,  as  it  were,  the  dictator  of  the  thought  of  the 
twelfth  centurj',  he  should  have  succeeded  in 
attracting  to  his  cliair  and  in  retaining  around  it 
thousands  of  young  men ;  the  first  germ  of  those 
assemblages  of  students  who  were  to  constitute 
the  universities  several  years  later  ?  ...  It  is 
not  alone  by  the  outward  success  of  his  scholastic 
apostolate  that  Abelanl  merits  consideration  as 
tlie  precursor  of  the  modern  spirit  and  the  pro- 
moter of  the  foundation  of  tlie  universities;  it  is 
also  by  his  doctrine,  or  at  least  by  his  method. 
...  No  one  claims  that  Abelarcf  was  the  tlrst 
■who,  in  the  Middle  /.  gcs,  had  introiluced  dialect- 
ics into  theology,  reason  into  authority.  In  the 
ninth  century,  Scotus  Erigena  had  already  said : 
'Authority  is  derived  from  reason.'  Scholasti- ^ 
cism,  which  is  nothing  but  logic  enlightening 
theology,  an  effort  of  reason  to  demonstrate 
dogma,  had  begun  before  Abclard ;  but  it  was  he 
who  gave  movement  and  life  to  the  method  by 
lending  it  his  power  and  his  renown." — Q.  Com- 
payre,  Abelard,  pi.  1,  eh.  2-3. 

Latin  Language. — "Qreek  was  an  unknown 
tongue :  only  a  very  few  of  tlie  Latin  classics  re- 
ceived a  perfunctory  attention:  Bocthius  was 
preferred  to  Cicero,  and  the  Moral  Sentences 
ascribed  to  Cato  to  either.  Rules  couched  in 
barbarous  Latin  verse  were  committed  to  mem- 
orj'.  Aristotle  was  known  only  in  incorrect 
Latin  translations,  which  many  of  the  taught, 
and  some  of  the  teachers  probably,  supposed  to 
be  the  originals.  Matters  were  not  mended 
when  the  student,  having  passed  tlirougl.  the 
preliminary  course  of  arts,  advanced  to  the  SDudy 
of  the  sciences.  Theology  meant  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  '  Sentences '  of  Peter  Lombard,  or, 
in  other  cases,  with  the  'Summa'  of  Thomas 
Aquinas;  in  medicine,  Galen  was  an  authority 
from  which  there  was  no  appeal.  On  every  side 
the  student  was  fenced  round  by  traditions  and 
prejudices,  through  which  it  was  impossible  to 
break.  In  truth,  he  had  no  means  of  knowing 
that  there  was  a  wider  and  fairer  world  beyond. 
Till  tlie  elassicid  revival  came,  every  decade 
made  the  yoke  of  prescription  heavier,  and  each 
generation  of  students,  therefore,  a  feebler  copy 
of  the  last." — C.  Beard,  Martin  Luther  and  the 
Iteformation,  ch.  3. — "What  at  first  had  been 
everywhere  a  Greek  became  in  Western  Europe 
a  Latin  religion.  The  discipline  of  Rome  main- 
tained the  body  of  doctrine  which  the  thought  of 


Greece  had  defined.  A  new  I^atin  vcrtjlnn,  super- 
seding alike  the  venerable  Qreek  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  the  original  words  of 
Evangelists  and  Apostles,  became  the  received 
text  of  Holy  Scripture.  Tlie  Latin  Fathers  ac- 
(|uired  an  autliority  scarcely  less  binding.  The 
ritual,  lessons,  and  hymns  of  the  Church  were 
Latin.  Ecclesiastics  transacted  the  Imsincss  of 
civil  depart ment8re(|Uiring  education.  Libraries 
were  armories  of  the  Church :  grammar  was  part 
of  her  drill.  The  humblest  scholar  was  enlisted 
in  her  .service:  she  recruited  her  ranks  by  found- 
ing Latin  schools.  '  Education  in  tlio  rudiments 
of  Latin,'  says  Hallani,  'was  imparted  to  a 
greater  number  of  individuals  tlian  at  present ; ' 
and,  as  they  had  more  use  for  it  tlian  at  present, 
it  was  longer  retained.  If  a  boy  of  i.umble  birtli 
had  a  taste'  for  letters,  or  if  a  boy  of  high  birth 
had  a  distaste  for  arms,  the  first  step  was  to  learn 
Latin.  Ills  foot  was  then  on  tlie  ladder.  He 
might  ri.sc  by  tlie  good  ofHces  of  his  family  to  a 
bishopric,  or  to  tlie  papacy  itself  by  merit  and 
tlie  grace  of  God.  Latin  enabled  a  Greek  from 
Tarsus  (Theodore)  to  liecome  the  founder  of 
learning  in  the  Englisli  church ;  and  a  Vorksliire- 
man  (Alciiin)  to  organize  tlic  schools  of  Charle- 
magne. Without  Ijatin,  our  Englisli  Winfrid 
(St.  Boniface)  could  not  have  been  apostle  of 
Germany  and  reformer  of  the  Frankisli  Church ; 
or  the  German  Albert,  master  at  Paris  of  Thomas 
Aquinas;  or  Nicholas  Breaksiicare,  Pope  of 
Rome.  With  it,  Western  Christendom  was  one 
vast  field  of  labor:  calls  for  self-sacriflcc,  or 
offers  of  promotion,  might  come  from  north  or 
south,  from  east  or  west.  Thus  in  tlie  Jliddle 
Ages  Latin  was  made  the  groundwork  of  educa- 
tion; not  for  the  beauty  of  its  classical  litera- 
ture, nor  because  the  study  of  a  dead  language 
was  the  '>est  mental  gymnastic,  or  the  only 
means  of  acquiring  a  masterly  free<lom  in  tlie 
use  of  living  tongues,  but  because  it  was  the 
language  of  educated  men  throughout  West- 
ern Europe,  employed  for  public  business,  litera- 
ture, pliilosophy,  and  science;  above  all,  in 
Go  I's  providence,  essential  to  tlie  unity,  and 
therefore  enforced  by  tlie  authority  of,  the  West- 
em  Church." — C.  8.  Parker,  Essay  on  tJie  His- 
tory of  Classical  Education  (quoted  in  Dr.  Jlen^y 
Barnard's  "  Letters,  Essays  and  Tlioughts  on 
Studies  and  Conduct,"  p.  467). 

France. — "The  countries  of  western  Europe, 
leavened,  all  of  them,  by  the  one  spirit  of  the 
feudal  and  catholie  Middle  Age,  formed  in  some 
sense  one  community,  and  were  more  associated 
than  they  have  been  since  the  feudal  ,md  catiiolic 
unity  of  the  Middle  Age  has  disappearod  and 
given  place  to  the  divided  and  various  life  of 
modern  Europe.  In  the  medireval  community 
France  held  the  first  place.  It  is  now  well  known 
that  to  place  in  the  i5tli  century  the  revival  of 
intellectual  life  and  the  re-establishment  of  civ- 
ilisation, and  to  treat  the  period  between  the 
5th  century,  when  ancient  civilisation  was  ruined 
by  the  barbarians,  and  the  15th,  when  the  life 
and  intellect  of  this  civilisation  reappeared  and 
transformed  the  world,  aa  one  ciiaos,  is  a  mistake. 
The  chaos  ends  about  the  10th  century ;  in  the 
11th  there  truly  comes  the  first  re-establishment 
of  civilisation,  the  first  revival  of  intellectual  life ; 
the  principal  centre  of  this  revival  is  France,  its 
chief  monuments  of  literature  are  in  the  French 
language,  its  chief  monuments  of  art  are  the 
French  cathedrals.    This  revival  fills  the  12th  and 


694 


EDUCATION. 


The  Vnlvrrilly 
of  l\xri; 


EDUCATION. 


13th  centuries  with  its  activity  nnd  witli  its  worlis ; 
all  this  tlnio  France  lias  the  lead ;  In  the  14th  cen- 
tury the  lead  passes  to  Italy;  but  now  comes 
the  coiuniencenient  of  a  wholly  new  period,  the 
period  of  the  Henaissance  properly  so  culled,  tho 
beginning  of  modern  European  life,  the  (easing 
of  tlie  life  of  the  feudal  and  catholic  Middle  Age. 
Tlie  anterior  and  less  glorious  I'enaissiuice,  the 
Iienais.sancc  witliin  the  limits  of  the  Middle  Age 
itself,  a  revival  wlilch  came  to  a  stop  and  could 
not  successfully  devclono  itself,  but  wideh  has 
yet  left  i)rofound  traces  in  our  spirit  and  our  liter- 
ature,—  this  revival  belongs  chietly  to  France. 
France,  then,  may  well  serve  as  a  typical  country 
%vherein  to  trace  tho  mediieval  growth  of  intel- 
lect and  learning;  above  all  she  may  so  stand  for 
ns,  whose  connection  with  her  In  the  Middle  Age, 
owing  to  our  Norman  kings  and  the  currency  of 
her  language  among  our  cultivated  class,  was  so 
peculiarly  close;  so  close  that  the  literary  and 
Intellectual  development  of  tho  two  co\uitries  at 
that  time  interndngles,  and  no  important  event 
can  happen  in  that  of  the  one  without  straight- 
way allecting  and  interesting  that  of  the  other. 
.  .  .  With  the  hostility  of  the  long  Fr2H.t>.  Wars 
of  Edward  tho  Tlnrd  comes  the  estraugement, 
never  afterwards  diminishing  but  always  increas- 
ing."— M.  Arnold,  Schoolt  and  Uideenitiea  on  the 
Continent,  eh.  1. — University  of  Paris. — "Tho 
name  of  Abelard  recalls  tho  European  celebrity 
and  immense  intellectual  ferment  of  this  school 
[of  Paris]  in  the  12tli  century.  But  it  was  in  tlie 
first  year  of  the  following  century,  the  13th,  that 
it  received  a  charter  from  Philip  Augustus,  and 
thenceforth  the  iiumo  of  University  of  Paris  takes 
the  place  of  tliat  of  School  of  Paris.  F'orty-nino 
years  later  was  founded  University  College,  ().\- 
lord,  tlie  oldest  college  of  tho  oldest  English  Uni- 
versity. Four  nations  composed  the  University 
of  Paris, —  the  nation  of  Franco,  tho  nation  oi 
Picardy,  the  ni\tion  of  Normandy,  and  (signal 
mark  of  the  clcso  intercourse  wliich  then  existed 
between  Franco  and  us! )  the  nation  of  England. 
The  four  nations  united  formed  tho  faculty  of 
arts.  The  faculty  of  theology  was  created  in 
1257,  that  of  law  in  1271,  that  of  medicine  in  1274. 
Tlieology,  law,  and  medicine  liad  each  their  Dean ; 
arts  Iiad  four  Procurators,  one  for  each  of  the 
four  nations  composing  this  faculty.  Arts  elected 
the  rector  of  the  University,  and  had  possession 
of  the  University  chest  and  archives.  Th'!  pro- 
eminence  of  the  Faculty  of  Arts  indicates,  ai.'  in- 
deed docs  the  very  development  of  the  Univer- 
sity, an  idea,  gradually  strengthening  itself,  of  a 
lay  instruction  to  be  no  longer  absorbed  in  the- 
ology, but  separable  from  it.  Tho  growth  of  a 
lay  and  modern  spirit  in  society,  the  prepon- 
derance of  tho  crown  over  the  papacy,  of  the 
civil  over  tho  ecclesiastical  power,  is  the  great 
feature  of  French  history  in  tlio  14th  century, 
and  to  this  century  belongs  tho  liiglicst  develop- 
ment of  the  University.  .  .  .  The  importance  of 
the  University  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  was 
extraordinary.  Jlen's  minds  were  possessed  with 
a  wonderful  zeal  for  knowledge,  or  what  was 
then  thought  knowledge,  and  the  University  of 
Paris  was  tlic  great  fount  from  wliicli  this  knowl- 
edge issued.  Tlie  University  and  those  depend- 
ing on  it  made  at  this  time,  it  is  said,  actually  a 
third  of  the  population  of  Paris ;  when  tho  Uni- 
versity went  on  a  solemn  occasion  in  procession 
to  Saint  Denis,  the  head  of  tlie  procession,  it  is 
said,  had  reached  St.  Denis  before  the  end  of  it 


had  left  its  starting  pla^'c  in  Paris.  It  had  im- 
munities  from  taxation,  it  had  Jurisdiction  of  its 
own,  and  its  ini'inbcrs  claime^l  'o  lie  e.veiiipt  from 
that  of  the  jirovost  of  Paris;  the  kings  of  Franco 
strongly  favoured  the  Univei-sily,  and  leaned 
to  its  Hide  when  the  municipal  and  academical 
authorities  wer<^  in  conllict;  if  at  any  time  the 
University  thought  itself  serioi  dy  aggrieved,  it 
had  recourse  to  a  measure  win  'h  threw  I'aris 
into  dismay, —  't  shut  up  its  siliools  and  sus- 
pended its  lectures.  ■  In  a  liody  of  this  kind  tho 
dlscii)line  could  not  be  strict,  and  the  colleges 
were  created  to  supply  centres  of  di.sciplini'  which 
the  University  in  itself, —  an  apparatus  merely  of 
teachei's  and  lecturerooms,  —  did  not  provide. 
The  14th  century  is  the  time  when,  one  after 
another,  with  wonderful  rapidity,  the  French  col- 
leges appeared.  Navarre,  Montaigu,  Ilarcourt, 
names  so  famlliiir  in  tlie  school  annals  of  France, 
date  from  the  (list  ipiarter  of  the  14th  century. 
The  College  of  Navarre  was  founded  by  tho 
(|ueeii  of  Philip  the  Fair,  in  1304;  tho  College  of 
Montaigu,  where  Erasmus,  Rabelais,  and  Igna- 
tius Ijoyola  were  in  their  time  students,  was 
founded  in  1314  by  two  members  of  the  family 
of  Montaigu,  one  of  tliem  Arciibishop  of  Houen. 
The  majority  of  these  colleges  were  founded  by 
magnates  of  the  church,  and  designed  to  main- 
tain a  certain  number  of  bursars,  or  scholars, 
during  tlieir  university  course.  .  .  .  Along  with 
the  University  of  Paris  there  existed  in  Franco, 
in  tlio  14th  century,  the  Universities  of  Orleans, 
Angers,  Toulouse,  and  .Montpelller.  Orleans  was 
tho  great  French  school  for  the  study  of  the  civil 
law.  .  .  .  The  civil  law  was  studiously  kept 
away  from  the  University  of  Paris,  for  fear  it 
sliould  drive  out  other  studies,  and  especially  the 
study  of  theology ;  so  late  as  the  year  1079  thero 
was  no  chair  of  Itoman  or  even  of  Frencli  law 
in  the  University  of  Paris.  Tlie  strongtii  of  this 
University  was  concentrated  on  theology  and 
arts,  and  its  celebrity  arose  from  the  multitude  of 
students  whicli  in  tlicse  branches  of  instruction 
it  attracted." — M.  Arnold,  SchimU  and  UnUxr- 
sities  on  the  Continent,  eh.  1. — The  Sorbonne. — 
The  University  of  Paris  acquired  the  name  of 
"the  Sorbonne"  "from  Robert  of  Sorbon,  aulic 
cliaplain  of  St.  Louis,  who  established  one  of  the 
63  colleges  of  the  University.  .  .  .  The  name  of 
Sorbonne  was  first  applied  to  tlie  theological 
fac'ilty  only ;  but  at  length  the  whole  University 
received  this  designation." — J.  Alzog,  Manual  of 
Univerml  Church  lliatory,  v.  9,  p.  2i,  footnote. 
— The  Nations. — "The  precise  date  of  the  or- 
ganization at  Paris  of  the  four  Nations  which 
maintui.ied  themselves  there  until  the  latest  days 
of  tlie  university  escapes  the  most  minute  re- 
search. Neitlier  for  the  Nations  nor  for  tho  Fac- 
ulties was  tliere  any  sudden  blossoming,  but 
rather  a  slow  evolution,  an  insensible  preparation 
for  a  definite  condition.  Already  at  tho  close  of 
the  twelfth  century  there  is  mention  in  contem- 
porary documents  of  the  various  provinces  of 
the  s<)iool  of  Paris.  Tlie  Nations  are  mentioned 
inti  lis  of  Gregory  IX.  (1231)  and  of  Inno- 
cent M.j).  In  1245,  they  already  elect  their 
atteno,.  'lo  beadles.  In  1349,  the  existence 
of  the  lo,  Nations  —  France,  Picardy,  Nor- 
mandy, and  England  —  is  proved  by  their  quar- 
rels over  the  election  of  a  rector.  .  .  .  Until  the 
definitive  constitution  of  tho  Faculties,  that  is, 
until  1270  or  1280,  tlio  four  Nations  included 
the  totality  of  students  and  masters.     After  tho 


695 


EDUCATION. 


Htudy  of 
Homan  I  jaw. 


EDUCATION. 


formntion  lA  thr  FiuMiltlts,  tlio  four  Nations 
comprised  only  llio  iiirnilHtrH  of  tlie  Fiicuity  of 
Arts  iiiul  tliose  stuilvnls  of  otiu'r  Fiu'iiltivs  wlio 
\\w\  not  yvt  ()l)tiiiii('il  tli(>  griuic  of  Uaclielor  of 
Arts.  Tlio  tliri'o  superior  Fiieiilties,  Theology, 
Medicine,  mid  liUw,  Imd  notliing  in  common 
thcnceforwiird  witli  tlie  Nations.  ...  At  Uo- 
logna,  us  at  I'arls,  tliu  Nations  wcro  constituted 
In  tli(^  eiirly  years  of  tlio  tlilrtecnth  century, 
but  under  a  slightly  different  form.  There 
the  studeiiLs  were  grouped  in  two  distinct  associa- 
tions, the  Ultramonlanes  and  tliu  Citramontanus, 
the  foreigners  and  tlic  Italians,  who  formed  two 
universities,  the  Transalpine  and  tlio  Cisalpine, 
each  with  ita  chiefs,  who  were  not  styled  procu- 
rators but  counsellors ;  the  first  was  composed  of 
eighteen  Nations  ond  the  second  of  seventeen. 
At  I'lidua  twenty-two  Nations  were  enumerated. 
Montpellicr  hiul  onlv  three  in  1339, — the  Cat«- 
laus,  the  Uurgundlans,  the  l'roven(,'als;  each 
Bub-divided,  however,  into  numerous  groups. 
Orleans  had  ten:  France,  Germany,  Lorraine, 
Burgundy,  Champagne,  Plcardy,  Normandy, 
Toiiraine,  Quyanne,  and  Scotland ;  Poitiers  had 
four:  France,  Aquitaine,  Touraine,  and  Uerry; 
Prague  had  four  also,  in  imitation  of  I'arls; 
Lerula  had  twelve,  in  Imitation  of  Uologna,  etc. 
But  whetlicr  more  or  less  numerous,  and  what- 
ever their  special  organization,  the  Nations  in  all 
the  universities  bore  witness  to  that  need  of  asso- 
ciation which  la  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  .  .  One  of  the  consequences  of 
their  organization  was  to  prevent  the  blending 
and  fusion  of  races,  and  to  maintain  the  distinc- 
tion of  provinces  and  nationalities  among  the 
pupils  of  the  same  university." — 0.  Compayre, 
Ahdanl,  pt.  2,  rh.  3. 

Italy:  Revived  Study  of  Roman  Law. — "It 
is  known  that  Justinian  established  in  Home  a 
school  of  law,  sinular  to  those  of  Constantinople 
and  Berytus.  When  liome  ceased  to  be  subject 
to  Byzantine  rule,  this  law-school  seems  to  have 
been  transferred  to  Ravenna,  wlierc  it  continued 
to  keep  alive  the  knowledge  of  the  Justinian  sys- 
tem. That  system  continued  to  be  known  and 
used,  from  century  to  century,  in  a  tradition 
never  wholly  iatcrruptcd,  especially  in  the  free 
cities  of  Northern  Italy.    It  seems  even  to  have 

Eenetrated  beyond  Italy  into  Southern  Prance, 
ut  it  was  destined  to  have,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  twelfth  century,  a  very  extraordinary  revival. 
This  revival  was  i)art  of  a  general  movement  of 
the  European  mind  which  makes  its  appearance 
at  that  epoch.  The  darkness  which  settled  down 
on  the  world,  at  the  time  of  the  barbarian  inva- 
sions, had  its  midnight  In  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries.  In  the  eleventh,  signs  of  progress  and 
improvement  begin  to  show  themselves,  becom- 
ing more  distinct  towards  its  close,  when  the 
period  of  the  Crusades  was  opening  upon  Europe. 
Just  at  this  time  we  find  a  famous  school  of  law 
established  in  Bologna,  and  frequented  by  multi- 
tudes of  pupils,  not  only  from  all  parts  of  Italy, 
but  from  Germany,  France,  and  other  countries. 
The  basis  of  all  its  instruction  was  the  Corpus 
Juris  Civilis  [see  Coiirus  Junis  Civilis].  Its 
teachers,  who  constitute  a  series  of  distinguished 
jurists  extending  over  a  century  and  a  half,  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  work  of  expounding  the 
text  and  elucidating  the  principles  of  the  Corpus 
Juris,  and  especially  the  Digest.  From  the  form 
in  which  they  recorded  and  handed  down  the  re- 
sults of  their  studies,  they  have  obtained  the 


name  of  glossators.  On  their  copies  of  the  Cor- 
pus Juris  they  wcro  accustomed  to  write  glosses, 
1.  e.,  brief  marginal  explanations  and  remarks. 
Thest-  glos.ses  came  at  length  to  be  an  Imnuaiso 
literature.  .  .  .  Here,  then.  In  this  school  of  tho 
glossators,  ut  Bologna,  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  the  awakened  mind  of  Europu 
was  brought  to  recognize  the  value  of  the  Corpus 
Juris,  the  almost  inexhaustible  treasure  of  jur- 
istic principles,  nrecepts,  conceptions,  reasonings, 
stored  up  in  it.' — Jus.  lladley,  Intnxl.  to  Hoimiii 
L:ve,  led.  2. — University  of  Bologna. — "  In  tho 
twelfth  century  the  law  seli<M)lof  the  University 
of  Bologna  eclipsed  all  others  in  Europe.  Tho 
two  great  branches  of  legal  study  in  tho  middle 
ai.>e8,  tlie  Roman  law  and  the  canon  law,  began 
in  the  teaching  of  Iriierius  and  Gratian  at  liologna 
in  the  tirst  half  of  the  twelftli  centurj.  At  the 
beginning  of  this  century  the  name  ot  university 
tlrst  replaces  that  of  school;  and  it  is  said  that 
tlie  groat  university  degree,  that  of  doctor,  was 
tlrst  instituted  at  Bologna,  and  that  the  ceremony 
for  conferring  it  wiis  ilevised  there.  From  Bo- 
logna tho  degree  and  its  ceremonial  travelled  to 
Paris.  A  bull  of  Pope  Ilonorius,  in  1220,  says 
that  the  study  of  '  bonio  litcne '  had  at  that  time 
made  the  city  of  Bologna  famous  throughout  tho 
world.  Twelve  thousand  students  from  all  parts 
of  Europe  are  said  to  have  been  congregated  there 
at  once.  The  dilTercnt  nations  liad  their  colleges, 
and  of  colleges  ut  Bologna  there  were  fourteen. 
These  were  founded  and  endowed  by  the  liberal- 
ity of  private  persons;  tho  university  professors, 
the  source  of  attraction  to  this  multitude  of  stu- 
dents, were  puiil  by  the  municipality,  who  found 
their  reward  in  tlio  fume,  business,  and  import- 
ance brought  to  their  town  by  the  university. 
The  municipalities  of  the  great  cities  of  northern 
and  central  Italy  were  not  slow  in  following  tho 
example  of  Bologna;  in  tho  thirteenth  century 
Padua,  Mmlena,  Piacenza,  Purmu,  Ferrara,  had 
each  its  university.  Frederick  II.  founded  that 
of  Naples  in  1224;  in  tlie  fourteenth  century  were 
added  those  of  Pavia,  Perugia,  Pisa,  and  Turin. 
Colleges  of  examiners,  or,  as  wo  should  say, 
boards,  were  created  by  Papal  bull  to  examine 
in  tlicologv,  and  by  imperial  decree  to  examine 
in  law  and  medicine.  It  was  in  these  studies  of 
law  and  medicine  tluit  the  Italian  universities 
were  chiefly  distinguished." — M.  Arnold,  Schools 
and  Universities  on  the  Continent,  ch.  0. — "The 
Bologna  school  of  jurisprudence  was  several 
times  threatened  with  total  extinction.  In  the 
repeated  difflculties  with  the  city  the  students 
would  march  out  of  the  town,  bound  bv  a  solemn 
oath  not  to  return ;  and  if  a  compromise  was  to 
be  effected,  a  papal  dispensation  from  that  oath 
must  first  be  obtained.  Generally  on  such  oc- 
casions, the  privileges  of  the  university  were  ro- 
afflrmed  and  often  enlarged.  In  other  cases,  a 
quarrel  between  tho  pope  and  the  city,  and  the 
ban  placed  over  the  latter,  obliged  the  students 
to  leave ;  and  then  the  city  often  planned  and 
furthered  tho  removal  of  the  university.  King 
Frederic  II.,  in  1220,  during  the  war  against 
Bologna,  dissolved  the  school  of  jurisprudence, 
which  seems  to  have  been  not  at  all  affected 
thereby,  and  he  formally  recalled  that  ordinance 
in  the  following  year.  Originally  tho  only  school 
in  Bologna  was  the  school  of  jurisprudence,  and 
in  connection  witli  it  alone  a  university  could  be 
formed.  .  .  .  Subsequently  eminent  teachers  of 
medicine  and  tlie  liberal  arts  appeared,  and  their 


696 


EDUCATION. 


tftdlmvl  rtnttan 
Univrrtititt. 


EDUCATION. 


puptls,  too,  nought  to  form  n  unlvcniily  and  to 
cliooMi  tlivir  own  roctor.  Ah  liitu  n.t  1205  tliiH  iti- 
noviition  w«H  (llnputcd  by  the  jurists  iiiul  Inter- 
dicted by  the  elty,  so  that  tlicy  had  to  connect 
thomsclves  with  the  university  of  Jurisprudence. 
Hut  a  fuw  years  later  wo  tind  them  already  In 
possession  again  of  a  few  sectors,  and  In  IHltl 
their  right  was  formally  recognl/.ed  In  a  com- 
])romlgu  between  the  university  of  Jurisprudence 
and  the  city.  The  students  called  themsflves 
'  philosophi  et  mcdici '  or  '  physici ' ;  also  l)y  the 
common  name  of  '  artistic.'  Finally  a  school  of 
theology,  founded  by  pope  Innocent  VI.,  was 
added  in  the  second  half  of  the  14th  century;  it 
was  placed  under  the  bishop,  and  organized  In 
imitation  of  the  8cIi(k>I  at  I'arls,  so  that  It  was  a 
'  universitns  magistrorum,'  not  '  scholarium.' 
As,  however,  by  this  arrangement  the  students 
of  theology  ir.  the  theological  university  had 
no  civil  privileges  of  tlieir  own,  they  were  con- 
sidered individually  as  belonging  to  the  'artistie. ' 
From  this  time  liologna  had  four  iiniversilieH, 
two  of  Jurisprudence,  the  one  of  medicine  and 

fihllosophy,  and  the  theological,  the  first  two 
laving  no  connection  with  the  others,  forming  a 
unit,  and  therefore  fre(piently  designated  as  one 
university." — F.  C.  8a\'eny,  The  Unirentilien  of 
the  .\[i(Uile  A<je»  (Hdriiiird'a  A}ii.  Journal  of  Edii- 
cation,  V.  22,  pp.  278-270).— Other  Universities. 
— "Tlic  oklest  and  most  fre(|uente(l  university 
in  Italy,  that  of  Hologna,  is  represented  as  hav- 
ing flourished  in  tlie  twelfth  century.  Its  pros- 
perity in  early  times  depended  greatly  on  the 
personal  conduct  of  the  principal  profcs.sor8,  who, 
when  tlicy  were  not  satisfied  with  their  entertain- 
ment, were  in  tlie  habit  of  seceding  with  their 
pupils  to  other  cities.  Thus  high  schools  were 
opened  from  time  to  time  in  Modena,  I{cggio,  and 
clsowhere  by  teachers  who  broke  the  oaths  that 
bound  them  to  reslile  in  Hologna,  ond  fixed  their 
centro  of  education  in  a  rival  town.  To  make 
such  temporary  changes  was  not  dilllcult  in  an 
ago  when  what  wc  have  to  call  an  university, 
consisted  of  masters  and  scholars,  witho\it  col- 
lege buildings,  without  libraries,  without  endow- 
ments, and  without  scientific  ajmaratus.  The 
tcchnlcol  name  for  such  institutions  seems  to 
have  been  'studium  scholarium,'  Italianised  into 
'  studio '  or  '  studio  pubblico.'  Among  the  more 
permanent  results  of  thjso  secessions  may  bo 
mentioned  the  cstabllsliment  of  the  high  school  at 
Viconza  by  trauslation  from  Bologna  in  1204, 
and  the  opening  of  a  school  at  Arczzo  under 
bimilar  circumstances  In  131.');  the  great  Univer- 
sity of  Padua  first  saw  the  light  in  consequence 
of  political  discords  forcing  the  professors  to  quit 
Bologna  for  .a  season.  The  first  half  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  witnessed  the  foundation  of  these 
'  studi '  in  considerable  numbers.  Tluit  of  Ver- 
celll  was  opened  in  1228,  the  municipality  pro- 
viding two  certiflcd  copyists  for  the  convenience 
of  students  who  might  wish  to  purchase  text- 
books. In  1224  tlio  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  to 
whom  the  south  of  Italy  owed  a  precocious  em- 
inence in  literature,  established  the  University  of 
Naples  by  an  Imperial  diploma.  With  a  view 
to  rendering  it  the  chief  seat  of  learning  in  his 
dominions,  he  forbade  the  subjects  of  the  Regno 
to  frequent  other  schools,  and  suppressed  the 
University  of  Bologna  by  letters  general.  There- 
upon Bologna  Joined  the  Lombard  League,  de- 
fied tlie  Emperor,  and  refused  to  close  the  schools, 
which  numbered  at  that  period  about  ten  thou- 

^^  697 


■and  students  of  various  nationalities.  In  1227 
Frederick  revoked  Ills  edict,  and  Mologna  n>- 
niaincti  thcnceforwanl  unmolested.  I'olltlcal  an(( 
internal  vIclsNitudcH,  alTectlng  all  the  Italian  uni- 
versities at  this  period,  interrupted  lh(!  proB 
pcrity  of  that  of  Naples.  In  th(!  middle  of  thu 
thirteenth  century  Salenio  proved  a  dangerous 
rival.  .  .  .  An  important  group  of  'studi  pub- 
blicl '  owed  their  origin  to  Papal  or  Imperial  char- 
ters in  the  first  hall  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
Thii'  of  Perugia  was  founded  in  l:l()7  by  a  liull 
of  Clement  V.  That  of  Homo  dated  from  IHOII, 
In  which  year  Honiface  VIII.  gave  it  a  constl 
tution  by  a  special  edict;  but  the  tnuislation  of 
tlu'  I'apal  Bee  to  Avignon  caused  it  to  fall  into 
iircmaturc  decadence.  Tho  University  of  Pisa 
had  already  existed  for  some  years,  when  It  re- 
ceived a  charter  in  184!l  from  Clement  VI.  That 
of  Florence  whs  first  founded  In  IMl.  .  .  .  Tho 
subjects  taught  in  tho  high  schools  were  Canon 
and  (,'ivll  Law,  Medicine,  and  TlK'ology.  Tlieso 
faculties,  important  for  the  iirofussional  educa- 
tion of  the  public,  formed  the  staple  of  tho 
a('a<lemical  curriciiluin.  Cliairs  of  Khetorlc,  Phi- 
losophy, and  Astronomy  were  added  according  Uf 
occasion,  the  last  sometimes  including  the  study 
of  Judicial  astrology.  If  wo  en(iuiro  how  the 
humanists  or  professors  of  classic  literature  were 
related  to  tho  universities,  wc  find  that,  at  first 
at  any  rate,  they  always  occupied  as<'con(l  rank. 
The  permanent  teaching  remained  In  tho  hands 
of  jurists,  wlio  enjoyed  life  engagements  at  a 
high  rate  of  pay,  while  the  Latinistsand  Orecians 
could  only  aspire  to  the  temporary  occupation  of 
the  Chair  of  Hhetorlc,  with  salaries  considerably 
lower  than  tiioso  of  lawyers  or  physicians." — J. 
A.  Symonds,  Henainmincc  in  Italy :  the  Jlevival  of 
lyfai  inij,  ch.  8. — "Few  of  tho  Italian  universi- 
ties iw  themselves  in  their  full  vigour  till  tho 
thirteenth  and  fourteentli  centuries,  when  tho  in- 
crease of  wealth  rendered  a  more  systematic  caro 
for  education  possible.  At  first  there  were  gen- 
erally three  sorts  of  professorships  —  ono  for  civil 
law,  another  for  canonical  law,  the  third  for  medi- 
cine; in  course  of  time  professorships  of  rhetoric, 
of  philosophy,  and  of  astronomy  were  added,  tho 
lastcommonh',  though  not  always,  identical  with 
astrology.  The  salaries  varied  greatly  in  dilTcr- 
cnt  cases.  Sometimes  a  capital  sum  was  paid 
down.  Witli  tho  spread  of  culture  competition 
became  so  active  that  tho  difTerent  universities 
tried  to  entice  away  distinguished  tcacliers  from 
ono  another,  under  wliicli  circumstances  Hologna 
is  said  to  have  sometimes  devoted  the  half  of  its 
public  income  (20,000  ducats)  to  tho  university. 
Tlie  api)ointmcnt3  were  as  a  rule  made  only  for 
a  certain  time,  sometimes  for  only  half  a  year,  so 
that  the  teachers  were  forced  to  lead  a  wander- 
ing life,  like  actors.  Appointments  for  life  were, 
however,  not  unknown.  ...  Of  the  chairs  which 
have  been  mentioned,  that  of  rhetoric  was  es- 
pecially sought  by  the  humanist;  yet  it  depended 
only  on  his  familiarity  with  tho  matterof  ancient 
learning  wliether  or  no  ho  could  aspire  to  those 
of  law,  medicine,  pliilosophy,  or  astronomy.  The 
inward  conditions  of  the  science  of  the  day  were 
as  variable  as  tho  outward  conditions  of  tlie 
teacher.  Certain  jurists  and  pliyslcians  received 
by  far  tho  largest  salaries  of  all,  tlie  former 
chiefly  as  consulting  lawyers  for  tlie  suits  and 
claims  of  the  sUite  which  employed  them.  .  .  . 
Personal  intercourse  between  tlie  teachers  and 
the  taught,  public  disputations,  the  constant  use 


EDUCATION. 


Mulhrvnl  nrrman 
Unlvertilif. 


EDUCATION. 


of  Liilln  iinil  iiftrii  of  OrL'i'k,  the  frr(|iu'iit  rhnnKcit 
of  li'ctiii'i'rs  1111(1  the  M^itrclly  of  ImkiUh,  k<^v<!  tliii 
itiiilii'H  of  llijit  tliMu  u  colour  wlilcli  wi>  citiinot 
ri'pri'Hi'iil  to  ourm'lvi'H  without  t'lTort.  Tlicri!  wcri) 
Liitlii  Ht'liiHils  ill  every  town  of  tliu  leiiNt  Import- 
luice,  not  by  iiiiy  iiieitiiH  merely  lis  prepuriilorv  to 
IiIkIkt  ecliieiition,  but  keeitiiKe,  next  to  reiidtni;. 
writliifi;,  anil  iiritlimelli',  the  knowledge  of  Lutlii 
wan  II  nriessity;  mill  lifter  liiitin  eaiiie  lo^le.  It 
U  to  Ih'  noleil  piirtieiiliuly  that  these  hcIiooIh  tlid 
not  )le|ien<I  on  I  lie  C'hiireii,  1ml  on  the  miinieipal- 
ity;Homuof  them,  too,  were  merely  priviite  en- 
terprises. Tills  Hchool  system,  direeteil  liy  u  few 
tlislinKnisheil  humiinists,  not  only  attained  H  re- 
markahle  perfection  of  orKaidsiition,  hut  became 
an  iiiHtnimeiitof  hixlier  education  in  tlie  miHlern 
(M!iiseof  the  plirnst'." — J.  Uurckhiirdt,  'J7ie  Civiti- 
iiitian  of  the  I'lriml  of  the  liiiKiiiisnncc  in  Italy, 
».  1,  /)/.  «,  (•/(.  5. 

Germany.— Prag^ue  and  its  OiTsprinjr. — ••  Tlia 
earliest  university  in  Uermany  was  that  of 
J'raxue.  It  was  in  184M,  under  the  Kmperor 
Charles  IV.,  when  the  taste  for  letters  had  re- 
vived so  slirnally  in  Kurope,  when  England  niav 
be  said  to  hiive  possessed  her  two  old  universi- 
ties iilready  for  three  centuries,  Paris  her  8or- 
boime  already  for  four,  that  tliis  university  was 
erected  as  the  llrstof  Uennim  Universities.  Tlie 
idea  originated  in  the  mind  of  the  Emneror,  who 
was  educated  In  Paris,  at  the  universitv  of  tliiit 
town,  and  was  eagerly  taken  up  by  the  towns- 
peojile  of  that  ancient  and  wealthy  city,  for  tliey 
foresaw  that  allliienee  would  shower  upon  them 
If  they  could  induce  a  numerous  crowd  of  stu- 
dents to  lloek  together  within  their  walls.  But 
the  Pope  and  tlie  Einijcror  took  nu  active  part 


in  favouring  and  autiiori/ing  tlic  institution, 
they  wilhngTv  grunted  to  it  wide  privileges,  und 
made  it  entirely  independent  of  Church  und 
State.  The  teaching  of  the  professors,  and  the 
studies  of  the  students,  were  submitt4?d  to  no 
control  whatever.  After  the  miKlel  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  they  divided  themselves  Into 
different  faculties,  ami  made  four  such  divisions 
—  one  for  divinity,  another  for  medical  science, 
a  tliird  for  law,  und  a  fourth  for  philosophy. 
The  last  order  comprised  those  who  tuught  and 
learned  the  line  arts  und  the  sciences,  which  two 
departments  were  separate  ut  Sorbonne.*  All  the 
German  universities  have  preserved  this  outwurd 
constitution,  and  in  this,  us  in  many  other  cir- 
cumstances, the  precedent  of  Prague  has  liud  a 
prevuiling  intluenee  on  her  younger  sister  insti- 
tutions. The  same  thing  nioy  be  said  jjarticu- 
larly  of  the  disciplinary  tone  of  the  university. 
In  other  countries,  universities  sprang  from  rigid 
clerical  and  monastic  institutions,  or  bore  a  more 
or  less  ecclesiastical  character  which  imposed 
upon  thera  certain  more  retired  liabits,  and  a 
severer  kind  of  discipline.  Prague  took  from 
the  beginning  a  course  widely  different.  The 
students,  who  were  partly  Germans,  partly  of 
Slavonian  blood,  enjoyed  a  boundless  liberty. 
They  lodged  in  the  houses  of  the  townsjjeople, 
and  by  their  riclies,  their  mental  superiority, 
ond  their  number  (they  are  recorded  to  have 
been  as  many  us  twenty  thousand  in  tlie  year 
1400),  became  the  undisputed  masters  of  the  city. 
The  professors  and  the  inhabitants  of  Prague, 
far  from  checking  them,  rather  protected  the 
prerogatives  of  the  student";,  for  they  found  out 
thut  ^I  their  prosperity  depended  on  them.  .  .  . 
Not  two  generations  had  passed  since  the  erec- 


tliiii  of  nn  institution  thus  conNlltuteil,  iM'fom 
lliiHS  and  .li'i'iime  of  i'ragtU!  iH'gan  to  teach  the 
iH'ceHsity  of  ail  entire  ri'tLrmalion  of  the  Churcli. 
Tlie  plienonieiion  is  chiiruclcrlKtic  of  the  bold 
spirit  of  ln(|uiry  that  must  liiive  grown  up  ut  the 
new  University.  However,  the  iiolltlciil  coiimc. 
iiiiences  tliut  atliiided  the  ))roniulgaliiiii  of  siiili 
iloctrines  led  iilnioHt  In  llie  di.Hsolutlon  of  tlm 
University  itself.  Por,  the  German  part  of  the 
students  broke  up,  in  <'oniH'i|Uenre  of  repnitid 
und  serious  (|UurrelH  that  hud  taken  place  with 
the  lioheniian  iinil  Slavonic  party,  und  went  lo 
I.eip/.lg,  where  Hlraightwiiy  a  new  and  purely 
Geriimn  Univeinllv  wiis  erected.  While  Prague 
became  the  seal  of  a  protracted  and  sanguinary 
war,  a  great  niimlH'r  of  Universities  rtm;  into 
exlHtcnce  around  it.  and  attracted  the  crowds 
that  hud  formerly  Hoiked  to  the  lioheniian  cupi- 
t4tl.  It  upiieureii  us  if  Germany,  tliough  it  liiid 
received  the  impuiHe  from  abroad,  would  leave 
all  other  countriis  iK'hiiid  itself  in  tlie  erection 
and  promotion  of  these  learned  institutions,  for 
nil  the  districts  of  the  land  vied  witli  eucli  other 
in  creating  tinivei'silies.  Thus  arose  tliose  of 
Uostoek,  Ingolstiidt,  Vienna,  Ileldellicrg,  Co- 
logne, Krfurt,  Tuhingen,  Greifswulde,  Trives, 
JMuyence  and  Billes  —  schools  which  have  partly 
dlsuppeured  again  during  the  political  utornis  of 
subsequent  ages.  The  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century  udded  to  them  one  at  Frunkfort 
on  the  Oder,  and  another,  the  most  illustrious  of 
all,  Wittenlierg.  Everyone  who  is  ncquainted 
with  the  history  and  origin  of  tlie  Heformation, 
knows  what  an  important  part  the  latter  of  these 
universities  took  in  the  weighty  transactions  of 
those  times.  .  .  .  AVittenberg  remained  by  no 
means  the  only  cliami)ion  of  Protestantism.  At 
Marburg,  Jeuu,  KOnigsberg,  and  Helmstadt, 
universities  of  a  iirofessedly  Protestant  character 
were  erected.  1  liese  schools  became  the  cnidio 
and  nurseries  of  the  Heformation." — 7'he  Univer- 
sities of  Oermany  {D'ibtin  University  Mnyazine,  v. 
4(5,  p:\  83-S5). — "The  German  universities  of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  were  founded 
in  the  following  order;  Prague,  1348;  Vienna, 
1388;  Erfurt,  131)2;  Leipsic,  1409;  Hostock,  141U; 
Greifswuld,  1450;  Freiburg,  1457;  IngolsUult, 
1472;  Tubingen,  1477;  and  Mayence,  1477.  Thus, 
it  will  be  seen  that  they  were  established  in 
quick  succession —  nn  unmistakable  proof  of  the 
growing  scientitlc  interest  of  tlie  age." — F.  V. 
N.  Painter,  Ilist.  of  Education,  ch.  3,  sect,  5  (k). 
Netherlands. — "  Tradition  reports  that  a  school 
had  .  .  .  been  founded  at  Utrecht,  by  some  zeal- 
ous missionary,  in  the  time  of  Charles  Martel,  at 
which  his  son  Pepin  received  his  education. 
However  this  may  have  been,  the  renown  of  the 
Utreclit  School  of  St.  Martin  is  of  very  ancient 
date.  .  .  .  During  the  invasion  by  the  Nonnans, 
this  scliool  at  Utrecht  whs  suppressed,  but  was 
reGstnblislied  in  017,  and  regained  its  former  re- 
nown. The  Emperor,  Henry  tlie  Fowler,  placed 
here  his  three  sons,  Otto,  Henry  and  Bruno,  to 
be  educated,  of  whom  tlie  lust  become  afterward 
archbishop  of  Cologne  and  archduke  of  Lottring- 
en,  and  was  noted  for  his  extraordinary  learn- 
ing and  friendship  for  the  poet  Prudentius.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  13tli  century,  Utrecht  pos- 
sessed no  less  than  five  flourishing  schools,  sev- 
eral of  which  had  each  a  'rector'  in  addition  to 
tlie  priests  who  had  the  general  control.  At 
about  tlie  same  time,  several  convents  became 
distinguished  as  educational  institutions,  especi- 


698 


EDUCATION. 


Vnlvtrrtlln. 


EDUCATION. 


ftlly  thono  of  Esmnnd,  NymwcRrn.  Mlddli'lmrif, 
In  /t'lilaiiil.  ami  Ailiiwort,  iicnr  ()r(liiiri>;i'ri      In 

llollllllll,  HH  in  liclKilllll,  ill  Itllllltillll  to  tiK'HrlllllllH 

timt  WITH  nttiu'licd  to  tlio  cittlicilriilM,  cDnvcntH, 
and  cliaptiTH.  tlicri!  wcriM'Ntaltlinlii'd  In  tliiToiirsc 
iif  tliu  IWL'Iflli  century,  l«y  tlii'  mure  wcallliy 
conuiiuuitlcH,  piililic  wIiooIh  CHpiclally  iliHlKncd 
for  tliu  inHtruction  of  tlie  citl/rnH  and  laity. 
It  Ih  alHo  wortliy  of  noticu  tliat  tlio  autliorlly  to 
open  Hucli  Hcliooln  wax  nlwnyH  derived  from  llie 
coiintH — by  whom  It  was  eonferred,  KometiineH 
upon  tliH  I'lties  08  an  OHpi'clu'.  j -'"<<. .^re,  and 
aometlmoH  u|H)n  merely  private  perMonii  uh  ii 
marl(  of  particidur  favor.  The  Jurisdiction  of 
the  feudal  lords  was  the  same  lien:  as  In  Bel- 
gium; but  while  in  the  latter  country,  with  tlic 
exception  perliaps  of  the  elementary  schools  in 
wmio  of  the  cities,  the  rl^htof  supervision  ('Very- 
where  devolved  upon  the  chapters,  instruction 
In  these  public  schools  of  Holland  was  wholly 
withdrawn  from  the  clerj^y,  and  they  were  made 
essentially  secular  In  their  character.  The  privi- 
lege uf  thus  establishing  hc1i(h)Is  was  conferred 
upon  some  of  the  cities  at  the  following  dates: 
Dort,  bv  Count  Floris  V.,  A.  I).  TJIM);  the  Hague, 
i;V>a  — "l.evden,  11)24— and  I^)tterdam  In  VKH, 
by  Wllllaiii  III.;  Delft  and  Amsterdam,  in  l:m, 
bV  William  IV. ;  l.eyden  again,  IK.IT —  llaarlein, 
llV/  — Allimar,  i;)U8  — lloorn,  la.W  .md  lilOO  — 
th(  Hague,  IHOU — Schiedam  and  Ondewater, 
l;)l)4  — and  Kolterdam,  in  U03,  bv  Albert  of 
liavaria.  These  scIkhjIs,  adils  Stallaert,  on  the 
authority  of  Duihlingh,  were  generally  stvled 
'Scliool  en  Schryl'ambacht,'  '8ch(M)le  en  Kos- 
teru,'  (school  and  writing  olflces,  scIkkjIs  and 
clerks'  liouses,)  and  the  '  Bchoolmljsters'  (sch(X)l- 
masters)  were  looked  upon  us  professional  men  or 
craftsmen  —  as  was  the  case  also  In  Uelgluin, 
where  they  formed  distinct  giiiMs  and  frater- 
nities. These  public  schools  of  Holland  were 
divided  into  '  large '  and  '  small '  schools,  (groote 
en  bijschoolen,)  Latin  being  taught  in  the  first 
division.  The  institution  at  Zwolle,  attained  spe- 
cial notoriety  in  *he  fourteenth  century,  under 
the  direction  of  the  celebrated  .lohan  C'ele.  Ac- 
cording to  Thomas  i\  Kempis  and  Ten  Uus.sche, 
its  pu|)ils  numbered  about  a  thousand,  gathered 
from  Holland,  Belgium,  and  the  principal  pro- 
vinces of  Germany." — PiMic  liiittruetiim  in  Hul- 
land  (llnrnard'K  Am.  Jminitilof  Kdiiention,  v.  14). 
England. — Early  Oxford.— "The  University 
of  O.xford  did  not  spring  into  being  in  any  par- 
ticular year,  or  at  the  bidding  of  any  particular 
founder:  it  was  not  established  by  any  formal 
charter  of  incorporation.  Taking  its  rise  in  a 
small  and  obscure  association  of  teachers  and 
learners,  it  developed  spontaneously  into  a  large 
and  importunt  body,  long  before  its  existence 
was  recognised  by  prince  or  by  prelate.  There 
were  certainly  schools  at  Oxford  in  tlie  reign  of 
Henry  I.,  but  tlie  previous  history  of  the  place 
does  not  throw  much  light  on  their  origin,  or 
explain  the  causes  of  tlieir  popularity.  The 
town  seems  to  have  jjrown  up  under  the  shadow 
of  u  nunnery,  which  is  said  to  have  lieen  founded 
by  St.  Frideswyde  as  far  back  as  the  eighth 
century.  Its  authentic  annals,  however,  begin 
with  tlie  year  913,  when  it  was  occupied  and 
annexed  by  Edward  the  Elder,  King  of  the  West 
Saxons.  .  .  .  Oxford  was  considereil  a  place  of 
great  strategical  importance  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. Its  ])08ition  on  tlie  borders  of  Mercia  and 
"Wessex  rendered  it  also  purticulurly  conveuieat 


for  parley*  lirtween  Englishmen  and  Dnnrt.  and 

for  great  national  aHsemlilleH.  .  .  .  Itetalning  for 
a  while  its  rank  as  oiu'  of  tlie  chli'f  centres  of 
political  life  in  the  south  of  England,  and  us 
a  HUltaldi^  meeting  place  for  parliaments  and 
synisls,  Oxford  became  thenceforward  more  and 
more  distinctively  known  as  a  seat  of  learning 
and  a  iiuhmtv  of  clerks.  Thi'  scIhnOs  whh'h  ex- 
isted at  Oxford  iH'fore  tin'  reign  of  King  .lolin, 
are  so  rnddom  and  so  brietly  noticed  in  contem- 
porary records,  that  it  woulil  Ih'  dlllieult  to  show 
iiow  they  develop<  I  into  a  great  unlveiHity,  If  It 
were  not  for  Hie  analogy  of  kindred  liiHtltutionH 
in  otiier  countrle.^.  Tliere  can  be  little  doubt, 
however,  tiiat  the  idea  of  a  iiidversity,  the  sys- 
tems of  degrees  and  faculties,  and  the  nomen- 
clature of  till'  chief  academical  ollleers,  were 
alike  lmporte<l  Into  England  from  alinmil.  .  .  . 
Ill  the  I'lirliesl  and  broacU'st  sense  of  the  term,  a 
university  had  no  necessary  coiinevioii  with 
sihools  or  literature,  bcliig  merely  a  comniuiiity 
of  Individuals  bound  togi'ther  by  some  more  or 
less  acknowledged  tie.  Uegardcd  collectively  in 
tills  light,  the  Inhabitants  of  any  nartlciilar  town 
might  Ih'  said  to  constitute  a  university,  and  in 
point  of  fact  the  Comnionalty  of  the  townsmen 
of  Oxford  was  sometimes  descrllK'd  as  a  uiilver- 
sity  In  formal  documents  of  the  niiddli'  ages. 
The  term  was,  however,  specially  applied  to 
the  whole  liocly  of  iiersous  freciuenling  the 
schools  of  a  large  stiidlum.  Ultimately  it  came 
to  be  employed  in  a  technical  sense  as  synony- 
mous with  studlum,  todenote  the  institution  Itself. 
This  last  use  of  the  term  seems  to  lie  of  English 
origin,  for  the  University  of  Oxfonl  is  mentioned 
as  such  in  writs  and  ordinances  of  the  years  1238, 
1240,  and  12.W,  whereas  the  greater  seat  of  learn- 
ing on  the  banks  of  the  Seine  was,  until  the  year 
12(t;j,  styled  'the  University  of  the  Masters,'  or 
'Hie  Un'iverslty  of  the  Scli<ilars,'  of  Paris.  The 
.sy.stem  of  academical  degrees  dates  from  the 
second  half  of  tlu^  twelftli  century." — II.  C.  M. 
Lyte.  A  Ilinturn  uf  the  Unieeniti/  of  Oxford,  eh.  1. 
— "  In  the  early  Oxford  ...  of  the  twelfth  and 
most  of  the  thirteenth  centuries,  colleges  with 
tlieir  statutes  were  unknown.  'The  University 
was  the  only  corporation  of  the  learned,  and  she 
struggled  into  existence  after  hard  tights  with 
the  town,  the  .lews,  tiie  Friars,  the  Pajial  courts. 
The  history  of  tlie  University  l)egins  with  the 
thirt,enth  century.  She  may  be  sai<l  to  have 
come  into  being  as  soon  as  slie  possessed  common 
funds  and  rents,  as  sewn  as  tines  were  assigned, 
or  iK'ncfttctions  contributed  to  the  maintenance  of 
scholars.  Now  the  first  recorded  fine  is  the  pay- 
ment of  fifty-two  shillings  by  the  townsmen  of 
Oxford  as  jjart  of  thecomijensationforthe  hang- 
ing of  certain  clerks.  In  the  year  1214  the 
Papal  Legate,  in  a  letter  to  his  'beloved  sons  in 
Christ,  the  burg 'sses  of  Oxford,' bade  them  ex- 
cuse the  'scholars  studying  in  Oxford'  half  the 
rent  of  their  halls,  or  hospltia,  for  the  space  of 
ten  years.  The  burghers  were  also  to  do  pen- 
ance, and  to  fea.sttlie  jioorer  students  once  a-year; 
but  the  important  point  is,  that  they  had  to  pay 
that  large  yearly  fine  '  projiter  Buspendium  deri- 
corum' — all  for  the  hangin;'  of  tlie  clerks. 
Twenty-six  years  after  this  (Ijcision  of  the  Le- 
gate, Robert  Orosstestc,  the  great  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  organized  tlie  payment  "■'•'  distribution 
of  the  fine,  and  founded  the  fir  he  cliesls, 

the  cliest  of  St.  Frideswyde.  '.  ■  '  ?st8  were 
a  kind  of  Mout  de  Picte,  and  i^         id  them 


699 


EDUCATION. 


Oxford  in 
the  Middle  Aget. 


EDUCATION. 


■was  nt  first  the  favourite  form  of  benefaction. 
Money  was  left  in  tlii.s  or  that  chest,  from  which 
students  and  n'.asters  would  borrow,  (m  the  se- 
curity of  pledj^es,  which  were  generally  books, 
'.;ups,  dagf^ers,  and  so  forth.  Now,  in  this  alfair 
of  121 1  we  have  a  strange  pas.'jiigo  of  liistory, 
which  hai)pily  illustrates  the  growtli  of  the  Uni- 
versity. Th(!  beginning  of  the  whole  nitair  was 
the  quarrel  with  the  town,  winch  in  1209,  liad 
hanged  two  clerks,  'in  contempt  of  clerical  lib- 
erty.' The  .iiatter  was  taken  up  by  the  Legate 
—  \n  those  bad  years  of  King  John,  the  Pope's 
viceroy  in  England  —  and  out  of  the  liumiliation 
of  the  town  the  University  gained  money,  privi- 
leges, and  halls  at  low  rental.  These  were  pre- 
cisely the  things  that  the  University  wanteii. 
About  these  matters  there  was  a  constant  strife, 
in  which  tlie  Kings  as  a  rule,  took  part  witli  the 
University.  .  .  .  Thus  gradually  the  Universitv 
got  the  command  of  the  police,  obtained  i)nvi- 
leges  whicli  enslaved  the  city,  and  became  mas- 
ters where  they  had  once  been  despised,  starve- 
ling scholars.  .  .  .  The  result,  in  tlie  long  run, 
was  that  the  University  received  from  Edward 
III.  'a  most  large  charier,  contaii'lng  many  lib- 
erties, some  that  they  had  before,  and  other.s 
that  he  had  taken  away  from  the  town.'  Thus 
Edward  granted  to  the  University  '  the  custody 
of  tlie  assize  of  breitd,  wine,  and  ale,'  the  super- 
vising of  measures  ano  weights,  the  f  ie  power 
of  clearing  the  strcetf  of  the  town  ar  i  suburbs. 
Moreover,  the  Mayor  and  the  chi  .  Burghers 
werccondcmned  yearly  to  a. sort  o.  -  .blicpenance 
and  humiliation  on  St.  Scholastica's  Day.  Thus, 
by  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  strife 
of  Town  and  Gown  had  ended  in  the  complete 
victory  of  tliL  latter." — A  Lang,  Oxford,  ch.  2. — 
"To  mark  off  the  Middle  Age  from  the  Mortem 
Period  of  the  University  is  certainly  very  diftl- 
cult.  Indeed  the  earlier  times  do  not  form  a 
homogeneous  whole,  but  appear  perpetually 
shifting  and  preparing  for  a  new  state.  The 
main  transition  however  was  undoubtedly  about 
llie  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century;  and  the 
Keformation,  a  remarkable  crisis,  did  but  con- 
firm what  had  been  in  progress  for  more  than  ^ 
century  and  a  half:  so  that  tlie  Middle  Age  of 
the  University  contained  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  barely  the  former  half  of  the  fourteenth. 
.  .  .  There  is  no  question,  that  during  this 
Middle  Age  the  English  Universities  were  dis- 
tinguished far  more  than  ever  afterwards  by 
energy  and  variety  of  intellect.  Later  times 
cannot  produce  a  concentration  of  men  eminent 
in  all  the  learning  and  science  of  the  ago,  such 
as  Oxford  and  Cambridge  then  poured  forth, 
mightily  influencing  the  intellectual  develope- 
meut  of  all  Western  Christendom.  Thur  names 
indeed  may  warn  us  against  an  undiscriminating 
disparagement  of  the  Monasteries,  as  '  hotbeds  of 
ignorance  and  stupidity' ;  when  to  many  of  those 
worthies  were  monks  of  the  Benedictine,  Fran- 
ciscan, Dominican,  Carmelite,  or  reformed  Au- 
gustinian  order.  But  in  consequence  of  ciiis  sur- 
jiassing  celebrity,  Oxford  became  the  focus  of  a 
prodigious  congregation  of  students,  to  which 
iiotliing  afterwanis  bore  comparison.  The  same 
was  i)robably  true  of  Cambridge  in  relative  pro- 
■nortion.  ...  A  tolerably  well  uuthenticated 
.  count,  attacked  of  late  by  und..e  scjpticism, 
fixes  [tlie  number  of]  those  of  Oxford  at  thirty 
thousand,  in  the  luiddle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The   want  indeed    of    contemporary   evidcuce 


must  make  us  cautious  of  yielding  absolute  be- 
lief to  this:  in  fact  we  have  no  document  on  this 
matter  even  as  old  as  the  Ueformation.  .  .  .  Not 
only  did  the  Church  and  the  new  orders  of  Monks 
draw  great  numbers  thillier,  but  the  Universities 
themselves  were  vast  High  Schools,  comprising 
boys  and  even  children.  It  is  not  extravagant, 
if  Cambridge  was  not  y(^t  in  great  repute,  to 
imagine  fifteen  thousand  students  of  all  ages  at 
Oxford,  and  as  many  more  attendants.  Nor  was 
it  at  all  difficult  to  accommodate  them  in  the 
lowii,  when  Oxford  contained  three  hundred 
Halls  and  Inns:  and  as  several  students  dwelt  in 
one  room,  and  were  not  careful  for  luxury,  each 
building  en  an  average  might  easily  hold  one 
hundred  persons.  The  style  of  Architecture  was 
of  the  simplest  and  cheapest  kind,  and  might 
have  been  easily  run  up  on  a  sudden  demand: 
and  a  rich  flat  country,  with  abundant  water 
carriage,  needed  ii;)t  ^o  want  provisions.  That 
the  numbers  were  vast,  is  implirri  iiy  the  highly 
respectable  evidence  whicli  ^>  have,  that  as 
many  as  three  thousand  niigr  d  from  Oxford 
on  the  riots  of  1209;  although  i  ue  Chronicler  ex- 
pressly states  that  not  all  joined  in  the  secession. 
Ill  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  the  reduced  numbers 
are  reckoned  at  fifteen  thousand.  After  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  tbej'  were  still 
as  many  as  from  three  to  four  thousand;  and 
after  the  Ueformation  they  mount  again  to  five 
thousand.  On  the  whole  therefore  the  computa- 
tion of  thirty  thousand,  as  the  maximuiii,  may 
seem,  if  not  positively  true,  yet  the  nearest 
approximation  which  we  can  expect.  0/  Cam- 
bridge we  know  no  more  tlian  that  the  numbers 
were  much  lower  than  at  Oxford.  .  .  .  Wliilc  in 
the  general,  there  was  a  substantial  identity  be- 
tween the  scholastic  leaning  of  Oxford  and  of 
Paris,  yet  Oxford  was  niore  eager  in  following 
positive  science :  —  and  this,  although  such  studies 
were  disparaged  by  the  Church,  and  therefore  by 
the  public.  Indeed  originally  the  Church  had 
been  on  the  opposite  side;  but  the  speculative 
tendency  of  the  times  liad  carried  her  over,  so 
that  speculation  and  theology  went  hand  in  hand. 
In  the  middle  of  the  thirteentli  century  we  may 
name  Robert  Grosseteste  and  John  Basingstock, 
as  cultivating  physical  science,  and  (more  re- 
markable still)  the  Franciscan  Roger  Bacon:  a 
man  ivhom  the  vulgar  held  to  be  equal  to  Mer- 
lin and  Michael  Scott  m  a  magician,  and  whom 
posterity  ranks  by  the  noblest  spirits  of  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries,  in  all  branches  of 
positive  science, — except  theolopy .  A  biography 
of  Roger  Bacoa  should  surely  be  '  -ittenl  Unfor- 
tunately, we  k-ow  nothing  as  to  the  influence  of 
these  men  on  their  times,  nor  can  we  even  learn 
whether  the  University  itself  was  at  all  interested 
in  their  studies.  .  .  .  Wo  have  ...  a  strange 
testimony  to  the  interest  which  in  the  beginning 
of  tho  fourteenth  century  the  mass  of  the  stu- 
dents took  in  the  speculation  of  their  elde.s;  for 
the  street  rows  were  carried  on  under  the  banners 
of  Nominalists  and  Realists.  .  .  .  The  coarse 
and  ferocious  manners  iirevalent  in  the  Univer- 
sities of  tho  JUddIc  Ages  arc  every  where  in 
singular  contrast  to  thair  intellectual  pretensions: 
but  the  Universities  of  the  Continent  were  peace- 
ful, decorous,  dignif.^J, — compared  with  those 
of  England.  The  storms  which  were  elsewhere 
occasional,  were  at  Oxford  the  permanent  atnios- 

Sliere.      For  nearly  two  centuries  our  'Poster 
lother '  of  Oxford  lived  in  a  din  of  uuiiterrupled 


700 


EDUCATION. 


Cambridge  in 
the  Middle  Ayei. 


EDUCATION. 


furio\i8  wiirfiirc;  nation  against  nation,  stliool 
against  school,  faculty  agi.inst  faculty.  Halls,  and 
finally  Colleges,  came  forward  as  combatants ;  and 
the  University,  as  a  whole,  against  tlie  Town;  or 
against,  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln ;  or  against  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Nor  was  Cambridge 
much  less  pugnacious." — V.  A.  lluber,  Tlic Kitij- 
IMi  Uiiicersilies,  v.  1,  rli.  3. — Cambridge. — 
"  Various  facts  and  circuniHtanccs  .  .  .  lend 
probahility  to  the  belief  that,  long  before  the 
time  when  we  have  certain  'evidence  of  th(i  exist- 
ence of  Cambridge  as  a  univer.sity,  the  work  of 
instruction  was  there  going  on.  The  Cambori- 
tum  of  the  Roman  period,  the  Grantebrycgr  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  the  Orentebrige  of 
Domesday,  must  always  have  been  a  place  of 
sonic  importance.  It  was  tlie  meeting-place  of 
two  great  Konian  roads, — Akeinan  ■'street,  running 
east  and  west,  and  the  Via  Devana,  traversing 
the  north  and  the  south.  .  .  .  Coiitined  at  first  to 
the  rising  ground  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
it  numbered  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest 
as  many  as  four  hundred  houses,  of  which  twenty- 
seven  were  jnilled  down  to  make  way  for  the 
castle  erected  by  William  the  Conciueror.  .  .  . 
Under  the  castle  walls,  with  the  view,  it  would 
seem,  of  making  some  atonement  for  many  a 
deed  of  violence  and  wror.g,  the  Nornnin  slierilT, 
Picot  by  name,  founded  the  Church  of  St.  Giles, 
and  instituted  in  connection  witli  it  a  small  body 
of  secular  canons.  .  .  .  Tiie  year  1113  was 
marked  by  the  occurrence  of  an  event  of  consid- 
erable importance  in  connection  with  the  subse- 
ijuent  hibtory  of  the  university.  The  canons  of 
St.  C  iles,  attended  by  a  lo"gi;  concourse  of  the 
clcrg  '  and  laity,  crossed  the  river,  and  took  up 
their  iibodc  in  a  nev  and  spacious  priory  at  Barn- 
well. .  .  .  Tlie  prioy  at  Barnwell,  whi^.lialway- 
ranked  among  the  wealthiest  of  the  Cambridge 
foundations,  seems  from  tlie  first  to  have  been 
closely  associated  with  the  university ;  and  the 
earliest  university  c.\liibitions  were  those  founded 
by  William  de  Kilkenny,  bishop  of  Ely  from 
1254  to  1257,  for  two  students  of  divinity,  who 
were  to  receive  annually  ihe  sum  ot  two  marks 
from  the  priory.  In  the  year  1133  was  foimdcd 
the  nunnery  of  St.  Rhadegund,  whioh,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.,  was  ei.nverted  into  Jesus 
College;  and  in  1135  a  hospital  of  Augustinian 
canons,  dedicated  to  St.  .lohn  the  Evangelist, 
was  founded  by  Henry  Frost,  a  burgess  of  the 
town.  ...  It  ^^  as  ...  a  very  important  foun- 
dation, inasmuch  as  it  not  only  becanie  by  con- 
version in  the  si.vtee.tli  century  the  College  of 
St.  John  the  Evangelist,  but  was  also  .  .  .  tlie 
foundation  of  which  Peterhou.se,  the  earliest 
Cambridge  college,  may  be  said  to  liave  been  in 
a  certain  sense  the  offshoot.  ...  In  the  year 
1299  there  broke  out  at  Paris  a  feud  of  more 
than  ordinary  gravity  between  the  students  and 
the  citizens.  Large  numbers  of  the  former  mi- 
grated to  the  English  sliores;  and  Cand)ridge, 
from  its  proximity  to  tlie  eastern  coast,  and  as 
the  centre  where  Prince  Louis,  but  a  few  years 
before,  had  raised  the  royal  standard,  seems  to 
have  attracted  the  great  majority.  .  .  .  The 
university  of  Cambridge,  like  tliat  of  Oxford, 
was  modelled  mainly  on  the  university  of  Paris 
Its  constitution  was  conscqii"ntly  oligarchic 
rather  than  d^'inocratic,  the  government  being 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  teacliing  body,  while 
the  bachelors  and  undcrgruluates  had  no  share 
in  the  passing  of  new  laws  and  regulations," — J 


B.  JIullinger,  .^1  IIMorjinf  the  Unirerritynf  Cam- 
hi-iihjc,  (•/(.  1-2. — "The  earliest  existing  college 
at  Cambridge  is  St.  Peter's,  generally  called 
Peterhouse,  liistoricallv  founded  A.  I).  1257,  in 
the  rel/'n  of  Henry  IIL  The  Universities  are 
known  merely  by  their  situation;  as  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  Durham,  St.  Andrews';  but  each 
ciillcge  has  a  na.ne,  according  to  the  taste  of  its 
founder  or  first  members,  'riicse  names  may  bo 
divided  into  two  clas.ses,  those  named  from  the 
founder,  as  Pembroke,  Clare,  Oonville  and  Caius 
(this  had  two  founders,  the  restorer  bein;^  Dr. 
Kaye,  who  Latinized  his  name  into  Caiu.s,  always 
pronounced  Keys),  King's  (from  King  Henry 
VI.), —  (Jueens' (from  the  queens  both  of  Henry 
yi.  and  Edward  IV.),  Sidney  Sussex,  and  Down- 
ing;—  and  those  namti.  for  beatified  persons  and 
objects  of  w'Tsliip, — St.  Peter's,  St.  John's,  St. 
Catharine's,  St.  .'^lary  Magdalene,  Corpus  Christi, 
ICniinanuel,  Jesus  Christ's,  Trinity  and  Trinity 
Hall.  The  apparent  impiety  of  these  names, 
wliieli  in  one  case  of  an  ancient  name  now  change.l, 
was  absolutely  revolting,  entirely  passes  off  witli 
a  few  days'  use.  St.  Catliarine's  soon  becomes 
Cats,  and  St.  Jlary  Magdalene  is  always  called 
.Maudlin.  You  readily  admit  the  superiority  of 
Trinity  over  Corpus  ale;  go  to  see  a  friend  who 
lives  on  Christ's  iiicce ;  and  iiear  with  regret,  that 
in  the  boat  races  Emmanuel  has  been  bumped  by 
Jesus;  an  epithet  being  probably  prefixed  to  tin 
last  name.  t"l'"sc  names  of  course  were  given  in 
monkish  ■.iiics, — Trinity  by  Henry  VIII.,  but 
all  the  colleges  except  one  were  founded  before 
the  reign  of  James  I.  .  .  .  The  seventeen  col- 
leges .  .  .  are  distinct  corporations.  Their  foun- 
dations, resources,  buildings,  governing  authori- 
ties an<l  students,  are  entirely  separate  from  each 
other.  Nor  has  any  one  college  the  least  control 
in  any  other.  The  plan,  however,  is  much  the 
same  in  all.  The  presiding  autliority  is  iu  most 
cases  called  the  Master,  or  speaking  more  gener- 
ally, the  Head ;  while  the  net  proceeds  of  oil  the 
college  funds  —  for  the  vast  wealth  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  University  really  is  in  the  hands  of 
tlie  separate  colleges  —  are  distributed  among 
certain  of  tlie  graduates,  called  Fellows,  who 
wi'h  the  Head  constitute  the  corporation.  These 
corporations  give  board  nnd  lodging  on  various 
tenns  to  such  tiudents  as  choose  to  enter  the  col- 
lege and  comply  with  its  rules,  in  order  to  re- 
ceive its  assistance  in  obtaining  the  honors  of  the 
University ;  and  caeli  college  offers  its  own  pe- 
culiar iiulucements  to  students.  .  .  .  The  whole 
body  of  the  colleges,  taken  together,  constitutes 
the  University.  ^W  those  who  after  residing 
se  'cn  years  ot  some  college,  have  taken  the  de- 
gree ot  JIaster  of  Arts,  or  a  higher  one,  and  keep 
their  name  on  tlie  college  lists  by  a  small  poy- 
ment,  vote  at  the  University  elections  for  mem- 
bers )f  Parliament  and  all  other  officers,  and 
manage  its  aitairs.  .  .  .  The  colleges,  at  certain 
intervals,  present  such  students  as  comply  with 
their  conditions  to  University  authorities  fo-  .na- 
triculation,  for  certain  examinations,  and  for  the 
reception  of  degrees ;  and  until  one  receives  the 
degree  of  JIaster  of  Arts,  he  must  remain  a  mem- 
ber of  some  college,  not  necessaiily  one  and  the 
same,  to  hold  I'liy  University  privileges.  After 
tliisstajve,  lie  may,  under  certain  conditions,  break 
up  all  his  college  connections,  and  yet  remain  ii 
the  University. " — W.  Everett,  On  the  dun.,  led  , 
Spain  and  Portugal. — "Salamanca  was  for.  I- 
e^d  in  the  13th  century,  and  received  Its  s'...'i..es 


701 


EDUCATION. 


Ideas  of  Rabelais. 


EDUCATION. 


In  the  year  1422,  out  of  which  was  devulop"'!  the 
followiug  constitution.  Thu  rector,  witli  eiglit 
'consiliurii,'  all  students,  who  could  appoint  tlieir 
8Ucct'S.s<)r»,  administered  tiic  university.  The 
(locators  render  the  oalli  of  obedience  to  the  rector. 
The  '  domscholaster '  is  the  proper  judge  of  tlic 
seh(H)l ;  but  he  swears  obedience  to  the  rector. 
A  baclielor  of  law  must  have  studied  six  years, 
and  after  live  years  more  he  could  become  licen- 
tiate. Ip  filling  a  paid  teachership,  the  doctor  was 
chosi'n  next  in  age  of  those  holding  the  diploma, 
unless  a  great  majority  of  the  scholars  objected, 
in  which  cas<'  the  rector  and  council  decided.  This 
liberal  constitution  for  the  scholars  is  in  harmony 
with  the  code  of  Alphonzo  X.,  soon  after  1250, 
in  which  the  liberty  of  instruction  was  made  a 
geneml  principle  of  law.  This  constitution  con- 
tinued in  Salamanca  into  the  17th  century,  for 
Ketes  speaks  of  ;i  disputation  which  the  rector 
held  at  that  time  under  his  presidency.  Alcala 
university  was  established  by  cardinal  Xiraenes, 
In  1510,  for  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  the- 
ology and  philosophy,  for  which  reason  it  con- 
tained a  faculty  of  canon,  but  not  of  civil  law. 
The  center  of  the  university  was  the  college  of  St. 
TIdefons,  consisting  of  thirty-three  prebendaries, 
who  could  be  teachers  or  scholars,  since  for  ad- 
mission were  required  only  poverty,  the  age  of 
twenty,  and  the  comf.etiou  of  the  course  of  the 
preparatory  colleges.  These  thirty-three  mem- 
bers elected  annually  a  rector  and  three  council- 
ors, who  controlled  the  entire  university.  Sala- 
ried teachers  were  elected,  not  by  the  rector  and 
council  alone,  but  by  all  the  students.  It  had 
wide  reputation.  AVhen  visited  by  Francis  I., 
while  a  prisoner  of  Spain,  lie  was  welcomed  by 
11,000  students.  Tlie  Coimbra  university,  in 
Portugal,  leceived  statutes  in  1309,  from  king 
Dionysuis,  with  a  constitution  similar  to  those 
just  mentioned." — F.  C.  Savigny,  The  Unireni- 
ties  of  the  Middle  Affes  {IJarnard  a  Am.  Journul  of 
Education,  v.  22,  ;).  334). 

Renaissance. 

"Modem  education  begins  (vith  the  Renais- 
sance. The  educational  methods  that  we  the* 
begin  to  discern  will  doubtless  not  be  developed 
and  perfected  till  a  later  period ;  the  new  doc- 
trines will  pass  into  practice  only  gradually,  and 
with  th"  general  progress  of  the  times.  But  from 
the  sixteenth  century  education  is  in  possession 
of  its  essential  principles.  .  .  .  The  men  of  the 
sixteenth  century  having  renewed  with  classical 
anti(iuity  an  intercourse  that  had  been  too  long 
interrupted,  it  was  natural  that  they  should  pro- 
pose to  the  young  the  study  of  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans.  What  is  called  secondary  instruc- 
tion really  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  crude  works  of  the  Sliddle  Ago  are  suc- 
ceeded by  the  elegant  compositions  of  Athens 
and  Rome,  henceforth  niacle  accessible  to  all 
through  the  art  of  printing ;  and,  with  the  read- 
ing of  the  ancient  authors,there  reappear  through 
the  fruitful  effect  of  imitation,  their  qualities  of 
correctness  in  thought,  of  literary  taste,  and  of 
elegance  in  form.  In  France,  as  in  Italy,  the 
national  tongues,  moulded,  and,  as  it  were,  con- 
secrated by  writers  of  genius,  become  the  instru- 
ments of  an  intellectual  propaganda.  Artistic 
taste,  revived  by  the  rich  products  of  a  race  of 
incomparable  artists,  gives  an  extension  to  the 
horizon  of  life,  and  creates  a  new  class  of  emo- 
tions.    Finally,  the  Protestant  Itefonu  develops 


individual  thouglit  and  free  iiuiuirj-,  an<l  ot  the 
same  time,  by  its  success,  it  impo8<;8  still  greater 
elTorts  on  the  Catholic  Church.  This  is  not  say- 
ing that  everything  is  faultless  in  the  educational 
efforts  of  the  sixteenth  century.  First,  as  Is 
natural  for  innovators,  the  thought  of  the  teach- 
ers of  thill  period  is  marked  by  enthusiasm  ratlier 
than  by  precision.  They  are  more  zealous  in 
pointing  out  the  end  to  be  attained,  than  exact 
in  determining  the  means  to  be  employed.  Be- 
sides, some  of  them  are  content  to  emancipate 
the  mind,  but  forget  to  give  it  proper  direction. 
Finally,  others  make  a  wrong  use  of  the  ancients; 
thev  arc  too  much  preoccupied  with  the  form 
ami  the  puriiy  of  language ;  they  fall  into  Cice- 
roinania,  and  it  is  not  their  fault  if  a  new  super- 
stition, that  of  rhetoric,  does  not  succeed  the  old 
superstition,  thct  of  the  Syllogism." — Q.  Corn- 
pay  re.  The  Hint,  of  Ped(i(jori!i,ch.  5  (ncct.  92-93). 

Rabelais' Gargrantua. — Rabelais' description  of 
the  imaginary  education  of  Gargantua  gives  us 
the  educational  ideas  of  a  man  of  genius  in  the 
16th century:  "Gargantua, "ho writes,  "awaked, 
then,  about  four  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Whilst 
they  were  rubbing  him,  there  was  read  unto  him 
some  chapter  of  the  Iloly  Scripture  aloud  and 
clearly,  with  a  pronunciation  fit  for  the  matter, 
and  hereunto  was  appointed  a  young  page  born 
in  Basclie,  named  Anagnostes.  According  to  the 
purpose  and  argument  of  tliat  lesson,  he  often- 
times gave  himself  to  revere,  adore,  pray,  and 
send  up  his  supplications  to  that  goo<l  God  whoso 
word  did  show  His  majesty  and  marvellous  judg- 
ments. Then  his  master  fcpoated  what  had  been 
read,  expounding  un.o  him  the  ?nost  obscure  and 
dilHcult  points.  They  then  considered  the  face 
of  the  sky,  if  it  was  such  as  they  had  observed  it 
th"  night  before,  and  into  what  signs  the  sun 
was  entering,  as  also  the  moon  for  that  day. 
This  done,  he  was  appareled,  combed,  curled, 
trimmed  and  perfumed,  during  which  time  they 
repeated  to  him  the  lessons  of  the  day  before. 
He  himself  said  them  by  heart,  and  upon  them 
grounded  practical  cases  concerning  the  estate  of 
man,  which  he  would  prosecute  sometimes  two 
or  three  hours,  but  ordinarily  they  ceased  as  soon 
as  ho  was  fully  clothed.  'Then  for  tlirs ,  good 
hours  there  was  reading.  This  done,  they  went 
forth,  still  conferring  of  the  substance  of  the 
reading,  and  disported  themselves  at  ball,  tennis, 
or  the  'pile  trigone,'  gallantly  exercising  their 
bodies,  as  before  they  had  done  their  minds.  All 
their  play  was  but  in  liberty,  for  they  left  off 
when  they  pleased,  and  that  was  commonly  when 
they  did  sweiit,  or  were  otherwise  wearv.  Then 
were  they  very  well  dried  and  rubbeJ,  shifted 
their  shirts,  and  walking  soberly,  went  to  see  if 
dinnei  was  ready.  Whilst  they  stayed  for  that, 
they  did  clearly  and  eloquently  recite  some  sen- 
tences that  *hey  had  retained  of  the  lecture.  In 
the  mean  time  blaster  Appetite  came,  and  then 
very  orderly  sat  they  down  at  table.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  meal  there  was  read  some  pliMisant 
liistory  of  ancient  prowess,  until  h  had  taken  his 
wino.  Then,  if  they  thought  good,  they  con- 
tinued reading,  or  began  to  discourse  merrily  to- 
gether; speaking  tirst  of  the  virtue,  propriety, 
elUcacy,  and  nature  of  all  that  was  served  in  at 
that  table;  of  bread,  of  wine,  of  water,  of  salt, 
of  flesh,  flsli,  fruits,  herbs,  roots,  and  of  their 
dressing.  By  means  whereof.  In  learned  in  a 
little  time  all  the  passages  that  on  these  subjects 
are  to  he  found  in  Pliny,  Atheua'us,  Dloscorides, 


702 


EDUCATION. 


Kennissnnre  in 
Ciennany. 


EDUCATION. 


Julius,  Pollux,  Galen,  Porphyrins,  Oppimi,  Poly- 
bius,  Heliwlorus,  Aristotle,  (Kliiiii,  mid  others. 
"Whilst  they  talked  of  these  things,  many  times, 
to  be  the  more  certain,  they  caused  the  very 
hooks  to  be  brought  to  the  table,  and  so  well  and 
perfectly  did  he  in  his  memory  retain  the  things 
above  sidd,  that  in  that  time  there  was  not  a 
physician  that  knew  half  so  mueh  as  he  did. 
Afterwards  tlicy  conferred  of  the  lessons  rend  in 
the  morning,  and  ending  their  repast  with  some 
conserve  of  quince,  h(!  wai'.ed  his  hands  and 
eyes  with  fair  fresli  water,  and  gave  thanks  imto 
God  in  some  fine  canticle,  made  in  pniise  of  the 
divine  bounty  and  niuuificcnco.  This  done,  they 
brought  in  cards,  not  to  play,  but  to  learn  a 
thousand  pretty  tricks  ami  new  inventions,  which 
were  all  grounded  upon  arithmetic.  By  this 
means  he  fell  in  love  with  that  numerical  science, 
and  every  day  after  dinner  and  supper  he  pas.se(l 
liis  time  in  it  as  pleasantly  as  he  was  wont  to  do 
at  cards  and  dice.  .  .  .  After  this  they  recreated 
themselves  with  singing  musically,  "in  four  or 
five  parts,  or  upon  a  set  theme,  as  it  best  pleased 
them.  In  matter  of  musical  instruments,  he 
learned  to  play  the  lute,  the  spinet,  the  harp,  the 
German  tlute,  the  flute  with  nine  holes,  the  violin, 
and  the  sackbut.  This  hour  thus  spent,  he  be- 
t(K)k  himself  to  his  piincipal  study  for  three 
hours  together,  or  more,  as  well  to  repeat  his 
matutinal  lectures  as  to  proceed  in  the  book 
wherein  he  was,  ns  also  to  write  handsome.;',  to 
draw  ond  form  the  antique  and  Honian  letters. 
This  being  done,  they  went  out  of  their  house, 
and  with  them  a  young  gentleman  of  Touraine, 
named  Gymnast,  who  taught  the  art  of  riding. 
Changing  then  his  clothes,  he  moimted  on  any 
kind  of  horse,  which  he  made  to  bound  in  the 
air,  to  i'lmp  the  J  itch,  to  leap  tlie  palisade,  and 
to  turn  short  in  a  ring  botli  to  the  right  and  left 
hand.  .  .  .  The  time  being  thus  bestowed,  and 
himself  rubbed,  cleansed,  and  refreshed  with 
other  clotlies,  they  returned  fair  and  softly ;  and 
Iiassing  through  certain  mc  dows,  or  otlier  grassy 
])laces,  behtld  the  trees  and  piants,  comparing 
the'-i  witli  what  is  written  of  them  in  the  books 
of  the  ancients,  such  as  Theophrsistus,  Dioscori- 
des,  Marinus.  Pliny,  Nicander,  Maccr,  and  Galen, 
and  carried  home  to  the  house  great  hand  fids  of 
them,  whereof  a  young  page  called  iUuzotomos 
had  charge  —  together  witli  hoes,  picks,  spuds, 
pruning-knives,  and  other  instruments  requisite 
for  herborising.  Being  come  to  tlieir  lodging, 
whilst  oupper  was  making  ready,  they  repealed 
certain  passages  of  tliat  which  had  been  rend, 
and  then  sat  down  at  table.  .  .  .  During  that 
repast  was  continued  the  lesson  read  at  dinner  as 
long  as  they  thought  gowl :  tlie  rest  was  spent  in 
go(S  discourse,  learned  and  profltiible.  After 
that  they  had  giv  -n  thanks,  they  set  aernselves 
to  sing  musically,  and  play  upon  liarmonious  in- 
struments, or  nt  those  pretty  sports  made  with 
cards,  dice  or  cups,  — tlius  made  merry  till  it  was 
time  to  go  to  bed ;  and  sometimes  they  would  go 
iiake  visits  unto  learned  men,  or  to  such  as  had 
been  travellers  in  strange  countries.  At  full 
nigl  •■  they  went  into  the  most  open  place  of  the 
house  to  see  the  face  of  the  sky,  and  there  beheld 
the  comets,  if  nny  were,  ns  likewise  the  figures, 
situations,  aspects,  oppositions,  and  conjunctions 
of  the  stars.  Then  with  his  mmt^T  did  he  briefly 
recapitulate,  aft<;r  the  manner  of  the  Pythagor- 
eans, tliat  which  he  liad  read,  seen,  learned,  done, 
and  understood  in  the  whole  course  of  that  day. 


Then  they  prayed  unto  God  the  Creator,  falling 
down  before  llim,  and  stn^ngthening  their  faith 
towards  Him,  and  glorifying  Ilim  for  His  l)ound- 
less  bounty;  and,  giving  thanks  unto  Him  for  the 
time  that  was  past,  they  recommended  them- 
selves to  His  divine  clemency  for  the  future. 
AV'hich  being  done,  they  entered  upon  their  re- 
jiose. " — W.    Besant,   Headings   in   Uabelain,   pp. 

Germany. —  "The  schools  of  France  and  Italy 
owed  litth^  to  the  great  mmlern  movement  of  the 
Itenaissance.  In  both  these  countries  that  move- 
ment operated,  in  l)oth  it  produced  mighty  re- 
sults; but  of  the  ollicial  establishments  for  in- 
struction it  did  not  get  hold.  In  Italy  the 
media' val  routine  in  those  establishments  at  first 
opposed  a  passive  resistance  to  it;  presently 
came  ihe  Catholic  reaction,  and  sedulously  shut 
it  out  from  them.  In  France  the  Uenaisrance 
did  not  become  a  power  in  the  State,  and  the 
routine  of  the  schools  suflleed  to  exclude  the 
new  inrtuence  till  it  took  for  itself  other  chan- 
nels than  the  schools.  But  in  Germany  the 
Benaissaneo  became  a  power  in  the  State ;  allied 
with  the  Heforniation,  where  the  Reformation 
triumphed  in  German  countries  the  Renaissance 
triumphed  witli  it,  and  entered  with  it,  into  the 
public  sclicK)l3.  Melancthon  and  Erasmus  were 
not  merely  enemies  and  snbverters  of  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Church  of  Rome,  they  were  eminent 
humanists;  and  with  the  great  but  single  excep- 
tion of  Lutlicr,  the  chief  German  reformers  were 
all  of  them  diatinguished  friends  of  the  new 
classical  learning,  as  well  as  of  Protestantism. 
The  Romish  party  was  in  Gennan  countries  the 
ignorant  party  also,  the  party  untouched  by  the 
humanities  and  by  culture.  Perhaps  one  reason 
why  in  England  our  schools  have  not  had  the 
life  and  growth  of  the  schools  of  Germany  and 
Holland  is  to  be  found  in  the  separation,  with 
us,  of  the  po^ver  of  the  Reformation  and  the 
power  of  the  Renaissance.  With  us,  too,  the 
keformation  triumphed  and  got  possession  of 
our  schools;  but  our  leading  refonners  were  not 
at  the  same  time,  like  those  of  Germany,  the  na- 
tion's leading  spiiits  in  intellect  and  culture.  In 
Germany  the  best  spirits  of  the  nation  were  then 
the  reformers;  in  England  our  best  spirits, — 
Shakspeare,  Bacon,  Spenser, —  were  men  of  the 
Renaissance,  not  men  of  the  Reformation,  and 
our  reformers  were  men  of  the  second  order. 
The  Reformation,  tlierefore,  otetting  hold  of  the 
schools  in  England  was  a  very  t'ilTerent  force,  a 
force  far  inferior  in  light,  resources,  and  pros- 
pects, to  the  Reformation  getting  hold  of  the 
schools  in  Germany.  But  in  Germany,  n'?ver- 
theless,  as  Protestant  orthodoxy  grew  petrified 
like  Catholic  orthodoxy,  and  as,  in  consequence, 
Protestantism  flagged  and  lost  the  powerful  im- 
])iilse  with  wh'ch  it  started,  the  school  flagged 
also,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the 
classical  teaching  of  Germany,  in  spite  of  a  few 
honourable  names  like  Gesner's,  Erncsti's,  and 
Heyne'3,  seems  to  liave  lost  all  the  spirit  and 
power  of  the  lOtli  century  humanists,  to  hav;: 
been  sinkins,  into  a  mere  church  appendage,  and 
fast  becoming  torpid.  A  theological  student, 
making  his  livelihood  by  teaching  till  he  io\\\i\ 
get  appointed  to  a  parish,  was  the  usual  .school- 
master. 'The  schools  will  never  be  better,'  said 
their  gveat  renovator,  Friedrich  August  Wolf,  the 
well-kn  wn  critic  of  Homer,  '  so  long  at  the  8ch(X)l- 
masti- .  are  theologians  by  profession.  A  theoiog- 


703 


EDUCATION. 


Reformation 
niul  Kducaiion. 


EDUCATION. 


Iriil  course  in  n  university,  witli  its  sninttoring  of 
<;Ias8i('S,  is  about  ns  good  a  prcjia ration  for  a  classi- 
<«l  master  as  a  course  of  feiulal  law  would  be.' 
Wolf's  coming  to  llalle  in  ITHH,  invited  l)y  Von 
Zedlitz,  the  minister  for  ])ul)lie  worship  tinder 
Frcderieli  the  Great,  a  sovereign  whose  civil  ])ri)- 
jects  and  labours  were  not  less  acti  vu  and  remark- 
able than  his  military,  marlis  an  era  from  which 
the  classical  schools  of  (iermany,  reviving  the  dor- 
mant sparli  planted  in  them  by  the  Hennissance, 
awoke  to  a  w.w  life." — ,M.  Arnold,  Schools  and 
UniTcrsities  on  the  Continent,  rh.  14. — It  is  sur- 
pri.sing  to  learn  "how  much  was  left  untaught. 
In  the  sixteenth  century,  in  the  schools.  Geog- 
raphy and  history  were  entirely  omitted  in  every 
scheme  of  instruction,  mathematics  played  but  a 
subordinate  part,  while  not  a  thouglit  was  be- 
stowed either  upon  natural  phiUxsophy  or  natural 
history  Every  moment  and  every  effort  were 
given  to  the  classical  languages,  chielly  to  the 
Latin.  But  we  should  be  overhasty,  should  we 
conclude,  witliout  further  inquiry,  tliat  these 
branches,  tliu  ..  .'glected  in  the  .scliools,  were  tliere- 
fore  every  where  luitaught.  Perhaps  they  were 
reserved  for  the  university  alone,  and  there,  too, 
for  the  professors  of  the  pliilosophical  faculty, 
as  is  the  case  even  at  the  present  day  witli  natu- 
ral philo.sophy  and  natural  history;  nay,  logic, 
which  was  a  regular  scliool  study  in  tlie  six- 
tcenth  century,  is,  in  our  day,  widely  cultivated 
at  the  university.  We  must,  therefore,  in  order 
to  form  a,  just  judgment  upon  the  range  of  sub- 
jects taught  in  the  sixtecntli  century,  as  well  as 
upon  the  methods  of  instruction,  lirst  cast  a 
glance  at  the  state  of  the  universities  of  that 
period,  especially  in  the  philosophical  faculties. 
A  prominent  source  of  information  on  this  point 
is  to  be  found  in  the  statutes  of  the  University 
of  Wittenberg,  revised  by  Melancthon,  in  the 
year  1545.  The  tlieological  faculty  appears,  by 
these  statutes,  to  have  consisted  of  four  profes- 
sors, who  read  lectures  on  tlie  Old  and  New 
Testaments, —  chietiy  on  the  Psalms,  Genesis, 
Isaiali,  the  Gospel  of  John,  end  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  They  also  taught  dogmatics,  com-, 
menting  upon  the  Nicene  jreed  and  Augustine's 
book,  '  De  spiritu  et  litera.'  The  Wittenberg 
lecture  schedide  for  the  year  1561,  is  to  tlie  same 
efifcct;  only  we  have  here,  besides  exegesis  and 
dogmatics,  catechetics  likewise.  According  to 
the  statutes,  the  philosophical  faculty  was  com- 
posed of  ten  professors.  The  lirst  was  to  read 
upon  logic  and  rhetoric ;  the  second,  upon  phys- 
ics, and  the  second  book  of  Pliny's  natural  his- 
tory ;  the  third,  upon  arithmetic  and  the  '  Sphere ' 
of  John  de  Sacro  Busto ;  the  fourth,  upon  Euclid, 
the  'TheoriiB  Planetarum'  of  Burbach,  and 
Ptolemy's  'Almagest';  the  fiftn  and  sixth,  upon 
the  Latin  poets  and  Cicero  •  tlie  seventh,  who  was 
the  '  Pedagogus,'  explained  to  the  younger  class, 
Latin  Grnii..nar,  Linacer  'de  emendata  structuia 
L'ltini  sermonis,'  Terence,  and  .some  of  Plautus; 
the  eiglith,  who  was  the  'Physicus,'  explained 
Aristotle's  '  Physics  and  Diostujrides ' ;  the  nintii 
gave  instruction  in  Hebrew;  and  tlie  tenth  re- 
viewed thi;  Greek  Graniinar,  read  lectures  on 
Greek  Classics  at  intervals,  also  on  one  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistles,  and,  at  tlie  same  time,  on  ethics. 
.  .  .  Thus  the  philoso])liical  faculty  ajipears  to 
have  been  the  most  fully  .^presented  at  Wit- 
tenberg, as  it  included  ten  professors,  while 
the  theological  had  but  four,  the*  medical  but 
three.  .      .  We  have  a  .  .  .  criterion  by  which 


to  judge  of  the  limited  nature  of  the  studies  of 
that  peri(xl,  as  compared  with  the  wide  field 
which  they  cover  at  the  present  day,  in  the  then 
almost  total  lack  of  academical  apparatus  and 
(Miuipinents.  The  only  exception  was  to  be 
found  in  tlie  case  of  libraries;  but,  liow  meager 
and  insudlcient  all  collections  of  books  must  have 
been  at  that  time,  when  books  were  few  in  num- 
ber and  very  costly,  will  ajipear  from  the  fiiiKl, 
for  example,  which  was  assigned  to  the  Witten- 
berg library;  it  yielded  annually  but  one  hun- 
dred gulden,  (about  $03,)  witli  which,  '  for  tlio 
profit  of  the  university  and  chiefly  of  the  poorer 
students  therein,  the  library  may  be  adorned  and 
enriched  with  books  in  all  the  faculties  and  in 
every  art,  as  well  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
tongues.'  Of  other  apparatus,  such  as  collec- 
tions in  natural  history,  anatomical  museums, 
botanical  gardens,  and  the  like,  we  find  no  men- 
tion ;  and  the  less,  inasmuch  as  there  was  no 
need  of  them  in  elucidation  of  sucli  lectures  as 
the  professors  ordinarily  gave.  When  Paul 
Eber,  the  theologian,  read  lectures  upon  anat- 
omy, he  made  no  use  of  dis.sectiou. " — K.  von 
Haiimer,  UniverHtief  in  the  Sixteenth  Century 
(Barnard's  Am.  Journal  of  Education,  v.  5,  pp. 
535-540).— Luther  and  the  Schools.— "  Luther 
.  .  .  felt  that,  to  streugt.ieu  the  Reformation,  it 
was  requisite  to  work  on  the  young,  to  improve 
the  schools,  and  to  propagi'te  throughout  Chris- 
tendom the  knowledge  necessary  for  a  profound 
study  of  the  holy  Scriptures.  'Tiiis,  accordingly, 
was  one  of  the  objects  of  his  life.  lie  saw  it  in 
particular  at  the  period  which  we  have  reached, 
and  wrote  to  the  councillors  of  all  the  cities  o.' 
Germany,  calling  upon  them  to  found  Christian 
schools.  'Dear  sirs,'  said  he,  'we  annually  ex- 
pend so  much  money  on  arquebuses,  roads,  and 
dikes;  why  should  we  not  spend  a  little  to  give 
one  or  two  schoolmasters  to  our  poor  childrent 
God  stands  at  the  door,  and  knocks ;  blessed  are 
we  if  we  open  to  him.  Now  the  word  of  God 
abounds.  O  my  dear  Germans,  buy,  buy,  while 
the  market  is  open  before  your  houses.  .  .  . 
Busy  yourselves  with  the  children,'  continues 
Luther,  .stilladdressingthemagistrates;  'fomiany 
parents  are  lilte  ostriches;  they  are  hardened  to- 
wards their  little  ones,  and  satisfied  with  having 
laid  tlie  egg,  they  care  nothing  for  it  afterwards. 
The  prosperity  of  a  city  does  not  consist  merely  in 
heaping  up  great  treasures,  in  building  strong 
walls,  in  erecting  splendid  mansions,  in  possess- 
ing glittering  arms.  If  madmen  fall  upon  it,  its 
ruin  will  only  be  the  greater.  '.;'lie  true  wealth 
of  a  city,  its  safety,  and  its  strength,  is  to  have 
many  learned,  serious,  worthy,  well-educated 
citizens.  And  whom  must  we  blame  because 
there  are  so  few  at  present,  except  you  magis- 
trates, who  have  allowed  our  youth  to  grow  up 
like  trees  in  a  forest? '  Luther  jjiirticiilarly  in- 
sisted on  tlie  necessity  of  studying  literature  and 
languages:  '  What  use  is  there,  it  may  be  asked, 
in  learning  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew?  We  can 
read  the  Bible  very  well  in  German.  Without 
languages,' replies  hu,  'we  could  not  have  re- 
ceived the  gospel.  .  .  .  Languages  are  the  scab- 
bard that  c^iiitains  the  sword  of  the  Spirit ;  tliey 
are  the  casket  that  guards  the  jewels ;  they  arc 
the  vessel  that  holds  the  wine;  and  as  the  gospel 
says,  they  are  the  baskets  in  whieli  the  loaves 
and  fishes  arc  kept  to  feed  the  multitude.  If  we 
neglect  the  languages,  we  shall  not  only  eventu- 
ally lose  the  gospel,  but  be  unable  to  speak  or 


704 


EDUCATION. 


trethren  of 
the  Common  Lot. 


EDUCATION. 


write  In  Latin  or  in  Qorniiui.  No  sooner  did  luou 
cease  to  cultivate  tlicni  tlinn  Cliristendoni  de- 
clined, even  until  it  foil  under  the  power  of  the 
pope.  IJut  now  that  languaKe.s  are  again  honored, 
they  shed  such  light  that  all  the  world  is  aston- 
ished, and  every  one  is  forced  to  acknowledge  that 
our  gospel  is  almost  us  pure  as  that  of  the  apos- 
tles themselves.  In  former  times  the  holy  fathers 
were  fre((uently  mistaken,  bei';iu.se  they  were 
ignorant  of  languages.  ...  If  the  languages 
had  not  made  me  positive  us  to  the  meaning  of 
the  word,  I  might  have  been  a  pious  monk,  and 
quietly  preached  the  truth  in  llie  obscurity  of  tlie 
cloister;  but  I  should  have  left  the  pope,  the 
sophists,  and  their  antichristian  empire  still  un- 
shaken."— J.  II.  Merle  d'Aubigne,  JfiKt.  of  the 
lieforiiuitioii  of  the  10</t  Century,  hk.  10,  ch.  0(i'.  !!). 
— Lutlier,  in  his  appeal  to  tlie  municipal  magis- 
trates of  Germany,  calls  for  the  organization  of 
common  schools  to  be  supported  at  public  cost. 
"Finally,  he  give°  his  thought  to  the  means  of  re- 
cruiting the  teaching  service.  '  Since  the  greatest 
■evil  in  every  place  is  the  lack  of  teachers,  we  must 
not  wait  till  they  come  forward  of  themselves ;  we 
must  take  the  trouble  to  educate  them  and  pre- 
pare them.'  To  this  end  Luther  keeps  the  best 
of  the  pup""  boys  and  girls,  for  a  longer  time 
in  school;  g  ves  them  special  instructors,  and 
•opens  libraries  for  their  use.  In  liis  thouglit  he 
never  distinguislies  women  teacliers  from  men 
ieachers;  he  wants  schools  for  girls  as  well  as 
for  boys.  Only,  not  to  biirden  parents  and 
<liven  children  from  their  daily  lubor,  he  re- 
quires but  little  time  for  seliool  duties.  .  .  . 
'  My  opinion  is  [he  says]  tliat  we  must  send  the 
■boys  to  school  one  or  two  hours  a  dav ,  and  have 
tliem  learn  a  trade  at  home  for  the  rest  of  the 
time.  It  is  desirable  that  th'jse  two  occupations 
march  side  by  side.'.  .  .  JjUther  gives  the  lirst 
jilace  to  the  teaching  of  religion :  '  Is  it  not  reason- 
able that  every  Christian  sho\dd  know  the  Gospel 
at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten?'  Then  come  the  lan- 
guages, not,  as  might  be  hoped,  the  mother 
tongue,  but  the  learned  languages,  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  Luiher  had  not  yet  been  sufliciently 
Tid  of  the  old  spirit  to  comprehend  that  the 
language  of  the  people  ought  to  bo  the  basis  of 
universal  instruction.  He  loft  to  Comenius  tlie 
glory  of  making  the  linal  separation  of  the 
primary  school  from  the  Latin  school.  .  .  . 
Physical  exercises  are  not  forgotten  in  Luther's 
pedagogical  regulations.  But  I'e  attaches  an 
especial  importance  to  singing.  '  Unless  a  school- 
master know  how  to  sing,  I  think  him  of  no  ac- 
count.' '  Music,'  he  says  again,  '  is  a  half  disci- 
pline which  makes  men  more  indulgent  and 
niore  mild. '  At  tlie  same  time  that  he  extends 
the  programme  of  studies,  Luther  introduces  u 
new  spirit  into  methods.  He  wishes  more  lib- 
erty and  more  joy  in  the  school.  '  Solomon,'  he 
says,  '  is  u  truly  royal  schoolmaster.  He  does 
not,  like  the  monks,  forbid  the  young  tc  go  into 
the  world  and  be  happy.  Even  as  Anselm  said : 
"  A  young  man  turned  aside  Trom  the  world  is 
like  a  young  tree  made  to  grow  in  a  vase. "  The 
monks  have  imprisoned  young  men  like  birds  in 
their  cage,  it  is  dangerous  to  isolate  the  young. ' 
...  Do  not  let  ourselves  imagine,  however,  that 
Luther  at  once  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on 
the  current  educatioiuof  his  day,  A  few  schools 
were  founded,  called  writing  schools;  but  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  other  events,  interruiited 
the  niovemeut  of  which  Luther  has  the  honor  of 


i.aving  been  the  originator.  ...  In  the  first  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  Paticii,  a  German, 
and  Comenius,  u  Slave,  were,  with  very  diller- 
ent  degrees  of  merit,  the  heirs  of  the  educational 
thought  of  Luther.  With  something  of  the 
eharlatan  and  the  demagogue,  Uatich  devoted 
his  life  to  propagating  a  novel  art  of  teaching, 
wliich  he  called  didactics,  and  to  wliich  he  at- 
tributed marvels.  He  pretended,  by  his  method 
of  languages,  to  teach  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  in  six  montlis.  But  nevertheless,  out  of 
many  strange  perfonnai'.ces  and  lofty  promises, 
there  i.ssue  some  thoughts  of  practical  value. 
The  tirst  merit  ol  Uatich  was  to  give  the  mother 
tongue,  the  German  language,  the  precedence 
over  the  ancient  languages." — G.  Compavre, 
Ttu:  Hint.  ofl'c(Uifjoffi/.'ch.  «  (sect.  130-134). 

Netherlands. — "  When  learning  began  to  re- 
vive after  the  long  sleep  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
Italy  experienced  the  first  impulse.  Next  camo 
Germany  and  t  he  conti{;uous  provinces  of  the  Low 
Countries.  The  force  of  the  movement  in  these 
regions  is  .shown  by  an  event  of  groat  import- 
ance, not  always  noticed  by  historians.  In  1400, 
tliere  was  established  at  Deventer,  in  the  north- 
eastern iirovince  of  the  Netherlands,  an  associa- 
tion or  brotherliood,  usually  called  Brethren  of 
the  Life  in  Common  [s('e  Bii'vninuN  op  the 
C0M.M0N  Lot].  In  their  strict  lives,  partial  com- 
munity of  goods,  iiulustry  in  manual  labor,  fer- 
vent devotion,  and  tendency  to  mj'stieism,  they 
bore  some  resemblance  to  the  modern  Jloravians. 
But  they  wore  strikingly  distinguished  from  the 
members  of  tliis  sect  by  their  earnest  cultivation  of 
knowledge,  which  was  encouraged  among  them- 
selves and  promoted  among  others  by  schools, 
both  for  primary  and  advanced  education.  In 
1430,  the  Brethren  had  established  forty-flve 
branches,  and  by  1400  more  than  thrice  that 
number.  They  wore  scattered  through  different 
parts  of  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries,  each 
with  its  school  subordinate  to  tlie  head  college 
at  Deventer.  It  was  in  these  schools,  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  that  a  few  Ger- 
mans and  Netherlanders  were,  as  Hallam  says, 
roused  to  acquire  that  extensive  knowledge  of 
the  ancient  languages  which  Italy  as  yet  exclu- 
sively possessed.  Their  names  should  never  be 
omitted  in  any  remombra  jce  of  the  revival  of 
letters ;  for  great  was  their  influence  upon  sub- 
sequent times.  Chief  among  these  men  were 
Wessels,  of  Groningon,  'one  of  those  who  con- 
tributed most  steadily  to  tlie  purification  of  re- 
ligion ' ;  Ilegius  of  Deventer,  under  whom  Eras- 
mus obtained  his  early  education,  and  who 
probably  was  the  first  man  to  print  Greek  north 
of  the  Alps;  Dringeberg,  who  founded  a  good 
school  in  Alsace;  and  Longius.  who  presided 
over  one  at  JIunster.  Thanks  to  tlic  influence  of 
tlicse  pioneers  in  learning,  education  had  made 
great  progress  among  the  Netherlanders  by  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  .  .  .  We  have 
the  testimony  of  the  Italian  Guicciardini  to  the 
fact  tliat  before  tlie  outbrealc  of  tlie  war  with 
Spain  oven  tlie  peasants  in  Holland  could  road 
and  write  well.  As  the  war  went  on,  the  people 
showed  their  determination  tliat  in  this  matter 
there  should  be  no  retrogression.  In  the  first 
Synod  of  Dort,  held  in  1574,  tlie  clergy  expressed 
their  opinion  upon  the  subject  by  passing  a  reso- 
lution or  ordinance  which,  among  otllor  things, 
directed  ' the  servants  of  the  Church'  to  obtain 
from  the  magistrates  in  every  locality  a  pcnnis- 


705 


EDUCATION. 


The  Univertity 
of  Leytlen, 


EDUCATION. 


sion  for  the  Appointment  of  schoolmnsterg,  und 
(in  (irdcr  for  tlicir  eompenwitlon  iis  in  tlic  past. 
B«'f()rt'  many  yciirs  Imd  eliipscd  tlie  civil  uiitliori- 
tics  l)('j;iiii  to  establish  a  general  Bchool  sy:item 
for  the  country  In  1582,  the  Estati's  of  Friea- 
Iiind  decreed  tiiiit  the  iidialiitants  of  towns  and 
villaKes  snonld,  within  tlio  Bpaeo  of  six  weeits, 
provide  good  and  able  Uefornied  scliooiniastors, 
und  those  wlio  neglected  so  to  do  would  be  com- 
pelled to  accept  the  instructors  appointed  for 
tliem.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  beginnln"  of 
the  supervision  of  education  by  tin;  State,  a 
system  which  soon  spread  over  tlio  whole  repub- 
lic. In  these  schools,  however,  alth  ii;li  they 
were  fostered  by  tlio  State,  the  teachei  ^  seem,  in 
the  main,  to  have  been  paid  by  their  pupils. 
But  ns  years  went  on,  a  change  came  al)out  in 
this  [tart  of  the  system.  It  jirobably  was  aided 
by  the  noteworthy  letter  which  Jolin  of  Nassau, 
the  oldest  brother  of  William  the  Silent,  the 
noble  veteian  who  lived  luitil  1000,  wrote  to  his 
son  Lewis  William,  Stadtholder  of  Friesland. 
In  this  letter,  wliich  is  wortliy  of  a  place  on  tlie 
walls  of  every  sclioolhouse  in  America,  the  gal- 
lant young  Btadt-holdcr  is  instructed  to  ui  ge  on 
the  States-General  'that  they,  according  to  the 
example  of  the  pope  and  Jesuits,  shouUl  cstablisli 
free  schools,  where  children  of  (luality  as  well  as 
of  poor  families,  for  a  very  small  sum,  could  bo 
well  and  christianly  educated  and  brouglil  up. 
This  would  be  the  greatest  and  most  useful 
work,  anil  the  liigliest  service  that  you  could 
ever  accomplisli  for  God  and  Christianity,  and 
especially  for  the  Netherlands  themselves.  .  .  . 
In  sui.ima,  one  may  jeer  at  this  as  popisli  tricli- 
ery,  and  undervalue  it  as  ono  will:  there  still 
remains  in  tlic  work  an  inexpressible  benefit. 
Soldiers  and  patriots  thus  educated,  with  a  true 
knowledge  of  God  and  a  Cl'ristian  conscience, 
item,  churches  and  schoo  s,  good  libraries,  books, 
und  printing-presses,  arc  better  tlian  all  armies, 
arsenals,  armories,  munitions,  alliances,  and  trea- 
ties that  can  be  hai!  ■  r  imagimd  in  the  world.' 
Such  were  the  worda  ii  v/Iiich  the  Patriarch  of 
the  Nass-tus  urged  upon  liis  countrymen  a  com- 
mon-school system.  In  liiOO,  when  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  took  up  their  residence  in  Leyden,  tlie 
school  hail  become  the  common  property  of  the 
people,  and  was  paid  for  among  other  municipal 
expenses.  It  was  a  land  of  schools  supported 
by  the  St8.to  —  a  land,  dc  cording  to  Motl.'y, 
'  where  every  child  went  to  school,  where  almost 
every  individual  inhabitant  could  write  and  read, 
where  even  the  middle  classes  were  proficient  in 
mathematics  and  the  claasics,  and  could  speak 
two  or  more  modern  languages. '  Does  any  reader 
now  ask  whence  the  settlers  of  Plymouth,  who 
came  directly  from  Holland,  and  the  other  set- 
tlers of  New  England  whose  Puritan  brethren 
were  to  be  found  in  thousands  throughout  the 
Dutch  Hcpublic,  derived  their  ideas  of  schools 
first  directid,  and  then  impported  by  the  State." 
— Leyden  University. — To  commemorate  the  de- 
liverance of  Leyden  from  the  Spanish  siege  in 
1574  (see  Netherlands;  A.  D.  1573-1574),  "and 
as  a  reward  fur  the  heroism  of  the  citizens,  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  with  the  consent  of  the  Es- 
tates of  the  provinrj,  founded  tlie  University  of 
Leyden.  Still,  the  figment  of  allegiance^  re- 
mained; the  people  were  only  fighting  for  their 
constitutional  rights,  and  so  were  doing  tlieirduty 
to  the  sovereign.  Hence  the  charter  of  the  uni- 
versity ran  in  the  name  of  Philip,   who  was 


credited  with  its  foundation,  as  a  reward  to  his 
subjects  for  their  reliellion  against  his  evil  eoiin- 
sellors  and  servants,  'especially  in  consideration 
of  the  dilTereiiees  of  religion,  and  the  great  bur- 
dens and  hardships  Iiorno  by  the  citizens  of  our 
city  of  Leyden  during  the  war  with  sucli  faith- 
fulness.' Motley  calls  this  'ponderous  irony,' 
but  tlie  Hollanders  were  able  lawyers  and  in- 
tended to  build  on  n  legal  basis.  This  event 
marks  an  epocli  in  the  intellectual  history  of 
Holland  and  of  the  world.  .  .  .  The  new  univer- 
sity was  opened  in  1575,  and  from  the  outset, 
took  the  highest  rank.  "■  aking,  a  few  years 
ago,  of  its  famous  senaie  chamlier,  Niebulir 
called  it  'the  nio.st  memorable  room  of  Europe 
in  the  history  of  learning.'  The  first  curator 
was  John  Van  der  Does,  who  had  been  military 
commandant  of  the  city  during  the  siege,  lie 
was  of  u  distinguished  family,  but  was  still 
more  distinguislied  for  his  learning,  his  poetical 
genius,  and  his  valor.  Endowed  with  ample 
funds,  tlio  university  largely  owed  its  marked 
pre-eminence  to  the  intelligent  foresiglit  und  wise 
munificence  of  its  curators.  Tliey  sought  out 
and  obtained  tlio  most  distinguislied  scholars  of 
all  nations,  and  to  this  end  spared  neither  iiuius 
nor  expense.  Diplomatic  negotiation  and  even 
princely  mediation  were  often  culled  in  for  the 
ucquisition  of  a  professor.  Hence  it  was  said 
tliat  it  surpassed  all  the  universities  of  Europe 
in  the  number  of  its  scliolars  of  renown.  These 
scholars  wer.!  treated  witli  princely  honors.  .  .  . 
Tlio  'mech.nicais'of  Holland,  as  Elizabeth  called 
them,  may  not  have  paid  the  aeeustomed  wor- 
sliip  to  rank,  but  to  genius  and  learning  they 
were  always  willing  to  do  homage.  Space  would 
fail  for  even  a  brief  account  of  the  great  men, 
foreign  and  native,  who  illuminated  Leyden  with 
tlieir  presence.  .  .  .  But  it  was  not  alone  in 
scholursiiip  and  in  scientific  researcli  that  the 
University  of  Leyden  gave  an  impetus  to  modem 
thought.  Theological  disputes  were  developed 
there  at  times,  little  tempests  wliicli  threatened 
destruction  to  the  institution,  but  they  were  of 
short  duration.  Tlie  right  of  conscience  was 
always  r"spected,  and  in  tlie  main  the  right  of 
full  and  public  discussion.  .  .  .  When  it  was 
settled  that  dissenters  could  not  be  educated  in 
the  English  universities,  th^y  fiocked  to  Leyden 
in  great  numbers,  making  tliat  city,  next  to 
Edinburgli,  their  cliief  resort.  Eleven  years 
after  the  opening  of  tlie  University  of  Leyden, 
tlie  Estates  of  democratic  Friesland,  amid  the 
din  of  war,  founded  the  University  of  Franekcr, 
an  institution  wliicli  was  to  become  famous  us 
the  hiine  of  Arminius.  .  .  .  Both  of  these  uni- 
VI  isities  were  iierpetuuliy  endowed  with  the 
proceeds  of  the  ecclesiastical  property  wliicli  liad 
been  confiscated  during  tlie  progress  of  the  war." 
— D.  Campbell,  The  Puritan  in  IloUaml,  Eng- 
land, and  AmeriM,  eh.  3,  20,  and  3. 

England. — "In  contemplating  the  events  of 
the  fifteenth  anil  sixteenth  centuries,  in  their  in- 
fluence on  Englisli  civilisation,  we  are  reminded 
once  more  of  tlie  futility  of  certain  modern 
aspirations.  No  amount  of  University  Commis- 
sions, nor  of  well-meant  reforms,  will  change 
the  nature  of  Englislimeu.  It  is  impossible,  by 
distributions  of  University  prizes  i>nd  professor- 
ships, to  attract  into  tlie  career  of  letters  that 
proportion  of  industry  and  ingenuity  -^hich,  in 
Germany  for  example,  is  devoted  to  the  scho- 
lastic life     Politics,  trade,  law,  snort,  religion. 


706 


EDUCATION. 


rnhlanil 
St.  I'aul'H  School. 


EDUCATION. 


will  claim  their  own  in  Knglnnd,  just  (is  they  ili(i 
lit  the  Uevivnl  of  Letters,  The  illustrious  cen- 
tury wliich  Italy  cnii)l()ye(l  in  unburyinj?,  appro- 
priating, and  enjoying'  the  treasures  of  Greek 
literature  and  art,  our  fathers  gave,  in  Kngland, 
U>  dynastic  and  constitutional  sciuabhles,  and  to 
religious  broils.  The  Henaissanee  in  England, 
and  chiefly  in  O.xford,  was  like  a  hitter  ami 
changeful  spring.  Th"re  was  an  liour  of  genial 
warmth,  there  breathed  a  wind  from  the  south, 
in  the  lifetime  of  Chaucer;  then  came  frosts  and 
storms;  again  the  brief  sunshine  of  court  favour 
shone  on  iiteratviro  for  a  wliile,  wlien  Henry 
VIII,  encouraged  study,  and  Wolsey  and  Fox- 
founded  Cliri-st  (;hureli  and  Corpus  Chrisli  Col- 
lege, once  more  the  had  days  of  religious  strife 
returned,  and  the  promise  of  learning  was  de- 
stroyed. Thus  the  chief  result  of  the  awakening 
tliought  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  England 
was  not  ft  lively  delight  in  literature,  but  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Lollards.  The  intensely  ])rac- 
tical  genius  of  our  race  turned,  not  to  letters, 
but  to  (luestiona  about  tlie  soul  and  its  future, 
about  i)roperty  and  its  distribution.  The  Lol- 
lards were  put  down  in  O.xford;  'the  tares  were 
weeded  out'  by  the  House  of  Lancaster,  and  in 
the  process  the  germs  of  free  tliought,  of  origin- 
ality, and  of  a  rational  education,  were  de- 
stroyed. 'Wyclevism  did  domineer  among  us,' 
Bays  Wood ;  and,  in  fact,  the  intellect  of  the  Uni- 
versity was  absorbed,  like  the  intellect  of  France 
during  tlie  lieut  of  tlie  Jansenist  controversy,  in 
defending  or  assailing  '267  damned  conclusions,' 
drawn  from  the  books  of  Wyclife.  Tlic  Uinver- 
sity  '  lost  many  of  her  children  thrjugh  the  pro- 
fession of  Wyclevism.'" — A.  Lang,  Oxford,  ch.  3. 
— Colet  and  St.  Paul's  School.— Dr.  John  Colet, 
appointed  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  in  1505,  "resolved, 
whilst  living  and  in  health,  to  devote  his  patri- 
monj'  to  tlie  foundation  of  a  school  in  St.  Paul's 
Churchyard,  wherein  153  children,  without  any 
restriction  as  to  nation  or  country,  who  could 
already  read  and  write,  and  were  of  'good  parts 
and  capacities,'  should  receive  a  sound  Cliristian 
education.  The  'Latin  adulterate,  which  igno- 
rant blind  fools  brought  into  this  world,'  poison- 
ing thereby  '  the  oid  Latin  speecli,  and  the  very 
Roman  tongue  used  in  the  time  of  Tully  and 
Sallust,  aiul  Virgil  and  Terence,  and  learned  by 
St.  Jerome,  St.  Ambrose,  and  St.  Augustine,' — 
all  that  'abusion  which  the  later  blind  world 
brought  in,  and  which  niiiy  rather  be  called 
Blotteraturu  than  Literature, ' —  should  be  '  utter- 
ly abanished  and  excluded '  oat  of  this  school. 
The  children  should  be  taught  good  litemture, 
both  Latin  and  Greek,  '  such  authors  that  have 
with  wisdom  joined  pure  chaste  eloiiuence' — 
'specially  Christian  authors  who  wrote  their 
wisdom  in  clean  and  chaste  Latin,  whether  in 
prose  or  verse ;  for,' said  Colet,  '  my  intent  is  by 
this  school  specially  to  increase  knowledge,  and 
worshipping  of  God  and  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  good  Christian  life  and  manners  in  the  chil- 
dren.'. .  .  Tiie  building  consisted  of  one  large 
room,  divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  school  by 
a  curtain,  which  could  be  drawn  at  pleasure, 
and  the  charge  of  the  two  schools  devolved  upon 
a  high-master  and  a  sub-master  respectively. 
The  forms  were  arranged  so  as  each  to  seat  si,\- 
teen  boys,  and  were  provided  each  with  a  raised 
desk,  at  which  the  head-boy  sat  as  president. 
The  building  also  embraced  an  entrance-porch 
and  a  little  chapel  for  divine  service.    Dwelling- 


houses  were  erected,  adjoining  the  school,  for 
the  residence  of  tlie  two  masters;  and  for  their 
support,  Colet  obtained,  in  the  spring  of  1510,  a 
royal  license  to  transfer  to  the  Wardens  and 
Guild  of  .Mercers  in  London,  real  jiroperty  to  the 
value  (if  t,'.")3  per  annum  (('(|uivalerit  to  at  least 
£530 of  jiresent  money).  Of  tli';*  the  head-master 
was  to  receive  as  his  .salary  £35  (say  t'350)  and 
tli(!  under-master  t'lH  (say  £180)  per  annum. 
Three  or  four  years  after,  Colet  niaih;  provision 
for  a  chaplain  to  conduet  divine  service  in  the 
chapel,  and  to  instruct  the  children  in  the  Cate- 
chism, the  Articles  of  the  faith,  and  XXw.  Teu 
(,'ommandmeiits, —  in  Luglish;  and  ultimately, 
before  his  death,  he  appears  to  have  iiicreaseil 
the  amount  of  the  whole  endowment  to  £1'J3 
(say  £1,'JOO)  per  annum.  So  that  it  may  lie  con- 
sidered, roughly,  that  the  wholi^  endownieiit,  in- 
eluding  the  buildings,  cannot  have  rejiresented 
ft  less  sum  than  £30,000  or  £40,000  of  present 
money.  And  if  Colet  thus  sacriticed  so  much 
of  his  private  fortune  to  secure  a  liberal  (and  it 
must  be  conceded  Ills  was  a  liberal)  provision  for 
tlie  remuneration  of  the  masters  wlioslio\dd  edu- 
cate his  153  boys,  he  must  surely  have  had  deeply 
at  heart  the  welfare  of  the  "boys  themselves. 
And,  in  truth,  it  was  so.  Colet  was  like  a 
father  to  his  sclioolboys.  ...  It  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  he  should  find  the  school- 
books  of  the  old  grammarians  in  any  way  adapt- 
ed to  his  i)urpo.se.  So  at  once  ho  set  his  learned 
friends  to  work  to  provide  him  with  new  ones. 
The  lirst  thing  wanted  was  a  Latin  Grammar 
for  beginners,  i.inaere  undertook  to  provide 
this  want,  and  wrote  with  great  pains  and 
labour,  a  work  in  six  books,  whicli  afterwards 
came  into  general  use.  But  when  Colet  saw 
it,  at  the  risk  of  displeasing  his  friend,  he  put 
it  altogether  aside.  It  was  too  long  and  too 
learned  for  his  'little  beginners.'  So  ho  con- 
densed within  the  eompa.ss  of  ft  few  pages  two 
little  treatises,  an  'Accidence'  and  a  'Syntax,' 
in  the  preface  to  the  first  of  which  occur  the 
gentle  words  quoted  above.  These  little  books, 
after  receiving  additions  from  the  hands  of  Eras- 
mus, Lilly,  and  others,  flnally  became  generally 
adopted  and  known  as  Lilly  s  Gramma'-.  This 
rejection  of  his  Grammar  seems  to  have  h:on  a 
sore  point  witli  Liiiacre,  but  Erasmus  told  Colet 
not  to  be  too  much  concerned  about  it.  .  .  . 
Erasmus,  in  the  same  letter  in  which  he  spoke  of 
Linacre's  rejected  Grammar  .  .  .  put  on  paper 
Ills  notions  of  what  a  sehoolmaster  ought  to  be, 
ond  the  best  method  of  teaching  boys,  which  ho 
fancied  Colet  might  not  altogether  approve,  as 
he  was  wont  somewhat  more  to  despise  rheto- 
ric than  Erasmus  did.  He  stated  his  opinion 
that — '  In  order  that  tlie  te.ieher  might  be  thor- 
oi'.ghly  up  to  his  work,  he  shouU'  not  merely  bo 
a  master  of  one  particular  branch  of  study.  He 
should  himself  have  travelled  through  the  whole 
circle  of  knowledge.  In  philosophy  lie  should 
have  studied  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Theophrastus 
and  Plotinus;  in  Theology  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
and  after  them  Origeu,  Chrysostom,  ami  Basil 
among  the  Greek  fathers,  and  Amtirose  and  Je- 
rome among  the  Latin  fathers;  amon.g  the  poets, 
Ilomei  and  Ovid;  in  geography,  which  is  very 
important  in  the  study  of  history,  Pomponius 
Mela,  Ptolemy,  Pliny,  Strabo.  He  should  know 
what  ancient  names  of  rivers,  mountains,  coun- 
tries, cities,  answer  to  the  modern  ones ;  and  the 
same  of  trees,  animals,  instruments,  clothes,  and 


707 


BDUCATFON. 


The  Jetult  TeacKert. 


EDUCATrON. 


Kcms,  Willi  rcffiird  to  wliicli  It  Is  incrt'dlldp  liow 
rgnoriiiil  I'vcn  ('iliicittcil  nun  iiir.  lie  Hhould  take 
jiDto  of  little  factH  iiboiil  ajfrieultiiri',  arcliite(!t- 
ure.  luilitary  and  niliiiary  arts.  iiicntiDiicd  by 
<II(Ti;r('iil  autliors.  lie  should  lie  ul)lo  to  Iriiec 
the  orijfifi  of  words,  their  ffradiial  eorruptioii  in 
the  laM^iiaKes  of  ('onstantiiiople,  Italy,  Spain, 
and  Franee.  Nothing  Hliould  l)e  beneath  his  ob- 
Hervation  whieh  eiin  illustrate  history  or  the 
ineaninfj  of  tlie  poets.  But  you  will  say  what 
u  loud  you  are  puttini?  on  the  back  of  the 
poor  teacher!  Ittsso;  but  I  burden  Ine  one  to 
relieve  the  many.  I  want  the  teaeher  to  have 
traversed  the  wliole  range  of  knowledge,  that  it 
may  spare  eaeh  of  his  sejiolars  doing  it.  A  dili- 
gent and  thoroughly  competent  master  might 
give  boys  a  fair  i)rolleiency  in  both  Latin  and 
Greek,  in  a  shorter  time  and  with  less  labour 
than  the  common  run  of  pedagogues  take  to 
teach  their  babble.'  On  receipt  of  this  .  .  .  C'olet 
wroto  to  Erasmus:  .  .  .  '  "  What  I  I  shall  not  ap- 
prove!" So  you  say!  What  is  tlierc  of  Eras- 
imis's  that  I  do  not  approve?'" — V.  Seebohni, 
T/w.  Oj[f(»'il  Hc/oniicru,  cli.  0.  —  Ascham  and 
"The  Scholemaster."  —  Roger  Ascham,  thi^ 
friend  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  the  tutor  of  CJueen 
Elizabeth,  was  born  in  151.'),  and  died  in  IHOS. 
"  It  was  partly  with  the  view  to  the  instruction 
of  his  own  children,  that  he  commenced  the 
'  Scholo-mastcr,'  the  work  by  which  he  is  most  and 
best  known,  to  which  ho  did  not  live  to  set  the 
last  hand.  He  communicated  the  design  and 
import  of  the  book  in  a  letter  to  Sturmius,  in 
which  he  states,  that  not  being  able  to  leave  his 
sons  a  largo  fortune,  ho  was  resolved  to  provide 
them  with  a  preceptor,  not  one  to  bo  hired  for  a 
groat  sum  of  money,  but  marked  out  at  homo 
with  a  homely  pen.  In  the  same  letter  he  gives 
Ills  reasons  for  employing  the  English  language, 
the  capabilities  of  which  ho  clearly  perceived 
4ind  candidly  acknowledged,  a  high  virtue  for  a 
man  of  that  age,  who  perhaps  could  have  writ- 
ten Latin  to  his  own  satisfartion  much  more 
easily  than  his  native  tongue.  But  though  the 
benelit  of  his  own  offspring  might  be  his  ulti- 
mate object,  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  work 
was  a  conversation  at  Cecil's,  at  which  Sir  Uicli- 
.ard  Sackville  expressed  great  indignation  at  the 
severities  practiced  at  Eton  and  other  great 
schools,  so  that  boys  actually  ran  ivwa,"  for  fear 
of  merciless  flagellation.  This  led  to  the  general 
subject  of  school  discipline,  and  the  defects  in 
the  then  established  modes  of  tuition.  Ascham 
■coinciding  with  the  sentiments  of  the  company, 
.and  proceeding  to  explain  his  own  views  of  im- 
provement, Sackville  requested  'dm  to  commit 
his  opinions  to  paper  and  the  'Schole-master' 
was  the  result.  It  was  not  published  till  IGTO. 
.  .  .  We  .  .  .  quote  a  few  pass.iges,  which 
throw  light  upon  the  author's  good  sense  and  good 
nature.  To  nil  violent  coercion,  and  extreme 
punishment,  he  was  decidedly  opposed :  —  '  I  do 
agree,' says  he,  'wHhall  good  school-masters  in 
all  these  points,  to  liavo  children  brought  to  good 
pcrfcctness  in  learning,  to  all  lionesty  in  man- 
ners; to  have  all  faults  rightly  amended,  and 
every  vice  severely  corrected,  but  for  the  order 
and  way  that  leadeth  rightly  to  these  points,  we 
somewhat  dilfcr. '  '  Love  is  better  than  fear, 
gentleness  than  beating,  to  bring  up  a  child 
rightly  in  learning.'  'I  do  assure  you  there  is 
no  sucli  whetstone  to  sharpen  a  good  wit,  and 
encourage  a  will  to  learning,  as  is  praise. ' .  .  . 


'The  scholar  is  <'ommonly  boat  for  the  nniking, 
when  the  master  were  more  worthy  to  be  beat 
for  the  n\ending,  or  rather  marring,  of  the  same; 
the  mn.slcr  many  times  being  a.s  ignorant  as  the 
child  what  to  say  iiroiicrly  and  litly  to  the  nnit- 
ler.'.  .  .  'This  will  I  say,  that  even  the  wi.sest 
of  your  great  beaters  do  as  oft  punLsh  nature  as 
they  do  correct  faults.  Yea  many  times  the  bet- 
ter nature  is  the  sorer  punished.  For  if  one  by 
quickness  of  wit  take  his  l('s.soii  readily,  another 
by  hardness  of  wit  taketh  it  not  so  speedily;  the 
first  is  always  commenile<l,  the  other  is  com- 
monly pimishcd,  wiicn  a  wise  schoolmaster 
shouhl  rather  discreetly  consider  the  right  dispo- 
sition of  both  their  natures,  and  not  so  nuich 
weigh  what  either  of  tliem  is  able  to  do,  as  what 
cither  of  them  is  likely  to  do  hereafter.  For  this 
I  know,  not  only  by  reading  of  books  in  my 
study,  but  also  by  experience  of  life  abroad  in 
tho  world,  that  those  which  be  connucmly  the 
wisest,  the  best  learned,  and  best  men  also,  when 
they  bo  old,  were  never  commonly  tho  ([uickest 
of  wit  wlien  they  were  young.  Quick  wits 
commonly  be  apt  to  take,  unaiit  to  keep.  Some 
are  more  quick  to  laiter  speedily  than  bo  able 
to  pierc(!  far,  even  like  imto  oversharp  tools, 
whoso  edges  be  very  soon  turned. '  " —  H.  Cole- 
ridge, liiofiritphid  Boreitlh,  pji.  328-330. 

Jesuit  Teaching  and  Schools.— "  The  educa- 
tion of  youth  is  set  forth  in  the  Formula  of  Ap- 
I)roval  granted  by  Paul  III.  in  l'>W,"  to  the  phins 
of  Ignatius  Loyola  for  the  foundation  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesu.s,  "as  tho  fir.st  duty  embraced  by 
the  new  Institute.  .  .  .  Although  the  new  re- 
ligious were  not  at  once  able  to  begin  the  es- 
tablishment of  colleges,  yot  the  plan  of  those 
afterwards  founded,  was  gradually  ripening  in 
tho  sagacious  mind  of  St.  Ignatius,  wlio  looked 
to  these  institutions  us  calculated  to  oppose  the 
surest  bulwarks  against  the  progress  of  heresy. 
The  first  regular  college  of  tho  Society  was 
that  established  at  Gandia  in  l.')46,  through  the 
zeal  of  St.  Francis  Borgia,  third  General  of  the 
Society;  and  tho  regulations  by  which  it  was 
governed,  and  which  were  embodied  in  the  con- 
stitutions, were  oxtendcil  to  all  the  Jesuit  col- 
leges afterwards  founded.  Tho  studies  were  to 
include  theology,  both  positive  and  scholastic,  ns 
well  as  grammar,  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  philoso- 
phy. The  course  of  philosophy  was  to  last  three 
years,  that  of  theology  four;  and  tho  Professors 
of  Philosophy  .vr're  enjoined  to  treat  their  sub- 
ject in  such  a  way  as  to  dispose  the  mind  for  the 
study  of  theology,  instead  of  setting  up  faith 
and  reason  in  ojiposition  to  one  another.  The 
theology  of  St.  Thomas,  and  the  philosoi.hy  of 
Aristotle,  wero  to  be  followed,  except  on  those 
points  where  tne  teaching  of  the  latter  was  op- 
posed to  tho  Catholic  faith." — A.  T.  Driuie,  0km- 
tian  ScIwoIh  (iml  Sc/wlnis,  p.  708. — "  As  early  as  the 
middleof  the  sixteenth  century  .  .  .  [tho  Society 
of  Jesus]  had  several  colleges  in  France,  particu- 
larly those  of  Billom,  Mauriac,  Itodez,  Tournon, 
•md  Pamiers.  In  1561  it  secured  a  footing  in 
Paris,  notwithstanding  tlie  resista.'ce  of  the  Par- 
liament, of  tl  0  university,  and  of  tlie  bishops 
themselves.  A  4uindred  years  later  it  counted 
nearly  fourteen  thousand  jjupils  in  the  province 
of  Paris  alone.  The  college  of  Clermont,  in  1051, 
enrolled  more  than  two  thousand  young  men. 
Tho  mi.ldle  and  higher  ch'sses  assured  to  the  col- 
leges of  the  society  au  ever- increasing  member- 
ship.    At  the  end  of  tho  seventeenth  century. 


708 


KDUCATION. 


Schnoln  in  mnttprn 


EDUCATION. 


Ilic  Jesuits  rould  Inscribe  on  tlie  roll  of  lionor  of 
I  heir  rlass<'S  ii  liiiiiilred  illiiKtrious  imtiies,  amoii){ 
others  those  of  ('oii(h')aiul  Liixeniboiir);,  Flechier 
lUiil  IJossuet,  LamoiKiion  ami  Si'gwier,  l)eseartes, 
Coriieille.  iiiiil  MolifTc.  In  1710  t'ley  controlled 
«lx  hundred  and  twelve  collegcf  and  a  lar^e 
number  of  universities.  They  were  the  real 
masters  of  education,  and  they  niaintaiiie<l  this 
educational  supremacy  till  tin;  end  of  tln^  elgli- 
tei'uth  century.  Voltaire  wild  of  thesis  teachers: 
'  The  Fatherg  tauplit  me  nothlnji,'  hut  Latin  and 
nonsense.'  But  from  the  seventeenth  century, 
opinions  are  divided,  and  the  encondums  of 
Bacon  and  Di'seartes  must  he  ollset  by  the  Heverc 
judgment  of  Leibnitz.  '  In  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion,' says  this  great  phllosoi)hcr,  'the  Jesuits 
have  remained  lielow  mediocrity.'  Directly  to 
the  contrary,  Ba<'on  liad  written":  '  As  to  what- 
ever relates  to  the  instnietion  of  the  young,  we 
must  consult  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits,  for  there 
can  be  nothing  that  Is  better  done.' .  .  .  A  per- 
manent and  chnractorlstlc  feature  of  the  educa- 
tional policy  of  the  Jesuits  Is,  that,  during  the 
whole  course  of  their  history,  tlu:_,  liavc;  delib- 
erately neglected  and  disdained  primary  instruc- 
tion. The  enrtli  is  covered  with  their  Latin  col- 
leges; and  wherever  they  have  been  able,  they 
have  put  their  luind.s  on  the  Institutions  for  uni- 
versity education ;  l)ut  in  no  instance  liave  they 
foimded  a  primary  school.  Even  in  their  estab- 
1!  ihmcnt  for  secondary  instruction,  they  entrust 
.he  lower  classes  to  teachers  who  do  not  belong 
to  their  order,  and  reserve  to  tliemselvcs  the 
direction  of  the  higher  classes." — G.  Compayre, 
lli»t.  of  Peilaiioiiji,  pp.  141-143.— See,  also,  Jesu- 
its: A.  D.  1540-l,'),')e.— "The  Jesuits  owed  their 
success  partly  to  the  very  narrow  task  which  they 
set  tliemielves,  little  beyond  the  teaching  of 
Latin  style,  and  portly  to  the  careful  training 
which  tliey  gave  tlicir  students,  a  training  whicli 
often  degenerated  into  mere  mechanical  exercise. 
But  the  mainspring  of  their  inliuence  -.^us  tiie 
manner  in  wliicli  they  worked  the  dangerous 
force  of  emulation.  Those  pupils  wlio  were  most 
distinguislied  at  the  end  of  each  mortli  received 
the  rank  of  prretor,  censor,  and  decurion.  The 
class  was  divided  into  two  iiarts,  called  Romans 
and  Carthaginians,  Greeks  and  Trojans.  The 
students  sat  oppo.site  each  mi  Wn  master  in 
the  middle,  tlic  walls  were  huiij.  Alth  swords, 
spears  and  shields  winch  the  contending  parties 
carried  off  in  triumph  as  the  prize  of  victory, 
'riicse  pupils'  contests  wasted  a  great  deal  of 
time  The  Jesuits  established  public  school  fes- 
tivals, at  which  tlie  pupils  might  be  exhibited, 
and  the  parents  flattered.  They  made  their  own 
.school  books,  in  which  the  requirements  of  good 
teaching  were  not  so  important  as  th.  religious 
objects  of  the  order.  They  preferred  extracts 
to  ^^hole  authors;  if  they  could  not  prune  the 
classics  to  their  fancy  they  would  not  read  them 
at  all.  What  judgment  are  we  to  pass  on  the 
Jesuit  teaching  as  a  whole  V  It  deserves  praise 
on  two  accounts.  First,  it  maintained  the  (.'ignity 
of  literf  ture  in  an  age  whicli  was  too  liable  to  be 
influem  od  by  considei'ations  of  practical  utility. 
It  maintained  the  study  of  Greek  in  France  at  a 
higher  level  than  the  University,  and  resisted  the 
assaults  of  ignorant  parents  on  the  fortress;  of 
Hellenism.  Secondly,  it  seriously  set  itself  to 
understand  the  nature  and  character  of  the  indi- 
vidual pupil,  and  to  suit  the  manner  of  education 
to  the  mind  that  was  to  receive  it.     Whatever 


may  have  1 n  the  motives  of  Jesuits  in  gaining 

the  iilTections,  and  securing  the  devotion  of  the 
chlldn'ii  under  their  charge;  whether  their  de- 
sire was  to  develop  thi'  individuality  which  they 
probed,  or  to  destroy  it  in  its  germ,  and  plant  u 
new  nature  in  its  place;  it  must  lie  admitted  that 
the  loving  care  which  they  spent  upon  their 
charge  was  a  new  departure  in  education,  and 
has  become  a  Jiart  of  every  reasonable  sy.sleiu 
since  tlwir  time.  Here  our  praise  must  end. 
.  .  .  They  aniiisi  .i  the  mind  instead  of  strength- 
ening it.  They  occupied  in  frlvolilics  such  as 
Latin  verses  thI  years  wiiich  they  feared  might 
otherwise!  be  g.v<'ii  to  reasoning  and  the  ae(iui- 
sltlon  of  solid  knowledge.  .  .  .  ('elelirated  as 
the  Jesuit  schools  have  been,  thev  have  owed 
much  moTv  to  ihe  fashion  which  (llled  them  with 
promising  scholars,  than  to  their  own  excellence 
In  dealing  with  their  material.  .  .  .  They  have 
never  stood  the  test  of  modern  criticism.  They 
have  no  place  in  a  rational  system  of  modem 
education." — <).  Browning,  Iiitroit.  to  the  Hist. 
of  Ktlui'ntiDiKil  Thmricn,  eh.  8. 

Modern  :  European  Countries. 

Austria. — "  The  annual  approprle.tlona  passed 
l)y  Parliament  allow  t'  e  minister  of  public  in- 
struction §8,1)07,774  for  all  kinds  of  public  edu- 
cational institutions,  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  universities,  technical  and  art  schools, 
mui.eums,  and  philanthropic  institutions.  Gen- 
erality, this  principle  is  adhered  ^obv  the  state,  to 
subsidize  the  highest  institutions  of  learning  most 
liberally,  to  share  the  cost  of  maintaining  second- 
ary schools  with  church  and  communiiy,  and  to 
leave  the  burden  of  maintidning  elementary 
schools  almost  entirely  tj  tlie  local  or  communal 
authorities.  ...  In  tl.e  Austrian  pulilic  schools 
no  distinctions  are  made  with  the  pupils  os  re- 
gards their  religious  confessions.  The  schools 
are  open  to  all,  and  are  therefore  common  schools 
in  the  sense  in  which  that  term  is  employt^d  with 
us.  In  Prussia  it  is  the  policy  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  seporate  the  pupils  of  different  religious 
c(mfessions  in  .  .  .  elementary,  but  not  to  sepa- 
rate them  in  secondary  schools.  In  Austria  and 
Hungary,  special  teachers  of  religion  for  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  are  employed; 
in  Prussi;.  this  is  done  only  in  secondary  schools, 
while  religion  is  taught  by  the  secular  teachers 
in  elementary  schools.  This  is  a  very  vital  dif- 
ference, and  shows  how  much  nearer  the  Austrian 
schools  have  come  to  our  ideal  of  a  common 
school." — U.  8.  Comm'r  of  Education,  Jieport, 
1889-00,  ;;;;.  405-460. 

Belgium. — "The  treaty  of  Paris,  of  March  30, 
1814,  lixed  the  bouiularic  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  united  Holland  and  Belgium.  In  these  new 
circumstances,  the  system  of  public  instruction 
became  the  subject  of  much  difllculty  betwejn 
the  Calvinlsts  of  the  northern  provinces  and  the 
Catholics  of  the  southern.  The  government 
therefore  undertook  itself  to  manage  the  organi- 
zation of  the  system  of  instruction  in  its  three 
grades.  .  .  .  ^\filliam  I.  desired  U>  free  the  Bel- 
gians from  French  intluencc,  and  with  this  object 
adopted  the  injudieious  measure  of  attempting 
to  force  t!  .  Dutch  language  upon  them.  He  also 
endeavored  to  familiarize  tliem  with  Protestant 
ideas,  and  to  thi  i  end  determined  to  get  the  care 
of  religious  instruction  exclusively  into  the  hands 
of  the  state.  But  the  clergy  were  energetic  in 
asserting  their  rights ;  the  boldness  of  the  Belgian 


709 


EDUCATION. 


Knglnnd. 


EDUCATION. 


ilt'imllcH  to  the  Htttti'H'Ocncnil  InrrciiHcil  daily; 
iiikI  tliu  |)riij('('t  for  ii  HyHtciii  of  piiMic  itriil  pri- 
viitit  liistnictiiiii  whii'li  wiiH  liiiil  iN'fori' tilt' Hccdiid 
(lianibcToii  the  iHtli  Noveiiilicr,  IMiO,  wuh  very 
unfiivoritbly  ivci'ivi'd  I>y  tlu;  CiitlKillis.  The 
j{i)V(rnnu'nl  vrry  hoiiorubly  coiifcoHcd  ItMiTrorhy 
rcpt'iiliiiK  the  ohnoxiouH  (ifdiniincc.iof  IH2n.  Itul 
It  wi'.H  too  late,  and  tlie  HclKiaii  prDvliicf!*  wen? 
loHt  to  llolliiiid.  On  the  I'Jth  Octoliir,  IH:|(),  llic 
provisory  Hovrriimnit  ripcalcd  all  laws  rcstrift- 
!ni{  the  frt'cdoiii  of  liiHtriKtloii,  anil  tlic  present 
KyHtem,  In  whirli  lllierty  of  InHtrnction  and  K<>^'' 
ernnientjd  aid  and  supervision  are  recd;;ni7.ed, 
loniinenced."  —  I'uhlic  Jiinlnirlion  in  Jiilf/iiim 
{lilt run rd'H  Aiu.  Journal  of  KdiicutiDn,  r.  8,  pji. 
5«2-rjH:t). 

Denmark. — "Denmark  Ims  long  been  noted  tor 
the  exeellence  of  her  schools.  .  .  .  The  perfection 
aiul  extension  of  the  system  of  popular  instruction 
date  from  the  beKlnnin^;  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, when  HIshop  Thestrup,  of  Aalberg,  caused 
0  parish  schools  to  be  establlslied  In  (.'opei'hagen 
anil  when  King  Frederick  IV.  (10mi-173())  had 
2 10  school  houses  b\dlt.  .  .  .  Christian  VI.  (ITIiO- 
1710),  .  .  .  ordained  in  1739  the  establishment  of 
common  or  parish  schools  In  every  town  and  In 
every  larger  village.  The  branches  of  instruction 
were  to  be  religion,  reading,  writing,  and  nrlth- 
nietlc.  No  one  was  to  be  allowed  to  teach  unless 
he  hiul  shown  himself  i|ualltled  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  clergynnm  of  the  parish.  .  .  .  JIany  dltll- 
cultics,  however  (especially  the  objections  of 
the  landed  proprietors,  who  jiad  their  own  schools 
on  their  estates),  hindered  the  free  development 
of  the  common  school  system,  and  it  was  not 
\uilll  1814  that  II  new  and  more  favorable  era  was 
Inaugurated  by  the  law  of  July  21)  of  that  year. 
According  to  this  law  the  general  control  of  the 
schools  Is  in  the  hands  of  a  minister  of  public  in- 
struction and  subordinate  superintendents  for  the 
several  departments  of  the  kingdom." — Ediica- 
tiun  in  Denmark  (If.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
Circulars  of  Information,  1877,  7iO.  2),  pp.  40-41. 
—  ".With  a  population  In  1800  of  2,18.'i,1.57,  the 
pupils  enrollecl  In  city  and  rural  schools  in  Den- 
mark numbered  231, U40,  or  about  10  per  cent,  of 
the  population  receiving  the  foundation  of  an 
educatioa.  In  1881  the  iUiterntes  to  100  recruits 
numbered  0.80;  in  Sweden  at  that  date  the  per 
cent,  was  0.39." — U.  8.  Comin'r  of  Education, 
Iltport,  1889-90,  p.  523. 

England:  Oxford  and  Cambridee. — "Oxford 
and  v'ttmbridge,  as  establishments  for  education, 
consist  of  two  parts  —  of  the  University  proper, 
and  of  tuT  Colleges.  The  former,  original  and 
essential,  is  founded,  controlled,  and  privileged  by 
public  authority,  for  the  advantage  of  the  nation. 
The  latter,  accessory  and  contingent,  are  created, 
regulated,  and  endowed  by  private  munificence, 
for  the  Interest  of  certain  favored  individuals. 
Time  was,  when  the  Colleges  did  not  exist,  and 
the  University  was  there ;  and  were  the  Colleges 
again  abolished,  the  University  woidd  remain 
entire.  The  former,  founded  solely  for  educa- 
tion, exists  only  as  it  accomplishes  the  end  of  its 
institution;  the  latter,  founded  principally  for 
aliment  and  habitation,  would  still  exist,  were 
all  education  abandoned  within  their  walls.  The 
University,  as  a  national  establishment,  is  neces- 
sarily open  to  the  lieges  in  general ;  the  Colleges, 
as  private  institutions,  might  universally  do,  a? 
some  have  actually  done  —  close  their  gates  upon 
al.,  except  their  foundation  membeis.     The  Uni- 


versitieH  and  ("olleges  are  thuH  neither  Identical, 
nor  vicarious  of  eacli  other.  If  the  Unlversily 
ciases  to  perform  its  functions.  It  ceases  to  exist; 
and  the  privileges  accorded  by  the  nation  to  the 
system  of  public  I'dueation  legally  orgiu>l/eil  in 
the  Inlversitv,  can  not,  without  the  consent  of 
tlie  nation — far  Iihs  without  the  coiisent  of  the 
acailendcal  legislatiire — be  lawfully  transferred 
to  the  system  of  private?  ediuatlon  iireeiirioUNly 
organized  In  the  Colleges,  and  over  wlileh  neither 
the  (State  nor  the  I'niversity  havi!  any  control. 
They  have,  however,  been  unlawfully  usurped. 
Through  the  suspension  of  the  University,  and 
the  usurpation  of  its  functions  and  privileges  by 
the  Colleglal  bodies,  there  has  arisen  the  second 
of  two  svsteins,  diametrically  opposite  to  each 
other. — The  one,  in  wliicli  the  Lnlverslty  was 
paramount,  is  ancient  and  statutory ;  the  other,  in 
which  the  Colleges  have  th(!  ascendant,  Is  recent 
and  Illegal. —  In  the  former,  all  was  subservient 
to  publli^  utility,  and  the  interests  of  science;  in 
the  latter,  all  Is  sacrificed  to  private  monopoly, 
and  to  the  <onveiilerue  of  the  teacher.  ...  In 
the  orlgliml  constitution  of  Oxford,  as  In  that  of 
all  the  older  Uidversltles  of  the  Uarlslan  model, 
the  business  of  instruction  was  not  cimflded  to  a 
spechil  body  of  privileged  professors.  The  Uni- 
versity was  governed,  the  L  niversity  wasrfaught, 
by  the  graduates  at  large.  I'rofessor,  Master, 
Doctor,  were  orlgimdly  synonymous.  Every 
graduate  had  aneijual  right  of  teaching  publicly 
in  the  University  the  subjects  competent  to  his 
faculty,  and  to  the  rank  ot  his  degree ;  nay,  every 
graduate  inc\irred  the  obligation  of  teaching 
inibllcly,  for  a  certain  period,  the  subjects  of  his 
factdty,  for  such  was  the  condition  involved  In 
the  grant  of  the  degree  Itself." — Sir  AVm.  Ham- 
ilton, JHscumticnn  on  Philoitophy  and  Literature, 
etc.:  Kiluration,  ch.  4. 

England  :  The  "  Great  Public  Schools."— 
What  is  a  I'Ubllc  school  in  England?  "The 
qtustkm  is  one  of  considerable  dilllculty.  To 
some  extent,  however,  the  answer  has  been  fur- 
nished by  the  Royal  Commission  appointed  in 
1801  to  imiulre  Into  the  nature  and  application  of 
the  endowments  and  revenues,  and  into  the  ad- 
ministration and  management  of  certain  specified 
colleges  and  schools  commonly  known  as  the 
Public  Schools  Commission.  >ilnc  are  named  In 
the  Queen's  letter  of  appointment,  viz.,  Eton, 
AVinchester,  AVestminster,  the  Charterhouse,  St. 
Paul's,  Merchant  Taylors',  Harrow,  Uugby,  and 
Shrewsbury.  The  reasons  probably  which  sug- 
gested this  selection  were,  that  the  nine  named 
foundations  had  in  the  course  of  centuries  emerged 
from  the  nia.ss  of  endowed  grammar-schools,  and 
had  made  for  themselves  a  position  which  justi- 
fied their  being  placed  in  a  distinct  category,  and 
classed  as  '  puolle  schools.'  It  will  be  seen  as  we 
proceed  that  all  these  nine  have  certain  features 
in  common,  distinguishing  them  from  the  ordi- 
nary griunmar-schools  v  "uch  exist  in  almost  every 
country  town  In  En  eland.  JIany  of  these  latter 
are  now  waking  up  to  the  requirements  of  the 
new  time  and  following  the  example  of  their 
morr  "Uustrious  sisters.  The  most  notable  exam- 
|)lc8  of  this  icvival  are  such  schools  as  those  a'„ 
Sherborne,  QIggleswIck,  and  Tunbrldge  Wells, 
which,  while  remodelling  themselves  on  the  lines 
lal(l  down  by  the  Public  Schools  Commissioners, 
are  to  some  extent  providing  a  training  more 
adapted  to  the  means  and  requirements  of  our 
middle  classes  in  the  nineteenth  century  than  can 


710 


EDUCATION. 


IV 


orrai  Kngliik 
blic  ScIumI: 


EDUCATION. 


he  found  at  nny  of  tin-  iiiiir  iniblic  hcIidoIs.  Hut 
twenty  yt-arH  ii)(<i  the  inovniii'iit  wlilcli  Iiiih  Hirirc 
mini)'  Hucli  iiHtiiniHiiiiiK  pro^rrHH  wiim  witrct'ly  frit 
ill  i)iih't  country  pliiccK  like  thcMc,  itnd  tlii>  old 
cndowrncnlM  wcri'  iillowt'd  to  run  to  wiiHtc  in  ii 
fiislilon  whirh  is  now  Hciirci'ly  cri'dlhlc.  'I'lic 
Hiiini'  lni|)ul)M!  widcli  Iiiih  put  new  lifu  into  tint 
ondowc(l  ^■'■""■■■■'■''IW'IiooIh  tliroiiKliout  KiiKlimd 
Iiiih  worltcil  even  more  renuirkalily  in  another 
direction.  Tlu!  V^lctorian  ane  liidH  fair  to  rival 
the  Klixaliethun  in  tliu  niinilier  and  importance  of 
till'  new  hcIiooIh  which  it  Iiiih  fouiiiled  and  will 
hand  on  to  the  eomiuK  generation.  Marlborough, 
■Ilaileylmry,  rppinKliani,  Uossall.  Clifton,  Chel- 
tenham, liadley,  Malvern,  and  Wellington  Col- 
lege, aru  nine  M'IiooIh  whicli  have  taken  their 
place  in  tliu  llrnt  rank.  ...  In  ordei',  then,  to 
get  clear  Ideas  on  the  general  ((uestioii,  we  mUHt 
keep  these  three  classes  of  schools  In  mind  —  the 
nine  old  foundations  recognized  in  the  tlrst  in- 
stance by  the  Hoyal  Commission  of  IMftl;  the  old 
foundations  wlii<'h  have  reiiialned  local  grammar 
schools  until  within  tlie  liiNl  few  years,  but  are 
now  enlarging  tlieir  bounds,  conforming  more  or 
les.s  to  the  public-school  system,  and  becoming 
national  inHtitutioim;  and,  histly,  the  miHlern 
founilati(ms  w'.iich  started  from  tint  first  as  public 
schools,  professing  to  adapt  themselves  to  the 
new  circumstances  and  rei)uirementH  of  modern 
English  life.  Tlie  public  schools  of  Knglanil  fall 
under  one  or  other  of  these  categorii's.  .  .  .  Wet 
may  now  turn  to  the  historie  side  of  the  (pics- 
tion,  dealing  first,  oh  is  due  to  their  importance, 
with  the  nine  schools  of  our  first  category.  The 
oldest,  and  in  some  respects  most  famous  of 
these,  is  Winchester  School,  or,  as  it  was  named 
by  its  founder  William  of  Wykeham,  the  (.'ollego 
of  St.  Mary  of  Winchester,  founded  in  1382.  Its 
constitution  still  retains  nuicli  of  the  impress  left 
on  it  by  the  great  liishop  of  the  greatest  I'lan- 
tagcnet  King,  live  centuries  ago.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century  Oxford  was  already 
the  center  of  English  education,  but  from  the 
want  of  grummar-schools  boys  went  \\p  by  hun- 
dreds untaught  in  the  simiilest  rudiments  of 
learning,  aiul  wlien  there  lived  in  private  hostels 
or  lodging-houses,  in  a  vast  throng,  under  no 
discipline,  and  exposed  to  many  hiirdships  and 
temptations.  In  view  of  this  state  of  things,  Wil- 
liam of  Wykeham  founded  his  grammar-scliool 
at  Winchester  and  his  college  at  Oxford,  binding 
the  two  together,  so  that  the  school  miglit  send 
up  properly  trained  scliolars  to  the  university, 
where  they  would  be  received  at  New  College, 
in  a  suitable  academical  home,  which  sliotdd  in 
its  turn  furnish  governors  and  masters  for  the 
scliool.  .  .  .  Next  in  date  comes  the  royal  foun- 
dation of  Eton,  or  '  The  Collegit  of  the  Hlessed 
Mary  of  Eton,  near  Windsor."  It  was  founded 
by  Henry  VI.,  A.  D.  1446,  upon  the  model  of 
Winchester,  with  a  collegiate  establishment  of  a 
provost,  ten  fellows  (reduced  to  seven  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  IV.),  seventy  scliolars,  and  ten  chap- 
lains (now  reduced  to  two,  who  are  called  '  con- 
ducts'),  and  a  head  and  lower  master,  ten  lay 
clerks,  and  twelve  choristers.  Tlie  provost  and 
fellows  are  the  governing  body,  who  appoint  the 
head  master.  .  .  .  Around  this  center  the  great 
school,  numbering  now  a  thousand  boys,  lias 
gathered,  the  college,  however,  still  retaining  its 
own  separate  organization  atid  traditions.  Be- 
sides the  splendid  buildings  and  playing-fields  at 
Eton,  the  college  holds  real  property  of  the  yearly 


value  of  upward  of  catMHM),  and  forty  livlngn 
ranging  from  tItKf  to  i;i,i.'<M)of  yeaily  value.  ..  . 
The  whool  next  In  date  stands  out  in  Hharp  con- 
trast to  Winchest4'r  and  Eton.  It  Is  St.  I'ltul's 
S<'liool,  founded  by  Dean  Colet.  .  .  .  Shrews- 
bury  ScliiHil,  which  follows  next  In  order  of 
Neniority,  claims  a  royal  foundation,  but  is  in 
reality  iliit  true  child  of  the  town's  folk.  The 
dissolution  of  the  inonasterieH  ilestroyed  also  tliii 
Nemlnarli's  attached  to  manv  of  them,  to  the  great 
liilurv  of  popular  education.  This  wiiH  sped- 
ally  the  case  in  Shropshire,  so  in  I.Wl  Uiv  ballilTs, 
burgi'sscH,  and  inhabitants  of  Slirewsbiiry  and 
the  tielgliborhood  petitioned  Edward  VI.  for  a 
grant  of  some  portion  of  the  estates  of  the  dis- 
solved collegiate  churches  for  the  purpime  of 
founding  a  free  school.  The  King  consented, 
and  granted  to  the  petitioners  the  approprii''e<l 
titlies  of  several  livings  and  a  charter,  but  diitd 
before  the  sclioid  was  organi/.ctd.  It  was  in  abey- 
ance during  Mary's  reign,  but  opened  in  the 
fourth  year  of  Elizabeth,  ITittS,  by  Thonias  Aston. 
.  .  .We  have  now  reached  the  great  croup  of 
Klizabclhan  schools,  to  which  iiideed  Shrews- 
bury may  also  be  Hiiid  to  belong,  as  it  was  nut 
opened  until  tint  (Eileen  had  been  three  years  on 
tli(t  throne.  Tint  two  metropolitan  schools  of 
Westminster  and  Merchant  Taylors'  were  in  fact 
founded  in  lHHi),  two  years  befont  the  opening  of 
Shrewsbury.  Westminster  as  a  royal  foundation 
must  take  precedence,  it  is  a  grammar-school 
attached  by  the  Queen  to  the  collegiate  churith 
of  St.  I'eter,  commonly  called  Westminster  Ab- 
bey, and  founded  for  the  fR'C  education  of  forty 
scholars  in  I<atin,  Oreek,  and  Hebrew.  The 
Queen,  witli  characteristic  tiiriftiness,  provided 
no  endowment  for  her  hcIio(j1,  leaving  the  cost  of 
maintenance  as  a  (tliarge  on  the  gitneral  revenjes 
of  the  dean  and  chapter,  which  in<leed  were,  then 
as  now,  fully  competent  to  sustain  the  burden. 
.  .  .  iMerchant  Taylors',  the  other  metropolitan 
scliool  founded  in  1500,  owes  its  origin  to  Sir 
Tliomas  White,  a  member  of  the  Court  of  Assist- 
ants of  the  company,  and  founder  of  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford.  It  was  probably  ids  iiromise  to 
connect  the  s(tliool  with  his  college  which  in- 
duced the  Company  to  undertake  tlie  task.  .  .  . 
Sir  Thomas  While  redeemed  his  promise  by  en- 
dowing the  .school  with  thirty-seven  fellowships 
at  St.  John's  College.  .  .  .  Kugby,  or  the  free 
school  of  Lawrence  SherilT,  follows  next  in  order, 
having  been  founded  in  \!M1  by  Lawrence  Sheriir, 
grocer,  and  citizen  of  London.  His  '  intent'  (as 
the  document  expres.sing  his  wishes  is  called)  de- 
clares that  his  lands  in  Uugby  and  Hrownsover, 
and  his  '  tliird  of  a  jiasture-ground  in  Oray's  Inn 
Fields,  called  Conduit  Close,'  shall  be  applied  to 
maintain  a  free  grammar  school  for  the  children 
of  Hugby  and  Hrownsover,  and  the  iilaccs  adjoin- 
ing, and  four  poor  almsmen  of  the  same  parishes. 
These  estates,  after  providing  u  fair  schoolliouso 
and  residences  for  the  master  and  al.nsmen,  at 
first  produced  a  rental  of  only  £24  13s.  4d.  In 
due  time,  however.  Conduit  Close  became  a  part 
of  central  Jjoiidon,  and  Uugby  School  the  owner 
of  eight  acres  of  houses  in  and  about  the  present 
Lamb's  Conduit  Street.  The  income  of  the  whole 
trust  property  amounts  now  to  about  £0,000,  of 
which  £235  is  expended  on  the  maintenance  of 
the  twelve  almsmen.  .  .  .  Hurrow  School  was 
rounded  in  1571,  four  years  later  than  Uugby,  by 
John  Lyon,  a  yeoiiian  of  the  jiarish.  He  was 
owner  of  certain  sinall  estates  iu  and  about  Ilur- 


711 


EDUCATION. 


Fagging  in  English 
Schooh. 


EDUCATION. 


row  nnd  Barnct,  nnd  of  others  at  Paddington  and 
Kilburn.  All  these  lie  devoted  to  public  pur- 
poses, but  unfortunuttly  gave  the  former  for  the 
perpetual  education  of  the  children  and  youth  of 
tlie  parish,  and  the  latter  for  the  maintenance  and 
repair  of  the  highways  from  Harrow  and  Edge- 
ware  to  London.  The  present  yearly  revenue 
of  the  school  estates  is  barely  over  £1,000,  while 
that  of  the  highway  trust  is  nearly  £4,000.  But, 
though  the  poorest  in  endowments,  Harrow,  from 
its  nearness  to  London,  and  consequent  attrac- 
tions for  the  classes  who  spend  a  largo  portion  of 
their  year  in  the  metropolis  either  in  attendance 
in  Parliament,  or  for  pleasure,  has  become  the 
rival  of  Eton  as  a  fashionable  school.  .  .  .  Last 
on  the  list  of  the  nine  schools  comes  the  Charter- 
house (tho  Whitefriai-s  of  Thackeray's  novels). 
It  may  bo  fairly  classed  witli  the  Elizabethan 
schools,  though  actually  founded  in  1609,  after 
the  accession  of  James  I.  In  that  year  a  substan- 
tial yeoman,  Thomas  Sutton  by  name,  purchased 
from  Lord  Sullolk  the  lately  dissolved  Charter- 
liouse,  by  Smithtield,  and  obtained  letters  patent 
empowering  him  to  found  a  hospital  and  school 
on  the  old  site." — T.  Hughes,  17ie  Public  Schmih 
of  England  (N.  Am.  Rev. ,  April,  1870). — Fagging. 
— "  In  rougher  days  it  was  found,  that  in  large 
schools  the  stronger  and  larger  boys  reduced  tho 
smaller  and  weaker  to  the  condition  of  Helots. 
Here  the  authorities  stepped  in,  and  despairing  of 
eradicating  tlie  evil,  took  the  power  which  mere 
strength  had  won,  and  conferred  it  upon  the 
seniors  of  the  school  —  the  members,  that  is,  of 
the  highest  form  or  forms.  As  in  those  days, 
promotion  was  pretty  much  a  matter  of  rotation, 
every  one  who  remained  his  full  time  at  the 
school,  was  pretty  sure  to  reach  in  time  the  domin- 
ant class,  and  the  humblest  lag  looked  forward 
to  the  day  when  he  would  ioin  the  ranks  of  the 
ruling  aristocracy.  Meantime  lie  was  no  longer 
at  the  beck  of  any  stronger  or  ruder  classfellow. 
His  '  master '  was  in  theory,  and  often  in  practice, 
his  best  protector:  he  imposed  upon  him  very 
likely  what  may  be  called  menial  offices  —  made 
him  carry  home  his  'Musa;' — field  for  him  at 
cricket — brush  his  coat;  If  we  are  to  believe 
school  myths  and  traditions,  black  his  shoes,  and 
even  take  the  chill  oil  his  sheets.  The  boy,  how- 
ever, caw  tho  son  of  a  Howard  or  a  Percy  simi- 
larly employed  by  his  side,  and  in  cheerfuUv 
submitting  to  an  ancient  custom,  he  was  but  fol- 
lowing out  the  tendencies  of  the  age  and  class 
to  which  he  belonged.  .  .  .  The  mere  abolition  of 
the  right  of  fagging,  vague  and  undefined  as 
were  the  duties  attaclicd  to  it,  would  have  been 
a  loss  rather  than  a  gain  to  the  oppressed  as  a 
class.  It  would  merely  have  substituted  for  the 
existing  law,  imperfect  and  anomalous  as  that 
law  might  be,  the  licence  of  brute  force  and  the 
dominion  of  boyish  truculence.  .  .  .  Such  was, 
more  or  less,  the  state  ot  things  when  he  to 
whom  English  education  owes  so  incalculable  a 
debt,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  Uugby  School. 
...  It  was  hoped  that  he  who  braved  the  anger 
of  his  order  by  his  pamphlet  on  Church  Reform 
—  at  whose  bold  and  uncompromising  language 
bishops  stood  aghast  and  courtly  nobles  remon- 
strated in  vain  —  would  make  short  work  of 
ancient  saws  and  medieval  traditions  —  that  a 
revolution  in  school  life  was  at  hand.  And  they 
were  not  mistaken.  .  .  .  What  he  did  was  to 
seize  on  the  really  valuable  part  of  the  existing 
system  —  to  inspire  it  with  that  ne^v  life,  and 


those  loflior  purposes,  without  which  mere  in- 
stitution.s,  grwit  or  small,  must,  sooner  or  later, 
wither  away  and  perish.  His:  first  step  was  tc 
effect  an  important  change  in  the  actual  niaclun- 
ery  of  the  school  —  one  which,  in  itself,  amounted 
to  a  revolution.  The  highest  form  in  tho  school 
was  no  longer  open  to  all  whom  a  routine  pro- 
motion might  raise  in  course  of  time  u  its  level. 
Industry  and  talent  as  tested  by  careful  eximina- 
tions  (in  the  additional  labour  of  which  he  him- 
self bore  the  heaviest  burden),  were  the  only 
qualifications  rcfognised.  The  new-modelled 
'  sixth  form '  were  told,  that  the  privileges  and 
powers  which  tlieir  predecessors  Iiad  enjoyed  for 
ages  were  not  to  be  wrested  from  them ;  but  that 
they  were  to  be  lield  for  the  common  good,  as 
the  badges  and  instruments  of  duties  and  respon- 
sibilities, such  as  any  one  with  less  confidence  in 
those  whom  he  addressed  would  have  hesitated 
to  impose.  They  were  told  plainly  that  with- 
out their  co-operation  then;  was  no  hope  of 
ke<  .lin^  in  check  the  evils  inherent  in  a  society 
of  boys.  Tyranny,  falsehood,  drin'fing,  party- 
spirit,  coarseness,  selfishness  —  the  evil  spirits 
that  infest  schools  —  these  they  heard  Sunday 
after  Sunday  put  in  their  true  light  by  a  majes- 
tic voice  and  a  manly  presence,  with  words,  ac- 
cents, and  manner  which  would  live  in  their  mem- 
ory for  years;  but  they  were  warned  that,  to 
exorcise  such  spirits,  something  more  was  needed 
than  the  watclif  ulness  of  masters  and  the  energy 
of  their  chief.  Tliey  themselves  must  use  their 
large  powers,  entrusted  to  them  in  recc  ignition  of 
the  principle,  or  rather  of  the  fact,  that  in  a  large 
society  of  boys  some  must  of  necessity  hold  sway, 
to  keep  down,  in  themselves  and  those  about 
them,  principles  and  practices  which  are  ever 
ready,  like  hideous  weeds,  to  choke  the  growth 
of  all  that  is  fair  and  noble  iu  such  institutions. 
Dr.  Arnold  persevered  in  spite  of  opposition, 
obloquy,  and  misrepresentation.  .  .  .  But  ho 
firmly  established  his  system,  and  his  successors, 
men  differing  in  training  and  temperament  from 
himself  and  from  each  other,  have  agreed  In  cor- 
dially sustaining  it.  His  pupils  and  theirs,  men 
in  very  different  walks  of  life,  filling  honourable 
posts  at  tho  universities  and  public  schools,  or 
ruling  the  millions  of  India,  or  working  among 
the  blind  and  toiling  multitudes  of  our  great 
towns,  feel  daily  how  much  of  their  usefulness 
and  power  they  owe  to  the  sense  of  high  trust 
and  high  duty  which  they  imbibed  at  school." — 
Our  Public  SeJiools —  Their  Discipline  ami  In- 
tlruction  (Vraaer's  Magazine,  v.  1,  pp.  407-409). 

England:  A.  D.  1699-1870.— The  rise  of 
Elementary  Schools. — "The  recognition  by  the 
English  State  of  i*a  paramount  duty  in  aiding  tho 
work  of  nationul  education  is  scarcely  more  than 
a  generation  old.  Tho  recognition  of  the  further 
and  far  more  extensive  work  of  supplementing 
by  State  aid,  or  by  State  agency,  all  deficiencies 
in  tlie  supply  of  schools,  dates  only  thirteen  years 
back  [to  1870] ;  while  the  equally  pressing  duty 
of  enforcing,  by  a  universal  law,  tho  use  of  the 
opportunities  of  education  thus  supplied,  is  a 
matter  almost  of  yesterday.  The  State  has  only 
slowly  stepped  into  its  proper  place ;  more  slowly 
in  the  case  of  England  than  in  the  case  of  any 
other  of  the  leading  European  nations.  ...  In 
1699  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  Chris- 
tian Knowledge  was  founded,  and  by  it  various 
schools  were  established  throughout  the  country. 
In  1782  Robert  Kaikcs  established  his  first  Sun- 


712 


EDUCATION. 


EnglM   "^lemenlary 
K'.ucation. 


EDUCATION. 


day  school,  and  in  a  few  yenrs  the  Union,  of 
wliich  lie  was  the  foumlor,  had  under  its  control 
schools  scattered  all  over  the  rouiilrv.  IJiit  the 
most  extensive  efforts  made  foi  popular  educa- 
tion were  those  of  Andrew  Bell  and  Joseph  Lan- 
caster towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. .  .  .  They  misconceived  iind  mi.sj>idged 
the  extent  of  the  work  that  had  to  be  accom- 
plished. They  became  slaves  to  their  ay.stem  — 
that  which  was  called  the  Jlonitorial  system  .  .  . 
and  tiy  elevating  it  to  undue  importance  they 
did  miich  to  discredit  the  very  worli  in  which 
they  were  engaged.  .  .  .  Amongst  the  Noncon- 
formist followers  of  Lancaster  there  aro.se  the 
British  and  Foreign  School  Society;  wliile  by 
those  of  Bell  there  was  established,  on  the  siile 
representing  the  Church,  the  National  Society. 
The  former  became  the  recognised  agcjcy  of  the 
Dissenters,  the  latter  of  the  Church ;  and  through 
one  or  other  of  these  channels  State  aid,  when  it 
first  began  to  flow,  was  obliged  to  take  its  course. 
...  In  1803  the  first  Sir  Hobert  Peel  jiassed  a 
Bill  which  restricted  children's  labour  in  factories, 
and  require  i  that  reading,  writing,  and  nrith- 
metic  should  be  taught  to  them  during  a  jiart  of 
each  day.  This  was  the  beginning  of  tlie  factory 
legislation.  ...  In  1807  Mr.  Whitebread  intro- 
duced a  Bill  for  the  establishment  of  parochial 
schools  throi'gh  the  agency  of  local  vestries,  who 
were  empowered  to  draw  on  the  rates  for  tlie 
purpose.  The  House  of  Commons  accepted  the 
Bill,  but  it  was  thrown  out  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  .  .  .  Tl'e  movement  for  a  State  recogni- 
tion of  education  was  pressed  more  vigorously 
when  the  fears  and  troubles  of  European  war  were 
clearing  away.  It  was  in  1810  that  Brougliam 
obtained  his  Select  Conunittco  for  Inquiring 
into  the  Education  of  the  Poor  in  the  Metropolis. 
.  .  .  l!i  1820  Brougham  introduced,  ou  the  basis 
of  his  previous  inquiries,  ar  Education  Bill.  .  .  . 
By  this  Bill  the  issue  between  the  contending 
parties)  in  the  State,  which  was  henceforward 
destined  to  be  the  chief  stumbliug-block  in  the 
way  of  a  State  education,  was  placed  on  a  clear 
and  well-defined  basis.  .  .  .  The  Church  was 
alarmed  at  anything  which  seemed  to  trench  upon 
what  she  natundly  thought  to  be  her  appointi.'d 
task.  The  Dissenters  dreaded  what  might  atld 
to  the  impregnability  of  the  Church's  strong- 
holds. .  .  .  When  the  beginning  was  actually 
made  it  came  ...  as  an  ahnost  unnoticed  pro- 
posal of  the  Executive.  In  1832  the  sura  of 
£20,000  for  public  education  was  placed  in  the 
estimates ;  it  was  passed  by  the  Committee  of  Sup- 
ply ;  and  the  first  step  was  taken  on  that  course 
from  which  the  State  has  never  since  drawn  back. 
No  legislation  was  necessary.  .  .  .  Tlie  next 
great  step  was  taken  in  1830,  when  the  annual 
vote  was  increased  from  £20,000  to  £30,000,  and 
when  a  special  department  was  created  to  super- 
vise the  work.  Hitherto  grants  had  been  ad- 
ministered by  the  Treasury  to  meet  a  certain 
amount  of  local  exertion,  and  in  general  reliance 
upon  vague  assurances  as  to  niaintenai.ce  of  the 
schools  by  local  promoters.  .  .  .  The  conditions 
which  were  soon  found  to  be  necessary  as  secu- 
rities, either  for  continuance  or  for  efficiency, 
were  not  yet  insisted  upon.  To  do  this  it  was 
necessary  to  have  a  Department  specially  devoted 
to  tills  work ;  and  the  means  adopted  for  creating 
such  a  Department  was  one  which  had  the  ad- 
vantage of  requiring  no  Act  of  Parliament.  By 
an  Order  in  Couucil  a  Spcniul  Committee  of  the 
46 


I'rivy  Council  was  established,  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  this  Committee,  a  special  staff  of  ofll- 
cers  was  engaged.  The  same  year  saw  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  first  inspectors  of  schools.  It 
was  thus  that  the  Education  Department  was 
constituted.  The  plan  which  the  advisers  of  the 
Qovrrnment  in  this  new  attempt  had  most  at 
heart  was  that  of  a  Normal  Training  College  for 
teachers.  .  .  .  But  it  was  surrounded  with  so 
much  matter  for  dispute,  gathered  during  a 
generation  of  contention,  that  the  proposal  all  but 
wrecked  the  Government  of  I^ord  Melbourne. 
Tlie  C;iiurch  objected  to  the  scheme.  ...  In  the 
year  1844,  after  five  years  of  the  new  adminstra- 
tion,  it  was  possible  to  form  some  estimate,  not 
only  of  the  solid  work  accomplisheil,  but  of  the 
prospects  of  the  immediate  future.  .  .  .  Between 
1839  and  1844,  under  the  action  of  the  Committee 
of  Council,  £170,000  of  Imperial  funds  had  been 
distributed  to  meet  £430,000  from  li;c.".l  resources. 
In  all,  therefore,  about  one  million  had  been 
spv-'nt  in  little  more  than  ten  years.  AVhat  solid 
good  had  this  accomplished  '1  .  .  .  According  to 
a  careful  and  elaborate  report  in  the  year  1845, 
only  ,xbout  one  in  six,  even  of  the  cliildrcn  at 
school,  was  found  able  to  read  the  Scriptures 
with  anv  ease.  Even  for  these  the  power  of 
reading  often  left  them  when  they  tried  a  secular 
book.  Of  reading  with  intelligence  there  was 
hardly  any ;  and  about  one-half  of  the  children 
who  came  to  school  left,  it  was  calculated,  un- 
able to  read.  Only  about  one  child  in  four  had 
mastered,  even  in  the  most  mechanical  way,  the 
art  of  writing.  As  regards  arithmetic,  not  two> 
per  cent,  of  the  children  had  advanced  as  far  as  the- 
rule  of  three.  .  .  .  The  teaching  of  the  schools 
was  in  the  hands  of  men  who  had  scarcely  any 
training,  and  who  had  often  turned  to  tlio  work 
because  all  other  work  had  turned  away  from 
them.  Under  them  it  was  conducted  upon  that 
monitorial  system  which  was  the  inheritance 
from  Dr.  Bell,  the  rival  of  Lancaster.  The  pupils 
were  set  to  teach  one  another.  .  .  .  The  inquiries- 
of  the  Committee  of  Council  thus  gave  the  death- 
blow, in  public  estimation,  to  the  once  higlily- 
vaunted  monitorial  system.  But  how  was  it  to- 
be  replaced  V  The  model  of  a  better  state  of 
things  was  found  in  the  Dutch  schools.  There 
a  selected  number  of  the  older  pupils,  who  in- 
tended to  enter  upon  the  profession  of  teachers, 
weie  apprenticed,  when  they  had  reached  the 
age  of  thirteen,  to  the  teacher.  .  .  .  After  their 
apprenticeship  they  passed  to  a  Training  College 
.  .  .  Accordingly,  a  new  and  important  start  was- 
made  by  the  Department  on  the  25th  of  August 
1846,  .  .  .  In  1851  twenty-five  Training  Colleges 
had  been  established;  and  these  liad  a  sure  sup- 
ply of  qualified  recruits  in  the  0,000  pupil  teach- 
ers who  were  by  that  time  being  trained  to  the 
work.  .  .  .  The  ten  years  between  1842  and  1853 
saw  the  Parliamentary  grant  raised  from  £40  000' 
to  £160,000  a  year,  with  the  certainty  of  a  still 
further  increase  as  the  augmentation  grants  to- 
teachers  and  the  stipends  to  pupil  teachers  grew 
in  number.  Nearly  3,800  scliools  had  been  built 
with  Parliamentary  aid,  providing  accommoda- 
tion for  no  less  tlian  540,000  children.  The  State 
had  contributed  towards  this  more  than  £400,000; 
and  a  total  expenditure  had  been  incurred  in  pio- 
vidingschoolsof  more  than  £1,000,000.  .  .  .  But 
the  system  was  as  yet  only  tentati  ve ;  and  a  mass  of 
thorny  religious  questions  had  to  be  faced  before» 
a  really  uatioual  system  could  be  established. 


713 


EDUCATION. 


Englith  Education  Acl 
of  I87U. 


EDUCATION. 


.  .  .  All  parties  became  convinced  that  the  lirst 
step  was  to  inquire  into  the  merits  and  defects  of 
the  existing  system,  and  on  the  basis  of  sound 
information  to  plan  some  method  of  advance. 
Under  this  impression  it  was  that  the  Commis- 
sion on  Public  Education,  of  which  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle  was  chairman,  was  appointed  in  1858. " 
The  result  of  the  (Jomniission  of  1858  was  a  re- 
vision of  the  educational  Code  which  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  I'rivy  Council  had  formulated. 
The  New  Code  proved  unsatLsfactory  in  its  work- 
ing, and  every  year  showed  more  plainly  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  fully  organized  system  of  national 
education.  ' '  Out  of  the  discussions  there  arose 
two  societies,  which  fairly  expressed  two  different 
views.  .  .  .  The  first  of  these  was  the  Education 
League,  started  at  Uirmingham  in  1869.  ...  Its 
boKis,  sliortly  stated,  was  that  of  a  compulsory 
syiw'm  of  school  provisioi'  by  local  authorities 
through  means  of  local  rates;  the  schools  so  pro- 
vided to  be  at  once  free  and  imsectarian.  .  .  . 
In  this  i)rogramme  the  point  which  raised  most 
opposition  was  the  unsectarian  teacliing.  It  was 
chieUy  to  counteract  this  part  of  the  League's 
objects  that  there  was  formed  the  Education 
Union,  which  urged  a  universal  system  based 
upon  the  o) !  lines.  .  .  .  By  common  consent  the 
time  for  a  settlement  was  now  come.  Some 
guarantee  must  be  taken  that  the  whole  edifice 
should  nit  crumble  to  pieces;  that  for  local  agen- 
cies there  shoidd  be  substituted  local  authorities ; 
and  that  the  State  should  be  s\ipplied  with  some 
machinery  whereby  the  gaps  in  the  work  might 
be  supplied.  It  was  in  this  ])osition  of  opinion 
that  Ml'.  Forster,  as  Vice-President,  introduced 
his  Education  Bill  in  1870.  .  .  .  The  measure 
passed  the  House  of  Lords  without  any  material 
alteration ;  and  finally  became  Law  on  the  0th  of 
August  1870." — H.  Craik,  T/ie  State  in  its  Rela- 
tion to  Education. —  The  schools  to  which  the 
provisions  of  the  Act  of  1870  extends,  and  the 
regulations  under  which  such  schools  are  to  be 
conducted,  are  defined  in  the  Act  as  follows: 
"Every  elementary  school  which  is  conducted 
in  accordance  with  the  following  regulations 
shall  be  a  public  elementary  school  within  the 
meaning  of  this  Act;  and  every  public  element- 
ary school  shall  be  conducted  in  accordance  with 
the  following  rcgulati'  as  (a  copy  of  which  regu- 
lations shall  b-,  conspicuously  put  up  in  every 
such  school);  namely  (1.)  It  shall  not  be  re- 
quired, as  a  condition  of  any  child  being  admitted 
into  or  continuing  in  the  school,  that  he  shall  at- 
tend or  abstain  from  attending  any  Sunday 
school,  or  any  place  of  religious  worship,  or  that 
he  shall  attend  any  religious  observance  or  any 
instruction  in  religious  subjects  in  the  school  or 
elsewhere,  from  which  observance  or  instruction 
he  may  be  withdrawn  by  his  parent,  or  that  he 
shall,  if  withdrawn  by  his  parent,  attend  the 
school  on  any  day  exclusively  set  apart  for  re- 
ligious observance  by  the  religious  body  to  which 
his  parent  belongs:  (3.)  The  time  or  times  dur- 
ing which  any  religioufi  observance  is  prac- 
tised or  instruction  in  religious  subjects  is  giveii 
at  any  meeting  of  the  school  shall  be  either  at 
the  beginning  or  at  the  end  or  at  the  beginning 
and  tlie  end  of  such  meeting,  and  shall  be  in- 
serted in  a  time-table  to  be  approved  by  the 
Education  Department,  and  to  be  kept  perma- 
nently and  conspicuously  allixed  in  every  school- 
room ;  and  any  scholar  may  be  witlidrawn  by  his 
parent  from  such  observance  or  instruction  with- 


out forfeiting  any  of  the  other  benctlta  of  the 
school:  (3.)  The  school  shall  be  open  at  all 
times  to  the  inspection  of  any  of  II't  Majesty's 
inspectors,  so,  however,  that  it  sl'.all  be  no  ])art 
of  the  duties  of  such  inspector  to  inquire  into 
any  instruction  in  religious  subjects  given  at 
such  school,  or  to  examine  any  scholar  therein 
in  religious  knowledge  or  in  any  religious  sub 
ject  or  book:  (4.)  The  school  shall  be  con- 
ducted in  accordance  with  the  conditions  re(iuirc(l 
to  be  fulfllled  by  an  elementary  school  in  order 
to  obtain  an  aniunil  parliamentary  grant." — J. 
II.  Higg,  Natiomil  Education,  app.  A. — "The 
new  Act  retained  existing  inspected  schools,  .  .  . 
it  also  did  away  with  all  denominational  classifi- 
cations of  schools  and  with  denominational  in- 
spection, treating  all  inspected  schools  as  equally 
belonging  to  a  national  system  of  schools  and 
under  national  inspection,  the  distinctions  as  to 
inspectors  and  their  provintes  being  henceforth 
purely  geographical.  But  the  new  Act  no  longer 
required  that  public  elementary  schools  estab- 
lished by  voluntary  agency_  and  under  voluntary 
management  should  have  in  them  any  religious 
character  or  element  whatever,  whether  as  be- 
longing to  a  Christian  Church  or  denomination, 
or  as  connected  with  a  Christian  pliilanthropiu 
society,  or  as  providing  for  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  in  the  school.  It  was  left  open  to  any 
party  or  any  person  to  cstablisli  purely  volrn- 
tary  schools  if  they  thought  fit.  But,  further- 
more, the  Act  made  provision  for  an  entirely 
new  class  of  schools,  to  be  establislied  and  (in 
part)  supported  out  of  local  rates,  to  be  governed 
by  locally -elected  School  Boards,  and  to  have 
just  such  and  so  much  religious  instruction  given 
m  them  as  the  goverr.ing  boards  might  think 
proper,  at  times  preceding  or  following  the  pre- 
scribed secular  school  hours,  and  under  the  jjro- 
tection  of  a  time-table  Conscience  Clause,  as  in 
the  case  of  voluntary  schools,  with  this  restric- 
tion only,  that  in  these  schools  no  catechism  or 
denominational  religious  formulary  of  any  sort 
was  to  be  taught.  The  mode  of  electing  mem- 
bers to  the  School  Be  irds  was  to  be  by  what  is 
called  the  cumulative  vote  —  that  is,  each  elector 
was  to  hove  as  many  votes  as  there  were  candi- 
dates, and  these  votes  he  could  give  all  to  one, 
or  else  distribute  among  the  candidates  as  ho 
liked;  and  all  ratepayers  were  to  be  electors. 
.  .  .  The  new  law  .  .  .  made  a  clear  separation, 
in  one  respect,  between  voluntary  and  Board 
schools.  Both  were  to  stand  equally  in  relation 
to  the  National  Education  Department,  under 
the  Privy  Council ;  but  the  voluntary  schools 
were  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  local  rates  or 
rate  aid,  nok  Local  Boards  to  have  any  control 
over  voluntary  schools." — J.  II.  Rigg,  National 
Education,  ch.  10. — "To  sum  up  .  .  .  in  few 
words  what  may  be  set  down  as  the  chief  char- 
acteristics of  our  English  system  of  Elementary 
Education,  I  should  say  (1)  flret,  that  whilst  about 
30  per  cent,  of  our  school  accommodation  is 
under  tlie  control  of  school  boards,  the  cost  of 
maintenance  being  borne  in  jiart  by  local  rates  as 
well  as  by  the  Parliamentary  grant,  fully  70  per 
cent,  is  still  in  the  hands  of  voluntary  school- 
managers,  whose  subscriptions  take  the  place  of 
the  rates  levied  by  school  boards.  (2)  In  case  a 
deficiency  in  school  accommodation  is  reported 
in  any  school  district,  the  Education  Department 
have  the  power  to  require  that  due  provision 
shall  be  mode  for  the  same  within  a  limited  time ; 


7i4 


EDUCATION. 


Free  Schoola  in 
England. 


EDUCATION. 


the  'screw  '  to  bo  applied  to  wilful  ilefaulters  iri 
a  voluntary  school  district  being  tlie  tlireut  of  a 
board,  and  in  a  school  board  district  the  super- 
cession  of  the  existing  board  by  a  new  board, 
noniiuated  by  the  Department,  and  reniunei..te{i 
out  of  the  local  rates.  (3)  Attendance  is  enforced 
everywhere  by  l)ye-law8,  worlced  either  by  the 
schiiol  lioard  or  by  the  School  Attendance  Com- 
mittee: and  although 'hese  local  authorities  are 
often  very  rennss  in  discharging  their  duties,  and 
the  magistrates  not  seldom  culpably  lenient  in 
dealing  with  cases  brought  before  them,  there 
are  plenty  of  districts  in  which  regularity  of 
school  attendance  has  been  improved  fully  10 
per  cent,  in  the  past  two  or  tl  ree  years.  .  .  .  (-1) 
The  present  provision  for  teachers,  and  the  means 
in  existence  for  keeping  up  the  supply,  are  emi- 
nently satisfactory.  Besides  a  large  but  some- 
what diminishing  body  of  apprenticed  jiupil 
teachers,  there  is  a  very  considerable  and  rapidly 
increasing  number  of  duly  qualified  assistants, 
and  at  their  liead  a  large  array  of  certiticated 
teachers,  whoso  ranks  are  being  replenished, 
chieliy  from  the  Training  Colleges,  at  the  rate  of 
about  2,000  a  year.  (5)  The  whole  of  the  work 
done  is  examined  and  judged  every  year  by  in- 
spectors and  inspectoro'  assistants  organised  in 
districts  each  superintended  by  a  senior  inspector 
—  the  total  co?t  of  this  inspection  for  the  present 
year  being  estimated  at  about  Jil.TO.OOO." — Kev. 
H.  Roe,  The  Eng.  Syntem  of  Elementary  Eliica- 
Hon  l^lnteniiatiomil  Health  Exhibition,  London, 
1884:  Conference  on  Education,  sect.  A). — "The 
result  of  the  work  of  the  Education  Department 
is  causing  a  social  revolution  in  England.  If  the 
character  of  the  teaching  is  too  mechanical,  if 
the  chief  aim  of  the  teacher  is  to  earn  as  much 
money  as  possible  for  Ids  managers,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  tins  cannot  bo  done  without  at 
least  giving  the  pupil  the  ability  to  read  and 
write.  Of  course  the  schools  are  not  nearly  so 
good  as  the  f riencis  of  true  education  wish.  JIuch 
remains  to  be  done.  .  .  .  Free  education  will 
shortly  be  an  accomplished  fact;  the  partial  ab- 
sorption of  tlie  voluntary  schools  by  the  School 
Boards  will  necessarily  follow,  and  further  facili- 
tate the  abolition  of  what  have  been  the  cause  of 
so  much  evil  —  result  examinations,  ai:d  'grant 
payments.'  'Write  "Grant  factory"  on  three- 
fourths  of  our  schools,'  said  au  educator  to  me. 
.  .  .  The  schools  are  known  as  (1)  Voluntary 
Schools,  which  have  been  built,  and  are  partly 
supported  by  voluntary  subscriptions.  These 
are  under  denominational  control.  (3)  Board 
Schools:  viz.,  schools  built  and  supported  by 
money  raised  by  local  taxation,  and  controlled  by 
elected  Schoo'.  Boards.  Out  of  4,088,000  pupils 
in  the  elementary  schools,  3,1.54,000  are  in  the 
schools  known  as  Voluntary,  provided  by,  and 
under  the  control  of  the  Church  of  England ; 
1,780,000  are  in  Board  Schools;  330,000  attend 
schools  under  the  British  School  Society,  or 
other  undenominational  control;  348,000  are  in 
Roman  Catholic  schools;  and  174,000  belong 
to  Wesleyau  schools.  The  schools  here  spoken 
of  correspond  more  nearly  tliau  any  other  in 
England  to  the  Public  School  of  the  United 
States  and  Australia ;  but  are  in  many  respects 
very  different,  chietiy  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  provided  expressly  for  the  poor,  and  in 
many  cases  are  attended   by  no  other  class." 

— W.  C.  3i  "         ■     " 

<A.  8. 


3rasby,  Teaching  in  Three  Continents, 


England  :  A.  D.  1891. — Attainment  of  Free 
Education. —  In  1801,  a  bill  pas.sed  Parliament 
wliich  aims  at  making  the  elementary  schools  of 
the  country  free  from  the  payment  of  fees.  Tho 
bill  as  explained  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
"proposed  to  give  a  grant  of  10s.  per  head  to 
cat^h  scholar  in  average  attendance  between  live 
and  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  as  regarded  such 
children  schools  would  either  become  wholly 
free,  or  W(mld  continue  to  charge  a  fee  reduced 
by  the  amount  of  the  grant,  according  as  the  fee 
at  i)resent  charged  did  or  did  not  exceed  10s. 
When  a  school  had  become  free  it  would  remain 
free,  or  when  a  fee  was  charged,  tlio  fee  woid.l 
remain  unaltered  unless  a  change  waj  re(iuired 
for  tlie  educational  benelit  of  the  locality ;  and 
under  this  arrangement  he  believed  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  elementary  schools  in  England  ind 
\Vales  would  become  free.  There  would  be  no 
standard  limitations,  but  the  grant  W'uld  be  re- 
stricted to  schools  where  the  compulsory  power 
came  in,  and  us  to  the  younger  cldldren,  it  was 
proposed  tliat  in  no  case  should  the  fee  charged 
exceed  3d."  In  a  speech  made  at  Birnnngham  on 
the  free  educati(m  bill,  Mr.  Chamberlain  dis- 
cussed tho  oppi  jition  to  it  made  by  those  wlio 
wished  to  destroy  the  denominational  schools, 
luid  who  .bjected  to  their  participation  in  thu 
proposed  extension  of  public  support.  "To  de- 
stroy denonnnatignal  schoola, "  he  said,  "was  now 
an  impossibility,  and  nothing  was  more  astonish- 
ing than  the  progress  they  had  made  since  tho 
Eilucation  Act  of  1870.  He  liad  thought,  ho 
said,  they  would  die  out  with  the  estjiblishment 
of  Boanl  schools,  but  he  had  been  mistaken,  for 
in  the  last  twenty-three  years  they  had  doubled 
their  accommodation,  and  more  than  doubled 
their  subscription  list.  At  the  present  time  they 
supi)lied  ucco.-".mo<lation  for  two-thirds  of  tho 
children  of  England  and  Wales  That  being  tho 
case,  to  destroy  voluntary  schools  —  t  sujjply 
their  places  with  Board  schools,  as  tue  Daily 
News  cheerfully  suggested  —  would  he  to  in- 
volve a  capital  expenditure  of  £50,000,000,  and 
£5,000,000  extra  yearly  in  rates.  But  whethei 
voluntary  or  denominational  schools  were  good 
or  had,  their  continued  existence  had  nothing  to 
do  with  tho  question  o''  free  education,  and 
ought  to  bo  kept  quitj  distinct  from  it.  To 
make  schools  free  was  not  to  give  one  oenny 
extra  to  any  denominational  eudowmenl.  At 
the  present  time  the  fee  was  a  tax,  and  if  tho 
parents  did  not  i)ay  fees  they  were  brought  be- 
fore the  magistrates,  and  if  they  still  did  not  pay 
they  might  be  sent  to  gaol.  The  only  thing  tho 
Government  proposed  to  do  was  not  to  alter  the 
tax  but  to  alter  the  incidence.  The  same  amount 
would  be  collected;  it  would  bo  paid  by  tho 
same  people,  but  it  would  be  collected  from 
the  whole  nation  out  of  the  general  taxation." 
Tho  bill  was  passed  by  the  Commons  Jidy  8, 
and  by  the  Lords  on  the  34th  of  the  same  month. 
The  free  education  proposals  of  the  Government 
are  sfud  to  have  been  generally  accepted  through- 
out the  country  by  both  Board  and  Voluntary 
scliools. — Annual  Itegister,  1801,  pp.  128  and  97, 
and  j)t.  2,  /)   51. 

France:  A.  D.  1565-1802.— The  Jesuits.— 
Port  Roy£  1.— The  Revolution. — Napoleon. — 
"The  Jesuits  invaded  the  province  long  ruled 
by  the  University  alone.  By  that  adroit  man- 
agement of  men  for  which  tliey  have  alwaj  . 
been  eminent,  and  by  tho  more  liberal  spirit  of 


715 


EDUCATION. 


Fnmee, 


EDUCATION. 


tbeir  mcthiKlH,  tlicy  ouUlid  in  popularity  Ihfir 
aupuriitinuiitcd  riviil.  Their  timt  bcIiooI  at  PuHh 
was  establlslifd  in  156.'),  and  in  1768,  two  years 
before  tlieir  dissolution,  tliey  had  eighty-six  col- 
loj'cs  in  France.  They  were  followed  by  the 
Port  Royalists,  the  Benedictines,  the  Oratorians. 
The  Port  IJoyal  schools  [sec  Pout  Royal],  from 
which  perhaps  u  powerful  nitluence  upon  educa- 
tion might  have  been  looked  for,  restricted  this 
influence  by  limiting  very  closely  the  number  of 
tbeir  pupils.  Meanwhile  the  main  funds  and 
endowments  fo.'  public  education  in  France  were 
in  the  University's  bands,  and  its  administration 
of  these  was  as  inelTective  as  its  teaching.  .  .  . 
The  Univeisity  bad  originally,  as  sources  of 
revenue,  the  Post  OfBce  and  tlie  Jlessagerles,  or 
Oflice  of  Public  Conveyance;  it  hud  long  since 
been  obliged  to  abandon  the  Post  Office  to 
Government,  when  in  1719  it  gave  up  to  the 
same  authority  the  privilege  of  the  M'^ssageries, 
receiving  in  return  from  the  State  a  yearly 
revenue  of  150,000  livres.  For  this  payment, 
moreover,  it  undertook  the  obligation  of  making 
the  instruction  in  all  its  principal  colleges  gra- 
tuito  s.  Paid  or  gratuitous,  however,  its  in- 
struction was  quite  inadequate  to  the  wants  of 
the  time,  and  when  the  Jesuits  were  expelled 
from  France  in  1764,  their  establishments  closed, 
and  their  services  os  teachers  lost,  the  void  that 
was  left  was  strikingly  apparent,  and  public 
attention  began  to  lie  drawrf  to  it.  It  is  well 
known  bow  liousseau  among  writers,  and  Tur- 
got  among  statesmen,  busied  themselves  with 
schemes  of  education;  but  the  interest  in  the 
subject  must  have  reached  the  whole  body  of  the 
community,  for  the  instructions  of  all  three 
orders  of  the  States  General  in  1780  are  unani- 
mous in  demanding  the  reform  of  education,  and 
its  establishment  on  a  proper  footing.  Then 
came  the  Revolution,  and  the  work  of  reform 
soon  went  swimmingly  enough,  so  far  as  the 
abolition  of  the  old  schools  was  concerned.  In 
1791  the  colleges  were  all  placed  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  administrative  authorities ;  in  1793 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  University  was  abolished; 
in  1793  the  property  of  tlie  colleges  was  ordered 
to  be  sold,  the  proceeds  to  be  taken  by  the  State ; 
in  September  of  the  same  year  the  suppression 
of  all  the  great  public  schools  and  of  all  the  Uni- 
versity faculties  was  pronounced.  For  the  work 
of  reconstruction  Condorcet's  memorable  plan 
had  in  1792  been  submitted  to  the  Committee  of 
Public  Instruction  appointed  by  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  This  plan  proposed  a  secondary  school 
for  every  4,000  inhabitants;  for  each  depart- 
ment, a  departmental  institute,  or  higher  school ; 
nine  lycees,  schools  carrying  their  studies  yet 
higher  than  the  departmental  institute,  for  the 
whole  of  France;  and  to  crown  the  edifice,  a 
National  Society  of  Sciences  and  Arts,  corre- 
sponding in  the  main  with  the  present  institute 
of  France.  The  whole  expense  of  national  in- 
struction was  to  be  borne  by  the  Stite,  and  this 
expense  was  estimated  at  39,000,0  "  of  francs. 
But  1793  and  1793  were  years  of  lurious  agita- 
tion, when  it  was  easier  to  destroy  than  to  baild. 
Condorcet  perished  with  the  Girondists,  and  the 
reconstruction  of  public  education  difl  not  begin 
till  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre.  The  decrees 
of  the  Convention  for  establishing  the  Normal 
School,  the  Polytechnic,  the  School  of  Mines, 
and  the  ecoles  centrales,  and  then  Daunou's  law 
in  1795,  bore,  however,  many  traces  of  Condor- 


cet's design.  Daunou's  law  established  primary 
schools,  central  schools,  special  schools,  and  at 
the  liead  of  all  the  Institute  of  France,  this  last 
a  nu  niorable  and  enduring  creation,  with  which 
the  .)ld  French  Academy  became  incorporated. 
By  Daunou's  law,  also,  freedom  was  given  to 
private  persons  to  open  schools.  The  new  legis- 
lation bad  many  defects.  .  .  .  The  country,  too 
was  not  ytt  settled  enough  for  its  education  to 
organise  itself  successfully.  The  Normal  School 
speedily  broke  down;  the  central  schools  were 
established  slowly  and  with  dilliculty;  in  the 
course  of  the  four  years  of  the  Directory  there 
were  nominally  instituted  ninety-one  of  tliese 
schools,  but  they  never  really  worked.  More 
was  accomplished  by  private  schools,  to  whicli 
full  freedom  was  given  by  tlie  new  legislation, 
at  the  same  time  that  an  ample  and  o|)en  field 
lay  before  them.  They  could  not,  however,  suf- 
fice for  the  work,  and  education  was  one  of  the 
matters  for  which  Napoleon,  when  he  became 
Consul,  had  to  provide.  Fourcroy's  law,  in  1803, 
took  as  the  basis  of  its  school-system  secondary 
schools,  whetlier  established  iiy  the  communes 
or  by  private  individuals;  the  Government  un- 
dertook to  aid  these  schools  by  grants  for  build- 
ings, for  scholarships,  and  for  gratuities  to  the 
masters;  it  prescribed  Latin,  French,  geography, 
history,  ancl  mathematics  as  the  instruction  to  be 
given  in  them.  They  were  placed  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  prefects.  To  continue 
and  complete  the  secondary  schools  were  insti- 
tuted the  lyceums;  here  the  instruction  was  to 
be  Greek  and  Latin,  rhetoric,  logic,  literature, 
moral  philosophy,  and  the  elements  of  the  math- 
ematical and  physical  sciences.  The  pupils 
were  to  lie  of  four  kinds:  boursiers  naf'  naux, 
scliclars  nominated  to  scholarships  by  the  State ; 
pupils  from  tlie  secondary  schools,  admitted  as 
free  scliolars  by  competition;  paying  boarders, 
and  paying  day-scl.olars." — M.  Arnold,  ikhool» 
and  UitivcrHtien  on,  the  Continent,  cIi.  1. 

France  :  A.  D.  1833-1889. — The  present  Sys- 
tem of  Public  lastruction, — "The  question  of 
the  education  of  _'outli  is  one  of  those  in  which 
the  struggle  between  the  Catholic  Church  and 
the  civil  power  has  been,  and  still  is,  hottest.  It 
is  also  one  of  those  in  which  France,  which  for  a 
long  time  had  remained  far  in  tlie  rear,  has  made 
most  efforts,  and  achieved  most  progress  in  these 
latter  years.  .  .  .  Napoleon  I.  conceived  educa- 
tion as  a  means  of  disciplining  minds  and  wills 
and  moulding  them  into  conformity  witli  the  po- 
litical system  which  he  had  put  in  force ;  accord- 
ingly he  gave  the  University  the  monopoly  of 
public  education.  Apart  from  the  offlcial  system 
of  teaching,  no  competition  was  allowed  except 
that  specially  authorised,  regulated,  r.nd  con- 
trolled by  the  State  itself.  Religious  instruction 
found  a  place  in  the  oflicial  programmes,  and 
membei's  of  the  clergy  were  even  called  on  to 
supply  it,  but  this  instruction  itself,  and  these 
priests  themselves,  were  under  the  authority  of 
the  State.  Hence  two  results :  on  the  one  hand 
the  speedy  impoverishment  of  University  educa- 
tion, ...  on  the  other  hand,  the  incessant  agita- 
tion of  all  those  who  were  prevented  by  the 
special  organisation  given  to  the  University  from 
expounding  tlieir  ideas  or  the  faith  that  was  ia 
them  from  the  professorial  chair.  This  agita- 
tion was  begun  and  carried  on  by  the  Catholic 
Church  itself,  as  soon  as  it  felt  more  at  liberty  to 
let  Its  ambitions  be  discerned.    On  this  point  the 


716 


EDUCATION. 


The  Frmeh 
School  Synlem. 


EDUCATION. 


Church  met  with  the  support  of  a  pood  luimhor 
of  Liberals,  nnd  it  is  in  a  prcat  monsure  to  its  in- 
itiiitive  thiit  lire  due  tlio  three  importiint  laws  of 
183!i  1850,  nnd  1875,  wliicli  have  respectively 
given  to  France  freedom  of  primary  e<lucation, 
of  secondary  education,  and  finally  that  of  higher 
education;  which  have  given,  that  is  to  say,  the 
right  to  every  one,  un.ier  certain  conditions  of 
capacity  and  character,  to  open  ririvate  schools 
in  competition  with  *he  three  orders  of  public 
schools.  But  the  Church  did  not  stop  there. 
Hardly  had  it  insured  liberty  to  its  educational 
institutions  —  a  liberty  by  wldch  all  citizens 
might  profit  alilte,  but  of  which  its  own  strong 
organisation  and  powerful  resources  enabled  it 
more  easily  to  ;iikc  advantage  —  hardly  was  this 
result  obtained  than  the  Church  tried  to  lay 
hands  on  the  University  itself,  nnd  to  make  its 
doctrines  p,>™r".o'int  there.  .  .  .  Tlieuce  arose 
a  movement  liostib  to  the  enterprises  of  the 
Church,  wliich  lias  /und  expression  since  1880 
in  a  series  of  law,  lich  excluded  her  little  by 
little  from  the  pcjiions  eho  had  won,  nnd  only 
left  to  her,  as  to  all  Jther  citizens,  the  liberty  to 
teach  apart  from  and  concurrently  witli,  the 
State.  The  righi.  to  confer  degrees  has  been 
given  bacl'  to  the  Statu  alone;  the  privilege  of 
till  '!cttci'of  obedience '  has  been  nbolished;  re- 
ligious teaching  has  been  excluded  from  the 
primary  schools;  and  after  having  'laicized,'  as 
the  French  phrase  is,  the  curriculum,  the  effort 
was  persistently  made  to  '  laicize '  the  staff.  .  .  . 
From  the  University  point  of  view,  the  territory 
of  France  is  divided  into  seventeen  ncndemies, 
the  chief  towns  of  which  are  Paris,  Douui,  Caen, 
Rennes,  Poitiers,  Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  Mont- 
pellier,  Aix,  Grenoble,  Chnmbery,  Lyons,  Besan- 
con,  Nancy,  Dijon,  Clermont,  and  Algiers. 
Each  academy  has  a  rector  at  its  head,  who, 
under  the  authority  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  is  charged  with  the  material  admin- 
istration of  higher  and  secondary  education,  and 
with  the  methods  of  primary  instruction  in  his 
district.  The  administration  of  this  last  belongs 
to  the  prefect  of  each  department,  assisted  by  an 
academy-inspector.  In  each  of  these  three  suc- 
cessive stages — department,  academy,  and  central 
administration  —  is  placed  a  council,  possessing 
administrative  and  disciplinary  powers.  The 
Departmental  Council  of  Public  Instruction, 
which  comprises  six  oflicials  .  .  .  forms  a  disci- 
plinary council  for  primary  education,  either 
public  or  free  (i.  e. ,  State  or  private).  This  coun- 
cil sees  to  the  application  of  programmes,  lays 
down  rules,  and  appoints  one  or  more  delegates 
in  each  canton  to  superintend  primary  schools. 
Tlie  Academic  Council  .  .  .  performs  similar 
functions  with  regard  to  secondary  and  higher 
education.  The  Higher  Council  of  Public  In- 
struction sits  at  Pans.  It  comprises  forty-four 
elected  representatives  of  the  three  educational 
orders,  nine  University  officials,  and  four  '  free ' 
schoolmasters  appointed  by  the  Jlinister,  and  is 
the  disciplinary  court  of  appeal  for  the  two  pre- 
ceding councils.  .  .  .  Such  is  the  framework, 
administrative  as  well  as  judicial,  in  which  edu- 
cation, whether  public  or  free,  lives  and  moves. 
.  .  .  Since  1882  Primary  Education  has  been 
compulsory  for  all  children  of  both  sexes,  from 
the  age  of  six  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  year, 
unless  before  reaching  the  latter  age  they  have 
been  able  to  pass  an  examination,  and  to  gain  the 
certificate  of  primary  studies.     To  satisfy  the 


law,  the  child's  name  must  he  entered  at  a  pub- 
lic or  private  school;  he  may,  however,  continue 
to  receive  instruction  iit  home,  but  in  this  case, 
after  he  has  reached  the  age  of  eight,  he  must  be 
examined  c'very  rear  before;  a  State  board.  .  .  . 
At  the  age  of  thlrt<'en  the  child  is  set  free  from 
further  teaching,  whatever  may  lie  the  results  of 
the  education  he  has  received.  ...  In  imblic 
schools  the  course  of  instruction  does  not  include, 
as  wo  liavo  said,  religious  teaching ;  hut  one  day 
in  the  week  the  scliool  must  take  a  holiday,  to 
allow  parents  to  provide  such  teaching  for  their 
children,  if  they  wish  to  do  so.  The  school 
building  cannot  be  used  for  that  purpose.  In 
private  schools  religious  instruction  may  be 
given,  but  this  is  optional.  The  programme  of 
primary  education  includes:  moral  and  civic  in- 
struction; reading,  writing,  French,  geography 
and  history  (particularly  those  of  France);  gen- 
eral notions  of  law  and  science ;  the  elements  of 
drawing,  modelling,  and  music;  and  gj'ninastics. 
No  person  of  either  sex  can  become  a  teacher, 
either  public  or  private,  unless  he  possesst^s  the 
'  certificate  of  capacity  for  primary  instruction ' 
given  by  a  State  board.  For  the  future  —  put- 
ting aside  certain  temporary  arrangements  —  no 
member  of  a  religious  community  will  be  eligible 
for  the  post  of  master  in  a  public  school.  .  .  . 
As  a  general  rule,  every  commune  is  comiielled 
to  maintain  a  public  school,  and,  if  it  has  more 
than  500  inhabitants,  a  second  school  for  girls 
.inly.  .  .  .  The  sum  total  of  the  State's  expenses 
for  primary  education  in  1887  is  as  high  as  eighty- 
five  million  francs  (,£3,400,000),  and  that  without 
mentioning  grants  for  school  buildings,  whereas 
in  1877  the  sum  total  was  only  twelve  millions 
(£480,000).  .  .  .  From  1877  to  1880,  the  number 
of  public  schools  rose  from  61,000  to  00,500; 
that  of  the  pupils  from  4,200,000  to  4,500,000, 
with  08,600  masters  and  mistres.ses;  that  of  train- 
ing schools  for  male  teachers  from  79  to  89,  of 
training  schools  for  female  teachers  from  18  to 
77,  with  5,400  pupils  (3,500  of  them  women),  and 
1,200  masters.  As  to  the  results  a  single  fact 
will  suffice.  In  these  ten  years,  before  the  gen- 
erations newly  called  to  military  service  have 
been  able  to  profit  fully  by  the  new  state  of 
things,  the  proportion  of  illiterate  recruits  (which 
is  annually  made  out  directly  after  the  lots  are 
drawn)  has  already  fallen  from  15  to  11  per  cent." 
— A.  Lebon  and  P.  Pelet,  Prance  as  it  is,  ch.  5.  — 
"  In  1873,  after  the  dreadful  disaster  of  the  war, 
Monsieur  Thiers,  President  of  the  Gouvemement 
de  la  Defense  Nationale,  and  Monsieur  Jules 
Simon,  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  felt  that 
what  was  most  important  for  tlie  nation  was  a 
new  system  of  public  instruction,  and  they  set 
themselves  the  task  of  determining  the  basis  on 
which  this  new  system  was  to  be  established.  In 
September,  1883,  Slonsieur  Jules  Simon  issued  a 
memorable  circular  calling  the  attention  of  all 
the  most  distinguished  leaders  of  thought  to 
some  proposed  plans.  He  did  not  long  remain  in 
power,  but  in  his  retirement  he  wrote  a  book  en- 
titled: '  Refornic  de  I'Enseignement  Secondaire.' 
Monsieur  Breal,  who  was  commissioned  to  visit 
the  schools  of  Germany,  soon  after  publisiied 
another  book  which  aroused  new  enthusiasm  in 
France.  .  .  .  From  that  day  a  complete  educa- 
tional reform  was  decided  on.  In  1872  wq  had 
at  the  Ministere  de  I'lnstruction  Publique  three 
distinguished  men:  Monsieur  Dumont  for  the 
Enseignement  Superieur,   one  from  whom  we 


nr 


EDUCATION. 


Irifh 
National  SchooU. 


EDUCATION. 


hoped  much  nnd  wlioae  onrly  denth  we  luwl  to 
mourn  in  1H84 ;  Monsieur  Zi''V()rt  for  tlie  Enseignc- 
nient  Sceondairc,  wlio  nlsodicd  ore  tlie  good  seed 
wliicli  lie  Imd  sown  had  Hpning  up  nnd  borne 
fruit  (1HH7);  imd  Monsieur  Huisson  to  wlioso  wis- 
dom, zeiil,  nnd  energy  we  owe  most  of  tlie  work 
of  tiie  Enseignement  I'rimnire.  At  tlieir  side, 
of  maturer  years  than  tliey,  stood  Monsieur  Gre- 
ard,  |{<'Ctour  de  I'Academie  de  Paris.  .  .  .  All 
the  (■ducutionists  of  t!io  first  French  Revolution 
had  insisted  on  the  solidarity  of  the  three  orders 
of  education;  maintaining  thr:  li  was  not  pos- 
sible to  separate  one  from  another,  nnd  that  tlierc 
ought  to  be  a  close  correspondence  between  tlicm. 
This  principle  lies  at  the  root  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  French  national  instruction.  Having  es- 
trvblished  this  principle,  the  four  leaders  called 
upon  all  classes  ,)f  teachers  to  work  with  them, 
and  professors  wlio  liad  devoted  their  life  to  the 
promotion  of  superior  instruction  brought  their 
experience  nnd  their  powers  of  organization  to 
bear  upon  schools  for  all  classes,  from  the  richest 
to  the  poorest.  .  .  .  But  to  reform  and  to  recon- 
struct a  system  of  instruction  is  not  asm»!l  task. 
It  is  not  easy  to  change  at  once  the  old  methods, 
to  give  "x  new  spirit  to  the  masters,  to  i  jach  those 
who  think  that  what  had  been  sufflcient  for  them 
need  not  be  alteied  and  is  sufflcient  forever. 
However,  we  must  say  that  as  soon  as  the  French 
teachers  heard  of  the  great  changes  which  were 
about  to  take  place,  they  were  all  anxious  to  rise 
to  the  demands  made  on  them,  and  were  eager 
for  advice  and  help.  Lectures  on  pedagogy  and 
psychology  were  given  to  them  by  the  highest 
professors  of  philosophy,  and  these  lessons  were 
so  much  appreciated  that  the  attention  of  the 
University  of  France  was  called  to  the  necessity 
for  creating  at  the  Sorbonne  a  special  course  of 
lectures  on  pedagogy.  Eleven  hundred  masters 
nnd  mistresses  attended  them  the  first  year  that 
they  were  inaugurated ;  from  that  time  till  now 
their  number  has  always  been  increasing.  Now 
we  have  at  the  Sorbonne  n  Chaire  Magistralo  and 
Conferences  for  the  training  of  masters  and  pro- 
fessors; and  the  faculties  at  Livons,  Bordeaux, 
Nancy,  nnd  Montpellier  have  followed  the  ex- 
ample given  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.  ...  In 
1878,  the  Museo  Pedagogique  was  founded;  in 
1882,  began  the  publication  of  the  Revue  P&ia- 
gogique  and  the  Revue  Internationale  de  I'En- 
seignement.  Four  large  volumes  of  the  Diction- 
nalre  de  Pedagogic,  each  containing  about  3,000 
closely  printed  pages,  have  also  come  out  under 
the  editorship  of  Monsieur  Buisson,  all  the  work 
of  zealous  teachers  and  educationists.  In  1879 
normal  schools  were  opened.  Then  in  1880  pri- 
mary schools,  and  in  1882  we  may  say  that  the 
Ecoles  Matcrnelles  and  the  Ecolcs  Enfantines 
were  created,  so  different  are  they  from  the  infant 
schools  or  the  Salles  d'Asile;  in  1883  a  new  ex- 
amination was  established  for  the  Profcssorat  and 
the  Direction  des  Ecoles  Normales,  as  well  as  for 
the  inspectors  of  primary  Instruction;  and  in 
July,  1889,  the  law  about  public  and  private 
teaching  was  promulgated,  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  important  that  has  ever  been  passed  by  the 
Republic." — Mme.  Th.  Armagnnc,  The  JElduca- 
tional  lienaissaiice  of  France  {Education,  Sept., 
1890). 
France :  A.  D.  1890-1891.— Statistics.— The 


whole  number  of  pupils  registered  in  the  pri- 
mary, elementary  and  superior  schools,  public  and 
private,  of  France  and  Algiers  (excluding  the  I  of  National  Education 

718 


"ecoles  matcrnelles ")  for  the  school-year  1890- 
91,  was  5,593,883;  of  which  4,:!84,905  were  in 
public  schoo.H  (it. 700,801,  •'laVriue,"  nnd  024,304 
"congreganiste  ),  and  1,208,978  in  private 
schools  (151,413  "latques,"and  1,057,500  "con- 
greganiste"). Of  36,484  communes,  85,503  pos- 
sessed n  public  school,  and  875  were  joined  for 
school  purposes  with  another  commune.  The 
male  teachers  employed  in  the  elementary  and 
superior  public  schools  numbered  28,057;  fenmlo 
teachers,  24,273;  total  52,930.— Ministilrc  de  I'ln- 
struction  publique,  Renivie  des  Mats  de  situation 
dp  I' enseignement  primair^  j»>ur  i'annee  seolaire 
1890-1891. 

Ireland. — "The  present  system  of  National 
Education  in  Irclancl  was  founded  in  1831.  In  this 
year  grants  of  public  money  for  the  education  of 
the  poor  were  entru.sted  to  the  lord-lieutenant  in 
order  that  they  might  be  applied  to  the  ed.ica- 
tion  of  the  people.  Thin  education  was  to  bo 
given  to  children  of  every  religious  belief,  and 
to  be  superintended  by  commissioners  ai)pointed 
for  the  purpose.  The  great  principh;  on  which 
the  system  was  founded  was  that  of  '  united 
secular  nnd  separate  religious  instruction. '  No 
child  should  be  required  to  attend  any  religious 
instruction  which  should  be  contrary  to  the 
wishes  of  his  or  her  parents  or  guardians. 
Times  were  to  be  set  apart  during  which  chil- 
dren were  to  have  such  religious  instruction  as 
their  parents  might  think  proper.  It  wns  to  1)0 
the  duty  of  the  Commissioners  to  see  that  theso 
principles  were  carried  out  and  not  infringed  on 
in  nny  way.  They  had  also  power  to  give  or 
refuse  money  to  those  who  applied  for  aid  to 
build  schools.  Schools  are  'vested'  and  'non- 
vested.'  Vested  schools  arc  those  built  by  the 
Board  of  National  Education ;  non-vested  schools 
are  the  ordinary  schools,  and  are  managed  by 
those  who  built  them.  If  a  committee  of  per- 
sons build  a  school,  it  is  looked  on  by  the  Board 
as  the  'patron.'  If  a  landowner  or  private  per- 
son builds  a  school,  he  is  regarded  as  the  patron 
if  he  has  no  committee.  The  patron,  whether 
landlord  or  committee,  liaa  power  to  appoint  or 
dismiss  a  manager,  who  corresponds  with  the 
Board.  The  manager  is  also  responsible  for  the 
due  or  thorough  observance  of  tli  ■  laws  and 
rules.  Teachers  are  paid  by  him  ah.  r  he  certi- 
fies that  the  laws  have  been  kept,  and  gives  the 
attendance  for  each  quarter.  When  an  indi- 
vidual is  patron,  he  may  appoint  himself  mana- 
ger, and  thus  fill  both  ofBc's.  .  .  .  The  teac'icrs 
are  paid  by  salaries  nnd  by  results  fees.  The 
Boards  of  Guardians  have  power  to  contribute 
to  these  results  fees.  Some  unions  do  so  nnd  are 
called  'contributory.'  School  managers  in  Ire- 
land are  nearly  nlwnys  clerics  of  sonie  denomina- 
tion. There  nre  sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  lay 
managers,  .  .  .  From  the  census  returns  of  1881 
it  appears  that  but  fifty-nine  per  cent,  of  the 
people  of  Ireland  ore  able  to  read  and  write. 
Tlie  greater  number  of  national  schools  through- 
out Ireland  are  what  are  called  'unmixed,'  that 
is,  attended  by  ciiildren  of  one  denomination 
only.  The  rest  of  the  schools  are  called  '  mixed, ' 
that  is,  attended  by  children  of  different  forms 
of  religion.  The  percentage  of  schools  that  show 
a  '  mixed '  attendance  tends  to  become  smaller 
each  year.  .  .  .  There  are  also  twenty- nine 
'model'  schools  in  different  parts  of  Ireland. 
These  Bchool8_aro  managed  directly  by  the  Board 
.  .  According  to  the 


EDUCATION. 


Pnutia. 


EDUCATION. 


n'port  of  the  CoiiinilssioncrH  of  National  Eilucu- 
tioii  for  1890,  the  '  pcrci'iitagc^  of  avcra);('  atti'iic' 
Hiicit  to  tlio  avcraKO  iiiiiiiIht  of  childrpii  on  the 
rolls  of  tlio  8(!lKH)ls  was  Imt  nO.O,'  and  the  per 
rx'ntaKC  of  school  attcndanci!  to  the  csliniatcd 
population  of  hcIiooI  agci  in  Ireland  woiild  he 
IcHS  than  r>0.  Dilfcrent  reasons  niiftlil  be  given 
for  tills  small  pereentagi^  of  attendant  •.  The 
chief  reasons  are,  first,  ntten<!ancc  at  school  not 
being  compulsory,  and  next,  education  not  being 
free.  .  .  .  The  pence  paid  for  school  fees  in  Ire- 
land may  seem,  to  many  people,  a  small  matter. 
Hut  in  a  cotintry  like  Ireland,  where  little  money 
circulates,  and  a  numbei  of  the  (Hople  are  very 
poor,  school  pence  arc  often  not  easily  found  every 
week.  In  1890,  i:l01,.V)0  48.  and  8(1.  was  paid 
in  .  i;ho(il  fees,  l)einir  an  average  of  4s.  md.  ])er 
unit  of  average  attendance." — the  IHkIi  l\<mint\ 
III/  II  (liiiirdinn  of  tlw  Pmir,  eJi.  8. 

Norway. — "In  1730  the  Hchools  throughout 
the  country  were  reguhited  by  a  royal  ordinance, 
but  this  paid  so  little  regard  to  the  economical 
and  physical  condition  of  Xorway  that  it  had  to  be 
altered  and  niodilied  as  early  as  1741.  Comiiul- 
8ory  instruction,  however,  had  thus  been  adopted, 
securing  to  every  child  in  the  country  instruction 
in  the  C'liristian  doctrine  and  in  reading,  and  this 
coercion  was  retained  in  all  later  laws.  .  .  . 
Many  portions  of  the  coimtry  are  intersected  by 
higli  mountains  and  deep  lionls,  so  that  a  small 
population  is  Hcattered  over  a  surface  of  several 
miles.  In  such  localities  the  law  has  established 
'ambulatory  schools,'  whose  teachers  travel 
from  one  farm  to  another,  living  with  the  differ- 
ent peasants.  Although  this  kind  of  instruction 
has  often  been  most  incomplete  nd  the  teachers 
very  mediocre,  still  educational  coercion  has 
everywhere  been  in  force,  and  Christian  instruc- 
tion everywhere  provided  for  the  children. 
These  'ambulatory  schools'  formerly  existed  in 
large  numben,  but  with  the  increase  of  wealth 
and  population,  and  the  growing  interest  taken 
in  e<lucation,  their  number  has  gradually  dimin- 
ished, and  that  of  fixed  circle-schools  augmented 
in  the  sume  proportion.  ' — U.  Qade,  liep  '  on  the 
Eilucntioiial  System  of  Xorway  ( IT.  S.  Bureau  of 
Miuaition,  Circulars  of  Information,  July,  1871). 
— "  School  attendance  is  compulsory  for  at  least 
12  we'^ks  each  year  for  all  children  in  the  coun- 
try districts  from  8  years  of  age  to  confirmation, 
and  from  7  years  to  confirmation  in  the  towns. 
Acconiing  to  the  law  of  1889,  which  in  a  meas- 
ure only  emphasizes  preceding  laws,  each  school 
is  to  have  the  necessary  furnishings  and  all 
indispensable  school  material.  The  Norwegians 
are  so  intent  upon  giving  instruction  to  all  chil- 
dren that  in  case  of  poverty  of  the  parents  the 
authorities  furnish  text-books  and  the  necessary 
clothing,  so  that  school  privileges  may  be  ac- 
corded to  all  of  school  age."— U.  8.  Comm'i' of 
Education,  Report,  1889-90,  p.  013. 

Prussia:  A.  D.  1809. — Education  and  the 
liberation  movement. — "  The  most  important  era 
in  the  liistory  of  public  instruction  in  Prussia,  as 
well  as  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  opens  with  the 
efforts  put  forth  by  the  king  and  people,  to  rescue 
the  kingdom  from  the  yoke  of  Napoleon  in  1809. 
In  that  year  the  array  was  remodeled  and  every 
citizen  converted  into  a  soldier;  landed  property- 
was  declared  free  of  feudal  service ;  restrictions 
on  freedom  of  trade  were  abolished,  and  the  whole 
state  was  reorganized.  Great  reliance  was  placed 
on  infusing  a  German  &    rlt  into  the  people  by 

7 


giving  them  freer  access  to  improved  Institutions 
of  education  fn^m  the  common  school  to  the  uni- 
versity. Under  the  councils  of  llanlenberg, 
Ilumb'ildt,  Htein,  Altenstein,  these  riforms  aial 
improvements  were  projected,  carried  on,  and 
perfected  in  less  than  a  single  generation.  The 
movement  in  tichalf  of  popular  schools  com- 
mence<l  by  inviting  ('.  A.  ZcIUt,  of  Wirtemberg, 
to  Prussia.  Z(!ller  was  ,.  young  theologian,  who 
had  studied  under  Pestalo/zi  in  Hwitzerlaial,  and 
was  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  method  and 
spirit  of  his  master.  On  his  return  he  had  con- 
vened the  school  feac^hers  of  Wirtemberg  in  barns, 
for  want  of  better  accommiMlations  being  allowed 
him,  and  inspired  them  with  a  zeal  for  Pesta- 
lo/./.i's  methods,  and  for  i  better  education  of  the 
whole  people.  On  removing  to  Pru.ssia  he  first 
took  charge  of  the  seminary  at  Koenigsberg,  soon 
after  founded  the  seminary  at  Karalene,  and  went 
about  into  different  pi-oviaces  meeting  .vith 
teachers,  holding  conferences,  visiting  schools, 
and  inspiring  school  olllcers  with  the  right  spirit. 
The  next  step  taken  was  to  send  a  numl)er  of 
young  men,  mostly  theologians,  to  Pestalozzi's 
institution  at  IlTerten,  to  acquire  his  method,  and 
on  their  return  to  place  them  in  new,  or  reorgan- 
izeil  teachers'  seminaries.  To  these  new  agiuits 
in  school  improvement  were  joined  a  large  body 
of  zealous  teachers,  and  patriotic  and  enlightened 
citizens,  who,  in  ways  and  methods  of  their  own, 
labored  incessantly  to  confirm  the  Pru.ssian  state, 
by  forming  new  organs  for  ;,,.,  internal  life,  and 
new  means  of  protection  f .  .im  foreign  foes.  "They 
l)roved  themselves  truly  educators  of  the  people. 
Although  the  government  thus  not  only  encour- 
aged, but  directly  aided  in  the  introduction  of 
the  methods  of  Pestalozzi  into  the  public  schools 
of  Prussia,  still  the  school  board  in  the  different 
provinces  sustained  and  encouraged  those  who 
approved  and  taught  on  different  systems.  .  .  . 
Music,  which  was  one  of  Pestalozzi's  grei.t  m- 
struments  of  culture,  was  made  the  vehicle  of 
patriotic  songs,  and  through  them  the  heart  of 
all  Germany  was  moved  to  bitter  hatred  of  the 
conqueror  who  had  desolated  her  fields  and 
homes,  and  humbled  the  pride  of  her  monarchy. 
All  these  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  element- 
ary education,  accompanied  by  expensive  modi- 
fications in  the  establishments  of  secondary  and 
superior  education,  were  made  when  the  treasu.'-y 
was  impovLrished,  and  taxes  the  most  exorbitant 
in  amount  were  levied  on  every  province  and 
commune  of  the  kingdom." — II.  Barnard,  Na- 
tioiml  Education  in  Europe,  pp.  83-84. —  For  this 
notable  educational  work  begun  in  Prussia  in 
1809,  and  which  gave  a  new  character  to  the  na- 
tion, "the  Providentia-  man  appeared  in  Hum- 
boldt, as  great  a  master  of  the  science  and  art  of 
education  as  Scharnhori'.  was  a  master  of  the 
organisation  of  war.  Not  only  was  he  himself, 
OS  a  scholar  and  an  investigator,  on  a  level  with 
the  very  first  of  his  age,  not  only  had  he  lived 
with  precisely  those  masters  of  literature,  Schil- 
ler and  Goethe,  who  were  most  deliberate  in  their 
self-culture,  and  have  therefore  left  behind  most 
instruction  on  the  higher  parts  of  education,  but 
he  had  been  specially  intimate  with  F.  A.  Wolf. 
It  is  not  generally  known  in  England  that  Wolf 
was  not  merely  the  greatest  philologer  but  also 
tlie  greatest  teacher  and  educationist  of  his  time. 
.  .  .  Formed  by  such  teachers,  and  supported  by 
a  more  intense  belief  in  ctilture  than  almost  any 
man  of  his  time,  Humboldt  began  bis  work  in 


19 


EDUCATION. 


Uumbolttt'ii 
uxtrk  111  I'nutta. 


EDUCATION. 


April,  1800,  III  primiiry  I'ductitlou  Fich'.o  Imtl 
iilrcfttly  poiiitc'il  •()  I'c'Htiifn/.zl  iiH  tlie  Iw'st  Kuidc, 
()ii(!  of  timt  rcforiniTH  iliariplcH,  C.  A.  Zcllrr, 
>viiHHiimiii(ino<l  to  Kniilf^BlxT^  to  foiiiiil  n  norniiil 
M'hiH)!,  wliiU;  tlic  reformer  hiiiiHi'If.  in  liiii  w(M>l(ly 
educat.'iiniil  journiil,  flii-iTPil  fiilli'a  l'ru8.sia  liy  lii-s 
piini'gyric,  imd  wroto  I'litliiiHiiiRtirally  to  Nicolo- 
viiiH  pronouiK.'ing  liirn  ntul  liit>  friends  tlio  xiilt 
imd  lenven  of  tlie  eiirtli  tlmt  w()\dd  soon  leiivcn 
tlie  whole  miws.  It  is  relat<'d  tlmt  in  the  many 
ditllcultiea  which  Zeller  uot  unnnturnlly  had  to 
contend  with,  the  Kind's  genuine  benevolence, 
interest  in  practical  improvement,  and  stn>ng 
family  feeling,  were  of  decisive  use.  .  .  .  The 
reform  of  the  Gymnasia  was  also  highly  success- 
ful. Hllvern  here  was  among  the  most  active  of 
those  who  worked  uniler  Humboldt's  direction. 
In  deference  to  the  auth  ity  of  Wolf  the  classics 
preserved  their  traditional  position  of  lionour, 
and  ])articului  importance  was  attached  to  Greek. 
.  .  .  But  it  was  on  the  highest  department  of 
education  that  Humlxildt  left  his  murk  mo.st 
visibly.  He  founded  the  University  of  Berlin; 
he  gave  to  Europe  a  new  seat  of  learning,  which 
has  ever  since  stood  on  an  equality  with  the  very 
greatest  of  those  of  which  Europe  boasted  before. 
We  are  not.  indeed  to  suppose  that  the  Idea  of 
such  a  University  sprang  up  for  the  first  time 
at  this  moment,  or  in  the  bnun  of  Humboldt. 
Among  all  the  loiises  which  befell  Prussia  by  the 
Peace  of  Tilsit  none  was  felt  more  bitterly  tlian 
the  loss  of  the  University  of  Hulle,  where  Wolf 
himself  liad  made  his  fame.  Immediately  after 
tiio  blow  fell,  two  of  the  Professors  of  Holle 
made  their  way  to  Memel  and  laid  before  the 
King  a  proposal  to  establish  a  HIgli  School  at 
Berlin.  This  was  on  August  22nd,  1807.  .  .  . 
On  September  4tli  came  an  Order  of  Cabinet,  in 
which  It  was  declared  to  be  one  of  the  most  im- 

fortjint  objects  to  compensate  the  loss  of  Halle, 
t  was  added  that  neitlier  of  the  two  Universities 
which  remained  to  Prussia,  those  of  Kftnigsberg 
and  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder,  could  be  made  to 
supply  the  place  of  Halle,  KOnigsberg  being  too 
remote  from  the  seat  of  Government  and  Frank- 
furt not  sufflciently  provided  with  means.  At 
Berlin  a  University  could  best,  and  at  least  ex 
pense,  be  established.  Accordingly  all  funds 
which  Imd  hitherto  gone  to  Halle  were  to  go  for 
the  future  to  Berlin,  and  assurances  were  to  be 
given  to  the  expelled  Professors  which  might 
prevent  their  talents  being  lost  to  the  country. 
A  University  ia  not  founded  in  a  day,  and  accoid- 
Ingly  while  Stein  held  office  the  design  did  not 
pass  beyond  the  stage  of  discussion.  .  .  .  Hum- 
boldt scut  in  his  Report  on  May  13,  1809,  and  on 
August  16th  followed  the  Order  of  Cabinet  as- 
signing to  the  new  University,  along  with  the 
Academies  of  Science  and  Art,  an  annual  dota- 
tion of  150,000  thalers,  and  the  Palace  of  Prince 
Henry  as  Its  residence.  During  the  rest  of  his 
term  of  office  Humboldt  was  occupied  in  negotia- 
tions with  eminent  men  of  science  oil  over  Ger- 
many, whose  services  he  hoped  to  procure.  He 
was  certainly  not  unsuccessful.  He  secured 
Flchte  for  Philosophy ;  Schleiermacher,  De  Wette, 
and  Marheiaeke  for  Theology;  Savigny  and 
Schmalz  for  Jurisprudence;  Priediilnder,  Kohl- 
rausch,  Hufoland,  and  Reil  for  Medicine ;  Wolf, 
Buttmann,  BiJekh,  Helndorf,  and  Spalding  for 
the  Study  of  Antiquity ;  Niebuhr  and  RUhs  for 
History ;  Trallcs  for  Mathematics  (Gauss  refused 
the  Invitation).    The  University  was  opened  at 


Michaelmas  of  1810,  and  as  tiio  first  result  of  It 
the  first  volume  of  Ni'-biihr's  lioman  History, 
opening  so  vast  a  field  of  historical  speculation, 
was  pulili.shcd  In  1811.  .  .  .  Altogether  in  tlmt 
periiMi  of  Uennan  history  the  relations  of  litera 
ture,  or  rather  culture  In  general,  to  politics  are 
remarkable  and  exceptional.  There  had  been  a 
niostextraordinary  intellectual  movement,  n  great 
outpouring  of  genius,  and  yet  this  had  taken 
plate  not,  as  according  to  some  current  tlKuirics 
It  ought  to  iiave  done,  in  the  bosom  of  political 
iilierty,  l)ut  in  a  country  where  liberty  was  un- 
known. And  as  it  was  uot  the  cITect,  so  the  ne\/ 
literature  did  not  seem  disposed  to  become  the 
cause,  of  liljcrty.  Not  only  was  It  careless  of  in- 
ternal liberty,  but  it  was  actually  indilTerent  to 
national  Independence.  The  golden  ago  of  Oer- 
iiian  literature  Is  the  very  period  when  Germany 
was  cimquered  by  France.  .  .  .  So  far  literature 
and  culture  seemed  u  doubtful  lieneflt,  and  might 
almost  bo  compared  to  some  pernicious  drug, 
which  sliould  have  the  power  to  make  men  for- 
get their  country  and  llieir  duties.  Not  un- 
reasonably did  Priedrif:h  Perthes  console  himself 
for  the  disasters  o'  Geniiany  by  reflecting  that 
at  least  they  had  broug.'il  to  tui  end  'the  paper 
time,'  the  fool's  paradise  of  a  life  inai'o  up  of 
nothing  more  substantial  than  literat'irc.  In 
Humboldt's  reform  wo  have  the  compensation  for 
all  Lhis.  Here  while  on  the  .mo  hand  we  see  the 
grand  spectacle  of  a  nation  in  the  last  extremity 
refusing  to  part  with  the  treasures  of  its  higher 
life,  on  the  other  hand  tlmt  higher  life  is  no  longer 
unnaturally  divorced  from  political  life.  It  is 
prized  as  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  State,  as  a 
kind  of  spiritual  weapon  by  wlilch  the  enemy  may 
be  resisted.  And  in  the  new  and  public-spirited 
generation  of  tiiinkcrs,  of  wliich  Flchte  and 
Schleiermacher  were  the  principal  representa- 
tives, culture  returns  to  politics  the  honour  that 
has  been  done  to  it.  .  .  .  In  Humboldt  and  his 
great  achievements  of  1809,  1810,  meet  and  are 
reconciled  the  two  views  of  life  whicli  found 
their  most  extreme  representatives  in  Goethe  and 
Stein." — J.  II.  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein, 
pt.  0,  ch.  3  (v.  2). 

Prussia:  A.  D.  1874.— The  Educational  Ad- 
ministration.— ' '  There  is  no  organic  scliool-law  In 
Prussia,  .  .  .  though  sketches  and  projects  of 
such  a  law  have  more  than  once  been  prepared. 
But  at  present  tlie  public  control  of  the  higher 
schools  is  exercised  througlj  administrative  orders 
and  instructions,  like  the  minutes  of  our  Com- 
mittee of  Council  on  Education.  But  the  admin- 
istrative authority  has  m  Prussia  a  very  dilTerent 
basis  for  its  operations  from  th'it  which  it  has  in 
England,  and  a  much  firmer  one.  It  lias  for  its 
basis  these  articles  of  the  AUgemelne  Landrecht, 
or  common  law  of  Prussia,  whicli  was  drawn  up 
in  writing  in  Frederick  the  Great's  reign,  and 
promulgated  in  1794,  in  the  reign  of  bis  suc- 
cessor:— 'Schools  and  universities  are  State  in- 
stitutions, having  for  their  object  the  instruction 
of  youth  in  useful  and  scientific  knowledge. 
Such  establishments  are  to  be  Instituted  only 
with  the  State's  previous  knowledge  and  consent. 
All  public  schools  and  public  establishments  of 
education  are  under  the  State's  supervision,  and 
must  at  all  times  submit  themselves  to  its  exam- 
inations and  inspections.  Whenever  tlie  ap- 
pointment of  teachers  is  not  by  virtue  of  the 
foundation  or  of  a  special  privilege  vested  In 
certain  persons  or  corporations,  it  belongs  to  the 


720 


EDUCATION. 


Thr  PnuuUm 
ftcHool  Sytlem. 


EDUCATION. 


fltatc.  ■'?vpn  whrrn  tlin  Imi.iodlnto  HupcrvlRloii 
of  such  Hcliools  mill  tlio  itppiiiiitmcnt  of  tlicir 
tctu'luTH  Ih  coinniitU'i)  to  rortiiin  private  pcrsonH 
orcorporiitioiis.  new  tcncliersrnnnotbcappniiitcd, 
mill  important  cliangcs  in  tlio  conHtitutloii  iinil 
toitcliiiii;  of  tliB  Hcliool  ruiinot  bo  adoplpil  witli- 
out  the  previous  liiiowlcilf^o  or  consi'iit  of  tlie 
provliu.iiil  .Hcliool  iiiillioritics.  Tlie  tcaclicrs  in 
till,'  gyniniLsiuniH  and  otlii-r  liif^ltcr  sclioolg  liavo 
tlie  chiiriii'tcr  of  Slate  functionaries.'.  .  .  It 
\v.)uld  lie  a  ndstake  to  supiiose  that  the  State  in 
Prussia  hIiowb  a  graspinR  and  eenlralising  spirit 
in  dealing  with  education;  on  the  contrary,  it 
makes  the  administration  of  It  as  local  as  it  possibly 
can ;  but  it  takes  care  tliat  education  sliall  not  be 
left  to  the  chapter  of  accidents.  .  .  .  Prussia  is 
now  divided  into  eight  provinces,  and  these  eight 
provinces  arc  again  divided  into  twji.ty-si.x  gov- 
ernmental districts,  or  Hi'glerungen.  There  Is 
a  Provincial  School  Hoard  (Provinzial-Sehulcol- 
k'gium)  in  the  chief  town  of  each  of  the  eight 
provinces,  and  a  Oovcrnniental  District  Hoard  in 
that  of  each  of  the  twenty -six  Hegierungen.  In 
general,  the  State's  relations  with  the  liiglier 
<'lass  of  secondary  schools  are  exercised  through 
the  Provincial  Board ;  its  relations  with  the  lower 
class  of  them,  and  with  the  primary  schools, 
through  tlie  District  Board.  In  Herlin,  the  re- 
lations with  these  also  are  managed  by  the  Pro- 
vincial Board.  A  Provinzial-Schulcollegium  has 
for  its  president  the  High  President  of  the  pro- 
vince; for  Its  director  the  vice-president  of  that 
governmental  district  which  hapjiens  to  have  for 
its  centre  the  provincial  capita'.  The  Board  has 
two  or  three  other  members,  of  whom,  in  general, 
one  is  a  Catholic  and  one  is  a  Protestant;  ami 
one  is  always  a  man  practically  conversant  with 
school  matters.  The  District  Board  lias  in  the 
provincial  capitals  the  same  president  and  director 
as  the  Provincial  Board ;  in  the  other  centres  of 
Rcgierungen  It  has  for  its  president  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Kegierung,  and  three  or  four  mem- 
bers selected  on  the  same  principle  as  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Provincial  Board.  The  provincial 
State  autliority,  therefore,  is,  in  general,  for 
gymnasiums,  the  larger  progymnasiums,  and 
Kealschulen  of  the  first  rank,  the  Provincial 
School  Board;  for  the  smaller  progymnasiums, 
liealschulen  of  the  second  rank,  the  higher 
Burgher  Schools,  and  the  primary  schools  of  all 
kinds,  the  Governmental  District  Board.  Both 
boards  are  in  continual  communication  with  tho 
Educational  Minister  at  Berlin.  .  .  .  Besides  the 
central  and  provincial  administration  there  is  a 
local  or  municipal  administration  for  schools  that 
arc  not  Crown  patronage  schools.  ...  In  most 
towns  the  local  authority  forschoolsof  municipal 
patronage  is  the  town  magistracy,  assisted  by  a 
Stadtschulrath;  sometimes  tlie  local  authority  is 
a  Curatoriumor  Schulcommission." — M.  Arnold, 
Higher  Schools  and  Univenitics  in  Germany,  ch. 
3. — "  The  secondary  school  dllTers  from  the  ele- 
mentary schools  by  a  course  of  instruction  going 
beyond  the  immediate  demands  of  every-day 
life ;  from  the  special  school,  by  the  more  gen- 
eral character  of  the  courses  of  instruction ;  from 
the  university,  by  its  preparatory  character.  It 
has  the  special  aim  to  give  that  sound  basis  of 
scientific  and  literary  education  which  enables  a 
man  to  participate  in  solving  the  higher  prob- 
lems of  life  in  church,  state,  and  society.  In 
accordance  with  their  historical  development, 
two  directions  can  be  clearly  traced,  viz.,  the 


gymnasium  and  the  real-school:  the  former  com- 

prising  gymnasl'i  and  pro-gymnasia;  and  the  lat- 
ter real-sehoolsof  the  first  class,  realseliools  of  the 
W'cond  class,  and  higher  burgher-schiHils." — IUhI. 
of  Seeomlnry  In»trurtii>n  in  (lernumy  (U.  S.  Hit- 
reau  of  Eduaition.  CircuUirf  of  Informntinn,  1N74, 
110.  3),  i>.  41. — "The  name  gymnasium  came  in'.o 
use  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Tin 
miiiistfrlal  (lecreeof  the  lUtliof  November,  1813, 
ordered  that  all  learned  school  institutions,  such 
as  lyceums,  pedagogiums,  coUegiu.iiis,  Latin 
scliiMils,  etc.,  should  lii'ar  the  name-  gymnasium. 
A  gymnasium  is  and  lias  long  been  a  classical 
school." — U.  S.  Comm'r  of  Education,  lieixtrt, 
18S0-U0,  ;).  318. 

Ai.si)  in:  V.  Cousin,  Report  on  the  »tate  of 
jiii/>lii\iiiiitriii'ti'iii  ill   I'nimn. 

Prussia  :  A.  D.  1885-1889.— The  Elementary 
School-System. — " '1  lu^  New  Yorker,  anxious 
for  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  the  elementary 
schools  of  his  State,  must  be  struck  forcibly  by 
the  f(,llcwing  merits  of  the  Elementary  School 
System  c '.  Prussia.  .  .  .  1.  Compulsory  education 
laws,  necessitating  a  full  and  regular  attendance 
of  the  children  of  school  age.  2.  OIHclal  courses 
of  study  fixing  the  work  to  be  accomplished  In 
each  of  the  different  grades  of  schools.  Uni- 
formity is  thus  secured  in  the  work  done  in  all 
schools  of  the  same  class.  3.  Definite  i|uallfiea- 
tlons  and  expirience  in  teaching  for  eligibility 
to  the  olBce  of  school  commissioner.  4.  Provi- 
sions elevating  teaching  to  the  dignity  of  a  pro- 
fession and  making  the  tenure  of  oince  secure. 
5.  Trained  teachers  in  rural  as  well  as  city 
districts  and  a  school  year  of  at  least  forty 
weeks.  0.  General  supervision  of  instruction  for 
children  of  school  age  In  private  schools  and 
families,  including  the  qualifications  of  instruct- 
ors. .  .  .  Every  Prussian  child  between  the  ages 
of  6  and  14  must,  except  in  cases  of  severe  ill- 
ness or  other  extraordinary  cause,  be  present  at 
every  session  of  the  school  he  attends.  The  lists 
of  the  children  of  school  age,  in  charge  of  the 
local  police  (in  rural  districts  the  Burgermeister), 
are  kept  so  carefully  that  it  is  impossible  to  es- 
cape the  provisions  of  the  compulsorj  education 
laws,  as  much  so  as  it  is  to  evade  the  military 
service  Dispensations  amounting  to  more  than 
four  weeks  in  the  school  year  are  never  given  to 
children  under  13  years  of  age,  and  to  them  only 
when  sickness  In  the  family  or  other  unusual 
cause  make  it  advisable.  ...  In  order  to  under- 
stand the  qualifications  required  of  school  com- 
missioners (Kreisschulinspektoren)  in  Prussia,  let 
us  review  brlefiy  the  requirements  of  male 
teachers.  1.  Eleiiientary  schools.  It  may  be 
stated  at  the  outset  that  almost  all  the  male  ele- 
mentary school  teachers  are  normal  school  gradu- 
ates. 'To  insure  similarity  in  triiinlng  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  character,  few  foreigners 
and  few  beside  normal  school  (ScliuUehrer-Seml- 
nar)  graduates  are  admitted  to  the  male  teaching 
force.  From  0  to  14  the  wonld-be  teacher  has  at- 
tended, let  us  suppose,  an  elementary  school.  He 
must  then  absolve  the  three  years'  course  laid 
down  for  the  preparatory  schools.  ...  He  is  now 
ready  for  the  normal  school.  At  the  close  of  a 
three  years'  course  at  the  normal  school  be  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  first  teachers'  examination.  If  suc- 
cessful, he  must  next  practice  as  candidate  or 
assistant  teacher  not  less  than  two  years  and  not 
more  than  five  years  before  his  admission  to  the 
final  test.  ...  If  a  teacher  fails  to  pass  the  ex- 


V21 


KUUCATION. 


Prwuinn 
Hekool  UtatUUct. 


EDUCATION. 


Kminntlon  within  flvo  yunm,  Im  in  dropped.  3. 
Middle  m'IkkiIh.  For  tciu'litTR  of  lower  elHRM>8 
the  Hiiiiie  n'cmlrotneiilH  with  Ihe  addition  of 
nl)il!ty  to  teiu'li  ii  foreiKii  tongue,  or  iiiitiiriil 
hiHtory  in  ItH  hrondest  Heiiite,  mid  tli(!  iittuiiiiiient 
of  the  murk  '  kimhI  '  in  till  Hulijeets  lit  the  tiniil 
exainiiiiitiun.  .  .  .  For  higher  eliuweH,  ii  Hpeeliil 
cxatnlniition  provided  for  middle  scliooi  teiieheni. 
,  .  .  There  In  really  no  jtriuiiition  between  ele- 
mentary mid  nilddli!  schools.  The  iiitter  merely 
({o  on  somewhat  further  with  elementiiry  school 
Work,  inlrodiiiiiiK  rreneli,  fiiitiii  mid  English. 
!).  IIIkIi  Kchiiols  (liealschiilcii,  lieiilgvinnaslen, 
Pro^fymnasieu  and  Oyrnimtiien).  All  high  school 
teachers,  except  those  engaged  in  tceliiiical  d-' 
partnient^s,  must  first  almolve  the  nine  years' 
gvmnaMlal  course,  whi(!h  commences  at  the^losc 
o(  the  third  school  year.  Next  comes  the  uni- 
versity course  of  three  or  four  years.  The  can- 
didate h  now  ready  for  t!ie  Htiito  examination. 
The  Huhjects  for  this  State  examination  .  .  .  are 
divided  into  four  classes:  1.  The  ancient  lan- 
guages and  Cierman;  2.  Matheniaticsand  natural 
sciences;  i).  History  and  geography ;  4.  Keligion 
and  llclirew.  At  the  close  of  one  year's  practice 
to  test  teaching  capacity  he  receives  a  second 
certificate  ami  Is  thereupon  engaged  provision- 
nlly.  .  .  .  The  school  coiiiniissioners  .  .  .  are 
cither  former  regular  high  school  teachers,  gen- 
eral doctors  of  iihiiosophy  or  more  rarely  theo- 
logians, or  former  normal  school  teachers.  All 
must  have  had  practical  experience  in  teaching. 
.  .  .  The  work  to  be  accompilslied  in  each  Prus- 
sian elementary  school  is  definitely  laid  down  by 
law.  Each  school  is  not  a  law  unto  itself  as  to 
what  shall  be  done  and  when  and  how  this  is 
to  be  done.  I  have  learned  by  practical  ex- 
perience tliat  the  work  in  ungraded  schools  com- 
pares most  favorably  witli  that  of  graded 
schools." — J.  U.  Parsons,  Jr.,  Prussian  tiklwola 
through  American  eyes,  ch.  1,  sect.  5-10. —  Prus- 
sian elementary  schools  are  now  free.  "  In  this 
respect  Prussia  has  passed  through  three  stiiges. 
Under  the  first  elementary  schools  were  entirely 
self-supporting;  under  the  second  they  received 
State  aid,  but  were  still  largely  self-supporting; 
under  the  third.  Laws  of  1888  and  1889,  element- 
ory  schools  were  made  free  and  the  State  pays 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  cost  of  maintenance. 
Districts  must  pay  for  repairs,  new  buildings 
and  cost  of  heating.  If  unwilling  to  provide 
proper  accommodations  for  the  children  of  school 
age,  they  can  be  forced  by  the  government  to  do 
so.  Poor  districts  may  receive  special  govern- 
ment aid  to  meet  such  expenses.  .  .  .  The  direct 
aim  of  the  laws  of  June  14, 1888,  and  March  31, 
1889,  was  to  lighten  the  burden  of  local  taxation 
for  sc:hool8  for  children  of  school  age.  These 
laws  have  had  a  beneficial  effect  in  increasing 
slightly  the  wages  of  teachers.  Teachers'  sala- 
ries are  still  quite  small  in  Prussia,  particularly 
In  the  case  of  females.  Allowances  are  generally 
made  for  house-rent  and  fuel.  Teachers  in  rural 
districts  are  provided  with  a  house  and  garden. 
Their  salaries  are  often  not  much  more  than  half 
those  paid  city  teachers  of  the  same  grade,  and 
yet,  as  regards  professional  training  and  char- 
acter of  work,  they  are  fully  equal  to  city 
teachers.  .  .  .  The  average  annual  salary  re- 
ceived by  teachers  in  Prussia  ia  1886  was $287.50. 
Tlie  average  for  the  same  ye-v  in  New  York  was 
$409.37.  The  Prussian  teacher,  however,  re- 
ceived fuel  and  dwelling  free,  in  addition  to  hi.j 


regular  salary.  ...  In  1R85  the  population  of 
Prussia  wiiH  28,;i|H,470,  ami  the  total  cost  of 
public  education  per  caput  was  1^1.7717.  Drs. 
Hchncidcraiid  Petcrsllie  of  llcrllii,  In  '  PriMissischu 
Ktatislik  101,'pulillslii'd  in  1HH9,  reckon  the  total 
cost  for  IM88,  excluding  army  and  navy  schools, 
at  1|1.5(),  li>3,H.17.  ...  Ill  PriiKsia.  (!lemcntAry  in- 
struction Is  the  first  c(msidcralion.  The  resolu- 
tion adopted  by  the  nationiil  asHt^mbly  (I.andtag) 
December  23,  1870,  Is  a  good  illustration  of  this. 
It  was  at  the  very  crisis  of  tlie  I'Vanco-Oerman 
war,  yet  the  Landtag  called  on  the  government 
to  increase  the  mimhcrof  normal  schools  and  the 
capacity  of  those  already  existing,  and  'thus  to 
put  an  end  to  tlie  practice  of  filllnfj  up  teacliers' 
vacancies  by  iippoiiiting  inupialiflcd  individ- 
uals.'"—  J.  U.  Parsons,  Jr.,  Pntssinn  Schoolt 
Ihrouffh  American  eyes,  ch.  1,  sect.  15-17. — 
"Througliout  Prussia  tlicre  is  now  one  scliool- 
room  and  one  teacher  to  440  inhabitants  and  78.8 
children  actually  attending  school.  This  shows 
that  there  are  far  too  few  teachers.  Hut  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  cities  have  n'ci'iitly  devoted  con- 
siderable sums  to  the  establishment  of  new  places 
for  ti'iichers,  so  that,  in  the) ear  1881,  there  were 
10,000  more  teachers  working  in  the  public 
8eh(Kils  than  in  1873.  The  salaries  of  the  teachers 
were  also  rai.sed.  The  average  payment  in  the 
country  is  054  marks,  in  the  cities  1,430  marks. 
...  The  expen.-ie  of  maintaining  tlie  Prussiau 
national  schools  amounts  aiiiiuully  to  about  103,- 
000,000  of  marks,  43,000,000  of  which  are  paid 
by  the  ciities.  One  hundred  and  ten  colleges  for 
the  training  of  teachers  are  now  engaged  in 
the  education  of  male  and  female  instructors, 
with  an  attendance  of  0,893  pupils;  that  is,  there 
is  one  pupil  to  every  2,758  inliabitauts.  In  the 
case  of  tile  female  teacliers  only,  a  considerable 
degree  of  assistance  is  rendered  by  private  insti- 
tutions. .  .  .  The  intermediary  schools  estab- 
lished i  1  1872,  and  recently  converted  into  the 
higher  citizen  schools,  form  a  transition  from 
the  natic  -lal  schools  to  the  higlier  schools.  These 
teach  reli,_ion,  German,  Frencli,  English,  history 
and  geogi,  phy,  arithmetic  and  mathematics, 
natural  history  and  physics,  writing,  drawing, 
singing,  and  gymnastics.  Tiio  course  embroccs 
six  years  without  Latin,  with  the  privilege  of 
one  year's  service  in  the  army  instead  of  three. 
Complemenairy  to  the  national  school  is  the 
flnisliiug  school.  There  are  a  large  number  in 
Prussia,  namely,  1,261  with  08,766  pupils;  617 
•with  10,395  in  the  country,  and  644  with  58,371 
in  the  cities.  Of  tliese  644,343  are  obligatory  by 
local  statutes,  303  are  optional.  Since  the  law 
of  1878  special  care  has  been  devoted  to  the  com- 
pulsory education  of  orphaned  children.  .  .  . 
The  prepanitory  instruction  of  female  teachers 
leaves  much  to  be  desired. " —  P.  Kirchner,  Coii- 
temporary  Educational  Tlwught  in  Prussia  (Edu- 
cational Rev.,  May,  1891). — "  About  25  per  cent, 
of  all  the  teachers  in  public  middle  schools  are 
women,  hence  .  .  .  women  hold  ])ositions  in 
these  schools  more  frequently  than  in  tlit  lower, 
the  purely  elementary,  schools  of  the  kingdom. 
The  greatest  ratio  of  women  teachers  in  Prussia  is 
found  in  private  middle  schools,  where  3,433  of 
3.136  (ornearly  80  percent.)  are  women.  ...  In 
all  the  public  schools  of  Prussia  (elementary,  mid- 
dle, and  secondary)  only  10,600  women  teachers 
were  employed  [1887],  or  lij-  per  cent,  of  all  the 
teachers  in  the  kingdom.  .  .  .  Before  the  public 
schools  of  the  kingdom  bad  the  care  and  close 


722 


EDUCATION. 


ItnilllMh  SrhooU 
anil  I'niitrraittes. 


EDUCATION. 


wipervlsion  on  iln  |mrt  of  llio  MnU'  wlilcli  tlii'y 
linvi'  n<iw,  iimny  niori^  prlviiti^  scliooltt  were  In 
exlHlt'iictt  tliiiii  lit  pri'W'iit.  During  tlio  IunI  '.Ti 
years  tlic  nriviitc  scIiooIh  Imvc  not  iticrcamMl  in 
numbers,  l)Ut  pi'r(rplil)ly  decreased." — U.  H. 
Comm'r  of  Educulion,  Uemrt,  lHHU-00,  pp.  887- 
280. 

Russia. — "After  serfdom  Inid  lieen  aliolislu^d, 
llie  Kmperor  Alexancier  II.  saw  tliat  tlie  indis- 
nensalde  eonsecpiem  e  of  tlds  great  reform  must 
lie  a  tlioroiigli  reorga.ily.ation  of  pulili("  Instruc- 
tion. In  IMtll  II  connnlltee  was  appointed  to 
draw  up  tlie  plan  of  a  law.  In  IWia  .M.  Taneef 
Hulimitted  to  till'  Kmperor  a  '(ieiieral  plan  for 
the  (irKani;/:ation  of  popular  education,'  wliieli 
contained  some  verv  excellent  |)oints.  The  re- 
sult was  the  General  Hegulations  of  1H04,  which 
are  still  in  force.  .  .  .  The  ditliciillicH  which  a 
complete  rcori?ani/.atiou  of  popular  education 
meets  In  Hussia  are  enoimous.  They  aro  prin- 
cipally caused  liy  the  manner  in  wliicli  the  in- 
habitants live,  scatleivd  over  a  large  extent  of 
country,  and  by  their  extreme  poverty.  .  .  . 
The  density  of  population  is  so  small  that  there 
are  only  1!).0  inliabitants  to  one  sipiare  kilometer 
('il  Hipiarc  kiioineters  to  1  squuri!  mile),  iubtcnd 
of  OU  as  in  France.  Under  these  circumstances 
only  the  children  from  the  center  hamlet  anil 
those  living  nearest  to  it  could  atttnd  school 
regularly,  especially  during  the  winter-months. 
The  rcmaimler  of  the  inhabitan.  would  pay 
their  dues  without  having  any  1  'elit,  whicli 
would  necessarily  foster  discontent.  As  Prince 
Qagariu  says,  'It  has,  therefore,  not  been  pos- 
sible to  make  education  in  Hussia  compulsory,  . 
ns  in  Germany,  nor  even  to  enforce  the  establish  - 
ment  of  a  school  in  each  community.'  It  is 
doubtless  impossible  at  present  to  introduce  into 
Uussia  the  eibuational  systems  of  the  western 
countries." — E.  do  Lavelaye,  ProffriM  of  Kiliint- 
Hon  in  RiiHuia (U.  K  Bureau  nf  Kdumtion,  Cir- 
culitr.1  of  Iiiformniion,  1875,  no.  3),  pp.  ;H-33. 

Scotland. — "The  existing  system  of  education 
in  Scotland  is  an  outcome  of  causes  deeply  in- 
volved in  the  political  and  religious  history  of  the 
country.  .  .  .  This  system  was  preceded  by  a 
complicated  variety  of  educational  agencies,  of 
which  the  chief  were  parish  schools,  fo'.Mu'ed  upon 
a  statute  of  1040,  which  was  revived  ;.  li  made 
operative  in  1008.  Parish  and  burgh  schools, 
supported  by  local  funds  and  by  tuition  fees, 
made  up  the'public  pr(> vision  fo  •  education.  In 
addition  tliere  were  schools  partly  maintained  by 
parliamentary  grents,  mission  and  sessional 
schools  maintain"'.!  by  the  Established  Church  and 
the  Free  Church,  and  other  parochial  and  private 
schools.  Parish  and  burgh  schools  carried  in- 
struction to  the  level  of  the  universities,  which 
were  easily  accessible  to  all  clas.sc9.  The  date  of 
the  passage  of  the  '  Scotch  Education  Act '  (1872) 
was  opportune  for  the  organization  of  these  vari- 
ous agencies  into  a  system  maintained  by  the 
combined  actiim  of  the  Government  and  local 
authorities.  In  framing  the  Scotch  act  care  was 
taken,  as  in  framing  the  English  act  two  years 
before,  to  guard  the  rights  of  the  Government 
with  respect  to  funds  appropriated  from  the 
public  treasury.  At  the  same  time  equal  care 
was  shown  for  the  preservation  of  the  Scotch 
ideal.  Tliis  was  a  broad  and  comprehensive 
ideal,  embracing  the  different  grades  of  scho- 
lastic work.  .  .  .  This  ideal  ditferentiates  the 
Bcotch  act  from  the  English  act  passed  two 


years  befori'.  The  latter  related  to  elementary 
schools  exclusively;  the  former  has  a  wider 
NCMpe,  providing  the  foiindatiniis  of  a  :ivstem  of 
gradeil  Ncbools  correlated  to  the  universities 
which  lie  beyond  its  province.  With  respect  Ut 
tlie  interests  of  the  Government,  the  two  nets  .ire 
substantially  the  same.  .  .  .  For  the  geniTal 
direction  of  the  system  a  Scotch  educational  de- 
partment was  created,  composed,  like  the  Elig- 
lisli  department,  of  lords  of  the  y.r'wy  rouncil, 
and  having  the  same  president.  .  .  .  The  act 
ordered  every  parent  to  seeiire  the  Instruction  of 
bis  children  betweeeii  tlu^  ages  of  .'i  and  13,  or 
until  a  lertitU'itte  of  exemption  should  be  se- 
(!ured.  Parents  failing  in  t his  oliligation  are  sub- 
ject to  prosecution  and  penalty  by  line  or  imprison- 
ment. The  compulsory  provision  extends  to 
blind  children.  I'arocliial  or  burghal  authori- 
ties were  autliorized  to  pay  the  tuition  fees  of 
those  children  whose  jiarents  eoiilil  not  meet  tho 
expenditure,  a  piovision  rendered  unnecessary 
by  the  recent  remission  of  all  fees.  The  Scotch 
act,  by  a  sweeping  >lause,  made  compulsory  at- 
tendance uuiversiil ;  the  English  act  left  the  mat- 
ter of  compulsion  to  local  iimiuigerM.  A  stibse- 
qilent  lilt  (1878)  llxeil  the  standiird  of  exemption 
in  Scotland  at  the  lifth  [grade,  or  year  of  study], 
which  pupils  should  pa.ss  at  11  years  of  age. 
In  1883,  the  upper  limit  of  compulsory  attend- 
ance in  Sc  tianil  was  raised  to  14  years.  .  .  . 
The  universities  of  Seotland  have  been  more  in- 
timately related  to  the  lifeoi  the  common  peoplo 
than  those  of  any  other  country.  In  this  re- 
spect, even  more  if  possible  than  in  their  consti- 
tution, they  present  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
English  universities.  To  their  denioeiatic  spirit 
may  be  traced  many  of  the  characteristics  wliicli 
dilferentiale  the  S(«tch  people  iind  policies  from 
those  of  England.  To  their  widespread  inllii- 
ence,  to  tho  ambitions  which  they  awakened, 
and  the  opportunities  which  they  brought  within 
the  reach  of  the  whole  body  of  Scottisli  youth  is 
due,  in  largo  measure,  the  independent  and  hon- 
orable |)art  that  Scotland  has  played  in  the  history 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  This  popular  character 
of  the  universities  has  been  fostered  by  the  curric- 
ulum of  the  common  schools,  by  the  easy  passage 
from  the  schools  tothehiglier  institutions;  by  the 
inexpensive  mode  of  student  life  in  the  university 
towns,  and  by  the  great  number  of  scholarship 
funds  available  for  the  poor.  These  conditions, 
however,  have  not  been  without  their  disadvan- 
tages. Of  these,  the  chief  are  tho  low  entrance 
standards  and  the  consetpient  forcing  of  iirejiara- 
tory  instruction  upon  the  university  professors. 
...  As  a  result  of  long-continued  clTorts  a 
Scotch  universities  act  was  passed  in  1889.  This 
act  provided  for  the  reorganization  of  the  four 
universities;  for  the  elevation  of  their  standards; 
the  enrichment  of  their  curricula,  and  the  in- 
crease of  their  resources.  .  .  .  The  Scotch  uni- 
versities have  taken  part  in  the  popular  move- 
ments of  the  last  decade.  They  maintain  local 
examinations  for  svcimdary  schools  and  students. 
St.  Andrews  has  ))een  particularly  active  in  pro- 
moting the  higlur  education  of  women,  having 
instittltcd  the  special  degree  of  L.  L.  A.  (lady 
literate  in  arts).  Edinburgh  also  grants  a  certifi- 
cate in  arts  to  women.  Aberdeen  has  recently 
appointed  a  lecturer  on  education,  following 
thus  the  precedent  set  by  Edinburgh  and  St. 
Andrews.  The  four  universities  are  united  in  a 
scheme  of  university  exteusita." — U.  S.  Com- 


723 


EDUCATION. 


SwedUh 
and  Swim  SchooU. 


EDUCATION. 


missioncr  of  Kducation,  Report,  1889-90,  v.  \,pp. 
188-207. 

Sweden. —  "Sweden  liiis  two  nnciont  niul  fo- 
nious  univt'reitics — Upsain  niid  Lund.  That  of 
Lund  is  in  tlio  south  piirt  of  tlio  l<ingdoin,  und 
wlit'u  founded  was  on  Danisli  territory.  The  in- 
come from  its  estiites  is  iiljout  170,000  rix-clollars 
(|HO,itir))  per  annum.  It  also  receives  yearly  aid 
from  tlie  slate.  In  1807  it  had  75  profen  .ors  and 
tutors,  and  400  students.  Upsala  is  the  larger 
university,  located  at  the  old  town  of  that  name 
—  the  ancient  capital  of  Sweden  —  an  hour  and  a 
half  hj  rail  north  of  Glockholm.  It  has  100  pro- 
fessors and  tutors,  and  1,449  students,  an  increase 
of  131  over  the  year  1809.  .  .  .  This  university 
had  its  heginning  as  an  institution  of  leurnin,'^  as 
far  back  as  1350.  In  1438  it  had  one  academic 
professorship,  and  >a8  dedicated  as  an  univer- 
sity in  1477.  Its  principal  endowment  was  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1024,  when  he  donated  to 
it  all  of  the  estate  in  lands  that  he  possessed, 
amounting  in  all  to  800  farms. " — C.  C.  Andrews, 
Jicpt.  (in  t/ie  Educational  tSystem  of  Sireden  {IT.  «V. 
liureau  of  Education,  Circulars  of  Information, 
July,  1871). 

Switzerland. — "The  influence  of  the  Refor- 
mation, and,  in  tlie  following  age,  of  the  Jesuit 
reaction,  gave  to  Switzerland,  as  to  Germany,  its 
original  and  fundamental  means  and  agencies  of 
national  education,  and  impressed  also  upon  the 
population  a  habit  of  dutiful  regard  for  schools 
and  learning.  It  was  not,  however,  till  forty 
years  ago  tliat  the  modem  education  of  Swit- 
zerland was  organized.  'The  great  develop- 
ment of  pt'blic  education  in  Switzerland,'  to 
quote  Mr.  Kay,  'dates  from  1832,  after  the  over- 
throw of  the  old  oligarchical  forms  of  cantonal 
government  and  the  establishment  of  the  present 
democratic  forms.'  Zurich,  Lausanne,  and  Ge- 
neva take  the  lead  in  Switzerland  as  centres  of 
educational  influence.  The  canton  in  which  the 
work  of  educational  reform  began  was  Zurich. 
.  .  .  The  instrument  of  the  reform,  rather  the 
revolution,  was  Seherr,  a  trained  school-teacher 
from  WUrtemberg,  a  teacher,  in  particular,  of 
deaf  mutes  to  speak  articulately.  This  man  in- 
itiated in  Zurich  the  new  scheme  and  work  of 
education,  and  founded  the  first  Training  Col- 
le,(;e.  He  was  looked  upon  by  the  oligarchs, 
partly  feudalists,  and  partly  manufacturers,  as 
a  dangerous  revolutionist,  and  was  exiled  from 
Zurich.  But  now  a  monument  to  his  memory 
adorns  the  city.  The  work  which  he  begun 
could  not  be  suppressed  or  arrested.  Zurich  has 
ever  since  taken  the  lead  in  education  among  the 
cantons  of  Switzerland.  Derived  originally  from 
Germany,  the  system  Is  substantially  identical 
with  that  of  Germany.  .  .  .  The  principles  and 
methods  arc  substantially  olike  throughout. 
There  arc,  tirst,  the  communal  schools — these  of 
course  in  largest  number  —  one  to  every  village, 
even  for  every  small  hamlet,  provided  and  mam- 
tained,  wholly  or  chiefly,  by  the  commune;  there 
arc  burgher  schools  in  towns,  including  element- 
ary, real,  and  superior  schools,  supported  by 
the  towns ;  there  arc  cantonal  schools  —  gymna- 
sia and  iudustriul  or  technical  schools  —  sup- 
ported by  the  State,  that  is,  by  the  canton.  There 
18  often  a  Cantonal  University.  There  is  of 
course  a  Cantonal  Training  School  or  College, 
and  there  are  institutes  of  various  kinds.  The 
Cantonal  Universities,  however,  are  on  a  .small 
and  economical  scale ;  as  yet  there  is  no  Federal 


University.  School  life  in  Switzerland  is  very 
long,  from  six  to  fourteen  o.'  fifteen,  and  for  all 
who  are  to  follow  a  profession,  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-two." — J.  IL  Rigg,  National  Education, 
ch.  4. 

Modern :  Asiatic  Countries. 

China.  "  Every  step  'n  the  process  of  teach- 
ing is  fixed  by  unalterable  usaj-'e.  So  much  is 
tills  the  case,  that  in  describing  one  school  I  de- 
scribe all,  and  in  tracing  the  steps  of  one  studenf 
I  point  out  the  course  of  all;  for  in  China  there 
are  no  new  methods  or  short  roads.  In  other 
countries,  u  teacher,  even  in  the  primary  course, 
finds  room  for  tact  and  originality.  In  tiioso 
who  dislike  study,  a  love  of  it  is  to  be  inspired  by 
making  '  knowledge  pleasant  to  the  taste  ' ;  and 
the  dull  apprehension  is  to  be  awakened  by 
striking  and  apt  illustrations.  ...  In  China 
there  is  nothing  of  this.  The  land  of  uniformity, 
all  processes  in  arts  and  letters  are  as  much  fixed 
by  universal  custom  as  is  the  cut  of  their  gar- 
ments or  the  mode  of  wearing  their  hair.  The 
pupils  all  tread  the  path  trodden  by  their  an- 
cestors of  a  thousand  years  ago,  nor  lias  it 
grown  smoother  by  the  attrition  of  so  many  feet. 
The  undergraduate  course  may  be  divided  into 
three  stages,  in  each  of  which  there  are  two  lead- 
ing studies:  In  the  first  the  occupations  of  the 
student  are  committing  to  memory  (not  reading) 
the  canonical  books  and  writing  an  infinitude  of 
diversely  formeii  characters,  as  u  manual  exer- 
cise. In  the  second,  they  are  the  translation  of 
his  text  books  (i.  e.,  reading),  and  lessons  in  com- 
position. In  tlie  third,  they  are  belles  lettres  and 
the  composition  of  essays.  Nothing  could  be 
more  dreary  than  the  labors  of  the  first  stage. 
.  .  .  Eventhestimulusof  companionship  in  study 
is  usually  denied,  the  advantages  resulting  from 
the  formation  of  classes  being  us  little  appreciated 
as  those  of  other  labor  saving  macliinery.  Eacii 
pupil  reads  and  writes  alone,  the  penalty  for  fad- 
ure  being  so  many  blows  with  the  ferule  or  kneel- 
ing for  so  many  minutes  on  the  rough  brick  pave- 
ment which  serves  for  a  floor.  At  this  period 
fear  is  the  strongest  motive  addressed  to  the  mind 
of  the  scholar.  .  .  .  This  arctic  winter  of  mo- 
notonous toil  once  passed,  a  more  auspicious  sea- 
son dawns  on  the  youthful  understanding.  The 
key  of  the  cabala  which  he  has  been  so  long  and 
so  blindly  acquiring  is  put  into  Ills  hands.  He  is 
initiated  in  the  translation  an<'.  expositiop  of  those 
sacred  books  which  he  liad  previo  '  ly  stored 
away  in  his  memory.  .  .  .  The  light  ,owever  is 
let  in  but  sparingly,  as  it  wer''  I'n  igh  chinks 
and  rifts  in  the  long  dar!  passage.  A  simple 
character  here  and  there  'j,  explained,  and  then, 
it  may  be  after  the  lapse  of  a  year  or  two,  the 
Cjacher  proceeds  to  the  explication  of  entire  sen- 
tences. Now  for  the  first  time  the  mind  of  the 
student  begins  to  take  in  the  thoughts  of  those 
he  has  been  taught  to  regard  as  the  oracles  of 
wisdom.  .  .  .  The  value  of  this  exercise  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  When  judiciously  cm- 
ployed  it  does  for  the  Chinese  what  translation 
into  and  out  of  the  dead  languages  of  the  west 
docs  for  us.  It  calls  into  play  memory,  judg- 
ment, taste,  and  gives  him  a  command  of  his  own 
vernacular  which,  it  is  safe  to  assert,  he  would 
never  acquire  in  any  other  way.  .  .  .  The  first 
step  in  composition  is  tlie  yoking  together  of 
double  characters.  The  second  is  the  reduplica- 
tion of  these  binary  compounds  and  the  construc- 


724 


EDUCATION. 


in  China. 


EDUCATION. 


tion  of  parallels  —  nn  idea  which  runs  bo  com- 
pletely through  the  whole  of  Chinese  literature 
that  the  niindof  the  student  requires  to  bo  im- 
bued with  it  at  the  very  outset.  Tills  is  the  way 
he  begii.s:  The  teacher  writes,  '  vind  blows,'  the 
pupil  adds,  'rainfalls';  the  teacher  writes, 'rivers 
are  long,'  the  pupil  adds,  'seas  are  deep,'  or 
'  mountains  are  high, '  &c.  Prom  the  slmplo  sub- 
ject and  predicate,  which  in  their  rude  grammar 
they  describe  as  '  dead  '  and  '  living '  characters, 
the  teacher  conducts  his  pupil  to  more  complex 
forms,  iu  which  qualifying  words  and  phrases 
are  introduced.  lie  gives  us  a  model  some  such 
phra.so  as  '  The  Emperor's  grace  is  vast  as  heaven 
and  earth, '  and  the  lad  matches  it  by  '  The  Sov- 
ereign's favor  is  profound  as  lake  ancl  sea. '  These 
couplets  often  contain  two  propositions  in  each 
member,  accompanied  by  all  the  usual  modifying 
terms;  and  so  exact  is  'he  symmetry  reciuired 
by  the  rules  of  the  art  tli  \t  not  only  must  noun, 
verb,  adjective,  and  particle  respond  to  each 
other  with  scrupulous  exactness,  but  the  very 
tones  of  the  characters  are  adjusted  to  each 
other  with  the  precision  of  music.  Begun  with 
the  tirst  strokes  of  his  untaught  pencil,  the  stu- 
dent, whatever  Ills  proficiency,  never  gets  beyond 
the  construction  of  parallels.  Wlicn  ho  becomes 
a  member  of  the  institute  or  a  minister  of  the 
imperial  cabinet,  at  classic  festivals  and  social 
entertainments,  the  composition  of  impromptu 
couplets,  formed  on  the  old  model,  constitutes  a 
favorite  pastime.  Reflecting  a  poetic  image  from 
every  syllable,  or  concealing  the  keen  point  of  a 
cutting  epigram,  they  afford  a  line  vehicle  for 
sallies  of  wit ;  and  poetical  contests  such  as  that 
of  Meliba^us  and  Mennlcas  are  in  Chino  matters 
of  daily  occurrence.  If  a  present  is  to  be  given, 
on  the  occasion  of  a  marriage,  a  birth-day,  or  any 
other  remarkable  occasion,  nothing  is  deemed  so 
elegant  or  acceptable  as  a  pair  of  scrolls  inscribed 
with  a  complimentary  distich.  When  the  novice 
is  Bufflciently  exercised  in  the  '  parallels '  for  the 
idea  of  symmetry  to  have  become  an  instinct,  ho 
is  permitted  to  advance  to  other  species  of  com- 
position which  afford  freer  scope  for  his  facul- 
ties. Such  are  the  'shotiah,'  in  which  u  bingle 
thought  is  expanded  in  simple  language,  the 
'  lun,  the  formal  discussion  of  a  subject  more  or 
less  extended,  and  epistles  addressed  to  imaginary 
persons  and  adapted  to  all  conceivable  circum- 
stances. In  these  last,  the  forms  of  the  'com- 
plete letter  writer  '  are  copied  with  too  much 
servility ;  but  in  the  other  two,  substance  ^leing 
deemed  of  more  consequence  than  form,  the  new 
fledged  thought  is  permitted  to  essay  its  powers 
and  to  expatiate  with  but  little  restraint.  In  the 
third  stage,  composition  is  the  leading  object, 
reading  being  wholly  subsidiary.  It  takes  ftr 
the  most  part  the  artificial  form  of  verse,  and  of 
a  kind  of  prose  called  '  wen-chang,'  which  is,  i.' 
possible,  still  more  artificial.  The  reading  re- 
quired embraces  mainly  rhetorical  models  and 
sundry  anthologies.  History  is  studied,  but  only 
that  of  China,  and  that  only  in  compcnds;  not 
for  its  lesson?  of  wisdom,  but  for  the  sake  of  the 
allusions  with  which  it  enables  a  writer  to  em- 
bellish classic  essays.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
other  studies ;  knowledge  and  mental  discipline 
are  at  a  discount  and  style  at  a  ))remium.  The 
goal  of  the  long  course,  the  flower  and  fruit  of 
the  whole  system,  is  the  '  wen-chang ' ;  for  this 
alone  can  insure  success  in  the  public  examina- 
tions for  the  civil  service,  in  which  students  be- 


gin to  ad<  enturc  soon  after  entering  on  the  third 
stage  of  their  preparatory  course.  .  .  .  We  hear 
it  asserted  that  '  education  is  universal  in  China; 
even  ctxilies  are  taught  to  read  and  write.'  In 
one  sense  this  is  true,  but  not  as  we  understand 
the  terms  ■  reading  and  writing. '  In  the  alpha- 
betical vernaculars  of  the  west,  the  ability  to 
rc'id  and  write  implies  the  ability  to  express  one's 
th  ght.s  by  the  pen  and  to  grasp  the  thoughts 
of  (  'lers  when  so  expressed.  In  (-'hinese,  and 
espo 'lally  in  the  classical  or  book  language,  it 
imi)l  (!s  nothing  of  the  sort.  A  shopkeeijer  may 
be  uliie  to  write  the  numbers  and  keep  accounts 
without  being  able  to  write  anvthmg  elste;  and 
a  lad  who  has  attended  school  for  sevenvl  years 
will  pronounce  the  characters  of  an  ordinary 
book  with  faultless  precision,  yet  not  compre- 
hend the  meaning  of  a  single  sentence.  Of  those 
who  can  read  understandingly  (and  nothing  else 
ought  to  be  colled  reading),  the  proportion  is 
greater  in  towns  than  in  rural  districts.  I'<ut 
striking  an  average,  it  does  not,  according  to  iny 
observation,  exceed  one  in  twenty  for  the  male 
sex  and  one  in  ten  thousand  for  the  female. "  The 
literary  examinations,  "coming  down  from  the 
past,  witli  the  accretions  of  many  centuries,  .  .  . 
have  expanded  into  a  system  whose  machinery 
is  as  complex  as  its  proportions  are  enoniuus. 
Its  ramifications  extend  to  every  district  of  the 
empire ;  and  it  commands  the  services  of  district 
magistrates,  prefects,  and  other  civil  function- 
aries up  to  governors  and  viceroys.  These  are 
all  auxiliary  to  the  regular  offlcers  of  the  literary 
corporation.  In  each  district  there  are  two  resi- 
dent examiners,  with  the  title  of  professor,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  keep  a  register  of  all  competing 
students  and  to  exercise  them  from  tine  to  time 
in  order  to  stimulate  their  efforts  and  keep  them 
in  preparation  for  the  higher  examinations  in 
which  degrees  are  conferreil.  In  each  province 
there  is  one  chancellor  or  superintendent  of  in- 
struction, who  holds  ofllce  for  three  years,  and  is 
required  to  visit  every  district  and  hold  the  cus- 
tomary examinations  within  that  time,  conferring 
the  first  degree  on  a  certain  percentage  of  the 
candidates.  There  are,  moreover,  two  special  ex- 
aminers for  each  province,  generally  members  of 
the  Ilanlin,  deputed  from  the  oipitul  to  conduct 
the  great  triennial  examination  and  confer  the 
second  degree.  The  regular  degrees  are  three: 
1st.  'Siu-tsai'  or  '  Budding  talent. '  2d.  '  Ku- 
jin'  or  'Deserving  of  promotion.'  3d.  'Tsin- 
shi  'or  'Fit  for  office.'  "To  which  may  be  added, 
as  a  fourth  degree,  the  Ilanlin,  or  member  of  the 
'Forest  of  Pencils.' .  .  .  The  first  degree  only  is 
conferred  by  the  provincial  chancellor,  and  the 
happy  recipients,  fifteen  or  twenty  in  each  de- 
partment, or  1  per  cent,  of  the  candidates,  are 
decorated  with  the  insignia  of  rank  and  admitted 
to  the  ground  floor  of  the  nine  storied  pagoda. 
The  trial  for  the  second  degree  .s  held  in  the  capi- 
tal of  each  province,  by  special  commissioners, 
once  in  three  years.  It  consists  of  three  sessions 
of  three  days  eacli,  making  nine  days  of  almost 
continuous  exertion  —  a  strain  to  the  mental  and 
p*'VDical  powers,  to  which  the  infirm  and  aged 
frequently  succumb.  In  addition  to  composition 
in  prose  and  verse,  the  candidate  is  required  to 
show  his  acquaintance  with  history,  (the  history 
of  China,)  philosophy,  criticism,  and  various 
branches  of  archicology.  Again  1  per  cent,  is 
decorated ;  but  it  is  not  until  the  more  fortunate 
among  them  succeed  iu  passing  the  metropolitan 


m 


EDUCATION. 


College  of 
William  and  Mary. 


EDUCATION. 


triennial  timt  the  meed  of  civil  office  is  certainly 
hcstowcd.  They  are  not,  however,  assign "d  to 
their  respective  offices  until  they  ImvL  gone 
through  two  special  examinations  within  the 
palace  and  in  the  presence!  of  the  emperor.  On  this 
occasion  the  highest  on  the  list  is  honored  with 
the  title  of  'dniang  yiien'  or  'laureate,'  a  dis- 
tinction Ko  great  that  in  the  last  reign  it  was  not 
thought  unlicfltting  the  daughter  of  a  'chvang 
yuen '  to  he  raised  to  the  position  of  consort  of 
the  Son  of  Heaven.  A  score  of  the  best  are  ad- 
mitted to  memtiership  in  the  Academy,  two  or 
three  score  are  attached  to  it  as  pupils  or  proba- 
tioners, and  the  rest  drafted  off  to  official  posts 
in  the  capital  or  in  the  provinces,  the  humblest 
of  which  is  supposed  to  compensate  the  occupant 
for  a  life  of  penury  and  toil." — Rev.  W.  A.  P. 
Martin,  liept.  on  the  System  of  Public  Instruction 
in  China  (If.  S.  liureau  of  Edtication,  Circulars 
of  Information,  1877,  no.  1). 

Also  in  :  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  The  Chinese:  their 
Eihiniliiin,  <fr. 

Japan. — From  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  cen- 
turies of  tlie  Christian  era,  "after  the  conquest  of 
Corea  by  the  .Iai)anese  emperor  Jigo  Kogo,  came 
letters,  writing,  books,  literature,  religion,  etliics, 
politics,  medicine,  arts,  science,  agriculture,  man»i- 
factures,  and  the  varied  appliances  of  civiliza- 
tion; and  with  these  entered  thousands  of 
immigrants  from  Corea  and  China.  Under  the 
intellectual  influence  of  Buddliism  —  the  power- 
ful and  aggressive  faith  tliat  had  already  led 
captive  the  half  of  Asia  —  of  the  Confucian  ethics 
and  philosophy,  and  Chinese  literature,  the  hori- 
zon of  tlie  Japanese  mind  was  immensely  broad- 
ened. ...  In  the  time  of  tlie  European  'dark 
ages'  the  Japanese  were  enjoying  what,  in  com- 
parison, was  a  high  state  of  civilization.  .  .  . 
Under  the  old  regime  of  the  Sho-guns,  all  foreign 
ideas  and  influences  were  systematically  excluded, 
and  the  isolation  of  Japan  from  tlie  rest  of  the 
world  was  made  the  supreme  policy  of  th?  govern- 
ment. Profound  peace  lasted  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century  to  1868.  During 
this  time,  schools  and  colleges,  literature  and 
learning,  flourished.  It  was  the  period  of  sclio- 
lastic,  not  of  creative,  intellectual  activity.  The 
basis  of  education  was  Chinese.  What  we  con- 
sider the  means  of  education,  reading  and  writing, 
were  to  tliem  the  ends.  Of  claasifled  science 
there  was  little  or  n  ne.  Mathematics  was  con- 
sidered as  fit  only  for  merchants  and  shop-keep- 
ers. No  foreign  languages  were  studied,  and 
tlieir  acquisition  was  forbidden.  .  .  .  There  was 
no  department  of  education,  though  universities 
were  established  at  Kioto  and  Yedo,  large  schools 
in  the  daimio's  capitals,  and  innumerable  private 
schools  all  over  the  country.  Nine-tenths  of  the 
people  could  read  and  write.  Books  were  very 
numerous  and  cheap.  Circulating  li  ararics  existed 
in  every  city  and  town.  Literary  clubs  and 
associations  for  mutual  improvement  were  com- 
mon even  in  country  villages.  Nevertheless,  in 
comparison  with  the  ideal  systems  and  practice 
of  the  progressive  men  of  New  Japan,  the  old 
style  was  as  different  from  the  present  as  the 
training  of  an  English  youth  in  mediaeval  times  is 
from  that  of  a  London  or  Oxford  student  of  the 
present  day.  Although  an  attempt  to  meet  some 
of  the  educational  necessities  arising  from  the 
altered  conditions  of  the  national  life  were  made 
under  the  Sho-gun's  regime,  yet  the  first  attempt 
at  systematic  work  in  the  large  cities  was  made 


under  the  Mikado's  government,  and  the  idea  of 
a  new  national  plan  of  education  is  the'rs  only. 
In  1871  the  Aloin  Bu  Sho,  or  department  of  edu- 
caticm,  was  formed,  of  wliich  the  high  counselor 
Oki,  a  man  of  indomitable  vigor  and  persjsvcr- 
ance,  was  made  head.  .  .  .  According  to  the 
scheme  of  national  education  promulgated  in 
1872,  the  empire  is  divided  into  eight  Dai  Gaku 
Ku,  (Daigakku,)  or  great  educational  divisions. 
In  each  of  these  there  is  to  be  a  university,  nor- 
mal 8clio(/1.  schools  of  foreign  languages,  high 
schools,  and  primary  schools.  The  total  number 
of  schools  will  number,  it  is  expected,  over. '55,000. 
Only  in  the  higlicr  schools  is  a  foreign  language 
to  l.e  tauglit.  In  the  lower  sciiools  the  Japanese 
learning  and  elemciiuiry  science  translated  or 
adopted  from  European  or  American  text-books 
are  to  be  taught,  llie  general  system  of  instruc- 
tion, methods,  d'scipline,  school-aids,  furniture, 
architecture,  are  to  be  largely  adopted  from 
foreign  models,  and  are  now  to  a  great  extent  in 
vogue  tlirougliout  the  countrj-." — VV.  E.  Griffls, 
Education  in  Japan  ( U.  8.  Bureau  if  Education, 
Circulars  of  Information,  1875,  no.  3). 

Modern  :  America. 

A.  D.  1610-1819.— Virginia. —  College  of 
William  and  Mary. — "In  1(11!)  —  one  year  before 
tlie  Pilgrim  Fatlicrs  came  to  the  land  named  New 
England  by  Captain  John  Smith  —  Sir  Edwin 
Sandys,  president  of  the  Virginia  Company  in 
old  England,  moved  tie  grant  of  ten  thousand 
acres  of  land  for  the  estublishraent  of  a  univer- 
sity at  Henrico.  The  proposed  grant,  whicli  was 
duly  made,  included  one  tliousand  acres  for  an 
Indian  college ;  the  remainder  was  to  be  '  the 
foundation  of  a  seminary  of  learning  for  tlio 
English.'  The  very  same  year  the  bishops  of 
England,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  King,  raised 
the  sum  of  fifteen  hundred  pounds  for  the  en- 
couragement of  Indian  Education.  .  .  .  Tenants 
were  sent  over  to  occupy  the  university  lands, 
and  Mr.  George  Thorpe,  a  gentleman  of  His 
Majesty's  Privy  Chamber,  came  over  to  be  the 
superintendent  of  the  university  itself.  This  first 
beginning  of  philanthropy  toward  the  Indians 
and  of  educational  foundations  for  the  Indians  in 
America  was  suspended  by  reason  of  the  Indian 
massacre,  in  the  spring  of  1623,  when  Mr.  Tliorpe 
and  three  hundred  and  forty  settlers,  including 
tenants  of  the  university,  were  cut  off  by  an  in- 
surrection of  savages.  It  was  only  two  years 
after  this  terrible  catastrophe  that  the  idea  of  a 
university  in  Virginia  was  revived.  Experience 
with  treacherous  Indians  suggested  that  the  insti- 
tution should  be  erected  upon  a  secluded  shel- 
tered site  —  an  island  in  the  Susiiuthanna  River. 
.  .  .  Tlie  plan  was  broken  off  by  tlie  death  of  its 
chief  advocate  and  promoter,  Mr.  Edward  Palmer. 
But  the  idea  of  a  university  for  Virginia  was  not 
lost.  ...  In  1660,  tlie  colonial  Assembly  of 
Virginia  took  into  their  own  hands  tlie  project  of 
founding  educational  institutions  within  their 
border?.  The  motive  of  the  Virginians  was  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  that  of  the  great  and  general 
Court  of  Massachusetts,  when  it  established 
Harvard  College,  and  grammar  schools  to  fit 
youth  '  for  ye  university.'  The  Virginians  voted 
'  that  for  the  advance  of  learning,  education  of 
youth,  supply  of  the  ministry,  and  promotion  of 
piety,  there  be  land  taken  upon  purchases  for  a 
college  and  free  schoole,  and  that  there  be,  with 
as  much  speede  as  may  be  convenient,  houseing 


726 


EDUCATTON. 


Sotton  Latin  •School. 


EDUCATION. 


erected  t'  ?reon  for  cntertninment  of  students  and 
schollers. '  It  was  also  voted  in  1B60  that  the  vari- 
ous coff'Tnissioners  of  county  courts  talie  subscrip- 
tions on  court  days  for  tlie  benefit  of  the  college, 
and  that  the  commissioners  send  orders  througli- 
out  their  respective^  counties  to  the  vestrymen  oi 
all  the  parishes  for  the  purpose  of  raising  mo.iey 
from  such  inhabitjiiits  as  '  have  not  already  sub- 
scribed. '  It  appears  from  tlie  record  of  this  legis- 
lation in  Ilening's  Statutes  of  Virginia  that 
already  in  1660, 'His  Majestio'sQovemour,  Council 
of  State,  and  Burgesses  of  the  present  grand 
Assembly  have  severally  8Ul)scribed  severalT  con- 
ridemble  sumes  of  money  and  quantityes  of  to- 
bacco,' to  be  paid  upon  demand  after  a  place  had 
been  provided  and  built  upon  for  educational 
purposes.  A  petition  was  also  recommended  to 
Sir  William  Berekley,  then  governo'  of  Virginia, 
that  the  King  be  petitioned  for  letters  patent 
authorizing  collections  from  '  well  disposed  peo- 
ple in  England  for  the  erecting  of  colledges  and 
schoolcs  in  this  countrye.'  This  action  of  the 
Virginians  in  1680  ought  to  be  taken  as  much 
better  evidence  of  an  early  regard  for  education 
in  that  colony  than  the  well-known  saying  of 
Governor  Berkeley  would  seem  to  indicate.  In 
reply  to  an  inquiry  by  the  lords  commissioners 
of  trades  and  plantations  respecting  the  progress 
of  learning  in  the  colony  of  Virgmia,  Berkeley 
said,  '  I  thank  God  there  are  no  free  schools  nor 
printing,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have  these  hun- 
dred years. '  Tliis  answer  by  a  crusty  old  governor 
has  been  quoted  perhaps  too  often  as  an  index  of 
the  real  sentiments  of  colonial  Virginia  toward 
the  cause  of  education.  Not  only  is  the  tone  of 
popular  legislation  entirely  opposed  to  the  cur- 
rent view,  but  Berkeley's  own  acts  should  modify 
our  judgment  of  his  words.  He  actually  sub- 
scribed, with  other  gentlemen  of  the  colony,  for 
'a  Coliedge'of  students  of  the  liberal  arts  and 
sciences. '  Undoubtedly  Sir  William  did  not  be- 
lieve in  popular  education  as  it  is  now  under- 
stood. If  he  had  done  so,  he  would  have  been 
much  in  advance  of  his  time.  .  .  .  Some  writers 
would  have  us  believe  that  the  college  was 
actually  planted  as  early  as  1661,  but  this  is 
highly  improbable.  Early  educational  enact- 
ments in  Virginia  were  like  many  of  those  early 
towns  —  on  paper  only.  And  j^et  the  Virginians 
really  meant  to  have  both  towns  and  a  college. 
In  1688-'89,  twenty -five  hundred  pounds  were 
subscribed  by  a  few  wealthy  gentlemen  in  the 
colony  and  by  their  mereliant  friends  in  England 
toward  the  endowment  of  the  higlier  education. 
In  1691  the  colonial  Assembly  sent  the  Rev.  James 
Blair,  the  commissary  or  representative  of  the 
Bishop  of  London,  back  to  England  to  secure  a 
charter  for  the  proposed  college.  Virginia's 
agent  went  straight  to  Queen  JIary  and  explained 
the  educational  ambition  of  her  colony  in  America. 
The  Queen  favored  the  idea  of  a  college,  and 
William  wisely  concurred.  Tlie  royal  pair  agreed 
to  allow  two  thousand  pounds  out  of  tlie  quit- 
rents  of  Virginia  toward  building  the  college. 
.  .  .  The  English  Government  concluded  to  give 
not  only  £3,000  in  money,  but  also  20,000  acres 
of  land,  witli  a  tax  of  one  penny  on  every  pound 
of  tobacco  exported  from  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
together  with  all  fees  and  jirolits  arising  from 
the  oflice  of  surveyor-general,  which  were  to  be 
controlled  by  the  president  and  faculty  of  the 
college.  They  were  authorized  to  appoint  special 
surveyors  for  the  counties  whenever  the  governor 


and  his  council  thought  it  necessary.  These 
privileges,  granted  by  charter  in  161(3,  were  of 
great  signitieance  in  the  economic  liistory  of 
Virginia.  They  brought  the  entire  land  system 
of  the  colony  into  the  hands  of  a  collegiate  land 
ollicc.  Even  iifter  the  Kevolution,  oiK^-sixth  of 
the  fees  to  all  iiublic  surveyors  continued  to  bo 
paid  into  the  college  treasury  down  to  the  year 
1810,  when  this  custom  was  abolished." — if.  B. 
Adams,  T/ie  College  of  Willidtn  and  yfary  (Uircu- 
Inrn  of  Jnf'irmdtion  of  Vie  Iliirenii  of  Education, 
18H7,  no.  1). 

A.  D.  1635. — Massachusetts. — Boston  Latin 
School.— "The  Public  Latin  School  of  Boston 
enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  oldest  exist- 
ing school  within  the  bounds  of  the  United  States. 
It  was  founded  in  the  spring  of  1635,  thus  ante- 
dating Harvard  College,  and  has  been  in  continu- 
ous existence  ever  since,  with  the  interruption 
of  a  few  months,  during  the  siege  of  Boston, 
1775-1776."  The  two  hundred  and  fiftieth  .\n- 
nivcrsary  of  the  founding  of  the  school  was  cele- 
brated April  28,  1885,  on  which  occasion  the 
Rev.  Phillips  Brooks,  D,  D.,  delivered  an  address 
from  which  the  following  passages  are  taken: 
"The colony  under  Winthrnp  arrived  in  the  Ara- 
bella and  founded  Boston  in  1630.  On  the  4th 
of  September,  1633,  the  QrifHn  brought  .lolin 
Cotton  from  the  Lincolnshire  Boston,  full  of 
pious  spirit  and  wise  plans  for  the  new  colony 
•,vith  whicli  he  had  cast  in  his  lot.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  possibly  we  owe  to  John  Cotton 
the  first  suggestion  of  the  first  town-school.  .  .  . 
However  this  may  be,  here  is  the  town  record  of 
the  13th  of  the  second  month,  1635.  It  is  for- 
ever memorable,  for  it  is  the  first  chapter  of  our 
Book  of  Genesis,  the  very  cradle  of  all  our  race: 
'At  a  general  meeting  upon  publique  notice  .  .  . 
it  was  then  generally  agreed  upon  that  our 
brother  Philemon  Pormort  shall  be  entreated  to 
become  scholemaster,  for  the  teaching  and  nour- 
tcring  of  children  among  us. '  It  was  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  ago  today  [April  23,  1885] 
just  nineteen  years  after  the  day  when  William 
Shakespeare  died,  just  seventy-one  years  after 
the  day  when  he  was  born.  How  simple  that 
sliort  record  is,  and  how  unconscious  that  sliort 
view  is  of  the  future  which  is  wrapped  up  in  it! 
Fiftj'-nine  thousand  children  who  crowd  the  Bos- 
ton public  scliools  to-day  —  and  who  can  count 
what  thousands  yet  unborn  ?  —  are  to  be  heard 
crying  out  for  life  in  the  drj",  quaint  words  of 
that  old  vote.  By  it  the  first  educational  insti- 
tution, which  was  to  have  continuous  existence 
in  America,  and  in  it  the  public  school  system  of 
the  land,  came  into  being.  Philemon  Pormort, 
the  first  teacher  of  the  Latin  School,  is  hardly 
more  than  a  mere  shadow  of  a  name.  It  is  not 
even  clear  that  ho  ever  actually  taught  the  school 
at  all.  A  few  yeara  later,  with  Mr.  Wheel- 
wright, after  tlie  Hutchinson  excitement,  he  di'j- 
appears  into  the  northern  woods,  and  is  one  of 
the  founders  of  Exeter,  in  Ne>v  Hampshire. 
There  are  rumors  that  he  came  back  to  Boston 
and  died  here,  but  it  is  all  very  uncertain.  .  .  . 
The  name  '  free  scliool '  in  those  days  seems  to 
have  been  used  to  characterize  an  institution 
which  should  not  be  restricted  to  any  class  of 
children,  and  wliicli  should  not  be  dependent  on 
the  fluctuating  attendance  of  scholars  for  its  sup- 
port. It  looked  forward  to  ultimate  endowment, 
like  the  schools  of  England.  The  town  set  apart 
the  rent  of  Ueer  Island,  and  some  of  the  other 


727 


EDUCATION. 


Harvard  ColUge. 


EDUCATION. 


islands  in  tlio  Imrbor,  for  its  lielp.  All  tho  great 
cit'-.ens,  OovonK  r  Wintlirop,  Governor  Vftne, 
Mr.  Bellin);liiuii,  and  the  rest,  made  generous 
oontributionH  to  it.  But  it  called,  also,  for  sup- 
port from  tliosM'  who  sent  their  children  to  it,  and 
who  were  atile  to  pay  sometliing;  and  it  was  only 
of  the  Indian  children  that  it  was  distinctly  pro- 
vide:! that  they  shoukl  be  '  tauglit  gratia. '  It 
was  older  than  any  of  the  schools  which,  in  a 
few  j'ears,  ({rew  up  thick  around  it.     The  same 

f)ower  whicl!  made  it  spring  out  of  the  soil  was 
D  all  the  rich  ground  on  which  these  colonists, 
unlike  any  otlier  colonists  wliich  the  world  has 
ever  seen,  had  set  their  feet.  Roxbury  had  its 
school  under  the  Apostle  Eliot  in  1645.  Cam- 
bridge was  already  provided  before  1643.  Charles- 
town  did  not  wait  later  than  1036.  Salem  and 
Ipswicii  were,  both  of  them,  read>  in  1637.  Ply- 
mouth did  not  begin  its  system  of  put)lic  instruc- 
tion till  1663.  It  was  in  1647  that  the  General 
Court  enacted  that  resolve  which  is  tho  great 
charter  of  free  education  in  our  Commonwealth 
in  whose  preamble  and  ordinance  stand  tlie  im- 
mortal words:  '  That  learning  may  not  be  buried 
in  the  grave  of  our  fathers,  in  church  and  Com- 
monwcaltli,  the  Lord  assisting  our  endeavors,  it 
is  therefore  ordered  that  every  township  in  this 
jurisdiction,  after  the  Lord  hath  increased  tliem 
to  the  number  of  fifty  householders,  shall  then 
fortliwith  appoint  oae  within  their  town  to  teach 
all  such  children  as  shall  resort  to  him  to  write 
and  read.'  There  can  bo  no  doubt,  then,  of  our 
priority.  But  mere  priority  is  no  great  thing. 
Tile  real  interest  of  tlic  beginning  of  the  school 
is  the  large  idea  and  scale  on  which  it  started. 
It  taught  tlie  children,  little  Indians  and  all,  to 
read  and  w'ite.  But  tliere  seems  every  reason 
to  suppo!  J  that  it  taught  also  the  Latin  tongue, 
and  all  t'lat  then  was  deemed  the  higher  knowl- 
edge. It  was  the  town's  only  school  till  1682." 
—  The  Oldest  School  in  America,  pp.  5-24. 

A.  D.  1636. — Massachusetts.— Harvard  Col- 
lege.— "  The  first  settlers  in  New  England,  recog- 
nizing the  importance  of  a  liighcr  education  than 
could  !)(•  given  in  the  common  schools,  began  at 
once  the  founding  of  a  university.  Tlie  avowed 
object  of  this  university  was  the  training  of 
young  men  for  the  ministry.  Nothing  could 
show  clearer  the  spirit  of  these  early  colonists. 
Tiioiigh  loss  than  four  thousand  in  number,  and 
scattered  along  the  shores  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
in  si.xtcen  liamlets,  they  were,  nevertlieless,  able 
to  engage  in  such  an  enterprise  before  adequate 
provision  had  been  made  for  food,  raiment,  shel- 
ter, a  civil  government,  or  divine  worship ;  at  a 
time  when  soil  and  climate  had  disappointed 
them,  and  their  affairs  were  in  a  most  critical 
condition ;  for,  not  only  were  they  called  to  face 
famine,  disease,  and  deatli,  but  the  mother  coun- 
try and  the  surrounding  savage  tribes  were 
threatening  them  witli  war.  ...  It  was  near  the 
close  of  1636,  a  little  more  than  six  years  after 
the  landing  of  tlie  Puritans,  when  tliis  first  step 
was  taken  by  the  General  Court  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Colony.  At  this  assembly,  presided 
over  by  Sir  Henry  Vane,  governor  of  the  colony, 
the  General  Court  agreed  to  give  £400  (a  munifi- 
cent sum  for  the  time)  towards  the  founding  of 
u  school  or  college,  but  left  the  question  of  its 
location  and  building  to  be  determined  by  tlie 
Court  that  was  to  sit  in  September  of  the  follow- 
ing year.  Tliis,  it  is  said,  was  the  first  assembly 
'in  wliich  the  people  by  their  representatives 


ever  gave  their  own  money  to  found  a  place  of 
education.'  At  tho  next  Court  it  was  decided  to 
locate  the  college  at  Newtown,  or  '  the  New 
Towne,'  and  twelve  of  tho  principal  magistrates 
and  ministers  were  chosen  to  carry  out  this  de- 
sign. A  few  months  later,  they  changed  the 
name  of  the  town  to  Cambridge,  not  only  to  tell 
their  posterity  whence  they  came,  but  also,  as 
Quincy  aptly  says,  to  indicate  '  the  higli  destiny 
to  wliich  they  intended  the  institution  should 
aspire.'  Another  year,  however,  passed  before 
the  College  was  organized.  Tlie  impulse  given 
to  It  then  was  due  to  aid  whicli  came  from  so  un- 
expected a  quarter  that  it  must  have  seemed  to 
the  devout  men  of  New  England  as  a  clear  indi- 
cation of  the  divine  favor.  Tlie  Rev.  John  Har- 
vard, a  Non-conformist  minister,  was  graduated, 
in  1635,  from  tlie  Puritan  college  of  Emmanuel, 
at  Cambridge,  England,  and  came,  two  years 
later,  to  America  and  settled  in  Charlestown, 
where  he  immediately  took  a  prominent  part  in 
town  affairs.  His  contemporaries  gave  him  the 
title  of  reverend,  and  he  is  said  to  liave  olHciated 
occasionally  in  Cliarlestown  as  '  minister  of  God's 
word.'  One  has  recently  said  of  him  that  ho 
was  'beloved  and  honored,  a  well-trained  and 
acnomplished  scholar  of  the  type  then  esteemed,' 
and  that  in  the  brief  period  of  Ids  life  in  America 
—  scarcely  more  than  a  year  —  ho  cemented  more 
closely  friendshiiJS  that  had  been  begun  in  earlier 
years.  Tlie  project  of  a  college  was  then  on- 
grossing  the  thought  of  these  early  friends  ond 
doubtless  he  also  became  greatly  interested  in  it. 
Tlius  it  happened  that,  when  his  health  failed, 
through  his  own  love  of  learning  and  tlirough 
sympathy  with  the  project  of  his  daily  asso- 
ciates, he  determined  to  bequeath  one-half  of  his 
estate,  probably  about  £800,  besides  his  excellent 
library  of  three  hundred  and  twenty  volumes, 
towards  the  endowment  of  the  college.  This  be- 
quest rendered  possible  the  immediate  organiza- 
tion of  tlio  college,  which  went  into  operation 
'on  tlio  footing  of  the  ancient  institutions  of 
Europe,'  and,  out  of  gratitude  to  Harvard,  tlie 
General  Court  voted  that  the  new  institution 
should  bear  his  name." — G.  G.  Bush,  Harvard, 
pp.  12-15. 

Also  in:  J.  Quincy,  Uist.  of  Harvard  Uni- 
venity. — S.  A.  Eliot,  Sketch  oj  the  History  of 
Harvard  College. 

A.  D.  1642-1732. — New  Eneland  and  New 
York. — Early  Common  Schools. — "New  Eng- 
land early  adopted,  and  has,  with  a  single  ex- 
cention,  constantly  maintained  the  principle  that 
tho  public  should  provide  for  tlie  instruction  of 
ail  the  youth.  That  which  elsewhere,  as  will  be 
found,  was  left  to  local  provision,  as  in  New 
York;  or  to  charity,  as  in  Pennsylvania;  or -to 
parental  interest,  as  in  Virginia,  was  in  most 
parts  of  N  .  England  early  secured  by  law.  .  .  . 
The  act  oi  1643  in  Massachusetts,  whose  pro- 
visions were  adopted  in  most  of  the  adjacent 
colonies,  was  admirable  as  a  first  legislative  school 
law.  It  was  watchful  of  the  neglect  of  parents, 
and  looked  well  after  the  ignorant  and  the  in- 
digent. But  it  ncitlier  made  schooling  free,  nor 
imposed  a  penalty  for  its  neglect.  .  .  .  Scliools 
were  largely  maintained  by  rates,  were  f'ee  only 
to  the  necessitous,  and  in  not  a  few  of  tho  less 
populous  districts  closed  altogetlier  or  never 
opened.    This  led,  five  years  later,  to  more  strin- 


gent l-^gislation.  ...  As  suggesting  the  general 
scope  Lud  tenor  of  the  law,  tJie  following  extract 


728 


EDUCATION. 


Pftimtylvania. 


EDUCATION. 


Ig  mndc  ...  '  It  is  therefore  ordered  by  tliis 
Court  and  authority  tliereof  thnt  every  townsLip 
within  tlii.s  jcriwliction,  iifter  the  Lord  liatli  in- 
creased them  to  tlie  number  of  fifty  houseliolih'rs, 
sliall  tlien  fortliwitli  appoint  one  witliin  tlieir 
town  to  teiieli  all  such  children  as  shall  resort  to 
him,  to  writ(!  and  read;  whose  wages  shall  hi; 
paid,  either  by  the  parents  or  masters  of  such 
children,  or  by  the  inhabitants  in  general,  by 
way  of  supply,  as  the  mi.jor  part  of  those  who 
order  the  prudentials  of  the  town  shall  appoint; 
provided  that  those  who  send  their  children  be 
not  oppressed  by  paying  much  more  than  they 
can  have  1  hem  taught  for  in  the  adjoining  towns. 
And  it  is  further  ordered  that  where  any  town 
shall  increase  to  the  number  of  one  hundred 
families  or  house-holders,  they  shall  set  up  a 
grammar-school,  the  master  thereof  being  able  to 
instruct  youtlis  so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted  for 
the  university ;  and  if  any  town  neglect  the  per- 
formance hereof,  above  one  year,  then  every  such 
town  shall  pay  five  pounds  per  annum  to  the  ne.xt 
such  school,  till  they  shall  perform  this  order. ' 
.  .  .  Three  years  after  the  law  just  cited  Con- 
necticut passed  a  very  similar  one.  ...  In 
Rhode  Island  there  was  no  attempt  at  a  school 
system  prior  to  the  efforts  of  John  Howland  about 
1790.  There  were  schools  in  both  Providence 
and  Newport;  but  the  colony  was  small  (with  a 
population  of  less  than  ten  thousand  in  1700), 
broken  into  feeble  settlements,  and  offering  little 
opportunity  for  organization.  ...  It  is  claimed 
that,  at  the  surrender  of  the  Dutch  in  New  York 
(1064),  so  general  was  the  educational  spirit, 
almost  every  town  in  the  colony  had  its  regular 
school  and  more  or  less  permanent  teachers. 
After  the  occupation  of  the  province  by  the  Eng- 
lish, little  attention  was  given  to  education.  .  .  . 
Thirteen  years  after  the  surrender,  a  Latin  school 
was  opened  in  the  city;  but  the  first  serious  at- 
tempt to  provide  regular  schooling  was  in  the 
work  of  the  '  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel '  (1704)  in  the  founding  of  Trinity  School. 
The  society  kept  up  an  efllcient  organization,  for 
many  years,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  Revolu- 
tion had  established  and  chiefly  supported  more 
than  twenty  schools  in  the  colony.  About  1733, 
also,  there  was  established  in  >few  York  city  a 
school  after  the  plan  of  the  Boston  Latin  School, 
free  as  that  was  free,  and  which  became,  accord- 
ing to  eminent  authority,  the  germ  of  the  later 
King's  (now  Columbia)  College."— R.  G.  Boone, 
Bklucation  in  the  United  States,  cli.  3. 

A.  D.  1683-1770.— Pennsylvania.— Origin  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.— "Education 
had  not  been  over-looked  in  the  policy  of  Penn. 
In  his  Frame  of  Government  we  read:  'The 
governor  and  provincial  council  shall  erect  and 
order  all  public  scliools,  and  encourage  and  re- 
ward tlie  authors  of  useful  sciences  and  ]a\idable 
inventions,  in  the  said  province.  .  .  .  And  .  .  . 
a  committee  of  manners,  education  apd  arts,  that 
all  wicked  and  scandalous  living  may  be  pre- 
vented, and  that  youth  may  be  successively 
trained  up  in  virtue  and  useful  knowledge  and 
arts.'  The  first  movement  to  establish  an  educa- 
tional institution  of  a  higli  grade  was  in  the 
action  of  the  Executive  Council  which  proposed, 
November  17,  1683,  'That  Care  be  Taken  about 
the  Learning  and  Instruction  of  Youth,  to  wit : 
A  School  of  Arts  and  Sciences.'  It  was  not  un- 
til 1689,  however,  that  the  'Public  Grammar 
School '  was  set  up  in  Philadelphia.     This  insti- 

47 


tution,  founded  upon  the  English  idea  of  a  'free 
scliool,'  was  formally  chartered  in  1697  as  tlio 
'  William  Penn  Charter  School,'  It  was  intended 
as  th(^  liead  of  a  system  of  sclools  for  all,  rather 
than  a  single  school  for  a  select  few,  an  idea 
which  tlio  founders  of  the  Charitable  School, 
fifty  years  later,  had  also  in  mind — an  idea 
which  was  never  carried  out  in  the  history  of 
either  institution.  The  failure  of  Penn's  scheme 
of  government,  and  the  turmoil  during  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  arising  from  the 
confiicts  between  different  political  parties,  for  a 
time  influenced  very  decidedly  educational  zeal 
in  the  province.  The  gov,.nment,  which  at  the 
outset  had  taken  such  high  ground  on  the  sub- 
ject, ceased  to  exert  itself  in  bclialf  of  educa- 
tion, and  the  several  religious  denominations  and 
the  people  themselves  in  neighborhood  organiza- 
tions took  up  the  burden  and  planted  schools  as 
best  they  could  throughout  the  growing  colony. 
.  .  .  Feeling  the  importance  for  some  provision 
to  supplement  the  education  then  given  in  the 
established  schools,  Benjamin  Franlklin  as  early 
as  1743  drew  up  a  proposal  for  establishing  an 
academy.  .  .  .  IIo  secured  the  assistance  of  a 
number  of  friends,  many  of  them  members  of 
the  famous  Junto,  and  then  published  his  pam- 
phlet entitled  '  Proposals  Relating  to  the  Educa- 
tion of  Youth  in  Pennsylvania.' .  .  .  On  all  sides 
the  paper  met  with  great  favor  and  generous 
support.  The  result  was  the  organization  of  a 
board  of  trustees,  consisting  of  24  of  those  who 
had  subscribed  to  the  scheme  of  the  Academy, 
with  Franklin  as  president.  This  body  immedi- 
ately set  about  to  realize  the  object  of  the 
pamphlet,  and  nourished  by  subscriptions,  lot- 
teries, and  gifts  the  Academy  was  placed  in  a 
flourishing  condition.  .  .  .  The  Academy  com- 
prised three  schools,  the  Latin,  the  English,  and 
the  mathematical,  over  each  of  which  wiis  placed  a 
master,  one  of  whom  was  the  rector  of  the  insti- 
tution. .  .  .  The  English  School  was  neglected. 
The  other  schools  were  favored,  especially  the 
Latin  School.  In  the  eyes  of  Franklin  and  many 
of  the  supporters  of  the  Academy,  the  EnglLsh 
School  was  the  one  of  chief  importance.  What 
we  would  call  a  'star^'ing  out'  process  was  be- 
gun by  wliich  the  English  School  was  kept  in  a 
weak  condition,  most  of  the  funds  going  to  the 
Latin  School.  .  .  .  The  success  of  the  Academy 
was  so  gratifying  to  all  interested  in  it  that  it 
was  determined  to  apply  for  a  charter.  This 
was  granted  to  the  trustees  by  Thomas  and 
Richard  Penn,  the  proprietors,  on  July  13,  1753. 
Desirous  at  the  same  time  of  enlarging  the  course 
of  instruction,  the  trustees  elected  Mr.  William 
Smith  teacher  of  logic,  rhetoric,  natural  and 
moral  philosophy.  Air.  Smith  accepted  the  posi- 
tion and  entered  upon  his  duties  at  the  Academy 
in  May,  1754.  The  history  of  the  institution 
from  this  date,  whether  known  as  the  Academy 
or  the  College,  to  1779  is  the  history  of  the  life 
of  William  Smith."— J.  L.  Stewart,  Hist.  Sketch 
of  the  Universitji  of  Pennsylvania  (U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  Circular  of  Information,  1803,  no. 
2;  Benj.  Franklin  and  the  ITniv.;  ch.  4). 

A.  D.  1701-1717.— Connecticut. — Yale  Col- 
lege.— "For  sixty  years  the  only  school  for 
higlier  education  in  New  England  had  been  Ilar- 
vanl  College,  at  Cambridge.  The  people,  and 
especially  the  clergy,  of  Connecticut  naturally 
desired  the  benefit  of  a  similar  establishment 
nearer  home.   The  three  ministers  of  New  Haven, 


729 


EDUCATION. 


Yale  and  Columbia. 


EDUCATION. 


Milfonl,  iintl  Uninford  first  moved  In  tlio  cnter- 
prittc.  Ti'M  niiiiisU'rs,  iiiui:  of  tliem  bciii;.;  f^rndu- 
atfs  of  Iliirvanl  College,  iiu't  nt  Hratiford  U""!] 
and  made  a  coiitributiori  from  their  libraries  of 
about  forty  volumes  in  folio  '  for  the  founding 
of  a  codege. '  Other  douatious  presently  came 
in.  An  Act  of  Incorporation  was  grantedf  by  the 
General  Court.  It  created  a  body  of  trustees, 
not  to  be  more  than  eleven  in  number  nor  fewer 
than  seven,  all  to  be  elerji^ynieu  and  at  least  forty 
years  of  age.  The  Court  endowed  the  College 
with  an  annual  grant,  subject  to  be  discontinued 
at  i)lea8ure,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds 
in  '  ('ountry  pay,' — equivalent  to  si.xty  pounds 
sterling.  The  College  might  liold  property  '  not 
exceeding  the  value  of  five  hundred  pounds  per 
annum';  its  students  were  exempted  from  the 
payment  of  ta.\es  and  from  military  service;  and 
the  Governor  and  his  Council  gave  a  formal  ap- 
proval of  its  application  to  the  citizens  for  pecu- 
niary aid.  .  .  .  The  first  President  was  Abraham 
Pierson,  minister  of  Killingworth,  at  wldch  place 
he  continued  to  reside,  thougli  the  designated 
scat  of  the  College  was  at  Saybrook.  Eight  stu- 
dents were  adnnttcd,  and  arranged  in  classes. 
At  each  of  tlie  first  two  annual  commencements 
one  person,  at  the  third  three  persons,  received 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  President  Pier- 
son  was  succeeded,  at  his  death,  by  Mr.  Andrew, 
minister  at  Jlilford,  to  which  place  the  elder  pu- 
pils were  accordingly  transferred,  while  the  rest 
went  to  Saybrooli,  where  two  tutors  had  been 
provided  to  assist  their  studies.  .  .  .  For  nearly 
twenty  years  the  College  of  Connecticut  .  .  . 
continued  to  be  an  unsatisfactory  experiment. 
Wlnle  the  rector  taught  some  youth  at  Milford, 
and  two  tutors  had  other  pujjils  at  Saybrook, 
and  the  few  scores  of  books  which  had  been 
olitidned  for  a  library  were  divided  between 
tlie  two  places,  there  was  small  prospect  of  the 
results  for  which  institutions  of  learning  arc 
treated.  Notwithstanding  the  general  agree- 
ment that  whatever  facilities  for  the  higher  edu- 
cation could  be  commanded  should  be  brought 
together  and  combined,  the  choice  of  the  place 
was  embarrassed  by  various  considerations.  .  .  . 
Saybrook,  AVethersfleld,  Hartford,  and  New  Ha- 
ven competed  with  each  other  for  the  preference, 
offering  such  contributions  as  they  were  able 
towards  the  erection  of  a  college  building.  The 
offer  from  New  Haven,  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  town,  was  seven  hundred  pounds  sterling. 
The  plan  of  fixing  the  College  there,  promoted 
by  the  great  influence  of  Governor  Baltonstall, 
was  adopted  by  the  trustees;  and  with  money 
obtained  by  private  gifts,  and  two  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  accruing  from  a  sale  of  land  given 
by  the  General  Assembly,  a  building  was  begun 
[1717],  which  finally  cost  a  thousand  pounds 
sterling.  .  .  .  The  Assembly  gave  tlie  College  a 
hundred  pounds.  Jeremiah  Dumnier  sent  from 
England  a  substantial  present  of  books.  Gov- 
ernor Saltonstall  contributeil  fifty  pounds  ster- 
ling, and  the  same  sum  was  presented  by  Jahleel 
Brenton,  of  Newport,  in  Rhode  Island.  But  the 
chief  patronage  came  from  Eliliu  Yale, —  a 
native  of  New  Haven,  but  long  resident  in  the 
East  Indies,  where  he  had  been  Governor  of  Fort 
St.  George.  He  was  now  a  citizen  of  London, 
and  Governor  of  the  East  India  Company.  His 
contributions,  continued  through  seven"  years, 
amounted  to  some  four  hundred  pounds  sterling; 
and  he  was  understood  to  have  made  arrange- 


ments for  a  further  bounty  of  five  hundred 
pounds,  which,  however,  through  unfortunate 
accidents,  never  came  to  its  destination.  The 
province  made  a  grant  of  forty  pounds  annually 
for  seven  years." — J.  G.  Palfrey,  Jlist.  of  New 
J'Jiif/Uiiid,  hk.  4,  ch.  11,  andbk.  ."5,  ch.  4  (p.  4). 

A.  D.  1746-1787.— New  York.— King's  Col- 
lege, now  Columbia  College. —  "The  establish- 
ment of  a  college  in  the  city  of  New  York  was 
many  years  in  agitation  before  the  design  was 
carriedinto  effect.  At  length,  under  an  act  of 
Assembly  passed  in  December,  1746,  and  other 
similar  acts  which  followed,  moneys  were  raised 
by  public  lottery  'for  the  encouragement  of 
learning  and  towards  the  founding  a  college' 
within  the  colony.  These  moneys  were,  in  No- 
vember, 17.51,  vested  in  trustees.  .  .  .  The  trus- 
tees, in  November,  1753,  inviteil  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,  of  Connecticut,  to  be  President  of  the 
intended  college.  Dr.  Johnson  consequently  re- 
moved to  New  York  in  the  month  of  April  fol- 
lowing^, and  in  July,  1754,  commenced  the  in- 
struction of  a  class  of  students  in  u  room  of  the 
si  ''ool-house  belonging  to  Trinity  Church ;  but  he 
would  not  absolutely  accept  the  presidency  until 
after  the  passing  of  the  charter.  •  This  took  place 
on  the  31st  of  October  in  the  same  year,  1754; 
from  wliieh  period  the  existence  of  tlie  college 
is  properly  to  be  dated.  The  Governors  of  the 
college,  named  in  the  charter,  are  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  the  first  Lord  Commissioner 
for  Trade  anil  Plantations,  both  empowered  to  act 
by  proxies;  the  Lieutenant-governor  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  several  other  public  oftlccrs;  together 
with  the  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  the  senior  min- 
ister of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church, 
the  ministers  of  the  German  Lutheran  Church,  of 
the  French  Church,  of  the  Presbyterian  Congre- 
gation, ond  the  President  of  the  college,  all  ex 
officio,  and  twenty-four  of  the  principal  gentle- 
men of  the  city.  The  college  was  to  be  known 
by  the  name  of  King's  ColTcgc.  Previously  to 
the  passing  of  the  charter,  a  parcel  of  ground  to 
the  westward  of  Broadway,  bounded  by  Barclay, 
Church,  and  Murray  streets  and  the  Hudson 
River,  had  been  destined  by  the  vestry  of  Trinity 
Church  as  a  site  for  the  college  edifice;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, after  the  charter  was  granted,  a  grant 
of  the  land  was  made  on  the  13th  of  May,  1755. 
.  .  .  The  part  of  the  land  thus  granted  by  "Trinity 
Church,  not  occupied  for  college  purposes,  was 
leased,  and  became  a  very  valuable  endowment 
to  the  college.  The  sources  whence  the  funds 
of  the  institution  were  derived,  besides  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  lotteries  above  mentioned,  were  the 
voluntary  contributions  of  private  individuals  in 
this  country,  and  sums  obtained  by  agents  who 
were  subsequently  sent  to  England  and  France. 
In  May,  1760,  the  college  buildings  begar.  to  be 
occupied.  In  1763  a  grammar  school  was  estab- 
lished. In  March,  1763,  Dr.  Johnson  resigned  the 
presidency,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  My les  Cooper,  of  Ox- 
ford, who  had  previously  been  appointed  Profes- 
sor of  Moral  Philosophy  and  assistant  to  the 
President,  was  elected  in  his  place.  ...  In  con- 
sequence of  the  dispute  between  this  and  the  par- 
ent country.  Dr.  Cooperrcturned  to  England,  and 
the  Rev.  Benjamin  Moore  was  appointed  praeses 
l)ro  tempore  during  the  absence  of  Dr.  Cooper, 
who,  however,  did  not  return.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolutionary  War  'he  bu.siiiess  of 
the  college  was  almost  entirely  broken  up,  and  it 
was  not  until  after  the  return  of  peace  that  its 


730 


EDUCATION. 


Nattnnal  Ijand-grantt 

fflV  SchtMltl. 


EDUCATION. 


affaire  were  again  rpguliirly  attrndod  to.  In 
May,  1784,  the  college,  upon  its  own  application, 
was  erected  into  a  viniversity;  its  corporaic  title 
was  changed  from  King's  College  to  Columbia 
College,  and  it  was  |)lace(l  under  the  control  of 
a  board  termed  Hegenis  of  the  University.  .  .  . 
The  college  continued  under  that  government 
until  April,  1787,  when  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  restored  it  to  its  original  position  under  the 
present  name  of  Columbia  College.  ...  At  the 
same  time  a  new  body  was  created,  called  by  the 
same  name,  'The  Regents  of  the  University,' 
under  which  all  the  seminaries  of  learning  men- 
tioned in  the  act  creating  it  were  placed  by  the 
legislature.  This  body  still  exists  under  its 
original  name." — Cobdiihia  Colleije  Ilandbouk,  pp. 
5-9. 

A.  D.  1776-1880. — New  England  and  New 
■york. — State  School  Systems. — "It  was  not 
until  over  thirty  years  after  the  close  of  the  war 
of  1776  that  a  regular  system  of  schools  at  the 
public  expense  was  established.  New  Kngland 
lioasted  with  pride  of  being  the  first  in  educa- 
tion, as  she  had  been  in  war.  Her  example  was 
oloselj'  followed  by  the  other  States.  In  New 
York,  in  1805,  many  gentlemen  of  prominence 
associated  for  the  purpose  ut  establishing  a  free 
school  in  New  York  City  for  the  education  of 
the  children  of  persons  in  indigent  circumstances, 
and  who  di<l  not  belong  to,  or  were  not  provided 
for  by,  any  religious  society.  These  public- 
spirited  gentlemen  i)resented  a  memorial  to  the 
Legislature,  setting  fortli  the  benefits  that  would 
resiilt  to  society  from  educating  such  children, 
and  that  it  would  enable  tliem  more  elTectually 
to  accomplish  the  objects  of  their  institution  if 
the  schools  were  incorporated.  The  bill  of  in- 
corporation was  passed  April  9,  1805.  This  was 
the  nucleus  from  which  the  present  system  of 
public  schools  started  into  existence.  Later  on, 
in  the  year  1808,  we  find  from  annual  printed 
reports  tliat  two  free  schools  were  opened  and 
were  in  working  order.  ...  It  was  the  inten- 
tion of  the  founders  of  these  schools  —  among 
whom  tlie  names  of  De  Witt  Clinton,  Ferdinand 
de  Peyster,  John  Murray,  and  Leonard  Bleecker 
stand  prominent  as  officers  —  to  avoid  the  teacli- 
ings  of  any  religious  society;  but  there  were 
among  the  people  many  who  thought  that  .suffl 
dent  care  was  noi  being  bestowed  upon  relig- 
ious instruction :  to  plea.se  these  malcontents  the 
literary  studies  of  the  pupils  were  suspended 
one  afternoon  in  every  week,  and  an  association 
of  fifty  ladies  of  'distinguished  consideration  in 
society '  met  on  this  day  and  examined  the  chil- 
dren in  their  respective  catechisms.  ...  To  read, 
write,  and  know  arithmetic  in  its  first  branches 
correctly,  was  the  extent  of  the  educational  ad- 
vantages which  tlie  founders  of  the  free-school 
system  deemed  necessary  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  their  purposes.  "—A.  H.  Rhine,  The  Early 
Free  Scltoola  of  Am.  (Popular  Science  Montldy, 
March,  1880). 

A.  D.  1785-1880.— The  United  States.— 
Land-erants  for  Schools.— "  The  question  of 
the  cntlowracnt  of  educational  institutions  by  the 
Government  in  aid  of  the  cause  of  education  seems 
to  liave  met  no  serious  opposition  in  the  Congress 
of  the  Confederation,  ind  no  member  raised  his 
voice  against  this  vitjd  and  essential  provision 
relating  to  it  in  the  ordinance  of  May  20,  1785, 
'  for  ascertaming  the  mode  of  disposing  of  lands 
In  the  Western  Territory.'  This  provided :  'There 


shall  be  reserved  the  lot  No.  Ifl  of  pvory  town- 
ship for  the  maintenance  of  public  schools  within 
said  township.'  This  was  an  endowment  of  (140 
acres  of  land  (on(!  section  of  land,  one  mile  sipiare) 
in  a  township  6  miles  B(iiiare,  for  the  support 
and  maintenance  of  pu1)lic  schools  '  within  said 
township.'  The  manner  of  establishnuni  of 
public  schools  thereunder,  or  by  whom,  was  not 
mentioned.  It  was  a  reservation  by  the  Ignited 
States,  and  advanced  and  established  a  principle 
which  finally  dedlcatpd  one  thirty-sixth  part  of 
all  public  lands  of  the  United  States,  with  cer- 
tain exceptions  as  to  mineral,  &c.,  to  the  cause 
of  education  liy  public  schools.  .  .  .  In  th<' Con- 
tinental Congress,  July  IM,  1787,  according  to 
onler,  the  ordinance  for  the  government  of  the 
'Territory  of  the  United  States  northwest  of  the 
river  Ohio  '  came  on,  was  read  a  third  time,  and 
pas.sed  [seeNonTiiwESTTKUiiiTonY:  A.  I).  1787J. 
It  c(mtaine(l  tl'c  following:  'Art.  3.  Religion, 
morality,  and  nnowledgc'  being  necessary  to  goml 
government  and  the  happiness  of  mankind, 
schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  forever 
be  encouraged.'  Tlie  provision  of  the  ordinance 
of  May  20,  I7H5,  relating  to  the  reservation  of  the 
sixteenth  section  in  every  townsliip  of  public 
land,  was  the  inception  of  the  present  rule  of 
reservation  of  certain  sections  of  land  for  school 
purposes.  The  endowment  was  the  subject  of 
much  legislation  in  the  years  following.  The 
•luestioii  was  raised  that  there  was  no  rea.son  why 
the  United  States  should  not  organize,  control, 
and  manage  these  public  schools  so  endowed. 
The  reservations  of  lands  were  made  by  sur- 
veyors and  duly  returned.  This  jiollcy  at  once 
met  with  enthusiastic  approval  from  the  i)ublic, 
a:id  was  tacitly  inc()ri)orateil  into  the  American 
system  as  one  of  its  fundamental  organic  ideas. 
Whether  the  jiiiblic  schools  thus  endowed  by  the 
United  States  were  to  bo  under  national  or  State 
control  remained  a  question,  and  the  lands  were 
held  in  reservation  merely  until  after  the  admis- 
sion of  the  State  of  Ohio  in  1802.  ...  To  each 
organized  Territory,  after  1803,  was  and  now  is 
reserved  the  sixteenth  section  (until  after  the 
Oregon  Territory  act  reserved  the  thirty-sixth  as 
well)  for  school  purposes,  which  reservation  is 
carried  irto  grant  and  confirmation  by  the  terms 
of  the  act  of  admission  of  the  Territory  or  State 
into  the  Union ;  the  State  then  becoming  a  trus- 
tee for  school  purposes.  These  grants  of  land 
were  made;  from  the  public  domain,  and  to  States 
only  which  were  known  as  public-land  States. 
Twelve  States,  from  March  3,  1803,  known  as 
public-land  States,  leceived  the  allowance  of  the ' 
sixteenth  section  to  August  14,  1848.  .  .  .  Con- 1 
gress,  June  13,  1813,  and  May  26,  18'24,  by  the 
acts  ordering  the  survey  of  certain  towns  and 
villages  in  Missouri,  reserved  for  the  support  of 
schools  in  the  towns  and  villages  named,  pro- 
vided that  the  whole  amount  reserved  should  not 
exceed  one-twentieth  part  of  the  whole  lands  in- 
cluded in  tlie  general  survey  of  such  town  or 
village.  These  lots  were  reserved  and  sold  for 
the  benefit  of  the  scliools.  Saint  Louis  received 
a  large  fund  from  this  source.  ...  In  the  act 
for  the  organization  of  the  Territory  of  Oregon, 
August  14,  1848,  Senator  Stephen  A.  Douglas 
inserted  an  additional  grant  for  school  purposes 
of  the  thirty-sixtli  section  in  each  township,  with 
indemnity  for  all  public-land  States  thereafter  to 
be  admitted,  making  the  reservation  for  school 
purposes  the  sixteenth  and  thirty-sixth  sections, 


731 


EDUCATION. 


state  School  FuniU. 


EDUCATION. 


or  l,2fiO  iipn's  In  oncli  township  of  hIx  miles 
iM}tiiin'  n'Horvcd  In  public-land  States  iind  Terri- 
tories, and  ronflrmed  by  grant  in  terms  in  tho 
net  of  admission  of  such  State  or  Territory  into 
the  Union.  From  March  18,  1H53,  to  June  80, 
18t«t,  s<'ven  HIates  have  l)cen  admitted  into  tho 
Union  liuvlnf^  a  grant  of  the  sixteenth  and  thirty- 
sixth  sections,  and  the  same  area  has  been  re- 
served in  eight  Territories." — T.  Donaldson,  Tfie 
J'flilir  DoiiKiiii,  cli.  13. 

A.  D.  1789.— The  United  States.— "  The 
Coi)stituti(m  of  the  United  States  nuikes  no  pro- 
vision for  tlie education  of  the  people;  and  in  tho 
Convention  that  framed  it,  I  believe  the  subject 
was  not  even  mentioned.  A  motion  to  insert  a 
cla\ise  providing  for  tho  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional university  was  voted  down.  I  believe  it 
is  also  the  fact,  that  tlie  Constitutions  of  oidy 
three  of  the  thirteen  original  Htates  made  tho 
obligation  to  maintain  a  system  of  Freo  Schools 
a  part  of  their  fundamental  law." — It.  Mann, 
I,frt'ii  unci  Aiuiiiiil  llip'tn  tin  Kiliiciition,  Itet.  5. 

A.  D.  I793'  —  Massachusetts,  —  Williams 
Cotleee. —  "Williams  College,  at  Wllllamstown, 
BerlisTiire  County,  Mass.,  was  cliartered  in  1703. 
The  town  and  tlie  college  were  named  in  h<mor 
of  Col.  K))hraim  AVilllams,  who  had  command 
of  the  forts  in  the  Iloosac  Valley,  and  was  killed 
in  a  battle  with  the  French  and  Indians,  Sep- 
tember 8,  17r)5.  Uy  his  will  he  established  a 
freo  school  in  tho  township  which  was  to  bear 
his  name.  The  most  advanced  students  of  tills 
free  school  became  the  ilrst  collece  class,  num- 
bering 4,  and  received  the  regular  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts  in  the  autumn  of  1705.  Tho 
small  amount  left  by  the  will  of  Colonel  Wil- 
liams was  carefully  managed  for  80  years  by  the 
execiitors,  and  tliey  then  obtained  permission 
from  the  State  legislature  to  carry  out  tho  bo- 
novolent  purposes  of  tho  tesUitor.  Tho  fund  for 
building  was  increased  by  individual  subscrip- 
tions, and  by  the  avails  of  a  lottery,  whicli  the 
general  court  granted  for  that  jiurpose.  The 
building  which  is  now  known  as  West  College 
was  then  erected  for  the  use  of  the  free  school 
and  was  lluished  in  1700.  .  .  .  Tho  'ree  school 
was  opened  in  1701,  with  Rev.  Ebenezer  Fitch, 
a  graduate  of  Yale  College,  as  preceptor,  and 
5Ir.  John  Lester  as  assistant.  .  .  .  The  success 
of  the  school  was  so  great  that  the  next  year  the 
trustees  asked  tho  legislature  to  incorporate  tho 
school  into  a  college.  This  was  done,  and  a 
grant  of  $4,000  was  made  from  tho  State  treasury 
for  the  purchase  of  books  and  philosophical  aj)- 
paratus.  Tho  college  was  put  under  the  care  of 
12  trustees,  who  elected  Preceptor  Fitch  the  first 
president  of  the  college. "— E.  B.  Parsons  ( U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Edvcation,  Circular  of  Information, 
1891,  710.  6.'  Ilitt.  of  Jligher  Education  in  Mass., 
ch.  0). 

A.  D.  179S-1867.— The  United  States.— 
State  School  Funds. — "Connecticut  took  the 
lead  in  the  creation  of  a  permanent  fund  for 
tho  support  of  schools.  The  district  known  as 
tho  Western  Reserve,  In  Northern  Chm,  had 
been  secured  to  her  in  th'j  adjustment  of  her 
claims  to  lands  confirmed  to  her  by  tho  charter 
of  King  Charles  II.  Tbo  Legislature  of  the 
State,  in  1705,  passed  an  f.ct  directing  tho  sale  of 
all  the  land  embraced  in  the  Reserve,  and  setting 
apart  tho  avails  as  a  yerpetual  fund  for  tho 
maintenance  of  common  schools.  The  amount 
realized  was  about  $1,120,000.  .  .  .  New  Yoii 


was  the  next  State  to  rstablish  a  common  srhnol 
fund  for  the  aid  and  maintenance  of  schools  in 
the  several  scIkkiI  districts  of  the  State.  Tho 
other  Northern  Slates  except  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  I'eimsvivania,  ami  one  or  two  others, 
hn-.o  establish'''!  «!;;illar  funds.  ...  In  all  the 
.lew  States  the  500,000  acres,  given  by  act  of 
Congres",  on  their  adndssion  into  tho  Union,  for 
'.'lie  support  of  schools,  have  been  sacredly  set 
apart  for  that  purpose,  and  generally  otlier  lands 
iK'longing  to  the  States  have  been  added  to  tho 
fund.  .  .  .  Prior  to  the  war  the  Slave  States  had 
made  attempts  to  establish  plans  for  popular 
education,  but  with  results  of  an  unsatisfactory 
character.  In  Virginia  a  school  system  was  In 
force  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  indi- 
gent white  jiersons.  In  North  Carolina  a  largo 
school  fund,  exceeding  two  millions  of  dollars, 
had  been  set  apart  for  tlio  maintenance  of  schools. 
In  all  of  these  Stales  common  schools  had  been 
Introduced,  but  tliey  did  not  llourish  as  In  the 
North  and  West.  .  .  .  There  was  not  the  saiuo 
po|)ulation  of  small  and  independent  fanners, 
whose  families  could  be  united  into  a  school  dis- 
trict. .  .  .  A  more  serious  obstacle  was  the  slave 
Iiopulation,  coniititutlng  one-third  of  the  whole, 
and  in  some  of  the  Stjites  more  than  half,  whom 
it  was  thought  dangerous  to  educate." — V.  M. 
Rice,  Sficcinl  Jlfjxirt  on  the  Present  State  of  Edu- 
cation, 1807,  pp.  10-23. 

A.  D.  1804-1837.  — Michigan.  — The  Uni- 
versity.—  "In  1804,  wlien  MicTiigan  was  organ- 
ized as  a  Territorv,  Congress  granted  a  township 
of  land  for  a  seminary  of  learning,  and  tho  unf- 
versltv  to  be  established  in  1817  was  to  be  in 
accordance  with  this  grant.  Tlio  Territorial 
government  conimitted  the  interests  of  higher 
education  to  tlie  care  of  the  Oovernor  and  the 
Judges,  and  it  '.,  suppose 'd  that  through  the  ex- 
ertions of  lion.  A.  U.  Wooilward,  then  presiding 
Judge  of  tlie  Supreme  Court  of  the  Territory  of 
Michigan,  that  the  act  establishing  o  university 
was  framed.  A  portion  of  tills  most  curiousdocu- 
nient  of  the  early  history  of  Michigan  will  be 
given.  It  is  entitled  'An  act  to  establish  the 
Catholeplstemiad  or  University  Jlichiganla. '  '  Be 
it  enacted  by  tlie  Governor  and  Judges  of  the 
Territory  of  Allchigan,  That  there  shall  bo  in  the 
said  Territory  a  catliolei)i8temiad  or  university 
denominated  tho  Catholeplstemiad  or  University 
Michigania.  The  Catholeplstemiad  or  University 
of  Michigania  sliall  be  composed  of  thirteen 
didaxum  or  professorships;  first,  a  didaxia  or 
professorsliip  catholepistemla,  or  universal  sci- 
ence, tho  dictator  or  professor  of  which  shall 
be  president  of  the  institution ;  second,  a  didaxia 
or  professorship  of  anthropoglassica,  or  literature 
emb.-icing  all  of  tho  epistomum  or  sciences  rela- 
tive to  language;  third,  a  didaxia  or  professor- 
ship of  mathomatica  or  mathematics;  fourth,  a 
didaxia  or  professorship  of  physiognostica  or 
natural  history,  etc'  The  act  thus  continues 
through  tho  whole  range  of  the  '  thirteen  di- 
daxum'; the  remaining  nine  are  as  follows: 
Natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  chemistry,  med- 
ical sciences,  economical  sciences,  ethical  sci- 
ences, military  sciences,  historical  sciences,  and 
intellectual.  The  university  was  to  bo  under 
the  control  of  the  professors  and  president,  who 
wore  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor,  while  the 
institution  was  to  be  the  center  and  controlling 
"ower  of  the  educational  system  of  the  State, 
was  to  bo  supported  by  taxation  by  an  in- 


732 


EDUCATION. 


k'leh  Igan . — \fiuunchuiitll§. 
—Canada, 


EDUCATION. 


cirnnc  fif  the  nmniint  of  tnxrs  nlrondy  lev'  f|,  liy 
Ifl  piT  runt.  AIho  power  wiw  jrivt  -i  to  riiiHc 
mniicy  for  the  mipport  of  the  iiiiivcrHlty  liy 
mvaiis  of  lottcrlcH.  This  renmrkiibk'  ilociiinrtit 
wikH  not  without  it8  intlui'nco  hi  Hhiipin^  thti 
public  Hcli(M)l  policy  of  Mi('liif;;iin,  hut  it  wiis 
many  yt'iirs  iM'forc  tlu!  Htatu  »pi)roximat('(l  it.s 
It'arnrcf  provisions.  Iinpnirti('»l>l(^  as  this  cdii- 
(iiUional  plan  appears  for  a  lutndful  of  peonlr-  in 
thu  w(mh1»  of  Mlchifran,  it  served  as  a  foiuida  ion 
upon  whicli  to  huild.  The  olllcers  and  Jireside-.t 
were  duly  appointed,  and  the  work  or  the  now 
university  began  at  once.  At  llrst  tlie  university 
app<'anMl  as  a  seluwil  hoard,  to  estal)li.sh  and 
maintain  primary  schools  which  they  held  under 
tiieir  charge.  I'lien  foUoweil  a  course  of  study 
for  cliiHsical  acndendes,  and  flnnlly,  in  October, 
1817,  an  net  was  passed  establishing  a  college  in 
the  city  of  Detroit  called  'The  First  College  of 
Miehigania.'  .  .  .  The  people  contributed  liber- 
ally to  these  early  scliools,  the  sum  of  three 
thousand  flollars  lieing  subscribed  at  the  begin- 
ning. .  .  .  An  act  was  passed  on  the  30th  of 
April,  1821,  l)y  the  Governor  and  Judges  estab- 
lishing a  university  in  Detroit  to  take  the  place 
of  thu  catholeplstemiad  and  to  be  callecl  the 
'University  of  Michigan.'  In  its  charter  nearly 
all  the  powers  of  the  former  institution  wero 
substantially  conllrme<l,  except  the  provision  for 
tjixes  an<l  lotteries.  .  .  .  The  second  corporation, 
known  as  the  '  University  of  AMchigan,' carried 
on  the  work  of  education  alrei.  ■  begun  from 
18'31  to  the  third  organization,  ir.  18!)7.  The 
education  was  very  limited,  consisting  in  one 
classical  academy  at  Detroit,  and  part  of  the 
time  a  Lancastcnan  school.  The  boards  of  edu- 
cation kept  up  and  transmitted  the  imiversity 
Idea  to  such  an  extent  that  It  may  be  said  truly 
and  legally  that  there  was  on'!  University  of 
Michigan,  which  passed  through  three  successive 
stages  of  development  marked  by  the  dates  1817, 
1831,  and  1837,"  at  which  time  it  was  removed  to 
Ann  Arbor.— F.  W.  Blnckmar,  Federal  and 
State  Aid  to  Higher  Edveation  {If.  S.  Bureau  of 
miuMtion,  Circular  of  Information,  1890,  no.  1), 
pp.  230-!i41. 

Also  in  :  E.  M.  Farrand,  Hist,  of  the  Uniter- 
gity  of  Michigan.— K.  Ten  Brook,  American  State 
Unirermlien. 

A.  D.  1818-1821. — Massachusetts.— Amherst 
College. —  "Amherst  College  originated  in  a 
strong  desire  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  Jlassa- 
chusetts  to  have  a  college  near  the  central  part 
of  the  State,  where  the  students  shoidd  le  free 
from  the  temptations  of  a  large  city,  where  the 
expenses  of  an  education  should  not  be  beyond 
the  means  of  those  who  had  but  little  money,  and 
where  the  moral  p.nd  religious  influences  should 
be  of  a  decidedly  Christian  character.  ...  The 
ministers  of  Franklin  County,  at  a  meeting  held 
in  Sholburnc  May  18,  1815,  expressed  it  as  their 
opinion  that  a  literary  institution  of  high  order 
ought  to  be  established  in  Hampshire  County, 
and  that  the  town  of  Amherst  appeared  to  them 
to  be  the  most  eligible  place  for  it.  Their  early 
efforts  for  a  literary  institution  in  Hampshire 
County  resulted  in  tlietirst  place  in  the  establish- 
ment of  an  academy  in  Amherst,  which  was  in- 
corporated in  the  year  1816.  ...  In  the  year 
1818  a  constitution  was  adopted  by  the  trustees 
of  Amherst  Academy,  for  the  raismg  and  man- 
agement of  a  fund  of  at  least  $.50,000,  for  the 
classical  education  of  indigent  young  men  of 


iiiety  and  talents  for  the  Christian  minlstrv.  .  .  . 
I'his  charity  fund  may  he  said  to  lie  the  basis  of 
Amherst  College,  for  thougli  it  was  rais»'d  by  tlio 
trustees  of  Andierst  Academy  it  was  really  in- 
tended to  be  the  foimdation  of  a  college,  and  has 
always  been  a  part  of  the  permanent  funds  of 
Amherst  College,  kept  sacrcclly  from  .11  other 
funds  for  the  specitle  object  foi  "valtli  it  was 
given.  .  .  .  This  was  for  nniny  yi  rs  the  only 
permanent  fund  of  Amherst  College,  a' id  without 
this  it  would  have  seemed  impossible  at  one  time 
to  preserve  the  very  existence  of  the  college.  80 
Amherst  College  grewoutof  Andierst  Academy, 
and  was  built  permanently  on  the  charity  fund 
raised  by  the  t.ustees  of  that  academy.  .  .  .  Al- 
though the  harity  fund  of  l|l.')(),IKIO  had  been  re- 
ceived in  1J18,  It  was  not  till  1820  that  the  re- 
cipient felt  justirted  in  going  forward  to  erect 
l)uildlngs  for  acollege  In  .Vndierst.  Klforts  weru 
made  for  the  removal  of  Williams  College  from 
WlllianiKtown  to  Hampshire  Countv,  and  to  have 
the  charity  f\uid  used  in  connection  with  that 
college ;  and,  if  that  were  done,  it  was  not  certain 
that  Amherst  could  be  regarded  as  tlie  best  loca- 
tion for  the  college.  Hut  the  legislature  of  .Ma.ssa- 
chuselts  decided  tliat  Williams  College  cotild  not 
be  removed  from  Williamstown,  and  nothing  re- 
mained but  for  the  friends  of  'he  new  instltiUion 
to  go  on  with  their  plans  for  locating  it  at  .Viu- 
herst.  .  .  .  This  llrst  college  editlce  was  ready 
for  occupation  and  dedicated  on  the  18th  of  Hep- 
teniber,  1821.  In  the  mmith  of  May,  1821,  Hcv. 
Zephaniah  Swift  Moore,  I).  I).,  was  tuiaruinously 
elected  by  the  trustees  of  Amherst  Academy 
president  of  the  new  institution." — T.  R  Field 
[IT.  S.  Jill  reiiil  of  Education,  Circular  of  Informa- 
tion, 1801,  no.  0;  Ilist.  of  Higher  Education,  in, 
M<m.),  ch.  :i. 

A.  D.  1837.— Massachusetts.— Horace  Mann 
and  the  State  System. —  "  When  .Masmichu.setts, 
in  1837,  created  a  Board  of  Education,  then  wero 
first  united  into  a  somewhat  related  whole  the 
more  or  less  excellent  but  varied  and  independ- 
ent organizations,  and  a  beginning  made  for  a 
State  system.  It  was  this  massing  of  forces,  and 
the  hearty  co-operation  ho  initiated,  in  whicli  tlio 
work  of  Horace  Mann  showed  its  matchless 
greatness.  '  Ilarely,'  it  has  been  said,  'have 
great  ability,  unselli.sh  devotion,  and  l)rillinnt 
success,  been  so  united  in  the  course  of  a  single 
life.'  A  successful  lawyer,  a  member  of  the 
State  Legiolature,  and  with  but  limited  experi- 
ence as  a  teacher,  he  has  left  his  impress  upon 
the  educational  sentiments  of,  not  only  New 
England,  but  the  United  States." — U.  G.  Boone, 
Education  in  the  U.  S. ,  ;;.  103. 

A.  D.  1 840-1886.— The  United  States.— Pro- 
portion of  College  Students. — "  It  is  estimated 
that  in  1840  the  proportion  of  college  students  to 
the  entire  population  in  tlio  United  Stales  was  1 
to  1,540;  in  1800,  1  to  3,013;  in  1870,  1  to  3,546; 
in  1880,  1  to  1,840;  and  in  1886,  1  to  about  1,400. 
Estimating  all  our  combined  efforts  in  favor  of 
higher  education,  we  fall  far  short  of  some  of  the 
countries  of  the  Old  World."— F.  W.  Blackmar, 
Federal  and  State  Aid  to  Iligher  Education  in  the 
IT.  S.  (U.  8.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circulars  of 
Information,  1890,  no.  1),  p.  30. 

A.  D.  1844-1876.— Canada.— Ontario  School 
System. — "From  the  earliest  Kettiement  of  On- 
tario, schools  were  established  as  tlie  wants  of 
the  inhabitants  required.  The  Legislature  soon 
recognized  the  needs  of  the  country,  and  made 


733 


EDUCATION. 


Lnndi/mnli  fur 
Imitulriitt  Uoltrymt. 


KDUOATION. 


KniiitH  of  land  iinil  mnncy  In  itiil  >if  clcnicntiiry, 
M^i'iindiiry,  iiiiil  NupiTinrrduciitioM.  HtiilutcH  went 
uuHM'il  from  tinii'  to  IIimi-  for  the  purpoHcof  open- 
HiK  Ncliools  to  lut'i't  the  ilciniinil!!  of^  tlic  pcopltv 
Tlu!  spiifMcly  Hcltlcd  condition  of  tlif  Province 
dt'liiyed  for  I'l  wldiw  tlic  orKuni/.ittion  of  llic  ny»- 
tt'ni.  It  wuH  not  until  IHM  tl  it  tlie  clcnu^ntiiry 
rcIidoIh  were  put  on  it  roniprclii'tiHlvc!  biiHis.  In 
that  your  till' Krv.  KKfrton  Hycrson,  lA,.  !).,  wiis 
appointed  Chief  .Superintendent  of  KitiK'iilion, 
and  lli((  report  wliicli  he  prewnted  to  tliC!  House 
of  Assembly  Hketcheil  in  an  able  manner  the  main 
features  of  the  Hvstem  of  whieh  he  wan  the  dis- 
tin>;uished  founder,  and  of  whieh  he  continued 
for  thirty-three  yearn  to  Im^  the  elHcient  adndnis- 
trator.  In  1H70  theoMlceof  chief  Huperintendeiit 
was  abolished,  and  the  Hchools  of  the  Province 
placed  under  the  control  of  a  iiKMuberof  the  (Jov- 
ernmeiit  with  the  title  of  Minister  of  Kdiicutlon. 
.  .  .  The  system  of  education  in  Ontario  may  be 
said  to  coniil)ine  the  best  features  of  tlie  systei.is 
of  several  countries.  To  tlie  Old  World  it  Is  in- 
debted for  a  liir^'e  measure  of  its  Htability,  uni- 
fonnlty  and  centralization;  to  the  older  setlleil 
parts  of  the  N(nv  World  for  lis  popidar  nature, 
fta  lle.xibility  and  itsdemo(!ralie  principles  which 
have  given,  wherever  desiralih',  local  control  and 
Individual  responsiljillty.  Fmiii  the  Statu  of  New 
York  we  lmv(^  borrowed  tlie  machinery  of  our 
school ;  from  AIasv.,ichusetts  the  principle  of  lo(^al 
taxation;  from  Ireland  our  first  series  of  text 
books;  from  Scotland  the  cooperation  of  parents 
with  the  teacher,  in  upholding  his  authority; 
from  Germany  the  sy>ttem  of  Normal  Schools  and 
the  Kindergarten  iiid  from  the  United  States 
generally  the  iiondeuoininatlonal  character  of 
elementary,  secondary,  and  university  education. 
Ontario  may  claim  to  have  some  features  of  her 
system  that  are  lari;ely  liei  own.  Among  tliein 
may  be  mentioned:  a  division  of  state  and  muni- 
cipal authority  on  a  judicious  basis;  clear  lines 
separating  tlie  function  of  the  University  from 
thai  of  the  High  Schools,  and  the  function  of  the 
High  Schools  from  that  of  the  Public  or  element- 
ary schools;  a  uniform  course  of  study;  all  High 
and  Public  Schools  in  the  hands  of  professionally 
trained  teachers ;  no  person  eligible  to  the  posi- 
tion of  Inspector  who  does  not  hold  the  highest 
grade  of  a  teacher's  certificate,  and  who  has  not 
Eld  years  of  experience  as  a  teacher;  inspectors 
removal  '.0  if  inelBcient,  but  not  subject  to  re- 
moval by  popular  vot<3;  the  examinations  of 
teachers  under  Provincial  instead  of  local  control ; 
the  acceptance  of  a  common  matriculation  ex- 
amination for  admission  to  the  Universities  and 
to  the  learned  professions;  a  uniform  series  of 
text  books  for  the  whole  Province;  the  almost  en- 
tire obsence  of  party  politics  in  the  manner  in 
■which  school  boards,  inspectors  and  teachers  dis- 
charge thinr  dutip  :  the  system  national  instead 
of  sectarian,  but     fording  under  constitutional 

guarantees  and  limitations  protection  to  lioman 
atholic  and  Protestant  Separate  Schools  and  de- 
nominational Universities." — J.  Millar,  Educa- 
tional System  of  the  Province  of  Oniano. 

A.  D.  1862.— The  United  States.— Land- 
grant  for  industrial  Colleges. — "  Next  to  the 
Ordinance  of  1787,  the  Congressional  grant  of 
1862  Id  the  most  important  educational  enactment 
in  America.  ...  By  this  gift  forty-eight  col- 
leges and  universities  have  received  aid,  at  least 
to  the  extent  of  the  Congressional  grant;  thirty- 
three  of  these,  at  least,  have  been  called  into  ex- 


istence by  means  of  this  act.  In  thirteen  Htateii 
the  proceeds  <if  the  land  scrip  were  devoted  to 
institutions  already  In  exlHteiice.  The  amount 
recelverl  from  the  sales  of  land  scrip  from  twenty- 
four  of  thes<!  HtJitcH  aggregates  the  sum  of  (Hi),- 
9i)0,4r>(l,  with  land  remaining  unsold  estimiiU'd 
at  nearly  two  millions  of  dollars.  Thes<-  sumo 
InBtitiitions  have  recelveil  State  endowmentn 
amounting  to  over  eight  ndllion  dollani.  Tlio 
origin  of  this  gift  must  he  sought  In  Kk'hI  com- 
munities. In  this  country  all  Ideas  of  national 
education  have  arisen  from  t  host;  States  that  havo 
felt  the  nec.l  of  hx'al  Institutions  for  the  eduiui- 
tlon  of  youth.  In  certain  sections  of  the  Unhm, 
particularly  l!ie  North  and  West,  where  agri- 
culture was  one  of  the  chief  industries,  it  was 
felt  that  the  old  ela.ssiciil  schools  were  not  broad 
enough  to  cover  all  the  wants  of  education  repre- 
sented by  growing  Industries.  There  was  con- 
sequently a  revulsion  from  these  schools  toward 
the  industrial  and  practicid  side;  of  education. 
Evidences  of  tliis  movement  are  seen  in  the  at- 
tempts In  dilTerent  States  to  found  agricultural, 
technical,  and  industrial  sch(H)ls.  ThcKc  iileaa 
found  their  way  into(.'ongre.ss,  and  a  bill  was  in- 
troduced In  1838,  which  provided  for  the  endow- 
ment of  colleges  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture 
and  the  mechanical  arts.  The  bill  was  introdvK'cd 
by  Hon.  Justin  S.  Morrill,  of  Vermont;  it  was 
po-ssed  by  a  small  majority,  and  was  vetoed  by 
President  liuchiinan.  In  1802  tlu;  bill  was  again 
presented  with  slight  changes,  pa.sscd  and  signed, 
and  l)ecame  a  law  July  3,  1802.  ...  It  stipu- 
lated to  grunt  to  each  State  thirty  thousand  acres 
of  land  for  each  Senator  and  lleprcsentative  iu 
Congress  to  which  the  States  were  respectively 
entiued  by  the  census  of  18fl0,  for  the  purpose 
of  endowing  '  at  least  one  college  where  the  leml- 
ing  object  shall  be,  without  excluding  other  scl- 
entitlc  and  classical  studies,  and  including  mili- 
tary tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning 
as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislatures  of  the 
States  may  respectively  prescribe,  in  order  to 
promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education  of 
the  industrial  classes  In  the  several  pursuits  and 
professions  of  life.'  .  .  .  From  this  proposition 
all  sorts  of  schools  sprang  up,  according  to  the 
local  conception  of  the  law  and  local  demands. 
It  was  thought  by  some  that  boys  were  to  Iw 
taught  agriculture  by  working  on  a  farm,  and 
purely  agricultural  schools  were  founded  with 
the  mechanical  arts  attached.  In  other  States 
classical  schools  of  the  stereotyped  order  were 
established,  with  more  or  less  science ;  and,  again, 
the  endowment  in  others  was  devoted  to  scien- 
tific deportments.  The  instruction  of  the  farm 
and  the  teaching  of  pure  agriculture  have  not 
succeeded  In  general,  while  the  sclumls  that  have 
mode  prominent  those  studies  relating  to  agri- 
culture and  the  mechanic  arts,  upon  tne  whole, 
have  succeeded  best.  ...  In  several  Instances 
the  managers  of  the  land  scrip  have  understcod 
that  by  this  provision  the  State  could  not  locate 
the  land  within  the  borders  of  another  State,  but 
its  ossignees  could  thus  locate  lands,  not  more 
than  one  million  acres  in  any  one  State.  i3v  con- 
sidering this  question,  the  New  York  land  scrip 
was  bought  by  Ezra  Cornell,  and  located  by  him 
for  the  college  in  valuable  lands  in  the  State  of 
Wisconsin,  and  thus  the  fund  war  augmented. 
However,  the  majority  of  the  Stfites  sold  their 
land  at  a  sacrifice,  frequently  for  less  than  half 


734 


EDUCATION. 


t'urnell  L'nivtrtity. 


EDUCATION. 


ItH  viilnc.  Thrro  wiw  n  hill  In  tlio  Innil  iiiiirki>t 
during  tlii'  Civil  Wiir.  iiiiil  this  ciiumc,  toffclluT 
will)  tlic  liu'k  (if  iitti'iiticiii  ill  iimiiy  KliitcN,  HiiiTi 
flci'd  tln>  liitt  of  till!  Fi'dcrnl  OovcniiiuMit.  Tlw 
Biili-H  nulled  nil  the  wny  fri)iii  llfly  <<'IiI.h  to  hcvcii 
cJollitrM  (XT  iicrc,  iih  the  uviTiit^c  pricK  for  ciicli 
Btiitc."--F.  W.  Hliukiimr,  Fnlnul  mnl  SlntrAitl 
til  Ilii/lier  Kiliinitiiiu  (('.  1^.  Ilinriin  nf  Kduentian, 
I'irciihirii  iif  liifiiniiiilinn,  IHIMI,  im.  1),  /)//.  47-41). 
A.  D.  i863-i886.-New  York.-Cornell  Uni- 
versity.—"  On  the  Mccoiid  of  .Iiily.  IHflJ,  .  .  . 
[I'i'CKidciit  Liiicolnl  Mi^ricd  llic  iicf  of  con^^rt'SH. 
(loniitiii);  |)ulili'-  liiiids  for  tlii!  CHtitblisluiU'iit  of 
collt'ffcH  of  ji);ri('ultiiri'  and  iMcc^hanitMirts.  Tills 
net  liiid  lict'ii  liitrcxluri'd  Into  coii^trcsH  by  the 
lloii.  .luHtIn  S.  Morrill.  .  .  .  Tiii!  .Morrill  net 
provided  for  a  doiiiUioii  of  piililk^  liiiid  to  the 
Beveriil  Htiites,  eiieli  Ktiite  to  ree<'lve  tliirty  thou- 
wind  iieres  for  eiirli  seniitor  mid  representative  it 
Bent  to  eoTi^ress.  IStiites  not  eorilalninK  witiiin 
their  own  borders  public  land  Rubleet  to  Hale  at 
private  entry  received  land  scrip  instead.  Hut 
this  land  scrip  the  recipient  states  were  not  al- 
lowed to  locate  within  tlie  limits  of  any  other 
statu  or  of  any  tcriitory  of  the  United  Htates. 
The  act  laconically  directed  'said  scrip  t<>ln'sold 
bv  said  states. '  Tlitj  proceeds  of  the  sale,  w  liether 
of  land  or  scrip,  in  each  state  were  to  form  a  per- 
petual fund.  ...  In  the  execution  of  this  trust 
the  State  of  New  York  was  hampered  by  great 
and  almost  insuperable  obstacles.  For  Its  dis- 
tributive sliure  It  received  land  scrip  to  the 
amount  of  nine  hundred  and  ninety  tliousand 
acres.  The  niunificcncu  of  the  endowment  awak- 
ened the  cupidity  of  a  multitude  of  clamorous 
and  strangly  unexpected  claimants.  ...  If  the 
princely  aoniain  granted  to  the  State  of  New 
York  by  congR'ss  was  not  divided  and  frittered 
away,  we  owe  it  in  great  measure  to  the  fore- 
sight, the  energy,  and  the  splendid  courage  of  a 
few  generous  spirits  in  the  legislature  of  whom 
none  commanded  greater  respect  or  exercised 
more  Influence  tlnio  Senator  Andrew  Dickson 
White,  the  gentleman  who  afterwards  became 
first  president  of  Coniell  University.  .  .  .  But 
the  all-compelling  force  which  prevented  the 
dispersion  and  dissipation  of  the  bounty  of  con- 
gress was  the  generous  heart  of  K/.ra  Cornell. 
While  rival  institutions  clamored  for  n  division 
of  die  'spoils,'  and  political  tricksters  played 
their  base  and  desperate  game,  tills  man  thought 
only  of  the  highest  good  of  tlie  State  of  New 
York,  which  he  loved  with  the  ardor  of  a  patriot 
and  was  yet  to  serve  with  the  heroism  of  a  martyr. 
.  .  .  When  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  New 
York  was  called  upon  to  make  some  disposition 
of  the  congressional  grant,  Ezra  Cornell  sat  in 
the  senate.  .  .  .  Of  his  minor  legislative  achieve- 
ments I  shall  not  speak.  One  act,  however,  has 
made  his  name  as  immortal  as  the  state  it  glorified. 
By  a  gift  of  half  a  million  dollars  (a  vast  sum  in 
1805,  the  last  year  of  the  war  I)  he  rescued  for  the 
higher  education  of  New  York  the  undivided 
grant  of  congress ;  and  with  the  united  endow- 
ments he  induced  the  legislature  to  establish,  not 
moicly  a  college  of  applied  science  but  a  great 
modern  university — '  an  institution,'  according  to 
his  own  admirable  definition,  '  where  any  person 
can  find  instruction  in  any  study. '  It  was  a  high 
and  daring  aspiration  to  crown  the  educational 
system  of  our  imperial  state  with  an  organ  of 
universal  knowledge,  a  nursery  of  every  science 
and  of  all  scholarship,  an  instrument  of  liberal 

1 


culture  and  of  practical  utility  to  all  claMw's  of 
our  people,  Tills  WHS,  however,  tlie  end;  and 
to  Ke<'iii'e  it  V./.m  Cornell  added  to  Ids  original 
gift  new  donations  of  land,  of  buildings,  ami  of 
money.  .  .  .  Hut  one  danger  threatened  this  latest 
birth  of  time.  Tlie  act  (d  coiigresH  doniiting  land 
scrip  reipiired  tlie  states  to  sell  it.  The  markets 
were  immediately  glut  led.  Prices  fell.  New 
York  was  selling  at  an  average  price  of  llfty 
cents  an  acre.  Hit  priiirely  doiiiain  would  bring 
at  this  rate  less  than  half  a  million  diillars!  \V 
the  Hplendiii  diinatinn  to  issiiit  in  such  disiistei  l 
If  it  could  be  held  till  the  war  was  over,  till  im- 
migration opened  up  the  Northwest,  it  would  Iw 
worth  live  times  live  hundred  thousand  dollars! 
So  at  least  thought  one  far  seeing  man  in  tlio 
Slate  of  New  York.  And  tliis  man  of  foresight 
had  the  heart  to  conceive,  the  wisdom  to  device, 
and  tli(^  courage  to  execute  —  hi'  alone  in  all  the 
states  —  a  plan  for  saving  to  bis  state  the  future 
value  of  tiie  lands  donated  by  congress,  K/.ra 
Cornell  made  that  wonderful  and  dramatic  con- 
tract with  tlu'  Slate  of  New  Y'orkl  lie  bound 
liimself  to  purchase  at  the  rate  of  si.\ty  ci'iits  per 
acre  the  entire  riglit  of  the  cnmniotiweaitli  to  the 
scrip,  still  unsold',  and  with  the  scrip,  tlius  pur- 
chased bv  him  as  an  individual  lie  agreed  to 
select  anil  locate  the  lands  it  represented,  to  pay 
the  taxes,  to  guard  against  trespassis  and  defend 
from  fires,  to  the  end  tliat  within  twenty  years 
wlieu  values  had  appreciated  lie  inigiit  "sell  the 
land  and  turn  into  the  treasury  of  the  State  of 
New  Y'ork  for  the  suiiport  of  Cornell  University 
the  entire  net  proceeils  of  the  enterprise.  Within 
a  few  years  K/.ra  Cornell  had  located  over  half 
a  million  acres  of  superior  pitie  land  in  tliu 
Northwestern  states,  principally  in  Wisconsin. 
Under  bonds  to  tlie  State  of  New  Y'ork  to  do  the 
state's  work  he  had  spent  about  iJOOO.OOO  of  his 
own  cash  to  carry  out  the  trust  committed  to  him 
by  the  state,  when,  alas.  In  the  crisis  of  1874, 
fortune  and  credit  sank  exhausted  and  death 
came  to  free  the  martyr-iiatrlot  from  his  bonds. 
The  seven  years  that  followed  were  the  dark- 
est in  our  history.  .  .  .  Kzra  Cornell  was  our 
founder;  Henry  W.  Sage  followed  him  as  wise 
masterbuilder.  The  edillees,  <  hairs  and  libraries 
which  bear  the  name  of  '  Sage '  witness  to  [his] 
later  gifts:  but  though  these  now  aggregate  the 
princely  sum  of  $1,250,000,  [his]  management  of 
the  university  lands  has  been  [his]  greatest 
achievement.  Prom  tliesi!  lands,  with  which  the 
generosity  and  foresight  of  Ezra  Cornell  endowed 
the  university,  there  have  been  netted  under  [Mr. 
Sage's]  administration,  not  far  short  of  $4,000,- 
000,  with  over  100,000  acres  still  to  s<,'ll.  Ezra 
Cornell's  contract  with  the  state  was  for  twenty 
years.  It  exiiired  August  4,  1880,  wlien  a  ten 
years'  extension  was  griuited  by  the  state.  The 
trust  will  be  closed  in  laiXi," — .1.  Q.  Schurmau, 
Addresn  (it  litniK/iirdlion  to  tlie  I'remlency  of  Cor- 
nell Uiiiversiti/.'yor.  11,  1893. 

A.  D.  1866-1869.— The  United  States.— 
Bureau  of  Education. —  "Educators,  political 
economists,  and  stiitesmen  felt  the  need  of  some 
central  agency  by  which  the  general  educational 
statistics  of  tile  country  coiilu  be  collected,  pre- 
served, condensed,  and  properly  arranged  for 
tlistribution.  This  need  found  expression  finally 
In  the  action  taken  at  a  convention  of  the  super- 
intendence department  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  held  at  Washington  February, 
1866,  when  it  was  resolved  to  petition  Congress 


35 


EDUCATION. 


L'ntvrriili). 


KI)U('ATION. 


In  favor  of  a  NntlonnI  niiri'iiii  of  Kdiirat'.on. 
.  .  .  The  mcinorinl  wnti  prciw'iiti'il  in  tin-  lloiim' 
of  I{('|ircMcriliillv«'n  liv  Ociicritl  (ItirtU'ld,  Ki'lirimry 
14,  IHtMt,  Willi  a  liill'  for  tin  cHtiililiiiliiiiciit  of  it 
Niilioiiiil  lliiri'iiii  on  I'HM'iitiiilly  tlic  IhimIs  tlir 
M'liixil  Hii|M'riiit('iiilt'iitj*  liiiil  iirii|Mm'(l.  Ii<itli  bill 
iiikI  iiK'iiiiiriiil  Were  rcfrrn'il  to  ii  I'oniiiiltti't'  of 
•even  iiu'IiiIhth.  .  .  .  'riic  bill  wiih  ri'|Mirti'(l  Imck 
fruni  the  ('(inirnittct-,  uitli  iiti  lunriiiliiicnt  in  the 
lintiin'  of  It  Hiilmlltiitc,  prdviiliiiK  fi>r  tin-  crcutiiiii 
of  It  ili'iiitrtiiK'iit  of  I'liiiciition  iiiHtcitil  of  tiic 
Imrcitii  oriKiniilly  projioiu'ii.  Tliimitltori'd,  it  wiih 
poHwil  liy  It  viitt'  of  nearly  two  to  iiiu!.  In  tlio 
Ht'iialc  it  w'ltH  ri'fiTrt'd  to  the  ('oniinitlt'c  on  tlie 
■liliiii'lary  .  .  .  who  the  foliiiwiiiK  wintrr  re- 
ported  it  without  aniendment  and  with  a  reeoin- 
mendation  tiiiit  It  pavH,  which  it  did  on  tliu  liitof 
March,  IHfIT,  receivinK  on  the  next  day  tlio  ap- 
proval of  tlK!  President.  Hy  the  act  of  July  'iH, 
18flH,  wlilch  toolt  elfect  June  30,  IHfll),  the  De- 
partment of  Kducation  witH  alioliMii'd,  and  an 
Otilee  of  Kdueittiiiii  in  tlie  Department  of  the 
Interior  wuh  eNtaiiliHiied,  witli  tlie  Kiime  oliJeetH 
and  dutlcH.  .  .  .  Tliu  act  of  Marcli  2,  1807,  .  .  . 
cstnbilHhed  an  ai<ency  '  for  the  piirpogu  of  eol- 
Icetinx  Htich  HtatiHtiea  and  factH  as  Hhall  bIiow  tliu 
condilit.n  and  pro^ressof  ediieatiim  in  the  iieverai 
StiiteH  and  Terr  tories,  iind  of  dilTiisinK  sueh 
Information  rcHpeetinu;  tlie  organization  and 
manaifcinent  of  Heliool  systeniH  and  methiHlM  of 
tcachniff  as  shall  aid  the  people  of  the  United 
States  in  tlio  establishment  and  miiintenuuce  of 
cfllcient  school  systems  and  otherwise  promote 
the  cause  of  education.'  It  will  be  perceived 
that  the  chief  duty  of  the  ofllce  under  tlic  law  is 
to  act  as  an  educational  cxchauKe.  Exercising 
and  seeking  to  exercise  no  control  wnatcver  over 
its  thousands  of  correspondents,  the  olllco  occu- 
pies a  position  as  the  recipient  of  voluntary 
informati(m  which  is  unique." — C.  Warren,  An- 
tiren  to  In</iiirie»  about  the  ['.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, eh.  2-3. 

A.  D.  1867.— New  York.— Public  Schools 
made  entirely  free. —  Tlic  public  schools  of  tlie 
State  of  New  York  were  not  entirely  free  until 
1867.  In  his  report  to  the  Legislature  made  in 
February  of  that  year,  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  Hon.  Victor  M.  Hice,  said : 
"The  greatest  defect  In  our  scluxil  system  Is,  as 
I  have  urged  in  previous  reports,  the  continuance 
of  the  rate  bill  system.  Our  common  schools  can 
never  reach  their  highest  degree  of  usefulness 
until  they  sliall  have  been  made  entirely  free 
...  To  meet  this  public  demand,  to  confer  UDon 
the  children  of  the  State  the  blessings  of  free 
education,  a  bill  has  already  been  introduced  into 
your  honorable  body.  .  .  .  The  main  features  of 
the  bill  are  the  provisions  to  raise,  by  State  tax, 
a  sum  about  equal  to  that  raised  in  the  districts 
by  rate  bills,  ond  to  abolish  the  rate  bill  system ; 
to  facilitate  the  erection  and  repair  of  scliool 
houses."  The  bill  referred  to  was  passed  at  the 
same  session  of  the  Legislature,  and  in  his  next 
succeeding  report.  Superintendent  Hiee  gave  the 
following  account  of  the  law  and  its  immediate 
effects:  "While  the  genenil  structure  of  the 
school  law  was  not  disturbed,  a  material  inodifl- 
cation  was  made  by  tlie  Act  (chap.  406,  Laws 
of  1867),  which  took  effect  on  the  first  day  of 
October  of  the  same  year,  ond  which,  among 
other  things,  provided  for  the  abolishment  of  rote- 
bills,  and  for  increased  local  and  .State  taxation 
for  school  purposes.    This  was  primarily  u  change 


In  the  manner  of  miiiint;  the  requUitn  funds;  not 
an  aliMiliite  increase  of  the  aggregiile  aiiuiunt  10 
be  nilHcd.  It  involved  niid  eneoiiraKcil  siirh  in- 
creaMC,  so  far  as  the  inlmbilanls  in  the  Keveral 
HcliiMil  diHtr!rts  Nhoiiid  authori/.c  it,  by  HuliHlltut- 
ing  taxatiiiii  exrIiiHlvely  on  property,  for  a  mixi'd 
aHM'HNiiiciil  which,  in  part,  wa.s  a  lux  on  attend- 
aiK'i'.  'I'liiiM  relieved  of  an  old  impcdimcnl,  and 
supplied  with  additional  power  and  larger  ni- 
Hources,  the  cause  of  public  instruction,  during 
tlie  last  flHcal  year,  has  wrought  results  uii<'(|uaie<i 
in  all  tlie  past.  .  .  .  The  etfeia  of  this  amend- 
ment has  not  l)een  confined  to  tlie  llnaiiclal  policy 
thereby  iiiaiigurated.  It  is  dlHliiicliy  traceitblu 
in  lengtlieiied  terms  of  school,  in  it  larger  and 
more  uniform  atleiidaiice,  and  in  more  liberal  ex- 
penditures for  Hclioiil  buildings  and  appliances," 
— Hupt.  of  Pub.  Instruction  of  the  State  of  N.  Y., 
yl;i;i«(i/  liti>ort,  1861),  /»/'•  ^>-^. 

A.  D.  1867.— Marylind.— lohnt  Hopkins 
University.—"  Hy  tlie  will  of  .IoIiii.h  Hopkins,  a 
inercliant  of  Hall  imore,  the  sum  of  |7,  (KX),  (KM)  was 
dt.'Voted  to  tlie  endowment  of  it  university  [char- 
tered in  1807]  and  a  hospiuil,  l|i;l,r)UO,UUU  being 
ajipropriati'd  to  each.  .  .  .  To  tlie  bequest  no 
biinlensome  conditions  were  attitciied.  .  .  .  Just 
what  tills  new  university  was  to  lie  proved  a 
very  serious  i|iiestion  to  tlie  trustees.  The  con- 
ditions of  Mr.  Hopkins's  bequest  left  the  deter- 
mination of  this  matter  open.  ...  A  careful  in- 
vestigation led  the  trustees  to  believe  that  there 
was  a  growing  demand  for  opportunities  to  study 
beyond  tlie  ordinary  courses  of  it  college  or  a 
scientific  school,  particularly  in  tliose  lirauclies 
of  l'.'aming  not  included  in  the  schools  of  law, 
medicine  and  theology.  Strong  evidence  of  this 
demand  was  affordeif  by  the  iucreasing  attend- 
ance of  American  students  upon  tlio  lectures  of 
the  Qernian  universities,  as  well  as  by  the  num- 
ber of  students  who  were  enrolling  themselves  at 
Harvard  and  Yale  for  the  post-graduate  coursi'S. 
It  was  therefore  determiued  that  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins should  be  primarily  a  university,  witli  ad- 
vanced courses  of  lectures  and  fully  equipped 
laboratories;  that  the  courses  should  be  volun- 
tary, and  the  teaching  not  limited  to  class  in- 
struction. The  foundation  is  both  old  and  now. 
In  so  far  as  each  feature  is  borrowed  from  some 
older  university,  where  it  has  been  fairly  tried 
and  tested,  it  is  old,  but  at  the  same  time*  this 
])articular  combination  of  separate  features  hua 
here  been  made  for  the  first  time.  ...  In  the 
ordinary  college  course,  If  a  young  man  hap- 
pens to  be  deficient  In  mathematics,  for  example, 
lie  is  eitlier  forced  to  lose  any  advantage  he  may 
possess  in  Oreek  or  Latin,  or  else  is  obliged  to 
take  a  position  in  mathcni:  tics  for  which  he  is 
unprepared.  In  the  college  department  of  the 
Johns  Hopkins,  this  disadvantage  does  not  exist; 
the  classifying  is  specific  for  each  study.  The 
student  iris  also  the  privilege  of  pushing  forward 
in  any  one  study  as  rapidly  as  lie  can  with  ad- 
vantage ;  or,  on  the  other  luiLd,  in  case  of  illness 
or  of  unavoidable  interruption,  of  prolonging 
the  time  devoted  to  the  course,  so  that  no  part  of 
it  shall  be  omitted.  As  the  studies  are  elective, 
It  is  possible  to  follow  the  usual  college  course  if 
one  desires.  Seven  different  courses  of  study 
are  indicated,  any  of  which  leads  to  the  Bacca- 
laureate degree,  thus  enabling  the  student  to 
direct  and  specialize  his  work.  'The  some  standard 
of  matriculation  and  the  same  severity  of  exam- 
inations are  maiutuiued  in  all  these  courses.    A 


736 


EDUCATION. 


IVatodi 


Mumfii 


Ail 


ltd. 


EDUCATION. 


atildont  liM  tlin  prIvllrKO  nf  oxtonillnff  liU  Htiiily 
beyouil  tliu  n'^iiliir  ('Ijihn  work,  nixl  lie  will  lie 
crLilltvd  with  all  hucIi  priva.o  mid  DiiuUld  iitudy, 
if  hU  (.'xainlncni  nru  MitlHllcd  ot  liU  thnrdiiKlincMH 
anil  iicriiriu'y."— H.  H.  llvrrivk,  •T/ix  .Miim  Hoii- 
kiiu  UninrnUii  (SfHhner'ii  Mmil/ili/.  !>"'.  1M7U). 

A.  D.  1867-1891.— The  United' SUtei.— The 
Peabody  Education  Fund.— "Tliu  It'ttor  iiii- 
noiiiii'liitr  and  cri'iitliiK  tlio  I'catiiHJy  I'lidnwiiK^iit 
wiiH  dalcii  Ki'liriiury  7,  1M(I7.  In  that  IcttiT,  iiftiT 
ri'fi'rrlMH  Id  tlio  raviiKi'M  of  llio  linu  war,  tlin 
foiiudcr  of  tliu  TriiNt  Miid:  'I  fcid  iiioHt  dci-ply 
tlint  It  Ih  tliu  duty  and  |>rivilc>Kr  of  lliu  iiioru 
fnvoiin'ii  and  wraltliy  pcirtlons  of  our  nnllon  to 
axxlHt  thoHu  wild  are  Ichh  fortunatu. '  llu  tlirn 
addu(i:  'I  g\\u  onu  nilllion  of  dollari)  for  tliu 
«ncouraguni('nt  and  promotion  of  intclli'ctiial, 
nionil,  and  indimtrlul  vdiioatlon  anion i(  tliu  young 
of  tliu  niort!  dcHtllutu  portions  of  tlii!  Houtliurn 
and  HoulliwcHturn  StatuH  of  tliu  Union.'  On  tliu 
<lay  following,  tun  of  tliu  Trustcun  Huluctud  by 
lilm  liuld  a  pruliininary  inoutliiK  in  Wasliington. 
Tliuir  llrst  liiislnuiut  niuctliiK  ^vax  liuld  in  thu  city 
«f  Nuw  York,  tliu  lUtli  of  March  followin)?,  at 
which  a  Kcnural  jilan  was  adoptuci  and  an  i.K'-nt 
appointed.  Mr.  I'caliody  ruturnud  to  his  natlvu 
country  aKiiin  in  18(S9,  anil  on  thu  1st  ilav  of 
July,  at  u  Hpuclni  mcutlng  of  thu  Trustees  held  at 
Newport,  added  a  second  million  to  the  cash 
capital  of  thu  fund.  .  .  .  According  to  thu  (hi- 
nor's  directions,  the  principal  must  remain  intact 
for  thirty  years.  The  TrusK'es  are  not  author- 
ized to  expend  any  part  of  it,  nor  yet  to  add  to 
it  any  part  of  thu  accruing  interest.  The  man- 
ner of  using  thu  interest,  us  well  as  the  linal  dis- 
tribution of  the  principal,  was  left  entirely  to 
thu  discretion  of  a  sulf-purpetuatlng  body  of 
Trustees.  Those  first  appointed  liiul,  however, 
thu  rare  advantage  of  futi  consultation  witli  tliu 
founder  of  tlie  Trust  whilu  liu  still  lived,  and 
their  plans  received  his  cordial  and  emphatic  ap- 
proljation.  .  .  The  pressing  need  of  the  pres- 
ent seemed  to  be  in  the  department  of  iirimary 
education  for  the  masses,  and  so  they  determined 
to  make  appropriations  only  for  thu  assistance  of 
public  free  schools.  Thu  money  is  not  given  as 
A  charity  to  thu  piKir.  It  would  be  entirely  in- 
adequate to  furnish  any  ellectual  relief  If  dis- 
tributed equall.''  nmong  all  those  wlio  need  It, 
and  would,  moreover,  if  thus  widely  dissipated, 

I)ro<luce  no  permanent  results.  But  the  cstab- 
isbment  of  good  public  schools  provides  for  the 
education  of  all  cliildren,  whether  rich  or  poor, 
and  initiates  a  system  which  no  .State  has  ever 
abandoned  after  a  fair  trial.  So  It  seemed  to  the 
donor  as  well  as  to  his  Trustees,  that  the  greatest 
good  of  tlio  greatest  number  would  be  mo»e 
effectually  and  more  certainly  attained  by  this 
mode  of  distribution  than  by  any  other.  No 
effort  is  made  to  distribute  according  to  popu- 
lation. It  was  Jlr.  Peabody's  wish  that  tliose 
States  which  had  suffered  most  from  the 
ravages  of  war  should  be  assisted  first. " — Am. 
Educational  Vyeloixcdiu,  1875,  piK  22-t-22.5.— The 
report  made   by  the  treasurer  of  the  Fund  in 

1890,  allowed  a  principal  sum  invested  to  tl>o 
amount  of  |2, 075, 175, 23,  yielding  an  income  that 
year  of  |97,818.  In  the  annual  report  of  tlie 
U.  8.  Commissioner  of  Education  made  Feb.  1, 

1891,  he  says:  "It  would  appear  to  the  student 
of  education  in  the  Southern  States  that  tiie 
practical  wisdom  in  the  administration  of  the 
Peabody  Fund  and  the  fruitful  results  that  have 


followed  It  could  not  bo  mirpAMod  In  the  hUtnrj 

of  cndowmenls. " — l'r<ifffiliitij»  nf  Ihi'  Trntlrti  of 
tl-  IS;iIhhIii  FMuniHon  h'linil,  IMH7-1H02. 

A.  D.  i484-i89i.  -California.— Lcland  Stan- 
ford Junior  Univeriity.  —  "Thu  founding  at 
I'alo  Alio  of  'a  uiilvcrHlty  for  lioth  sexi'S,  with 
the  ('oUegcH,  iu;Iiih)Ih,  wniinarluH  of  li'iirning,  mu- 
chanical  iimtltutes.  miiHi'uiiiH,  galleries  of  art, 
and  all  other  things  necussiiry  and  appropriate  to 
a  iiniverslty  of  high  degree.'  was  drterniined 
upon  by  the  lion.  Leliiiid  Stanford  and  .lano 
Lathrop  Htaiiford  In  IHHt.  In  .March  of  the  year 
following  thu  Legislature  of  Callfoniia  pikSNcd  an 
Art  providing  Utr  the  iidmlniHtratlun  of  trust 
funds  in  connection  with  Institutions  of  learning. 
November  l-i,  1885.  thu  (Jraiit  of  K)ndowinent 
was  publicly  made,  in  acrordiinci'  with  this  \ct, 
and  on  thu  sami-  day  tin-  Hoard  of  TruKli'cs  ncid 
its  llrst  nii'eting  in  San  Francl.Hco  The  work  of 
constnictloii  was  at  oiicu  iM'giiti,  and  the  corner- 
stonu  laid  .May  11,  1887.  The  I'nlvcrslty  was 
formally  opened  to  students  October  1.  1891. 
Tliu  Idea  of  thu  university,  In  the  words  of  Its 
founders,  'came  directly  and  largely  from  our 
son  and  only  child,  Leiund,  and  In  the  belief 
that  had  he  been  spared  to  advise  oh  to  the  dis- 
position of  our  estate,  ho  would  have  desired  tlio 
di^volion  of  a  large  portion  there  to  this  piir- 
pos*'.  we  will  that  for  all  time  d  conie  thu  Insti- 
tution hereby  founded  sliall  bear  his  name,  and 
sliall  be  known  as  The  Leland  Stanford  Junior 
University.'  Thu  object  of  the  University,  as 
stated  in  its  Charter,  is  'to  (piallfy  stuilents  Tor 
personal  success  and  direct  usefulness  in  life'; 
and  its  purposes,  '  to  promote  the  public  wel- 
fare by  exercising  an  Inliuenc'o  in  iM^half  of 
humanity  and  civilization,  teaelilng  thu  blessings 
of  liberty  regulated  by  law,  and  inculcating  lovo 
and  reverence  for  the  great  principles  of  govern- 
ment as  derived  from  the  inaliciialilu  rights  of 
man  to  llfu,  lilicrty.  and  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness.' Tiie  Univei'sity  is  located  on  tlie  Palo 
Alto  cstatu  in  tlio  Santa  Clara  valley,  tliirtv- 
threc  miles  southeast  of  San  Francisco,  on  tho 
Coast  Division  of  tliu  Southern  Pacitic  liidlway. 
The  estate  consists  of  over  ei^lit  thousand  acres, 
partly  lowland  and  partly  rising  into  tho  foot- 
hills of  the  Santa  Cruz  range.  On  thu  grounds  la 
the  residence  of  tho  Founders,  and  an  extensive 
and  beautiful  arboretum  containing  a  very  great 
variety  of  "hrubs  and  tret  s.  The  property  con- 
veyed *-  uii  University,  in  addition  to  tho  P  do 
Alto  f  !.ito,  V  insists  of  tho  Vina  estate,  in  Teba- 
,  ...  •-^ounty,  o.  fifty-five  thousiuul  acres,  of  wliicli 
about  four  tlic  'sand  acres  are  planted  in  vines, 
and  the  Grldley  estate,  in  Butto  County,  of 
twenty-two  tiiousand  acres,  devoted  mainly  to 
tho  raising  of  wheat.  .  .  .  'The  founders  ot  tlio 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  say:  'As  a 
further  assurance  that  tho  endowment  will  bo 
ample  to  establish  and  maintidn  a  university  of 
the  highest  grade,  we  have,  by  bust  will  and  tes- 
tament, devised  to  you  and  your  successors 
additional  property.  We  have  done  this  as  a 
security  against  the  uncertainty  of  lite  and  in  the 
hope  that  during  our  lives  tho  full  endowmeut 
may  go  to  you.'  Tiie  aggregate  of  the  domain 
thus  dedicated  to  the  founding  of  the  University, 
is  over  eighty-five  thousand  acres,  or  more  than 
one  hundred  and  thirty -three  square  miles,  among 
the  'lest  improved  and  most  valuable  lands  in 
tho  State." — Leland  Stanford  Junior  University, 
Circulars  of  Infornuition,  nvs,  6  aiul  1-2. 


737 


EDUCATION. 


United  State* 
Cenmu  StatiMtict. 


jiDUCATION. 


A.  L.  1887-1889.— Massachusetts.— Clark 
University.  —  "(-'lurli  University  wiis  founded 
fat  Worcester]  by  ...  a  nuuve  of  Worcester 
County,  Miissaeliusetts.  It  Wiis  'not  tlie  outcome 
of  ft  freak  of  impulse,  or  of  a  smiden  wave  of  gen- 
erosity, or  of  tlie  uutural  desire  to  perpetuate  in  a 
worlliy  way  one's  ancistiiil  iianie.  To  compre- 
hend tlie  genesis  of  tlu;  enlel-prisc  we  must  go 
bacli  along  the  traelt  of  Mr.  Cliirk's  personal  his- 
tory 20  years  at  least.  For  us  long  ago  as  that, 
the  idea  came  home  with  Utrvu  to  his  mind  that 
all  civilized  communities  are  in  the  hands  of  ex- 
perts. .  .  Looking  around  at  the  facilities  ob- 
tainabh;  in  this  country  for  the  prosecution  of 
original  research,  he  was  struck  with  the  meager- 
ness  and  the  inadeiiuacy.  Colleges  and  profes- 
sional schools  we  have  in  abundance,  but  there 
appeared  to  be  no  one  grand  inclusive  institution, 
unsaddled  by  an  academic  department,  where 
students  might  pursue  as  far  as  possible  their  in- 
vestigation of  any  and  every  branch  of  science. 
.  .  .  jMr.  Clark  went  abroad  and  spent  eight 
years  visiting  the  institutions  of  learning  in 
almost  every  country  of  Europe.  He  studied 
into  their  history  and  observed  their  present 
working.'  ...  It  is  his  strong  and  expressed  de- 
sire that  the  highest  possible  academic  standards 
be  here  forever  maintained;  that  special  oppor- 
timities  and  inducements  be  offered  to  research ; 
that  to  this  end  the  instructors  be  not  overbur- 
dened with  teacliing  or  examinations.  .  .  .  } 
charter  was  granted  early  in  1887.  Land  and 
other  property  that  had  been  before  secured  by 
the  founder  was  transferred  to  the  board,  and 
the  erection  of  a  central  building  was  begun.  In 
the  spring  of  1888  Q.  Stanley  Hall,  then  a  pro- 
fessor at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  was  in- 
vited to  the  presidency.  .  .  .  The  plans  of  the 
uni''.'r»ity  had  so  far  progressed  that  work  was 
begun  :n  October,  1889,  In  mathematics,  physics, 
chemistry,  biology,  and  psychology." — O.  G. 
Bush  Ilist.  of  Higlier  Education  in  Mass.  ( IT.  S. 
P'rcutP  of  Education,  Circular  of  Information, 
P'.'^U  no.  6),  ch.  18 

A.  D.  i88j)-i892. — Illinois.— Chicago  Univer- 
sity.— "At  Its  Annual  Meeting  in  May,  1880,  the 
Board  of  the  .\mcrican  Baptist  Education  So- 
ciety resolveO  to  take  inunediate  steps  toward 
the  founding  of  a  well-equipped  college  in  the 
city  of  Chicago.  At  the  same  tiniR  John  D. 
Rockefeller  made  a  subscription  of  |000,000  and 
this  sum  was  increased  during  the  succeeding  year 
by  about  $600,000  more  in  subscriptions  repre- 
senting more  than  two  thousand  persons.  Three 
months  after  the  completion  of  this  subscription, 
Mr.  Rockefeller  made  an  additional  proffer  of 
11,000,000.  The  site  of  the  University  consists 
of  three  blocks  of  ground  —  about  two  thousand 
feet  long  and  three  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet 
wide,  lying  between  the  two  South  Parks  of 
Chicago,  and  fronting  on  the  Midway  Plaisunee, 
which  is  itself  a  park  connecting  the  other  two. 
One-half  of  this  site  is  a  gift  of  Marshall  Field 
of  Chicago,  and  tlie  other  half  has  been  pur- 
chased ut  a  cost  of  §133,500.  At  the  first  meet- 
ing of  the  Board  after  it  had  become  an  incorpo- 
rated botiy.  Professor  William  R.  Harper,  of 
Yale  University,  was  unanimously  elected  Presi- 
dent of  the  University.  ...  It  has  been  decided 
that  the  University  will  begin  the  work  of  in- 
struction on  the  first  day  of  October,  1892.  .  .  . 
The  work  of  the  University  shall  be  arranged 
under  three  general  divisions,  viz..  The  Univer- 


sity Proper,  The  Univcrsity-Extcnsiot  Work, 
The  University  Publication  Work." — University 
of  Chicago,  Official  liulletin  no.  1,  Jan.,  1801. 

A.  D.  1890.— Jkiited  States.— C<.  ^us  Sta- 
tistics,— The  following  statistics  of  eil  nation  in 
the  United  States  are  from  the  returns  gathered 
for  the  Eleventh  Census,  1800.  In  these  statis- 
tics the  states  and  territories  are  classed  in  five 
great  geogniphical  divisions,  defined  as  follows: 
North  Atlantic  Division,  embracing  the  New 
England  States,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania;  South  Atlantic  Division,  embrac- 
ing the  States  of  the  eastern  coast,  from  Dela- 
ware to  Florida,  together  with  the  District  of 
Columbia;  North  Central  Division,  embracing 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  lowo,  Missouri,  Nortli  and  South 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas;  South  Central 
Division,  embracing  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Ala- 
bama, Alississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas, 
and  Oklahoma;  Western  DivLsion,  unbracing  all 
the  remaining  States  and  Territories.  The  total 
taxation  for  public  schools  in  the  United  States, 
as  reported  by  this  census,  was  $103,164,706;  of 
which  $37,010,786  was  raised  in  the  North  At- 
lantic Division,  $5,678,474  in  the  South  Atlantic 
Division,  $47,033,143  in  the  North  Central  Divi- 
sion, $5,608,563  in  the  South  Central  Division, 
and  $0,134,833  in  the  Western  Division.  From 
funds  and  rents  there  were  raised  for  school  pur- 
poses a  total  of  $25,694,449  in  the  United  States 
at  large,  of  whicli  $8,273,147  was  raised  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Division,  $2,307,05Hn  the  South 
Atlantic  Division,  $8,433,593  in  the  North  Cen- 
tral Division,  $3,730,158  in  the  South  Central 
Division,  and  $3, 961, .500  in  theWestern  Division. 
The  total  of  all  "  ordinary  "  receipts  for  school 
support  in  the  United  States  was  $139,619,440,  of 
which  $49,201,316  were  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Division,  $8,685,233  in  the  South  Atlantic  Divi- 
sion, $61,108,263  in  the  North  Centnd  Division, 
$10,294,621  in  the  South  Central  Division,  and 
$10,330,117  in  the  Western  Division.  The  total 
"ordinary  expenditures"  were  $138,786,393  in 
the  whole  United  States;  being  $47,625,548  in 
the  North  Atlantic  Division.  $8,630,711  in  the 
South  Atlantic  Division,  $63,815,531  in  the  North 
Central  Division,  $0,800,050  in  the  South  Central 
Division,  ond  §0,854,544  in  the  Western  Division. 
For  teachers'  wages  there  was  a  total  expendi- 
ture of  $88,705,003,  $38,067,821  being  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Division,  $6,400,063  in  the  South 
Atlantic  Division,  $30,886,831  in  the  North  Cen- 
tral Division,  §8,300,509  in  the  South  Central 
Division,  and  §6,101, '768  in  theWestern  Division. 
The  total  expenditure  for  Libraries  and  Appara- 
tus was  §1,667,787,  three- fourtlis  of  which  was 
in  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central  Divi- 
sions. The  expenditure  reported  for  construction 
and  care  of  buildings,  was  §34,324,793,  of  whicli 
§10,687,114  was  in  the  Nortli  Atlantic  Division, 
§884,277  was  in  the  South  Atlpntic  Division, 
$0,869,489  in  the  North  Central  Division,  $770,- 
257  in  the  South  Central  Division,  and  §3,013,65* 
in  the  Western  Division.  Reported  estimates  of 
the  value  of  buildings  -.nd  other  school  property 
are  incomplete,  but  §27,892,831  are  given  for 
Massachusetts,  §41,636,735  for  New  York,  $35,- 
435,413  for  Pennsylvania,  $33,631,549  for  Ohio, 
$36,814,480  for  Illinois,  and  these  are  the  States 
that  stand  highest  in  the  column.  The  apparent 
enrollment  in  Public  Schools  for  the  census  year, 
reported  to  July,  1891,  was  us  follows:    North 


738 


EDUCATION. 


John  Antoa  Comeniiu. 


EDUCATION. 


Atlantic  Division,  3,124,417;  Soutli  Atlantic 
Divisioc,  l,7r)H,2S.'i;  Xcirtli  CVntriil  Division, 
5,083,182;  South  Central  Division,  '.',;!:! I, (i!)4; 
Western  Divi.sion,  r)2l),2«0;  Total  fur  llie  Inilcd 
States,  12,760,864,  being  20.aU  per  cent,  of  the 
population,  against  IM  84  per  cent,  in  1880.  The 
reported  enrollment  in  Private  Schools  at  the 
same  time  was:  North  Atlantic  Division,  10«,17!i; 
South  Atlantic  Division,  165,253;  Norlli  Central 
Division,  187,827;  South  Central  Division, 
200,202;  Western  Division,  54,740;  Total  for  the 
United  States,  804,204.  The  reported  enroll- 
ment in  Parocliial  Schools  was:  North  Atlantic 
Division,  311,684;  South  Atlantic  Division, 
80,860;  North  Central  Division,  398,585;  South 
Central  Division,  41,115;  Western  Division, 
17,349;  Total  for  the  United  States,  799,602.  Of 
this  total,  026,496  were  enrolled  in  Catholic  and 
151,651  in  Lutheran  Parochial  Seliools;  leaving 
only  21,455  in  the  schools  of  all  other  dtnomina- 
tioas.  Total  enrollment  reported  in  all  schools 
14,373,670.  The  colored  public  school  enroll- 
ment in  the  Southern  States  was  1,288,229  in 
1890,  against  797,286  in  1880,— an  increase  of 
more  than  61  per  cent.  The  enrollment  of  whites 
was  3,358,527,  against  2,301,804,— an  increase  of 
nearly  46  per  cent.  The  appro  'inate  number 
of  Public  School-houses  in  the  United  States,  for 
the  census  year  1890  is  given  at  219,092,  being 
42,940  in  the  North  Atlantic  Divi-ion,  32,142  in 
the  South  Atlantic  Division,  07,166  in  the  North 
Central  Division,  38,962  in  the  South  Central 
Division,  8,773  in  the  Western  Division.  The 
largest  number  reported  is  14,214  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Of  6,408  school-houses  in  Virginia  4,568 
are  for  white,  and  1,840  for  colored  children;  in 
North  Carolina,  8,073  white  and  1,820  colored. 

The  above  statistics  are  taken  in  part  from  the 
Compendium  of  the  Eleventh  Census,  published 
in  1804,  and  partly  from  tables  courteously  fur- 
nished from  the  Census  Bureau  in  advance  of 
their  publication. 

Modern  :  Reforms  and  Movements. 
A. 'D.  1638-1671. —  Comenius. —  "To  know 
Comenius  [born  in  Moravia,  1592]  and  the  part 
he  played  in  the  seventeenth  century,  to  appre- 
ciate this  grand  educational  character,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  begin  by  relating  his  life ;  his  mis- 
fortunes; his  journeys  to  England  [1638],  where 
Parliament  invoked  his  aid;  to  Sweden  [1642], 
■where  the  Chancellor  Oxenstiern  employed  him 
to  write  manuals  of  instruction ;  especially  his  re- 
lentless industry,  his  courage  through  exile,  and 
the  long  persecutions  he  suffered  as  a  member  of 
the  sect  of  dissenters,  the  Jloravian  Brethren; 
and  the  schools  he  founded  at  Fulneek,  in  Bo- 
hemia, at  Lissa  and  at  Patak,  in  Poland." — G. 
Compayre,  T/ielliat.  oj'  Pedagogy,  ch.  0  {sect.  137). 
— "Comenius's  inspinng  motive,  like  that  of  all 
leading  educationalists,  was  social  regenemtion. 
He  believed  that  this  could  be  accomplished 
through  the  school.  He  lived  under  the  hallucin- 
ation that  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  instruction,  and  by  a  sound  method, 
a  certain  community  of  thought  and  intertsta 
would  be  established  among  tlio  young,  which 
T"ould  result  in  social  harmony  and  political 
8ettit:nent.  He  believed  that  men  could  be  manu- 
factured. .  .  .  The  educational  spirit  of  the  Re- 
formers, the  conviction  that  all  —  even  the  hum- 
blest—  must  be  taught  to  know  God,  and  Jesus 
Christ  whom  he  has  sent,  was  inherited  by  Come- 


nius in  its  completeness.  In  this  way,  and  in 
tills  way  only,  could  the  ills  of  Europe  be  reme- 
died, and  the  progress  of  humanity  assured. 
While,  tlierofore,  he  sums  up  the  edurational  aim 
under  the  threefold  heads  of  Knowledge,  Virtue, 
and  I'iety  or  Godlines.s,  he  in  truth  has  mainly 
in  view  the  last  two.  Kno\vle(lj;e  is  of  value  only 
in  so  far  as  it  forms  the  only  sound  basis,  in  the 
eyes  of  a  Protestant  theologian,  of  virtue  and 
godliness.  We  have  to  train  for  a  liereafter.  .  .  . 
By  knowledge  Comenius  meant  knowledge  of 
nature  and  of  man's  relation  to  nature.  It  is  this 
important  characteristic  of  Comenius's  eiliua- 
tional  system  that  reveals  the  direct  intluenre  of 
Bacon  and  his  school.  .  .  .  It  is  in  the  department 
of  Metho<l,  however,  that  we  recognise  the  chief 
contribution  of  Comenius  to  education.  The 
mere  attempt  to  systematise  was  a  great  advance. 
In  seeking,  however,  for  foundations  on  which  to 
erect  a  coherent  system,  he  had  to  content  him- 
self with  tirst  principles  which  were  vague  and 
imscientiflc.  ...  In  the  department  of  knowl- 
edge, that  is  to  say,  knowledge  of  the  outer 
world,  Comenius  rested  his  method  on  the  scho- 
lastic maxim,  '  Nihil  est  in  intellectu  quod  non 
p  HIS  fuerit  in  sensii.'  This  maxim  he  enriched 
with  the  Baconian  induction,  coniiirchended  by 
him  only  in  a  general  way.  .  .  .  From  the  sim- 
ple to  the  complex,  from  the  particular  to  the 
general,  the  concn^te  before  the  abstract,  and 
all,  step  by  step,  and  even  by  insensible  degrees, 
—  these  were  among  his  leading  principles  of 
method.  But  the  most  important  of  all  his  prin- 
ciples was  derived  from  the  scholastic  maxim 
quoted  above.  As  all  is  from  sense,  let  the 
thing  to  be  known  bo  itself  presented  to  the 
senses,  and  let  every  sense  be  engaged  in  tlie 
perut'ption  of  it.  When  it  is  impo.ssible,  from 
the  natore  of  the  case,  to  present  the  object 
itself,  place  a  vivid  picture  of  it  before  the 
pup:!.  The  mere  enumeration  of  tliese  few  prin- 
ciples, even  if  we  drop  out  of  view  all  his  other 
contributions  to  method  and  school-management, 
will  satisfy  any  man  familiar  with  all  the  more 
recent  treatises  on  Education,  that  Comenius, 
even  after  giving  his  precursors  tlieir  due,  is 
to  be  regarded  as  the  true  founder  of  mod- 
ern Method,  and  that  he  anticipates  Pestalozzi 
and  all  of  the  same  school.  .  .  .  Finally,  Come- 
nius's views  as  to  the  innor  organisation  of  a 
school  were  original,  and  have  proved  themselves 
in  all  essential  respects  correct.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  his  scheme  for  the  organisation  of  a 
State-system  —  a  scheme  which  is  substantially, 
mutatis  mutandis,  at  this  moment  embodied  in 
the  highly-developed  system  of  Germany.  Whea 
we  consider,  tlien,  that  Comenius  lirst  "formally 
and  fully  developed  educational  method,  that  he 
introduced  important  reforms  into  the  teaching 
of  languages,  that  he  introduced  into  scIuhjIs  the 
study  of  Nature,  that  he  advocated  witli  intelli- 
gence, and  not  on  purely  pentimental  grounds,  a. 
milder  discipline,  we  are  justified  in  assigning 
to  him  a  high,  if  not  the  highott,  place  among 
modern  educational  writers." — S.  S.  Laurie,  Jolin 
A)nos  Comenius,  pp.  217-226. 

A.  D.  1681-1878.— The  Christian  Brothers. 
— "Any  description  of  popular  education  in 
Europe  would  be  incomplete,  which  should  not 
give  prominence  to  the  Institute  of  the  Christian 
Brothers  —  or  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doc- 
trine—  including  in  that  term  the  earliest  pro- 
fessional school  for  the  training  of  teachers  in 


739 


EDUCATION. 


The  Chriatian 
Brothert. 


EDUCATION. 


Europe;  one  of  the  most  remarkable  body  of 
tciK^liers  devoted  exclusively  and  without  pay  to 
the  education  of  the  children  of  the  poor  that  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  .  .  .  The  Institute  was 
established  as  a  professional  school  in  1081,  and 
to  Abbe  John  Baptist  dc  la  Salle,  be'.ongs  the 
high  honor  not  only  of  founding  it,  but  of  so  in- 
fusing into  its  early  organization  his  own  pro- 
found conviction  of  the  Christ-like  character  of 
its  mission  among  the  poor,  that  it  has  retained 
for  nearly  two  centuries  the  form  and  spirit  of 
its  origin.  This  devoted  Christian  teacher  was 
born  at  Rheims  on  the  30th  of  April,  1651.  .  .  . 
lie  was  early  distinguished  for  his  scholarly  at- 
tainments and  maturity  of  character ;  and  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  before  he  had  completed  his 
full  course  of  theological  study,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Canon  in  the  Cathedral  church  of  Rheims. 
From  the  first,  he  became  interested  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young,  and  especially  of  the  poor, 
as  the  most  direct  way  of  leading  them  to  a 
Christian  life; — and  with  this  view  before  he 
•was  twenty-one  years  old,  he  assumed  the  direc- 
tion of  two  charities,  devoted  to  female  educa- 
tion. From  watching  the  operation  of  these 
schools,  conducted  by  teachers  without  profes- 
sional training,  without  plan  end  without  mutual 
sympathy  and  aid,  he  conce'.ved  the  design  of 
bringing  the  teachers  of  this  class  of  schools 
from  the  neighboring  parishes  into  a  community 
for  tlieir  moral  and  professional  improvement. 
For  this  purpose,  he  invited  them  first  to  meet, 
and  then  to  lodge  at  his  house,  and  afterwards, 
about  the  year  1681,  lie  purchased  a  house  for 
their  special  accommodation.  Here,  out  of  school 
hours  and  during  their  holydays,  they  spent  their 
time  in  the  practice  of  religious  duties,  and  in 
mutual  conferences  on  the  work  in  which  they 
were  engaged.  About  this  period,  a  large  number 
of  free  schools  for  the  poor  were  established  in 
the  neighboring  towns;  and  applications  were 
constantly  made  to  the  Abbe  for  teachers  formed 
under  his  training,  care,  and  influence.  To 
meet  this  demand,  and  makd  himself  more  di- 
rectly useful  in  the  field  of  Chiisiian  education, 
he  resigned  his  benefice,  that  he  might  give  his 
whole  attention  to  the  work.  To  close  the  dis- 
tance between  himself,  having  a  high  social  posi- 
tion and  competence  from  his  father's  estate,  and 
the  poor  schoolmasters  to  whom  he  was  con- 
stantly preaching  an  unreserved  consecration  of 
themselves  to  their  vocation — he  not  only  re- 
signed his  canonry,  with  its  social  and  pecuniary 
advantages,  but  distributed  his  patrimony,  in  a 
period  of  scarcity,  in  relieving  the  necessities  of 
the  poor,  and  in  providing  for  the  education  of 
their  children.  He  thus  placed  himself  on  a 
footing  of  equality — as  to  occupation,  manner 
of  life,  and  entire  dependence  on  the  charity  of 
others — with  the  schoolmasters  of  the  poor. 
The  annals  of  education  or  religion  show  but 
few  such  examples  of  practical  self-denial,  and 
entire  consecration  to  a  sense  of  duty.  .  .  .  Hav- 
ing completed  his  act  of  resignation  and  self- 
imposed  poverty,  he  assembled  his  teachers,  an- 
nounced to  them  what  he  had  done,  and  sung 
with  them  a  Te  Deura.  After  a  retreat — a 
period  set  apart  to  prayer  and  fasting — contin- 
ued for  seventeen  days,  they  devoted  themselv"' 
to  the  consideration  of  the  best  course  to  gi 
unit/,  efficiency,  and  permanence  to  their  plans  of 
Christian  education  for  the  poor.  They  assun.ed 
the  name  of  '  The  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doc- 


740 


trine,'  as  expresssive  of  their  vocation — which 
by  usage  came  to  be  abbreviated  into  '  Christian 
Brothers. '  They  took  on  themselves  vows  of  pov- 
erty, celibacy,  and  obedience  for  three  years.  They 
prescribed  to  themselves  the  most  frugal  fare,  to  , 
be  provided  in  turns  by  each  other.  Thev  adopted 
at  that  time  some  rules  of  behavior,  which  have 
since  been  incorporated  into  tlie  fundamental 
rules  of  tlie  order.  ...  In  1702  the  first  step 
was  taken  to  establish  an  Institute  at  Rome,  un- 
der the  mission  of  one  of  the  brothers,  Gabriel 
Drolin,  who  after  years  of  poverty,  was  made 
conductor  of  one  of  the  charitable  schools 
founded  by  Pope  Clement  XI.  This  school  be- 
came afterwards  the  foundation  of  the  house 
which  the  brothers  have  had  in  Rome  since  the 
pontiflcote  of  Benedict  XIII.,  who  conferred  on 
the  institute  the  constitution  of  a  religious  order. 
In  1703,  under  the  pecuniary  aid  of  M.  Chateau 
Blanc,  and  the  countenance  of  the  archbishop, 
M.  de  Qontery,  a  school  was  opened  at  Avignon. 
...  In  1789,  the  National  Assembly  prohibited 
vows  to  be  made  in  communities;  and  in  1700, 
suppressed  all  religious  societies;  and  in  1791, 
the  institute  was  dispersed.  At  that  date  there 
were  one  hundred  and  twenty  houses,  and  over 
one  thousand  brothers,  actively  engaged  in  the 
duties  of  the  school  room,  'fhe  continuity  of 
the  society  was  secured  by  the  houses  established 
in  Italy,  to  which  many  of  the  brothers  fled. 
...  In  1801,  on  the  conclusion  of  a  Concordat 
between  the  Pope  and  the  government,  the  so- 
ciety was  revived  in  France  by  the  opening  of  a 
school  at  Lyons;  and  in  1815,  they  resumed 
their  habit,  and  opened  a  novitiate,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  exempt  from  military  ser- 
vice. At  the  organization  of  the  university  in 
1808,  the  institute  was  legally  reorganized,  and 
from  that  time  has  increased  in  numbers  and 
usefulness.  ...  In  1843,  there  were  390  houses 
(of  which  326  were  in  France),  with  3,030  broth- 
ers, and  585  novices.  There  were  642  schools 
with  163,700  cliildren,  besides  evening  schools 
with  7,800  adults  in  attendance,  and  tliree  re- 
formatory schools  with  2,000  convicts  under  in- 
instruction." — Henry  Barnard,  National  Educa- 
tion in  Europe,  pp.  435-441. — "In  1878  their 
numbers  had  increased  to  11,640;  they  had  1,249 
establishments,  and  the  number  of  their  scholars 
was  890,607."— Mrs.  R.  F.  Wilson,  The  Chn»- 
tian  Brothers,  their  Origin  and  Work,  ch.  31. 

A.  D.  1762. — Rousseau, — "Rousseau,  who 
had  educated  himself,  and  very  badly  at  that, 
was  impressed  with  the  dangers  of  tlie  education 
of  his  day.  A  mother  having  asked  his  advice, 
betook  up  the  pen  to  write  it;  and,  little  by  little, 
his  counsels  grew  into  a  book,  a  large  work,  a 
pedagogic  romance  ['  Emile  '].  This  romance, 
when  it  appeared  in  1762,  created  a  great  noise 
and  a  great  scandal.  The  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
Christophe  de  Beaumont,  saw  in  it  a  dangerous, 
mischievous  work,  and  gave  himself  the  trouble 
of  writing  a  long  encyclical  letter  in  order  to 
point  out  the  book  to  the  reprobation  of  the  faith- 
ful. This  document  of  twenty -seven  chapters  is 
a  formal  refutation  of  the  theories  advanced  in 
'Emile.'  ...  In  those  days,  such  a  condemna- 
tion was  a  serious  matter;  its  consequences  to  an 
utlior  might  be  terrible.  Rousseau  had  barely 
time  to  flee.  His  arrest  was  decreed  by  the  par- 
liament of  Paris,  and  his  book  was  burned  by 
the  executioner.  ...  As  a  fugitive,  Rousseau 
did  not  find  a  safe  retreat  even  in  his  own  coun- 


EDUCATION. 


Routteau 
and  Pettatotzi. 


EDUCATION. 


try.  He  was  obliged  to  lenvo  CJeneva,  where  liis 
book  was  also  condemned,  and  Berne,  where  he 
had  soright  refuge,  but  whence  lie  was  driven  by 
intolerai-nc.  lie  owed  it  to  thr,  protection  of  Lord 
Keith,  fw'.vrnor  of  Ncufchf.tcl,  a  principality  be- 
longing, to  tlie  King  of  Pr\i.ssia,  that  he  lived  for 
some  tiino  in  peace  in  the  little  town  of  Motiers 
in  the  Val  de  Travcrs.  .  .  .  The  renown  of  tlie 
book,  condemned  by  so  hfgh  an  authority,  was 
Immense.  Scandal,  by  attracting  public  atten- 
tion to  it,  did  it  good  service.  What  was  most 
serious  and  most  suggestive  tn  it  was  not,  per- 
haps seized  upon ;  but  the  '  craze  '  of  wliich  it 
wa.s  the  object  had,  notwithstanding,  good  re- 
sults. Slotliers  were  won  over,  and  resolved  to 
nurse  their  own  infants ;  great  lords  be'^an  to  learn 
handicrafts,  like  Rousseau's  imaginary  pupil; 
physical  exercises  came  into  fashion ;  the  spirit 
of  innovation  w»s  forcing  itself  a  way.  .  .  . 
Three  men  above  all  the  rest  are  noted  ior  hav- 
ing popularized  the  pedagogic  nictliod  of  Rous- 
seau, and  for  having  been  inspired  11  their  labors 
by  '6mile.'  These  were  Basedow,  Pestalozzi, 
and  Froebel.  Basedow,  a  German  theologian,  had 
devoted  himself  entirdy  to  dogmatic  controversy, 
until  the  reading  of  '  Emile '  had  the  effect  of  en- 
larging his  men'  horizon,  and  of  revealing  to 
him  his  true  voc  11.  .  .  .  Pestalozzi  of  Zurich, 
one  of  the  foreniu.^l  educators  of  modern  times, 
ali.0  found  liij  whole  life  transformed  by  the 
reading  of  'Emile,'  which  awoke  in  him  the 
genius  of  a  reformer.  .  .  .  The  most  distinguished 
among  his  disciples  and  continuators  is  Froebel, 
the  founder  of  those  primary  schools  .  .  .  known 
by  the  name  of  '  kindergartens,'  and  the  author 
of  highly  esteemed  pedagogic  works.  These 
various  attempts,  these  new  and  ingenious  pro- 
cesses which,  step  by  step,  have  made  their 
way  among  us,  and  are  beginning  to  make  their 
workings  felt,  even  in  institutions  most  stoutly 
opposed  to  progress,  are  all  traceable  to  Rous- 
seau's 'femile.'.  .  .  It  is  true  that  'Emile' 
contains  pages  that  have  outlived  their  day, 
many  odd  precepts,  many  false  ideas,  many  dis- 
putable and  destructive  theories;  but  at  the  same 
time  we  find  in  it  so  many  sagacious  observations, 
such  upright  counsels,  suitable  even  to  modern 
times,  so  lofty  an  ideal,  that,  in  spite  of  every- 
thing, we  cannot  read  and  study  it  without 
profit.  .  .  .  There  is  absolutely  nothing  practica- 
ble in  his  [Rousseau's]  system.  It  consists  in  iso- 
lating a  child  from  the  rest  of  the  world ;  in  creat- 
ing expressly  for  him  a  tutor,  who  is  a  phoenix 
among  his  kind;  in  depriving  him  of  father, 
mother,  brothers,  and  sisters,  his  companions  In 
study;  in  surrounding  him  witli  a  perpetual 
charlatanism,  under  the  pretext  of  following  na- 
ture ;  and  in  showing  him  only  through  the  veil 
of  a  factitious  atmosphere  the  society  in  which 
he  is  to  live.  And,  nevertheless,  at  each  step  it 
is  sound  reason  by  which  we  are  met;  by  an  as- 
tonishing paradox,  this  whimsicality  is  full  of 
good  sense ;  this  dream  overflows  with  realities ; 
this  improbable  and  chimerical  romance  contains 
the  substance  and  the  marrow  of  a  rational  and 
truly  modern  treatise  on  pedagogy.  Sometimes 
we  must  read  between  the  lines,  add  what  ex- 
perience has  taught  us  since  that  day,  transpose 
into  an  atmosphere  of  open  democracy  those 
pages,  written  under  the  old  order  of  things,  but 
even  then  quivering  with  the  new  world  which 


they  were  bringing  to  light,  and  for  which  they 
prepared  tho  way.     Reading  '  Emile  '  in  the 


light  of  modern  prejudices,  we  can  see  in  it  more 
than  the  autlior  wittingly  put  into  it;  but  not 
more  than  logic  and  tlie  instinct  of  genius  set 
down  there.  To  unfold  the  powers  of  cliildren 
indue  proportion  totlieirage;  not  to  transcend 
tlieir  ability;  to  arouse  in  tliem  the  sense  of  the 
observer  aiid  of  tlie  ))i()necr;  to  make  them  dis- 
coverers rather  than  imitators:  to  teach  them  ac- 
countability to  themselves  and  not  slavish  de- 
pendence upon  the  words  of  others ;  to  a<ldress 
ourselves  more  to  the  will  tlian  to  cu.stom,  to  the 
reason  rather  than  to  tho  memory;  to  substitute 
for  verbal  recitations  lessons  alumt  things;  to 
lead  to  theory  by  way  of  art ;  to  assign  to  physi- 
cal movements  and  exercises  a  prominent  place, 
from  the  earliest  hours  of  life  up  to  perfect  ma- 
turity ;  such  are  the  principles  scattered  broad- 
cast in  this  book,  and  forming  a  happy  coun- 
terpoise to  the  oddities  of  which  Rousseau  was 
perhaps  most  proud." — J.  Steeg,  Introduction  to 
Rotisseau's  'Emile.' 

A.  D.  1798-1827.— Pestalozzi.— In  Switzer- 
land, up  to  tlie  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
state  of  priumry  instruction  was  very  bad.  "The 
teachers  w-  i' gathered  up  at  hazard;  their  pay 
was  wretched ;  in  general  they  had  no  lo<lgings 
of  their  own,  and  they  were  obliged  to  hire  tliem- 
selves  out  for  domestic  service  among  the  well- 
off  inhabitants  of  the  villages,  in  order  to  find 
food  and  lodging  among  them.  A  mean  spirit 
of  caste  still  dominated  instruction,  and  the  poor 
remained  sunk  in  ignorance.  It  was  in  the  very 
midst  of  this  wretched  and  unpropitious  state  of 
affairs  that  there  appeared,  towards  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  most  celebrated  of 
modern  educators.  .  .  .  Born  at  Zurich  in  1746, 
Pestalozzi  died  at  Brugg  in  Argovia  in  1837. 
This  unfortunate  great  man  always  felt  the  effects 
of  the  sentimental  and  unpracticr'  education 
given  him  by  his  mother,  who  was  lett  3,  widow 
with  three  children  in  1751.  He  early  .'ormed 
the  habit  of  feeling  and  of  being  touched  with 
emotion,  rather  than  of  reasoning  and  of  reflect- 
ing The  laughing-stock  of  his  companions,  who 
made  sport  of  his  awkwardness,  the  little  scholar 
of  Zurich  accustomed  himself  to  live  alone  and 
to  become  a  dreamer.  Later,  towards  1760,  the 
student  of  the  academy  distinguished  himself  by 
his  political  enthusiasm  and  his  revolutionary 
daring.  At  that  early  period  ho  had  conceived 
a  profound  feeling  for  the  miseries  and  the  needs 
of  the  people,  and  he  already  proposed  as  the 
purpose  of  his  life  the  healing  of  the  diseases  of 
society.  At  the  same  time  there  was  developed  in 
him  an  irresistible  taste  for  a  simple,  frugal,  and 
almost  ascetic  life.  To  restrain  his  desires  had 
become  tho  essential  rule  of  his  conduct,  and,  to 
put  it  in  practice,  he  forced  himself  to  sleep  on  a 
plank,  and  to  subsist  on  bread  and  vegetables." — 
G.  Compayre,  The  Hist,  of  Pedagogy,  ch.  18. — "In 
spite  .  .  .  of  Pestalozzi's  patent  disqualifications 
in  many  respects  for  the  task  he  undertook ;  in  spite 
of  his  ignorance  of  even  common  subjects  (for  he 
spoke,  read,  wrote,  and  cyphered  badly,  and  knew 
next  to  nothing  of  classics  or  science) ;  in  spite 
of  his  want  of  worldly  wisdom,  of  any  compre- 
hensive and  exact  knowledge  of  men  and  of 
things ;  in  spite  of  his  being  merely  an  elementary 
teacher, —  through  the  force  of  his  all-jonquering 
love,  the  nobility  of  his  heart,  tho  resistless 
energy  of  his  enthusiasm,  his  firm  grasp  of  0  few 
first  principles,  his  eloquent  exi)osition  of  them 
in  worus,  his  resolute  mau'f  jstation  of  them  in 


741 


EDUCATION. 


Peataloati. 


EDUCATION. 


deeds, — lie  stands  forth  among  cducationnl  re- 
forMKTHus  tlie  iniin  wlio.se  influenee  on  educiition 
ia  wider,  deeper,  more  penetrating,  timn  tliat  of 
all  tlie  rest  —  tlie  |)ropliet  and  tlie  sovereign  of 
the('  iiiiiin  in  wliicli  lie  lived  and  laboured.  .  .  . 
It  w:i.s  lute  in  life  —  lie  wii.s  (ifty-two  years  of  age 
—  Ijcforc  Pestalozzi  bceame  a  practical  school- 
master. He  had  even  begun  to  despair  of  ever 
finding  the  career  in  wliieli  he  might  attempt  to 
realize  tlie  thee  es  over  wliicli  his  loving  heart 
and  teeming  biuin  had  been  brooding  from  liis 
earl'"Mt  youtli.  ...  At  flfty-two  years  of  age, 
tliei  we  find  Pestalozzi  utterly  unac(\uainle(l 
with  the  science  and  tlie  art  of  education,  and  very 
scantily  furnished  even  with  elementary  knowl- 
edge, undertal^ing  at  StJinz,  in  the  canton  of 
UuttTwalden,  the  charge  of  eighty  children, 
whom  the  events  of  war  had  rendered  homeless 
and  destitute.  .  .  .  The  house  in  which  the 
eighty  children  were  assembled  to  be  boarded, 
lo<lged,  and  taught,  was  an  old  tumble-down 
Ursulino  convent,  scarcely  habitable,  ond  desti- 
tute of  all  the  conveniences  of  life.  The  only 
apartment  suitable  for  a  schoolroom  was  alioiit 
twenty-four  feet  square,  furnished  with  a  few 
desks  and  forms ;  and  into  this  were  crowded  the 
wretched  children,  noisy,  dirty,  diseased,  and 
ignorant,  witli  the  manners  and  habits  of  bar- 
barians. Pestaloi'.zi's  only  helper  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  institution  was  an  old  woman,  who 
cooked  the  footl  and  swept  the  rooms ;  so  that  he 
was,  as  he  tells  us  hjmself,  not  only  the  teaclier, 
but  the  paymaster,  man-servant,  and  almost  the 
housemaid  of  the  children.  .  .  .  '  My  wishes  [he 
writes]  were  now  accomplished  I  felt  convinced 
that  my  heart  would  change  the  condition  of  my 
children  as  speedily  as  the  spriagtide  sun  reani- 
mates the  earth  frozen  by  the  winter.  Nor,'  he 
adds,  '  was  I  mistaken.  Before  tlie  springtide 
sun  melted  away  the  snow  from  our  mountains, 
you  could  no  longer  recognise  the  same  children.' 
.  .  .  'I  was  obliged,' he  says, 'unceasingly  to  be 
everything  to  mjf  children.  I  was  alone  with 
them  from  morning  to  night.  It  was  from  my 
hand  they  received  whatever  could  bo  of  service 
both  to  their  bodies  and  minds.  All  succour,  all 
consolation,  all  instruction  came  to  tliem  immedi- 
ately from  myself.  Their  hands  were  in  my 
hand;  my  eyes  were  fixed  on  tlieirs,  my  tears 
mingled  with  theirs,  my  smiles  encountered 
theirs,  my  soup  was  their  soup,  my  drink  was 
their  drink.  I  had  around  me  neither  family, 
1  .lends,  nor  servants ;  I  had  only  them.  I  was 
with  them  when  they  were  in  health,  by  their 
side  when  they  were  ill.  I  slept  in  their  midst. 
I  was  tlie  last  to  go  to  bed,  the  first  to  rise  in  the 
morning.  When  we  were  in  bed  I  used  to  pray 
with  them  and  talk  to  them  till  they  went  to 
sleep.  They  wished  me  to  do  so. ' .  .  .  'I  knew,' 
he  says,  '  no  system,  no  method,  no  art  but  that 
which  rested  on  the  simple  consequences  of  tlie 
firm  belief  of  the  children  in  my  love  towards 
them.  I  wished  to  know  no  other.'.  .  .  Gradually 
.  .  .  Pestalozzi  advanced  to  the  main  principles  of 
his  system  of  moral  education.  .  .  .  He  says: — 
'  Nature  develops  all  the  human  faculties  by 
practice,  and  their  growth  depends  on  their  exer- 
cise. '  '  The  circle  of  knowledge  commences  close 
around  a  man,  and  thence  extends  concentrically.' 
'  Force  not  the  faculties  of  children  into  the 
remote  paths  of  knowledge,  until  they  have  gained 
strength  by  exercise  on  tlungs  that  are  near  them. ' 
'  There  is  m  Nature  an  order  and  march  of  de- 


velopment. If  you  disturb  or  interfere  with  it, 
you  mar  the  jicaee  and  harmony  of  the  mind. 
And  this  you  do,  if,  before  you  liave  formed  tlie 
mind  by  the  progressive  knowledge  of  the  reali- 
ties of  life,  you  fling  it  into  the  labyrinth  of 
words,  and  make  them  the  basis  of  develoiiiiient.' 
'Tlie  artificial  march  of  tlie  ordinary  schmil,  an- 
ticipating the  order  of  Nature,  which  proceeds 
without  an.\iety  and  without  haste,  inverts  this 
order  by  iiiacing  words  first,  and  thus  secures  a 
deceitful  appearance  of  success  at  the  expense  of 
natural  and  safe  develoiiment. '  In  these  few 
sentences  we  recognise  all  that  is  most  charac- 
teristic in  the  educational  principles  of  Pesta- 
lozzi. ...  To  set  the  intellectual  machinery  in 
motion  —  to  make  it  work,  and  keep  it  working ; 
that  was  the  sole  object  at  wliit'h  he  aimed ;  of 
all  the  rest  he  took  little  account.  ...  He  re- 
lied upon  a  principle  which  must  be  insisted  on 
as  cardinal  and  essential  in  education.  He  secured 
the  thorough  interest  of  his  pupils  in  the  lesson, 
and  mainly  through  their  own  direct  share  in  it. 
.  .  .  Observation,  .  .  .  according  to  Pestalozzi 
(and  Bacon  had  said  the  same  thing  before  him), 
is  the  absolute  basis  of  all  knowledge,  and  is 
therefore  the  prime  agent  in  elementary  educa- 
tion. It  is  around  this  theory,  as  a  centre  of 
gravity,  that  Pestalozzi's  system  revolves." — J. 
Paj'iie,  Lect's  on  the  Hist,  of  Education,  leet.  9. 
— "  During  the  short  period,  not  more  than  a 
year,  which  Pestalozzi  spent  among  the  chil- 
dren at  Stanz,  he  settled  the  main  features  of 
the  Pestalozzian  system.  Sickness  broke  out 
among  the  children,  and  the  wear  and  tear  was 
too  great  even  for  Pestalozzi.  He  would  probably 
have  sunk  under  his  efforts  if  the  French,  pressed 
by  the  Austrians,  had  not  entered  Stanz,  in 
January,  1799,  and  taken  part  of  the  Ursuline 
Convent  for  a  military  hospital.  Pestalozzi  was, 
therefore,  obliged  to  break  up  the  school,  and  he 
himself  went  to  a  medicinal  spring  on  the  Gumi- 
gel  in  the  Canton  Bern.  ...  Ho  came  down 
from  the  Gurnigel,  and  began  to  teach  in  the 
primary  schools  (i.  e.,  schools  for  children  from 
four  to  eight  years  old)  of  Burgdorf,  the  second 
town  in  the  Canton.  Here  the  director  was  jeal- 
ous of  him,  and  he  met  with  much  opposition. 
...  In  less  than  a  year  Pestalozzi  left  this  school 
in  bad  health,  and  joined  KrQsi  in  opening  a  new 
school  in  Burgdorf  Castle,  for  which  he  after- 
ward (1803)  obtained  Government  aid.  Here  he 
was  assisted  in  carrying  out  his  system  by  Krllsi, 
Tobler,  and  BIuss.  He  now  embodied  the  re- 
sults of  his  experience  in  a  work  which  has  ob- 
tained great  celebrity  — '  How  Gertrude  Teaches 
he"  Children  '  [also  published  in  England  under 
the  title  of  'Leonard  and  Gertrude  ].  In  1803 
Pestalozzi,  for  once  in  his  life  a  successful  and 
popular  man,  was  elected  a  member  of  a  deputa- 
tion sent  by  the  Swiss  people  to  Paris.  On  the 
restoration  of  the  Cantons  in  1804,  the  Castle  of 
Burgdorf  was  again  occupied  by  one  of  the  chief 
magistrates,  and  Pestalozzi  and  his  establishment 
were  moved  to  the  Monastery  of  Buchsee.  Here 
the  teachers  gave  the  principal  direction  to  an- 
other, the  since  celebrated  Fellenburg,  '  not  with- 
out my  consent,'  says  Pestalozzi,  'but  to  my 
profound  mortification.'  He  therefore  soon  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  from  the  inhabitants  of 
Yverdun  to  open  an  institution  there,  and  within 
a  twelvemonth  he  was  followed  by  his  old  assist- 
ants, who  had  found  government  by  Fellenburg 
less  to  their  taste  than  no-government  by  Pesta- 


742 


EDUCATION. 


Th«  Higher  Educa- 
tion of  Women. 


EDUCATION. 


Inzzi.  The  Yverdun  Institute  lind  soon  a  world- 
wide repiitntion.  Pcstiilozzlan  tciichcrs  went 
from  it  to  Mndrid,  to  NiipleH,  to  St.  I'etersburg. 
Kings  and  ])liilosopliers  joined  in  doing  it  lionor. 
But,  08  I'estalozzi  liiinsidf  lius  tcstille(i,  tlieso 
pniiscs  were  but  iis  a  laurel-wreatli  encircling  a 
skull.  The  life  of  the  Pestalozzian  institutions 
had  l)een  the  love  wliich  tlie  old  man  had  infused 
into  all  the  members,  teachers  as  well  as  cliil- 
dren;  but  this  life  was  wanting  at  Yverdun. 
Tlie  establishment  was  much  too  largo  to  bo  car- 
rictl  on  successfully  without  more  method  and 
discipline  than  Pestalozzi,  remarkable,  as  ho 
himself  says,  for  liis  '  imrivnlled  incapacity  to 
govern,'  was  master  of.  Tlie  assistants  began 
each  to  take  his  own  line,  and  even  tho  outward 
show  of  unity  was  soon  at  an  end.  .  .  .  Thus 
tho  sun  went  down  in  clouds,  an<l  tho  old  man, 
when  he  died  at  the  ago  of  eighty,  in  1837,  liad 
seen  tho  apparent  failure  of  all  Ins  toils.  lie  had 
not,  however,  failed  in  reality.  It  lias  been  said 
of  him  that  his  true  fortuiu'  was  to  educate  ideas, 
not  children,  and  when  twenty  years  later  the 
centenary  of  his  birth  was  celebrated  by  school- 
masters, not  only  in  his  native  country,  but 
throughout  Oermany,  it  was  found  that  Pesta- 
lozzian ideas  had  been  sown,  and  were  bearing 
fruit,  over  the  jrrcater  part  of  central  Europe." 
— F{.  II.  Quick,  Ensay»  on  Educational  Ueformen, 
ch.  8. 

A.  D.  1804-1891. — Co-education  and  the 
Higher  Education  of  Women  in  the  United 
States. — "  When  to  a  few  daring  minds  the  con- 
viction came  that  education  was  a  right  of  per- 
sonality rather  than  of  sex,  and  when  there  was 
added  to  this  growing  sentiment  tho  pressing  de- 
mand for  educated  women  as  teachers  and  as 
leaders  in  philanthropy,  the  simplest  means  of 
equipping  women  with  the  needful  preparation 
was  found  in  the  existing  schools  and  colleges. 
...  In  nearly  every  State  west  of  the  Allcgha- 
nies,  '  Universities  had  been  founded  by  the 
voluntary  tax  of  the  whole  jiopulation.  Con- 
nected with  all  the  more  powerful  religious  de- 
nominations were  schools  and  colleges  which 
called  upon  theiradherents  for  gifts  and  students. 
These  democratic  institutions  had  tlie  vigor  of 
youth,  and  were  ambitious  and  struggling. 
'Why,' asked  the  practical  men  of  affairs  who 
controlled  them,  'should  not  our  daughters  go 
on  with  our  sons  from  the  public  scliools  to  the 
university  which  we  are  sacrificing  to  equip  and 
maintain? '  It  is  not  strange  that  with  this  and 
much  more  practical  reasoning  of  a  similar  kind, 
co-education  was  established  in  some  colleges  at 
their  beginning,  in  others  after  debate,  and  by  a 
radical  change  in  policy.  When  once  the  chiv- 
alrous desire  was  aroused  to  give  girls  as  good 
an  education  as  their  brothers,  Western  men  car- 
ried out  the  principle  unflinchingly.  From  tho 
kindergarten  to  the  preparation  for  the  doctorate 
of  philosophy,  educational  opportunities  are  now 
practically  alike  for  men  and  women.  The  total 
number  of  colleges  of  arts  and  sciences  empow- 
ered by  law  to  give  degrees,  reporting  to  Wash- 
ington in  1888,  was  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine.  Of  these,  twoliundrcd  and  thirty-seven,  or 
nearly  two-thirds,  were  co-educational.  Among 
them  are  nearly  all  the  State  universities,  and 
nearly  all  the  colleges  under  the  patronage  of 
the  rt-otestant  sects.  Hitherto  I  have  spoken  as 
if  co-education  were  a  Western  movement;  and 
In  the  West  it  certainly  has  had  greater  currency 


than  elsewhere.  Rut  it  originated,  at  least  no 
far  as  concerns  superior  secondary  ;  .'aining,  in 
Ma8.sachusotts,  Hra<lford  Academy,  chartered  in 
1804,  is  the  oldest  incorporated  institution  in  tlut 
country  to  which  boys  and  girls  were  from  tho 
first  atlmitted ;  but  it  closed  its  deiiartment  for 
Itoys  in  181t(t,  tliree  years  a'ter  ihe  foundation  of 
coeducational  Oberlin,  and  in  tho  very  year 
when  Mount  Ilolyoke  wisopened  by  Mary  Lyon, 
in  the  large  hope  of  (h)ing  for  young  women  what 
Harvard  had  been  founded  10  do  for  young  men 
just  two  hundred  years  before.  Ipswicli  and 
Abbot  Academies  in  Massachu.setts  had  already 
been  chartered  to  educate  girls  idono.  It  has 
been  the  dominant  sentiment  in  the  Ka.st  that 
boys  and  girls  should  be  educated  separately. 
The  older,  more  generously  endowed,  more  con- 
servativt!  seats  of  learning,  inheriting  the  com- 
jdicat  ions  of  the  dormitory  systinn,  have  remained 
closed  to  women.  ...  In  the  short  pericMl  of  the 
twenty  years  after  the  war  the  four  women's 
colleges  which  are  the  richest  in  endowments  and 
students  of  any  in  the  world  were  founded  and 
set  in  motion.  These  colleges  —  Vassar,  opened 
in  1805,  Wellesley  and  Smith  in  1875,  and  Bryn 
Mawrin  1885  —  have  received  in  gifts  of  every 
kind  about  $8,000,000,  and  are  educating  nearly 
two  thousand  students.  For  the  whole  country 
the  Commissioner  of  Education  reports  two  hun- 
dred and  seven  institutions  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  women,  with  more  than  twenty-livo 
thousand  students.  But  these  resources  proved 
inadequate.  There  came  an  increasing  demand, 
especially  from  teachers,  for  education  of  all 
sorts.  ...  In  an  attempt  to  meet  a  demand  of 
this  sort  the  Harvard  Annex  began  twelve  years 
ago  [in  1870]  to  provide  a  few  women  with  in- 
struction from  members  of  the  Harvard  faculty. 
.  .  .  Barnard  College  in  New  York  is  an  annex 
of  Columbia  only  in  a  sense,  for  not  all  her  in- 
struction is  given  by  Columbia's  teaching  force, 
though  Columbia  will  confer  degrees  upon  her 
graduates.  The  new  woman's  college  at  Cleve- 
land sustains  temporarily  the  same  relations  to 
Adelbert  College,  though  to  a  still  greater  extent 
she  provides  independent  instruction." — A.  F. 
Palmer,  Review  of  the  Higher  Education  of 
Women,  {Woman  and  the  Jlir/her  Edtication,  pp. 
105-127).— "  The  Cleveland  College  for  Women, 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  was  first  opened  for  instruction 
in  1888  as  a  department  of  Western  Iteserve  Uni- 
versity. At  the  same  time  the  trustees  of  the 
university  decided  to  receive  no  more  women 
into  Adelbert  College.  That  the  success  of  the 
now  school  might  be  assured,  the  faculty  of 
Adelbert  College  generously  offered  their  services 
for  a  term  of  years  as  instructors.  During  the 
first  year  twenty-three  young  women  were  ad- 
mitted, but  two  of  wliom  were  in  the  n^gular 
courses.  During  1889-90  the  number  of  students 
increased  to  thirty-eight.  ...  In  1887  Evelyn 
College,  an  institution  for  women,  was  opened 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.  Its  location  at  this  place 
gives  tho  institution  very  great  advantages,  inas- 
much as  tho  use  of  the  libraries  and  museums  of 
the  College  of  New  Jersey,  popularly  known  as 
Princeton  College,  are  granted  to  the  students." 
—  U.  8.  Comm'r  of  Education,  Rejiort,  1889-90, 
V.  2,  p.  744.— "The  latest  report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  contains  over 
two  hundred  institutions  for  tho  superior  educa- 
tion of  women.  Tiio  list  includes  colleges  and 
seminaries  entitled  to  confer  degrees,  and  a  few 


743 


EDUCATION. 


TVoehel  and  the 
Kindergarttn. 


EDUCATION. 


Bcminnries,  whoso  work  Is  of  equal  merit,  whicli 
do  not  jiive  dcgreos.  Of  these  more  than  two 
luindred  iastitutions  for  tlie  education  of  women 
exclusively,  only  47  arc  situated  within  fwestern 
states].  ...  Of  these  47,  but  30  are  chartered 
witli  authority  to  confer  degrees.  .  .  .  The  ex- 
tent tt)  whicli  the  higher  education  of  wojnen  is 
in  the  West  idcntiSed  with  co-education,  can  be 
seen  by  comparing  tlie  two  statements  above 
given.  Of  the  total  213  higher  institutions  re- 
ceiving women,  and  of  the  total  195  such  institu- 
tions which  confer  the  regular  degrees  in  arts, 
science,  and  letters,  upon  their  graduates,  165  are 
co-educational.  .  .  .  Among  colleges  character- 
ized from  birth  by  a  liberal  ana  progressive 
spirit  niay  be  mentioned  'The  Cincinnati  Wes- 
leyan  Woman's  College.'  This  institution  was 
f  bartered  in  1843,  and  claims  to  l)e  '  the  first  lib- 
eral collegiate  institution  in  the  world  for  the 
exclusive  education  of  women.'  .  .  .  The  West 
is  committed  to  co-education,  excepting  only  the 
Homan  Catholic,  the  Lutheran,  and  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  sects, —  which  are  not  yet,  as 
sects,  committed  to  the  collegiate  education  of 
women  at  all, —  and  the  Presbyterian  sect,  wliose 
support,  in  the  West,  of  14  co-educational  col- 
leges against  4  for  the  separate  education  of 
young  men,  almost  commits  it  to  the  co-educa- 
tional idea.  ...  In  1853,  Antiocli  College  was 
opened  at  Yellow  Springs,  O.  It  was  tlie  first 
endeavor  in  tlie  West  to  found  a  college  under 
Christian  h\it  non-sectarian  auspices.  Its  presi- 
dent, Horace  Mann,  wrote  of  it:  'Antioch  is 
now  the  only  flrst-class  college  in  all  the  West 
that  is  reolfy  an  unsectarian  institution.' .  .  . 
Antioch  was  from  the  first  avowedly  co-cduca- 
tionul." — M.  W.  Sewall,  Education  of  Women 
in  the  Weatern  States  (\Vo»uin's  Work  in  Am., 
pp.  01-70). — "Most  people  would  probably  be 
ready  to  say  that  except  for  the  newly  founded 
Woman's  College  in  Baltimore  and  Tu'.ane  Uni- 
versity [State  university  of  Louisiana],  the  col- 
legiate education  of  women  does  not  exist  in  the 
South.  But  as  matter  of  fact,  there  are  no  less 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  institutions  in  the 
South  which  are  authorized  by  the  Legislatures 
of  their  respective  States  to  confer  tlic  regular 
college  degrees  upon  women.  Of  these,  forty- 
one  are  co-educational,  eighty-eight  are  for  women 
alone,  and  twenty-one  are  for  colored  persons  of 
Hotli  sexes.  The  bureau  of  education  makes  no 
attempt  to  go  behind  the  verdict  of  the  State 
Legislatures,  but  on  looking  over  the  catalogues 
of  all  these  institutions  it  is,  as  miglit  have  been 
expected,  easy  to  see  that  the  great  majority  of 
them  are  not  in  any  degree  colleges,  in  the  or- 
dinary sense  of  the  word.  Not  a  single  one  of 
the  so-called  female  colleges  presents  a  real  col- 
lege course,  and  many  of  the  co-educational  col- 
leges are  colleges  only  in  name." —  C.  L.  Franklin, 
Education  of  Wome.i.  in  tlie  Southern  States 
(Woman's  Work  in  Am.,  pp.  93-94). 

A.  D.  1816-1892.— Froebel  and  the  Kinder- 
garten.— "Froebel  (Friedrich  Wilhelra  August) 
was  born  April  31,  1783,  at  Oberweissbach,  in 
tlie  principality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. 
His  mother  died  when  he  was  so  young  that  he 
never  even  remembered  her ;  and  lie  was  left  to 
the  care  of  an  ignorant  maid-of-all-work,  who 
simply  provided  for  his  bodily  wants.  .  .  .  Not 
until  he  was  ten  years  of  age  did  he  receive  the 
slightest  regular  instruction.  He  was  then  sent  to 
school,  to  an  uncle  who  lived  in  the  neighbor- 


hood. ...  He  pronounced  the  boy  to  be  Idle 
(which,  from  his  point  of  view,  was  quite  true) 
and  lazy  (wliicli  certainly  was  not  true)  —  a  boy, 
in  short,  that  you  could  do  nothing  with.  .  .  . 
It  was  necessary  for  liim  to  oarn  his  bread,  and 
we  next  find  him  a  sort  of  apprentice  to  a  woodd- 
man  in  the  gn-at  Thuringian  forest.  Here,  as  he 
afterward  tells  us,  he  lived  some  years  in  cordial 
intercourse  with  nature  and  matliQmatics,  learn- 
ing even  tlien,  though  unconsciously,  from  the 
teaching  he  received,  how  to  teach  others.  .  .  . 
In  1801  he  went  to  the  University  of  Jena,  where 
he  attended  lectures  on  natural  history,  physics, 
and  mathematics ;  but,  as  ho  tells  us,  gained  lit- 
tle from  them.  .  .  .  This  .  .  .  was  put  an  end 
to  by  the  failure  of  means  to  stay  at  the  Univer- 
sity. For  the  next  few  years  ho  tried  variou" 
occupations.  .  .  .  While  engaged  in  an  orchi- 
tcct's  offlce  at  Frankfort,  he  formed  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Rector  of  the  Model  School,  a  man 
named  Qruner.  Qriiner  saw  the  capabilities  of 
Froebel,  and  detected  alsa  his  entire  want  of  in- 
terest in  the  work  that  he  was  doing ;  and  one 
day  suddenly  said  to  him :'  '  Give  up  your  archi- 
tect's business ;  you  will  do  nothing  at  it.  Be  a 
teacher.  We  want  one  now  in  the  school ;  you 
shall  have  the  place. '  This  was  the  turning  point 
in  Froebel's  life.  He  accepted  the  engagement, 
began  work  at  once,  and  tells  us  that  the  first 
time  he  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  a  class  of 
30  or  40  boys,  he  felt  that  he  was  in  the  element 
that  he  had  missed  so  long — 'the  flsli  was  in  the 
water.'  He  was  inexpressibly  happy.  ...  In  a 
calmer  mood  he  severely  questioned  liimseK  as 
to  the  means  by  which  he  was  to  satisfy  the  de- 
mands of  his  new  position.  About  this  time  ho 
met  with  some  of  Pestalozzi's  writings,  which 
so  deeply  impressed  him  that  ho  determined  to 
go  to  Yverduu  and  study  Pestiilozzi  on  the  spot. 
He  accomplished  his  purpose,  ond  lived  and 
worked  for  two  yeors  with  Pestalozzi.  His  ex- 
perience at  Yverdun  impressed  him  with  the 
conviction  that  the  science  of  education  had  still 
to  draw  out  from  Pestalozzi's  system  those  fun- 
damental principles  which  Pestalozzi  himself  did 
not  comp--'  hend.  'And  therefore,'  says  Schmidt, 
'  this  genial  disciple  of  Pestalozzi  supplemented 
his  system  by  advancing  from  the  point  which 
Pestalozzi  had  reached  through  pressure  from 
without,  to  the  innermost  conception  of  man, 
and  arriving  at  tlie  thought  of  the  true  develop- 
ment and  culture  of  mankind. ' .  .  .  His  educa- 
tional career  commenced  November  IStli,  1816, 
in  Qreisheim,  a  little  village  near  Stadt-Ilm,  in 
Thuringia ;  but  in  1817,  when  his  Pestalozzian 
friend,  Middendorf,  joined  him  .  .  .  the  school 
was  transferred  to  the  beautiful  village  of  Keil- 
hau,  near  Kudolstadt,  which  may  be  considered 
08  his  chief  starting-place.  .  .  .  Langenthal,  an- 
other Pestalozzian,  associated  himself  with  them, 
and  they  commenced  building  a  house.  The 
number  of  pupils  rose  to  twelve  in  1818.  Then 
the  daughter  of  war-counselor  Hoffmon  of  Ber- 
lin, from  enthusiasm  for  Froebel's  educational 
ideas,  became  his  wife.  She  had  a  considerable 
dowry,  which,  together  with  the  accession  of 
Prcebei's  elder  brother,  increased  the  funds  and 
welfare  of  the  school.  In  1831  he  was  invited 
by  the  composer,  Schnyder  von  Wartensee,  to 
erect  a  similar  garden  on  his  estate,  near  the  lake 
of  Sempach,  in  the  canton  Luzern.  It  was  done. 
Froebel  changed  his  residence  the  next  year,  from 
Eeilhau  to  Switzerland.    In  1834  the  government 


744 


EDUCATION. 


The  Kindergarten. 


EDUCATION. 


of  Bern  invited  liim  to  arrango  a  training  course 
for  tt'iicliers  In  Burgdorf.  In  ISJi")  lie  l)ccame 
principiil  of  tlio  orphiin  asylum  in  Hurgdorf,  but 
in  1886  ho  and  his  wife  wished  to  return  to  Oct- 
many.  There  he  was  active  in  Berlin,  Kcilhau, 
Blankenburg,  Dresden,  LielwnBtcin  in  Thiiringia, 
Hamburg,  (1840,)  and  Maricnthal,  near  Liebcn- 
stein,  wliero  ho  lived  until  his  decease  in  1852, 
among  tlie  yoimg  ladies,  whom  ho  trained  as 
nurses  for  the  kindergarten,  and  the  little  chil- 
dren who  attended  his  school. " — II.  Barnard,  erf. 
IMpera  on  FroebeVii  Kindergarten;  Memoir. — "The 
child  thinks  only  through  symbols.  In  other 
words,  it  explains  all  it  sees  not  by  tlie  recorded 
experience  of  others,  as  does  an  adult,  but  by 
marshaling  and  comparing  its  own  concept  or 
symbol  of  what  it  has  itself  seen.  Its  sole  ac- 
tivity is  play.  '  The  school  l)eKlns  with  teach- 
ing tlie  conventionalities  of  intelligonce.  Frocbel 
would  have  the  younger  children  receive  a  sym- 
bolic education  in  plays,  games,  and  occupations 
which  symbolize  the  primitive  arts  of  man.'  For 
this  purpose,  the  child  is  led  tlirougji  a  series  of 
primitive  occupations  in  plaiting,  weaving,  and 
modeling,  through  games  and  dances,  whlcli  bring 
into  play  all  the  social  relations,  and  through 
songs  and  the  simple  use  of  number,  form  and 
language.  The  'gifts'  all  play  their  manifold 
purpose,  inspiring  the  child,  awakening  its  in- 
terest, leading  tlie  individual  along  tlic  juvtli  the 
race  has  trod,  and  teacliing  social  self-control. 
The  system  has  its  palpable  dangers.  The  bet- 
ter and  more  intricate  the  tool,  the  more  skill 
needed  in  its  safe  use.  .  .  .  The  kindergarten 
re(niircs  trained  hands.  With  trivial  teachers 
its  methods  may  easily  degenerate  into  mere 
amusement,  and  tliwart  all  tendency  to  attention, 
application,  or  industry.  Valuable  as  it  is  in  its 
lilnts  for  the  care  and  development  of  children, 
its  gay  round  needs  to  be  ballasted  witli  the  pur- 
pose and  theory  uppermost  in  Froebel's  mind 
when  he  opened  his  first  school  in  a  German 
peasant  village,  down  whose  main  street  a  brook 
tumbled,  and  tlirough  whoso  lanes  the  halberdier 
still  walked  by  night  and  sang  the  hours.  It  is 
idle  to  suppose  that  Froobel  founded  a  perfect 
system,  or  to  insist  on  all  tlie  details  of  the  pro- 
fessional kindcrgartner's  creed.  Hero  as  else- 
where, and  aforetime,  it  has  taken  only  forty 
years  from  the  founder's  death  for  faith  to  de- 
generate into  religion  and  sect.  But  tlie  central 
purpose  he  had  in  view  must  be  steadily  main- 
tained. He  souglit  his  ends  through  play,  and 
not  through  work.  It  is  as  dangerous  for  this 
method  to  harden  into  an  approach  to  the  pri- 
mary school  OS  it  is  for  it  to  soften  into  a  riot  of 
misrule,  and  lax  observance  of  order.  .  .  .  Swit- 
zerland, then  the  only  republic  in  Europe,  was 
tho  first  country  to  adopt  Froebel's  method, 
though  in  some  Swiss  towns  the  kindergarten  is 
still  supported  by  private  associations.  France, 
another  republic,  has  more  children  beginning 
school  under  an  adaptation  of  Froebel  than  all 
the  rest  of  the  world  put  togctiier.  It  was  Froo- 
bol's  own  opinion  that  '  the  spirit  of  American 
nationality  was  the  only  one  in  the  world  with 
wliich  his  method  was  in  complete  harmony,  and 
to  which  its  legitimate  institutions  would  present 
no  baniers.'  Tho  figures  given  below  of  tho 
growtli  of  tho  kindergarten  in  this  country  are 
tho  best  possible  proof  of  the  trutli  of  Froebel's 
prescient  assertion.  ...  In  1870  tliere  were  in 
this  country  only  five  kindergarten  schools,  and 

48  ^^ 


in  1873  the  National  Education  Association  at  Its 
Boston  meeting  appointed  a  rommittoo  which 
reported  a  year  later  recommending  tlie  system. 
Between  1870  and  1878,  experimental  klnder- 
gart(!ns  were  established  in  Boston,  Cleveland,  and 
St.  Louis,  public  attention  was  enlisted  by  the 
ellortB  of  Jliss  Elizabeth  Palmer  Peabmly,  tho 
most  Important  worker  in  tlio  early  history  of 
the  kindergarten  in  this  country,  ana  the  system 
began  a  rapid  growtli.  Taking  private  and  pub- 
lic kindergartens  togetlier,  the  advance  of  the 
system  has  displayed  this  most  rapi<i  progress: 

187.^  1R80  18SS  J801-? 

SclKHils 0,5  233  418  1,001 

Teachers 210  534  903  2,243 

Pupils 2,800      8,871     18,780        50,42a 

Dow'n  to  1880,  these  figures,  outside  of  St.  Louis, 
relate  almost  altogether  to  private  schools.  By 
1885  tho  publii  kindergartens  were  not  over  a 
fifth  in  number  nf  tho  schools,  and  held  not  over 
a  fourth  of  tho  pui)lls.  In  the  figures  last  given 
in  tills  taliie  there  are  724  private  kindergartens 
witli  1,517  teachers  and  29,S07  pupils,  and  377 
public  kindergartens  with  725  teaclicrs  and  21,06ft 
pupils,  so  that  the  latter  have  now  27  per  cent,  of 
tlio  schools,  33  per  cent,  of  tho  teachers,  and  43 
per  cent,  of  the  pupils.  .  .  .  Yet  great  os  is  this 
advance,  the  kindergarten  as  yet  plays  but  an 
infinitesimal  part  in  our  educational  system  as  a 
whole.  ...  Of  tho  sixteen  American  cities  with 
a  population  of  over  200,000  in  1800,  only  four- 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Louis 

—  have  incorporated  the  kindergarten  on  any 
largo  scale  in  tlieir  public-school  systems.  Four 
more  —  New  York,  Chicago,  Brooklyn,  and  Buf- 
falo—  have  kindergarten  associations  organized 
to  introduce  tho  new  method  as  a  part  of  free 
public  education.  "—T.  Williams,  The  Kinder- 
garten Movement  (The  Centuri/,  Jan.,  1808). 

A.  D.  1865-1883.— The  Higher  Education  of 
Women  in  England. — Tlie  movement  in  Eng- 
land to  secure  a  higher  education  for  women 
dates  from  1865,  "In  that  year  a  Royal  Com- 
mission was  appointed  to  inquire  into  and  report 
on  tlie  endowed  grommar  schools  of  England 
and  Wales,  and  on  what  is  called  '  secondary  ' 
education  generally.  Several  ladies  who  were 
already  alive  to  the  deficiencies  in  the  education 
of  their  own  sex,  memorialized  this  Commission 
to  extend  tlie  scope  of  its  inquiry  to  girls' 
schools,  and  the  Commission  taking  what  wa» 
then  thought  quite  a  bold  step,  consented 
to  do  so.  .  .  .  One  of  the  points  brought  out 
was  the  absence  of  any  institutions  doing  for 
women  what  the  universities  did  for  men,  and 
the  consec^uent  difticulty  in  which  women  stood 
of   obtaiumg   tlio   highest   kind    of   education 

—  a  difllculty  which  told  on  girls'  schools  by 
making  it  hard  for  them  to  procure  thoroughly 
competent  mistresses.  Tills  led  in  the  course  of 
the  next  year  or  two  —  tho  report  of  the  Com- 
mission having  been  published  in  1808 — to  the 
establishment  of  a  college  for  women,  which  wa» 
first  placed  at  Hitcliin,  a  town  on  tho  Great 
Northern  Railway,  between  London  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  a  little  while,  when  money  had 
been  collected  sufilcient  for  the  erection  of  build- 
ings, this  college  was  finally  settled  at  Girton,  a 
spot  about  two  miles  from  Cambridge,  whence 
it  takes  the  name  of  Girton  College.  Its  pur- 
pose was  to  provide  for  women  the  same  teach- 
ing in  the  same  subjects  as  men  receive  in  Cam- 
bridge University,  and  the  teachers  were  nearly 


45 


EDUCATION. 


Kducnilon  of  Women 
In  Kngltind. 


EDUCATION. 


all  of  tlicm  profcgnors  or  tutors  there,  incii  in 
miiiu'  ciiHcs  of  liJKli  cinliK'MW.  Mciiiiwlillt',  in 
CaiiibriilKc  Itst'lf,  ii  syHtein  of  day  chiHHi'.s  fur 
wonii'n,  tauKlit  l)y  Univi-rHity  teachers,  had  Ix-en 
freatwl,  at  tlrHt  an  an  experiment  for  one  year 
only.  When  wveral  years  had  patwM'd,  when  the 
niiinlKT  Httendini;  had  InereaHed.  and  it  wa8 
found  tlial  women  came  to  lodj^o  in  Camhridjto 
in  order  to  protlt  by  tlicso  lectures,  a  house  wa.s 
hired  in  which  to  receive  them,  and  ultimately  a 
<!ompany  was  formed  and  a  huildinf;  erected  u 
little  way  out  of  Cambridge,  under  the  name  of 
Newnliam  Hall,  to  which  tlio  lectures,  now 
mainly  designed  for  tliesc  students  coming  from 
ft  distance,  were  attaclied.  Thus,  at  about  the 
same  time,  though  from  somcwliat  different  ori- 
gins, Oirton  and  Nownham  came  into  being  an<l 
begun  their  course  of  friendly  rivalry.  Hoth 
have  greatly  developed  since  tlien.  Tlieir  build- 
ings liavo  b(!en  repeatedly  enlarged.  Tiieir  num- 
Ix'rs  have  risen  steadily.  ...  In  Oirton  tlie 
cliarge  for  lodging,  board  and  instruction  isJtlOO 
per  annum,  in  Newnliam  a  little  less.  The  life 
in  botli  is  very  similar,  a  lady  bei!ig  placed  at 
the  head  as  resident  principal,  while  the  alTairs 
are  managed  bv  a  conuidttce  including  botli  men 
and  women.  'I'iio  lec:tures  are  delivered  partly 
by  Cainl)ridge  men,  professors  in  tlie  University, 
or  tutors  or  lecturers  in  some  of  the  colleges, 
partly  by  ladies,  who,  having  once  been  students 
tlicmselves,  have  como  bacli  as  teacliera.  Tlicse 
lectures  cover  all  tlic  subjects  re<iuired  in  the 
degree  examinations  of  the  University ;  an<l  al- 
though students  are  not  obliged  to  enter  them- 
selves for  lho.se  examinations,  they  are  encour- 
aged to  do  so,  and  do  mostly  set  the  examinations 
before  them  as  their  goal.  Originally  the  Uni- 
versity took  no  olllciftl  notice  of  the  women  stu- 
<lents,  and  their  being  examined  by  the  regular 
degree  examiners  of  the  University  was  a  matter 
of  pure  favor  on  the  part  of  those  gentlemen. 
...  At  last,  however,  somo  examiners  came 
Into  olllce  (for  the  examiners  are  changed  every 
two  years)  who  disapproved  of  this  informal  ex- 
amination of  the  women  candidates,  and  accord- 
ingly a  proposal  was  made  to  the  University  tliat 
it  shouhl  formally  authorize  and  impose  on  the 
exam  crs  the  function  heretofore  discharged  by 
thei.i  ui  their  individual  capacity.  This  pro- 
posal, after  some  discussion  and  opposition,  was 
carried,  so  that  imw  women  may  enter  both  for 
the  honor  cxan  nuttions  and  the  pass  examina- 
tions for  the  University  degree  as  a  matter  of 
right.  Their  names  do  not  appear  in  the  oltlcial 
lists  oraong  those  of  the  men,  but  separately; 
they  are,  however,  tested  by  the  same  question 
papers  and  judged  by  the  same  standard.  .  .  . 
Some  Oxford  graduates  and  their  Triends,  stimu- 
lated by  the  success  of  Oirton  and  Newnliam, 
have  founded  two  similar  institutions  in  Oxford, 
one  of  which.  Episcopalian  and  indeed  High 
Church  in  its  proclivities,  is  called  Lady  Mar- 
garet Hall,  while  the  other,  in  compliment  to 
the  late  Mrs.  Somerville,  has  been  given  the 
title  of  Somerville  Hall.  These  establishments 
are  conducted  on  much  the  same  Hues  as  the  two 
Cambridge  colleges.  ...  In  the  large  towns 
where  new  colleges  have  been  lately  fouuded  or 
courses  of  lectures  established,  such  as  Manches- 
ter, Liverpool,  and  Leeds,  steps  are  usually 
taken  to  provide  lectures  for  women.  .  .  .  What 
is  called  among  you  the  question  of  co-education 
has  come  up  very  little  in  England.    All  the 


Icrlures  given  inside  the  walls  of  the  four  Eng- 
lish collegi'H  I  liave  mentioned  arc,  of  couriu-, 
given  to  women  only,  the  colleges  being  jUNt  as 
exclusively  places  for  wonii  i  as  Trinity  and  St. 
John's  are  places  for  men.  ...  At  this  moment 
tlie  principal  of  one  of  the  two  halls  of  wlildi 
Newnliam  consists  is  a  daughter  of  the  Prime 
Minister  [Miss  Helen  Oladstonej,  while  her  pre- 
dece8.>M)r  was  a  niece  of  the  Marquis  of  Halisbury. 
Tlie  principal  of  Oirton  is  a  niece  of  the  late 
Lord  Lawrence,  tln!  famous  Ooveruor-Ocneral  of 
India.  Of  the  students  a  fair  proportion  belong 
to  the  wealthy  clas.seM,  while  a  somewhat  larger 
proportion  mean  to  take  teacliing  as  their  profes- 
sion. " — I'liM/nnn of  Fiiiitde  KUuaition  in  Kiir/.  (Ntt- 
tioii,  July  f),  18s;l). — See,  also,  above,  Scotland. 
A.  D.  1865-1886.— Industrial  Education  in 
the  United  State.—"  In  18(ir),J(.lin  Hoyntoiiof 
TempU'ttm,  Mas.s.,  gave  |1()0,00<)  for  the  endow- 
ment and  perpetual  support  of  a  Free  Institute 
for  tlie  youth  of  Worcester  County,  Mass.  lie 
thus  explained  his  objects:  'The  aim  of  tills 
school  shall  ever  be  the  instruction  of  youth  in 
those  brandies  of  education  not  usually  tauglit 
in  tlie  public  sc1i(k)Is,  which  are  essi^ntial  and 
best  adapted  to  train  the  young  for  practical 
life';  especially  sm^h  as  were  intending  to  lie 
mechanics,  or  manufacturers,  or  farmers.  In 
furtlierance  of  this  object,  ten  months  later,  in 
18(i0,  Idiabod  Washburn  of  Worcester  gave  |25,- 
000,  and  later  (^'50,000  more  to  erect,  equip,  and 
endow  a  macliine-shop  which  should  accom- 
modate twenty  appa'ntices  and  a  suitable  number 
of  skilled  workmen  to  instruct  them  and  to  carry 
on  the  shop  as  a  commercial  establishment.  The 
apprentices  were  to  be  taught  'iie  use  of  tools  in 
working  woixl  and  nielals,  and  to  be  otherwise 
instructed,  much  us  was  customary  fifty  years 
ago  for  boys  learning  a  trade.  The  Worcester 
Free  Institute  was  opened  for  students  in  No- 
vember, 1808,  as  a  technical  sciiool  of  about  col- 
lege grade ;  and  the  use  of  the  shops  and  sliop 
instruction  was  limited  to  those  students  in  the 
course  of  mechanical  engineering.  Thus  did  tlio 
Worcester  School  under  the  leadership  of  Prest. 
C.  O.  Tliompson  incorporate  tool-instruction  and 
shop-practice  into  the  training  of  mechanical 
engineers.  ...  In  the  same  year,  1868,  Victor 
Delia- Vos  introduced  into  the  Imperial  Technical 
(engineering)  School  at  Moscow  the  Russian 
method  of  class-instruction  in  the  use  of  tools. 
.  .  .  The  great  value  of  the  work  of  Delia- Vos 
lay  in  the  discoverjf  of  the  true  method  of  tool- 
instruction,  for  without  his  discovery  the  later 
steps  would  have  been  imnossiblc.  In  1870, 
under  the  direction  of  Pro',  liobiuson  and  Prest. 
J.  M.  Gregory  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  1 
wood-working  shop  was  odded  to  the  appliances 
for  the  course  in  architecture,  and  an  iron-work- 
ing shop  to  the  course  in  mechanical  engineering 
in  that  institution.  In  1871,  the  Stevens  Insti- 
tute of  Hobokcn,  N.  J.,  munificently  endowed 
by  Edwin  A.  Stevens,  as  a  school  of  mechanical 
engineering,  fitted  up  a  series  of  shops  for  the 
use  of  its  students.  The  next  step  forward  was 
taken  by  Washington  University  m  St.  Louis  in 
providing  for  all  its  engineering  students  sys- 
tematic instruction  in  both  wood  and  metals.  la 
1872,  a  lorge  shop  in  the  Polytechnic  School  was 
equipped  with  work-benches,  two  lathes,  a  forge, 
a  gear-cutter  and  full  sets  of  carpenters',  ma- 
chinists', and  forging  tools.  .  .  .  Thus  far  had 
we  progressed  when  the  Philadelphia  Exposition 


746 


EDUCATION. 


Industrlat  Kducatton. 


EDUCATION. 


of  1876  vion  oppno<l.  Nnno  of  uh  know  niiytliln^; 
of  the  Moscow  gcliool,  or  of  Hit!  oiiii  in  Ilolivniiii 
in  which  the  UuhhIiiii  method  hud  heen  adoptetl 
In  1874.  ...  In  his  report  of  1H70,  Piest.  J.  D. 
Kiinklo,  of  the  Mitss.  Institute  of  Technology, 
giivc  a  full  exposition  of  the  theory  and  prnctictrof 
tool  Instruction  of  Delia- Vos  as  exhibited  ut  the 
Philadelphia  Exposition,  and  he  recoinnieiided 
that  without  delav  the  course  in  nieehanlcal 
engineering  at  the  Institute  he  eoinpleled  by  the 
addition  of  a  series  of  Instruction  Hln-ps.  Tlio 
suggestion  was  acte<l  on,  anil  in  the  spring  of 
1877  a  class  of  inechnnlcal  engineering  students 
was  given  Instruction  In  cliipping  and  tiling. 
.  .  .  The  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  Hcliool  was 
established  .June  6,  1870.  It  embodied  hopes 
hrag  cherished  and  plans  long  formed.  For  the 
tlrst  llmo  In  America  the  age  of  adnils.sion  to 
school-shops  was  reduced  to  fourteen  years  as  a 
minimum,  and  a  very  genend  three-years' course 
of  study  was  organized.  The  ordinance  by  which 
the  school  was  established  8i)eclUed  Its  objects 
in  very  general  terms: — '  Its  objects  shall  be  In- 
Htruction  in  mathematics,  drawing,  and  the  Eng- 
lish branches  of  a  hlgh-schonl  course,  and  In- 
struction and  practice  in  the  use  of  tools.  The 
tool-Instruction,  as  at  prewnt  contemplated,  shall 
include  carpentry,  wood-turning,  pattern-mak- 
ing. Iron  clipping  niul  tiling,  forge-work,  brazing 
and  soldering,  the  use  of  machine-shop  tools,  and 
such  other  instruction  of  a  similar  character,  as 
it  may  bo  deemed  advisable  to  add  to  the  fore- 
going from  time  to  time.  The  students  will 
divide  their  working  hours,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
equally  between  mental  and  manual  exercises.' 
.  .  .  The  Ualtimoro  Manual  Training  School,  a 
public  school,  on  the  same  footing  as  the  high 
school,  was  opened  In  1883.  The  Cliicago  Alanual 
Training  School,  established  as  an  incorpjrated 
school  by  the  Commercial  Club  of  that  city,  was 
opened  m  January,  1884.  .  .  .  Manual  training 
was  Int  roduced  into  the  high  school  of  Eau  Claire, 
Wisconsin,  in  1884.  The  'Scott  Manual  Train- 
ing School '  was  organized  as  a  part  of  the  high 
school  of  Toledo  in  1884.  .  .  .  Manual  training 
was  introduced  into  the  College  (high  school)  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1884.  The  Philadelphia 
Manual  Training  School,  a  public  high  school, 
was  opened  in  September,  1885.  The  Omaha 
high  school  introduced  manual  trolning  in  1885. 
.  .  .  Dr.  Adier's  ^'>'orklngnlan'8  Schoof  for  poor 
children  has  for  several  years  taught  manual 
training  to  the  very  lowest  grades.  .  .  .  The 
Cleveland  Manual  Training  School  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1885,  and  opened  In  connection  with  the 
city  high  school,  In  1886.  New  Haven,  which  had 
for  3omc  time  encouraged  the  use  of  tools  by  the 
pupils  of  several  of  its  grammar  schools,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1888,  opened  a  regular  shop  and  fur- 
nished systematic  instruction  in  tool-work.  The 
school  board  of  Chicago  added  manual  training 
to  the  course  of  the  '  West  Side  High  School ' 
in  September,  1880."— C.  51.  Woodward,  The 
Manual  Training  School,  eh.  1. — "Concerning 
the  manual-training  school  there  are  two  widely 
different  views.  The  one  insists  that  it  shall 
teach  no  trade,  but  the  rudiments  of  all  of  them; 
the  other  that  the  j)articular  industries  may 
properly  be  held  to  maintain  schools  to  recruit 
their  own  ranks.  The  first  wotild  teach  the  use 
of  the  axe,  the  saw,  the  plane,  the  hammer,  the 
square,  the  chisel,  and  the  file;  claiming  that 
'  the  graduate  from  such  a  course  at  the  end  of 


three  years  Is  within  from  one  to  three  months  of 
knowing  <piite  as  thoroughly  as  an  apprentice 
who  had  served  seven  years  any  one  of  the 
twenty  trades  to  which  he  may  cniM)se  to  turn.' 
Of  this  class  are,  Ijcsiiles  most  of  those  alreaily 
named,  the  llaish  Manual  Training  Hchiml  of 
Denver;  thatof  Tidane  University,  New  Orleans; 
the  Felix  Adh'r's  Worklngman's  School,  of  New 
York  City;  and  the  S(thool  of  Manual  Technol- 
ogy, Vanderbllt  University,  Nashville.  Among 
schools  of  the  seconil  class  are  some  interesting 
Institutions.  'I'hey  Incluih^  the  numerous  general 
and  special  trade-schools  for  boys,  instructiim  in 
the  manifold  phases  of  domestic  economy  for 
girls,  and  the  yet  small  but  rapidly  growing  class 
of  industries  open  alike  to  both.  8ev.mg  Is 
taught  in  public  or  private  schmils  in  Baltimore, 
IJostcm,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, Providence,  St.  Louis,  and  about  a  dozen 
other  cities,  besides  in  a  number  of  special  in- 
stitutions. Cooking-schools  are  no  longer  a 
novelty  in  half  as  many  of  tlie  larger  cities,  since 
their  introduction  into  New  York  city  in  1876. 
Printing  may  be  learned  in  the  Kansas  Agricul- 
tural College;  Cooper  Union,  New  York;  (Urard 
College,  Pliiladelphia,  and  elsewhere.  Tel(!g- 
raphy,  stenography,  wood-engraving,  various 
kinds  of  smithing,  and  carpentry,  have,  espctcially 
the  last  two,  numerous  representatives.  The 
New  York  Kitchen  Garden,  for  the  instruction 
of  children  in  the  work  of  the  household,  is  an  in- 
teresting modltlcatlon  of  the  Kindergarten  along 
the  industrial  line.  For  young  ladies,  the  Eliza- 
beth Aull  Seminary,  Lexinjjton,  Missouri,  is  a 
school  of  home-work,  in  which  '.ire  practically 
taught  the  mysteries  of  the  kitchen  and  laundry,' 
and  upon  whose  graduates  is  conferred  the  degree 
of  '  Mistress  of  Home- Work. '  The  Lasell  Semin- 
ary at  Auburndale,  Ma.ssachusetts,  also  has 
recently  (1885)  undertaken  a  similar  but  more 
comprehensive  experinient,  including  lessons  and 
lectures  in  anatomy  and  physiology,  with  hypieno 
and  sanitation,  the  principles  of  common  law  by 
an  eminent  attorney,  instructiim  and  practice  in 
the  arts  of  domestic  life,  the  principles  of  dress, 
artistic  house-furnishing,  healthy  homes,  and 
cooking.  Of  training-schools  for  nurses  there 
are  thirty-one.  ...  Of  schools  of  a  different 
character  still,  there  have  been  or  are  the  Carriage 
Builder's  Apprenticeship  School,  New  York; 
those  of  Hoe  &  Co.,  printing-press  manufac- 
turers; and  Tiffany  &  Co.,  jewelers;  and  the 
Tailors'  '  Trades  School '  recently  established  and 
flourishing  in  Baltimore,  besides  the  Penn.sy  1  vania 
Railroad  novitiate  system,  at  Altoona ;  in  which 
particular  trades  or  guilds  or  corporations  have 
sought  to  provide  themselves  with  a  distinct  and 
specially  trained  class  Of  artisans.  The  latest 
and  In  some  respects  the  most  interesting  experi- 
ment of  the  kind  Is  that  of  the  '  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad  service '  at  Mt.  Clare,  Baltimore. 
It  was  inaugurated  in  1885,  apprentices  being 
selected  from  ajipllcauts  by  competitive  examina- 
tion."— R.  G.  Boone,  Education  in.  t/ie  United 
States,  ch.  13. 

A.  D.  1873-1889. — University  Extension  in 
England. —  "The  University  Extension  Move- 
ment, which  has  now  been  before  the  country 
eighteen  years,  has  revealed  the  existence  of  a 
real  need  lor  larger  opportunities  of  higher  edu- 
cation amongst  the  middle  and  working  classes. 
From  the  time  of  its  inauguration  in  1873  by  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  owing  mainly  to  the 


m 


EDUCATION. 


Vnivenily  RtlenMon. 


EDUCATION. 


rnthniilnRtiR  ndvocnry  and  bUUI  in  practirnl  iif- 
fuirH  of  Mr.  JiinicH  Htimrt  (iit  tliut  tiniu  Fellow 
luiil  I,c<'turt'r  of  Trinity  Coiligf),  down  to  the 
prcHcnliliiy,  when  Hit.'  principle  liiwlifi'niiccTnIrd 
tiy  iill  the  rnlvfrHiticM  In  Grcitt  Hritiiin  iind  l)y 
iMiMU'  In  c'oiintrli'M  Ix'yond  Mie  hciih,  the  movement 
1ms  Hliown  nmrvellous  vltii.'iiy  luid  ijowci  of  lui- 
juHtment  lo  cliiinKin);  eonditioim.  From  a  Hnmll 
lieKinniiiK  in  three  lownn  in  the  IMidliuulH,  It  hiiH 
grown  until  tlie  eentrex  in  connection  with  the 
various  liraiiches  are  to  Ik!  numlwred  liy  iiundreds 
and  tlie  Htudeiits  liy  lens  of  thousands.  Thesuc- 
cesHattalned  by  Cainhridjfe  in  tlie  llrst  three  years 
led,  In  lH7(i,  to  tlie  formation  of  the  London 
Boelety  for  tlie  Extension  of  University  Teaeh- 
\nn,  for  the  I'xpresi  purpose (,f  carrying  on  simi- 
lar work  wltliiu  the  metropolitan  area,  lu  1H78 
the  Unlvrsity  of  Oxford  undertook  to  make 
Binillar  arran),'enients  for  Lectures,  but  after  a 
year  or  two,  they  were  for  the  time  abandoned. 
Bubsetiuently  in  1,885  the  Oxford  work  was  re- 
vived and  ha8  since  been  carried  on  w'th  vigour 
and  success.  The  University  of  Durliam  is  in- 
Boclated  with  (Jambridge  In  this  work  In  the  iiortli- 
castof  England,  while  courses  of  Lectures  on  the 
Extension  plan  luivc  been  given  for  several  years 
in  connection  with  Victoria  University  In  centres 
around  Manchester.  Two  or  three  years  ago  the 
four  Scottish  Universities  united  In  fonning  a 
like  scheme  for  Scotland,  while  at  the  close  of 
1880  a  Society  for  the  Extension  of  Unlveisitv 
Teaching  was  formed  in  the  north  of  Ireland. 
Finully  the  movement  has  spread  to  Greater  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States,  and  there  arc  signs 
that  work  on  similar  lines  is  about  to  be  estab- 
lished in  various  countries  on  the  continent  of 
Europe." — K.  D.  Roberts,  Eighteen  years  of  Uni- 
versity Ekteusion,  ch.  1. — "One  of  the  chief  char- 
acteristics of  the  system  Is  the  method  of  teach- 
ing adopted  in  connection  with  it.  A  working 
man  at  one  of  the  centres  in  the  north  of  England 
■who  had  attended  the  lectures  for  several  terms, 
described  tlie  metliod  as  follows  In  a  paper  read 
by  him  at  a  meeting  : — '  Any  town  or  village 
which  is  i)repared  to  provide  an  audience,  and 
pay  the  necessary  fees,  can  secure  a  course  of 
twelve  lectures  on  any  subject  taught  in  the  Uni- 
versity, liy  a  lecturer  who  has  been  educated  at 
the  University,  and  who  is  specially  fitted  for 
lecturing  work.  A  syllabus  of  the  course  Is 
printed  and  put  into  the  hands  of  students.  This 
syllabus  is  a  great  help  to  persons  not  accustomed 
to  note-taking.  Questions  are  given  on  each 
lecture,  and  written  answers  can  be  sent  in  by 
any  one,  irrespective  of  age  or  sex.  All  the  lec- 
tures, except  the  first,  are  preceded  by  a  class, 
wliich  lasts  about  an  hour.  In  tills  class  the  stu- 
dents and  the  lecturer  talk  over  the  previous  lec- 
ture. The  written  answers  are  returned  with 
such  corrections  as  the  lecturer  deems  necessary. 
At  the  end  of  the  courje  an  examination  is  held 
and  certificates  are  awarded  to  the  successful  can- 
didates. These  lectures  are  called  University  Ex- 
tension Lectures. '  Another  definition  which  has 
been  given  is  this: — 'Advanced  systematic  teach- 
ing for  the  people,  without  distinction  of  rank, 
sex,  or  age,  given  by  means  of  lectures,  classes, 
and  written  papers  during  a  connected  course, 
conducted  by  men  "  who  believe  in  their  work, 
and  intend  to  do  it,"  teachers  who  connect  the 
country  with  the  University  by  manner,  method, 
and  information.'" — R.  D.  Roberts,  Tlie  Univer- 
tity  Exteimon  Scheme,  pp.  6-7. 


A.  D.  1887-1893.— University  Extension  in 
the  United  States.  — " 'I'lic  first  conscious  at- 
tempts to  introduce  English  University  Extension 
methods  into  this  country  were  made  in  1887,  by 
individuals  connected  with  the  .lolins  Hopkins 
University.  Tlie  subje(^t  was  first  publicly  pre- 
sented to  the  Anierlcan  Library  Association  at 
their  inei'tiiig  upon  one  of  the  Thousand  Islands 
In  September,  1887.  The  idea  was  lieartlly  ap- 
proved," aiui  the  first  result  of  tlie  suggestion 
was  a  course  of  lectures  on  ccoiKmiic  (piestiong 
given  In  one  of  the  lecture-rooms  of  the  UiilTalo 
Library  the  following  winter  liy  Dr.  Edward  VV. 
Itemis.  The  next  winter  "  Dr.  Heniis  repeated 
his  course  on  'Economic  Questions  of  the  Day' 
In  Canton,  Ohio.  .  .  .  The  Cantim  experiment 
was  followed  in  February,  1889,  by  another 
course-,  conducted  by  Dr.  IJemis,  In  connection 
with  the  I'ulilic  Library  at  St.  Louis.  .  .  .About 
the  time  when  these  various  experiments  were 
being  tried  in  St.  Louis,  Canton,  and  RulTalo,  in- 
dividual mwnbers  of  Johns  llojikins  University 
were  attempting  to  introduce  Lniverslty  Exten- 
sion methods  in  connection  with  local  lectures  In 
the  city  of  Baltimore.  .  .  ,  The  Idea  of  Univer- 
sity Extension  in  connection  with  Chautauqua 
was  conceived  by  Dr.  J.  II.  Vincent  during  a  visit 
to  England,  in  1880,  when  he  saw  the  English 
lecture  system  in  practical  operation  and  his  own 
methods  of  encouraginjf  home  reading  In  grow- 
ing favor  with  university  men.  The  tlrst  defin- 
ite Anierlcan  plan,  showing  at  once  the  aims, 
methods,  cost,  and  history,  of  University  Exten- 
sion lectures,  was  drawn  up  at  Chautauqua  by 
the  writer  of  this  article  in  the  early  summer  of 
1888.  .  .  .  Contemporary  with  the  development 
of  Chautauqua  College  and  University  Extension 
was  the  plan  of  Mr.  Seth  T.  Stewart,  of  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  for  '  University  and  School  Exten- 
sion.'.  .  .  Several  public  meetings  were  held  In 
New  York  in  1880-00  for  tlio  promotion  of  Uni- 
versity and  School  Extension.  .  .  .  One  of  the 
most  gratifying  recent  experiments  in  University 
Extension  in  America  lias  been  lu  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  under  the  auspices  of  the  American 
Society  for  the  Extension  of  University  Teach- 
ing. At  various  local  centres  Mr.  Richard  G. 
Moulton,  one  of  the  most  experienced  lecturers 
from  Cambridge,  England,  lectured  for  ten  weeks 
in  the  winter  and  spring  of  1801  to  large  and  en- 
thusiastic audiences.  AH  the  essential  features 
of  English  University  Extension  were  method- 
ically and  persistently  carried  out.  .  .  .  The 
American  field  for  University  Extension  is  too 
vast  for  the  missionary  labors  of  ony  one  society 
or  organization.  .  .  .  The  most  significant  sign 
of  the  times  with  regard  to  University  Extension 
in  America  is  the  recent  appropriation  of  the  sum 
of  $10,000  for  this  very  object  by  the  New  York 
legislature.  The  money  is  to  be  expended  under 
the  direction  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of 
the  State  of  New  York.  .  .  .  The  intention  of 
the  New  York  act  is  simply  to  provide  the  neces- 
sary means  for  organizing  a  State  system  of 
University  Extension  .  .  .  and  to  render  such 
general  assistance  and  co-operation  as  localities 
may  require." — H.  B.  Adams,  University  Exten- 
sion in  America  (Forum,  July,  1891). —  On  the 
opening,  in  1893,  of  the  Chicago  University, 
munificently  endowed  by  Mr.  John  D.  Rocke- 
feller, of  Cleveland,  University  Extension  was 
made  one  of  the  three  grand  divisions  of  its 
organization. 


748 


EDWARD. 


EOYIT. 


EDWARD,  King  of  PortunI,  A.  I)   1  J.'W- 

14:(H Edward,  called  the  Confeitor,  Kinor 

of    EtiKlancL     A.     I).     lO^tli-KMl.t Edward, 

called  tlie  Elder,  King;  of  Wetiex,   A    I)  IIOI- 

U25 Edward,  called  the  Martyr,  King  of 

Westex,   A.    I>.    UTn Edward  I.,  King  of 

England,    A.     I).     1274-l!«t7 Edward    II., 

King  of  England,  A.  I).  I:i07-ll)a7 Edward 

III.,  King  of  England,   A.   I).    I!)i7-i:t77 

Edward  TV.,  King  of  England  (first  king  of 

the    House    of    York),    A.    I).    ll(U-UH!t 

Edward  V.,  titular  King  of  England,  A.  I). 
14H!I  (from  April  I),  wlicii  liTs  fiillicr,  Kdwiird  IV., 
(lied,  until  .Mine  'i'i,  wlii'H  ho  Ih  l)('li('V('<l  to  Imvo 
liccii  niiinlcrcd  in  thn  Tower  by  roninmnd  of  his 

uncle,    llic   UNurpcr,  Uichurd    III.) Edward 

VI.,  King  of  England,  A.  I).  LW-l.TO). 

EDWARD,  Fort:  A.  D.  1755.— Built  by 
the  New  England  troops.  iJcc  Canada  :  A.  I). 
1755  (.Ski'temueii). 


A.  D.  1777.— Abandoned  to  the  British. 
Sec  Tnitku  Statkhok  Am.  :  A.  I).  1777 (July — 

(tlTollKIt). 

EDWIG,  Kingof  Wessex,  A.  D.  O.VV-O.U 
EDWIN.KingofNorthumbria,A.  I).017-«3a 
EGESTA.     Sic  SviiAdHK:    H.   ('.  41.')-418j 
mid  Skii.v:   H.  C.  •KMMO.'i. 
EGFRITH,  King   of  Northumbria,  A.   D. 

«70-(IH.'). 

EGINA.-EGINETANS.    ,s<..  .Koin  v. 

EGMONT,  Count,  and  the  struggle  in  the 
Netherlands.  Sec  Nktiikhi.andh:  A.  I).  1.1(1^- 
l.')(ltl.  and  I.VKl-l.VlM. 

EGNATIAN  WAY,  The.-A  Ronnn  roiid 
couHtructcd  froiu  .\|)iilloiiiii  on  the  A<lriiitic  to 
tile  Hliori's  of  tli(^  llclicttpont;  llnully  curried  to 
Hy/.iuilluin. 

EGRA  :  A.  D.  1647.— Siege  and  capture  by 
the  Swedes.    See  Ueumany:  A.  U.  10-l(J-I(J4a. 


EGYPT. 


Its  Names. — "E;;ypt  is  designated  in  the  old 
InscriptionH,  as  well  as  in  the  hooks  of  the  Inter 
(.'liristiun  E>?yntians,  by  n  word  wldcli  sinnilli's 
'the  black  land,'  and  which  is  read  in  the  lilgyp- 
tian  language  Kern,  or  Kami.*  The  ancients  had 
early  remarked  that  the  cultivable  land  of 
Egypt  was  distinguished  by  its  dark  and  almost 
black  colour.  .  .  .  The  neighbouring  region  of 
the  Arabian  desert  bore  the  name  of  Tesher,  or 
the  red  land.  .  .  .  The  Egyptians  designated 
themselves  simply  as  '  the  people  of  the  black 
land,'  and  .  .  .  the  inscriptions,  so  far  as  we 
know,  have  handed  down  to  us  no  other  appel- 
lation. ...  A  real  enigma  is  propo.sed  to  us  in 
the  derivation  and  meaning  of  the  curious  proper 
name,  by  which  the  foreign  peoples  of  Asia, 
each  in  its  own  dialect,  were  accustomed  to 
designate  Egypt.  The  Hebrews  gave  the  land 
the  name  ofjyiizraim;  the  Assyrians  Muzur;  the 
Persians,  Mudmyn.  \Vc  may  feel  a.ssured  that 
at  the  basis  of  all  these  designations  there  lies  an 
original  form  which  consisted  of  the  three  letters 
M-z-r,  all  explanations  of  which  have  been  as 
yet  unsuccessful.  Although  I  intend  here- 
after to  consider  more  particularly  the  deriva- 
tion of  tills  puzzling  name,  which  is  still  pre- 
starved  at  the  present  day  in  the  Arabic  appellation 
Jlisr,  I  will  here  premise  the  icmark  that  this 
name  was  originally  applied  only  to  a  certain 
definite  part  of  Egypt,  in  the  east  of  the  Delta, 
which,  according  to  the  monuments,  was  covered 
and  defended  by  many  'zor,'  or  fortresses,  and 
was  hence  called  in  Egyptian  Mazor  (that  is, 
fortified)."— II.  Brugsch-Bev,  Ilist.  of  Egypt  un- 
der the  Pliaraohs,  ch.  2. — "fcrugsch  explains  the 
name  Egypt  by  '  lia-ka-ptah,'  I.  e.  '  the  precinct 
of  Ptah.  As  Ptah  was  more  especially  the  god 
of  Memphis,  tills  name  would  have  come  from 
Memphis." — M.  Duncker,  Ilist.  of  Antiquity,  bk. 
1,  ch.  1,  note. — "The  last  use  of  Kem  died  out 
In  the  form  Chemi  in  Coptic,  the  descendant  of 
the  classical  language,  which  ceased  to  be  spoken 
a  century  ago.  It  survives  among  us  m  the 
terms  'chemistry'  and  'olchemy,'  sciences 
thought  to  be  of  Egyptian  origin.  "—U.  8.  Poole, 
Cities  of  Egypt,  int. 

Its  Historical  Antiquity.—  The  lists  of  Egyp- 
tian kings  which  have  been  found  "agree  m 


presenting  the  name  of  Mena  [or  Mencs]  as  that 
of  the  first  Pharaoh  of  Egypt,  and  as  such  ho  is 
unhesitatingly  accepted,  iillliougli  no  contein- 
poniry  monumental  record  of  the  fact  has  yet 
been  discovered.  According  to  Manetlio,  the 
age  of  Menu  dates  b.ick  to  a  period  of  .^,004  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  a  di'.te  which  is  nearly 
ecjunl  to  7,()()0  years  from  the  present  day. 
Brugsch  favours  a  sommvhat  less  interval, 
namely,  44.'i5  B.  (,'. ;  others  place  it  as  low  as 
2700  B.  C,  whilst  Birch  and  Chabas  a''opt  a 
medium  date,  namely  4000  B.  ('.,  which  is 
equivalent  to  6000  years  backward  from  the 
existing  time.  These  extreme  variations  are 
chiefly  referable  to  the  dilllculty  of  ascertaining 
the  precise  length  of  each  individual  reign,  and 
especially  to  the  occasional  contemporaneous 
reign  of  two  or  more  kings,  and  sometimes  the 
existence  of  two  or  more  dynasties  in  dillerent 
parts  of  the  empire.  .  .  .  Lieblein  gives  full 
credit  to  the  chronology  of  Manetlio  [a  priest  of 
Heliopolis,  who  wrote  about  260  B.  C],  as  re- 
corded by  tlic  historian  Africanus,  as  likewise 
did  the  distinguislied  Marictte,  and  differs  very 
Utile  from  the  standard  adopted  by  Birch,  llo 
assigns  to  Mena,  as  the  pioneer  of  the  first 
monarchy,  a  date  in  round  numbers  of  81)00. 
years." — E.  "Wilson,  The  Et/i/pt  of  the  Pfi»t,  eh.  1. 
— "As  to  the  era  .  .  .  when  the  first  Pharaoh 
mounted  the  throne,  the  German  Egyptologers 
have  attempted  to  tlx  it  at  the  ('  Ilowlng  <'pocli8: 
Boeckh,  B.  C.  .5703;  Unger,  ,)013;  Brugsch, 
4455;  Lauth,  4157;  Lepsius,  3893;  Bunsen,  3633. 
The  difference  between  the  two  extreme  points 
of  the  series  is  amazingly  great,  for  its  number 
of  years  amounts  to  no  less  than  2079.  .  .  .  The 
calculations  in  question  are  based  on  the  extracts 
already  often  mentioned  from  a  work  by  the 
Egyptian  priest  Manetho  on  the  history  of 
Egypt.  That  learned  mon  had  then  at  his  com- 
mand the  annals  of  his  country's  history,  which 
were  preserved  in  tlie  temples,  and  from  them, 
the  best  and  most  accurate  sources,  he  derived 
the  materials  for  his  work,  composed  in  the 
Greek  language,  on  the  history  of  the  ancient 
Egyptian  Dynasties.  His  book,  which  is  now 
lost,  contained  a  general  review  of  the  kings  of 
the  land,  divided  into  Thirty  Dynasties,  arranged 


■  Kamit  in  tbe  editlnu  of  1801. 


Ud 


EGYPT 


7k«  Aneiml  Pntft*, 


EOYPT. 


In  tho  nrdrr  nf  thoir  naini-H,  with  fhr  IrnstliH  of 
tlii-ir  ri-i){iiH.  1)11(1  tli('  total  iluratloii  of  ciirli 
ilyiuiHty.  'IIioiikIi  tliU  inviiluuliU!  'vork  wim 
little  known  iinci  rcrtalnly  but  llttli;  rcKunlcil  liy 
till'  liUtorliiim  of  till'  olil  chtMMlcal  a^c,  large  ex- 
tniclH  were  niBile  from  It  by  Monii'  of  the  eecle- 
HJiutlcal  wrIliTH.  In  prcMcsMof  time  the copvlHtM, 
eltlier  by  error  or  dcHJunedly,  eorrnpti'U  the 
nanu'M  anil  tho  niimberM,  ami  thuH  we  only 
pofwM'HH  at  the  preM-nt  tliiy  the  riiiim  InntRnd  of 
theeonipli't(^  builillnK.  The  truth  of  theorlKlniil, 
unil  the  autlientlelty  of  ItH  HourceH  were  tIrHt 
proved  by  tlie  deeiiiherinK  of  thu  Egyptian 
writings.  And  thux  the  Manethonian  IIhI  Nerved, 
and  Nlill  Hervi'H,  as  a  guide  for  aHHignIng  to  the 
royal  numeH  read  on  tlie  monumentH  their  pliuu'H 
In  tho  DyuaHth'H." — H.  HrugHch-Hey,  Hint,  of 
fi/ypt  uiiilfi-  Ihti  I'/iiinto/in,  rh.  4. — Bee,  al»o, 
Manktiki,  [,iwt  ok. 

Origin  of  the  ancient  people. — "The  Egyp- 
tiauH,  together  with  Home  other  nations,  form,  as 
It  would  m'em,  a  third  branch  of  that  [tho  Cau- 
caHlan]  rare,  namely,  the  family  (•alle(r  ("UHlille, 
which  Im  distiriguiHlicd  by  Hpecial  characterH  from 
the  Pelaxgian  and  tho  Semilic  fiimilioH.  What- 
ever rel-itlonH  may  bu  found  always  to  exist 
between  these  great  races  of  mankind,  thus  much 
may  bo  regarded  us  certjiln,  that  tho  ciiidio  .f 
the  Egyptian  people  must  be  sought  in  the  in- 
terior of  l\\v  Asiatic  quarter  of  tho  world.  In 
the  earliest  ages  of  liumnnity,  far  lieyond  ull  his- 
torical reini'inbrance,  tho  Egy|)tians,  for  reasons 
unknown  lo  ti.s,  left  tho  soil  uf  their  primeval 
home,  tiM)k  tticir  way  towards  tho  setting  sun, 
and  finally  crossed  that  bridge  uf  nations,  tho 
Isthmus  of  Hiiez,  to  llnd  a  new  fatherland  on  the 
favoured  banks  of  tho  holy  Nile.  Comparative 
phih)logy,  in  its  turn,  gives  powerful  support  to 
this  hypothesis.  The  Egyptiin  language  .  .  . 
shows  in  no  way  any  trace  of  it  derivation  and 
descent  from  the  African  famil  cs  of  8i)eech. 
On  tho  contrary,  the  primitive  roots  and  tho 
essential  elements  of   tho    Egyptian    grammar 

foint  to  such  an  intimate  connection  with  the 
ndo-Qernianic  and  Semitic  languages  that  it  is 
almost  inipossible  to  mistake  the  close  relations 
which  formerly  prevailed  between  tho  Egyptians 
and  the  races  called  Indo-Oermanif  and  Semitic." 
— II.  Hrugsch-Uey,  Jfint.  of  Egypt  under  the 
P/uinit/in,  ell.  1. — "It  has  been  maintained  by 
some  tliat  tlie  immigration  was  from  the  south, 
the  Egyptians  having  been  a  colony  from  Ethi- 
opia which  gradually  descended  the  Nile  and 
established  itsi  If  in  tho  middle  and  lower  portions 
of  the  vallev;  id  this  theory  can  plead  in  its 
favour,  both  a  positive  statement  of  Diodorus, 
and  tlie  fact,  which  is  quite  certoin,  of  an  ethnic 
connection  t)i'tween  the  Egyptians  and  some  of 
the  tribes  wlio  now  occupy  Abyssinia  (the  ancient 
Ethiopia).  But  modern  research  has  shown 
quite  unmistakably  that  the  movement  of  the 
Egyptians  was  in  the  opposite  direction.  .  .  . 
We  must  look,  then,  rather  to  Syria  or  Arabia 
than  to  Etiiiopia  as  the  cradle  of  the  Egyptian 
nation.  At  the  same  time  we  must  admit  that 
they  were  not  mere  Syrians  or  Arabs,  but  had, 
from  the  remotest  time  whereto  we  can  go  back, 
distinct  characteristics,  whereby  they  have  o 
good  claim  to  be  considered  as  a  separate  race." 
— Q.  Kawlinson,  JIM.  of  Ancient  Egypt,  ch.  3. — 
"  So  far  as  our  knowledge  reaches,  the  northern 
edge  of  Africa,  like  the  valley  of  the  Nile  as  far 
as  the  marshes  at  the  foot  of  the  Abyssinian 


hills,  was  inhabited  by  nation*  who  In  rotoiir, 
language,  and  cimtoms  were  sharply  ilistln- 
guished  from  the  iii'gro.  These  imtions  belniig 
to  the  whites:  llieir  langiiageH  were  most  clost'ly 
allied  to  the  Semitic.  From  this,  and  from  their 
physical  peculiarities,  the  coiicIiihImii  has  been 
drawn  that  these  nations  at  Hiiine  time  migrated 
from  Asia  to ihe  soil  of  Africa.  They  formed  a 
vast  family,  whose  dialects  still  continue  In  the 
language  of  the  HitImts.  Assisted  by  the 
favouralile  conditions  of  their  land,  the  trilM) 
which  Ki'tllcd  on  the  Lo'.ver  Nile  quickly  left 
their  kiimmcii  far  liehind.  Indeed  the  latter 
hardly  rose  above  a  pastoral  life.  The  descend- 
lints  of  these  old  inliiil)itaiits  of  the  valley  of  tho 
Nile,  in  spite  of  the  immci'oiis  layers  which  tho 
course  of  centuries  has  subs<'<|uently  laid  upon 
the  soil  of  the  land,  slill  form  the  larger  part  of 
tho  population  of  Egypt,  and  the  ancient  lan- 
guage Is  preserved  In  the  diulecl  of  the  Copts." 
— M.  Diinckcr,  llinl.  <f  Aiitiijiiily,  hk.  1,  ch.  1. 

The  Old  Empire  and  the  Middle  Empire. — 
The  following  are  the  Kgyptiiin  Dynasties,  from 
the   lirst   Pharaoh.    Mciia,    to   the  epoch  of  the 


I lyksos,  or  Shepherd  kings,  with  'he  dates  and 
iieriisls  assigned  to  each  by  nnigsch:  Tho  First 
I)yna8ty;    of  Thinis:    B.    ('.   44(M)-4100.  —  Tho 


Second;  of  Thinis:  4l8a-4()()0,  —  The  Third;  of 
Memphis:  3»68-a70fl. —The  Fourth;  of  Mem- 
phis: ;n!l!l-3fl0().  —  The  Fifth,  of  Elephantine: 
MflO-aaaa.  —The  sixth;  of  Memphis:  3300-8()«6. 
—  Tho  Seventh  to  the  Eleventh  (a  confused  and 
obscure  period):  .1088-2500.  —  The  Twelfth;  of 
Thebes:  2466-22B6.--n.  Brugsch-Bey,  Ilint.  of 
Egypt  under  the  I'haraoht,  npp.  A. — "The  direct 
descendants  of  Meiies  [or  Mcnal  form  the  First 
Dynasty,  which,  according  to  nianetho,  reigned 
258  yeaifl.  No  monninent  contemporary  with 
thesa  princes  has  come  down  to  us.  .  .  .  Tho 
Second  Dynasty,  to  which  Manetho  essigns  nlno 
kings,  lasted  302  years.  It  was  also  originally 
from  This  [or  Thiiii.s],  and  probably  related  to 
the  First.  .  .  .  "When  this  family  had  becomo 
extinct,  a  Dynasty,  originally  from  Memphis, 
seized  the  throne,  forming  tlio  Third,  and  to  it  a 
duration  of  214  years  is  attributed.  .  .  .  With 
the  Fourth  Dynasty,  Memphite  like  the  Third, 
and  which  reigned  284  years,  history  becomes 
clearer  and  monuments  more  numerous.  This 
was  tho  age  of  the  three  Great  Pyramids,  built 
by  the  three  kings,  Kliufu  (the  Cheops  of  Herod- 
otus), Shafra  (Chcfren),  and  Slenkara  (Mycerl- 
nus).  .  .  .  The  Fifth  Dynasty  came  originally 
from  Elephantine,  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
Upper  Egypt,  and  there  possibly  tho  kings  gen- 
erally resided,  though  at  tho  same  time  Memphis 
was  not  deprived  of  its  importance.  .  .  .  On 
the  dcatli  of  the  last  king  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty, 
a  new  family,  of  Meinphitic  origin  according  to 
Manetho,  came  to  the  throne.  .  .  .  Primitive  art 
attained  its  highest  point  under  the  Sixth  Dy- 
nasty. .  .  .  But,  from  the  time  of  the  civil 
commotions  in  which  Neit-aker  [the  Nitocris  of 
Herodotus]  perished,  Egyptian  ci\'ilization  under- 
went a  sudden  and  iinaccountablri  eclipse.  From 
the  end  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty  te  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Eleventl',  Manetho  reckons  430  years, 
and  for  this  whole  period  the  inouuments  arc  ab- 
solutely silent.  Egypt  seems  then  to  have  disap- 
fieared  from  the  rank  of  nations;  and  when  this 
ong  slumber  ended,  civilization  commenced  a 
new  career,  entirely  independent  of  the  past. 
.  .  .  Thus  ends  that  period  of  nineteen  centuries, 


750 


EcaiT. 


?*«•  titi^phrrti  KinQt. 


E<»YPT. 


whirli  modem  Hcliolnm  know  m  the  Old  Empire 
.  .  .  Tlii'lii'H  (lid  iKit  rxihl  ill  the  dayN  iif  llii' 
uloiy  of  the  Old  Kmpirr.  Tile  lioly  city  of 
AllK'll  N<'<-iim  to  liiivr  liccri  foiiiidrd  during  till! 
IM'riod  of  nniircliy  mid  olwciirity,  NiircccdliiK,  hh 
w«  Imvii  Hitid,  to'tlii'  Hlxtli  Dyiiiisty.  Hcru  wiw 
l\w  lilrtlipliici'  of  tliiit  rt'iii'wi'd  clv'lli/.ittloii,  tlnit 
nt'w  moiiiircliy,  wi!  iirc  acciiNtoiiu'd  to  mil  tlio 
Middle  Kiiiplrc,  tilt!  middin  nnf  in  fiu't  of  iincii-nt 
Knypt  —  It  middle  iijfi'  imtcrlor  to  the  ciirlicMt 
»K''»  "f  I'll  otIiiT  lilnlory.  From  TlirlicH  ciiiiu) 
the  hIx  kliiKH  of  the  Klcvnitli  DyiiiiHty.  .  .  .  We 
iiKitiii  (|Uiite  tlie  exeelleiit  remiirkH  of  Si,  Miirlette: 
'  When,  with  the  Klevenlli  DyiiiiHty,  we  see 
K^ypt'  iiwiike  from  her  Umit  Hliiiiilier,  nil  old 
triidltloiiH  iippeitr  to  he  forKottiMi;  tlii!  iiroper 
namcH  iiHcd  In  iiiieieiit  fiimillcH,  the  titliii  of  fiiiie- 
tloimrieM,  the  Ktyle  of  wrlliii«,  imd  even  the 
religion  —  iill  wem  new.  'I'liiti,  Klepluiiitine,  iind 
MeiiiphiM,  lire  ii'!  I.).i,"">  the  fiivoiiriti!  riipitiilM. 
Thelies  for  the  tlint  ti.">o  hcooincH  the  Hciit  of 
Boven'i)(n  power.  KgyPt,  mon^over,  hiiH  lost  ii 
conHldenilili!  portion  of  her  territory,  iiiid  the 
iiiithority  of  her  le;;llliniite  klnjfH  hiirdly  exti'iidH 
lieyond  the  limited  diHtriet  of  the  Tlu^liiiid.  The 
Study  of  the  moiiiimenlH  conflrnm  thcHv  ^''tH^riii 
vIcwb;  tliey  iiro  rude,  prindlivo,  BometinieM 
conrso;  iind  when  wi!  look  iit  them  wo  miiy  well 
believe  timt  Knyjit,  under  the  ICloveiith  Dyniistv, 
ngiiin  ><'i.4Hed  through  ii  period  of  infiiney,  iiH  tifie 
hud  iilri'iidy  done  under  the  Tliird  DyniiHty.'  A 
dynasty  probably  related  to,  and  ori>{inally  from 
til  J  Hume  place  iw  these  llrst  Theban  prineeH  huc- 
cecded  tlu^m.  .  .  .  This  Twelfth  Dynasty  relj;ned 
for  213  years,  and  its  epoch  was  one  of  pros- 
perity, of  iieace  at  home  and  kIoHous  achle.'e- 
m(!iits  nbroiid.  .  .  .  Although  the  history  of  the 
Twelfth  Dynasty  is  clear  and  well  known,  illus- 
trated by  numerous  monuments,  there  Is,  never- 
theless, no  i)orlod  ia  the  annals  of  Egypt  more 
obscure  thun  the  one  closing  with  the  Thirteenth 
Dynasty,  it  is  one  long  series  of  revolutions, 
troubles,  and  internal  dissensions,  closed  by  a 
terrible  catastrophe,  the  greatest  and  most  last- 
ing recorded  in  Egyptian  history,  which  a  second 
time  Interrupted  the  march  of  civilization  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  and  for  a  while  struck  Egypt 
from  the  list  of  nations."— F.  Lenormant  and  E. 
Chevttllior,  Manual  of  Ancient  Ilitt.  of  the  East, 
bk.  8,  ch.  1-2. 

Also  in:  C.  C.  J.  Bunscn,  Egypt't  Place  in 
Uninerml  IIi»t.,  v.  2. — See,  also,  Memphis,  and 
TiiKiiEs,  EoYrr. 

The  Hyksot<,  or  Shepherd-Kines.— Accord- 
ing to  the  Muiieihouian  account  whicli  the  Jewish 
historian  Josephus  has  preserved  to  us  by  tran- 
scribing it,  the  Egyptian  Netherlands  were  at  a 
certain  time  overspread  by  a  wild  and  rough 
people,  which  came  from  the  countries  of  the 
east,  overcame  the  native  kings  who  dwelt  there, 
and  took  possession  of  the  whole  country,  -with- 
out tinding  any  great  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  Egyptians.  They  were  colled  Hyksos,  which 
Joiiephus  interpreted  as  meaning  Shepherd-kings, 
"llyk,"  he  explained,  meant  King,  in  the  holy 
language,  and  "sos,"  in  the  dialect  of  the  people, 
signified  Shepherd.  But  Dr.  Brugsch  identifies 
"sos"  with  the  name  "Shasu  "  which  the  old 
Egyptians  gave  to  the  Bedouins,  whose  name 
became  e(iuivalcnt  to  Shepherds.  Hence  Dr. 
Brugsch  inclines  to  the  ancient  opinion  transmitted 
by  Josephus,  that  the  llyksos  were  Arabs  or  Bed- 
ouins —  the  Shasu  of  the  Egyptian  records,  who 


liuiig  on  the  northeaNtrrn  frontier  of  Egypt  from 
the  mintt  ani'li'iir  tliiies  aed  were  always  preiuiing 
Into  the  roiintry,  at  every  opportunity.  Hut 
many  objretions  agaiiiNt  this  view  are  ralMHl  and 
IheililTen'iit  theories  iidviinced  to  arcouiil  for  tlio 
llyksoM  aril  (|uite  niimeroim.  ('1111011  Itiiwllnsim 
says:  "The  Kgyiitlaim  of  the  time  of  lleriMlotiui 
Hcrm  to  have  cotmidered  that  they  were  I'hlUs- 
tiiies.  MiHlernH  have  reganled  them  im  Canaan- 
lli'H,  Syrians,  lllttites.  It  is  an  nvoiiiiinre  rather 
than  a  solution  of  the  illMlrulty  to  say  that  they 
were  'a  I'ollei'tlon  of  all  the  noiiiad  liordcH  of 
Arabia  and  Syria'  [I/cnorniant],  since  (here  must 
have  bii'ii  a  lUrectliig  hiiiid.  .  .  .  On  the  whole, 
Iherefore.  wo  lean  to  tin-  belief  that  tho  so-ealled 
llyksos  or  Shepherds  were  llittltes." — O.  Itiiw- 
llnsoii,  Hinl.  (if  Aiirifiil  Ki/i/iil.  rh.  10. — "It  is 
m,diilalne(l  on  good  authority  that  the  llyksos, 
or  Shepherd- Kings,  hud  Hcciired  possession  of  tho 
eastern  frontier  of  Lower  Egypt  liiimediiilely 
after  the  elose  of  the  Twelfth  hyniisly;  that  at 
this  time  the  Thirteenth  and  the  Fourteenth  Dy 
niisth'.s 

l'l>l'<'r 

legitimate,   the  oMier  the  illegltimiite  line;    but 


h  Dy- 

niisth'S  ruled  (•ontemiioraneously,  the  former  In 
I'pjier,  the  latter  in  Lower  Egypt;  one  was  the 


authors  are  not  in  accord  as  to  their  right  of 
[irlority.  It  is  supposi'd  that,  while  Egypt 
claimed  the  Thirteeiilh  Dynasty  us  her  own, 
the  llyksos  usurped  the  mastery  over  thi'  Four- 
teenth Dynasty,  and  governed  through  the  agency 
of  its  kings,  treating  them  meanwhile  as  vas- 
sal chiefs.  These  local  kings  had  cities  from 
which  they  were  unable  to  esea|H',  and  were  de- 
prived of  an  army  of  defence.  Such  was  tho 
state  of  tho  country  for  IHl  years,  when  tho 
Fourteentli  Dynasty  died  out",  and  when  tho 
Fifteenth  Dynasty,  constituted  of  six  siiccessivo 
llyksos  kings,  took  tho  reins  of  (^ovemment  into 
their  own  hands.  Liebleln,  whose  views  wo  aro 
now  endeavouring  to  express,  a.ssigns  as  the  date 
of  tho  invasion  of  the  llyksos  3108  years  B.  C. 
...  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  well-known 
journey  of  Abraham  to  Egypt  was  made  during 
the  early  period  of  the  reign  of  tho  Shepherd- 
Kings;  whilst  tho  visit  of  Joseph  occurred  near 
the  close  of  their  power." — E.  Wilson,  The  '.i/ypt 
of  the  Past,  eh.  5. — "  '  Tho  Shejiberds  possessed 
thcmselvcsof  Egypt  by  violence,'  wrliesMarlette- 
Bey,  'but  tho  civilization  which  they  Immedi- 
ately adopted  on  their  conquest  was  rather 
Egyptian  than  Asiatic,  and  tho  discoveries  of 
Avaris  (San)  prove  that  they  did  not  even  banish 
from  their  temples  tho  go<lH  of  tho  oncient  Egyp- 
tian 1  ntlieon.'  In  fact  the  first  shepberd-klng, 
Solatis  himself,  employed  an  Egyptian  artist  to 
inscribe  .  .  .  his  title  on  tho  statue  of  a  former 
legitimate  Pharaoh.  'They  did  not  disturb  tho 
civilization  more  than  tho  Persians  or  tho  Greeks, 
but  "imply  accepted  the  higher  one  they  had 
conquered.'  So  our  rever;d  scholar  Dr.  Birch 
has  summed  up  the  matter;  and  Prof.  Maspero 
bus  very  happily  described  't  thus:  'The  popu- 
lar hatred  loaded  them  with  'gnominious  epithets, 
and  treated  them  as  accursed,  plngue-stricken, 
leprous.  Yet  they  allowed  themselves  very 
quickly  to  be  domesticated.  .  .  .  Once  admitted 
to  tho  school  of  Egypt,  the  barbarians  progressed 
quickly  in  the  civilized  life.  The  Pharaonic 
court  reapijcarcd  around  those  shepherd-kings, 
with  all  its  pomp  and  all  its  following  of  func- 
tionaries great  and  small.  The  royiii  stylo  and 
title  of  Cheoiis  and  tho  Ameneinhas  were  fitted 
to  tho  outlandish  names  of  Jaunes  and  Apapi. 


751 


EGYPT. 


The  New  Empire.  EGYPT,   B.   C.    1700-1400. 


The  Egyptian  religion,  without  being  offlcinlly 
adopted,  was  toluruted,  and  tlic  religion  of  tho 
Canuanites  underwent  gome  nuxiifleat  ion  to  avoid 
liurtiug  beyond  measure  tlie  8unpeptil)il  ty  of  tlio 
worsliipper.s  of  Osiris.'  " — 11.  O.  ToniliinH.  Studies 
on  the  J'iiiii'K  <;/'  Ahnt/iitiii,  ch.  8. —  In  a  late  Italian 
work  ("Oil  liykHds  ")  by  Ut.  C.  A.  de  C'ara,  " liy 
puts  together  all  that  la  nscertained  in  regard  to 
them  [the  Ilykaos],  criticises  the  theories  that 
have  been  jiropounded  on  tlieir  behalf,  and  sug- 
gests a  theory  of  his  own.  Nothing  tliat  has 
been  published  on  the  siibject  seems  to  have  es- 
caped his  notice.  .  .  .  Ills  own  view  is  that  the 
Hyksos  rcprestinted  a  confederacy  of  various 
Asiatic  tribes,  under  the  ieaderslnp  of  the  north- 
ern Syrians.  That  their  ruling  class  came  from 
this  part  of  tlie  world  seems  to  me  clear  from  tho 
name  of  their  supreme  god  Butekh,  who  occupied 
among  them  the  position  of  the  Semitic  Baal." — 
A.  II.  Sayce,  The  Ilykum  (Academy,  Sept.  20, 1890). 
— "  Historical  research  concerning  the  history  of 
the  Hyksos  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: — I.  A 
certain  mimtier  of  non-Egyptian  kings  of  foreign 
origin,"  belonging  to  the  nation  of  the  Menti,  ruled 
for  a  long  time  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Delta. 
II.  These  chose  as  their  capitals  the  cities  of 
Zoan  and  Avaris,  and  provided  them  with  strong 
fortitieations.  III.  They  arloiited  not  only  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Egyptians,  but  also 
their  ofHcial  language  and  writin,;,  and  tlie  order 
of  their  court  was  arranged  on  Egyptian  models. 
IV.  They  were  patrons  of  art,  and  Egyptian 
artists  erected,  after  the  ancient  models,  monu- 
ments in  honour  of  these  usurpers,  in  whoso 
statues  they  were  obliged  to  reproduce  the  Hyk- 
sos physiognomy,  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the 
beard  and  head-dress,  as  well  as  otlier  variations 
of  their  costume.  V.  They  honored  Sutekh, 
the  son  of  Nut,  as  the  supreme  god  of  their  newly 
acquired  coimtry,  with  the  surname  Nub,  "the 
golden.'  He  was  the  origin  of  all  that  is  evil 
and  perverse  in  the  visible  and  invisible  world, 
the  opponent  of  good  and  the  enemy  of  light. 
In  tho  cities  of  Zoan  and  Avaris,  splendid  temples 
were  constructed  in  honour  of  this  god,  and  other 
monuments  raised,  especially  Sphinxes,  carved 
out  of  stone  from  Syene.  VI.  In  all  probability 
one  of  them  was  the  founder  of  a  new  era,  which 
most  likely  began  witli  the  first  year  of  his  reign. 
Down  to  the  time  of  the  second  Ramses,  four 
hundred  years  had  elapsed  of  this  iec!<oning 
whicli  was  acknowledged  even  by  tV.r:  Egyptians. 
VII.  The  Egyptians  were  indebtcii  to  thieir  con- 
tact with  thenj  for  much  useful  knowledge.  In 
particular  their  artistic  vievs  were  expanded  and 
new  forms  .uid  shapes,  notably  that  of  the  winged 
sphinx,  were  introduced,  the  Semitic  origin  of 
which  is  obvious  at  a  glance.  .  .  .  The  inscrip- 
tions on  the  monuments  designate  that  foreign 
people  who  once  ruled  in  Egypt  by  the  name  of 
Men  or  Menti.  On  the  walls  of  the  temple  of 
Kdffl  it  is  stated  that  '  the  inhabitants  of  the  land 
of  Asher  are  called  Menti. "...  In  the  different 
languages,  .  .  .  and  in  the  diflferent  periods  of 
history,  the  following  names  are  synonymous: 
Syria,  Rutennu  of  the  East,  Asher,  and  Menti." — 
' '  Since,  on  the  basis  of  the  most  recent  and  best  in- 
vestigations in  the  province  of  ancient  Egyptian 
chronology,  we  reckon  the  year  1350  B.  C.  as  a 
mean  computation  for  the  reign  of  Ramses,  tlie 
reign  of  the  Hyksos  king.  Nub,  and  probably  its 
beginning,  falls  in  the  year  1750  B.  C. ,  that  is,  400 
years  before  Ramses  11.    Although  we  are  com- 


pletely in  the  dark  as  to  the  place  King  Nul)  oc- 
cupied in  the  succession  of  the  kindred  princes  of 
Ills  house,  yet  the  number  mentioned  is  important, 
as  an  approximate  eijoch  for  the  stay  of  the  foreign 
kings  in  Egj'pt.  According  to  the  statement  hi 
the  Bible,  the  H'  jrews  from  the  immigration  of 
Jacob  into  Egypt  until  the  Exodus  reiraiuL  J  430 
years  in  that  land.  Since  the  Exodus  from  Egypt 
took  place  in  the  time  of  Meneptah  II.,  the  son 
of  Ramses  II. —  the  Pharaoh  ( ,f  the  oppression  — 
the  year  B.  C.  1300  maybe  an  approximate  date. 
If  we  add  to  this  430  years,  as  expressing  tho 
total  duration  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Hebrews  in 
Egypt,  we  arrive  at  the  year  1730  B.  C.  as  tho 
ai)proximate  date  for  the  immigration  of  Jacob 
into  Egypt,  and  for  the  time  of  the  otHcial  career 
of  Joseph  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh.  In  other 
words,  the  time  of  Josepli  (1730  B.  C.)  must  have 
fallen  in  the  pericxl  of  the  Hyksos  domination, 
about  tlie  reign  of  the  above-mentioned  prince 
Nub  (1750  B.  C)."— H.  Brugsch-Bey,  Eijypt  under 
the  Pharaohs  [edition  of  1891,  hy  }f.  Divdrick),  pp. 
106-109,  and  130. — See  Jews:  The  Cuildren  of 
IsiiAEii  IN  Egypt. 

Also  in:  F.  C.  H.  Wendel,  Hist,  of  Eijypt, 
ch.  4. 

About  B.  C.  1700-1400. — The  New  Empire. 
— The  Eighteenth  Dynasty. — "The  dominion 
of  the  Hyksos  by  necessity  gave  rise  to  profound 
internal  divisions,  alike  in  the  different  princely 
families  and  in  the  native  populi"  1  ;on  itself.  Fac- 
tions became  rampant  in  various  districts,  and 
reached  the  highest  point  in  the  hostile  feeling  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Patoris  or  the  South  country 
against  the  people  of  Patomit  or  North  country, 
who  were  much  mixed  with  foreign  blood.  .  .  . 
From  *his  condition  of  divided  power  and  of 
mutual  jealousy  the  foreign  rulers  obtained  their 
advantage  and  their  chief  strength,  until  King 
Aahmes  made  himself  supreme.  — II.  Brugsch- 
Bey,  Egypt  vnder  the  Pharaohs  {edition  of  1891,  by 
M.  Brdiinck). — "The  duration  of  the  reign  of  this 
first  Pharaoh  of  the  New  Empire  was  twenty-five 
years.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Amenhotep 
I.  and  the, latter  by  his  sou  Thothmes  I.  "The 
reign  of  'Thothmes  I.  .  .  .  derives  its  chief  dis- 
tinct'on  from  the  fact  that,  at  this  period  of  their 
history,  tlie  Egyptians  for  the  first  time  carried 
tlieir  arms  deep  into  Asia,  overrunning  Syria, 
and  even  invading  Mesopotamia,  or  the  tract 
between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  Hitherto 
the  furthest  point  reached  in  this  direction  had 
lieen  Sharulien  in  Southern  Palestine.  .  .  .  Syria 
was  hitherto  almost  an  undiscovered  region  to 
tlie  powerful  people  which  nurturing  its  strength 
in  the  Nile  valley,  had  remained  content  with  its 
own  natural  limits  and  scarcely  grasped  at  any 
conquests.  A  time  was  now  come  when  this 
comparative  quietude  and  absence  of  ambition 
were  about  to  cease.  Provoked  by  the  attack 
made  upon  her  from  the  side  of  Asia,  and  smart- 
ing from  the  wounds  inflicted  upon  her  pride 
and  prosperity  by  the  Hyksos  during  the  period 
of  tlieir  rule,  Egypt  now  set  herself  to  retaliate, 
and  for  thr'ie  centuries  continued  at  intervals  to 
potlr  her  armies  into  the  Eastern  concinent,  and 
to  carry  firo  and  sword  over  the  extensive  and 
populous  regions  which  lay  between  tho  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Zagros  mountain  range.  There 
is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  extent  of  her  con- 
quests; but  no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  enter- 
tained that  for  d  space  of  three  hundred  years 
Egypt  was  the  most  powerful  and  the  most 


752 


EGYPT,  13,  C.  1700-1400. 


Tlie  Tell  Aiiiarna 
Tablet: 


EGYIT,  D.  C.   1500-1400. 


aggressive  state  tliat  tlie  world  contained,  and 
held  a  dominion  that  1ms  as  much  right  to  be 
called  un  '  Empire '  us  the  Assyrian,  tlic  Habylo- 
nian  or  the  Persian.  While  Babylonia,  ruled  by 
Arab  conquerors,  declined  in  strength,  ami  As- 
syria proper  wiw  merely  struggling  into  inde- 
pendence, Egypt  put  forth  her  arm  and  grasped 
the  fairest  regions  of  the  earth's  surface."  The 
imn'.ediate  successor  of  Thothmcs  I.  was  his  son, 
Thothmes  II.,  who  reigned  in  association  with  a 
sister  of  masculine  character,  queen  Ilatusu. 
The  strong-minded  queen,  moreover,  jjrolonged 
her  reign  after  the  death  of  this  elder  brother, 
until  a  younger  brother,  Thothmes  III.  displaced 
her.  Tiie  Third  Thothmes  was  the  greatest  of 
Egyptian  conquerors  and  kings.  lie  carried  his 
arms  beyond  the  Euphrates,  winning  a  memo- 
rable victory  at  Megiddo  over  the  confederated 
kings  of  the  Syrian  and  Mesopotamian  countries, 
lie  left  to  his  son  (Amenhotep  II.)  "a  dominion 
extending  about  1,100  miles  from  north  to  .soutli, 
and  (in  places)  450  miles  from  west  to  east."  lie 
was  a  great  builder,  likewise,  and  "has  left  the 
impress  of  his  presence  in  Egypt  more  widely 
than  almost  any  other  of  her  kmgs,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  ha?  supplied  to  the  great  capitals 
of  the  modern  world  their  most  striking  Egyp- 
tian raonaments. "  The  larger  of  the  obelisks  now 
standing  in  Rome  and  Constantinople,  as  well  as 
those  at  London  and  New  York  were  all  of  them 
produced  in  the  reign  of  this  magnilicent  Plia- 
raoh.  The  two  obelisks  last  named  stood  origin- 
ally, and  for  fourteen  centuries  at  the  front  of 
the  great  temple  of  the  sun,  in  Heliopolis.  They 
were  reivioved  b7  the  Roman  Emperor,  Augus- 
tus, B.  C.  5!3,  to  Alexandria,  where  they  took  in 
time  the  nome  of  Cleopatra's  Needles, —  although 
Cleopatra  harl  no  part  iu  their  long  history. 
After  nineteen  centuries  more  f  rest,  these 
strangely  coveted  monuments  were  again  dis- 
turbed, and  transported  into  lands  which  their 
builder  knew  not  of.  The  later  kings  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  seem  to  have,  none  of  them, 

fiossessed  tlie  energy  and  character  of  Thothmes 
II.  The  line  ended  about  1400  B.  C.  with  IIo- 
remheb,  who  left  no  heirs. —  G.  Rawlinson,  Hist, 
of  Ancient  Egypt,  eh.  20. 

Also  in:  H.  Brugsch-Bey,  Eff!/pt  under  the 
Phanwhs,  ch.  18. — U.  II.  Qorringe,  Egyptian 
Obelisks. 

About  B.  C.  isoo«i4oo.— The  Tell  el-Amarna 
Tablets.— Correspondence  of  the  Egyptian 
kings  with  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Armenia,  Asia 
Minor,  Syria  and  Palestine. — "  Tlie  discovery 
made  in  1887  by  a  peasant  woman  of  Middle 
Egypt  may  be  described  as  the  most  important 
of  all  contributions  to  the  early  political  history 
of  Western  Asia.  We  have  become  possessed  of  a 
■correspondence,  dating  from  the  flfteenth  century 
B.  C,  which  was  carried  on  during  the  reigns  of 
three  Egyptian  kings,  with  the  rulers  of  Babvlon, 
Assyria,  Armenia,  Asia  Slinor,  Syria,  and  Pales- 
tine, duriug  a  period  of  great  activity,  when 
revolutions  which  affected  the  whole  history  of 
the  east  shore  lauds  of  the  Mediterranean  were 
in  progress;  and  we  And  in  these  tablets  a  con- 
temporary picture  of  the  civilisation  of  the  age. 
.  .  .  The  Tell  Amarna  tablets  represent  a  litera- 
ture equal  in  bulk  to  about  half  the  Pentateuch, 
and  concerned  almost  exclusively  with  political 
aflfairs.  They  are  clay  tablets,  varying  from  two 
inches  to  a  foot  in  length,  with  a  few  as  large  as 
eighteen  inchjjs,  covered  with  cuneiform  writing 


generjilly  on  both  sides,  and  often  on  the  edges 
as  well.  The  peasantry  unearthed  nearly  the 
complete  collection,  including  some  320  pieces  in 
all;  and  explorers  afterwards  digging  on  the 
site  have  added  only  a  few  additionm  fragments. 
The  greater  number  were  bought  for  the  Berlin 
Mu.seum,  while  eighty-two  were  accjuired  for 
England,  and  the  rest  remain  cither  in  the  Boulak 
JIuseum  at  Cairo,  or,  in  a  few  instances,  in  the 
Imniis  of  private  collectors.  .  .  .  Tell  Amarna 
(apparently  'tlie  mound  of  the  tumuli')  is  an  im- 
portant ruined  .site  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile, 
about  a  hundred  and  lifty  miles  in  a  straight  line 
south  of  Cairo.  Its  Egyptian  name  is  said  to  have 
been  Khu  cn-aten,  'Glory  of  the  Sun-disk.'" — 
The  Tell  Antarnd  Tablets  (Edinburgh  licv.,  July, 
1893).— "  The  collection  of  Cuneiform  Tablets  re- 
cently found  [1887]  at  Tell  el-Amarna  iu  Upper 
Egypt,  consistcil  of  about  three  hundred  and 
twenty  documents,  or  portions  of  documents. 
The  Britisli  Museum  possesses  eighty-two  . 
the  Berlin  Museum  has  one  hundred  and  sixty, 
a  large  number  being  fragments;  the  Gizeh  Mu- 
seum has  sixty ;  and  a  few  are  in  the  hands  of 
private  persons.  ...  In  color  the  Tabiets  vary 
from  a  light  to  a  dark  dust  tint,  and  from  a  llesh- 
color  to  dark  brick-red.  The  nature  of  the  clay 
of  which  they  uio  made  sometimes  indicates  the 
countries  from  which  they  come.  The  size  of 
the  Tablets  in  tlie  British  Jluseum  varies  from 
8 J  inches  x4J  in.  to  2^  in.  \\\\  in. ;  the  longest 
text  contoins  08  lines,  the  shortest  10.  .  .  .  The 
greater  number  are  rectangular,  and  a  few  are 
oval ;  and  they  differ  in  shape  from  any  other 
cuneiform  documents  known  to  us.  .  .  .  The 
writing  .  .  .  resembles  to  a  certain  extent  the 
Neo-Babylonian,  i.  e.,  the  simplification  of  the 
writing  of  the  first  Babylonian  Empire  used  com- 
monly in  Babylonia  and  Assyria  for  about  seven 
centurie.4  B.  C.  It  possesses,  however,  character- 
istics different  from  those  of  any  other  style  of 
cuneiform  writing  of  any  period  now  known  to 
exist ;  and  nearly  every  tablet  contains  forms  of 
characters  which  have  hitherto  been  thought  pe- 
culiar to  the  Ninevite  or  Assyrian  style  of  writing. 
But,  compared  with  tlie  neat,  careful  hand  cm- 
ployed  in  the  official  documents  drawn  up  for  the 
kings  of  Assyria,  it  is  somewhat  coarse  and  care- 
less, and  suggests  tlie  work  of  unskilled  scribes. 
One  and  the  same  hand,  however,  appears  in  tab- 
lets which  come  from  the  same  person  ond  tlic  same 
place.  On  some  of  the  largo  tablets  the  writing  is 
bold  and  free ;  on  some  of  the  small  ones  the  char- 
acters are  confused  and  cramped,  and  are  groups 
of  strokes  rather  than  wedges.  Tlie  spelling 
...  is  often  careless,  and  in  some  instances  syl- 
lables have  been  omitted.  At  present  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  whether  the  irrcgula  ■  spel'''ag  is 
duo  to  the  ignorance  of  the  scribe  or  i,o  aialectic 
peculiarities.  .  .  .  The  Semitic  dialect  in  which 
these  letters  are  written  is  Assyrian,  and  is,  in 
some  important  details,  closely  related  to  the 
Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament.  .  .  .  The  docu- 
ments were  most  probably  written  between  the 
years  B.  C.  1500  to  1450.  .  .  .  They  give  an  in- 
sight into  the  nature  of  the  political  relations 
wliicli  existed  between  the  kings  of  Western  Asia 
and  tlie  kings  of  Egypt,  and  prove  that  an  impor- 
tant trade  existed  between  the  two  countries 
from  very  early  times.  ...  A  large  number  of 
the  present  tablets  are  addressed  to  '  the  Kingof 
Egypt,'  either  Amenophis  III.  or  Amenophis TV. 
Nearly  all  of  them  consist  of  reports  of  disastt.s 


753 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1300-1400. 


The  Tell  Amama 
Tablets. 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1500-1400. 


to  the  Egyptian  power  and  of  successful  intrigues 
against  it,  coupled  by  urgent  entreaties  for  lielp, 
pointing  to  a  condition  ol  distraction  and  wcaii- 
ncss  in  Egypt.  .  .  .  Tlic  most  grapldc  (leitills  of 
tlie  disorganized  condition,  and  of  tlie  lival  fac- 
tions, of  tlio  Egyptian  dependencies  lyir.g  on  tlie 
coastline  of  Phoenicia  and  Northern  i'alestine, 
are  to  be  gathered  from  a  perusal  jf  the  dis- 
patches of  tli(!  governors  of  the  eitie.',  of  Byblos, 
Beyrut  and  Tyre." —  T/ie  Tell  il-Ai  uirna  Tahleta 
in  the  liriti»h  ^fuseum,  iiitrod. — "  fn  the  present 
eXixUi  of  cuneiform  research  I  believe  it  to  be  im- 
possible to  give  a  translation  of  the  Tell  el- 
Aniarna  texts  which  would  entirely  satisfy  the 
expert  or  general  reader.  No  two  scholars  would 
agree  as  to  any  interpretation  which  might  be 
placed  upon  certJiin  rare  grammatical  forms  and 
unknown  words  in  the  Babylonian  text,  and  any 
literal  translation  ii;  a  inoclern  language  would 
not  be  understood  by  the  general  reader  on  ac- 
count of  the  involved  style  and  endless  repetition 
of  phrases  common  to  a  Semitic  idiom  and  dialect. 
About  the  general  meaning  of  the  contents  of  the 
greater  number  of  the  letters  there  can  be  no 
doubt  whatever,  and  it  is  therefore  possible  to 
make  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  each  letter, 
which  should,  as  a  rule,  satisfy  the  general  reader, 
and  at  the  same  time  form  a  guide  to  the  beginner 
in  cuneiform.  Summaries  of  the  contents  of  the 
Tell  el-Amarna  tablets  in  the  British  Museum 
have  been  published  in  'The  Tell  el-Amarna  Tab- 
lets in  the  British  Museum,  with  autotype  fac- 
similes, '  printed  by  orderof  the  Trustees,  London, 
1893,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  transliteration, 
given  in  the  followmg  pages  may  form  a  useful 
supplement  to  that  work.  .  .  .  No.  1.  A  Letter 
from.  Egypt  —  Amenophis  III.  to  Kallimma  (?) 
Sin,  K;ng  of  Karaduniyash,  referring  to  his  pro- 

Sosed  Marriage  with  Sukharti,'the  daurtiter  of 
[allimn.a-Sin,  and  containing  the  draft  i  com- 
mercial vreaty,  and  an  allusion  to  disap- 
Ecarance  ot  certain  chariots  and  horses.  No.  2. 
etters  from  Babylonia — Burraburiynsh,  King 
of  Karaduriyash,  to  Amenophis  IV.,  referring 
to  the  f  riend.ihip  which  hart  existed  between  their 
respective  fathers,  and  the  help  which  had  been 
rendered  to  tho  King  of  Egypt  by  Burraburiyash 
himself;  tho  rixeipt  of  two  manahs  of  gold  is 
acknowledged  i\nd  a  petition  is  made  for  more. 
No.  3.  Burraburiyash,  King  of  Karaduniyash 
to  Amenophis  IV.,  complaining  that  the  Egyp- 
tian messenge.'S  had  vLsited  his  country  thrice 
without  bringi.ag  gifts,  and  that  they  withheld 
some  of  the  gold  which  had  been  sent  to  him 
from  Egypt ;  Burraburiyash  announces  the  des- 
patch of  a  gift  of  lapis-lazuli  for  the  Egyp- 
tian princess  who  was  his  son's  wife.  .  .  .  No.  80. 
Letter  from  Abl-milki,  governor  of  Tyre,  to  the 
King  of  Egypt,  reporting  that  he  believes  Zim- 
rida  will  not  be  able  to  stir  up  disaffection  in  the 
city  of  Sidon,  although  .'le  has  caused  much  hos- 
tility against  Tyre.  Ho  asks  for  help  to  protect 
th3  city,  and  for  water  to  drink  and  wood  to  burn, 
and  he  sends  with  his  messenger  Ili-milki  five 
talents  of  copper  and  other  gifts  for  the  King  of 
Egypt.  He  reports  that  til's  King  of  D.inuna  is 
dead  and  that  his  brother  reigns  in  his  stead;  one 
half  of  the  city  of  Ugarit  has  been  destroyed  by 
Are;  the  soldiers  of  the  Khaf.ti  have  departed; 
Itagamapairi,  governor  of  Ked>38h,  and  Aziiu  are 
fighting  against  Namyawiza.  If  the  King  of 
Egypt  will  but  send  a  few  troops,  a!l  will  be 
well  with  Tyre,  ,  .  .  No.  48.  Letter  from  the  gov- 


ernor of  a  town  in  Syria  to  tlio  King  of  Egypt, 
reporting  that  the  rebels  ha\i'  asserted  their  In- 
dependence; that  Biridashwi  has  stirred  up  re- 
bellion in  the  city  of  Inu-Amma;  that  its  people 
have  captured  chariots  in  the  city  of  Aslitnrti: 
that  the  kings  of  the  cities  of  Buzruna  and  Kha- 
lunni  have  made  a  league  with  Biridashwi  to 
slay  Namyawiza  (who,  having  taken  refuge  in 
Damascus  and  being  attacked  by  Arzawiya,  de- 
clared himself  to  bo  a  vas.sal  of  Egypt);  that 
Arzawiya  went  to  the  city  of  Gizza  and  after- 
wards captured  the  city  of  Shaddu ;  that  Itak- 
kama  ravaged  the  country  of  Gizza;  and  that 
Arzawiya  and  Biridashwi  have  wasted  the  coun- 
try of  Abitu.  No.  44.  Continuation  (?)  of  a  letter 
to  the  King  of  Egypt,  reporting  that,  owing  to 
the  hostilities  of  Abd-Ashirta,  Klutya,  an  official, 
was  unable  to  send  ships  to  tlie  cojntry  of 
Amurri,  as  he  had  promised.  The  ships  from 
Arvad  which  the  writer  has  in  his  charge,  lack 
their  full  complement  of  men  for  war  service, 
and  he  urges  the  king  to  make  use  of  tlie  ships 
and  crews  which  he  has  had  with  him  in  Egypt. 
The  writer  of  the  letter  also  urges  the  King  of 
Egypt  to  appoint  an  Egyptian  ollicial  over  the 
naval  affairs  of  Sidon,  Beyrut  and  Arvad,  and  to 
seize  Abd-Ashirta  and  put  him  under  restraint 
to  prevent  him  obstructing  the  manning  of  tlie 
ships  of  war.  .  .  .  No.  58.  Letter  from  the  gov- 
ernor of  a  district  in  Palestine  (?)  to  the  governors 
of  neighbouring  states  in  tlie  land  of  Canaan,  in- 
forming them  that  he  is  about  to  send  his  mes- 
senger Akiya  on  a  mission  to  the  King  of  Egypt, 
and  to  place  himself  and  every  tiling  that  he  has 
at  his  disposal.  Akiya  will  go  to  Egypt  by  the 
way  of  Canaan,  and  the  writer  of  this  letter  sug- 
gests that  any  gifts  they  may  have  to  send  to 
Egypt  should  be  carried  by  him,  for  Akiya  is  a 
thoroughly  trustworthy  man." — C.  Bezold,  Ori- 
ental diplomacy  :  Being  che  tramliterated  text  of 
the  Cuneiform  Despatches,  preface. —  Under  the 
title  of  "The  Story  of  a  'Tell,'"  Mr.  W.  M> 
Flinders  Petrie,  the  successful  excavator  and  ex- 
plorer of  Egyptian  antiquities,  gave  a  le'  ',ure  in 
London,  in  June,  1893,  in  which  he  described 
the  work  and  the  results  of  an  excavation  then 
in  progress  under  his  direction  on  the  supposed 
site  of  Lachish,  at  a  point  where  the  maritime 
plain  of  Philistia  rises  to  the  mountains  of  Juda;a, 
on  the  route  from  Egypt  into  Asia.  The 
chairman  who  introduced  Mr.  Petrie  defined  the 
word  ' '  Tell "  as  follows :  "A  Tell  is  a  mound 
of  earth  showiig  by  the  presence  of  broken  pot- 
tery or  worked  stone  that  it  is  the  site  of  a 
ruined  city  or  village.  In  England  when  a  house 
falls  down  or  is  pulled  down  the  materials  are 
usually  worth  the  expense  of  removing  for  use 
in  some  new  building.  But  in  Egypt  common 
liouses  have  for  thousands  of  years  been  built  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  in  Palestine  of  rough  rubble 
walling,  which,  on  falling,  produces  many  chips, 
with  thick  flat  roofs  of  plaster.  It  is  thus  often 
less  trouble  to  get  new  than  to  use  old  material ; 
the  sites  of  towns  grow  in  height,  and  depres- 
sions are  filled  up."  The  mound  excavated  by 
Air.  Petrie  is  known  as  Tell  el  Ilcsy.  After  he 
left  the  work  it  was  carried  on  by  Mr.  Bliss,  and 
Mr.  Petrie  in  his  lecture  says-  "The  last  news  is 
that  Mr.  Bliss  has  found  the  long  looked  for 
prize,  a  cuneiform  tablet.  .  .  .  From  the  charac- 
ter of  the  writing,  which  is  the  same  as  on  the 
tablets  written  in  Palestine  in  1400  B.  C,  to  the 
Egyptian  king  at  Tel  el  Amarna,  we  have  a  close 


754 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1520-1400. 


Pharaohs  who 

oppressed  Israel. 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  1800-670. 


agreement  regarding  the  chronology  of  tlic  town. 
Further,  it  mcntiona  Zimridu  us  ii  governor,  and 
this  same  man  appears  as  g^wrnor  of  Lacliisli 
on  tlie  tablets  found  at  Tel  el  Amarnn.  Wo 
have  thus  at  last  picked  up  the  other  end  of  the 
broken  chain  of  correspondence  between  Pales- 
tine and  Egypt,  of  which  one  part  was  so  unex- 
pectedly found  in  Egypt  a  few  years  ago  on  the 
tablets  at  Tel  el  Amnrna ;  and  we  may  hope  now 
to  recover  the  Palestinian  part  of  this  intercourse 
and  so  establish  the  pre-Israelite  history  of  the 
land."— W.  M.  F.  Petrie,  The  Story  of  a  •'  Tell" 
(The  City  and  the  Land,  lect.  6). —  See,  also, 
Palestine. 

Also  in:  C.  R.  Conder,  The  Tell  Amama 
Tablets,  translated. 

About  B.  C.  1400-1200.— The  first  of  the 
Ramesides. — The  Pharaohs  of  the  Oppres- 
sion and  the  Exodus. — "  Under  the  Nineteenth 
Dynasty,  which  ncquircd  the  throne  after  the 
death  of  Har-em-IIebi  [or  Ilor-cm-hcb]  the  for- 
tune of  Egypt  maintained  to  some  extent  its 
ascendancy;  but,  though  the  reigns  of  some  war- 
lilvo  lungs  throw  a  briglit  light  on  this  epoch,  the 
shade  of  approaching  trouble  already  darkens 
the  horizon."  Hamses  I.  and  his  son,  or  son-in- 
law,  Seti  I. ,  were  involved  in  troublesome  wars 
with  the  rising  power  of  the  Hittites,  in  Syria, 
and  witli  the  Sliasu  of  the  Arabian  desert.  Seti 
was  also  at  war  with  the  Libyans,  who  then 
made  their  first  appearance  in  Egyptian  liistory. 
His  son  liamses  II.,  the  Sosostris  of  the  Greeks, 
who  reigned  for  sixty-scVen  years,  in  the  fotu'- 
teenth  century  B.  C,  has  always  been  the  most 
famous  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  and,  by  modern 
discovery,  has  been  made  the  moat  interesting  of 
them  to  the  Christian  world.  He  was  a  busy 
and  boastful  warrior,  who  accomplished  no  im- 
portant conquests;  but  "among  the  Pharaohs 
he  is  the  builder  '  par  excellence. '  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  find  in  Egypt  a  ruin  or  an  ancient 
mound,  without  reading  his  name.".  .  .  It  was 
to  these  works,  probably,  that  the  Israelites 
then  in  Egypt  were  forced  to  contribute  their 
labor;  for  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression  is 
Identified,  by  most  scholars  of  the  present  day, 
with  tins  building  and  boasting  Sesostris. —  F. 
Lenormant  and  E.  Chevallier,  Mamial  of  the 
Ancient  Hist,  of  tlie  East,  bk.  3,  ch.  3.— "The 
extreme  length  of  the  reign  of  Ramses  was,  as 
in  other  histories,  the  cause  of  subsequent  weak- 
ness and  disaster.  His  successor  was  an  aged 
son,  Jlenptah,  who  had  to  meet  the  diflliculties 
which  were  easily  overcome  by  the  youth  of 
his  energetic  father.  Tlie  Libyans  and  their 
maritime  allies  broke  the  long  tranquillity  of 
Egypt  by  a  fomiidable  invasion  aL  d  temporary 
conquest  of  the  north-west.  Tlie  power  of  the 
monarchy  was  thus  shaken,  and  the  old  king 
was  not  tlie  leader  to  restore  it.  His  obscure 
reign  was  followed  by  others  even  obscurer,  and 
the  Nineteentli  Dynasty  ended  in  complete  an- 
archy, which  reached  its  height  when  a  Syrian 
chief,  in  what  manner  we  know  not,  gained  the 
rule  of  the  whole  country.  It  is  to  the  reign  of 
Menptah  that  Egyptian  tradition  assigned  the 
Exodus,  and  modern  research  has  come  to  a 
general  agreement  that  this  is  its  true  place  iu 
Egyptian  history.  .  .  .  Unfortunately  we  do  not 
know  th ;  duration  of  the  oppression  of  the  Israel- 
ites, nor  the  condition  of  Lower  Egypt  during 
the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  which,  according  to 
the  hypothesis  here  adopted,  corresponds  to  a 


great  part  of  the  Hebrew  sojourn.  It  is,  bow- 
ever,  clear  from  the  Bible  that  the  oppression 
did  not  begin  till  after  the  period  of  Joseph's 
contemporaries,  an<l  had  loatcd  eighty  years  be- 
fore tlie  Exodus.  It  seems  almost  certain  that 
this  was  the  actual  beginning  of  the  oppresaion, 
for  it  is  very  improbable  that  two  se|)arato 
Pharaohs  arc  inteniied  by  the  '  new  king  which 
knew  not  Joseph '  and  the  builder  of  Uanieses, 
or,  in  other  words,  Ramses  II.,  and  the  time 
from  the  acceaaion  of  Rumaes  II.  to  the  end  of 
Menptah's  reign  can  have  little  exceeded  the 
eighty  years  of  Scripture  between  the  birth  of 
Mosea  and  the  Exodua.  ...  If  the  adjuatment 
of  Hebrew  ond  Egyptian  history  for  the  oppres- 
sion, as  stated  above,  be  acccpteti,  Ramses  II. 
was  probably  the  first,  and  certainly  tlie  great 
oppressor.  His  character  suits  this  theory ;  he 
was  an  undoubted  autocrat  who  .  .  .  covered 
Egypt  and  Lower  Nubia  with  vast  structures  that 
could  only  have  been  produced  by  slave-labor  on 
the  largest  scale." — R.  S.  Poole,  Ancient  Egypt 
(Contcmih  lien..  Mar.,  1879). 

Also  in:  H.  Brugsch-Bcy,  Egypt  Under  the 
Pharaohs,  ch.  14. —H.  G.  Tomkins,  Life  and 
I'imcs  of  Joseph. — See,  also:  Jews:  The  Chil- 
dren OK  ISUAEL  in  EoYPT. 

About  B.  C.  1300.— Exodus  of  the  Israelites. 

See  Jews:  The  Route  ok  the  Exoduh. 

About  B.  C.  1200-670.— The  decline  of  the 
empire  of  the  Pharaohs. —  From  the  aii:\rchy  in 
winch  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty  came  to  its  end, 
order  woa  presently  restored  by  the  seating  in 
power  of  a  new  family,  which  claimed  to  be  of 
the  Rameside  stock.  The  second  of  its  kings, 
who  called  himaelf  Ranisea  III.  and  who  is 
believed  to  be  tlie  Rhampainitus  of  the  Greeks, 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
monarclis  of  his  line.  The  security  and  prosper- 
ity of  Egypt  were  recovereci  under  liia  reign  and 
he  left  it  in  a  state  which  does  not  acem  to  have 
promised  tlie  rapid  decay  which  ensued.  "  It  Is 
ditlicult  to  underetand  and  account  for  the 
suddenness  and  completeness  of  the  collapse. 
.  .  .  The  hieratic  chiefs,  the  high  priests  of  the 
god  Amnion  at  Thebes,  gradually  increased  in 
power,  usurped  one  after  another  the  preroga- 
tives of  the  Pharaohs,  by  degrees  reduced  their 
authority  to  a  shadow,  and  ended  with  an  open 
assumption  not  only  of  the  functions,  but  of  the 
very  insignia  of  royalty.  A  space  of  nearly  two 
centuries  elapsed,  however,  before  this  change 
was  complete.  Ten  princes  of  the  name  of 
Ramses,  and  one  called  Meri-Tum,  all  of  them 
connected  by  blood  with  the  great  Rameside 
house,  bore  the  royal  title  and  occupied  the 
royal  palace,  in  the  apace  between  B.  C.  1280 
and  B.  C.  1100.  Egyptian  history  during  this 
period  is  almost  wholly  a  blank.  No  military 
expeditions  are  conducted  —  no  great  buildings 
are  reared  —  art  almost  disappears  —  literature 
holds  her  tongue. "  Then  came  the  dynasty  of 
the  priest-kings,  founded  by  Her-IIor.  which 
lield  the  throne  for  more  tlian  a  century  and  was 
contemporary  in  its  latter  years  witli  David  and 
Solomon.  The  Twenty-Second  Dynasty  which 
succeeded  had  its  capital  at  Bubastis  and  is  con- 
cluded by  Dr.  Brugscli  to  have  been  a  line  of 
Assyrian  kings,  representing  an  invasion  and 
conquest  of  Egyjit  by  NImrod,  the  great  king  of 
A;syria.  Other  Egyptologists  disagree  with  Dr. 
Brugscli  in  this,  and  Prof.  Rawlinson,  the  his- 
torian of  Assyria,  flnd^  ob'ections  to  the  hypothe- 


755 


EGYPT,  B.  C.   12^-670.       Oreefc.  at  NaucratU.        EGYPT,  B.  C.  670-525. 


sis  from  his  own  point  of  view.  Tbe  prominent 
nionarc'li  of  tliis  dynasty  was  tlie  Slicslionk  of 
Biblical  history,  who  she'.tered  Jeroboam,  in- 
vaded Palestine  and  plundered  Jerusiiiem. 
Before  this  dynasty  came  to  an  end  it  had  lost 
the  sovereignty  of  Elgypt  at  large,  and  its  Pha- 
raohs contended  with  various  rivals  and  invaders. 
Among  the  hitter,  power  grew  in  the  hands  of  a 
nice  of  Ethiopians,  wlio  hud  risen  to  importiince 
at  Napata,  on  the  Upper  Nile,  and  wlio  extended 
their  power,  at  last,  over  the  whole  of  Egypt. 
The  Ethiopian  domination  was  maintainecf  for 
two-thirds  of  a  century,  until  the  great  wave  of 
Assyrian  conquest  broke  upon  Egypt  in  673 
B.  C.  and  swept  over  it,  driving  tlie  Ethiopians 
back  to  Napata  and  JleroG. — G.  Kawlinson,  Hist, 
of  Ancient  Kgi/pt,  eh.  25. 

Ai-BO  IN:  il.  Brugsch-Bey,  Effffpt  under  the 
Pharaohs,  ch.  15-18.— E.  Wilson,  Egypt  of  the 
Past,  ch.  8. — See,  also,  Ethioi-ia. 

B.  C.  670-525. — Assyrian  conquest  and  re- 
stored independence. — The  Twenty-sixth  Dy- 
nasty.— The  Greeks  at  Naucratis.  —  Although 
Syria  and  Palestine  had  then  been  sulTering  for 
more  than  a  century  from  the  conquering  arms 
of  the  Assyrians,  it  was  not  until  670  B.  C,  ac- 
cording to  Prof.  Rawlinson,  that  Esarhaddou 
passed  the  boundaries  of  Egypt  and  made  him- 
self master  of  that  country.  His  father  Senna- 
cherib, had  attempted  tlie  invasion  thirty  years 
before,  at  the  time  of  his  siege  of  Jerusalem,  and 
had  recoiled  before  some  mysterious  calamity 
■which  impelled  him  to  a  sudden  retreat.  The 
son  avenged  his  father's  failure.  The  Ethiopian 
masters  of  Egypt  were  expelled  ond  the  Assyrian 
took  their  place.  He  "  broke  up  the  country  into 
twenty  governments,  appointing  in  each  town  a 
ruler  who  bore  the  title  of  king,  but  placing  all 
the  others  to  a  certain  extent  under  the  authority 
of  the  prince  who  reigned  at  Memphis.  This 
•was  Neco,  the  father  of  Psammetichus  (Psama- 
tik  I.)  —  a  native  Egyptian  of  whom  we  have 
some  mention  both  in  Herodotus  and  in  the  frag- 
ments of  Manetho.  The  remaining  rulers  were 
likewise,  for  the  most  part,  native  Egyptians." 
These  arrangements  were  soon  broken  up  by  the 
expelled  Ethiopian  king,  Tirhakah,  who  rallied 
his  forces  and  swept  the  Assyrian  kinglets  out  of 
the  country ;  but  Asshur-bani-pal,  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Esarhaddon,  made  his  appearance  with 
an  army  in  668  or  667  B.  C.  and  Tirhakah  fled 
before  him.  Again  and  again  this  occurred,  and 
for  twenty  years  Egypt  was  torn  between  t)ie 
Assyrians  and  the  Ethiopians,  in  their  struggle 
for  the  possession  of  her.  At  length,  out  of  the 
chaos  produced  by  these  conflicts  tliere  emerged 
a  native  ruler  —  the  Psammetichus  mentioned 
above — who  subjugated  his  fellow  princes  and 
established  a  new  Egyptian  monarchy,  which 
defended  itself  with  success  against  Assyria  and 
Ethiopia,  alike.  The  Twenty-Sixth  Dynasty,  of 
Sais,  founded  by  Psammetichus,  is  suspected  to 
have  been  of  Libyan  descent.  It  ruled  Egypt 
until  tlie  Persian  conquest,  and  brought  a  greot 
new  influence  to  bear  on  the  country  and  people, 
by  the  introduction  of  Greek  soldiers  and  traders. 
It  was  under  this  dynasty  that  the  Greek  city  of 
Naucratis  was  founded,  on  the  Canobic  brancli  of 
the  Nile.  —  G.  Rawlinson,  The  Five  Oreat  Mon- 
archies; Assyria,  ch.  9. — The  site  of  Naucratis, 
near  the  Canobic  branch  of  the  Nile,  was  de- 
termined by  excavations  which  Mr.  W.  M. 
Flinders  Petrie  began  m  1884,  and  from  which 


much  has  been  learned  of  the  history  of  the  city 
ond  of  early  relations  between  the  Egyptians  and 
tlie  Greeks.  It  is  concluded  that  the  settlement 
of  Naucratis  dates  from  about  660  B.  (;.— 
not  long  after  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Psanimitichus  —  and  that  its  Greek  founders  be- 
came the  allies  of  that  monarch  and  his  succes- 
sors against  tlieir  enemies.  "All  are  agreed  that 
before  the  reign  of  Psani'.iiitichusand  the  found- 
ing of  Naucratis,  Egypt  was  a  sealed  book  to 
the  Greeks.  It  is  likely  that  the  Phoenicians, 
who  were  from  time  to  time  the  subjects  of  the 
Pharaohs,  were  admitted,  where  all  is  like  the 
Greeks  were  excluded.  We  have  indi  jd  positive 
evidence  that  the  Egyptians  did  not  wish  strange 
countries  to  learn  their  art,  for  in  a  treaty  be- 
tween them  and  the  Hittites  it  is  stipulated  that 
neitlier  country  shall  harbour  fugitive  artists 
from  the  otlior.  But  however  the  fact  may  be 
accounted  for,  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  long 
before  Psammitichus  threw  Egypt  open  to  the 
foreigner,  the  Phoenicians  had  studied  in  tlio 
school  of  Egyptian  art,  and  learned  to  copy  all 
sorts  of  handiwork  procured  from  the  valley  of 
the  Nile.  .  .  .  According  to  Herodotus  and  Dio- 
dorus,  the  favour  shown  to  tlie  Greeks  by  the 
King  was  the  cause  of  a  great  revolt  of  the  native 
Egyptian  troops,  who  left  the  frontier-fortresses, 
and  marched  south  beyond  Elephantine,  where 
they  settled,  resisting  all  the  entreaties  of  Psam- 
mitichus, who  naturally  deplored  the  loss  of  the 
mainstay  of  his  dominions,  and  developed  into 
the  race  of  the  Sebridae.  Wiedemann,  however, 
rejects  the  whole  story  as  unhistorical,  and  cer- 
tainly, if  we  clo.sely  consider  it,  it  contains  great 
inherent  improbabilities.  .  .  .  Psammitichus  died 
in  B.  C.  610,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Necho,  who  was  his  equal  in  enterprise  and 
vigour.  This  King  paid  great  attention  to  the 
fleet  of  Egypt,  and  Greek  shipwrights  were 
set  to  work  on  both  the  Mediterranean  and  Red 
Seas  to  build  triremes  for  the  State  navy.  A 
fleet  of  his  ships,  we  are  told,  succeeded  in  sail- 
ing round  Africa,  a  very  great  feat  for  the  age. 
The  King  even  attempted  the  task,  of  which  the 
completion  was  reserved  for  the  Persian  Darius, 
the  Ptolemie-s,  and  Trajan,  of  making  a  canal 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Red  Sea.  Herod- 
otus says  that,  after  sacrificing  the  lives  of 
120,000  men  to  the  labour  and  heat  of  the  task, 
he  gave  it  up,  in  consequence  of  the  warning  of 
an  oracle  that  he  was  toiling  only  for  the  barbu 
rians.  .  .  .  Nccho,  like  his  father,  must  needs 
try  the  edge  of  his  new  weapon,  the  Ionian  mer- 
cenaries, on  Asia.  At  first  he  was  successful. 
Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  came  out  against  him, 
but  was  slain,  and  his  army  dispersed.  Greek 
valour  carried  Necho  as  far  as  the  Euphrates. 
.  .  .  But  Nebuchadnezzar,  son  of  the  King  of 
Babylon,  marched  against  the  invaders,  and  de- 
feated them  in  a  great  battle  near  Carchemish. 
His  father's  death  recalled  him  to  Babylon,  and 
Egypt  was  for  the  moment  saved  from  counter- 
invasion  by  the  stubborn  resistance  offered  to  the 
Babylonian  arms  by  Jehoiakim,  K'  of  Judah, 
a  resistance  fatal  to  the  Jewish  i  ir  Jerusa- 

lem was  captured  after  a  long  s  d  most  of 

the  inhabitants  carried  into  capti  Of  Psam- 

mitichus II.,  who  succeeded  Net,  ue  should 
know  but  little  were  it  not  for  the  archaeological 
record.  Herodotus  only  says  that  he  attacked 
Ethiopia,  and  died  after  a  reign  of  six  years. 
But  of  the  expedition  thus  summarily  recorded 


766 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  670-585.  F*rtlan  Conquett.  EGYPT,  B.   C.  825-332. 


wc  Imvo  a  lasting  and  memorable  result  in  the 
well-known  iuscriptlons  written  by  Hhodinns 
and  other  Greek  mercenaries  on  the  legs  of  the 
colossi  at  Abu  Simbel  in  Nubia,  which  record 
how  certain  of  them  came  thither  in  the  reign  of 
Psammiticlms,  pushing  up  the  river  in  boats  as 
far  as  it  was  navigable,  that  is,  perhaps,  up  to  the 
second  cataract.  .  .  .  Apries,  the  Ilophra  of  the 
Bible,  was  the  next  king.  The  early  part  of  his 
reign  was  marked  by  successful  warfare  against 
the  Phoenicians  and  the  peoples  of  Syria;  but, 
like  his  predecessor,  ho  was  unable  to  maintain 
a  footing  in  Asia  in  the  face  of  the  powerful  and 
warlike  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  hostility  which 
prevailed  between  Egypt  and  Babylon  at  tliis 
time  caused  King  Apries  to  open  a  refuge  for 
those  Jews  who  fled  from  the  persecution  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  He  assigned  to  their  leaders, 
among  whom  were  the  daughters  of  the  King 
of  Judali,  a  palace  of  his  own  at  Daphnae, 
'Pharaoh's  house  at  Tahpanhcs,' as  it  is  called 
by  Jeremiah.  That  prophet  was  among  tlie 
fugitives,  and  uttered  in  the  palace  a  notable 
prophecy  (.\liii.  0)  tliat  King  Nebuchadnezzar 
should  come  and  spread  his  conquering  tent  over 
the  pavement  before  it.  Formerly  it  was  sup- 
posed that  this  prophecy  remained  unfulfilled, 
but  this  opinion  has  to  bo  abandoned.  Recently- 
discovered  Egyptian  and  Babylonian  inscriptions 
prove  that  Nebuchadnezzar  conquereil  Egypt  as 
far  as  Syene.  .  .  .  The  fall  of  Apries  was 
brought  about  by  his  ingratitude  to  tlie  Greeks, 
and  his  contempt  for  the  lives  of  his  own  sub- 
jects. He  had  formed  the  project  of  bringing 
under  his  sway  the  Greek  cities  of  the  Cyrenaica. 
.  .  .  Apries  cfespatched  against  Cyrene  a  large 
force ;  but  the  Cyreneans  bravely  defended  them- 
selves, and  as  the  Egyptians  on  this  occasion 
marched  without  their  Greek  allies,  they  were 
entirely  defeated,  and  most  of  them  perislied  by 
the  sword,  or  in  the  deserts  which  separate  Cy- 
rene from  Egypt.  The  defeated  troops,  and 
their  countrymen  who  remained  behind  in  gar- 
rison in  Egypt,  imputed  the  disaster  to  treachery 
on  the  part  of  Apries.  .  .  .  They  revolted,  and 
chose  as  their  leader  Amasis,  a  man  of  experience 
and  daring.  But  Apries,  though  deserted  by  his 
subjects,  hoped  still  to  maintain  his  throne  by 
Greek  aid.  At  the  head  of  30,000  lonians  and 
Carians  he  marched  against  Amasis.  At  Mo- 
memphis  a  battle  took  place  between  the  rival 
kings  and  between  the  rival  nations;  but  the 
numbers  of  the  Egyptians  prevailed  over  the 
arms  and  discipline  of  the  mercenaries,  and 
Apries  was  defeated  and  captured  by  his  rival, 
who,  however,  allowed  1dm  for  some  years  to 
retain  the  name  of  joint-king.  It  is  tlie  best 
possible  proof  of  the  solidity  of  Greek  influence 
in  Egypt  at  this  time  that  Amasis,  tliough  set  on 
the  throne  by  the  native  army  after  a  victory 
over  the  Greek  mercenaries,  yet  did  not  expel 
these  latter  from  Egypt,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
raised  them  to  higher  favour  than  before.  .  .  . 
In  the  delightful  dawn  of  connected  European 
history  we  see  Amasis  uS  a  wise  and  wealtliy 
prince,  ruling  in  Egypt  at  the  time  when  Poly- 
crates  was  tyrant  of  Bamos ;  and  when  Croesus 
of  Lydia,  the  richest  king  of  his  time,  was  be- 
ginning to  be  alarmed  by  the  rapid  expansion  of 
the  Persian  power  under  Cyrus.  ...  In  the 
days  of  Psammitichus  III. ,  the  son  of  Amasis, 
the  storm  which  had  overshadowed  Asia  broke 
upon  Egypt.     One  of  the  leaders  of  the  Greek 


mercenaries  in  Egypt  named  Phancs.  a  native  of 
Halieamassus,  maile  Ids  way  to  Uie  Persian 
Court,  and  persuaded  Cambysi'S,  who,  according 
to  the  story,  had  received  from  Ainnsis  one  of 
those  affronts  which  have  so  often  produced  wars 
between  despots,  to  invade  Egypt  in  full  force. " — 
P.  Gardner,  A'cu)  C/uipttrn  in  Greek  Ilintorij,  ch.  7. 

Also  in:  W.  M.  P.  Petrie,  I^'aukmtig. — See, 
also,  Naukuatis. 

B.  C.  Sa«-332. — Persian  conquest  and  sov- 
ereignty.—Tlie  kings  of  the  Twenty-Si.xtli  or 
Saite  Dynasty  maintained  tlie  independence  of 
Egypt  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half,  and  even 
revived  its  military  glories  briefly,  by  Necho'a 
eplienieral  conquests  m  Syria  and  his  overthrow 
of  Josiah  king  of  Judah.  In  the  meantime,  As- 
syria and  IJabyffinia  had  fallen  and  tlie  Persian 
power  raised  up  by  Cyrus  had  taken  their  place. 
In  his  own  time,  Cyrus  did  not  finish  a  plan  of 
conqiiest  which  included  Egypt ;  his  son  Cam- 
byses  took  up  the  task.  "It  appears  that  four 
years  were  consumed  by  the  Persian  monarch  in 
his  preparations  for  his  Egyptian  expedition.  It 
was  not  until  B.  C.  525  that  he  entered  Egypt  at 
the  head  of  his  troops  and  fought  the  great  "battle 
which  decided  the  fate  of  the  country.  The 
struggle  was  long  and  bloody  [see  PunsiA :  B.  C. 
549-521].  Psammenitus,  who  had  succeeded  his 
father  Amasis,  had  tlie  services,  not  only  of  his 
Egyptian  subjects,  but  of  a  large  body  of  mer- 
cenaries besides,  Greeks  aud  Carians.  ...  In 
spite  of  tlieir  courage  and  fanaticism,  the  Egyp- 
tian army  was  completely  defeated.  .  .  .  The 
conquest  of  Egypt  was  followed  bv  the  submis- 
sion of  the  neighbouring  tribes.  .  .  .  Even  the 
Greeks  of  the  more  remote  Barca  and  Cyrene 
sent  gifts  to  the  conqueror  and  consented  to  be- 
come his  tributaries."  But  Cambyses  wasted 
50,000  men  in  a  disastrous  expedition  through 
the  Libyan  desert  to  Ammou,  aud  he  retreated 
from  Ethiopia  with  loss  and  shame.  An  at- 
tempted rising  of  the  Egyptians,  before  he  had 
quitted  their  country,  was  cruslied  with  merci- 
less severity.  The  deities,  the  temples  and  the 
priests  of  Egypt  were  treated  with  insult  and 
contempt  and  the  spirit  of  the  people  seems  to 
have  been  entirely  broken.  "Egypt  became 
now  for  a  full  generation  the  obsequious  slave  of 
Persia,  and  gave  no  more  trouble  to  her  subju- 
gator than  the  weakest,  or  the  most  contented, 
of  the  provinces." — Geo.  Rawlinsou,  The  Five 
Oreat Monarchies :  Persia,  eh.  7. — "The  Persian 
kings,  from  Cambyses  to  Darius  II.  Notlius,  are 
enrolled  as  the  Twenty-Seventh  Dynasty  of  Man- 
etlio.  The  ensuing  revolts  [see  Athens:  B.  C. 
460-449]  are  recogtized  in  the  Twenty-Eighth 
(Saite)  Dynasty,  consisting  only  of  Amyrtoius, 
who  restored  the  independence  of  Egypt  (B.  C. 
414-408),  and  the  Twenty-Ninth  (Menae8ian)and 
Thirtieth  (Sebeniiyte)  Dynasties  (about  B.  C.  408- 
353),  of  whose  intricate  history  we  need  only 
here  say  that  they  ruled  with  great  prosperity 
and  have  left  beautiful  monuments  of  art.  The 
last  king  of  independent  Egypt  was  Nectanebo 
II.,  who  succumbed  to  the  invasion  of  Artaxer- 
xes  Ochus,  and  fled  to  Ethiopia  (B.  C.  353). 
Tlie  last  three  kings  of  Persia,  Ochus,  Arses, 
and  Darius  Codomannus,  form  the  Thirty-Fii'sl: 
Dynasty  of  JIanetho,  ending  with  the  submis- 
sion of  Egypt  to  Alexander  the  Great  (B.  C. 
332)."— P.  Smith,  Ancient  Hist,  of  tlie  East  (Stu- 
dents'), ch.  8. 

Also  in  :  8.  Sharpe,  Hist,  of  Egypt,  ch.  5. 


757 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  888. 


Kingdom  of  the 
liolemie: 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  323-80. 


B.  C.  333.— Alexander's  conquest. — "In  tho 

Biiiniiicr  of  8!t2  [uftcr  tliR  Hic^c  iind  dcRtruction 
of  Tyrt"  —  Hcc  Tyuk:  H.  C'.  333,  and  Macedonia, 
&c. :  B.  C.  3!)4-3iJO]  Alexander  set  forward  on 
his  ninrch  toward  Kjfyjtt,  accompanied  by  tlio 
fleet,  widcli  lie  liad  placed  under  tlio  orders  of 
Ileplia'Htion."  But,  lieiiig  detained  on  tlie  way 
geveral  niontlis  l)y  tlic  siege  of  Qaza,  it  was  not 
liefore  l)eccMil)er  tliat  lie  entered  Egypt.  "He 
might  Biifely  reckon  not  merely  on  an  easy  con- 
quest, but  on  an  ardent  reception,  from  a  people 
who  l)urnt  to  shake  off  the  Persian  tyranny. 
.  .  .  Mazacea  [the  Persian  commander]  inmself, 
as  soon  as  he  lieanl  of  the  battle  of  Issus,  became 
aware  that  all  resistance  to  Ale.xander  would  bo 
useless,  and  met  lijin  with  1.  voluntary  submis- 
sion. At  Pelusium  he  found  the  fleet,  and,  hav- 
ing left  a  garrison  in  the  fortress,  ordered  it  to 
proceed  up  the  Nile  as  far  as  JMemphis,  while  he 
marched  across  the  desert.  Here  he  conciliated 
tlie  Egyptians  by  the  honours  which  ho  paid 
to  all  their  gods,  especially  to  Apis,  who  had 
been  so  cruelly  insulted  by  the  Persian  invaders. 
...  Ho  then  embarked,  and'dropt  down  tlie 
western  or  Canobic  arm  of  the  river  to  Cano- 
bus,  to  survey  the  extremity  of  the  Delta  on 
tliat  side,  nnd  having  sailed  round  tho  lake 
Mareotis,  landed  on  the  narrow  belt  of  low  ground 
which  parts  it  from  the  sea,  and  is  sheltered 
from  tho  violence  of  the  northern  gales  ...  by 
a  long  ridge  of  rock,  then  separated  from  the 
main  land  by  a  channel,  nearly  a  mile  (seven 
Blades)  broad  and  forming  tho  isle  of  Pharos.  On 
this  site  stood  tho  village  of  Racotis,  where  the 
ancient  kings  of  Egypt  had  stationed  a  permanent 
guard  to  protect  this  entrance  of  their  dominions 
from  adventurers.  .  .  .  Alexander's  keen  eye 
was  immediately  struck  by  the  advantages  of 
this  position  for  a  city,  which  should  become  a 
great  emporium  of  commerce,  and  a  link  between 
the  East  and  the  West.  .  .  .  He  immediotely 
gave  orders  for  the  beginning  of  the  work,  him- 
self traced  the  outline,  which  was  suggested  by 
the  natural  features  of  the  ground  itself,  and 
marked  the  site  of  some  of  the  principal  build- 
ings, squares,  palaces  and  temples"  (see  Alex- 
andria: B.  C.  332).  Alexander  remained  in 
Egypt  until  the  spring  of  331,  arranging  tho 
occupation  and  administration  of  the  country. 
"The  system  which  he  established  served  in  some 
points  as  a  model  for  the  policy  of  Rome  under 
the  Emperors. "  Before  quitting  the  country  he 
made  a  toilsome  marcli  along  the  coast,  west- 
ward, and  thence,  far  into  the  desert,  to  visit  tho 
famous  oracle  of  Ammon. — C.  Thirlwall,  Hut. 
of  Greece,  ch.  50. 

B.  C.  323-30.— The  kingdom  of  the 
Ptolemies. — In  the  division  of  the  empire  of 
Alexan<ler  the  Great  between  his  generals,  when 
he  died,  Ptolemy  Lagus  —  reputed  to  be  a 
natural  son  of  Alexander's  father  Philip  —  chose 
Egypt  (see  Macedonia:  B.  C.  323-316),  with  a 
modesty  which  proved  to  be  wise.  In  all  the 
provinces  of  the  Macedonian  conquest,  it  was 
the  country  most  easily  to  be  held  as  an  inde- 
pendent state,  by  reason  of  the  sea  and  desert 
•which  separated  it  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 
It  resulted  from  the  prudence  of  Ptolemy  that 
he  founded  a  kingdom  which  lasted  longer  and 
enjoyed  more  security  and  prosperity  than  any- 
other  among  the  monarchies  of  the  Diadochi. 
He  was  king  of  Egypt,  in  fact,  for  seventeen 
years   before,  in  SOT,  B.   C,  he  ventured   to 


aH8tim<'  the  name  (see  Macedonia:  B.  C.  310- 
301),  .Meantime,  he  had  added  to  his  dominion 
the  little  Greek  state  of  Cvrene,  on  the  African 
coast  with  Phrenicia,  .ludiea,  Crele-Syria,  and 
tho  island  of  Cyprus.  Tlieso  latter  became  dis- 
puted territory,  fought  over  for  two  centuries, 
between  tlie  Ptoleiiiies  and  the  Selcucids,  some- 
times dominated  by  the  one  and  sometimes  by 
the  other  (see  Sbleucid^:  B.  C.  281-224,  and 
224-187).  At  its  greatest  extent,  tho  dominion 
of  tho  Ptolemies,  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
son  of  I'tolemy  Lagus,  included  largo  parts  of 
Asia  Jlinor  and  many  of  the  Greek  islands. 
Egypt  and  Cyreue  they  held,  with  little  disturb- 
ance, until  Rome  absorbed  them.  Notwith- 
standing the  vices  which  the  family  of  Ptolemy 
developed,  luid  which  were  as  rank  of  their  kind 
us  history  can  show,  Egypt  under  their  rule 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
countries  of  tlie  time.  In  Alexandria,  they  more 
tiian  realized  the  dream  of  its  Macedonian  pro- 
jector. They  made  it  not  only  the  wealthiest 
city  of  tlieir  day,  but  the  greatest  seat  of  learn- 
ing,—  tl-o  successor  of  Athens  as  tho  capital  of 
Greek  civilization  in  the  ancient  world. — S. 
Sharpc,  Hist,  of  E'jypt,  ch.  7-12.— The  first 
Ptolemy  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  in  284  B.  C,  and  died  in  the 
second  year  following.  See  Macedonia:  B.  C 
297-380.—"  Although  the  political  constitution 
of  Egypt  was  not  greatiy  altered  when  the  land 
fell  into  Greek  hands,  yet  in  other  respects  great 
changes  took  place.  'The  mere  fact  that  Egypt 
took  its  place  among  a  family  of  Hellenistic 
nations,  instead  of  claiming  as  of  old  a  proud 
isolation,  must  have  had  a  great  effect  on  the 
trade,  the  manufactures,  and  the  customs  of  the 
country.  To  begin  with  trade.  Under  the 
native  kings  Egypt  had  scarcely  any  external 
trade,  and  trade  could  scarcely  spring  up  during 
the  wars  with  Persia.  But  under  the  Ptolemies, 
intercourse  between  Egypt  and  Sicily,  Syria  or 
Greece,  would  naturally  and  necessarily  advance 
rapidly.  Egypt  produced  manufactured  goods 
which  were  everywhere  in  demand ;  fine  linen, 
ivory,  porcelain,  notably  that  papyrus  which 
Egypt  alone  produced,  and  which  was  necessary 
to  the  growing  trade  in  manuscripts.  Artificial 
barriers  being  once  removed,  enterprising  traders 
of  Corinth  and  Tarentum,  Ephesus  and  Rhodes, 
would  naturally  seek  these  goods  in  Egypt, 
bringing  in  return  whatever  of  most  attroctive 
their  own  countries  had  to  offer.  It  seems 
probable  that  the  subjects  of  the  Ptolemies 
seldom  or  never  had  the  couroge  to  soil  direct 
down  the  Red  Sea  to  India.  In  Roman  times 
this  voyage  became  not  unusual,  but  at  an 
earlier  time  the  Indian  trade  was  principally  In 
the  hands  of  the  Arabs  of  Yemen  nnd  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Nevertheless  the  commerce  of 
Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  spread  eastwards  aa 
well  as  westwards.  The  important  towns  of 
ArsinotJ  and  Berenice  arose  on  tho  Red  Sea  as 
emporia  of  the  Arabian  trade.  And  as  alwiys 
happens  when  Egypt  is  in  vigorous  hands,  the 
limits  of  Egj'ptian  rule  and  commerce  were 
pushed  further  and  further  up  the  Nile.  The 
influx  into  Alexandria  and  Memphis  of  a  crowd 
of  Greek  architects,  artists,  and  artizans,  could 
not  fail  to  produce  movement  in  that  stream  of 
art  which  had  in  Egypt  long  remained  all  but 
stagnant.  ...  If  we  may  trust  the  somewhat 
over-coloured  and  flighty  panegyrics  which  have 


758 


EGYPT,  B.  C.  828-80. 


Under  the  Komatu.       EQYPT,   A.   D.   12.10-1817. 


onmfi  down  to  us,  the  mntorifil  progress  of  Egypt 
under  Ptolemy  Pliilndclpliiis  wiis  most  wondor- 
ful.  Wu  reud,  though  wp  cimnot  for  a  moment 
trust  the  figures  of  Appian,  that  in  his  reign 
Egypt  jiossessed  iin  nrmy  of  200,000  foot  soldiers 
and  40,(K)0  horsemen,  !iOO  elephants  and  2,000 
chariots  of  war.  Tlu;  fleet  at  the  same  period  is 
said  to  liave  ineludcd  1,.500  hirge  ve.ssels,  some 
of  them  with  twenty  or  thirty  lianks  of  oars. 
Allowing  for  exaggenition,  we  must  sui)poso 
that  Egypt  was  tlien  more  powerful  than  it  had 
been  since  the  days  of  Kameses. " — P.  Gardner, 
New  Chapters  in  Greek  IliKtory,  ch.  7. — See,  also, 
Alexandiua:  B.  C.  282-246";  and  Education, 
Anciknt:   Alkxanduia. 

B.  C.  80-48.— Strife  among  the  Ptolemies.— 
Roman  pretensions, — Tlio  tlironc  of  Egypt 
being  disputed,  H.  C.  80,  between  Cleopatra  Here- 
nice,  who  had  seized  it,  and  her  step-son,  Ptolemy 
Alexander,  tlien  in  Rome,  the  latter  l)rit)ed  the 
Romans  to  support  his  claims  l)y  malting  a  will  in 
which  he  named  the  Roman  Republic  as  his  heir. 
The  Senate,  thereat,  sent  him  to  Alexandria  with 
orders  that  Berenice  sliould  marry  him  and  that 
they  should  reign  jointly,  as  liing  and  queen. 
The  order  wos  obeyed.  Tlie  foully  mated  pair 
were  wedded,  and,  nineteen  days  afterwards,  the 
young  king  procured  the  deatli  of  his  queen. 
The  crime  provoked  an  insurrection  in  wliich 
Ptolemy  Alexander  waa  slain  by  his  own  guard. 
Tlds  ended  tlie  legitimate  lino  of  the  Ptolemies ; 
but  an  illegitimate  i)rince,  usually  called  Auletes, 
or  "the  piper,"  was  put  on  the  throne,  and  he 
succeeded  in  holding  it  for  twenty-four  years. 
Tlie  claim  of  the  Romans,  under  the  will  of 
Ptolemy  Alexander,  seems  to  have  been  kept  in 
abeyance  by  the  bribes  wliich  Auletes  employed 
with  liberatitv  among  the  senatorial  leaders.  In 
58  B.  C.  a  rising  at  Alexandria  drove  Auletes 
from  llie  throne;  in  54  B.  C.  he  bought  the  sup- 
port of  Gabinius,  Roman  pro-consul  in  Syria, 
who  reinstated  him.  lie  died  in  51  B.  C.  leav- 
ing by  will  his  kingdom  to  his  elder  daughter, 
Cleopatra,  and  his  elder  son,  Ptolemy,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  abominable  custom  of  the  Ptolemies, 
were  to  marry  one  another  and  reign  together. 
The  Roman  people,  by  the  terms  of  the  will  were 
made  its  executors.  When,  therefore,  Ciesar, 
coming  to  Alexandria,  three  years  afterwards, 
found  the  will  of  Auletes  set  at  nought,  Ptolemy 
occupying  the  throne,  alone,  and  Cleopatra 
struggling  against  him,  he  had  some  ground  for 
a  pretension  of  right  to  interfere. — 8.  Sharpc, 
Hist.  ^  Egypt,  eh.  11. 

B.  C.  48-47. — Civil  war  between  Cleopatra 
and  Ptolemy.— Intervention  of  Cxsar. — The 
rising  against  him. — The  Romans  besieged  in 
Alexandria.  —  Their  ruthless  victory.  Seo 
ALEXANDiiiA:  B.  C.  48-47. 

B.  C.  30. — Organized  as  a  Roman  province. 
— After  the  battle  of  Actium  and  the  death  of 
Cleopatra,  Egypt  was  reduced  by  Octavius  to  the 
rank  of  a  Roman  province  ond  the  dynasty  of  the 
Ptolemies  extinguished.  But  Octavius  "had  no 
intention  of  giving  to  the  senate  the  rich  domain 
which  he  tore  from  its  native  rulers.  lie  would 
not  sow  in  a  foreign  soil  the  seeds  of  independ- 
ence which  he  was  intent  upon  crushing  nearer 
home.  ...  In  due  time  he  persuaded  the  senate 
and  people  to  establish  it  as  a  principle,  that 
Egypt  should  never  be  placed  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  any  man  of  superior  rank  to  the  eques- 
tLioD,  and  that  no  senator  should  be  allowed  even 


to  vi.sit  it,  without  express  perniis.sion  from  the 
supreme  authority." — ('.  Merivale,  Hist,  of  the 
Uomitns,  eh.  20. 

A.  D.  100-500. — Roman  and  Christian.  See 
Ai.kxandiua:  B.  V.  4H-.17  to  A.  I).  4i;Ml.'); 
luid  CiimsTiANlTV:  A.  I).  :ti»-l(M),  and  1(M)-312. 

A.  D.  296.— Revolt  crushed  by  Diocletian. 
See  Al.KXANnniA:  A.  D.  2ml. 

A.  D.  6i6-6a8. — Conquest  by  Chosroes,  the 
Persian. — The  career  of  eoncpiest  pursued  by 
ChosriH's,  the  last  Persian  eoncpieror,  extended 
even  to  Egypt,  and  beyond  it.  "Egypt  itself, 
the  only  provinee  whirli  had  been  exempt  sinco 
the  time  of  Oioeleliaii  from  foreign  and  d.)mestic 
war,  was  again  subdued  l)y  tlie  successors  of 
Cyrus.  Pelusium,  the  key  of  that  impervious 
eoimtry,  was  surprise<l  by  the  cavalry  of  the 
Persians;  they  passed  with  impunity  the  innum- 
erable channels  of  the  Deltiv,  and  explored  the 
long  valley  of  the  Nile  from  the  pyramids  of 
Jlemphis  to  the  confines  of  ^^ithiopia.  Alexandria 
might  have  been  ndievcd  by  a  naval  force,  but 
the  archbishop  and  the  pnrfeet  embarked  for 
Cyprus;  and  Chosroes  entered  the  second  city  of 
the  empire,  which  still  preserved  a  wealthy  rem- 
nant of  industry  and  commerce.  His  western 
tropliy  was  erected,  not  on  the  walls  of  Carthage, 
but  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tripoli :  tlie  Greek 
colonies  of  Cyrene  were  finally  extirpated."  By 
the  peace  concluded  in  628,  after  the  death  of 
Chosroes,  all  of  his  conquests  were  restored  to 
the  empire  and  the  cities  of  Syria  and  Egypt 
evocuated  by  their  Persian  garrisons. — E.  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  {Ionian  Empire,  ch.  46. — 
See  Pehbia  :  A.  D.  228-027. 

A.  D.  640-646. — Moslem  conquest.  Sec  Ma- 
hometan Conquest:  A.  1).  040-646. 

A.  D.  967-1171. — Under  the  Fatimite  Ca- 
liphs. See  Mahometan  Conquest:  A.  I).  008- 
1171. 

A.  D.  I. '68- 1 250.— Under  the  Atabeg  and 
Ayoubite  sultans.    See  Sai-adin,  The  em;-ikk 

OK. 

A.  D.  1218-1220.— Invasion  by  the  Fifth 
Crusade.    See  Crusades:  A.  I).  1216-1220. 

A.  D.  1249- 1 250.— Th.  crusading  invasion 
by  Saint  Louis  of  France.  See  Crusades: 
A.  D.  1248-12.54. 

A.  D.  i2So-i';i7. — The  Mameluke  Sultans. — 
The  MameluUi  .  were  a  militfiry  bcxiy  created  by 
Saladin.  "The  word  means  slave  (literally  '  the 
possessed '),  and  .  .  .  they  were  brought  in  youth 
from  nortliern  countries  to  serve  in  the  South. 
Saladin  himself  was  a  Kurd,  and  long  before  his 
accession  to  power,  Turkish  and  Kurdish  mer- 
cenaries were  employed  by  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad 
and  Coiro,  as  the  Pope  employs  Swiss.  .  .  .  Sub- 
sequently, however,  Circassia  became  the  coun- 
try which  most  largely  furnished  this  class  of 
troops.  Their  apprenticeship  was  a  long  and 
laborious  one ;  they  were  taught,  first  of  all,  to  read 
the  Koran  and  to  write ;  then  followed  lanccexer- 
cise,  during  which  time  nobody  was  allowed  to 
speak  to  them.  At  first  they  either  resided  in 
the  castle,  or  were  exercised  living  under  tents; 
but  after  the  time  of  Sultan  Barkouk  they  were 
allowed  to  live  in  the  town  [Cairo],  and  the  quar- 
ter now  occupied  by  the  Jews  was  at  that  time 
devoted  to  the  Circassian  Mamelukes.  After 
this  period  they  neglected  their  religious  ond 
warlike  exercises,  and  became  degenerate  and 
corrupt.  .  .  .  The  dynasty  of  Saladin  .  .  .  was 
of  no  duration,  and  ended  in  648  A.  H.,  or  1250 


759 


EGYPT,  1250-1517. 


Thr  Mamelukri. 


EGYPT,  1803-1811. 


of  tlio  riiristinn  crii.  Tlicn  bcgdn  tlio  so-cnllpd 
Biilirilc  Sultiins,  In  coiifMMiiicticc  of  t\w  Miimc- 
Inkrsdf  tlic  Hultaii  Ncfijm-rd-din  Imviiif;  lodircil 
in  Hrxlidi,  llio  Island  in  llic  Nile  (liiilir-cn-MI). 
Tlif  intrl;;ucr  of  llif  period  was  Slicgcrcd-dur, 
tliL'  widow  of  tli(^  nioniircli,  wlio  married  one  of 
tlieMuinelulies,  M(M'z-e(iilin-ail)el{cl-Turroniany, 
wlio'lH'caine  llie  tirnt  of  tlicHC  Haliritc  HtdtanH, 
nnd  was  Idmself  murd'Ted  in  tlie  Castle  of  Cairo 
tliroiigli  this  woman.  .  .  .  Tlieirsubseeiuent  his- 
tory, iintil  the  conquest  of  Kgypt  by  Sultan 
Bel'ini  in  l.ll?,  presi'nis  nothing  but  a  scries  of 
aets  of  lust,  murder  and  rapine.  Ho  rapidly  did 
they  e.\pel  each  other  from  power,  that  the 
average  reign  of  each  did  not  exceed  five  or  si.x 
years.  .  .  .  The 'lieeting  purple' of  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  Uomaii  Empire  is  the  spectacle 
which  these  Mameluke  Dynasties  constantly  i)re- 
Bcnt. " — A.  A.  Paton,  7/i«<.  nf  the.  Kfjupliaii  lier'Au- 
tion,  V.  1,  eh.  3-5. 

A.  D.  1516-1517. — Overthrow  of  the  Mame- 
luke Sultans.— Ottoman  conquest  by  Sultan 
Selim.     Kee  TiiuKs:  A.  1).  1481-1,V.J0. 

A.  D.  1798-1799.— The  French  conquest  and 
occupation  by  Bonaparte.     See  Fkanck:  A.  1). 

1798  (May— AuoiisT),  nnd  1708-17U9  (August— 
August). 

A,  D.  1798-1799. — Bonaparte's  organization 
of  government. — His  victory  at  Aboulcir. — His 
return  to  France.    See  Fhanck:    A.  I).  1798- 

1799  (August — August),  nnd  1799  (Novemukk). 
A.  D.  1800. — Discontent  and  discourage- 
ment of  the  French. — The  repudiated  Treaty 
of  El  Arish. — Turkish  defeat  at  Heliopolis. — 
Revolt  crushed  at  Cairo. — Assassination  of 
Klfcber.  See  Fiiance:  A.  D.  1800  (.Januaiiy— 
June). 

A.  D.  1801-1802.— Expulsion  of  the  French 
by  the  English. — Restoration  of  the  province 
to  Turkey.     Sec  Fhanck:  A.  D.  1801-1803. 

A.  D.  1803-1811.— The  rise  of  Mohammad 
'Aly  (or  Mehemet  Ali)  to  power. — His  treach- 
erous destruction  of  the  Mamelukes. — "It 
■was  during  the  French  occupation  that  Moham- 
mad 'Aly  [or  Mehemet  Ali]  came  on  the  scene. 
He  was  born  in  1708  at  the  Albanian  port  of 
Kaballa,  and  by  the  patronage  of  the  governor 
was  sent  to  Egypt  in  1801  with  the  contingent  of 
troops  furnished  by  Kaballa  to  the  Ottoman 
army  then  operating  with  the  English  against 
the  French,  lie  rapidly  rose  to  the  command  of 
the  Amaut  or  Albanian  section  of  the  Turltish 
army,  and  soon  found  himself  an  important 
factor  in  the  confused  political  position  which 
followed  the  departure  of  the  British  army. 
The  Memluk  Beys  had  not  been  restored  to  their 
former  posts  as  provincial  governors,  and  were 
consequently  ripe  for  revolt  against  the  Porte ; 
but  their  party  was  weakened  by  the  rivalry  of 
its  two  leaders,  El-Elfy  and  El-Bardisy,  .vho 
divided  their  followers  into  two  liostile  camps. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Turkish  Pasha  appointed 
by  the  Porte  had  not  yet  gained  a  firm  grip  of 
the  country,  nnd  was  perpetually  apprehensive 
of  a  recall  to  Constantinople.  Alohammad  'Aly 
at  the  head  of  his  Albanians  was  an  importJint 
ally  for  either  side  to  secure,  and  he  fully  ap- 
preciated his  position.  He  played  off  one  party 
against  the  other,  the  Pasha  against  the  Beys,  so 
successfully,  that  he  not  only  weakened  both 
sides,  but  made  the  people  of  Cairo,  who  were 
disgusted  with  the  anarchy  of  Memluk  and  Turk 
alike,  his  Arm  friends;  and  at  last  suffered  him- 


self, with  becoming  hesitation,  to  1)0  pcrstinded 
by  the  entreaty  of  the  pippuliicc  to  become  |180,')] 
their  ruler,  and  thus  stepped  to  the  supreme 
l)owpr  in  the  curious  guise  of  the  people's  friend. 
A  fearful  time  followed  Mohammad  'Aly's  elec- 
tion—for  such  it  was  —  to  the  governorship  of 
Egynt.  TlieTurkish  Pasha,  Khurshid,  held  the 
cita<lel,  and  Mohammad  'Alv,  energetically  aided 
by  the  peo]>le  of  Cairo,  ]nU\  siege  to  it.  From 
the  minaret  of  the  mosi|U(!  of  Sidtan  Hasan,  and 
from  the  heights  of  Mukiitlam,  the  besiegers 
poured  their  tire  into  the  cita<lel,  anil  Khurshid 
replii  (I  with  an  indiscriminate  cannonade  upon 
the  city.  The  tiring  went  on  for  weeks  (pausing 
on  Fridays),  till  a  messenger  arrived  from  Con- 
stantinople bringing  the  contlrmatiou  of  tho 
popidar  vote,  in  the  form  of  a  tirman,  apiioint- 
mg  Mohammad  'Aly  governor  of  Egypt.  Khur- 
shid shortly  afterwards  retired,  and  tlie  soldiery 
amused  theiiLselves  in  the  approved  Turkish  and 
(even  worse)  Aloanian  fashion  by  making  havoc 
of  the  houses  of  the  citizens.  Mohammad  'Aly 
now  possessed  the  title  of  Governor  of  Egypt, 
but  beyond  the  walls  of  Cairo  his  authority  was 
everywhere  disputed  by  the  Beys.  .  .  .  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  ensnare  certain  of  the  Beys, 
who  were  encamped  north  of  the  metropolis. 
On  the  17th  of  AugiKst,  180.5,  the  dam  of  tho 
cunal  of  Cairo  was  to  be  cut,  and  some  chiefs  of 
Mohammad  'Aly's  party  wrote  infornung  them 
that  he  wouhl  go  forth  early  on  that  morning 
with  most  of  his  trwjps  to  witness  the  ceremony, 
inviting  them  to  enter  and  seize  the  city,  and,  to 
deceive  them,  stipidating  for  n  certain  sum  of 
money  as  a  reward.  Tlie  dam,  however,  was 
cut  early  in  the  preceding  idght,  without  any 
ceremony.  On  the  following  morning  these 
Beys,  with  their  Mcinluks,  a  very  numerous 
body,  broke  open  the  gate  of  tho  suburb  El- 
Ilosey-niych,  nud  gained  admittance  into  tho 
city.  .  .  .  They  marched  along  the  principal 
street  for  some  distance,  with  kettle-drums  be- 
hind each  company,  and  were  received  with  ap- 
parent joy  by  tho  citizens.  At  tho  mosque  called 
tho  Asurafiyeh  they  separated,  one  party  pro- 
ceeding to  the  Azhar  and  the  liouses  of  certjiin 
shoykhs,  and  the  other  party  continuing  along 
tho  main  street,  and  through  the  gate  called 
Bab-Zuweyleh,  where  they  turned  up  towards 
the  citadel.  Here  they  were  fired  on  bv  some 
soldiers  from  the  houses;  and  with  this  signal  a 
terrible  massacre  commenced.  Falling  back 
towards  their  companions,  they  found  the  by- 
streets closed;  and  in  that  part  of  the  main 
thoroughfare  called  Beyn-el-Kasreyn,  they  were 
suddenly  placed  between  two  fires.  Thus  shut 
up  in  a  narrow  street,  some  sought  refuge  in  the 
collegiate  mosque  of  tho  Barkukiyeh,  while  the 
remainder  fought  their  way  through  their 
enemies,  and  escaped  over  the  city  wall  with 
the  loss  of  their  liorses.  Two  Memluks  had  in 
the  meantime  succeeded,  by  great  exertions,  in 
giving  the  alarm  to  their  comrades  in  the  quar- 
ter of  the  Azhar,  who  escaped  by  the  eastern, 
gate  called  Bab-el-Ghureyyib.  A  horrible  fate 
awaited  those  who  had  shut  themselves  up  in 
the  Barktikiych.  Having  begged  for  quarter 
and  surrendered,  they  were  immediately  stripped 
nearly  naked,  and  about  fifty  were  slaughtered 
on  the  spot;  and  about  the  same  number  were 
dragged  away.  .  .  .  The  wretched  captives  were 
then  chained  and  left  in  the  court  of  the  Pasha's 
house ;  and  on  the  following  morning  the  heads 


760 


EGYPT,  1803-1811. 


Utkrmel  AU, 
ami  n/ttr. 


EGYPT,  1840-1860. 


of  tliclr  coiiinKlcs,  wlio  hud  jhtIkIioiI  Die  day 
Ix'fori',  wcri!  Hkinncd  mid  HtulTi'd  with  Htniw  hi' 
foro  tlit'ir  t-ycH.  One  Hey  iind  two  othvr  nit'ii 
jmld  their  riuisoiii,  and  wire  released :  tlie  rest, 
witlioiit  exception,  were  tortured,  and  put  to 
(leutli  in  tlie  course  of  tlic  ensulnjt  nijilit.  .  .  . 
Tlie  Heys  were  dishearteiieii  liy  tids  revolting 
Imtcliery,  and  most  of  tlieni  retired  to  llie  upper 
country.  Urjred  l)y  Knjiiand,  or  more  prolmliiy 
liy  tlie  promise  of  a  lirilie  from  Ei-Klfy,  tlu' 
I'orte  liegan  a  leisurely  interference  in  favour  of 
tlie  Meiiiluks;  but  the  failure  of  Ei-Elfy's 
treasur)',  and  a  Imndsoinc  bribe  from  Mohammad 
'Aly,  soon  changed  the  Sultan's  views,  and  the 
Turkish  (leet  muled  away.  .  .  .  An  attempt  of 
the  English  Government  to  restore  the  Memluks 
by  the  action  of  a  force  of  ,'5,000  men  under 
General  Eraser  ended  in  disaster  and  humiliation, 
and  tlie  citizens  of  Cairo  hod  tlie  Kiitisfnction  of 
ficeinj?  the  heads  of  Englishmen  exposed  on 
stakes  in  tho  Ezl)ckiyeh.  Mohammad  'Aly  now 
adopted  a  more  conciliatory  policy  towards  the 
Memluks,  gr.intcd  them  land,  and  encouraged 
them  to  return  to  Cairo.  Tlie  clemency  was 
only  a.S8umcd  in  order  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  act  of  consummate  treachery  which  llnally 
ni)roote<l  the  Meinluk  power.  .  .  .  Early  in  the 
year  1811,  tho  preparations  for  an  cxi)edilion 
against  tlie  Wohhabis  in  Arabia  being  comiiiete, 
all  the  Memluk  Beys  then  in  ('airo  were  invited 
to  tho  ceremony  of  investing  Mohammad  'Aly's 
favouritL'  son,  Tusun,  with  a  pelis.sc  and  tlie 
command  of  the  army.  As  on  the  former  occa- 
sion, the  unfortunate  Memluks  fell  into  the 
snare.  On  the  1st  of  March,  Sliahin  Hey  and 
the  other  chiefs  (one  only  excepted)  rcpaireii  with 
their  retinues  to  the  citadel,  and  were  courteously 
received  by  the  Pasha.  Having  taken  coffee, 
they  formed  in  procession,  and,  preceded  and 
followed  by  the  Pasha's  troops,  slowly  descended 
Ihe  steep  ;  .!  narrow  road  leading  to  the  great 
gate  of  the  liuidel ;  but  as  soon  as  the  Memluks 
arrived  at  the  gate  it  was  suddenly  closed  before 
them.  The  last  of  tliose  who  made  their  exit 
before  tho  gate  was  shut  were  Albanians  under 
Salih  Kiish.  To  those  troops  their  chief  now 
made  known  the  Piisha's  orders  to  massacre  all 
the  Memluks  within  the  citadel ;  therefore  hav- 
ing returned  by  another  way,  they  gained  the 
summit  of  the  walls  and  houses,  that  hem  in  the 
roail  in  which  the  Memluks  were,  and  some 
stationed  themselves  upon  the  eminences  of  tho 
rock  through  wliich  that  road  is  partly  cut. 
Thus  securely  placed,  they  commenced  a  heavy 
flre  on  tlieir  defenceless  victims,  and  immediately 
tho  troops  who  closed  the  procession,  and  who 
had  tho  advantage  of  higher  ground,  followed 
their  example.  .  .  .  470  Memluks  entered  the 
citadel,  and  of  these  very  few,  if  any,  eseared. 
One  of  these  is  said  to  have  been  a  Bey.  Ac-ord- 
ing  to  some,  lie  leaped  his  horse  from  tli'j  ram- 
parts, and  alighted  uninjured,  though  tl.e  horse 
was  killed  by  the  fall.  Others  say  tliat  he  was 
prevented  from  joining  his  comrade.'',,  and  dis- 
covered the  treachery  while  waiting  without  tho 
gate.  He  fled  and  made  his  way  to  5yria.  This 
massacre  was  the  signal  for  an  Indiscriminate 
slaughter  of  tho  Memluks  throiighout  Egypt, 
orders  to  this  effect  being  tnui'.mitted  to  every 
governor;  and  in  Cairo  itself,  (he  houses  of  the 
Beys  were  given  over  to  the  soldiery,  who 
slaughtered  all  their  adherents,  treatoci  their 
women  in  the  most  shameless  maimer,  and  sacked 

*»  761 


their  dwellings.  .  .  .  The  last  of  his  rivals  Ix-ing- 
now  destroyed,  Mohammad  '.\ly  was  free  to 
organise  the  adininistnition  of  the  country,  and 
to  engage  in  expeiiitions  abroad." — 8.  "ijiine- 
Poole,  Kr/z/pt,  cli.  8. 

Also  in  :  A.  A.  Paton.  Ili»t.  of  the  Kf/i/iitimt 
lirrdtiitiiiii,  r.  2. 

A.  D.  1807.— Occupation  of  Alexandria  by 
the  Ertg^lish. — Disastrous  failtii  of  their  ex- 
pediti'jn.     Sec  Tikks;  A.  1).  Isi   ■   IHOT. 

A.  1).  1831-1840.— Rebellion  of  Mehemet  All. 
— Successes  ag;ainst  the  Turks. — Intervention 
of  the  Western  Powers.— Egypt  made  an  he- 
redit«ry  Pashalik.  See  TiiUKs:  A.  1).  1831- 
1840. 

A.  D.  1840-1869.— Mehemet  Ali  and  his  suc- 
C'ssars.— The  khedives.— The  openine  of  the 
^ue  .  Canal.— "  By  the  treaty  of  1840  lietweer. 
the  I  orte  and  the  European  Powers,  .  .  .  l)i» 
title  <(i  Egypt  having  been  .  .  .  alllrmed  .  .  . 
.Mehemet  All  devoted  himself  during  the  <iext 
seven  years  to  the  social  and  material  inii/rove- 
ment  of  the  country,  with  an  aggregate  ()f  re- 
sults which  has  lixed  his  jilace  in  history  as  the 
'Peter  the  Great'  of  Egypt.  Indee.l,  except 
some  additions  and  further  reforms  irade  during 
the  reign  of  his  reputed  grandson,  Ijinail  Pasha, 
the  whole  administrative  system  uj)  till  less 
tlia.:  ten  years  ago,  was,  in  tlic  main,  his  work; 
and  notwillistaiiiling  many  adnitted  defects,  it 
was  at  his  death  incomparably  the  most  civilised 
and  etlicieut  of  then  existing  Mussulman  Govern- 
ments. In  1848,  this  great  satrap,  then  verging 
on  bis  eightieth  year,  was  .ittaeked  by  a  mental 
mahidr,  induced,  as  it  wr.s  said,  bv  a  potion  ad- 
ministered in  mistaken  kindness  by  one  of  his 
own  daughters,  and  tlx-  government  was  taken 
over  by  his  adopted  s<m,  Ibraiiim  Pasha,  the 
hero  of  Koniali  an, I  Nezib.  lie  lingered  till 
August  1840,  but  Ibrahim  had  already  pre- 
deceased him;  ar.d  Abbas,  a  son  of  the  latter, 
succeeded  to  the  viceregal  throne.  Though  born 
and  bred  in  Egypt,  Abbas  was  a  Turk  of  the 
worst  type  —  'gnorant,  cowardly,  sensual,  fanatic, 
and  opposed  to  reforms  of  every  sort.  Thus 
his  feeble  reign  of  less  than  six  years  was,  in 
almost  everything,  a  period  of  retrogression.  On 
a  night  i.i  .July,  1854,  he  was  strangled  in  his  sleep 
bj'  a  C'juple  of  his  own  slaves, — acting,  it  was 
vario'.isly  said,  on  a  secret  order  from  Constanti- 
nople, or  at  the  behest  of  one  of  his  wives.  To 
Al'Uas  succeeded  Said,  the  third  son  of  Mehemet 
t>.l\,  an  amiable  and  liberal-minded  i)rince  who 
retrieved  mucli  of  the  mischief  done  by  his  pre- 
decessor, but  lacked  the  vigorous  intelligence 
and  force  of  character  required  to  carry  on  the 
great  work  begun  by  his  father.  His  reign  will 
be  chiefly  memorable  for  the  concession  and  com- 
mencement of  the  Suez  Canol,  tho  colossal  work 
which,  while  benefiting  the  trade  of  the  world, 
has  cost  so  much  to  Egypt.  Said  died  in  Janu- 
ary 1863,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 
Ismail  Pasha,  the  second  son  of  Ibrahim.  As 
most  of  the  leading  incidents  of  this  Prince's 
reign,  as  also  the  chief  features  of  his  character, 
arc  still  fresh  in  the  public  memory,  I  need 
merely  recall  a  few  of  the  more  salient  of  both. 
Amongst  tlic  former,  history  will  give  the  first 
place  to  his  creation  of  tho  huge  public  debt 
which  forms  tlie  main  element  of  a  problem  that 
still  confronts  Europe.  But,  for  this  the  same 
impartial  judge  will  at  least  equally  blame  the 
financial   pandcrers  who  ministered  to  his  ex- 


EGYPT,  1840-1869. 


Conqvnl  of  Ihe 
Soudan. 


EGYPT,  1870-1888. 


tnivii(fiiiu<',  with  cxorliitiint  protlt  tothcmm'lvrfi, 
but  lit  ruiiiiiiiH  ('(Hit  to  Kfrvpt.  On  tlii!  other 
IihikI,  itiH  liiit  hlHtorical  jiiHt1(!(' toHiiy  that  IhiiiuII 
)ll<l  iiiiich  for  the  iiiiitcriiil  pro^roHMof  the  couiitry. 
Ill'  adiU'd  iiiori'  than  1,(MH)  to  thu  'iW)  mih'H  of 
niilwuy  in  cxiHtciui'  at  th(!  dciith  of  Said.  He 
({really  hn|iroved  the  lrri>,'atl()n,  and  »o  increased 
the  culllvahle  area  of  thu  countiy;  niultiplied 
the  primary  KchoolH,  and  enroiiraged  native  in- 
duMtricH.  For  so  much,  at  least,  history  will 
j,'ivc  him  credit.  As  meinorahle.  tlioiif^li  less 
meritorious,  were  tlie  mMK'if'l''<'''t  fetes  with 
whh'li,  in  IHOU,  lie  opened  the  Huez  Canal,  the 
f^reat  worl(  which  Kn^dand  had  ho  long  opposed, 
hut  through  which  —  as  if  hy  the  irony  of  his- 
tory—  the  tlrst  ship  that  passed  flew  the  Knglisli 
(lag,  and  to  the  present  truffle  of  which  we  eon- 
triliule  more  tlian  eighty  per  cent  In  personal 
character,  Ismail  was  of  exceptional  intelligence, 
but  cruel,  crafty,  and  untrustworthy  both  in 
politics  anil  in  his  private  relations.  ...  It  may 
lie  mentioned  tliat  Ismail  Pasha  was  the  first  of 
tliese  Otioman  Viceroys  who  horo.  the  title  of 
'  Khedive,'  which  is  a  I'erso-Arabic  designation 
oignifying  ranii  a  shade  less  than  regal.  This  he 
obtained  in  1867  by  heavy  biilies  to  the  Sultan 
and  his  eiiief  ministers,  as  he  had  the  year  before 
by  Hbiiilar  means  ousted  his  brother  and  uncle 
from  the  succession,  and  secured  it  for  his  own 
eldest  son,  —  in  virtue  of  which  the  latter  now 
[1890]  nominally  reigns." — .].  C.  M'Coau,  £ff!/pt 
(Natiiiniil  lAfe  <iitd  Tnouijht,  leet.  18). — The  same, 
Kmijit  iiiiilir  hiiKiH,  rli.  1-4. 

A.  D.  1870-1883.— Conquest  of  the  Soudan. 
— Measures  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave- 
trade. — The  government  of  General  Gordon. 
— Advent  of  the  Mahdi  and  beginning  of  his 
revolt. — In  1870,  Ismail  Pasha  "made  an  appeal 
for  Kuropean  assistanee  to  strengthen  him  in  com- 
pletuig  the  conquest  of  Central  Africa.  [Sir 
Saniuell  Baker  was  acconlingly  placed  in  com- 
mand of  1,200  men,  stippliecl  with  c.innon  and 
steam-boats,  and  received  the  title  of  Governour- 
Qenernl  of  the  provinces  which  ho  was  com- 
mis.s!oned  to  sulxiuc.  Having  elected  to  make 
Gondokoro  the  seat  of  his  government,  he  changed 
its  name  to  Isniailin.  lie  was  not  long  in  bringing 
the  Bari  to  submission,  and  then,  advancing 
southwards,  he  came  to  the  districts  of  Uullle  and 
Faliko,  a  healthy  region  endowed  by  nature  with 
fertile  valleys  and  irrigated  by  litnpid  streams, 
but  for  years  past  converted  into  a  sort  of  hell 
upon  earth  by  the  slave-huuters  who  had  made  it 
their  headtpiarters.  From  these  pests  Baker  de- 
livered the  locality,  and  having  by  his  tjict  and 
energy  overcome  the  distrust  of  the  native  rulers, 
he  established  over  their  territory  a  certain  num- 
ber of  small  military  settlements.  .  .  .  Baker  re- 
turned to  Europe  flattering  him,self  witli  the 
delusion  that  he  had  put  an  end  to  the  scourge 
of  slave  dealing.  •  It  was  true  that  variovis  slave- 
dealers'  dens  on  the  Upper  Nile  had  been 
destroyed,  a  number  of  outlaws  had  been  shot, 
and  a  few  thoustrnd  miserable  slaves  had  been 
set  at  liberty ;  but  beyond  that  nothing  had 
been  accomplished ;  no  sooner  had  the  liberator 
turned  his  back  than  the  odious  trafflc  recom- 
menced with  more  vigour  than  before  through 
the  region  south  of  Gondokoro.  This,  however, 
was  only  one  of  the  slave-hunting  districts,  and 
by  no  means  the  worst.  .  .  .  Under  European 
compulsion  .  .  .  the  Khedive  Ismail  undertook 
to  promote  measures  to  put  a  stop  to  the  scandal. 


762 


He  entered  into  various  convention  1  with  Eng- 
land on  the  subject ;  and  in  order  to  lorivlnce  the 
PowerH  of  the  sincerity  of  his  iiilentli)ns,  lie  c(m- 
sented  to  put  the  ci|uatiirial  provinces  under 
the  aihninlHtration  of  an  Kuropean  )lllcer,  who 
should  be  coiiunissloncd  to  carry  on  he  work  of 
repression,  coniiueHt  and  organisation  that  had 
been  comnienccil  by  Baker.  Ilisclioici'  fell  upon 
a  man  of  exceptional  ability,  1  brilliant  offlcer 
trained  at  W(«)lwi('h,  who  had  alreiidy  gained 
high  renown  in  Cliina,  not  only  for  military 
talent,  but  for  his  adroitness  and  skill  In  ne- 
gotiation and  di|)l(>inacy.  This  was  Colonel  Gor- 
don, familiarly  known  as  'Chinese  Gordon,'  who 
was  now  to  add  fresh  lustre  to  his  name  in 
Kgypt  as  Gordon  Pasha.  Gonhm  was  appointed 
Governour-General  of  tiie  Soudaii  in  Ui74.  With 
him  were  a.ssociatid  ChailliVLong,  an  Anu'ricau 
ollleer,  who  was  cliief  of  liisstalT;  th^'  German, 
Dr.  Einin  Ellendi,  medical  ollleer  to  Ihe  expedi- 
tion; Meutcnant»Cliipi)en(lall  and  AValson;  Ocssl 
and  Kemp,  engineers.  .  .  .  Tlienceforward  thu 
territories,  of  which  so  little  had  hitherto  been 
known,  became  tlie  continual  scene  of  military 
movements  and  scientific  excurshms.  .  .  .  Thu 
Soudan  was  so  far  conciuered  as  to  be  held  by 
about  a  dozen  military  outposts  stationed  id(mg 
the  Nile  from  Lake  No  to  Lakes  Albert  and  loni- 
him.  ...  In  1870  Gordon  went  back  to  Cairo. 
Nevertlieles.s,  although  ho  was  wearied  with  thu 
continual  stri'gglo  of  the  past  two  years,  worn 
down  by  the  leessimt  labours  of  intcrmil  organi- 
sation and  geographical  investigations,  disheart- 
ened, too,  by  tlio  jealousies,  rivalries,  and  in- 
trigues of  all  around  him,  and  by  the  ill  feeling 
of  the  very  people  whom  the  Khedive's  Govern- 
ment had  sent  to  support  him,  he  consented  to 
return  again  to  his  po.st;  this  time  with  the  titlu 
of  Governour-General  of  the  Soudan,  Darfur,  and 
the  Equatorial  Provinces.  At  tlie  beginning  of 
1877  he  t(X)k  possession  of  tho  Oovernnient  palaco 
at  Khartoum.  .  .  .  Egyptian  authority,  allied 
with  Euro|)eun  civilisation,  appeared  now  at 
length  to  b(!  taking  some  hold  on  the  various 
districts,  and  the  Cairo  Government  might  begin 
to  look  forward  to  a  time  when  it  could  reckon 
on  some  reward  for  its  labours  and  sacrifices. 
The  area  of  the  new  Egyptian  Scndan  had  now 
become  immense.  Geographically,  its  centre  in- 
cluded the  entire  valley  of  the  Nile  proi)cr,  from 
Berber  to  the  great  hilies ;  on  tho  cas.,  were  such 
portions  of  the  valleys  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  At- 
))ara  as  lay  outside  Abyssinia ;  and  on  the  west 
were  the  districts  watered  b\'  the  Babr-el-Ghazal, 
and  the  Bahr-cl-Arab,  rii^ht  away  to  the  confines 
of  Wadai.  .  .  .  Uufo;  tunately  in  1870  Ismail 
Pasha  was  deposed,  and,  to  the  grievous  loss  of 
the  Soudan,  Gori'.ou  was  recalled.  As  the  im- 
mediate consequence,  the  country  fell  back  into 
the  hands  of  'lurkish  pashas;  apathy,  disorder, 
carelessness,  and  ill  feeling  rcajipeared  at  Khar- 
toum, and  tlie  Arab  slave-dealers,  who  had  for  a 
period  been  kept  under  by  Baker,  Gessi,  and 
Gordon,  came  once  more  to  tlic  front.  ...  It 
was  I{aouf  Pasha  who,  in  1879,  succeeded  Gordon 
as  Governour-General.  lie  had  three  Europeans 
as  his  subordinates  —  Emiu  Bey,  wlio  before  Gor- 
don left,  had  been  placed  in  churf,c  of  the  province 
of  the  equator;  Lupton  Bey,  an  Englishman,  who 
had  followed  Oessi  as  Qovernour  on  the  Bahr-el- 
Ghazal;  iind  Slatin  Bey,  an  Austrian,  in  com- 
mand of  JJarfur.  Ilaouf  had  barely  been  two 
years  at  Khartoum  when  the  Mahdi  appeared  on 


BOYPT,  1870-1888. 


Tht  Uahdt 


EGYPT,  187(J-1883. 


tlio  urcnp.  Proniptr<loltlior  by  porsoniil  nmWtUm 
orl)V  religious  liiitrcd,  tlii'  lilciiof  pliiyliiK  tlic  piirt 
of  '  Mithill '  hud  Ix'i-ii  lU'tcil  upon  liv  iimny  iiii  Ami) 
fnnutic  liM'u  Maiii)i|.  Hucli  iiii  Mvu,  at  lui  curly 
age,  hail  taki'ii  poMwssloii  of  a  certain  Hoiui.iiicsc 
of  low  birth,  a  imtlvc  of  Dongola,  by  name  Mo- 
hninmcd  Ahmed.  Hcforu  openly  lutpirhiK  to  the 
rAle  of  Iho  regenerator  of  iHlani  he  had  tilled 
Heveral  subordinate  cngagenK'ntti,  notably  one 
under  Dr.  Pencv,  the  French  Hurgeon-gcneral  In 
the  Houdan,  wlio  died  in  IHfll.  Sliortiy  after- 
wards lie  received  adndttuncu  into  tlie  powerful 
order  of  the  Glieluni  ilervlslieH,  and  then  com- 
menced his  HchcmeH  for  stirring  up  a  revolution  in 
defence  of  his  creed.  His  proceedings  did  not 
fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  Uessi  I'asha,  who 
had  him  arrested  at  Hliekka  and  imprisoned  for 
live  months.  Under  the  government  of  I{aouf 
he  t(X)k  up  his  al>ode  upon  the  small  island  of 
Abba,  on  liie  Nile  above  Khartoum,  where  he 
gained  a  considerable  notoriety  by  the  austerity 
of  his  life  and  by  the  fervr)ur  of  his  devotions,  tlius 


grudually  gainnig  a  high  ri^putation  for  sanctity. 
Not(mly  olTcrinjfs  but  followers  streamed  in  from 
every  (pnirtcr.     lie  became  fich  as  well  as  power- 


ful. .  .  .  Waiting  till  Ma v  18H1,  he  tliena.s.sume(l 
Unit  a  propitious  time  hud  arrived  for  the  reuilsa- 
tlou  of  Ills  plans,  and  accordingly  hud  himself 
publicly  ])rocluimed  as  '  Mahdi,  inviting  every 
fakir  and  every  religious  leader  of  Islam  to  ccmie 
and  join  him  at  Abba.  .  .  .  Convinced  that  it  was 
impolitic  to  tolerate  any  longer  the  revolutionary 
intrigues  of  siieli  an  adventurer  at  the  very  gates 
of  Khartoum,  Huouf  Pasha  resolved  to  rid  the 
country  of  Jloliuinmed  and  to  send  him  to  Cairo 
for  triul,  An  expedition  was  accordingly  des- 
patched to  the  island  of  Abba,  but  unfortunately 
the  means  employed  were  inadequate  to  the  tusk. 
Only  a  sMiail  body  of  black  sohliers  were  sent  to 
arrest  the  agitator  in  his  (juartcrs,  and  they,  in- 
spire^i  no  doubt  by  a  vague  und  superstitious  dreud 
of  a  man  who  represented  himself  as  the  mes- 
senger of  Allah,  wavered  and  actwl  with  inde- 
cision. Before  their  oftlcers  could  rally  them  to 
energy,  the  )Iahdi,  with  a  fierce  train  of  follow- 
ers, knife  in  hand,  rushed  upon  them,  and  killing 
many,  ))Ut  the  rest  to  flight ;  then,  seeing  that  a 
renewed  assault  was  likely  to  be  made,  he  with- 
drew the  insurgent  band  into  a  retreat  of  safety 
amongst  the  mountains  of  Soutiiern  Kordofaii. 
Henceforth  revolt  was  openly  declared.  Such 
was  the  condition  of  things  in  August  1881. 
Chase  was  given,  but  every  effort  to  secure  the 
person  of  the  pretended  prophet  was  baffled.  A 
further  attempt  was  made  to  arrest  him  by  the 
Mudir  of  Fiishoda  with  tJM  men,  only  to  be  at- 
tended witli  a  still  more  melancholy  result.  After 
tt  desperate  struggle  the  iludir  lay  stretched  upon 
the  ground,  his  soldiers  murdered  all  around  him. 
One  single  ofllcer,  with  a  few  struggling  cavalry, 
escaped  the  massacre,  and  returned  to  report  the 
fatal  nev/s.  The  reverse  caused  an  absolute  panic 
in  Khartoum,  an  intense  excitement  spreading 
throughout  the  Soudan.  .  .  .  Meantime  the 
Malidi's  prestige  was  ever  on  tlie  increase,  and 
he  soon  felt  sufllciently  strong  to  assume  the  offen- 
sive. Ills  troops  overran  Kordofan  and  Sennar, 
advancing  on  the  one  hand  to  the  town  of  Sennar, 
wiiicli  they  set  on  fire,  and  on  the  other  to  El- 
Obeid,  which  they  placed  in  a  state  of  siege.  In 
tlic  following  July  a  fresh  and  more  powerful  ex- 
pedition, this  time  numbering  6,000  men,  under 
',he  command  of  Yusauf  Pasha,  left  Fashoda  and 


made  towanls  the  Malidi's  headiiuartera.     Tt  mot 
with  no  better  fate  than  the  expeditions  that  had 

ScmelM'fore.  .  .  .  And  thenit  was  tliat  the  KngliNli 
'overnment,  dlHcerning  danger  for  Kgypt  In  this 
insurrection  of  Islam,  set  to  work  to  act  for  the 
Khedive.  It  told  olT  1 1,000  men,  and  placed  them 
under  the  communil  of  Hicks  I'asha,  ai  .)tllccr  in 
the  Kgyptian  service  who  hud  mude  the  Aliyssln- 
iun  campaign.  At  the  end  of  l)ecenit«'r  18H'i  this 
expcditmn  embarked  at  Suez  for  Suakln,  crossed 
the  desert,  reached  the  Nili^  at  Herber.  and  after 
much  endurance  on  the  way,  arrived  at  Khar- 
toum. Iiefori'  this,  Kl-()beid  had  fallen  into  tlio 
Malidi's  power,  and  there  he  had  taken  up  his 
lieu(l(|imrters.  Some  trilling  udvantages  were 
gained  by  Hicks,  but  having  entered  Koi<lofun 
with  till'  design  of  retaking  Kl-Obciil,  he  was, 
on  the.'ith  of  November  I88;t,  hemmed  In  umongst 
the  Kasgil  pussi'S,  und  ufter  three  diiys'  heroic 
(Iglitiiig,  his  urniy  of  iiboiit  10,000  men  was 
overpowered  by  a  force  live'  or  six  times  their 
superior  in  numbers,  und  completely  extermin- 
ated. Hicks  I'uslia  himself,  his  Kiiropeaii  staff, 
and  many  Kgypthm  olllcers  of  high  rank,  were 
among  the  dead,  and  forty-two  guns  fell  into  tlio 
hands  of  the  enemy.  Again,  not  a  man  was 
left  to  curry  the  fatal  tidings  to  Kliartoiini. 
Uel)ellion  conlinued  to  spread.  After  being 
agitated  for  months,  the  population  of  tlio 
Eastern  Soudan  al.so  niuile  a  rising.  Osmun 
Dignu,  the  foremost  of  the  Mulidi's  lieutenunts, 
occupied  the  roud  between  Suukin  and  Herber, 
and  siirrouniled  ,Sinkut  und  Tokar;  then,  having 
destroyed,  one  after  another,  two  Egyptian 
columns  that  had  been  despatched  for  the  relief 
of  tlieso  towns,  he  llnully  cut  oil  tlio  communi- 
cation between  Kiiartoum  and  tlio  Hed  Sea. 
The  tide  of  insurrection  by  this  timo  had  risen 
so  high  that  it  threatened  not  only  'o  over- 
throw the  Khedive's  authority  in  tho  Soudan, 
but  to  become  the  source  or  serious  |K'ril  to 
Egypt  itself." — A.  J.  Wauters,  Stanley's  Emin 
Patliii  Ejr-))editinn,  ch.  1-2. 

Also  in:  Maj.  U.  F.  Wingatc,  MaMii»m  and 
the  Egyptian  SuiUm,  bk.  1-4.— Col.  Sir.  W.  P. 
Butler,  Charles  Oeovi/e  Gordon,  ch.  5-6. — A.  E. 
Hake,  IVie  titury  of  Chinese  Gordon,  eh.  10-1  ,'>. 

A.  D.  1875-1882.— Bankruptcy  of  the  state. 
— English  and  French  control  of  finances. — 
Native  hostility  to  the  foreigners.  —  Rebel- 
lion, led  by  Arabi. — English  bombardment  of 
Alexandria.  —  "The  facilities  given  by  foreign 
money-lenders  encouraged  extravagance  and  os- 
tentation on  tho  part  of  the  sovereign  and  tho 
ruling  classes,  while  mismanagement  and  cor- 
rupt practices  were  common  among  oiflcials,  so 
tliat  the  public  debt  rose  in  1875  to  ninety-one 
millions,  and  in  January,  1881,  to  ninety-eight 
millions.  .  .  .  The  European  capitalists  obtained 
for  their  money  nominally  six  to  nine  per  cent. , 
but  really  not  less  tlian  eight  to  ten  percent.,  as 
the  bonds  were  issued  at  low  rates.  .  .  .  Theinter- 
eston  tliese  borrowed  miilionswaspunctuallypaid 
up  to  the  end  of  1875,  when  the  Khedive  found 
that  ho  could  not  satisfy  his  creditors,  and  tlio 
British  government  interfered  in  his  favour.  Mr. 
Cave  was  sent  to  examine  into  Egyptian  finances, 
and  ho  reported  that  loans  at  twelve  and  thirteen 
per  cent,  were  being  agreed  to  and  renewed  at 
twenty-five  per  cent.,  and  that  sorncmeasure  of 
consolidation  was  necessary.  The  two  western 
Powers  now  took  the  matter  in  hand,  but  they 
thereby  recognized  the  whole  of  those  usurious 


763 


EOVPT,  187(V-188a. 


Arnhi't  Ktvoll. 


KOYIT,   l875-18Ha. 


demandii.  Tlie  ilebt,  although  under  their  onn- 
tnil,  itnil  llicn'forc  iMTun*il,  wiui  nut  rciliiml  liy 
thr  iiiiioiinl  iilrcitily  pnld  i  iirciiiiuiim  tn  rlHk. 
Hot  witH  tlir  ntti>  III  iiitcrcHl  diiiiiniNlii'd  to  luiniC' 
tbiott  iiioro  tu'iirly  upproiu'hiiiK  Hi*^  rittc  pityidilc 
on  KnKliHh  i'oiihdIh,  which  was  thn'(^  per  (-cnt. 
A  trnninal  uiidrr  thi!  Jurihdii'tioii  of  united 
Eiiropctwi  ittid  tmtivc  JudgcH  wiih  uIho  ('Htnl)liiilu-d 
In  K^ypt  to  di<ci<l(!  complikintH  of  forciKiicrH 
•K»inHt  nittivrR,  nnd  viiT  vrrwi.  In  May,  IH70, 
thlH  tril)unal  ifiivv  ludKinciit  tliat  tlic  income  of 
till'  Klicdive  iHmall,  from  IdH  private  landed 
nniperty,  eoidd  \m:  iippropriatcd  to  pay  tlie  ercil- 
ItorH  <if  tliu  Htate,  and  an  execution  wan  ])ut  into 
the  Viceregal  palace,  Kr  Kamleli,  near  Alex- 
andria. Tlie  Khedivi^  pninounecd  tlie  Judgment 
Invalid,  and  the  triliiinal  ccam'd  to  act.  Two 
conunisHioners  vvero  now  again  Mcnt  to  report  on 
Kgyntian  (InanceH — M.  .loubert,  tlie  director  of 
the  I'arin  Hank,  for  France,  and  Mr.  Ooschen,  a 
former  udnlKler,  for  Kneland.  Th-ne  gentlemen 
propoHcd  to  liuiid  over  the  control  the  flnanccH 
to  two  Kiiropeans,  depriving  tlii^  Htate  of  all 
Independence  and  governing  power.  The  Khe- 
dive, in  order  to  rcHlHt  thcHu  demandH,  convoked 
0  Hort  of  I'arllamcnt  in  order  to  maki;  an  appeal 
to  the  people.  From  this  I'arllament  was  after- 
wari's  developed  the  Assembly  of  Notables,  and 
the  National  iiarty,  now  so  often  spoken  of.  In 
1HT7  a  Kuropean  commission  of  control  over 
Kgyptiaii  llnance  was  named.  .  .  .  Nubar  Pasha 
was  made  I'rime  minister  in  1H7H;  tli«!  control  of 
the  tlnances  was  entrusted  to  Mr.  Wilson,  an 
Knglishnian;  nnd  lat4;r,  the  French  controller,  M. 
do  liligniisres,  entered  the  (,'ablnet.  Better  order 
was  ihus  restored  to  the  finances,  liothschiid's 
new  loan  of  eight  and  a  half  millions  was  issued 
at  seventy-three,  and  therefore  brought  in  from 
six  to  eight  per  cent.  nett.  .  .  .  But  to  be  able 
to  pay  the  en  ditors  their  full  interest,  economy 
had  t'>  be  iutruduce<l  into  the  national  expendi- 
ture. To  do  this,  clumsy  arrangements  were 
made,  and  the  injustice  shown  in  carrying  them 
out  embittered  many  classes  of  the  population, 
nnd  laid  tin;  foimdations  of  a  fanatical  hatred  of 
race  against  race.  ...  In  consc(iuence  of  all 
this,  the  majority  of  the  notables,  many  ulemas, 
oflicers,  and  higher  oflicials  among  the  Egyptians, 
formed  themselves  into  a  National  party,  with 
the  object  of  resisting  the  oppressive  govern- 
ment of  the  foreigner.  They  were  joined  by  the 
great  mass  of  the  discharged  soldiers  aiul  sub- 
ordimite  ollicia''*,  not  to  mention  many  others. 
At  the  end  of  tebruary,  1870,  a  revolt  broke  out 
in  Cairo.  Nubar,  hated  by  the  Nation xl  party, 
■was  dismissed  by  the  Khedive  Ismail,  wlio  in- 
stalled his  son  Tewtik  as  Prime  minister.  In 
conseciuence  of  this,  the  coupons  duo  in  April 
were  not  paid  till  the  beginning  of  Jlay,  and  the 
western  Powers  demanded  the  reinstatement  of 
Nubar.  Tliat  Tewtik  on  this  occasion  retired 
nnd  sided  with  the  foreigners  is  the  chief  cause 
of  his  present  [1882]  unpopularity  in  Egypt. 
Ismail,  however,  now  dismis.scd  Wdson  and  l)e 
Blignieres,  and  a  Cabinet  was  formed,  consisting 
chiefly  of  native  Egyptians,  with  Slierif  Pasha 
as  Prime  minister.  Slicrif  now  raised  for  tlie 
lii-st  tiini-  the  cry  of  which  wo  have  since  heard 
so  much,  and  which  was  inscribed  by  Arabi  on 
his  banner^,  'Egypt  for  the  Egyptians.'  Tho 
western  Powers  retorted  by  a  menacing  naval 
demonstration,  and  demanded  of  the  Sultan  the 
deposition  of  the  Khedive.     In  June,  1879,  this 


demand  wim  Agreed  to.  Iimnil  went  into  exile, 
and  his  place  was  tilled  by  Mahomed  Tewllk. 
.  .  .  The  new  Klie<live,  with  apathetic  weak- 
nesfi,  yiehled  the  n'constructlon  of  his  mlnlHtry 
and  theorgani/ationof  Ids  lliiaiices  to  the  weslern 
Powers.  Mr.  Baring  and  M.  de  Blignii^reH,  aw 
commisHionerM  of  tlie  control,  aided  tiy  olllcials 
named  by  Holhschild  to  watch  over  his  iirivato 
interests,  now  ruled  the  land.  They  ilevotttd 
forty  live  millions  (about  sixteen  shillings  per 
head  on  th(>  entire  population)  to  the  payment  of 
interest.  The  people  were  embiltereif  by  tho 
distrust  shown  towards  them,  and  the  further 
reduction  of  the  army  from  fifty  to  fifteen 
thousand  men  threw  a  hirge  number  out  of 
employment.  .  .  .  Many  acts  of  military  insub- 
ordination iH'curred,  nnd  at  last,  on  the  8th  of 
NovenilMT,  1881,  the  gn'iit  military  revolt  broke 
out  in  ('airo.  .  .  .  Alinied  Arabi,  colonel  of  tho 
4th  regiment,  now  llrst  canii!  into  juiliHc  notice, 
Heveral  regiments,  lieaded  by  their  olllcers, 
ojienly  rebelled  against  the  orders  of  tlio 
Khedive,  who  was  compelled  to  reci.ll  llio 
nationalist,  .Sherif  Pasha,  and  to  refer  the  further 
demands  of  the  rebels  for  the  increase  of  tho 
army,  and  for  a  constitutio:  to  the  Hultan. 
Sherif  Pasha,  however,  did  noi,  long  enjoy  tho 
contldenci^  of  the  National  Egy|)tian  party,  at 
wlios<'  head  Arabi  now  stood,  winning  every  day 
more  reputation  nnd  inlluence.  The  army,  in 
wliich  li(!  permitted  great  laxity  of  discipline, 
was  entirely  devoted  to  him.  ...  A  pretended 
plot  of  Circassian  olllcers  against  his  life  he  dex- 
terously used  to  increase  his  popularity.  .  .  . 
Twenty-six  oflicers  were  condemned  to  death  by 
court-martial,  but  the  Khedive,  at  the  instance 
of  tlie  western  Powers,  conunuted  tho  sentence, 
and  they  were  banished  to  Constanlinople.  This 
leniency  was  stigmatizeil  by  the  National  party 
as  treachery  to  tlie  country,  and  tin;  (,'liamber  of 
Notables  retorted  by  naming  Arabi  commander- 
in-cliief  of  tho  army  and  Prime  minister  witliout 
asking  tlie  Cimsent  of  the  Khedive.  Tlio  ('liam- 
bcr  8(xm  afterwards  came  into  conflict  wifli  tho 
foreign  comptrollers.  .  .  .  This  ended  i'l  Do 
Bligni^res  resigning  his  post,  nnd  in  the  J!ay  of 
tho  present  year  (1882)  the  consuls  ov  the 
European  Powers  declared  that  a  fleet  of  EngHL't 
and  French  ironclads  would  appear  before  Alex- 
andria, to  demand  tlio  disbanding  of  the  army 
and  the  j  •nishment  of  its  lendei's.  The  thrent 
wns  realizev.,  nnd,  in  spite  of  protests  from  tho 
Sultan,  a  fleet  of  English  and  French  irom^lada 
entered  tho  harbour  of  Alexandria.  Tlie  Khe- 
dive, at  tho  advice  of  his  ministers  and  the 
chiefs  of  tho  National  party,  appealed  to  tho 
Sultan.  .  .  .  The  popular  hatred  of  foreigners 
now  became  more  and  more  apparent,  antl  be- 
gan to  assume  threatening  dimensions.  .  .  .  On 
tlie  30th  of  May,  Arabi  announced  that  a  des- 
patch from  the  Sultan  had  reached  him,  prom- 
ising the  deposition  of  Tewtik  in  favour  <)f  his 
uncle  Ilalim  Pasha.  ...  On  tho  3rd  of  June, 
Dervish  Pa.slia,  a  man  of  energy  notwithstanding 
his  years,  had  sailed  from  Constantinople.  .  .  . 
His  object  was  to  pacify  Egypt  and  to  reconcile 
Tewflk  and  Arabi  Pasha.  .  .  .  Since  the  ptibll- 
cation  of  the  despatch  purporting  to  proclaim 
Ilalim  Pasha  as  KUedive,  Arabi  had  done  noth- 
ing towards  dethroning  the  actual  ruler.  But 
on  the  2nd  of  June  he  began  to  strengthen  the 
fortifications  of  Alexandria  with  earthworks. 
.  .  .  Tho    British   admiral   protested,   and    tho 


764 


EOYIT,  1875-1882. 


ttintibiiittmrnt  n/ 
Alejandria. 


KfJYPT,   I883-I88it. 


Siilliin,  on  till!  rcmonHtriiiici'M  of  ItritiHli  iliplo 
iiiiicy,  fiirliiul  till'  ('iiiilliiiiiitliiii  of  till'  works. 
.  .  .  KcrioiiH  iliMliirliiiiu'i'M  look  plurc  In  Ali'X 
iinilria  on  till)  lltli.  'I'lic  ihiIIvk  niblili'  liivi.ili'il 
till'  Kiiropi'iin  iiuiirtcr,  pliiiiiliTi'd  tin-  Hlioim,  tiinl 
h1(!W  miiny  forol^niTH.  .  .  .  'riioiiKli  IIiimIIhIui'Ii' 
iiiH'i'.'*  wcri!  not  rciirwi'il,  ii  ({I'lirral  riiilKnilioii  of 
fori'ljfiH'rti  wiiH  till'  n'tiuU.  ...  On  llir  "J'Jnil  u 
roininiiution,  coiiHUtinf;  of  niiu'  iiiitivrH  iiiiil  ninr 
Kuropvana  ,  ,  .  Iii'gun  to  try  tlio  riiiKli'uili'rM  of 
tlio  riot.  .  .  .  Hut  cvi'ntM  wito  liiirryluK  on 
towiinU  wiir.  Till!  workH  iit  Ali'Xiinimii  wrn' 
n'roinincnccd,  luiil  tlii!  fortilli'iitiimx  iiriiii'il  with 
lii'iivy  ifMax.  Till!  KngliHli  iiiliiiiriil  rrcrivi'il  iii- 
furniittion  that  tin;  I'litninro  to  tliu  Imrlioiir  wouhl 
III!  Iilorki'il  by  Hiiiikun  Htori-NliipH,  anil  tliix,  ho 
ilccliiri'il,  woiilii  1)1!  iin  art  of  oprn  war.  A  foin- 
plrli'  sL'liinif  for  the  ilrstriiclion  of  tin-  Sui'Z 
canal  wiih  iiIho  iliHrovi'ri'il.  .  .  .  Thu  KiiKliiih,  on 
thfir  Hitli',  now  liof^un  to  niukr,  hoHtili!  ilriiioiistra- 
tioim;  unil  Anilii,  wliili!  rcpiiiliatinK  wiuliko 
iliti'ntioiiH,  ili'dart'ii  liinisi'lf  rraily  for  rcHislaiia!. 
.  .  .  On  till!  ^7lli  the  Kn);liHh  vicc-iHiiiHul  ailviHi'il 
his  ft'lloW't.'oiiiitrynu>n  to  loavti  Aluxaniiria,  uml 
on  till!  Ilrd  of  .Inly,  iKiorillii)?  to  tin:  'Timi'S,'  tlio 
arniii>?i'nii!iitH  for  var  wrri;  coiiipli'ti'.  .  ,  .  Finally, 
iiH  a  rcconuaiiiNaiicL'  on  tho  Utii  hIiowi'iI  that  tliu 
fortH  WLTU  Htill  lii'ing  Htri!nKthi!ni!d,  hi;  [tliu 
KnKli.ih  adiiiiral|  informed  the  ftoveriior  of  Alex- 
andria, /ultiiar  I'aHlia,  that  unlL'-sx  the  forts  liad 
been  previously  evaluated  and  surrendered  to 
tiie  Kn^lish,  he  iuteniliil  to  loinnience  tiie  boni- 
liardnient  at  four  the  next  morning.  ...  As  the 
French  government  were  unable  to  take  part  in 
any  active  ineasure.i  (a  grant  for  that  purpose 
having  been  refused  by  the  National  Assembly), 
tho  greater  part  of  their  licet,  under  Admiral 
Conrad,  left  Alexandria  for  Port  Said.  The 
ironcliuls  of  other  nations,  more  tlian  fifty  in 
number,  anchored  outside  the  harl«)ur  of  Alex- 
andria. .  .  .  On  the  evening  of  the  lOlli  of  .luly 
.  .  .  and  at  daybreak  on  the  nth,  the  .  .  .  iron- 
clads tix)k  up  the  positions  assigned  to  them. 
There  was  a  gentle  breeze  from  the  east,  and  the 
weather  was  dear.  At  0.30  a.  ni.  all  the  ships 
were  cleared  for  action.  At  seven  the  admiral 
signalled  to  tho  Alexandra  to  Are  a  shell  into  Fort 
Ada.  .  .  .  Tho  first  siiot  tired  from  tho  Alex- 
audni  was  immediately  replied  to  liy  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  whereupon  the  ships  of  tho  whole  fleet  and 
the  Egyptian  forts  and  batteries  opened  lire,  and 
the  engagement  became  general.  ...  At  8.1i0 
Fort  Marsa-ellvanat  was  blown  up  by  shells 
from  the  Invincible  and  Monarcli,  and  by  nine 
o'clock  tho  Temeraire,  Monarcli,  and  Penelope  had 
gilenced  most  of  the  guns  in  Fort  Meks,  although 
four  iletied  every  effort  from  their  protected  sit- 
uation. By  11.45  Forts  Marabout  and  Adjomi 
had  ceased  firing,  and  a  landing  party  of  seamen 
and  marines  was  dosputclied,  under  cover  of  tlie 
Uittern's  guns,  to  spike  and  blow  up  the  guns  in 
tlie  forts.  At  1.30  a  shell  from  tlie  Superb  burst 
in  the  chief  powder  magazine  of  Fort  Ada  and 
blow  it  up.  By  four  o'clock  all  tho  guns  of  Fort 
Pharos,  and  lialf  an  hour  later  those  of  Fort  Meks, 
were  disabled,  and  at  5.30  tlie  admiral  ordered 
tlie  firing  to  cease.  Tlie  ships  were  reiieutedly 
struck  and  sustained  some  damage.  .  .  .  Tlie  Eng- 
lish casualties  were  five  killed  and  twenty-eight 
wounded,  a  comparatively  small  loss.  The  Egyp- 
tian loss  is  not  known.  ...  At  1  p.  m.  on  the  12th 
of  July,  the  white  flag  was  hoisted  by  the  Egyp- 
tians.   Admiral  tsoymour  demanded,  as  a  prelimi 


imry  nieasurc.  the  Hurrriiiirr  of  the  fort*  com- 
iiiiiiiiling  the  I'litranri'  to  the  harlMiiir,  and  the  dc- 
goliatliiliHon  this  po<"  were  fruitlcHHly  protraiU'it 
fur  some  liourM.  As  night  apiiroai  lied  llie  city  wiih 
Ki'i'ii  to  be  on  tiri'  in  many  places,  and  the  tranies 
were  Npreading  in  all  dlret'tloiiM.  Thi!  Kngliiili 
now  iH'rame  aware  that  the  whlU'Mag  had  nieri'ly 
iH-en  used  as  means  to  gain  lime  for  a  liasty 
I'vaciialliiii  of  Alexandria  by  Ariilil  and  his  army. 
Hailors  and  niarines  were  now  laiideil,  and  slilpH 
of  other  nations  sent  drtaehnients  on  Klmre  to 
tiroteet  llieir  countrymen.  Hut  it  wastiHilatu; 
Hedouiiis,  convicts,  and  ill  iliselplined  Hohlieni 
had  plundered  and  burnt  tile  Kiiropean  quarter, 
killed  many  foreigners,  and  a  Keiiter's  telegram 
of  the  14tli  Hiiid,  'Alexandria  Is  completely  de- 
stroyed.'"—II.  Vogt,  T/w  h'l/yiilian  Han/ 1882, 

pp.  a-3a. 

Ai.Hi)  IN.  ,r.  C.  McCoau,  Kiji/i'l  umkr  Imutil, 
eh.  8-10. — ('.  Uoyle,  The  Kt/j/iitiu u  (Mmikiij/iui, 
r.  1,  •,..  1-20.— AViffiiv*  and  I'lmhiu.  —  V.  F. 
Ooixlrich,  Ilfpt.  oil.  Jliitinh  MUitni-y  and  Natnl 
Oi>eratii>ii>  in  K'/i/iil,  \Wi,  pt.  I. 

A.  D.  1883-1883.—  The  masMcre  and  de- 
struction in  Alexandria.  -DecUr::d  rebellion  of 
Arabi.—  Its  suppression  by  the  English. — 
Banishment  of  Arabi.—  Engrlish  occupation. 
— The  city  of  Alexandria  had  become  "  such  u 
Beetle  of  pillage,  massacre,  and  wanton  destruc- 
tiim  as  to  make  tlie  vorld  sliudder.  It  was  the 
old  tale  of  horrors.  1  louses  were  plundered  and 
burned;  the  Europe .11  (iiiarter,  including  the 
stately  buildings  sur  ounding  the  Great  Siiuare 
of  Meheiiiel  All,  was  Harked  and  left  a  heap  of 
smoldering  ruins;  and  more  than  two  IhoUNanil 
Europeans,  for  the  most  part  Levantines,  were 
massacred  with  all  the  cruelty  of  oriental  fanati- 
cism. This  was  on  tlie  afternoon  of  tho  12th. 
It  was  the  second  masNacro  that  had  occurred 
under  tho  very  eyes  of  the  British  fleet.  Tho 
admiral's  fidlure  to  prevent  it  has  ,  een  called 
unfortunate  by  some  and  criminal  by  others.  It 
seems  to  have  been  wholly  witliout  excuse.  .  .  . 
The  blue-jackets  were  landed  on  the  13th,  and 
cleared  the  way  before  them  witli  a  Galling  gun. 
The  next  day,  more  ships  having  arrived,  a 
surtieiont  forco  was  landed  to  take  iiossession  of 
the  entire  city.  Tho  khi  i vo  was  escorted  back 
to  Uas-elTin  from  liamieli,  and  given  a  strong 
guard.  Summary  justice  was  dealt  out  to  all 
hostile  Arabs  who  had  been  captured  in  tho 
city.  In  sliort,  English  intervention  was  fol- 
lowed by  Eiiglisli  occupation.  Tlie  bombardment 
of  Alexandria  liad  defined  clearly  the  respect- 
ive positions  of  Arabi  and  the  khodive  toward 
Egypt  and  tho  Egyptian  people.  .  .  .  Tli«' 
kliedive  was  not  only  weak  in  the  eyes  of  his 
people,  but  he  was  regarded  as  tlie  tool  of  Eng- 
land. .  .  .  From  the  moment  tho  first  shot  was 
tired  upon  Alexandria  .Vrabi  was  tlio  real  ruler 
of  tho  lieopie.  .  .  .  The  conference  at  Con- 
stantinople was  stirred  by  tho  news  of  tho  Ixim- 
bardment  of  Alexandria.  It  presented  a  note 
to  tlio  Porte,  July  15,  requesting  the  dispatch 
of  Turkish  troops  to  restore  tlio  status  quo  in 
Egypt.  But  the  sultan  had  no  idea  of  taking 
the  part  of  tlie  Cliri.stian  in  wliat  all  Islam  re- 
garded as  a  conte.' t  between  tho  Moslem  and  tho 
unbeliever.  .  .  .  In  Egypt,  tlie  khedivo  had  been 
prevailed  upon,  after  sonic  demur,  to  proclaim 
Arabi  a  rebel  and  discharge  him  from  his  cabinet. 
Arabi  had  issued  a  counter- iirociamation,  on  tlie 
some  day,  doclaring  Towtik  a  traitor  to  his  peoplu 


65 


EGYPT,   1882-1883. 


ne  English 
Campaiyn. 


EGYPT,  1883-1883. 


nnil  his  religion.  Having  received  the  new8  of 
the  liliediveH  prfxjiimalion,  Lord  Diifferin,  the 
Britisli  umbassiulor  iit  ConBtnntinople,  iinnouneed 
to  tlie  conference  tliiit  KngliUKl  was  about  to 
Bend  an  expedition  to  Kfiypt  to  suppres-s  tlie 
rel)elIion  and  to  restore  tlie  aiitliority  of  tlie 
kiredive.  Tliereupon  the  sultan  declared  that 
lie  had  decided  to  send  a  Turkish  expedition. 
Lord  Dulferiii  feigned  to  accept  the  sultan's  co- 
operation, but  demanded  that  the  Porte,  as  a 
lircliminary  .step,  should  declare  Arabi  a  rebel. 
Again  the  sultan  was  confronted  with  the  dan- 
ger of  incurring  the  wrath  of  the  Moslem  world. 
He  could  not  dec^lare  Arabi  a  rebel.  ...  In 
his  desp(Tatioii  lie  sent  a  force  of  3,000  men 
to  !Su(ia  bay  with  orders  to  hold  themselves  in 
readiness  to  enter  Egypt  at  a  moment's  notice. 
...  In  the  meantime,  however,  the  English 
expedition  had  arrived  in  Egypt  and  was  pro- 
cee<ling  to  crush  the  rebellion,  regardless  of  the 
diidoniatic  delays  and  bickerings  at  Constanti- 
nople, ...  It  was  not  until  the  15tli  of  August 
that  Sir  Garnet  \Vt)lseley  arrived  with  his  force 
in  Egypt.  Tlie  English  at  that  time  held  only 
two  points,  Alexandria  and  Suez,  while  the  en- 
tire Egyptian  interior,  as  well  as  Port  Said 
and  Ismailia,  were  held  'ly  Arabi,  whose  force, 
it  was  estimated,  now  OMOunted  to  about  70,000 
men,  of  whom  :\\,  least  50,000  were  regulars. 
Th('  objective  point  of  General  AVolseley's  ex- 
pedition to  crush  Arabi  was,  of  course,  the  city 
of  Oairo.  Th-^rc  were  two  ways  of  approaching 
that  city,  one  from  Alexantlria,  through  the 
Delta,  and  the  other  from  the  Suez  canal.  There 
were  many  objections  to  the  former  route.  .  .  . 
The  Suez  canal  was  supposed  to  be  neutral 
water.  .  .  .  But  England  felt  n.j  obligation  to 
recognize  any  neutrality,  .  .  acting  upon  the 
principle,  which  is  doubtless  sound,  that  '  the 
neutrality  of  any  cana!  joining  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  will  be  maintained, 
if  at  all,  by  the  nation  which  can  place  and  keep 
tlie  strongest  ships  at  each  extremity.'  In  other 
■words.  General  Wolseley  decided  to  enter  Cairo 
by  way  of  the  Suez  canal  and  Ismailia.  But  he 
kept  his  plan  a  profound  secret.  Admiral  Sey- 
mour alone  knew  his  purpose.  ...  On  the  19th, 
the  transports  moved  eastward  from  Alexandria, 
as  if  to  attack  Abukir;  but  under  the  cover  of 
darkiiess  the.t  niiilit,  they  were  escorted  on  to 
Port  Said,  whei  'ley  learned  that  the  entire 
canal,  owing  t  the  preconcerted  action  of 
Admiral  Scymou:,  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
British.  On  tlie  Slst,  the  troops  met  Sir  Henry 
McPherson's  Indian  contingent  at  Ismailia.  Two 
days  were  now  consumed  in  rest  and  prepara- 
tion. Tlio  Egyptians  cut  off  the  water  supply, 
■which  came  from  the  Delta  by  the  Sweet  Water 
canal,  by  damming  the  canal.  A  sortie  to  secure 
possession  of  the  dam  ■was  therefore  deemed 
necessary,  and  was  successfully  made  on  the 
84th.  Further  advances  were  made,  and  on  the 
26th,  Kassassin,  a  stati-jn  of  some  importance  on 
the  caual  and  railway,  was  occupied.  Here  the 
British  force  was  obliged  to  delay  for  two  weeks, 
while  organizing  a  hospital  and  a  transport  ser- 
vice. This  gave  Arabi  opportunitv  to  concen- 
trate his  forces  at  Zagazig  and  'Tel-el-Kcbir. 
But  he  knew  it  was  for  his  interest  to  strike  at 
once  before  the  British  transports  could  come  up 
with  the  advance.  He  therefore  made  two 
attempts,  one  on  August  28,  and  the  other  on 
September  9,  to  regain  the  position  lost  at  Kas- 


sassin. But  he  failed  in  both,  though  inflicting 
.some  loss  upon  his  opponents.  On  the  12tli  of 
September  ))reparations  were  made  by  General 
Wolseley  for  a  decisive  battle.  He  had  become 
convinced  from  daily  reconuoissiuice  and  from 
the  view  obtaineil  in  the  engagement  of  Septem- 
ber 9,  that  the  fortifications  at  Telel-Kebir  were 
both  extensive  and  formidable.  ...  It  was 
therefore  deciiled  to  make  the  approach  under 
cover  of  darkness.  .  .  .  At  1.30  on  the  morning 
of  the  llith  General  Wolseley  gave  the  onler  for 
the  advance,  his  force  consisting  of  about  11,000 
infantry,  2,000  cavalrymen,  and  sixty  fleld-guns. 
They  had  only  the  stars  to  guide  them,  but  so 
aceiirately  was  the  movement  conducted  that  the 
leading  brigades  of  each  division  reacliiMl  the 
enemy's  outposts  within  two  minutes  of  each 
other.  '  The  enemy  (says  General  Wolseley^ 
were  completely  surpri.sed,  and  it  was  not  until 
one  or  two  of  their  advanced  sentries  flrcfl  their 
rifles  that  they  realized  our  close  proximity  to 
their  ■ivorks. '  .  .  .  The  intrenclinients  were  not 
carried  without  a  severe  struggle.  The  Egyp- 
tians fought  with  a  desperate  courage  and 
hundreds  of  them  were  bayoneted  at  their  posts. 
.  .  .  But  what  could  the  rank  mid  tile  accom- 
plish when  'each  ollicer  knew  that  he  would  run, 
but  hoped  his  neighbor  would  stay.'  At  the 
first  shot  Arabi  and  his  second  in  command  took 
horse  and  galloped  to  Belbeis,  where  they  caught 
a  train  for  Cairo.  Slost  of  the  other  olricers,  as 
the  reports  of  killed  and  woimded  show,  did 
the  same.  The  Egyptians  (ired  their  tirst  shot 
at  4.55  A.  M.,  and  at  0.45  the  English  had  pos- 
session of  Arabi's  headquarters  and  the  canal 
bridge.  The  British  loss  was  57  killed,  880 
wounded,  and  22  missing.  The  Egyptian  army 
left  about  2,000  dead  in  the  fortitications.  .  .  . 
A  proof  of  the  completeness  of  the  success  was 
the  entire  dissipation  of  Arabi's  army.  Groups 
of  soldiers,  it  is  true,  were  scattered  to  different 
parts  of  Egypt ;  but  the  army  organization  was 
completely  broken  up  with  the  battle  of  Tel-el- 
Kebir.  .  .  .  '  Major-Qeneral  Lowe  was  ordered 
to  push  on  with  all  possible  speed  to  Cairo. 
.  ,  .  General  Lowe  [reached]  the  gi'eat  barracks 
of  Abbassieh,  just  outside  of  C.;i"o,  at  4.45  P.  M., 
on  the  14tli  instant.  The  cavalry  marched  sixty- 
five  miles  in  these  two  days.  ...  A  message 
was  sent  to  Arabi  Pasha  through  the  prefect  of 
the  city,  calling  upon  him  to  surrender  forth- 
with, which  he  did  uncondii-'onally.' .  .  .  Before 
leaving  England.  Wolseley  had  predicted  that  he 
would  enter  Cairo  on  tlie  16th  of  September; 
but  with  still  a  day  to  sp,are  the  feat  was  accom- 
plished, and  Arabi's  rebellion  was  completely 
crushed.  England  now  stood  alone.  Victory 
had  been  won  without  the  aid  of  Prance  or  the 
intervention  of  Turkey.  In  Constantinople  ne- 
gotiations regarding  iTurkish  expeditions  were 
still  pending  when  Lord  Dufferin  received  the 
news  of  Wolseley's  success,  and  announced  to 
the  Porte  that  there  was  now  no  need  of  a 
'Turkish  force  in  Egypt,  as  the  war  was  ended. 
France  at  once  prepared  to  resume  her  share  in 
the  control ;  but  Eugland,  having  borne  the  sole 
burden  of  tl'.e  war,  did  not  propose  now  to  share 
the  influence  her  success  had  given  her.  And  It 
was  for  the  interest  of  Egypt  that  she  should 
not.  .  .  .  England's  first  duty,  after  quiet  was 
assured,  was  to  send  away  all  the  British  troops 
except  a  force  of  obout  11,000  men,  which  it 
was  deemed  advisable  to  retain  in  Egypt  until 


766 


EGYPT,  1883-1883. 


Oeneral  Gordon  at 
Khario\tm. 


EGYPT,  1884-1885. 


the  klicdivc'g  mithnrity  was  placed  on  n  safe 
footing  tlirougliout  tlio  land.  .  .  .  Wliat  sliould 
be  done  with  Arahi  was  tlie  (jucation  of  para- 
mount interest,  wlicn  once  tlic  khedive's  aiitlior- 
Ity  was  rc-estJiblished  and  recognized.  Tcwflk 
and  his  ministers,  if  left  to  tliemselves,  wouhl 
«n(iii08tional)ly  liavo  taken  his  life.  .  .  .  But 
England  was  determined  that  Arnbi  should  have 
a  fair  trial.  .  .  It  was  decided  that  the  rebel 
leaders  should  appear  before  a  military  tribunal, 
and  they  were  given  English  counsel  to  plead 
their  cause.  .  .  .  The  trial  was  a  farce.  Every- 
thing was  '  cut  and  dried '  beforehand.  It  -./as 
arranged  that  Arabi  was  to  plead  guilty  to  re- 
bellion, that  be  was  forthwith  to  bo  condemned 
to  death  by  the  cpurt,  and  tliat  the  khedivo 
was  inuncfiiately  to  commute  the  sentence  to 
perpetual  exile.  In  fact,  the  necessary  jiapers 
■were  drawn  up  and  signed  before  the  court 
met  for  Arabi's  trial  on  December  3.  .  .  .  On 
the  26th  of  December  Arabi  and  his  six  com- 
panions .  .  .  upon  whom  the  same  sentence  had 
been  passed,  left  Cairo  for  the  Islaud  of  Ceylon, 
there  to  spend  their  life  of  perpetual  exile.  .  . 
Lord  Dullerin  .  .  .  had  been  sent  from  Con- 
Btantinoplc  to  Cairo,  early  in  November,  with 
the  special  mission  of  bringing  order  out  of 
governmental  chaos.  In  two  months  he  had 
prepared  a  scheme  of  legislative  reorganization. 
This  was,  however,  somewhat  altered ;  so  that  it 
■was  not  until  May,  1883,  that  the  plan  in  its 
improved  form  was  occepted  by  the  decree  of  the 
khedive.  The  new  constitution  provided  for 
three  clas-ses  of  assemblies:  the  'Legislative 
Council,'  the  '  General  Assembly,'  ond  the  '  Pro- 
vincial Councils,'  of  which  there  were  to  be 
fourteen,  one  for  each  province.  .  .  .  Every 
Egyptian  man,  over  twenty  years  of  age,  was  to 
■vote  (by  ballot)  for  an  '  elector-delegate  '  from 
the  village  in  the  neighborhowl  of  which  he 
lived,  and  the  'electors-delegate'  from  all  the 
villages  in  a  province  were  to  form  the  constitu- 
ency that  should  elect  the  provincial  council. 
.  .  .  The  scheme  for  reorganization  was  carried 
forward  to  the  extent  of  electing  the  'electors- 
delegate'  in  September;  but  by  that  time  Egypt 
was  again  in  a  state  of  such  disquietude  that  tlis 
British  advisers  of  the  khedive  considered  it  un- 
wise to  put  the  new  institutions  into  operation. 
In  place  of  legislative  council  and  general  assem- 
bly, the  khedive  appointed  a  council  of  state, 
consisting  of  eleven  Egvptians,  two  Annenians, 
and  ten  Europeans.  'The  reforms  were  set  aside 
for  the  time  being  in  view  of  impending  troubles 
and  dangers  in  the  Sudan."— J.  E.  Bowen,  T/ie 
Conflict  of  Edst  and  West  in,  Egypt,  eh.  5-6. 

Also  in  :  Col.  J.  F.  Maurice,  Military  Hist,  of 
the  Campaign  of  1883  in  Egypt. — C.  Royle,  The 
Egyptian  Campaigns,  v.  1,  ch.  22-44. 

A.  D.  1884-1885. — General  Gordon's  Mission 
to  Khartoum. — The  town  beleaguered  by  the 
Mahdists. — English  rescue  expedition. — The 
energy  that  was  too  late. — "The  abandonment 
of  tlie  Soudan  being  decided  upon,  the  British 
Government  confided  to  General  Gordon  the  task 
of  extricating  the  Egyptian  garrisons  scattered 
throughout  the  country.  .  .  .  Gordon's  original 
instructions  were  dated  the  18th  January,  1884. 
He  was  to  proceed  at  once  to  Egypt,  to  report  on 
the  military  situation  in  the  Soudan,  and  on  the 
measures  which  it  might  be  advisable  to  take  for 
the  security  of  the  Egyptian  garrisons  and  for 
the  safety  of  the  European  population  in  Khar- 


toum. .  ,  .  Hewas  to  be  accompanied  by  Colonel 
Stewart.  .  .  .  Gordon's  final  instructions  were 
given  him  by  the  Egyptian  Government  in  a 
firman  appointing  him  Governor-General.  .  .  . 
Gordon  arrived  at  Khartoum  on  the  18tli  Febru- 
ary. .  .  .  While  Gordon  was  scndini;  almost 
daily  expressions  of  his  view  as  to  the  o:dy  way 
of  carrying  out  the  policy  of  eventual  evacuation, 
it  was  also  becoming  clear  to  him  that  he  would 
very  soon  be  cu»  oft'  from  the  rest  of  Egypt.  His 
first  remark  on  this  subject  was  to  express  'the 
conviction  that  I  shall  be  caught  in  Khartoum ' ; 
and  he  wrote, — '  Even  if  I  was  mean  enough  to 
escape  I  have  no  power  to  do  so. '  The  accuracy 
of  this  forecast  was  speedily  demonstratecl. 
Within  a  few  days  communications  with  Khar- 
toum were  interrupted,  and  although  subse- 
(piently  restored  for  a  time,  the  rising  of  the 
riparian  tribes,  rendered  the  receipt  and  despatch 
of  messages  exceedingly  uncertain.  .  .  .  Long 
before  the  summer  of  1884,  it  was  evident  that 
the  position  of  Gordon  at  Khartoum  had  become 
so  critical,  that  if  he  were  to  be  rescued  at  all,  it 
could  only  be  by  the  despatch  of  a  British  force. 
.  .  .  Early  in  May,  war  preparations  were  com- 
menced in  England,  and  on  the  10th  of  the  month 
the  military  authorities  in  Cairo  received  instruc- 
tions to  prepare  for  the  despatch  in  October  of  an 
expedition  for  the  relief  of  the  Soudanese  capital. 
12,000  camels  wore  ordered  to  be  purchased  and 
held  in  readiness  for  a  forward  march  in  the 
autumn.  On  the  16th  May  a  half-battalion  of 
English  troops  was  moved  up  the  Nile  to  Wady 
Haifa.  A  few  weeks  later  some  other  positions 
on  the  Nile  were  occupied  by  portions  of  the 
Army  of  Occupation.  Naval  officers  were  also 
sent  up  the  river  to  examine  and  report  upon  the 
cataracts  and  other  impediments  to  navigation. 
Still  it  was  not  till  the  5th  August  that  Mr.  Glad- 
stone rose  in  the  House  of  Commons  tc  move  a 
vote  of  credit  of  £300,000  to  enable  the  Govern- 
ment to  undertake  operations  for  the  relief  of 
Gordon.  ...  It  was  agreed  that  there  were  but 
two  routes  by  which  Khartoum  could  be  ap- 
proached by  an  expedition.  One  by  way  of  the 
Nile,  and  the  other  via  Souakim  and  Berber.  .  .  . 
The  Nile  route  having  been  decided  on,  prepara- 
tions on  a  large  srOe  were  begun.  ...  It  was 
at  first  arranged  that  not  more  than  5,000  men 
should  form  the  Expedition,  but  later  on  the 
number  was  raised  to  7,000.  .  .  .  The  instruc- 
tions given  to  Lord  Wolseley  stated  that  the 
primary  object  of  the  Expedition  was  to  bring 
away  Gordon  and  Stewart  from  Khartoum ;  and 
when  that  purpose  should  be  effected,  no  further 
offensive  operations  of  any  kind  were  to  be  under- 
taken."— C.  Koyle,  The  Egyptian  Campaigns, 
1883-1885,  V.  2,  ch.  12-18.— "First,  it  was  said 
that  our  troops  would  be  before  the  gates  of 
Kliartoum  on  January  14th;  next  it  was  the  mid- 
dle of  February ;  and  then  the  time  stretched  out 
to  the  middle  of  March.  .  .  .  Lord  Wolseley 
offered  a  hundred  pounds  to  the  regiment  cover- 
ing the  distance  from  Sarras  to  Debbeh  most  ex- 
peditiously and  with  least  damage  to  boats.  .  .  . 
He  also  dispatched  Sir  Herbert  Stewart  on  the 
immortal  march  to  Gakdul.  Stewart's  force, 
composed  principally  of  the  Mounted  Infantry 
and  Camel  Corps,  and  led  by  a  troop  of  the  19tli 
Hussars,  acting  as  scouts  —  numbering  about 
1,100  in  all  —  set  out  from  Korti  on  December 
80th.  its  destination  was  about  100  miles  from 
headqu  irters,    and  about   80   from  the  Nile  at 


767 


EGYPT,  1884-1885. 


ELBA. 


Slicndy.  The onterpriso, dinicultanddcspcrateas 
it  wiis',  WHS  iicliieved  witli  pcTf(!ct  8ucct'S.s.  .  .  . 
On  lli(^  17th  Januury  Sir  llerbfrt  Stowiirf  enKiiged 
tlu!  ciieniy  on  thi^  roiul  to  Mctcnineh,  iind  after  de- 
feating some  10,000  Arabs — eollected  from  Ber- 
l)cr,  Metenmeli,  and  Omdurman — pushed  for- 
ward to  the  Abii  Klea  Wells.  His  tactics  were 
much  tlie  same  as  those  of  General  Graliani  at 
Eltelt,  and  those  of  the  Mahdi's  men  —  of  attacli- 
ing  wljcn  thirst  and  fatigue  liad  well-nigli  pros- 
trated the  force  —  were  at  all  points  similar  to 
those  adopted  against  Hicks.  Our  losses  were  05 
uon-coniMUssioned  oilicers  and  men  killed  and  85 
wounded,  with  9  olHeers  killed  —  among  them 
Colonel  Uurnaby — and  9  wounded.  Stewart  at 
once  pushed  on  "for  Metemneh  and  the  Nile.  He 
left  the  Wells  ou  the  18th  Jan.  to  occupy  Metem- 
ueh,  if  possible,  but,  failing  that,  to  make  for  the 
Kile  and  entrench  liimsclf .  After  a  night's  march, 
some  five  miles  south  of  Metemneh,  the  column 
found  itself  in  presence  of  an  enemy  said  to  have 
been  about  18,000  strong.  Stewart  halted  and 
formed  a  zareba  under  a  deadly  Are.  He  himself 
was  mortally  hurt  in  the  groin,  and  Sir.  Cameron, 
of  the  Standard,  and  Mr.  Herbert,  of  the  Morning 
Post,  were  killed.  The  zareba  completed,  the 
column  advanced  in  square,  and  the  Arabs,  profit- 
ing by  Abu  Klea,  moved  forward  in  echelon, 
apparently  with  the  purpose  of  charging.  At 
thirty  yards  or  so  they  were  brought  to  bay,  so 
terrific  was  the  lire  from  the  square,  ond  so  splen- 
didly served  was  Norton's  artillery.  For  two 
hours  the  battle  raged ;  and  then  the  Arabs, '  mown 


down  \n  heaps, '  gave  way.  Meantime  Sir  Charles 
Wilson  had  made  (>  dash  for  the  Nile,  where  he 
foimd  steamers  and  reinforcements  from  Gordon, 
and  the  laconic  messige,  '  All  right  at  Khartoum. 
Can  hold  out  for  yeirs.'.  .  .  In  the  joy  at  the 
good  news,  none  had  .itoppcd  to  consiuer  the  true 
meaning  of  the  message,  '  All  right.  Can  hokl 
out  for  j'ears,'  for  noni  was  aware  that  nearly 
two  months  before  Gordon  had  said  lie  had  just 
provisions  enough  for  40  days,  and  that  what  lie 
really  meant  was  that  hi  had  come  to  his  last 
biscuit.  The  message — \'hich  was  written  for 
the  enemy  —  was  dated  I)e;.  29,  luid  Sir  Charles 
Wilson  would  reach  Khartoum  on  Jan.  28,  just  a 
month  after  its  despatch.  .  .  .  The  public,  care- 
fully kept  in  ignonmce  .  .  .  and  hopeful  be- 
yond their  wont,  were  simply  stupefied  to  hear, 
on  Feb.  5,  that  Khartoum  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Alahdi  and  Gordon  captured  or  dead. "  — A.  E. 
Hake,  I'/te  Stmy  of  Chinene  Gordon,  v.  2,  eh. 
10. 

Also  in;  H.  M.  Stanley,  I/i.  Darkest  Africa, 
ch.  1.— Col.  H.  E.  Colvile,  llu't.  of  the  tiumlan 
Campaign. — Col.  C.  W.  Wilson,  From  Korti  to 
Khartoum.— Col  Sir  W.  F.  Butler,  The  Cam- 
jMtiyn  of  the  Cataracts. — W.  M.  Pimblett,  The 
Story  of  *M  Soudan  War. — Gen.  C.  G.  Gordon, 
Journals  at  Khartoum. — II.  W.  Gordon,  Events 
in  the  Life  of  Charles  George  Gord'»i ,  ch.  14-20. 

A.  D.  1893. — The  reigning  khv°dive. —  Mo- 
hamed  Tewtik  died  in  January,  1898  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Abbas,  born  in  1874. — 
Statesman's  Year-book,  1893. 


EGYPTIAN  EDUCATION.  See  Educa- 
tion, Anxient. 

EGYPTIAN  TALENT.    See  Talent. 

EIDGENOSSEN.— The  German  word  Eid- 
genossen,  signifying  "confederates,"  is  often 
used  in  a  special  sense,  historically,  as  applied  to 
the  members  of  the  Swiss  Confederation, —  see 
Switzerland:  The  Three  Forest  Cantons. 
The  name  of  tlie  Huguenots  is  believed  by  some 
writers  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  same  term. 

EIGHT  SAINTS  OF  WAR,  The.  See 
Florence:  A.  D.  1375-1378. 

EIKON  BASILIKE,  The.  See  England: 
A.  D.  1649  (February). 

EION,  Siege  and  capture  of  (B.  C.  470). 
See  Athens:  B.  C.  470-400. 

EIRE.     See  Ireland:  The  Name. 

EKKLESIA.     See  Ecclesia. 

EKOWE,  Defence  of  (1879).  See  South 
Africa:  A.  D.  1877-1879. 

ELAGABALUS,  Roman  Emperor,  A.  D. 
218-233. 

EL  AM. — "  Genesis  calls  a  tribe  dwelling  on 
the  Lower  Tigris,  between  the  river  and  the 
mountains  of  Iran,  the  Elamites,  the  oldest  son 
of  Shem.  Among  the  Greeks  the  land  of  the 
Elamites  was  known  as  Kissia  [Cissia],  and  after- 
wards as  Susiana,  from  the  name  of  the  capital. 
It  was  also  called  Ely  inuis." — M.  Dimcker,  Hist, 
of  Antiquity,  hk.  3,  ch.  1.— About  2300  B.  C. 
Ciialdea,  or  Babylonia,  was  overwhelmed  by  an 
Elamite  invasion  —  an  invasion  recorded  by  king 
.\sshurbanipal,  and  which  is  stated  to  have  laid 
waste  the  land  of  Accad  and  desecrated  its  tem- 
ples. "  Nor  was  this  a  passing  inroad  or  raid  of 
booty-seeking  mountaineers.  It  was  a  real  con- 
quest. Khudur-Nankhimdi  and  his  successors 
remained  in  Southeru  Chaldea.  .  .  .  This  is  the 
first  time  wc  meet  authentic  monumental  records 


of  a  country  which  was  destined  througli  the  next 
sixteen  centuries  to  be  in  continual  contact,  mostly 
hostile,  witli  both  Babylonia  and  her  ucrtlicrn 
rival,  Assyria,  until  its  final  annihilation  ly  the 
latter  [B.  C.  049,  under  Asshurbanipal,  the  Sar- 
dauapulusof  the  Greeks,  who  reduced  the  w.'iole 
country  to  a  wilderness].  Its  capital  was  Shusian 
(afterwards  pronounced  by  foreigners  Susa),  ai'd 
its  own  original  name  Shushinak.  Its  people  wei  'j 
of  Turanian  stock,  its  language  was  nearly  akin  tc 
that  of  Shumir  and  Accad.  .  .  .  Elam,  the  name 
under  which  the  country  is  best  known,  botli 
from  the  Bible  and  later  monuments,  is  a  Tura- 
nian word,  which  means,  like  'Accad,'  'High- 
lands.' .  .  .  One  of  Khudur-Nankhundi's  next 
successors,  Khudur-Lagamar,  was  not  content 
with  the  addition  of  Chaldea  to  his  kingdom  of 
Elam.  He  had  the  ambition  of  a  born  conqueror, 
and  the  generalship  of  one.  The  Chap.  xiv.  of 
Genesis  —  which  calls  him  Chedorlaomer  —  is  the 
only  document  we  have  descriptive  of  this  king's 
warlike  career,  and  a  very  striking  picture  it 
gives  of  it.  .  .  .  Khudur-Lagamar.  .  .  lived,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  probable  calculations,  about 
2200  B.  C."— Z.  A.  Ilagozin,  Story  of  Chaldea, 
ch.  4. —  It  is  among  the  discoveries  of  recent 
times,  derived  from  the  records  in  clay  tmcarthed 
in  Babylonia,  that  Cyrus  the  Great  was  originally 
king  of  Elam,  and  acquired  Persia,  as  lie  ac- 
quired his  later  dominions,  by  conquest. — See 
Persia,  B.  C.  549-531. — See,  also,  Babylonia. 

EL  ARISH,  Treaty  of.  See  France:  A.  D. 
1800  (January — June). 

ELBA:  A.  D.  1735.— Ceded  to  Spain  by 
Austria.     See  Franck:  A.  I).  1733-1735. 

A.  D.  1802. — Annexation  Co  France.  Sec 
France  :  A.  D.  1802  (August— September). 

A.  D.  1814.— Napoleon  in  exile.  See  France  : 
A.  D.  1814(MARcn— April),  and  (April— June). 


768 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX    A. 


NoTKB  TO  Ethnoquai'iiical  Map,  Placed  at  tiik  Beoinntno  of  this  Volcmb. 


TO  THE  eye  of  modern  sclinlnrship  "Inn- 
guiige  "  forms  the  basis  of  every  ethnic  dis- 
tinction. Pliysical  and  exterior  features 
lilfc  tlie  stature,  the  color  of  tlie  skin,  tlie  diversity 
of  habits  and  customs,  tlie  distinctions  which 
once  formed  in  ereat  part  the  l)asis  of  etlmic 
research  have  all  m  our  own  day  been  relegated 
to  a  subordinate  place. 

The  "language"  test  is  of  course  subject  to 
very  serious  limitations.  The  intermingling  of 
diff'-rent  peoples,  more  general  to  be  sure  in  our 
own  day  than  in  jjast  ages,  lias  nevertheless  been 
sutHciently  ^reat  in  every  age  to  make  the  trac- 
ing of  linguistic  forms  a  task  of  great  dilHculty. 
In  special  eases  where  both  the  civilization  and 
language  of  one  people  have  become  lost  in  that 
of  another  the  test  must  of  course  fail  utterly. 

With  all  these  restrictions  however  the  adop- 
tion of  the  linguistic  methotl  by  modern  criticism 
has  been  practically  universal.  Its  defence,  if  it 
requires  any,  is  ai)parent.  It  is  the  only  method 
of  ethnic  study  the  deductions  of  which,  where 
successful  at  all,  approach  anything  like  certainty. 
The  points  wherein  linguistic  criticism  has  failed 
have  been  freely  admitted ;  on  the  other  hand  the 
facts  which  it  has  established  arc  unassailable  by 
aiiv  other  school  of  criticism. 

Taking  language  then  as  the  only  tangible 
working  basis  the  subject  resolves  itself  from  the 
start  into  a  two-fold  division :  the  debatable  and 
the  certaii'.  It  is  the  purpose  to  indicate  in  the 
course  of  these  notes,  what  is  merely  conjecture 
and  what  may  be  safely  accepted  as  fact. 

The  ethnology  of  Europe,  studied  on  this  basis, 
has  for  its  central  feature  the  Indo-Oennanic 
(Tiulo-Europeun)  or  Aryan  nice.  The  distinction 
between  the  races  clearly  Aryan  an<l  those  doubt- 
ful or  non-Aryan  forms  the  primary  division  of 
the  subject.  As  the  map  is  intended  to  deal  only 
with  the  Europe  of  the  present,  a  historical  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  at  the  outset  between  the 
doubtful  or  non-Aryan  peoples  who  preceded  the 
Aryans  a'ld  the  non-Aryan  peoples  who  have  ap- 
peared in  Europe  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

The  simple  formula,  jvi-Ari/an,  Aryan,  non- 
Aryan,  affords  the  key  to  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  European  ethnology. 

PRE-ARYAN  PEOPLES. 

Of  the  presumably  pre-Aryan  peoples  of  western 
Europe  the  Iberians  occupy  easily  the  first  place. 

The  seat  of  this  people  at  the  dawn  of  history 
was  in  Spain  and  southern  France ;  their  ethnol- 
ogy belongs  entirely  to  the  realm  of  conjecture. 
They  arc  of  much  darker  complexion  than  the 
Aryans  and  their  racial  characteristic  is  conserva- 
tism even  to  stubbornness,  which  places  them  in 
marked  contrast  to  their  immediate  Aryan  neigh- 
bors, the  volatile  Celts.  Among  the  speculations 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  Iberians  a  plausible 
one  is  that  of  Dr.  Bwlichon,  who  assigns  to  them 
an  African  origin  making  them,  indeed,  cognate 
with  the  moderu  Berbers  (see  R.  H.  Patterson's 


"  Ethnology  of  Europe  "in  "Lectures  on  History 
and  Art').  This  generalization  is  made  to 
include  also  the  liretons  of  the  north  west.  It  is 
clear  however  that  the  population  of  iiKMlern 
Brittany  is  purely  Celtic:  made  up  largelv  from 
the  immigrations  from  the  British  Isles  during 
the  liftli  century. 

To  the  stubbornness  with  which  the  Iberians 
resisted  every  foreign  aggression  and  refused 
intermingling  with  surrounding  races  is  due  the 
survival  to  the  present  day  of  their  descendants, 
the  liatqncs. 

The  mountain  ranges  of  northern  Spain,  the 
Cantabrians  and  Eastern  Pyrenees  have  formed 
the  very  donjon-keep  of  this  people  in  every 
age.  Ilere  the  Vantnbri  successfully  resisted 
the  Roman  arms  for  mere  tliiv.i  a  century  after 
the  subjugation  of  the  remainder  of  Spain,  the 
final  conquest  not  occurring  until  the  last  years  of 
Augustus.  While  the  Iherian  race  as  a  whole 
has  become  lost  in  the  greater  mass  of  Celtic  and 
Latin  intruders,  it  has  remained  almost  pure  in 
this  quarter.  The  present  seat  of  the  liasffiies  is 
in  the  Spanish  provinces  of  Viseaya,  Alava, 
Guipuzcoa,  and  Navarre  and  in  the  French 
department  of  Basses  Pyrenees.  The  Inrninns 
of  Ireland,  now  lost  in  the  Celtic  population,  and 
the  Lii/urians  along  the  shores  of  the  Genoese 
gulf,  later  absorbed  by  the  Romans,  both  belong 
likewise  to  this  pre-Aryan  class.'  (Mixlern  re- 
search concerning  tliese  pre-Aryan  peoples  has 
in  large  part  taken  its  inspiration  from  the 
"  Untersuchungen "  of  Humboldt,  whose  view 
concerning  the  connefction  between  the  Basques 
and  Iberians  is  substantially  the  one  stated.) 

Another  early  non-Aryan  race  now  extinct 
were  the  Etrmains  of  Itjily.  Their  origin  was 
manifestly  diiferent  from  that  of  the  pre-Aryan 
peoples  just  mentioned.  By  many  they  have 
been  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  great  Ural- 
Alt4iic  family.     This  again  is  conjecture. 

ARYAN  PEOPLES. 

In  beginning  the  survey  of  the  Aryan  peoples 
it  is  necessary  to  mention  the  principal  divisions 
of  the  race.  As  generally  enumerated  there  are 
seven  of  these,  viz.,  the  iiinakrit  (Hindoo),  Zfnd 
(Persian),  Greek,  Latin,  Celtic,  Germanic  and 
Slaric.  To  ihese  may  be  added  two  others  not 
definitely  classilled,  the  Albanian  and  the  Lit/i- 
iianian.  These  bear  the  closest  affinity  respect- 
ively to  the  Latin  and  the  Slavic. 

Speculation  concerning  the  origin  of  the  Arvans 
need  not  concern  us.  It  belongs  as  yet  entirely 
to  the  arena  of  controversy.  The  vital  question 
which  divides  the  opposing  schools  is  coiicrn- 
ing  their  European  or  Asiatic  origin.  Of  the 
numerous  writers  on  this  subject  the  two  who 
perhaps  afford  the  reader  of  English  the  best 
view  of  the  opposing  opinions  are,  on  the  Asiatic 
side.  Dr.  Max  MUller  (Lectures  on  the  Science  of 
Language);  on  the  other,  Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce  (In- 
troduction to  the  Science  of  I,anguage). 


APPENDIX  A. 


APPENDIX  A. 


Of  the  divisions  of  tlie  Arjiiii  nice  above  enu- 
incmted  tlm  llrst  two  do  not  ap|)t'ur  in  KuropL'nu 
ctlinolojfy.  Of  the  otliiT  l)ruiicli(-»,  tin;  Ijttin, 
Oermnuie  iiiid  Kliiric  form  liy  greiit  oddstlie  bidk 
uf  till*  Kiiropcaii  )iopiilatioii. 

THE  LATIN  BRANCH. 

Tlic  hi<in  comitrics  arc  France,  .Si)ain,  Portu- 
gal, Italy  and  lie  Icrrilory  north  of  the  Dainibe, 
between  the  Dniester  and  the  Tlii'iss.  In  the 
strictest  ellinic  sense  however  tUt"  term  Latin  can 
l)e  applieil  only  to  Italv  and  then  only  to  the 
<!entral  part.  As  Italy  lirst  appears  in  Idstory  it 
is  inhabited  l)v  a  number  of  (lilferent  races:  tlie 
Iii;ii/i/i(iiiii  and  (hiintriuiiinA  iXw  soiitli  who  were 
thrown  in  direct  contact  witli  tin'  (3reek  settlers; 
the  I'lti/iriiiiiH,  Sdhiiuti,  Liitiiin,  i'o/wiViM  and  0»- 
cans  in  the  centre;  the  h'trimcdiiii  ou  tlie  west 
sliore  north  of  the  Tiber;  while  in  the  north  we 
lind  the  Gnuh  in  the  valley  of  tlio  Po,  with  tlie 
JAguriiins  and  Vinetiani  respectively  on  the 
west  and  east  coasts.  Of  this  motley  collection 
the  central  group  bore  a  close  alfluity  to  the 
Latin,  yet  all  alike  receiveil  the  Latin  .stamp  with 
the  growinj;  power  of  Uome. 

The  etlmic  comple-xiea  of  Italy  thus  formed 
was  hi'.rdly  moditied  b;  the  great  Germanic  in- 
vasions which  followcii  V.  ith  the  fall  of  the  West- 
liomun  Km|)ire. 

Tlda  observation  applies  with  more  or  less 
trutli  to  all  the  Latin  countries,  the  Germanic 
conipierors  becoming  everywliere  merged  and 
llni'lly  lo.st  in  the  greater  mass  of  tlie  conquered. 
Only  in  Loinbardy  wliere  a  more  enduring  Ger- 
manic kingdom  existed  for  over  two  centuries 
(508-774),  lias  the  Germanic  made  any  impression, 
and  tiiis  indeed  a  sliglit  one,  on  tlic  distinctly 
Latin  character  of  tlie  Italian  peninsula. 

Ill  Spain  an  interval  between  tiie  Iberian  jieriod 
and  the  Roman  conquest  appears  to  have  existed, 
during  which  the  population  is  best  described  as 
Uelt-Iberian.  Upon  this  population  the  Latin 
stain])  was  placed  by  the  long  and  toilsome,  but 
for  that  reason  more  tliorougli,  Roman  conquest. 
Tlie  ethnic  chameter  of  Spain  thus  formed  lias 
passed  witliout  material  cliange  through  the 
ordeal  both  of  Germanic  and  Saracenic  conquest. 
The  Qothic  kingdom  of  Spain  (418-714)  and  the 
ISuevic  kingdom  of  nortliern  Portugal  (400-584) 
Lave  left  behind  them  scarcely  a  trace.  The 
eiTectsof  the  great  Mohammedan  invasion  cannot 
be  dismissed  so  liglitly. 

Conquered  entirely  by  the  Arabs  and  Jloors  in 
714,  the  entire  country  was  not  freed  from  the  in- 
vader for  nearly  eight  centuries.  In  tlie  south 
(Granada)  where  the  Moors  clung  longest  their 
intluence  has  been  greatest.  Here  their  im- 
press on  the  pure  Aryan  stock  has  nevi  been 
effaced. 

The  opening  plirase  of  Caesar's  Gallic  war, 
"  all  Gaul  is  divided  into  three  parts,"  states  a 
fact  as  truly  etiinic  iis  it  is  geographical  or  his- 
torical. In  the  south  (Aquitania)  we  find  the 
Celtic  blending  with  the  Iberian  ;  in  the  north- 
east the  Cimbrian  Dclgae,  the  last  comers  of  the 
Celtic  family,  are  strongly  marked  by  the  char- 
acteristics of  tlie  Germans;  while  in  tlie  vast 
central  territory  the  people  "  calling  themselves 
Galli  "  are  of  pure  Celtic  race.  This  brief  state-, 
nient  of  Cae.sar,  allowing  for  the  subsequent  in- 
flux of  the  German,  is  no  mean  description  of  the 
ethnic  divisions  of  France  as  they  exist  at  the 
present  day,  and  is  an  evidence  of  the  remarkable 


continuity  of  ethnological  as  opposed  to  mere 
politic^ai  (conditions. 

The  four  and  a  half  centuries  of  Roman  rule 
])Iaccd  the  Latin  .stamp  on  the  (!alli(!  nation,  a 
l>repanition  for  the  most  deterinined  siege  of 
Germanic  race  intluence  which  any  Latin  nation 
was  fated  to  undergo. 

In  Italy  and  Spain  the  exotic  kingdoms  wore 
quickly  overthrown;  the  Fninkinh  kingdom  in 
nortliern  Gaul  was  in  strictness  never  overtlirowu 
at  all. 

In  addition  we  soon  have  in  the  extreme  north 
a  second  Germanic  element  in  tlie  Hcandinaviau 
Kiinitnn.  Over  all  these  oiit.side  elements,  how- 
ever, the  Latin  intluence  eventually  triumphed. 
AVIiile  the  Franks  have  imposed  their  name  upon 
tile  natives,  the  latter  have  imposed  tlieir  language 
and  civilization  on  tlie  invaders. 

The  result  of  this  clashing  of  influences  is  seen, 
however,  in  the  present  linguistic  divi.sion  of  the 
old  Gallic  lands.  The  Wiw  running  east  and  west 
through  the  centre  of  Franci;  marks  tlie  division 
between  the  JtYenrh  and  the  J'roreii(((l  dialects, 
the  laiiijiied'oil  and  the  laiif/iied'oe.  It  is  south  of 
this  line  '.ii  the  country  of  the  IcnfjueiVoc  that  the 
Latin  or  Romance  influence  reigns  most  ubsoluto 
in  the  native  speecli. 

In  the  northeast,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  Wal- 
loon provinces  of  IkOgium,  we  have,  as  witli  the 
Ik'lgae  of  classic  timi'S,  the  near  approach  of  the 
Gallic  to  the  Germanic  stems. 

Our  sirvey  of  the  Latin  peoples  must  close 
with  a  short  notice  of  its  outlying  members  in 
tlie  Ralkan  and  Danubian  lands.  The  Albanians 
(Skipetan)  and  the  liounmns  ( V lacks  or  Wallaclis) 
represent  as  nearly  as  ethnology  can  determine 
tlie  ancient  populations  respectively  of  Illyricum 
and  Tlirace.  The  ethnology  of  the  Albanians  is 
entirely  uncertain.  Their  present  location,  con- 
siderably to  tiie  soutl'  of  their  supposed  pristine 
seat  in  Illyricum,  indicates  some  southern  migra- 
tion of  the  race.  Tliis  migration  occurred  at  an 
entirely  unknown  time,  though  it  is  generally 
believed  to  have  been  contemporary  with  the 
great  southward  movement  of  the  Slavic  races 
in  the  seventli  century. 

The  Albanian  migrations  of  the  time  penetrated 
Attica,  Aetolia  and  the  entire  Peloponnesus; 
with  the  Slavs  and  Vlaelis  they  formed  indeed  a 
great  part  of  the  ])opulution  of  Greece  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  While  the  Slavic  stems  have 
since  been  merged  in  the  native  Greek  population, 
and  the  Vlae/is  have  almost  entirely  disappeared 
from  these  southern  lands,  the  Albanians  in 
Greece  have  shown  a  greater  tenacity.  Their 
part  in  later  Greek  history  has  been  a  prominent 
one  and  they  form  to-day  a  great  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Attica  and  Argolis. 

Tlie  liounmns  or  Vliichs,  the  supposed  native 
population  of  Thrace,  arc  more  closely  identified 
tliau  the  Albanians  with  the  otiier  Latin  peoples. 
They  occupy  at  present  the  vast  country  north 
of  the  Danube,  their  boundary  extending  on  the 
east  to  the  Dniester,  on  the  west  almost  to  the 
Tlieiss. 

Historically  these  people  form  a  perplexing 
yet  interesting  study.  The  tlieory  once  general 
that  they  represented  a  continuous  Latin  civiliza- 
tion north  of  the  Danube,  connecting  the  classic 
Dacia  by  an  unbroken  cliain  to  the  i)resent,  has 
now  been  generally  abandoned.  (See  Roesler's 
"Uomilnische  Studien"  or  Frcemau's  "Hist. 
Geog.  of  Europe,"  p.  435.)  , 


U 


APPEXDIX  A. 


APPENDIX  A. 


The  present  gcnjrrnphicnl  locution  of  the  Vliich 

?ieople8  is  prol)iil)ly  the  result  of  a  inij^rution 
rom  tlio  'I  linieian  IiukIh  south  of  the  Uuuube, 
whicli  occurred  for  uiii'X|)liunt'(i  ciiuscs  iii  tli(! 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  Tlie  kernel  of 
the  race  at  the  present  day  is  the  separate  state 
of  Koumania;  in  the  Kast  and  West  they  ccnie 
under  the  respective  rules  of  Uussia  aii(l  Hun- 
gary. 

In  mediaeval  times  the  part  played  by  them 
south  of  the  JJalkans  was  an  important  one,  and 
to  this  day  they  still  linger  in  considerable  num- 
bers on  either  side  of  the  range  of  Pindus.  (For 
a  short  dissertation  on  tlie  Vlach  peoples,  see 
Finlay,  "Hist,  of  Greece,"  vol.  3,  pp.  234-330.) 

THE  GERIVIANIC  BRANCH. 

The  Oernuinie  nations  of  modern  Europe  are 
Enyland,  Germany,  lloUaiul,  Deiiinnrk,  Noritny 
and  Sweden.  The  Germanic  races  also  form  the 
major  part  of  the  population  of  Switzerland, 
the  Cis-Leithan  division  of  tlie  Austrian  Empire, 
and  appear  in  isolated  settlements  througliout 
Hungary  and  liussia. 

Of  the  earlier  Germanic  iiatioiia  v.lio  overthrew 
the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West  scarcely  a  trace 
remains. 

The  population  of  the  liritish  Isles  at  the  dawn 
of  history  furnishes  a  close  parallel  to  tliat  of 
Oaul.  The  pre-Aryan  loernians  (the  possible 
Iberians  of  the  British  Isles)  had  been  forced 
back  into  the  recesses  of  Scotland  and  Ireland ; 
next  to  them  came  the  Celts,  like  those  of  Gaul, 
in  two  divisions,  the  Ouidels  or  Oiids  and  the 
Britonn. 

In  Britain,  contrary  to  the  usual  rule,  the  Roman 
domination  did  not  give  tlio  perpetual  Latiu 
stamp  to  the  island;  it  is  in  fact  the  only  country 
save  the  Paiinonian  and  Rliaetian  lands  south  of 
the  upper  Danube,  once  a  Roman  po.ssession, 
where  tlie  Germanic  element  has  since  gained  a 
complete  mastery.  The  inviision  of  the  Germanic 
races,  the  Anf/les,  Snj-ons  and  Jiitai,  from  the 
sixth  to  the  eighth  centuries,  were  practically 
wars  of  extermination.  Tlie  Celtic  race  is  to-day 
represented  on  the  British  Isles  only  in  Wales 
and  tlie  western  portions  of  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
The  invasions  of  tlie  Danes,  and  later  the  Xorman 
conquest,  bringing  with  them  only  slight  infu- 
sions of  kindred  Germanic  nations,  have  produced 
in  England  no  marked  niodittcation  of  tlie  Saxon 
stock. 

The  German  Empire,  with  the  smaller  adjoin- 
ing realms,  Holland  and  Switzerland  and  the 
Austrian  provinces  of  Austria,  Styria,  C'arinthia, 
Salzburg  and  Tyrol,  contain  tlie  great  mass  of  the 
Germanic  peoples  of  the  continent. 

During  the  confusion  following  tlie  overthrow 
of  the  West-Roman  Empire  the  Germanic  jieoples 
were  grouped  much  further  westward  than  they 
are  at  present ;  the  eastward  reaction  involving 
the  dispossession  of  the  Slavic  peoples  on  the  Elbe 
and  Oder,  has  been  going  on  ever  since  the  days 
of  Charlemagne.  Germany  like  France  possesses  a 
linguistic  division,  Low  German  (Nieder-De.utsclie) 
being  generally  spoken  in  the  lands  north  of  the 
cross  line,  Ilir/li  German  (Iloch-Dcittuche)  from 
whicli  the  written  language  is  derived,  to  the 
south  of  it.  Holland  uses  the  Flcmixh,  a  form  of 
the  Nieder-Dcutschc ;  Belgium  is  about  equally 
divided  between  the  Flemish  aiu\  llu'  Walloon. 

Switzerland,  tliough  predominantly  German,  is 
encroached  upon  by  the  French  in  the  western 


cantons,  wliile  in  the  soiitlieast  is  used  the 
Italian  and  a  form  allied  to  the  same,  the 
Romance  speech  of  the  Hhaelian  (Tyrolese)  Alps. 
This  form  also  prevails  in  Friiili  and  some 
mountainous  p  ..(s  of  northern  Italy, 

The  present  population  of  the  Qcrrniin  Empire 
is  almost  exclusively  Germanic,  the  exceptions 
being  tlie  Slavic  I'oles  of  I'osen,  I'omerellen, 
southeastern  Pru.ssia  and  eastern  Silesia,  the 
remnant  of  the  Wends  of  Lusatia  and  thi  French 
element  in  the  recently  aeciuired  Imperial  lands 
of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  Beyond  the  Empire  we 
find  a  German  |)opulation  in  the  Austrian  terri- 
tories already  noted,  in  tlie  border  lands  of  Bo- 
hemia, and  in  isolated  settlem.'iits  further  east. 
The  great  settlement  in  the  SiebeiibUrgen  was 
made  by  German  emigrants  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
turv  and  similar  settlements  dot  the  map  both 
of  llungaryand  Russia.  On  tlie  Volga  indeed 
exists  the  greatest  of  tliem  all. 

Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden  are  iieojiled 
by  the  Scandinarian  branch  of  the  Germanic 
race.  Only  in  the  extreme  north  <lo  we  lind 
another  and  non-Aryan  race,  the  iMpps.  On  the 
other  liaud  a  remnant  of  the  Swedes  stilt  retain 
a  precarious  hold  on  the  coast  line  of  their  former 
possession,  tlic  Russian  Finland. 

THE  SLAVIC  BRANCH. 

The  Slavs,  though  the  last  of  the  Aryan  na- 
tions to  appear  in  history,  form  numerically  by 
far  the  "-eatest  branch  of  the  Indo-European 
family.  .  ..eir  present  number  in  Eurojjc  is  com- 
liuted  at  nearly  one  hundred  million  souls. 

At  the  time  of  the  great  migrations  they 
extended  over  nearly  all  modern  Germany ;  their 
slow  dispossession  by  the  Germanic  jieojiles, 
beginning  in  the  eighth  century,  has  already 
been  noticed.  In  the  course  of  this  dispossession 
the  mo4t  westerly  Slavic  group,  the  Polabie, 
between  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder,  were  merged  in 
the  German,  and,  barring  the  remnant  of  Wends  in 
Lusatia  (the  Sorabi  or  Nortlierii  Serbs),  have  dis- 
appeared entirely  from  ethnic  geography. 

The  great  Slavic  nation  of  tlie  present  day  is 
Russia,  but  the  great  number  of  Slavic  peoples 
who  are  not  Russian  and  the  considerable  Rus- 
sian population  which  is  not  Slavic  renders  im- 
possible the  study  of  this  race  on  strictly  national 
Mnes. 

The  Slavic  peoples  are  separated,  jiartly  by 
geographical  conditions,  into  three  great  divisions : 
the  Eastern,  the  Western  and  the  Snithern.  The 
greatest  of  these  divisions,  the  Eastern,  lies 
entirely  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Ru.ssian 
Empire.  The  sub-divisions  of  the  Eastern 
group  are  as  follows:  The  Great  liussia ns  occu- 
pying the  vast  inland  territorj'  and  numbering 
alone  between  forty  and  tifty  niillioiis,  the  Little 
Jliissians  inliabiting  the  entire  soutli  of  Russia 
from  Poland  to  the  Caspian,  and  tlie  W/iite 
Jiiissiiins,  the  least  numerous  of  this  division,  in 
Smolensk,  Wilna,  and  Minsk,  the  west  provinces 
bordering  on  the  Lithuanians  and  Poles. 

The  West  Slaric  group,  omitting  names  of 
peoples  now  extinct,  are  the  Poles,  Slovaks,  Czechs 
and  the  remnants  of  the  Lusatian  Wends.  Tlie 
I'oks,  excepting  those  already  mentioned  as 
within  the  German  empire,  and  tlu!  Austriaii  J'oles 
of  Cnicow,  are  all  uikU  r  the  domination  of  Rus- 
sia. Under  tlu!  sovereignty  of  Austria  an;  the 
Slovaks,  Moravians  and  Czechs  of  Boheniia,  the 
latter  the  must  westerly  as  well  us  historically  the 


m 


APPENDIX  A. 


APPENDIX  A. 


oldcRt  of  (lin  surviving  Slavic  peoples,  Imvlng 
nppciiri'd  in  their  present  seats  in  the  lust  yeiirs 
of  the  fifth  century. 

In  connection  with  this  West  Slavic  group  we 
should  also  refer  to  the  lAthuiiniant  whose  his- 
tory, despite  the  racial  difTerence,  is  so  closely 
allied  with  that  of  Poland.  Their  present  loca- 
tion in  tlie  UusKian  provinces  of  Kowno,  Kurland 
and  Livland  has  been  i)ractically  the  same  since 
tlie  dawn  of  history. 

Tlie  Siiith  Slarie  peoples  were  isolate<l  from 
their  norlhern  kinsmen  by  th"  great  Finno-Tatar 
invasions. 

The  invasion  of  Europe  by  the  Avars  in  the 
sixth  century  clove  like  a  wedge  the  two  great 
divisions  of  the  .Slavic  nice,  the  southernmost  being 
forced  upon  the  confines  of  the  Eastlloman  Em- 
pire. Tliough  less  imposing  as  conquests  than 
the  Oermanic  invasions  of  the  Western  Empire, 
the  racial  importance  of  these  Slovic  movements 
is  far  greater  since  they  constitute.  In  connection 
witli  the  hXmui-Tatar  invasions  which  caused 
them,  the  most  important  and  clearly  defined 
series  of  ethnic  changes  which  Europe  has  ex- 
perienced during  the  Ciiristian  Era.  During  the 
sixth  and  seventh  centuries  these  Slavic  emi- 
grants spread  over  almost  the  entire  Balkan 
peninsula,  including  Epirus  and  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. In  Greece  they  afterwards  disappeared  us 
H  separate  people,  but  in  tlic  region  between  the 
Danube,  the  Save  and  tlic  Balkans  thev  imme<li- 
ntcly  developed  separate  states  (Servia  in  041, 
Bulgaria  in  078).  As  they  exist  nt  present  they 
may  be  clussed  in  three  divisions.  The  liul- 
garians,  so  called  from  the  tHiino-Tatar  people 
whom  they  absorbed  while  accepting  their  name, 
occupy  the  district  included  in  the  separate 
state  of  Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Itouinelia,  with  a 
considerable  territory  to  the  south  of  it  in  Mace- 
donia and  Thrace.  It  was  this  lust  named  ter- 
ritory or  one  very  nearly  corresponding  to  it 
that  was  actually  ';eded  to  Bulgaria  by  the 
peace  of  San  Stcfano  though  she  tmfortunately 
lost  it  by  the  subseij'.'.ent  compromise  eflected 
at  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  Tlic  srcond  divi- 
sion includes  the  Servians,  Montencgmiit,  Bos- 
nians and  Vroatians,  the  last  two  under  Austrian 
control;  the  third  and  smallest  are  the  Slov- 
enes of  Curniola,  likewise  under  Austrian  sover- 
eignty. (Schufarik's  "  Slawisciie  Alterthllmcr  " 
is  the  greatest  single  authority  on  the  early 
history  and  also  comparative  ethnology  of  the 
Slavs.) 

The  territory  occupied  by  the  Greek  speaking 
people  is  clearly  shown  on  the  accompanying 
map.  As  in  all  history,  it  is  tlie  coast  lands 
where  they  seem  to  have  formed  the  strongest 
hold.  In  free  Greece  Itself  and  in  the  Turkish 
territories  immediately  adjoining,  the  Oreek  pop- 
ulation overwhelmingly  preponderates. 

Nevertheless  there  is  still  a  considerable  Al- 
banian element  in  Attica  ond  Argolis,  a  Vlach 
element  In  Epirus  while  the  7\t)-k  himself  still 
ling'  ^  in  certain  quarters  of  Thessaly.  All  these 
arc  icninunts  left  over  from  the  successive  migra- 
tions of  the  Jliddle  Ages.  The  SUim,  who  also 
figured  most  prominently  in  these  migrations, 
have  disappeared  in  Greece  as  a  distinct  race. 
The  question  as  to  the  degree  of  Slavic  admixture 
among  the  modern  Greeks  is  however  another 
fruitful  source  of  ethnic  controversy.  The  gen- 
eral features  of  the  question  are  most  compactly 
stated  in  Finlay,  vol.  4,  pp.  1-37. 


NON-ARYAN  PEOPLES. 

The  Non-Aryan  peoples  on  the  soil  of  modern 
Europe,  excepting  the  ^pir*  and  also  pr.ibably  ex- 
cepting those  already  placed  ir;  tlu  unsolved 
class  of  pre-Aryan,  all  belong  to  the  Muuo-Tatar 
or  Ural- Altaic  U\n\i\y ,  and  all,  poss'.bly  excepting 
tlie  Finns,  date  their  arrival  in  Europe  fnmi  com- 
paratively recent  and  historic  times.  The  four 
principal  divisions  of  this  race,  Uie  Ugrir,  Finnic, 
Turkic  and  Mongolie,  all  have  their  European 
representatives. 

Of  tlie  first  the  only  representatives  are  the 
Hungarians  (.Vagi/ars).  The  rift  between  the 
North  and  South  Slavic  peoples  oiiened  by  the 
Jluns  in  the  liftli  century,  reo])ened  and  enlarged 
by  the  Avars  In  tlic  s'x'tli,  was  finally  occupied 
by  their  kinsmen  the  Magyars  in  the  ninth.  The 
receding  of  this  wa'  e  of  Asiatic  Invasion  left  the 
Magyars  in  utter  isolation  among  their  Aryan 
neighbors.  It  follows  us  a  natural  consequence 
that  they  have  been  the  only  one  of  the  Ural- 
Altaic  peoples  lo  accept  the  religion  I'.nd  civiliza- 
tion of  tlie  Wc'st.  Since  the  conversirm  of  their 
king  St.  Steiihen  In  the  year  1000,  tlieirgeogruphl- 
cal  position  has  not  altered.  lioughly  speaking, 
it  comprkes  the  western  half  of  Hungary,  with 
an  outlying  branch  in  tlie  Carpathians. 

More  closely  allied  to  the  Magyars  than  to  their 
more  immediate  neighbors  of  the  same  race  are 
the  Mnnie  stems  of  the  extreme  north.  Stretch- 
ing originally  over  nearly  the  whole  northern 
lir.lf  of  Scandinavia  and  Russia  they  have  been 
A_radually  displaced,  in  tlio  one  case  by  their 
Germanic,  in  the  other  by  their  Slavic  neighbors. 
Their  present  representatives  are  the  E/ists  and 
Tschudes  of  Elistland,  the  Finns  and  Karclians 
of  Finland,  the  Tscheremissians  of  the  upper 
Volga,  the  Siryenians  In  the  basin  of  the  Petcliora 
and  the  Lajips  in  northern  Scandinavia  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Arctic  ocean. 

East  of  the  Lapjys,  also  bordering  the  Arctic 
ocean,  lie  the  Sarnojedcs,  a  people  forming  a  dis- 
tinct branch  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family  though 
most  closely  allied  to  the  Finnic  peoples. 

The  great  division  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family 
known  Indifferently  as  Tatar  {Tartar)  or  Turk, 
has,  like  the  Aryan  Slavs,  through  the  accidents 
of  historical  geography  rather  than  race  diverg- 
ence been  separated  into  two  great  divisions :  the 
northern  or  Russian  division  commonly  com- 
prised under  the  sped*'"  name  of  Tartar;  and 
the  southern,  the  2wk. 

These  are  the  latest  additions  to  the  Euroiiean 
family  of  races.  The  Mongol-  Tartar  invasion  of 
Russia  occurred  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century, 
while  the  Turks  did  not  gain  tlieir  first  foothold 
in  Europe  through  the  gates  of  Gallipoll  until 
1353.  The  bulk  of  the  Turks  of  the  present  day 
are  congregated  in  Asia-Minor. 

Barring  the  Armenians,  the  Oeorgians  of  the 
northeast,  the  Greeks  of  the  seacoast  and  the 
scattered  Circassians,  the  whole  jienlnsula  is  sub- 
stantially Turkisii. 

In  Europe  proper  the  Turks  as  a  distinct  people 
never  cut  a  great  figure.  Even  In  the  grandest 
days  of  Osmanli  conquest  they  were  always 
outnumbered  by  the  conquered  nations  whose 
land  they  occupied,  and  with  the  decline  of  their 
power  this  numerical  inferiority  has  become 
more  and  more  marked.  At  the  present  day 
there  are  very  few  portions  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula where  the  Turkish  population  actually  pre- 


IV 


APPENDIX  A. 


APPENDIX  A. 


dominatCB;  their  general  dlstrllmtlon  is  clenrly 
shown  on  the  niiip. 

The  Tartim  or  liuimidii  7'inkn  represent  the 
sIftingH  of  the  Asiatic  inviisiona  of  tlie  tliirtet  h 
century. 

Tlieir  numlier  Ims  been  steadily  liwindlinji; 
until  tliey  now  count  scarcely  three  nijllions,  a 
mere  handful  in  the  mass  of  their  former  Hliivic 
subjects. 

Tlie  survivors  are  scattered  in  irregular  and 
Isolated  groups  over  the  south  and  east.  Promi- 
nent among  them  are  the  t'rim  T<ut<ua,  the  kin- 
dred NogiUit  of  the  west  shores  of  the  Caspian, 
tho  Kirg/iin  of  tlie  nortli  shore  and  L'ral  valley, 
and  the  IhiDlikira  between  th(^  upper  Ural  and 
the  Volga,  with  an  isolated  branch  of  Tartars 
in  the  vuUcy  of  the  Aruxes  south  of  tho  Cau- 
casus. 

The  great  Asiatic  irruption  of  the  thirteenth 
century  has  been  commonly  known  as  tlie  Jlougol 
Invasion.  Such  it  was  in  leadership,  though  the 
residuum  whicli  it  has  left  behind  in  Euroi)ean 
Russia  proves  that  the  rank  and  ttle  were  mostly 
Tartars.  One  Mongol  people  however,  the  Kal- 
mueks,  did  make  their  way  into  Europe  and  still 
exist  in  the  steppes  between  the  lower  Don  and 
the  lower  Volga. 

The  ethnology  of  tho  Caucasian  iieoples  is 
the  most  difficult  part  of  the  entire  subject.  On 
the  steppes  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas  up  to 
the  very  linntof  the  Caucasus  we  have  two  races 
between  whom  the  ethnic  distinction  is  clearly 
defined,  the  JIongol-Tartar  and  the  Slav.  J^ntcr- 
ing  the  Caucasus  however  we  find  a  vast  number 
of  races  differing  alike  from  these  und  from  each 
other. 

To  enumerate  all  the  different  divisions  of  these 
races,  whoso  ethnology  is  so  very  uncertain,  would 


he  u,»eless.  Omiiped  in  three  general  divisions 
however  they  are  as  follows:  the  soralled  Cir- 
fiiHKiaiiii  who  formerly  occupied  the  whole  wr'stern 
Caucasus  with  the  adjoining  lllack  sea  coast  but 
who,  since  the  Uu.ssian  coiKpiest  of  1H(W,  have 
for  the  most  part  emigrated  to  dilTerent  quarters 
of  th(!  Turkish  Empire;  llie  LfiujIiianH,  under 
which  general  name  are  inelu<!ed  tlie  motley 
crowd  of  peoples  inliabiting  tlic  eastern  ( 'aucasus ; 
and  the  (li(iri/iiin»,  the  supposed  descendants  of 
the  ancient  y/yc/V/HO  of  the  Caucasus,  who  inhabit 
the  soutliern  slope,  ineluding all  t he Tillis  province 
and  the  Trape/untine  'aiids  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  the  Hlack  sea. 

The  Tartam  arc  liardlv  found  in  the  Caucasus 
though  tliey  reappear  fiiimediiitily  soutli  of  it 
in  tlie  lower  basin  of  the  Kura  and  the  Araxes. 
Here  al.so  appear  the  various /w  «('<(«  stems  of  tho 
Asiatic  Aryans,  tho  Anneniant,  tho  Pertiani  and 
the  Kiirdn. 

U.  II.  Latham's  works  on  "European  J^thno- 
logy "  are  the  best  general  authority  in  Eng- 
lish. Of  more  recent  German  guides,  mai)  and 
otherwise,  the  following  an^  noteworthy  lias- 
tain's  " Ethnologisches  Hilderbuch,"  "Das  I5e- 
stilndige  in  den  Jlenscheiirassen,"  "  Allgemciiio 
QrundzUge  der  Ethnologie,"  Kiepert's  "Ethno- 
graphische  Uebersichtskarte  des  Eiiropilischeu 
Orients,"  Menke's  "Europa  nach  seiiieu  Ethno- 
logischen  Verhllltnissen  in  der  Mitte  des  19. 
Jahrhundert,"  Hittich's  "Ethnograpliie  des  euro- 
pilischen  Kusslaud,"  Sax's  "  Etlinographischo 
Karte  der  europilischen  Turkei,"  IJerghaus's 
"  Ethnographische  Karte  vom  Osterreichiseheu 
Kaiserstaat, "  Wendt's  "  Bilder  Atlas  der  Lilnder 
undV<')lkerkunde,"Andree'3  "Allgemeiuer  Hand- 
atlas  (Ethnographischen  Karten), "  Gerland's  '  'At- 
las der  Ethnographic.  "—A.  C.  Reiley. 


APPENDIX    B. 


NoTKii  TO  Foim  Mapo  op  tiik  Dai.kan  PKNtNfiri.A.    (TwELiPTn  TO  THR  FiFTKimTn  Crntort.) 


ri^IIEUE  oxlstd  to'dny  <ipon  thn  mnp  of  Kuropc 
1_  IK)  Hcrtion  \vlios((  historlcnl  gcojiiriiphy  lins  ii 
greater  present  Interest  timn  the  I)iinul)liin, 
BalkHii  hikI  Leviiiitiiu!  states.  It  is  these  atid  the 
Austrn-IIiingarian  lands  immediatelv  adjoining 
which  liave  formed  one  of  tlie  jjrcat  fuleniins  for 
those  national  nioveinents  which  constitute  the 
prime  feature  of  the  hiatorieal  geograpliy  of  tlio 
present  age. 

Uiion  tiie  pres<!nt  map  of  Kuropo  in  tliis  (piarter 
we  cliscover  a  number  of  separate  and  di  ninutlve 
national  entities,  the  Iloumaiiian,  Iht'  iriiin,  .Sit- 
viaii  and  .}f<intenff/rin,  tlic  Greek  and  AUxinin ii , 
all  struggling  desperately  to  establish  them- 
selves on  the  debris  of  the  crumbling  Turkisli 
Empire. 

Wliat  the  issue  will  be  of  these  numerous  and 
mutually  conflicting  struggles  for  separate  na- 
tional e-xistenco  It  is  out  of  our  province  to  fore- 
cast. 

It  is  only  intended  in  thi.s  map  series  to  throw 
all  possible  liglit  on  tlieir  true  character  from  tlie 
lessons  and  analogies  of  tlie  past.  At  first  siglit 
the  period  treated  in  tlie  four  Levantine  maps 
(from  tlio  last  of  the  twelfth  to  the  middle  of  tlie 
fifteenth  century)  must  appear  the  most  intri- 
cate and  tlio  most  obscure  in  tlio  entire  Iiistory 
of  this  region.  The  most  intricate  it  certainly  is, 
and  possilily  tlio  most  oliscure,  though  tlio  ob- 
scurity arises  largely  from  neglect.  Its  impor- 
tance, however,  arises  from  tlie  fact  tliat  it  is  tlie 
only  past  period  of  Levantine  history  which  pre- 
sents a  clear  analogy  to  the  jiresent,  not  alone  in  its 
purely  tninsitionary  character,  but  also  from  the 
several  national  movements  wliicli  during  this 
time  wore  diligently  at  work. 

During  the  Itoman  and  the  earlier  Byzantine 
perio<ls,  wliicli  from  tlieir  continuity  may  be 
taken  as  one,  any  special  tendency  was  of  course 
stifled  under  the  preponderant  fulo  of  a  single 
great  empire. 

Tlie  same  was  equally  true  at  a  later  time, 
when  all  of  these  regions  passed  under  tlie  rule 
of  the  Turk.  These  four  maps  treat  of  that 
most  interesting  period  intervening  between  tlio 
crumbling  of  the  Byzantine  power  and  the  Turk- 
isli conciuest.  Tliat  in  our  own  day  tlie  crumb- 
ling in  turn  of  the  Turkish  power  has  repeated, 
in  Its  general  fea;ures,  the  same  liistorical  situa- 
tion, is  the  point  upon  which  tlic  interest  must 
inevitaldy  centre. 

What  the  outcome  will  be  in  modern  times 
forms  tlie  most  interesting  of  political  studies. 
Whether  the  native  nices  of  the  Daiuilio,  the 
Balkans  and  the  southern  peninsula  are  to  work 
out  their  full  national  development,  either  feder- 
ately  or  independently,  or  whether  they  are  des- 
tined to  pass  again,  as  is  threatened,  under  the 
domination  of  another  and  greater  empire,  is  ono 
of  the  most  important  of  tlie  questions  which 
agitates  the  mind  of  the  modern  European  states- 
man. Tliat  the  latter  outcome  is  now  the  less 
likely  is  due  to  the  great  unfolding  of  separate 


national  spirit  which  marks  so  strongly  the  age 
ill  wliich  we  live.  The  reason  wliv  the  previous 
age  treated  in  this  map  series  ended  in  nothing 
lietter  tlian  foreign  and  iMohammedan  con(|uest 
m'ay  perhaiis  be  sought  in  tlu,'  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  this  same  national  spirit. 

THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE. 

Tlio  first  map  (Asia  Minor  and  the  Balkans  near 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  century)  is  intended  to 
show  till!  geographical  situation  as  it  exist<;d 
immediately  prior  to  tlii!  dismemberment  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire.  TIk^  Hyzantiiie  PImniro  of 
.Ills  period  is  in  itself  an  important  study.  It 
must  bo  regarded  more  as  the  ofTsprIng  than  the 
direct  continuation  of  the  great  East-lioman 
Empire  of  Arcadlus  and  Justinian;  for  with  the 
centuries  which  had  intervened  the  great  changes 
in  polity,  internal  geography,  external  neighbors 
and  lastly  the  continual  geographical  contraction, 
present  us  witli  an  entirely  new  series  of  rela- 
tions. It  is  this  geograpliieal  contraction  which 
concerns  us  most  vitally,  for  witli  it  tlio  frontiers 
of  the  empire  conforpi  more  and  more  closely 
to  tho  ethnic  limits  of  tlie  Oreik  nation. 

Tlie  later  Byzantine  Empire  was,  therefore, 
easentially  a  Greek  Empire,  and  as  such  it  ap- 
pcials  most  vividly  to  the  national  consciousness 
of  tho  Greek  of  our  own  time.  The  restoration 
of  this  empire,  with  tho  little  kingdom  of  free 
Greece  as  tho  nucleus,  is  the  vision  wliicli  in- 
spires tlie  more  aggrcssivi^  and  venturesome 
school  of  modern  Greek  politicians. 

In  tlio  twelfth  century  the  bulk  of  Asia  Minor 
had  been  wrested  from  tlio  Byzantine  Empire 
by  tlie  Turku,  but  it  was  tho  Crusaders,  not 
the  Turks,  who  overthrew  the  first  empire.  In 
ono  view  tliis  fact  is  fortunate,  otherwise  tlicro 
would  have  been  no  transition  period  whoso 
study  would  bo  productive  of  such  fruitful  re- 
sults. 

Owing  to  the  artful  policy  of  tlio  Comnenian 
emperors,  the  Byzantine  Empire  actually  prof- 
iled liy  tlie  early  crusades  and  was  enabled 
through  them  to  recover  a  considera'  Ic  part  of 
Asia  Alinor  from  tlie  Turk*.  Tliis  apparent 
success,  liowever,  was  only  the  prelude  to  final 
disaster. 

Isolated  from  western  Christendom  by  the 
schism,  tho  Greeks  were  an  object  of  suspicion 
and  liatred  to  tlic  Latin  Crusaders  and  it  only 
required  a  sliglit  abatement  of  the  original 
crusading  spirit  for  tlieir  warlike  ardor  to  be 
diverted  from  Jerusalem  to  '^'onstantinoplo. 
Cyprus  was  torn  away  from  the  Greek  Empire 
and  created  a  separate  kingdom  under  Latin 
rule,  in  1191.  Finally,  the  so-called  Fourth 
Crusade,  controlled  liy  Venetian  intrigue,  ended 
in  tho  complete  dismemberment  of  the  Bvzantine 
Empire  (1204). 

Tliis  nefarious  enterprise  forms  a  dark  spot  in 
history:  it  also  usliors  in  the  greatest  period  of 
geographical  intricacy  in  Levantine  annals.    The 


VI 


APPENDIX  B. 


API'KNDIX  B. 


f(i'(iKrii|iliy  wliicli  iniiiicillatcly  rcHtilti'il  fniiii  it 
H  iiiitilircctly  hIkiwii  in  IIiIm  l,<'viuiliii«  iiiiip  MiTii'H, 
hii'  cull  Im'  Mi'cn  on  tin*  K<'>i<!riil  iiiii|i  of  K\iro|i<i  iil. 
tliu  oncniiiK  of  IIk?  thirteenth  century.  Hrlelly 
ltatc<l,  it  n'prcNcnted  tlie  eHtiil)iiHlinienl  of  it  frii^- 
mcutiiry  luiil  liiHj  ilnteil  I^iitin  Knijiiro  in  tiie 
phico  of  the  former  (irecit  Kinpiru  of  ConHtnnti- 
nopl(>.  Known  IM  tlie  i,utin  KpipinMif  Konmniii, 
this  new  creiitloii  inciuded  tlie,  Kinpln^  of  (!on- 


gtnntinopio  proper  anil  itH  feiuliil  liepeniiencieH, 
till!  kin||;ilotn  of  TheMHiilonicii,  the  ducliy  of 
Vtliens,  and  tlin  principality  of  Aclnila. 

Vhreo  orpluui  (Ireik  Hiates  survived  tlie  fall  of 
the  parent  power:  in  Kurope,  the  dcHpotat  of 
KpiriiH,  and  In  Asia,  tliu  einpires  of  N'icwa  and 
Trehlzond. 

TIk^  Latin  Htntcsuf  the  East  ure  scarcely  worthy 
the  lilstorian'H  notice.  'I'liey  have  no  place  what- 
ever in  till!  natural  developinent,  either  political 
or  Kcograpliicai,  of  the  Levantino  HtatcM.  They 
were  not  only  forced  by  foreij^n  lanci  upon  an 
unwilling;  population,  but  were  -^11111  »  fcudal- 
isniH,  establiHlied  arnon^  a,  people  to  whom  tlie 
feudal  idea  was  unintelliglblo  and  barbarous. 
Like  their  prototypes,  tiio  C'rusudinj;  states  of 
Syria,  they  resembleil  artittcial  encroachments 
upon  the  sea,  standing  foi  a  time,  but  with  the 
ordinary  course  of  nature  the  ocean  reclaims  Its 
own. 

Even  the  weak  little  (livtk  states  were  strong 
In  comparison  mhI  immediately  began  to  recover 
ground  at  their  expense.  The  kingdimi  of  Tlies- 
salonica  was  overthrown  by  the  despot  of  Epiriis 
in  1222;  the  Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople  it- 
self  fell  before  the  Greek  Emperor  of  Niciea  In 
12HI ;  while  the  lust  of  the  barons  of  the  princi- 
pality of  Acliala  submitted  to  the  IJy/.antine 
despots  of  the  Moreii  In  1430. 

The  duchy  of  Athens  alone  of  uU  these  Litiii 
states  survived  long  enough  to  full  at  last  before 
the  Turkinh  conquest.  The  Levantine  posses- 
sions won  by  Venice  at  this  and  later  times  were 
destined,  partly  from  their  insular  or  maritime 
location,  and  partly  from  the  greater  vitullty 
of  trade  relations,  to  enjoy  u  somewhat  longer 
life. 

To  t}ie  NicKun  emperors  of  the  house  of  Pa- 
leoiogus  belongs  the  achievement  of  having  re- 
stored the  Byzantine  Empire  In  the  eventot  1201. 
The  expression  Restored  IJyzantine  Emjiire  has 
been  employed,  since  it  bus  the  sanction  of  usage, 
though  a  complete  restoration  never  occurred. 
The  geography  of  the  l{estored  Empire  as  shown 
on  the  second  map  (1265  A.  I).)  fails  to  include 
the  greater  part  of  what  wi;  may  term  the  cradle 
of  the  Greek  race .  The  only  subsequent  exten- 
sion was  over  the  balance  of  the  Jlorea.  In 
every  other  qtiarter  the  frontiers  of  the  Uestored 
Empire  soon  began  to  recede  until  It  included 
only  the  city  of  Constjintlnople  and  an  ever  de- 
creasing portion  of  Thrace.  With  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Tiirkn,  hav- 
ing thrown  olt  the  Mongol-Tartar  dominion, 
begun  under  the  hou.se  of  Usmanlls  their  tiiml 
career  of  coiuiuest.  This,  of  course,  was  the  be- 
ginning of  tlie  end.  Their  first  foothold  In 
Europe  was  gulncd  In  ia53,  but  over  a  century 
was  destined  to  elapse  before  the  completion  of 
tlieir  sovereignty  In  all  the  lands  south  of  the 
J)unube.  There  remains,  therefore,  a  considera- 
ble period  during  which  whatever  separate  na- 
tional tendencies  existed  had  full  opportunity  to 
work. 

«»  .  Vii 


THE  PIRBT  AND  SKCOND  BULQARIAN 
KINQDOM8. 

It  was  this  iign  which  saw  not  only  the  lilgli- 
est  point  in  the  national  greatness  of  llulgaria 
and  SiTvIa,  but  also  witnessed  the  evolution  of 
the  \Vullaeliian  principalities  in  the  lands  north 
of  till!  Danube. 

The  separate  stntcH  of  nulgnria  and  Servia, 
iKirn  in  the  seventli  century  of  the  great  south- 
ward migralion  of  the  Slnrie  peoples,  had  in  after 
times  risen  or  falii'ii  aecordlng  to  the  strength  or 
weakness  of  the  liyzuntine  Empire,  liiiignrip, 
liiid  hitlierto  shown  tlte  greatest  power.  At  sev- 
eral dillerent  perliKis,  notjibly  under  Himeon  (i-H'A- 
U27),  and  again  under  Hamuel  (U7U-IUU),  It  de- 
veloped a  strength  which  fairly  overawed  Iho 
Empire  Itself.  These  Sturic  stales  hud,  however, 
iK-en  subjected  by  the  Hyziiiitlne  Empirii  In  the 
first  liulf  of  the  eleventh  century,  and,  though 
Bervla  enjoyed  iinotlier  |)eriod  of  Independenco 
(1040-114M),  it  was  not  until  ilie  llnul  crumbling 
of  the  Hy/.antine  Empire,  the  preincnitionof  tho 
event  of  1204,  that  tlieir  expansion  recommences. 

The  Wallachian,  or  Second  Uulgarian  kingdom, 
which  came  into  existence  in  1IH7  in  the  lands 
between  the  lialkuim  and  the  Danube,  has  been 
the  subject  of  an  ethnic  discussion  which  need 
not  deluin  us.  Thut  it  was  not  purely  Sin  'ic  ig 
wellestablislied,  for  tlie  great  and  singular  revival 
of  the  VUiflt  or  lloiimnn  peoples  iiiid  tlieir  inovo- 
ment  from  the  lands  south  of  llaemiis  to  their 
present  seats  north  of  the  DiuiiiIk',  which  Is  one 
of  the  great  features  of  this  age,  had  already 
begun.  (The  country  between  the  Danube  and 
the  Halkans,  the  seat  of  the  Second  MulgariuQ 
kingdom,  uppeurs  as  Aspro  or  White-Wallachia 
In  some  Hy/antine  writings.  Ho  also  north  of  the 
Danube  the  later  Jloldavia  and  Great  v,  alluchla 
are  known  res])ectively  as  ^I.iv..^  [Uiack]  and 
Ilungarowallachia.  Still  the  fact  of  a  continuous 
liouman  civilizution  north  of  the  Danube  Is  not 
established.  The  theory  of  a  great  northward 
m  )vement  of  the  \'l(ie/i  peoples  is  tlie  one  now 

f;cueially  accepted  and  isably  uiivocated  in  Hoes- 
er's  "  Uomilnisehe  Studieii.") 

At  tile  present  day  this  movement  has  been  so 
long  completed  that  scurcely  the  trace  of  a  Vltteh 
population  remains  in  tlic  lands  south  of  the 
Danube.  These  emigrants  uppear,  as  It  wore,  in 
passing,  to  have  shared  with  the  native  Bulgari- 
ans In  the  creation  of  tills  Second  Bulgarian 
kingdom.  This  realm  achieved  a  momentary 
greatness  under  its  rulers  of  the  liouse  of  Asuii. 
The  dismemberment  of  tlie  Byzantine  Empire  in 
1204  enabled  them  to  make  great  encroachments 
to  the  south,  and  it  .seemed  for  11  time  that  to  the 
Bulgarian,  not  tiie  Greek,  would  full  the  task  of 
overthrowing  the  Latin  Empire  of  lioumania 
(see  general  ii'.ap  of  Europe  at  the  opening  of  the 
thirteentli  century).  With  tho  reCstublisbment, 
however,  of  the  Greek  Empire  of  Constantinople, 
in  1261,  the  Bulgarian  kingdom  began  to  lose 
much  of  Its  importance,  and  its  power  wius  finally 
broken  in  1285  by  the  Mongols. 


SERVIA. 

In  the  following  century  it  was  the  turn  of 
Servia  to  enjoy  u  period  of  prei'minent  greatness. 
The  latter  kingdom  hail  recovered  its  uidepend- 
ence  under  the  house  of  Nemanja  in  1183. 

Under  the  great  giant  coniiueror  Stephen 
Dushan  (1321-13,')5)  it  enjoyed  u  period  of  greater 
power  than  has  ever  before  or  since  fallen  to  the 


AIM'ENDIX  H 


APPENDIX  n 


lot  (if  n  KinKli' Hitlkiui  Ktiili'.  Thi'  lU-ntnrfd  By- 
zniilinc  Knipiri'  hiiil  HUMtiiini'd  im  iicniiniii'iit  Iiihh 
from  iUi:  iii'ri(Hl  of  li\ilK»riuii  Kri'iitiicHH:  it  wiih 
by  tlit>  MiitldcM  HiTviiin  ((iniiiicKt.  Unit  It  wim  (!<'- 
privi'il  forever  of  iieitrlv  nil  ItN  Kiir('|ieitii  poHM'H- 
slunM  (iH-e  Halkiiii  map  ill)  A  lly/.iintlne  reliction 
niittlit  liiive  collie  under  other  condltloim,  liiit 
already  iiiio'lier  iiiid  ^renter  eiiciny  wih  ut  her 
KittcH. '  DiihIiiiu  died  In  t;!,').');  and  ulreiidy,  in 
l;t.W,  two  yearn  Iiefore,  thi'  Turk  at  (iailipoli  had 
made  IiIh  entrance  into  Kiirope.  From  this  time 
every  ChrlHtlan  Hlati' of  the  KaHt  HU'W  Hicadlly 
weaker  until  liidfraria,  Herviii,  thedreek  Knipire, 
ftnd  llnallv  even  Hungary,  had  puuiicd  under  the 
TurkUlt  dominlor 

THE  VLACHS. 

Pnsainii;  on  from  thcHe  Slavic  pvoplcx,  nnother 
nutional  innnlfeHtatlon  of  the  );reateHt  importance 
l)eloii){lnK  to  thiit  perio<l,  one  which,  unlike  the 
Greek  and  Slavic,  may  iii>  wild  In  one  NciiHe  to 
llttve  orl^'lnated  in  the  perloti,  wim  that  of  the 
Vliii'lm.  TIiIh  /.iilin  population,  which  ethnolo- 
ffjsts  liave  attempted  to  Identify  with  the  ancient 
Thnieidim,  was,  previouH  to  the  twelftli  century, 
acuttered  in  irrei;ular  groupH  throuj^iout  the  en- 
tire lialkan  |)eiiiiisula.  During  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury their  great  northward  migration  began.  A 
single  result  of  this  movement  lias  already  hecii 
nutlc(  d  in  the  rise  of  the  Second  ISiilgarlau  king- 
dom. South  of  the  Danube,  however,  their  inllu- 
ciicu  was  transitory.  It  was  north  of  the  river 
that  the  evoliitionof  the  two  principalities,  Great 
Wallacliiii  (liouinania)  and  Muldavia,  und  the 
growth  of  a  \'li(rh  population  in  tlie  Transyl- 
vanian  lands  of  Kastern  lluugary,  has  yielded  the 
etlinic  and  in  great  part  the  political  "gcograpliy 
of  the  present  day. 

The  process  of  this  (^volution  may  be  under- 
stood from  a  com|)arallve  study  of  the  four 
Balkan  maps.  Upon  the  first  imip  the  Vuimiiii- 
aim,  a  Finno-Tiitur  peojile,  who  lu  the  twelfth 
century  liiwl  displaced  a  kindred  race,  the  J'<itzi:i- 
ak»  or  Petaeheiugs,  occupy  the  whole  country 
between  t!ic  Danube  and  the  Transylvanian  Alps. 
These  were  in  turn  swept  forever  from  llie  map 
of  Europe  b^'  the  Jlongols  (1224).  With  the  re- 
ceding of  this  exterminating  wave  of  Asiatic  con- 
quest the  great  wilderness  was  thrown  open  to 
now  (k'ttlers.  The  settlements  of  the  Vliicha 
north  of  the  Danube  and  east  of  the  Aliitu  became 
the  priucipality  of  Great  Wallachiu,  the  nucleus 
of  the  nuxlern  Uoumania.  West  of  tlie  Aluta 
the  district  of  Little  Wallachiu  was  Inaorporated 
for  a  long  period,  as  the  bauat  of  Severin,  in  the 
Hungarian  kingdom. 

Finally,  the  i)rlncij)ulity  of  Moldavia  came  into 
existence  in  1341,  m  land  previously  won  by 
the  Hungarians  from  the  Mongols,  between  the 
Dniester  and  the  Carpathians.  Both  the  princi- 
[)allties  of  Great  Wallachiu  and  Moldavia  were  in 
the  fourteenth  century  dependencies  of  Hungary. 
The  grasp  of  Hungary  was  loosened,  however, 
towards  the  close  of  the  century  and  after,  a 
perioil  of  shifting  dependence,  now  on  lluugary, 
now  on  Turkey,  and  for  a  time,  in  the  case  of 
Moldavia,  on  I'oland,  we  come  to  the  period  of 
permanent  Turkish  supremacy. 

With  the  presence  and  influence  of  the  Vlachs 
south  of  the  Balkans,  during  this  period,  we  are 
less  interested,  since  their  subsequent  disappear- 
ance lias  removed  the  subject  from  any  direct 
connection  with  modern  politics.     The  only  quar- 


ter where  they  still  linger  and  where  this  In- 
lluence  h'd  to  the  founding  of  an  Indept'iident 
Htiile,  was  In  the  country  cast  of  the  range  of  I'In- 
duH,  theOniit  Widlachiaof  the  lly/iuitines.  Ilcru 
the  prliK  ipiility  of  Wallaclilan  Thessaly  appeared 
as  an  oIThIkhiI  of  the  Greek  despotat  of  Eplrus  in 
12:1))  (see  map  II). 

Thirl  state  r"'alned  Its  indepeniient  existenco 
until  VM)H,  when  itwiiHdlvided  between  the  Cata- 
lan dukes  of  Athens  and  the  Byzautiuo  Empire, 

ALBANIANS. 

The  SkiiKUim  ( Allxiniii im)  during  this  periml 
a|)pear  to  liavi!  lieen  tlie  slowest  to  grasp  out  for 
11  separate  national  existence.  The  southern  sec- 
tion of  Albania  formed,  after  the  fall  of  Constan- 
tinople, a  part  of  the  d.'spotat  of  Eplriis,  and 
whatever  Independence  existed  In  the  norlhern 
section  was  lost  in  the  revival,  first  of  the  By/an- 
tine,  then.  In  tlie  ensuing  century,  of  the  Servian 
power.  Ii  was  not  until  1444  tliatiicerlHlii  George 
Castriot.  known  to  the  Turks  us  Iskanderi  iieg, 
or  Scanderbeg,  created  11  Christian  princiiiality 
in  till!  mountain  fa.stnesses  of  Albania. 

This  little  realm  stretched  along  the  Adriatic 
from  Biitrinto  almost  to  Antivari,  embracing,  fur- 
ther inland,  Kroja  and  the  basin  of  the  Drill  (see 
map  IV). 

It  was  not  until  after  Scundcrbeg's  death  that 
(Ottoman  control  was  contlrned  over  this  spirited 
Albanian  population. 

THE  TURKISH  CONQUEST. 

The  reign  of  Molia  iiiiied  II.  (14.J1-1481)  wit- 
nessed the  final  conquest  of  the  entire  country 
south  of  the  Danube  and  the  Save.  The  extent 
of  the  Turkish  Empire  at  bis  accession  is  siiowu 
on  map  IV.  The  acquisitions  of  territory  during 
Ills  reign  included  in  Asia  Minor  the  old  Greek 
Empire  of  Trebizond  (1401)  and  the  Turkish  dy- 
nasty of  Kaniman;  in  Europe,  Constantinople, 
whose  fall  brought  the  Byzantine  Empire  to  a 
close  in  14r)3,  the  duchy  of  Atliens  (1456),  the 
despotats  of  Patras  and  Misithra  (14(iO).  Servhi 
(1458),  Bosnia  (1403),  Albania  (1408),  Epirus  and 
Acarnauia,  the  continental  dominion  of  the  Counts 
of  Cephalonia  (1470),  and  Herzegovina  (1481).  In 
the  mountainous  district  immediately  soutii  of 
Herzegovina,  the  principality  of  Alontenegro, 
situated  in  lauds  which  had  formed  the  soiithern 
part  of  the  flrst  Servian  kingdom,  alone  pre- 
served its  independence,  even  at  the  height  of 
the  Turkish  domination. 

Tlio  dironicle  of  Turkisli  history  tliereafter  re- 
cords only  conquest  after  comiuest.  The  islands 
of  the  iligean  were  many  of  them  won  during 
Mohammed's  own  reign,  the  acquisition  of  tlie  re- 
mainder ensued  shortly  after.  Venice  was  liunted 
step  by  step  out  of  all  her  Levantine  possessions 
save  the  I<mian  Islands;  the  superiority  over  the 
Crim  Tartiu-s,  Wallachia,  Sloldavia  and  Jedlsan 
followed,  tinully,  the  defeat  at  Mohacs  (1520),  and 
the  subsequent  internal  anarchy  left  nearly  aP 
Hungary  at  the  mercy  of  the  Ottoman  con-  ^ 
queror. 

The  geographical  homogeneity  thus  restored 
by  the  Turkisli  con(iuest  was  not  again  disturbed 
until  the  present  century.  The  repetition  of  al- 
mo.st  the  same  conditions  in  our  own  time,  though 
with  the  process  reversed,  has  been  referred  to  in 
the  sketch  of  Balkan  geography  of  tlie  present 
day.  The  extreme  importance  of  the  period  just 
described,  for  the  purposes  of  minute  bistoncal 


VIU 


APPENDIX  B. 

annlniry,  will  Iw  uppitront  at  nnco  whorovor  com- 
piiriwHi  Ih  iitlcinpUMl. 

Till'  tliirtt'cnlli,  fourU'i'iitli,  luxl  llftccntli  ecu- 
turii's  wiT(!  of  courMc  pcriiHU  of  fur  uri'iitcr  ^i-o- 
gniplilciil  liitrlLiicy.  hut  tlui  purpow!  lias  Imtm 
rutluT  to  iiii.'lciili:  tlir  iiuturi'of  tliLs  liitrlciicy  tlmii 
to  (Ii'mtHh'  it  ill  (Icliill.  TIk!  prliiclpiil  fciiturc, 
nnmi'ly,  tin-  iiiitloiial  inovemciitH,  wlicrc'vcr  lliry 
Imvi!  iimiilfcstiMl  tlicmsi'lvi's,  Imvi!  Iiccii  morr 
ciircfullv  dwelt  ut)oii.  Tlio  olijcct  has  bccii.Hlm- 
ply  to  Hlic'w  tliut  till!  four  Hcpiiriilc  imtloiml  move- 
meiitH.  tlu!  Greek,  tlio  Slaric,  tlio  lioitman,  iiiiil 
till)  Al/Mtiiiaii,  wlilcli  limy  !)(•  MiiUl  to  Imvn  cri'iitcd 
tlio  prvHoiit  Loviiiitiiu!  problem,  were  all  present, 
mill  In  tho  cuso  of  the  two  lust  iiiuy  even  be  sukl 


APPENDIX  B. 

to  Imve  liitd  tlieir  luceptlou,  lu  the  period  Ju«» 
triiversed. 

Ill  the  present  century  the  unfoliliiiK  of  nil- 
tlon.il  spirit  hiis  lieen  so  much  ((reiiter  and  fur- 
reiirlilnjt  thiit  ii  dllTerent  oulcoine  iiiiiy  be  looked 
for.  It  is  HullUlent  for  the  present  thiit  the  in- 
cipient  existence  of  these  sikiilo  niovcnients  liita 
been  shown  to  Imve  existeil  In  ii  previous  uk'\ 

Tlie  best  ((eiicriil  text  luithorlty  in  Kii)fllsh  for 
the  Kcogrivpliy  )f  Ibis  period  is  (leorKi^  Kliiliiy'n 
"  History  of  (Jreece,"  vols.  III.  and  IV. ;  a  nioro 
exhaustive  jtuido  in  (Jeriimn  is  llopf's  "  (}u- 
Hcliichle  (Jriecheniuncls. "  For  the  purely  jfeo- 
Krapbical  worlis  see  the  ge.:eral  bibilogruphy  of 
historical  geography. —A.  C.  llcllcy. 


IX 


APPENDIX    C. 


Notes  to  thk  Map  op  the  Balkan  PENrasuLA.     (Piiesent  Century.) 


rriHE  prcsont  century  has  been  a  remarkable 
I  one  for  tlie  settlement  of  great  polltii;al  and 
geographical  questions.  These  tpiestions  re- 
solve themselves  into  two  great  classes,  which 
Indicate  the  political  forces  of  the  present  ago, 
—  the  first,  represented  in  the  growth  of  demo- 
cratic thought,  and  the  second  arising  from  the 
awakening  of  national  spirit.  The  first  of  these 
concerns  Instorical  geography  only  incidentally, 
but  the  second  Imp  already  done  mrch  to  recon- 
struct the  political  geography  of  our  time. 

RECENT  NATIONAL   IhlOVEMENTS. 

Within  a  little  over  thirty  years  it  has  changed 
the  map  of  central  Europe  from  a  medley  of 
small  states  into  a  vuiited  Italy  and  a  united 
Germany ;  it  has  also  led  to  a  reconstruction  of 
the  Austro-llungarian  Empire,  In  Italy,  Ger- 
many and  Austria-Hungary,  the  national  ques- 
tions may,  however,  be  regarded  as  settled;  and 
if,  in  the  case  of  Austria-Hungary,  owing  to 
exactly  reverse  conditions,  the  settlement  has 
been  a  tentative  one,  it  has  at  least  removed  the 
question  from  the  more  immediate  concern  of  the 
present.  In  a  diiTerent  quarter  of  Europe,  how- 
ever, the  rise  of  me  national  movements  has  led 
to  a  question,  infinitely  more  complicated  than  the 
others,  and  which,  so  ."ar  from  being  settled,  is 
becoming  ever  more  pressing  year  by  year. 
This  reference  is  to  the  great  Balkan  problem. 

That  this  question  has  been  delayed  in  its 
solution  for  over  four  centuries,  is  due,  no  doubt, 
to  tlie  conquests  of  the  Turk,  and  it  is  still  com- 
plicated by  his  presence.  In  the  notes  to  the 
four  previous  Balkan  maps  (1191— 1451),  attention 
was  especially  directed  to  the  national  move- 
ments, so  far  as  they  had  opportunity  to  develop 
themselves  during  this  period.  These  move- 
ments, feeble  in  their  character,  were  all  smoth- 
ered by  the  Turkish  conquest.  With  tlip  ''ecline 
of  this  power  in  the  present  century  th'  Tces 
once  more  have  opportunity  for  reappearanv.^.  In 
this  regard  the  history  of  the  Balkans  during  the 
nineteenth  century  is  simply  the  history  of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  read  back- 
wards. 

The  Turkish  Empire  had  suflered  terrible  re- 
verses during  the  eighteenth  century.  Hungary 
(1099),  the  Crim  Tartars  (1774),  Bukovina  (1777), 
Jedisan  (1792),  Bessarabia  and  Eastern  Moldavia 
(1813)  were  a'.'  successively  wrested  from  the 
Ottomans,  while  Egypt  on  one  side  and  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  on  another  recovered  practical 
autonomy,  the  one  under  the  restored  rule  of  the 
Mamelukes  (1766),  the  other  under  native  hospo- 
dars. 

the  SERVIAN  AND  GREEK  REVOLTS. 

All  of  these  losses,  though  greatly  weakening 
the  Ottoman  power,  did  not  destroy  its  geographi- 
cal integrity.  It  was  with  the  Servian  revolt  of 
1804  that  the  series  of  events  pointing  to  the 
actual  disruption  of  the  Turkish  Empire  may  be 


said  to  have  begun.  The  first  period  of  dissolu- 
tion was  measured  by  the  reign  of  Mahmoud  II. 
(1808-1839),  at  once  the  greatest  and  the  most  un- 
fortunate of  all  the  later  Turkish  sultans.  Servia, 
first  under  Kara  Gcorg,  then  under  Miloscli 
Obrenovitch,  the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty, 
maintained  a  struggle  which  led  to  the  recogni- 
tion of  Servian  local  autonomy  in  1817.  The 
second  step  in  the  process  of  dissolution  was  the 
tragic  Greek  revolution  (1831-1828).  The  Sultan, 
after  a  terrible  war  of  extermination,  had  practi- 
cally reduced  Greece  to  subjection,  when  all  hia 
work  was  undone  by  the  interventioj  of  the 
groat  powers. 

The  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  com- 
bined squadrons  of  England,  France  and  Russia  at 
Navarin,  October  20, 1827,  and  in  the  campaign  of 
the  ensuing  year  the  Moscovite  arms  for  the  first 
time  in  history  penetrated  south  of  the  Balkans. 
The  treaty  of  Adrianople,  between  Russia  and 
Turkey  (September  14, 1829),  gave  to  the  Czar  the 
protectorate  over  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  By 
the  treaty  of  London  earlier  in  this  year  Greece 
was  macfe  autonomous  under  the  suzerainty  of 
the  Sultan,  and  the  protocol  of  March  23,  1829, 
drew  her  northern  frontier  in  a  line  between  the 
gulfs  of  Arta  and  Volo.  The  titular  sovereignty 
of  the  Sultan  over  Greece  was  onnulled  later  in 
the  year  at  the  peace  of  Adrianople,  though  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  Hellenic  kingdom  was 
tlien  curtailed  to  a  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Achelous  to  the  gulf  of  Lamia.  With  the 
accession  of  the  Bavarian  king  Otho,  in  1833, 
after  the  failure  of  the  republic  the  northern 
boundary  was  again  adjusted,  returning  to  about 
the  limits  laid  down  in  the  Slarch  protocol  of 
1829.  Greece  then  remained  for  over  fifty  years 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mount  Othrys,  the  Pin- 
dus  range  and  the  gulf  of  Arta.  In  1883,  on  the 
accession  of  the  Danish  king  George  I. ,  the  Ionian 
Isles,  which  had  been  under  English  administra- 
tion since  the  Napoleonic  wars,  were  ceded  to  the 
Greek  kingdom,  and  in  Jlay,  1881,  almost  the  last 
change  in  European  geography  to  the  present 
day  was  accomplished  in  the  cession,  by  the  Sul- 
tan, of  Thcssaly  and  a  small  part  of  Epirus. 

The  agitation  in  1886  for  a  further  extension  of 
Greek  tevritory  was  unsuccessful. 

THE  TREATY  OF  UNKIAR  SKELESSI. 

A  series  of  still  greater  reverses  brought  the 
reign  of  the  Sultan  Mahmoud  to  a  close.  1  he 
chief  of  these  were  the  defeats  sustained  at  the 
hands  of  his  rebellious  vassal  Mehemet  Ali, 
pacha  of  Egypt,  a  man  who  takes  rank  even  be- 
fore the  Sultan  himself  as  the  greatest  figure  in 
the  Mohammedan  world  during  the  present  cen- 
tury. The  immediate  issue  of  this  struggle  was 
the  practical  independence  of  Egypt,  where  the 
descendants  of  Mehemet  still  rule,  their  title  hav- 
ing been  changed  in  18' "  from  viceroy  to  that  of 
kliedive.  An  event  inc._  :ntal  to  the  strife  be- 
tween Mehemet  Ali  nnd  the  3ultan  is  of  far 


X 


APPENDIX  C. 


APPENDIX  C. 


f renter  importance  in  tlio  liiatorjr  of  European 
iirkcy.  Mulimoiul  in  liis  distress  loolicd  for  aid 
to  the  great  powers,  and  tlie  tinnl  issue  of  tlie 
rival  interests  struggling  at  Constantinople  was 
the  memorable  treaty  of  Unkiar  Skelessi  (July, 
18i53)  by  which  the  Sultan  resigned  himself  com- 
pletely to  the  interests  of  liis  former  implacable 
foe,  the  Czar  of  Russia.  In  outward  appearance 
this  treaty  was  an  offensive  and  defensive  alli- 
ance; in  practical  results  it  gave  the  Moscovite, 
in  exchange  for  armed  assistance,  when  needed, 
the  practical  control  of  the  Dardanelles.  It  is  no 
extravagance  of  statement  to  say  that  this  treaty 
forms  absolutely  the  liigh  watermark  of  Russian 
predominance  in  the  alfairs  of  the  Lc^vant.  Dur- 
ing the  subsequent  sixty  years,  this  influence, 
taken  as  a  whole,  strange  paradox  as  it  may 
seem,  has  rather  receded  than  advanced.  The 
utter  prostration  of  the  Turkish  Empire  on  the 
death  of  Mahmoud  (1830)  compelled  Russia  to 
recede  from  the  conditions  of  Unkiar  Skelessi 
while  a  concert  of  the  European  jjowers  imder- 
took  tlie  task  of  rehabilitating  the  ])rostrate 
power;  the  Crimean  war  (1854-1855)  struck  a 
more  damaging  blow  at  the  Russian  power,  and 
the  events  of  1878,  though  they  again  shattered 
the  Turkish  Empire,  did  not,  as  will  be  shown, 
lead  to  corresponding  return  of  the  Czar's 
ascendency. 

THE  CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  TREATY  OP  PARIS. 

The  Crimean  War  was  brought  on  by  the  at- 
tempt of  the  Czar  to  dictate  concerning  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  —  a  policy 
whicli  culminated  in  tlio  occupation  of  Jloldavia 
and  Wallachia  (1853).  All  Europe  became  ar- 
rayed against  Russia  on  this  question.r-  Prussia 
and  Austria  in  tacit  opposition,  while  England, 
France,  and  afterwards  Piedmont,  urifted  into 
war  with  the  northern  power. 

I5y  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1850),  which  terminated 
the  sanguinary  struggle,  the  Danube,  closed  since 
the  peace  of  Adrianople  (1820),  was  reopened; 
the  southern  part  of  nes.sanibia  was  taken  from 
Russia  and  added  to  the  principality  of  Moldavia ; 
the  treaty  powers  renounced  all  right  to  interfere 
in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Porte ;  and,  lastly, 
the  Black  Sea,  V.ich  twenty  years  before,  by  the 
treaty  of  Un'.^ar  Skelessi,  had  become  a  private 
Russian  po  id,  was  swept  of  the  Russian  fleets 
and  converted  into  a  neutral  sea.  The  latter 
condition  however  was  abrogated  by  the  powers 
(March  13,  1871). 

Despite  the  defeat  of  Russia,  the  settlement 
effected  at  the  congress  of  Paris  was  but  tenta- 
tive. The  most  that  the  allied  powers  could  pos- 
sibly have  hoped  for,  was  so  far  to  cripple  Russia 
as  to  render  her  no  longer  a  menace  to  the  Otto- 
man Empire.  They  succeeded  only  in  so  far  as 
to  defer  the  recurrence  of  a  Turkish  crisis  for 
another  twenty  years. 

The  chief  event  of  importance  during  this  in- 
terval was  the  birth  of  the  united  l{oumania.  In 
1857  tlie  representative  councils  of  both  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  voted  for  their  union  under  this 
name.  This  personal  union  was  accomplished 
bv  the  choice  of  a  common  ruler,  John  Cuza 
(1850),  whose  election  was  confirmed  by  a  new 
conference  at  Paris  in  1801.  A  single  ministry 
and  single  assembly  were  formed  ac  Bucharest  in 
1P83.  Prince  Karl  of  Ilolienzollcrn-Sigmaringen 
was  elected  hospodar  in  1866,  and  finally  crowned 
as  king  in  1881. 


THE  REVIVED  EASTERN  QUESTION  OF 

1875-78. 

The  Eastern  ciuestion  was  reopened  with  all 
its  perplexities  in  the  Herzegoviniannnd  Bosnian 
revolt  of  August,  1875.  These  provinces,  almost 
iMit  olt  from  the  Turkish  Empire  bv  Montenegro 
and  Servia,  occupied  a  position  which  rendered 
their  subjugation  almost  a  hopeless  task. 

Preparations  were  already  under  way  for  a 
settlement  by  joint  action  of  the  powers,  when  a 
wave  of  fanatical  fury  sweeping  over  the  (Jtto- 
man  Empire  ren<lered  all  these  t  fforts  abortive. 
Another  Christian  insurrection  in  Bulgaria  was 
supiires.scd  in  a  series  of  wholesale  and  atrocious 
massacres.  Servia  and  Montenegro  in  a  ferment 
declared  war  on  Turkey  (.luly  2,  1870).  The 
Turkish  arms,  however,  were  easily  victorious, 
and  Russia  only  saved  the  Servian  capital  bv  com- 
Iielling  an  arniistice  (October  30).  A  conference 
of  the  representatives  of  the  powers  was  then 
held  at  Constantinople  in  a  final  effort  to  arrange 
for  a  reorganization  of  the  Empire,  which  should 
im^lude  the  granting  of  autonomy  to  Bosnia, 
Herzegovina  and  Bulgaria.  These  conditions, 
thougli  subsequently  embodied  in  a  general  ulti- 
matum, the  London  protocol  of  March  31,  1877, 
were  rejected  by  the  Porte,  and  Russia,  wlio  haa 
determined  to  proceed  alone  in  the  event  of  this 
rejection,  injinediately  declared  war  (April  24). 
Into  this  war,  owing  to  the  horror  excited  in 
England  by  tlic  Bulgarian  massacres,  and  the 
altered  policy  of  France,  the  Turk  was  compelled 
to  go  without  allies,  and  thus  unassisted  his  de- 
feat was  assured.  Then  followed  the  sanguinary 
campaigns  in  Bulgaria,  the  memories  of  whicn 
arc  still  recent  and  unobscured.  Plevna,  the 
central  point  of  the  Turkish  lesistance,  fell  on 
December  10th;  Adrianople  was  occupied  by  the 
Russians  on  January  20th,  1878;  and  on  January 
31st,  an  armistice  was  granted. 

Great  Britain  now  seemed  roused  to  a  sense  of 
the  danger  to  herself  in  tlio  Russian  approach  to 
Constantinople,  and  public  opinion  at  last  per- 
mitted Lord  Beaconsficld  to  send  a  fleet  to  the 
Bosporus. 

By  the  Russo-Turkish  peace  of  San  Stephano 
(March  3,  187H)  Turkey  recognized  the  complete 
independence  of  Servia,  Roumania  and  Monte- 
negro, while  Bulgaria  became  what  Servia  and 
Roumania  had  just  cea.sed  to  be,  an  autonomous 
lirincipality  under  nominal  Turkish  sovereignty. 
Russia  received  the  Dobrutcha  in  Europe,  which 
was  to  be  given  liy  tlie  Czar  to  Roumania  in  ex- 
change for  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  lost  in  1856. 
Servia  and  Montenegro  received  accessions  of 
territory,  the  latter  securing  Antivari  on  the 
coast,  but  the  greatest  geographical  change  was 
the  frontier  assigned  to  the  new  Bulgaria,  which 
was  to  include  all  the  territory  bounded  by  an 
irregular  line  lieginning  at  Jlldia  on  the  Black 
Sea  and  running  north  of  Adrianople,  and,  in 
addition,  a  vast  realm  in  Jlacedonia,  bounded 
on  the  west  only  by  Albania,  approaching  Salon- 
ica,  and  touching  the  uEgeon  on  either  side  of 
the  Chalcidico. 

It  was  evident  that  the  terms  of  tins  treaty  in- 
volved the  interests  of  other  powers,  especially 
of  Great  Britain.  An  ultimate  settlement  which 
involved  as  parties  only  the  conciueror  and  con- 
quered was  therefore  impossible.  A  general 
congress  of  the  Powers  was  seen  to  be  the  only 
solvent  of  the  difflculty ;  but  before  such  a  con- 
gress was  possible  it  was  necessary  for  Great 


XI 


Al'PENDlX  C. 


APPENDIX  C. 


Rritnin  nnd  Russia  to  find  at  least  a  tangible 
basis  of  negotiation  for  tlie  adjustment  of  tlieir 
dilliTcnces. 

By  tlie  secret  agreement  of  May  30tli,  Russia 
agreed  to  abandon  the  disp\ifed  points  —  cliief 
among  tliese  the  creation  of  a  Bulgarian  seaboard 
on  the  ^gean  —  and  the  eon>;res8  of  Berlin  then 
assenililcd  (June  13  — July  13,  1878). 

ARRANGEMENTS  OF  THE  TREATY  OF  BERLIN. 

Great  Britain  was  represented  at  the  congress 
by  tlie  Marquis  of  Salisbury  and  the  premier, 
the  Karl  of  Beaconstleld.  The  treaty  of  Berlin 
modilied  the  conditions  of  Han  Stephano  by  re- 
ducing the  Ilussiau  acquisitions  in  Asia  Minor 
and  also  by  curtailing  the  cessions  of  territory  to 
Servia  ancf  Montenegro.  A  recommendation  was 
also  made  to  the  Porte  to  cede  Thessaly  and  a 
part  of  Epirus  to  Greece,  i  transfer  which  was 
accomplished  in  1881.  A  more  important  pro- 
vision was  the  transfer  of  the  administrative  con- 
trol of  tlie  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
to  Austria.  This  cession  was  the  oiitcome  of  the 
secret  agreement  between  Russia  and  Austria  at 
Reichstadt,  in  July  of  the  previous  year,  by 
which  the  former  had  secured  from  her  rival  a 
free  hand  in  tlie  Turkish  war.  These  districts 
were  at  once  occupied  by  Austria,  despite  tlie 
resistance  of  the  Mohammedan  pop.ulatlon,  and 
the  sanjak  of  Novibazar,  the  military  occupa- 
tion of  which  was  agreed  to  by  the  Porte,  was 
also  entered  by  Austrian  troops  in  September  of 
the  following  year.  England  secured  as  her 
share  of  the  spoil  the  control  of  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus. 

The  j^.uutcst  work  accomplished  at  Berlin, 
however,  was  the  complete  readjustment  of  the 
boundaries  of  the  new  Bulgarian  principality. 

This  result  was  aohieved  tlirough  the  agency 
of  Great  Britain.  Tlie  great  Bulgarian  domain, 
which  by  the  treaty  of  San  Stephano  would  have 
conformed  almost  to  the  limits  of  the  Bulgarian 
Empire  of  the  tenth  century,  'vas,  vith  the  e.\- 
ception  of  a  small  western  strip  iiicludiug  the 
capital,  Sotla,  puslied  entirely  uortli  of  the  Bal- 
kans. This  new  principality  was  to  enjoy  local 
autonomy ;  and  immediately  south  of  the  Balkans 
was  formed  a  new  province,  Eastern  Roumelia, 
also  with  local  autonomy,  although  under  the 
military  authority  of  the  Sultan. 

The  result  of  the  Berlin  Congress  was  the  ap- 
parent triumpli  of  the  BeaconsHeld  policy.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  if  the  idea  of  this  triumph 
has  been  fully  sustained  by  the  course  of  subse- 
quent events.  The  idea  of  Beaconstleld  appears 
to  have  been  that  the  new  Bulgaria  could  not  be- 
come other  than  a  virtual  dependency  of  Russia, 
and  that  iu  curtailing  its  boundaries  he  was 
checking  by  so  much  the  growth  of  Russian  in- 
fluence. If  he  could  have  foreseen,  however, 
the  unexpected  spirit  with  which  the  Bulgarians 
have  defended  their  autonomy,  not  from  Turkish 
but  from  Russian  aggression,  it  is  doubtful  if  he 
woultl  have  lent  himself  with  such  vigor  lo  that 
portion  of  his  policy  which  had  for  its  result  the 
weakening  of  this  "bufTer"  state.  The  deter- 
mination to  resist  Russian  aggression  in  the  Bal- 
kans continues  to  form  the  purpose  of  English 
politicians  of  nearly  all  schools;  but  the  idea  that 
this  policy  is  best  served  by  maintaining  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe  has 
been  steadily  losing  adherents  since  Beaconsfleld's 
day.     The  one  event  of  importance  in  Balkan  his- 


tory since  1878  has  served  well  to  Illustrate  this 
fact. 

LATER  CHANGES. 

In  September,  1885,  the  revolt  of  Eastern  Uou- 
molia  partially  undid  the  work  of  the  Berlin 
treaty.  After  the  usual  negotiations  between  the 
Powers,  Miu  question  at  issue  was  settled  by  a 
conference  of  ambassadors  at  Constantinople  in 
November,  by  which  Eastern  Roumelia  was 
placed  under  tlie  rule  of  the  Bulgarian  prince  as 
vassal  of  the  Sultan.  This  result  was  achieved 
through  the  agency  of  England,  and  against  the 
opposition  of  Russia  and  other  continental  powers. 
England  and  Russia  had  in  fact  exchanged  poli- 
cies since  1878,  now  that  the  real  temper  of  the 
Bulgarian  people  was  more  generally  under- 
stood. 

The  governments  of  Greece  and  Servia,  alarmed 
at  the  predominance  thus  given  to  Bulgaria 
among  the  libarated  states,  sought  similar  com- 
pensation, but  were  both  foiled. 

Servia,  which  sought  this  direct  from  Bulgaria, 
was  worsted  in  a  short  war  (Nov. — Dec.  1885),  and 
Greece  was  cliecked  in  her  aspiration  for  further 
territorial  aggrandizement  at  the  expense  of  Tur- 
key by  the  combined  blockade  of  the  Powers  in 
til-  spring  of  1886. 

Since  then,  no  geographical  change  has  taken 
place  in  the  old  lands  of  European  Turkey. 
Prince  Alexander  of  Bulgaria  was  forced  to  abdi- 
cate by  Russian  intrigue  iu  September  1886;  but 
under  his  successor,  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  (crowned  in  1887),  and  his  able  minister 
Stambouloff,  Bulgaria  has  successfully  preserved 
its  autonomy. 

THE  PRESENT-DAY  PROBLEM. 

A  general  statement  of  the  Balkan  problem  ;is 
it  exists  to-day  may  be  briefly  given.  The  nou- 
Turkish  populations  of  European  Turkey,  for 
the  most  part  Christian,  are  divided  ethnically 
into  four  groups:  the  Itoumam  or  Vliichs,  the 
Qreeks,  the  Albaniuiis  and  the  Slavs.  The  pro- 
cess of  liberation,  as  it  has  proceeded  during  the 
present  century,  has  given  among  these  people 
the  following  separate  states.  The  Vlachs  are 
represented  in  the  present  kingdom  of  Roumania 
ruled  by  a  Hohenzollern  prince ;  tlie  Greeks  are 
represented  in  the  little  kingdom  of  Greece  ruled 
by  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Denmark;  while 
the  Slaea  are  represented  by  three  autonomous 
realms:  Bulgaria  under  Ferdinand  of  Suxe-Co- 
burg,  Servia  under  the  native' dynasty  of  Obreno- 
vitch,  and  the  little  princijiality  of  ilontenegro, 
the  only  one  of  all  which  had  never  yielded  to 
Turkish  supremacy,  under  the  Pctrovic  house, 
which  is  likewise  native. 

The  Albanians  alone  of  the  four  races,  owing 
in  part,  pchaps,  to  their  more  or  less  general  ac- 
ceptance of  Mohammedanism,  have  not  as  yet 
made  a  determined  effort  for  separate  national 
existence. 

To  these  peoplf-  under  any  normal  process 
of  development,  oelongs  I'.e  inheritance  of  the 
Turkish  Empire  in  Euroiie.  The  time  has  long 
passed  when  any  such  procuss  can  be  effectu- 
ally hindered  on  the  Turkish  side.  It  will  bo 
hindered,  if  at  all,  either  by  the  aggredsive  and 
rival  ambitions  of  their  two  great  neighbors, 
Austria  and  Russia,  or  by  the  mutual  jealousies 
and  opposing  claims  of  the  peoples  themselves. 

The  unfortunate  part  which  these  jealousies 
are  likely  to  play  in  the  history  of  the  future 


XU 


APPENDIX  C. 


APPENDIX  C. 


was  dimly  foreshadowed  in  the  events  of  1885. 
It  is  indeed  these  rival  aspirations,  rather  than  the 
eollapse  of  the  Turkish  power,  which  .vre  most 
likely  to  afford  Russia  and  even  Austria  'he  op- 
portunity for  territorial  extension  over  the  l^dkan 
1  mds.  A  confederation,  or  even  u  tacit  uiider- 
Btandiug  between  the  Balkan  states,  would  do 
much  to  provide  ajjainst  this  danger;  but  the 
idea  of  a  confederation,  though  often  suggested 
and  even  planned,  belongs  at  present  only  to  the 
realm  of  jiossibilities.  On  tlie  one  hand  Servia, 
menaced  by  the  proximity  of  Austria,  leans  ui)on 
liussian  support;  on  the  other,  Bulgaria,  under 
exactly  reverse  conditions,  yields  to  the  influence 
of  Austria.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  these 
arc  unfavorable  conditions  on  which  to  build  up 
any  federative  action.  If  at  the  next  crisis,  how- 
ever, the  liberated  states  are  fated  to  act  inde- 
pendently, it  will  be  seen  at  once  thai,  Greece  and 
Bulgaria  possess  the  better  chance.  Not  only 
arc  they  the  most  remote  from  any  of  the  great 
powers,  but  they  alone  pu.::sess  i  geography 
which  is  entirely  open  on  the  Turkisli  side. 

Moreover,  what  is  of  still  greater  conseiiuence, 
it  is  they  wlio,  from  an  ethnic  standpoint,  have 
the  most  legitimate  interest  in  the  still  unliberated 
popidation  of  European  Turkey.  The  unliberated 
Girck  population  predominates  in  southern  Mace- 
donia, the  Chalciiliau  7-"iiinsula  and  along  almost 
the  entire  seaboard,  ooth  of  Thrace  and  Asia 
Jlinor;  on  the  other  hand  tlic  ethnographical 
limits  of  the  Jiulijunuii  people  conform  almost 
exactly  to  the  boundaries  of  Bulgaria  as  provided 
for  at  San  Stephano.  The  creation  of  a  political 
Bulgaria  to  correspond  to  the  ethnic  Bulgaria  was 
indeed  thp  purpose  of  the  Russian  government 
in  1878,  though  with  the  repetition  of  the  same 
conditions  it  would  hardly  be  its  jjurpose  again. 

Barring,  therefore,  the  AUmniatis  of  the  west, 
who  as  yet  hi've  asserted  no  clearly  defined  na- 
tional claim,  the  Grcekaixnd  tlie  Ih  Ir/ariaiuaTc  the 
logical  heirs  to  what  remains  of  European  Turkey. 


These  observations  are  not  intended  as  a  fore- 
cast; they  merely  indicate  wliat  would  bo  an  in- 
evitable outcome,  were  the  questiim  permitted  a 
natural  settlement. 

Concerning  the  Turku  themselves  a  popular 
fallacy  has  ever  been  to  consider  their  destiny  as 
a  whole.  But  here  again  an  important  division 
of  the  subject  intrudes  itself. 

In  Asia  Minor,  where  the  Turkish  population 
overwhelmingly  preponderates,  tlie  question  of 
theirdestiny,  barring  the  ever  threatened  Russian 
iiiterference,  ought  not  to  arouse  great  concern 
in  the  present.  Bui  in  European  Turkey  the 
utter  lack  of  tliis  predominance  seems  to  deprive 
file  Ottoman  of  his  onlv  legitimate  title.  The 
Turl:ii(h  population  in  Thrace  and  the  Balkans 
nevei  did  in  fact  constitute  a  majority;  am'  with 
its  comnuial  decline,  measured  indeed  by  tie  de- 
cline of  ;he  Ottoman  Empire  itself,  the  greitest 
of  all  obsl,'cii's  to  an  eciuitablt  and  final  settle- 
ment has  bL"n  removed.  (See  the  ethnic  ma'.)  of 
Europe  at  tin  jjiesent  day.) 

The  historic-l  geography  of  the  Balkars  dur- 
ing the  present  entury  is  not  so  intricate  that  it 
may  not  be  undt. -stood  even  from  the  current 
literature  of  the  su'iject.  The  b.'st  purely  geo- 
graphical authority  is  E,  llertslet's  "Jlap  o.' 
Europe  by  Treaty."  ».>f  text  works  A.  C.  Fyffc's 
"History  of  Jloilern  E, 'rope,"  and  J.  II.  Rose's 
"A  Century  of  Contineniil  History  "  afford  ex- 
cellent general  vievi-  ?.  The  facts  concerning  the 
settlement  of  the  ii-  '  northcn  boundary  of  free 
Greece  are  given  in  1  mlay's  "  iTistory  of  "Greece," 
Vol.  VII.  Of  excelleiit'works  'lealing  more  or 
less  directly  with  present  Baikal,  politics  there 
is  hardly  an  end.  It  is  necessary  to  mention  but 
a  few :  E.  de  Laveleye's  "The  Balkan  Peninsula, " 
E.  A.  Freeman's  "The  Ottoman  Power  in 
Europe,"  the  Duke  of  Argyll's  "The  Eastern 
Question,"  and  James  Baker's  "Turkey."  See 
also  the  general  bibliography  of  historical  jecj- 
raphy. — A.  C.  Reiley. 


Xlll 


APPENDIX    D. 


N0TK8  TO  THE   DEVEIaJPMKNT   MaP  OP   ChUIBTIANITY. 


THE  subject  matter  contained  in  this  mop  is 
of  a  cimracter  so  distinct  from  tliat  of  the 
otlicr  maps  of  this  series  tlint  the  reader 
must  expect  a  coi responding  modification  in  the 
method  of  treatment. 

The  use  of  historical  maps  is  confined,  for  the 
most  part,  to  the  statement  of  purely  political 
conditions. 

This  is  in  fact  almost  the  only  field  which  ad- 
mits of  exact  portrayal,  within  the  limits  of  his- 
torical Icnowledge,  by  this  method.  Any  other 
phase  of  human  life,  whether  religious  or  social, 
which  concerns  tlic  belief  or  the  thought  of  the 
people  rather  than  the  exact  extent  of  their  race 
or  tlieir  government,  must  remain,  so  far  as  the 
limitations  of  cartography  is  concerned,  compar- 
atively intangible. 

Again,  it  should  be  noted  that,  even  in  tlie 
map  treatment  of  a  subject  as  comparatively  ex- 
act as  political  geography,  it  Is  one  condition  of 
exactness  that  this  treatment  should  bo  specific 
in  its  relation  to  a  date,  or  at  least  to  a  limited 
period. 

The  map  which  treats  a  subject  in  its  historical 
development  has  the  undoubted  merit  of  greater 
comprehensiveness;  but  this  advantage  cannot 
be  gained  without  a  certain  loss  of  relation  and 
proportion.  Between  the  "development"  map 
and  the  "date"  map  there  is  this  difference:  In 
the  one,  the  whole  subject  passes  before  the  eye 
in  a  sort  of  moving  panorama,  the  salient  points 
evident,  but  with  their  relation  to  external  facts 
often  obscured :  in  tlic  other,  the  subject  stands 
still  at  one  particular  point  and  permits  itself  to 
be  pliotographed.  A  progressive  series  of  such 
photographs,  each  forming  a  perfect  picture  by 
Itself,  yet  each  showing  the  clear  relation  with 
what  precedes  and  follows,  affords  the  metliod 
which  all  must  regard  as  the  most  logical  and 
the  most  exact.  But  from  the  very  intangible 
nature  of  the  subject  treated  in  this  map,  the 
date  method,  with  its  demand  for  exactness,  be- 
comes impracticable.  These  observations  are 
necessary  in  explaining  the  limitations  of  cartog- 
raphy in  dealing  with  a  subject  of  this  nature. 
The  notes  that  follow  are  intended  as  a  simple 
elucidation  of  tlie  plan  of  treatment. 

The  central  feature  in  the  early  development 
of  Christianity  is  soon  stated.  The  new  faith 
spread  by  churches  from  city  to  city  until  it  be- 
came the  religion  of  the  Roman  Empire ;  after- 
wards this  spread  was  continued  from  people  to 
people  until  it  became  tlie  religion  of  Europe. 
The  statement  of  the  general  fact  in  this  crude 
and  untempered  form  might  i~  an  ordinary  case 
provoke  criticism,  and  its  Invariable  historic 
truth  with  reference  to  the  second  period  be 
open  to  some  question ;  but  witliin  the  limits  of 
map  presentation  it  is  substantially  accurate.  It 
forms,  indeed,  the  key  upon  wh!.;U  the  entire 
map  is  constructed. 


THE  ANTE'NICENE  CHURCHES. 

During  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era,  up  to  the  Conslantinian  or  Nicene  period, 
there  is  no  country,  state  or  province  which  can 
be  safely  described  as  Cliristian ;  yet  as  early  as 
the  second  century  there  is  hardly  a  portion  of 
the  Empire  which  docs  not  number  some  Chris- 
tians in  its  population.  The  subject  of  the  his- 
torical geography  of  the  Christian  cliurch  during 
the  ante-Niceno  period  is  confined,  tlierefore,  to 
the  locating  of  these  Christian  bodies  wherever 
they  are  to  be  found.  On  this  portion  of  the 
subject  the  map  makes  its  own  statement.  It  is 
possible  merely  to  elucidate  this  statement,  with 
the  suggestion,  in  addition,  of  a  few  points  which 
the  map  does  not  and  cannot  contain. 

Concerning  the  ante-Nicene  churches  there  is 
only  one  division  attempted.  This  division,  into 
the  "  Apostolic  "  and  "  post- Apostolic,"  concerns 
merely  the  period  of  their  foundation.  Concern- 
ing the  churches  founded  in  the  Apostolic  period 
(SS-IOO),  our  knowledge  io  practically  limited  to 
the  facts  culled  from  tne  Acts,  the  Epistles  and 
the  Apocalypse.  Tlie  churches  of  the  post- Apos- 
tolic period  afford  a  mucli  wider  field  for  re- 
search, although  the  materials  for  study  bearing 
upon  them  are  almost  as  inadequate.  According 
to  the  estimate  of  the  late  Prof.  R.  D.  Hitchcock, 
there  were  in  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  close  of 
the  persecutions  about  1,800  churclies,  1,000  in 
the  East  and  800  in  the  West.  Of  this  total,  the 
cities  in  which  churclies  have  been  definitely 
located  number  only  525.  They  are  distributed 
as  follows:  Europe  188,  Asia  214,  Africa  123  (see 
v.  I,  p.  443).  Through  the  labors  of  Prof.  Henry 
AV.  liulbert,  the  locations  of  these  535  cities,  so 
far  as  established,  have  been  cast  in  available 
cartograpliic  form. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that,  despite  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  author,  it  has  been  found  impossible, 
owing  to  the  limitations  of  space,  to  locate  all  of 
these  cities  in  the  present  map.  The  attempt 
has  been  limited  therefore  to  the  placing  of  only 
the  more  prominent  cities,  or  those  whose  loca- 
tion is  subject  to  the  least  dispute. 

The  Apostolic  and  post- Apostolic  churches,  as 
they  appear  upon  the  map,  are  distinguished  by 
underlines  in  separate  colors.  A  special  feature 
has  been  the  insertion  of  double  underlines  to 
mark  the  greater  centres  of  diffusion,  so  far  as 
their  special  activity  in  this  respect  can  be  safely 
assumed.  In  this  class  ./e  have  as  centres  in 
Apostolic  times  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Epiitsus, 
Philippi,  Thessaloniea  and  Oorinth ;  in  post- 
Apostolic  times,  when  the  widening  of  the  field 
necessitates  special  and  limited  notices,  we  may 
name  Alexaiidna,  Edessa,  Rome  and  CartM^e. 

Tlie  city  of  Rome  contains  a  Christian  co:n- 
munity  in  Apostolic  times,  but  its  activity  as  a 
great  diffusion  centre,  prior  to  early  post-Apos- 
tolic times,  is  a  point  of  considerable  historical 


XIV 


APPENDIX  D. 

controversy.  In  this  respect  it  occupies  a  pecu- 
liar position,  wliicli  is  suggested  by  the  special 
underlines  in  the  map. 

CONVERriON  OP  THB  EMPIRE. 

The  above  metliod  of  treatment  carries  us  in 
safety  up  to  tlie  accession  in  tlie  West  of  the 
first  Christian  Emperor(311).  Tlie  attempt,  how- 
ever. ♦•  ,,,.."'"!  the  same  method  beyond  tliat 
P'-  lod  would  involve  us  at  once  in  insurmount- 
able ditllcultics. 

Tlie  exact  time  of  the  advent  of  the  Christian- 
Roman  world  it  is  indeed  impossible  to  define 
with  precision.  The  Empire  after  tlic  time  of 
Constiintine  was  predominantly  Christian,  yet 
paganism  still  lingered  in  formidable  tliough 
declining  strength.  A  map  of  religious  designed 
to  explam  this  pc-'  )d,  even  witli  unlimited  his- 
torical material,  c  aid  hardly  be  executed  by  any 
system,  for  tlic  i.  ult  could  be  little  better  than 
a  chaos,  the  fragments  of  the  old  religion  every- 
where disappearing  or  blending  witli  tlie  new. 
The  further  treatment  of  the  growtli  of  Ciiris- 
tianity  by  cities  or  churches  is  now  impossible ; 
for  tlie  rapid  increase  of  tlie  latter  has  carried  tlio 
subject  into  details  and  intricacies  where  it  can- 
not be  followed :  on  the  other  hand,  to  describe 
the  Roman  world  in  the  fourth  century  as  a 
Christian  world  would  be  taking  an  unwarranted 
liberty  with  the  plain  facts  of  history. 

The  last  feeble  remnants  of  paganism  were  in 
fact  burned  away  in  tlie  fierce  heat  of  tlie  bar- 
baric invasions  of  the  fifth  century.  After  that 
time  we  can  safely  designate  the  former  limits  of 
the  Roman  Empire  as  the  Christian  world.  From 
this  point  we  can  resume  tbj  subject  of  church 
expansion  by  the  "second  method"  indicated  at 
the  head  of  this  article.  But  concerning  the 
transition  period  of  tlie  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
from  tlie  time  Christianity  is  predominant  in  tiie 
Roma'i  world  until  it  becomes  the  sole  religion 
of  the  Roman  world,  both  methods  fail  us  and 
the  map  can  tell  us  practically  nothing. 

BARBARIANS  OF  THE  INVASION. 

Another  source  of  intricacy  occurring  at  this 
point  should  not  escape  notice.  It  was  in  the 
fourth  century  that  Christianity  began  its  spread 
among  the  barbarian  Teutonic  nations  nortli  of 
the  Danube.  The  Goths,  located  on  the  Danube, 
between  the  Theiss  and  the  Euxine,  were  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  in  the  form  known  as 
Arianism,  by  the  missionary  bishop  UlpliilaE,  and 
the  faitli  extended  in  the  succeeding  century  to 
many  other  confederations  of  the  Germanic  race. 
This  fact  represented,  for  a  time,  the  Christiani- 
zation,  whole  or  partial,  of  some  peoples  beyond 
the  borders  of  the  Empire.  With  the  migrations 
of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  however,  these 
converts,  without  exception,  carried  their  new 
faith  with  them  uto  the  Empire,  and  tlieir  de- 
serted homes,  left  open  to  new  and  pagan  set- 
tlers, simply  became  the  field  for  the  renewed 
missionary  effort  of  a  later  age.  It  is  a  liistorical 
fact,  from  a  cartographic  standpoint  a  fortunate 
one,  that,  with  all  the  geo^rapliic  oscillation?  if 
this  period  between  Cliristianity  and  paganism, 
the  Christian  world  finally  emerged  with  iti  boun- 
daries conforming,  with  only  a  few  exceptions, 
to  the  former  frontiers  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Whether  or  not  this  is  a  historical  accident  it 
nevertheless  gives  technical  accuracy  from  the 
geographic   standpoint   to   the   statement  that 


APPENDIX  D. 

Christianity  first  made  the  conquest  of  the 
Roman  world ;  from  thence  it  went  out  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  of  Europe. 

CONVERSION  OP  EUROPE. 

With  the  view,  as  afforded  on  the  map,  of  the 
extent  of  Christianity  at  the  commencement  of 
the  sevcntli  century,  we  have  entered  definitely 
upon  the  "second  method."  Indeed,  in  Ireland, 
Wales  and  Scotland,  where  the  Celtic  cliurch 
lias  already  put  forth  its  missionary  effort,  the 
method  has,  in  point  of  date,  been  anticipated ; 
but  this  fact  need  cause  no  confusion  in  treat- 
ment. Henceforth  the  spread  of  Christianity  is  ' 
noted  as  it  made  its  way  from  "people  to  peo- 
ple." At  tliis  point,  however,  occurs  the  great- 
est intongibility  of  the  subject.  The  dates  given 
under  each  country  represent,  as  stated  in  the 
key  to  tlie  map,  "tlie  approximate  periods  of 
conversion. "  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  however, 
that  Christianity  was  completely  unknown  in  any 
of  these  countries  prior  to  tlie  periods  given,  or 
tliat  the  work  of  conversion  was  in  each  case  en- 
tirely completed  witliiu  tlie  time  specified.  But 
it  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  give  some  definite- 
ness  to  tliese  "  periods  of  conversion";  to  assign 
Willi  all  distinctness  possible  tlie  time  when  each 
laiiil  passed  from  tlic  list  of  pagan  to  the  list  of 
Christian  nations.  Tlie  dates  marking  the  limits 
to  tliese  periods  are  perliaps  chosen  by  an  arbitrary 
metliod.  Tlie  basis  of  their  selection,  however,  has 
been  almost  invariably  some  salient  point,  first  in 
the  introduction  anil  finally  in  tlie  general  accept- 
ance of  the  Christian  faith.  In  order  that  the 
reader  may  possess  the  easy  means  of  indepen- 
dent opinion  or  critical  judgment,  the  explanation 
is  appended  of  the  dates  thus  used,  concerning 
wliieh  a  question  miglit  legitimately  arise. 

Goths. —  Converted  to  Arian,  Gnristianity  by 
UlpMlas,  341-381. — These  dates  cover  the  period 
of  the  ministry  of  Ulphilns,  whose  efforts  resulted 
in  the  conversion  of  tlie  great  body  of  the  Danu- 
bian  Gotlis.  He  received  his  ordination  and  en- 
tered upon  his  work  in  341,  and  died  at  Con- 
stantinople in  381.  (SeeC.  A.  A.  Scott's  "Ulflliis.") 

Suevi,  Burgundians  and  Lombard.*). — These 
people,  like  the  Goths,  passed  from  paganism 
tlirough  the  medium  of  Arian  Christianity  to  final 
Orthodoxy.  Concerning  tlie  first  process,  it  is 
possible  to  establish  notliing,  save  that  these 
Teutonic  peoples  appeared  in  the  Empire  in  the 
fiftli  eentur}'  as  professors  of  the  Arian  faith. 
Tlie  exact  time  of  tlio  acceptance  of  tliis  faith  is 
of  less  conse(iuence.  The  second  transition  from 
Arianism  to  (Jrthodoxv  occurred  at  a  different 
time  in  eaeli  case.  The  Suevi  embraced  the 
Catholic  faith  in  550;  the  Visigoths,  through  theii 
Catholic  king  Reccarcd,  were  brought  within  the 
church  at  tlie  tliird  council  of  Toledo  (589). 
Further  north  tlie  Burgundiaus  embraced  Catholi- 
cism through  their  king  Sigisinond  in  017,  and, 
finally,  the  Lombards,  the  last  of  the  Arians, 
accepted  Orthodoxy  in  tlie  beginning  of  the 
seventh  century.  The  Vandals,  another  Arian 
German  nation  of  this  period,  figured  in  Africa  in  . 
the  fourth  century. 

Tliey  were  destroyed,  however,  by  the  arras  of 
Belisarius  in  534,  and  their  cnrly  disappearance 
renders  unnecessary  their  representation  on  tlie 
present  map. 

Franks. —  Ohristiaiiity  introduced  in  498.  — 
This  is  the  date  of  the  historic  conversion  of 
Clovis  and    his  warriors  on  the  battlefield  of 


XV 


APPENDIX  D. 


APPENDIX  D. 


Tolblac.  The  Franks  were  tlio  first  of  the  Ger- 
manic peoples  to  puss,  ns  a  nation,  to  orthodoxy 
(lireot  from  paganism,  and  tlieir  conversion,  as 
we  liave  seen,  was  soon  followed  by  tlie  progress 
from  Arianism  to  Orthodoxy  of  the  other  Ger- 
manic nations  within  the  borders  of  the  Empire. 

Ireland. —  Christianuy  intmliieed  hy  Patrick, 
440-493. — St.  Patrick  entered  upon  his  mission- 
ary work  in  Ireland  in  440;  he  died  on  the  scene 
of  his  lalKirs  in  403.  This  period  witnessed  the 
conversion  of  the  bulk  of  tlie  Irish  nation. 

Picts, — Christianity  introduetd  from  Ireland 
by  (hlumba,  563-507.  —  These  dates  cover  the 
'  period  of  St.  C'olinnba's  ministry.  Tlic  work  of 
St.  Ninian,  the  "apostle  of  the  Lowlands"  in 
the  previous  century,  left  very  few  enduring  re- 
sults. The  period  from  503,  the  date  of  the 
founding  of  the  famous  Celtic  monastery  of 
lona,  to  the  death  of  Columba  in  597,  witnessed, 
however,  the  conversion  of  the  great  mass  of  the 
Pictish  nation. 

Strathdyde. — Christianity  introduced  by  Ken- 
tigern,  550-003. — These  dates,  like  the  two  pre- 
ceding, cover  the  i)eriod  of  tlie  ministry  of  a 
single  .nan,  Kentigern,  the  "apostle  i)f  Stratli- 
clyde."  The  date  marking  the  commcncemoiit 
of^Kentigern's  labois  is  approximate.  He  died 
in  003. 

England. —  The  Celtic  church  had  been  up- 
rooteclin  England  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  invasions 
of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  While  its  mis- 
sionary efforts  were  now  being  expended  on  Scot- 
land, Strathclydc,  and  Cornwall,  its  pristine  scat 
had  thus  fallen  away  to  complete  paganism. 
The  Christianization  of  England  was  the  work 
of  the  seventh  century,  and  in  this  work  the  Celtic 
church,  though  expending  great  effort,  was  an- 
ticipated and  ultimately  outstripped  by  the 
chiirch  of  Rome. 

Kent. — Christianity  introduced  by  Augustine, 
597-004. — These  dates  cover  the  ministry  of  St. 
Augustine,  the  apostle  of  Kent.  Tliis  was  the 
first  foothold  gained  by  the  Roman  church  on 
the  soil  of  Britain. 

Northumbria.— 627-051.— Edwin  (Eadwine), 
king  of  Nortliumbria,  received  baptism  from 
the  Kentish  inissionarv  Paulinus  on  Easter  Eve, 
627. 

Tlie  process  of  conversion  was  continued  by 
the  Celtic  missionary,  Aidin,  who  died  in  651. 
The  Christianity  of  Nortliumbria  had  begun 
before  the  latter  date,  however,  to  influence  the 
surrounding  states. 

East  An^lia.— 630-647.— East  Angliahad  one 
Christian  kmg  prior  to  this  period ;  but  it  was 
only  with  the  accession  of  Sigebert  (630)  that 
great  progress  was  made  in  the  conversion  of  the 
people.  The  reign  of  kin^  Anna  witnesses  the 
practical  completion  of  this  work.  In  047  the 
cffortt  of  this  sovereign  led  to  the  baptism  of 
Cenwaleh,  king  of  the  West  Saxons. 

Wessex.— 634-048.  — The  conversion  of  the 
West  Saxons  was  begun  by  the  missionary  Biri- 
nus  in  634.  The  year  648  witnessed  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Christian  king  Cenwaleh. 

Mercia. — 054-070. — Jlereia  was  one  of  the  last 
of  the  great  English  kingdoms  to  accept  the  faith. 
Their  king,  Penda,  was  indeed  the  most  formid- 
able foe  the  church  encountered  in  the  British 
Isles.  The  conversion  of  Penda's  son  Pcada  ad- 
mitted the  gospel  to  the  Middle  Angles,  who 
accepted  Christianity  in  053.  The  East  Saxons 
embraced  the  faith  at  about  the  same  time.    Fi- 


nally in  054  the  defeat  and  death  of  Penda  at  the 
hand  of  Oswy,  the  Christian  king  of  Northiim- 
bria,  opened  "the  doors  of  Mercia  as  well.  The 
conversion  of  the  realm  was  practically  accom- 
plif lied  during  the  next  few  years. 

Su98ex.—681.— The  leaders  of  the  South  Sax- 
ons received  baptism  at  the  hands  of  the  apos- 
tle Wilfred  in  681.  Sussex  was  the  last  retn^at 
of  paganism  on  the  English  mainland,  and  five 
years  later  the  conversion  of  the  inliabitante  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight  completed  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity over  every  portion  of  the  Britisli  Isles. 

Frisians. —  Christianity  introduced  bi/  Willi- 
hrord,  690-739.— The  .vork  of  St.  Willibrord 
among  the  Frisians  vis  one  of  many  manifes- 
tations of  the  missicna'.y  activity  of  the  Cel- 
tic church.  Willibroi.l  introduced  Christianity 
among  these  people  during  the  years  of  his  min- 
istry, but  to  judge  by  the  sub.sequent  martyrdom 
of  Boniface  in  Priesland  (755)  the  work  of  con- 
version was  not  fully  completed  in  all  quarters 
until  a  later  time. 

Mission  Field  of  Boniface.— 722-755.— The 
object  of  the  map  is  not  merely  to  locate  the 
mission  field  of  the  great  "  apo.stleof  Germany," 
but  also  to  give  the  location  and  date  of  the  vari- 
ous bishoprics  which  owed  their  foundation  to 
his  missionary  efforts. 

Saxons.— 787-805.— Of  all  the  nations  con- 
verted to  Christianity  up  to  this  time  the  Saxons 
were  the  first  conquest  of  the  sword.  The  two 
most  powerful  Saxon  chiefs  were  baptized  in 
787;  but  it  was  not  until  their  complete  defeat 
and  subjugation  by  Charlemagne  in  805  that  the 
work  of  conversion  showed  a  degree  of  complete- 
ness. AVith  the  Christianization  of  the  Saxons 
the  cordon  of  the  church  was  completed  around 
the  Germanic  nations. 

Moravia. — Christianity  introduced  by  Cyrillus 
and  Methodius,  863-000.— St.  Cyrillus,  the  "a])os- 
tle  of  the  Slavs,"  entered  upon  his  mission  in 
Moravia  in  803.  The  political  Moravia  of  the 
ninth  centrry,  under  Rastislav  and  Sviatopluk, 
exceeded  greatly  the  limits  of  the  modern  ])rov- 
ince;  but  the  missionary  labor  of  the  brothers 
Cyrillus  and  Methodius  seems  to  have  produced 
its  principrd  results  in  the  modern  Moravian  ter- 
ritory, as  indicated  on  the  map.  Methodius,  the 
survivor  of  the  brothers,  died  about  900.  In  the 
tenth  century  Moravia  figures  as  Christian. 

Czechs.— 880-1039.— The  door  to  Bohemia 
was  first  opened  from  Moravia  in  tlie  time  of 
Sviatopluk.  The  reactions  in  favor  of  pagan- 
ism were,  however,  unusually  prolonged  and 
violent.  Severus,  Archbishop  of  Prague,  finally 
succeeded  in  enforcing  the  various  rules  of  the 
Christian  cultus  (1039). 

Poles.— 966-1034.— The  Polish  duke  Mieczy- 
slav  was  baptized  in  966.  Mieezyslav  II.  died 
in  1034.  These  dates  cover  the  active  missionary 
time  when,  indeed,  the  efforts  of  the  clergy  were 
backed  by  the  strong  arm  of  the  sovereign. 
Poland  did  not,  however,  become  completely 
Christian  u;   il  a  somewhat  later  period. 

Bulgaria.  —863-900. — The  Bulgarian  prince 
Bogoris  was  baptized  in  803.  Again,  as  in  so 
many  other  cases,  the  faith  v.-as  compelled  to  pass 
to  the  people  through  the  medium  of  the  sover- 
eign. The  '  >ud  date  is  arbitrary,  although 
Bulgaria  ap]!'  . is  definitely  as  a  Christian  coun- 
try at  the  commencement  of  the  tenth  century. 

Magyars. — 950-1050. — Missionaries  were  ad- 
mitted mto  the  territory  of  the  magyars  in  950. 


XVI 


APPENDIX  D. 


APPENDIX  D. 


The  coronntion  of  Kt.  Stcphi'ii,  the  "  npostolic 
klnjf,"  (KKM))  iniirkfd  the  real  triiiiiipli  of  Cliris- 
tiiiiiity  ill  llunjtiiry.  A  nuinbcr  of  piigiin  ri'iic- 
tioiis  occurred,  however,  in  tlie eleventh  century, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  to  iilace  the  conversion 
of  the  Magyars  nt  uii  earlier  date  than  the  last 
one  assigned. 

Russians.— 088-1015.— The  Russian  grand- 
duke  Vladimir  was  baptized  on  the  occasion  of 
his  marriage  to  the  princess  Anne,  sister  of  the 
Byzantine  Emperor,  in  1)88.  liefon;  his  death  in 
lOlT)  Cliri.stianity  had  through  his  elTorts  become 
the  accepted  religion  of  his  people. 

Danes. — C'oiuvrtnl  /i)/  Aimgar  andhinnurreiuiors, 
827-1035. — The  Danes  had  been  visited  by  mis- 
sionaries ]irior  to  the  ninth  century,  but  their 
work  had  left  no  permanent  result.  The  arrival 
of  Ausgar,  the  "apostle  of  the  North"  (837), 
marks  the  real  beginning  of  tlic  period  of  con- 
version. This  period  in  Denmark  was  an  un- 
usually long  one.  It  was  not  fully  complete 
until  the  nign  of  Canute  the  Great  (1010-103,")). 

Swedes  (Gothia). — Chrutinnitji  iiitvoduced  by 
Aimi/iir  mill  /lis  successors,  829-1000. — Ausgar 
nuulc  his  iirst  visit  to  Sweden  in  820,  two  years 
after  his  arrival  in  Denmark.  The  period  of 
conversion,  as  in  Denmark,  was  a  long  one;  but 
by  the  year  1000  the  southern  section,  Gothia  or 
Qotliland,  had  become  Christian.  The  conversion 
of  the  northern  Swedes  ■was  not  completed  for 
another  century. 

Norwegians. — 935-1030.— The  jieriod  of  cou- 
vcrsion  in  Norway  began  willi  the  reign  of  the 
Christian  king  Ilakon  the  Good.  The  faith  made 
slow  progres.s,  however,  until  the  reign  of  Olaf 
Trygveson,  wlio ascended  the  tlirone  near  tlie end 
of  the  tenth  century.  The  work  of  conversion 
was  completed  in  tlio  reign  of  Olaf  the  Saint 
(101-1-1030). 

Pomeranians. — Christianity  introducalhy  Otho 
of  Jldiiihay,  112-1-1128.— The  attempt  of  the  Poles 
to  convert  the  Pomeranians  by  the  sword  i)rior  to 
these  dates  had  proven  unavailing,  and  mission- 
aries had  been  driven  from  the  country.  Witliin 
the  short  sjiacc  of  four  years,  howcvej,  Otho  of 
Bamberg  succeeded  in  bringing  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  within  tlie  pale  of  the  church. 

Abotrites.— 1125-1103.— The  conversion  of 
these  people  was  clearly  the  work  of  the  sword. 
It  was  accomplished  within  the  time  specified  by 
Albert  the  Hear,  first  margrave  of  Brandenburg, 
and  Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony.  The  last 
heathen  king  became  the  first  Christian  duke  of 
Jlecklenburg  in  1 162.  Further  south  the  kindred 
Wend  nations  between  the  Elbe  and  tlie  Oder  had 
been  the  oliiect  of  German  effort,  both  mission- 
ary and  military,  for  over  two  centuries,  but  had 
generally  come  within  the  church  before  this 
time. 

Lives  and  Prussians. — Christianity  introduced 
by  the  Sieord  Brothers,  1203-1286,  a »rfJi(  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights,  1330-1289. — These  conversions,  the 
work  of  the  transplanted  military  or<lers  of  Pal- 
estine, were  direct  conquests  of  the  sword,  and 
as  such  possess  a  defiuitenesswliich  is  so  unfortu- 
nately lacking  in  so  many  other  cases. 

So  much  for  the  character  and  the  purpose  of 
the  dates  which  appear  on  this  map.  In  the  em- 
ployment of  the  colors,  tlie  periods  covered  are 
longer,  and  as  a  cons(:qucnce  the  general  results 
are  somewhat  more  d  jfinite.  Tlie  use  of  a  color 
system  directly  over  a  date  system  is  intended  to 
afford  an  immediate  though  general  view.    From 


this  to  the  special  aspects  presented  by  the  date 
features  is  a  simple  step  in  the  development  of 
the  subject. 

Another  feature  of  the  map  which  may  not 
es<'ape  notice  is  the  different  systems  used,  re- 
spectively, in  the  lioman  and  Mediieval  periinl 
for  tlie  spelling  of  urban  names,  A  develop- 
ment map  covering  a  long  period  of  history  can- 
not be  entirely  free  from  anachronisms  of  this 
nature;  but  a  method  has  nevertheless  been  fol- 
lowed in  tlie  spelling  of  these  place  names: —  to 
give  in  each  case  the  spelling  current  at  the 
period  of  conversion.  Tlie  fact  that  tlie  labors 
of  the  Christian  missionaries  were  contined  mostly 
to  the  Roman  world  in  the  Roman  period,  and 
did  not  extend  to  non-Roman  lands  until  the 
Middle  Ages,  enables  us  to  limit  our  spelling  of 
civic  names  to  a  double  system.  Tlic  cities  of 
the  Roman  and  of  the  Jledia'val  piriinl  are 
shown  on  the  map  and  in  tlie  key  in  two  different 
styles  of  type.  Only  in  the  cases  of  cities  like 
Rome,  Con.stanliiKiple  and  Aiitioch,  where  the 
current  form  has  the  absolute  sanction  of  usage 
even  for  classic  limes,  has  there  been  any  devia- 
ti(m  from  the  strict  line  of  this  metliod. 

In  conclusion,  the  general  features  of  the  sub- 
ject present  themsches  as  follows:  Had  the  ad- 
vance of  Christianity,  like  Moliiuiimedanism, 
been  by  conquest,  had  tlie  bounds  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  been  thus  rendered  ever  conterminous 
with  the  limits  of  a  jieople  or  an  empire,  then, 
indeed,  the  subject  of  churcli  expansion  would 
possess  a  tangibility  and  coherency  concerning 
wliich  exact  statcinint  would  be  possible.  The 
historical  geography  of  the  Cliristian  church 
would  then  partake  of  some  of  the  iirecision  of 
I)olitical  division.  Hut  tlie  non-political  element 
in  tlie  Cliri.stian  cultus  deprives  us,  in  the  study 
of  the  subject,  of  tliis  invaluable  aid.  At  a  later 
time,  when  the  conquests  of  the  soul  were 
backed  by  the  strong  arm  of  power,  and  when 
the  new  faith,  as  often  happened,  passed  to  the 
people  from  the  sovereign,  a  measure  of  this  ex- 
actness is  perhaps  po.ssible. 

We  have  witnessed  an  indication  of  these  ten- 
dencies in  many  casi's,  us  we  approaclied  the 
termination  of  the  iieriod  covered  by  this  ma]). 
But  tlie  fact  remains  that  the  fundanieutal  char- 
acter of  the  Cliri.stian  faith  precludes,  in  the 
main,  the  possibility  of  its  growth  being  meas- 
ured by  the  rules  which  govern  ordinary  politi- 
cal expansion. 

This  being  then  a  subject  on  which  dcflnite- 
ness  is  well  nigh  impossible,  it  has  been  treated 
by  a  method  correspondingly  elastic.  A  work- 
ing basis  for  the  study  of  the  subject  is,  how- 
ever, afforded  by  tliis  system.  Tliis  basis  se- 
cured, the  student  may  then  systematically 
pursue  his  theme. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

T}ie  historical  geography  of  the  Christian 
church,  if  studied  only  within  narrow  limits, 
can  be  culled  from  the  pages  of  general  church 
history.  All  of  these  accounts,  however,  are 
brief  —  those  in  the  smaller  histories  extremely  so. 
If  studied  thus,  the  reader  will  derive  the  most 
help  from  Neauder's  "History  of  the  Christian 
Religion  and  Church,"  vol.  I.  pp.  68-86,  vol.  II, 
pp.  1-84,  93-129;  Sclmff's  "History  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,"  vol.  I,  pp.  22-1-408,  vol.  II,  pp. 
13-84,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  10-71,  vol.  IV,  pp.  17-142, 
and  Moeller's  "History  of  the  Christian  Church." 


XVll 


APPENDIX  I). 

These  works  mny  be  supplemented  by  a  vast' 
number  of  Ijooks  trciitini?  of  special  phases  of 
church  history,  though  the  number  in  English 
dealing  specillcaljy  with  geographical  expansion 
is  very  small. 

The  most  recent,  dealing  with  tlio  ante  Niceno 

gcrio<l,  is  Hamsey's  "Church  in  the  Itoman 
Impire  before  A.  I).  170,"  to  wliich  tlie  same 
autlior's  "Historical  Geography  of  Asia  Minor" 
forms  a  most  indispcnsibk-  prelude. 

KiUeriiig  tliu  mediajval  period,  the  best  gen- 
eral guides  are  the  little  books  of  O.  F.  Mac- 
lear,  entitled  respectively  the  conversion  of  tlie 
Celts,  Knglish,  Continental  Teutons,  Northmen 
and  Slavs.  These  works  may  be  supplemented 
by  Thomas  Smith's  "Modiiuval  Missions,", and 
for  special  subjects  by  G.  T.  Stokes'  "Ireland 
and  the  Celtic  Church,"  W.  P.  Skene's  "Celtic 
Scotland"  (vol.  II),  and  8.  Baring  Gould's  "The 
Churcli  in  Germany." 

The  texts  of  the  "Councils  as  contained  in  Ilar- 
dum,  Labbe,  and  Mansi  are  indispensible  orig- 
inal aids  in  the  study  of  cluirch  geography. 

Of  German  Works,  J.  E.  T.  Wiitsch's  "Atlas 
Bacer,  'and  the  same  author's  "Church  Geogra- 
phy and  Statistics,"  translated  by  John  Leitch, 
have  long  remained  the  standard  guides  for  a 
study  of  the  historical  geography  of  the  church. 


APPENDIX  D. 

The  Atlas  Bacer,  containing  five  large  plates  ig 
the  only  pure  atlas  guide  to  the  subject.  The 
"  Church  Geogniphy  and  Statistics,"  being  an  ec- 
clesiastical work,  dwells  with  great  fuhie-ssim  the 
Internal  facts  of  church  geography,  but  the  out- 
ward expansion,  barring  tlie  early  growtli  of  the 
church,  IS  not  so  concisely  treated.  For  tlie  bis- 
tory  of  mediicval  missions  the  reader  will  be  better 
served  elsewhere.  To  the  reader  using  German 
C.  G.  niumliardt's  "Die  Missionsgeschichtc  der 
Kirche  ('hristi"  (3  vols.,  1828-1837),  and  a  later 
work,  "Ilandbuch  der  Missionsgescliiclite  und 
Mission.sgeograpliie"  (3  vols.,  1863),  may  bo 
noted.  •' 

For  modern  missions  there  is  a  very  full  litera- 
ture. Comprehensive  works  on  this  subject  are 
Grundemann's  "Allgemeino  Missions  Atlas" 
JJurkliardt  and  Grundemann's  "Les  Missions 
JJiVangehques  "  (4  vols.),  and  in  English  the  "  En- 
cyclopicdia  of  Missions."  Several  articles  in  the 
"EncyclopiBdiaof  Missions"  should  not  escape 
notice.  Among  tlicni  are  "  Mediicvnl  Missions," 
and  the  "Historical  Geography  of  Missions,"  the 
latter  by  Dr  Henry  W.  Hulbert.  The  writer  is 
glad  at  this  point  to  return  his  tlianks  to  Dr. 
Hulbert  for  the  valued  aid  extended  in  the  loca- 
A  °^°',.''^?  Church  of  the  ante-Nicene  period.— 
A.  C.  Reilej, 


XVIU 


APPENDIX    E. 


ThK  FoLLOWINO  NoTKB  and  COIHIKCTIONB  to  MaTTKII  KeLATINO  to  AmEHICAN   AllOKIOINKS 
(pp.  76-108)  HAVE  BEEN   KINDLY  MADE  DT  MAJOH  J.    W.    PoWELL  AND 
Mn.    .1.    OWKN  DOKSEY,   OP  THE  QuilEAU  ov  Ethnolooy. 


Adal.— This  tribp,  formerly  classed  us  a  dls- 
Unct  fiiiiiily  —  fill)  Adniziiii  —  is  now  regiirded  by 
tlic  Biircuu  of  Etlmology  as  but  a  part  ot  the 
Caddoan  or  Pawnee. 

Apache  Group. — ludiaii.s  of  ilifTercnt  families 
ore  here  mentioned  together:  (A)  the  C'o- 
manches,  etc.,  of  the  Shoshonean  Family;  (H) 
the  Ai)acliC8  (including  tlie  C'hirieagiiia,  or  Chiri 
caliua,  Coyoteros,  etc.,  but  excluding  the  Tejiias 
who  are  llifloan)  of  the  Athapascan  Family,  the 
Navajos  of  the  same  family ;  and  (C)  the  Yuman 
Fomily,  including  tlie  Cusninos,  who  are  U'  ' 
Apache  (Atliapascan  stock). 

Athapascan  Family. — Not  an  exact  synonym 
of  "Chippewyans,  Tinneh  and  Sarcees."  Tlie 
whole  family  is  sometimes  known  as  Tinneh, 
though  that  api)cllatioii  is  more  frequently  lim- 
ited to  part  of  tlie  Northern  group,  the  Chippe- 
wyans. The  Sarcees  arc  an  olfshoot  of  the 
Beaver  tribe,  which  latter  form  part  of  one  of 
the  subdivisions  of  the  Northern  group  of  the 
Athaiiascan  Family.  The  Sarcees  are  now  with 
the  IJlackfeet. 

Atsinas  (Caddoes). — The  Atsinas  are  not  a 
Caddoan  people,  but  they  are  Algoncpiian,  as  are 
the  Bluekfeet  (Sik-sik-a).  The  Atsinas  are  the 
"Fall  Iniliiins,"  " Minnetarees  of  the  Plains,"  or 
"Qros  Ventres  of  the  Plains,"  as  distinguished 
from  the  Ilidatsa,  who  are  sometimes  called  the 
"Minnetarees  of  thu  Ilissouri,"  "Gros  Ventres 
of  the  Missouri." 

Blackfeet  or  SiVsikas. — The  Sarcee  are  a 
Tinneli  or  Athapascan  tribe,  but  tliey  are  not  the 
Tinneh  (see  above).  The  "Atsina"  are  not  a 
Caddo  tribe  (see  above). 

Cherokees. —  These  people  are  now  included 
in  the  Iroquoian  Family.  Sec  Powell,  in  Semnth 
Annual  liept..  Bureau,  of  Ethnolofjn,  p.  79. 

Flatheads  (Salishan  Family).— The  "Chera- 
kis,"  though  included  among  the  Flatheads  by 
Force,  are  of  the  Iroquoian  Family.  The  "Chi- 
cachas"  or  Cliickasaws,  aio  not  Salishan,  but 
Muskliogean.  See  Powell,  tkeenth  Ait  mud  Rept., 
Bureau  nf  Ethnology,  p.  03.  The  Totiris of  Force, 
are  the  Tutelos,  a  tribe  of  the  Siouan  Family.  See 
Powell,  Seiviith  Annual  liept. ,  Bureau  of  Ethnol- 
ogy, p.  116.  The  Cathlamalis,  Killmucks  (i.  e., 
Tillamooks),  Clatsops,  Chinooks  and  Cliilts  are  of 
the  Cliinookau  Family.  Sec  Powell,  Seventh 
Annual  liept..  Bureau  of  Ethnolnqy,  pp.  0.5,  60. 

Gros  Ventres  (Minnetaree  ;  Hidatsa).— There 
are  two  di.stinct  tribes  which  are  often  con- 
founded, both  being  known  as  the  Gros  Ventres 
or  Minnetarees.  1.  The  Atsina  or  Fall  Indians, 
an  Algonquiau  tribe,  the  "Gros  Ventres  of  the 
Plains,"  or  the  "Minnetarees  of  the  Plains."  3. 
The  Hidatsa,  a  Siouan  tribe,  the  "Gros  Ventres 
of  the  Missouri,"  or  the  "Minnetarees  of  the 
Missouri."  The  former,  the  Atsina,  liave  been 
wrongly  styled  "  Caddoes"  on  p.  81. 


Hidatsa,  or  Minnetaree,  or  Gros  Ventres. — 

Often  conftiuiidcd  with  the  Atsina,  who  belong 
to  the  Algompiian  Family,  the  Illdatsii  being  a 
tribe  of  the  Siouan  Family.  The  Hidatsa  have 
been  called  Gros  Ventr  s,  "Big  Paunches,"  but 
this  niekname  could  have  no  reference  to  any 
personal  i)eculiarities  of  the  Hidatsa.  It  seems 
to  have  originated  in  a  (luarrel  between  some 
Indians  over  the  big  paunch  ot  a  bullalo,  result- 
ing in  I  iie  scparaticm  of  the  people  into  the  present 
tribes  of  HidaLsiis  and  Absarokas  or  Crows,  the 
latter  ot  whom  now  cull  the  Ilidatsa,  "Kl-kha- 
tsa,"  from  ki-klia,  a  paunch. 

Hupas.  —  They  belong  to  the  Athapascan 
Family :  the  reference  to  the  Jlodocs  is  mislead- 
ing. 

Iroquois  Tribes  of  the  South.— "Tlie  Meher- 
rins  or  Tuteioes." — The.se  were  not  identical, 
the  Tutelos  being  a  Siouan  tribe,  the  Meherrius 
being  now  identilied  witli  the  Susquehannocks. 

Kenai  or  Blood  Indians. —  The  Kenai  are  an 
Athnpascan  jieople  inhabiting  the  shores  of 
Cook's  Inlet  and  the  Kenai  Peninsula,  Southern 
Alaska;  while  the  Blood  Indians  are  a  division 
of  the  Blackfeet  (Siksika),  an  Algonquiuu  tribe, 
in  Montana. 

Kusan  Family. — The  villages  of  this  family 
were  on  Coos  Uiver  and  Bay,  and  on  both  sides 
of  Coquillo  Kiver,  near  tlie  mouth.  See  Powell, 
Seventh  Annual  liept..  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  89. 

Also  in:  J.  Owen  Dorsey,  The  Qentile  Sys- 
tem of  the  Siletz  Tribes,  in  Jour.  Amer.  Fulk-Lore, 
July— Sept.,  1890,;).  231. 

Minnetarees.  See  above,  Atsina  ond  Hi- 
datsa. 

Modocs  (Klamaths)  and  their  California  and 
Oregon  neighbors. — The  Klamaths  and  Modocs 
are  ot  the  I.utiiamiau  Family;  the  Sliastusof  the 
Sastean ;  the  Pit  Hiver  Indians  ot  tlie  Palaihni- 
han;  the  Eurocs  of  the  Weitspekan ;  the  Cahrocs 
of  the  Quoratean;  the  Iloopahs,  Tolewas,  and 
the  lower  Rogue  liiver  Indians  of  the  Athapas- 
can; tli(!  upper  i{ogue  liiver  Indians  of  the  Ta- 
kilman. 

Muskhogean  Family. —  The  Biloxl  tribe  Is 
not  Muskhogean  but  Siouan.  See  Dorsey  (James 
Owen),  "  The  Biloxi  Indians  of  Louisiana,"  re- 
printed from  V.  42,  Proc.  Amer.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci., 
Madison  meeting,  1893. 

Natchitoches. — A  tribe  of  the  Caddoan  Family. 
— Dorsey  (J.  Owen),  MS.  in  the  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology, 188'..' 

Also  in  ;  1  Seventh  Anmcal  liept. ,  Bureau 

of  Ethnology,  j, 

Pueblos. — "Tli:.  /.uni  was  Cibola  it  is  need- 
less to  attempt  to  prove  any  further." — A.  P. 
Bandelier,  Journal  of  Am.  Eth.  and  Arch.,  v.  3, 
p.  19,  1893. 

Rogue  River  Indians. — This  includes  tribes 
of  various  families:  the  upper  Rogue  River  In- 


XIX 


APPENDIX  E. 


APPENDIX  E. 


(linns  bring  the  Tftkolma,  who  are  nulji^nrd  to  n 
Hni'ciiil  raiiiilv,  the  Tnkilnmn;  nml  the  lower 
UoKiie  UivcT  IndiiinH,  whoiiri'  Athu|mHi'nn  trilM'H. 
8<'e  DorHi'V  (J.  Owen),  "The.  Urntile  Syttem  of 
the  Silftz  Trilien,"  iii.hiur.  AiiifV.  thlk-lA>rf,  July 
—Sipt.,  WW,  pp.  22H,  2:!2-2:W. 

Santeet. — Two  (liviNioiigof  the  Hlounn  Fiiniily 
are  known  hy  thin  nnnic:  1.  The  I  mii-ya-ti  or 
DwcllerB  on  Knlfu  Lake,  MinneHOta,  iaentlcal 
with  the  Mdewakantonwan  Dakota.  These  fig- 
ured in  the  Minnesota  outbreak  of  1808.  The 
Rurvivora  are  in  Knox  Cftunty,  Nel>ra8ka,  on 
what  was  once  the  Santeo  reservation,  ond  near 
Flandreau,  8oiitli  Dakota.  2.  The  Hantces  of 
South  Carolina  were  part  of  tlic  Catawba  con- 
federacy. The  Bauteo  river  is  named  after 
them. 

Sarcee. — These  aro  not  all  of  the  TInneh,  nor 
are  tliey  really  Blackfect,  though  living  with 
them.  The  Sarcecg  are  an  ofTshoot  of  the  Beaver 
Indians,  a  tribe  of  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 
Northern  group  of  the  Atliapascan  Family. 

Siouan  Family.— All  the  tribes  of  tids  family 
do  nut  speak  the  Bioux  language,  as  is  wrongly 
8lnte<l  on  p.  1U3.  Those  wlio  speak  the  "  Sioux  " 
language  aro  the  Dakota  proper,  nicknamed 
Sioux,  and  tlio  Assinilwin.  There  are,  or  iiave 
been,  nine  otlier  groups  of  Indians  in  this  fandly : 
to  the  Cegiha  or  Dlicgiha  group  iMjiong  the  Oma- 
has,  Ponkas,  Oaages,  Kansas  or  Kaws,  and  Kwa- 
pas  or  Quapars;  to  the  Tcliiwcre  group  belong 
the  lowas,  Otos,  and  Missouris;  tlie  Winnebago 
or  Ilociiangara  constitute  anotlier  group;  the 
fifth  group  consists  of  tlio  survivors  of  the  Man- 
dan  nation ;  to  tlic  sixtli  group  belong  the  Hidatsa 
and  the  Absarokas  or  Crows ;  tlie  Tuteloa,  Ke- 
yuiiwees,  Aconeechls,  etc.constituted  the  seventh 
group;  the  tribes  of  tlie  Catawba  confederacy, 
the  eighth ;  the  Biloxis,  the  ninth ;  and  certain 
Virginia  tril)cs  tlie  tenth  group.  The  Winne- 
bagos  call  rnselves  Ilochungnra,  orFirstSpeech 
(not  "  Trout  Nation"),  they  are  not  called  lloroje 


("'flsh-eatcra")  by  the  Omuhas,  but  Ilu-tnn-ga, 
nig  Voices,  a  mlKlranslation  of  Ilociiangara. 
The  Dakotas  pniper  sometimes  speak  of  tliem- 
Kclvcs  as  the  "O-cheli  shako-win,"  or  the 
Seven  Couneil-flres.  Their  Algi)n(|uian  focsealled 
them  Nadowe-ssiwak,  the  Snake-like  ones,  from 
nadowe,  a  snake;  this  was  corrupted  hy  the 
Canadian  French  to  Nodoue8Hl(mx,  of  which  the 
la.  t  syllable  1."  Sioux.  TIio  seven  primary  divi- 
sions of  the  Dakota  aro  as  follow:  Mdewakan- 
tonwan, VVakhpekiite,  Sisitonwan  or  Sisscton, 
Wakhpetonwan  or  Warpcton,  Ihanktonwan  or 
Yankton,  Ihanktonwunna  or  Yanktnnnai,  and 
Titoiiwaii  or  Teton. 

The  Sheyennes  or  Cheyennes,  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  Sioux  by  Gallatin  and  Carver, 
are  an  Algoi",iuian  people.  Gallatin  styles  the 
"  Mandanes"  a  Mlnnetarco  tribe;  but  as  has  lust 
been  stated,  the  survivors  of  the  Mandan  nation, 
a  people  that  formerly  inliabitcd  many  villages 
(uc(^ording  to  Dr.  W'nshington  Matthews  and 
others)  belong  to  a  distinct  group  of  the  Siouan 
Family,  and  the  Hidatsa  (inciudhu''  tlio  Amakhami 
or  "Annahawas"  of  Gallatin)  an. I  the  Absaroka, 
Upsaroka  or  Crows  constitute  the  sixth  group  of 
that  family.  The  "Quappas  or  Arkansas  of 
Gallatin  are  tlie  Kwapas  or  Qiiapaws  of  recent 
times.  The  Osages  call  themselves,  not  "  Wau- 
sasho,"  but  Wa-sha-she. 

Takilman  Family. — "The  Takilma  formerly 
dwelt  in  villages  along  upper  Hogue  Hiver, 
Oregon,  all  the  latter,  with  one  exception,  being 
on  the  south  side,  from  Illinois  Hiver  on  the 
soutliwcst,  to  Deep  Itock,  which  was  nearer  the 
head  of  the  stream.  They  arc  now  included 
among  the  'Hogue  River  Indians,'  and  tliev 
reside  on  tlio  Silctz  Keservatioii,  Tillamoofe 
County,  Oregon,  where  Dorscy  found  them  in 
1884." — Powell,  Seventh  Annual  liept..  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  p.  121.  —  They  call  themselves,  Ta-kel- 
raa. —  Dorsey. — Dorsey  had  their  chief  make  a 
map  showing  the  locations  of  all  their  viUagcB. 


XX 


APPENDIX    F. 


BIBLIOGEAPITY. 

The  Betteu  LiTEBATunE  of  Histouy  in  thi:  Enolihh  Laxuuaue  on  Subjects 

Named  Below. 


In  the  /ollnwinti  Cln—ififd  Lint,  the  date  nf  thx  flrtt  anpeanincv  nf  rnrli  oim  nmimi)  lln-  iMer  teitrkn  U  given  In 
jHirpii(/i<'»r»,  if  iiHirrtalned.     The  perioil  covered  oy  thi' 


ii  atated  III  bracket$, 


wi'ficii  iiieniMira.  iiiiii  other  wurLi  limited  in  time. 


AMERICA. 

(DISCOVERY.— EXPLORATION.- SETTLEMENT.    AUCILEOLOOY.- ETHNOLOGY.) 


GENERAL. 


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BANCROFT,  HUBERT  HOWE.  Hlhtory  of  the  I'oclflc 
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XXI 


APPKNDIX  F. 


APPENDIX  P. 


PIMAK,  J.  I,.    De  fVmla'it  rm.Coliim»il«n  (1l««i»«ry  of 

Am.     (N.  Am.  Kcv  ,«lini:  '4IA.     miU.) 
lUHCOVKUY    ItF    AMKItICA     IIY    TIIK    NDKTIIMKN. 

rAllunll)' .Miinllilv.  M:  'JKU.     1HH4  ) 
im  noiH,  il  H.     Iilil  thi<  N.irm.  (lli«Mv,.r  Am.r    (Maff.  of 

Am.  lllHlc.iy,  SJT:  IKlll.     IHW, ) 
EI.I.IOTT,  CIIAItl.KS  W.    Till"  Sfw  KnKlnnd  liWory,  <'h. 

I.     .Ni'W  Yrirk;  I'liaii.  HcrlliniT.     1W7.    a  v. 
KVKUr.TT.  Kr>\VAUI).     Dlwov.TV  ..f  Am.  l>y  tli«  Ni.rtli- 

miMi.    (N.  Am.  I<«v., 'Ifl:  nil.     IHHH.) 
FISKK,  JOHN.     How  AmiTli'ik  cvimo  lo  b«  illacovxred. 

(llai'|»'r'H  MaK.,M:  III.     INMI.) 
HICKHNHON.  TltoMAH  W.    Tlii-  vlxit  of  the  Vlklnsa. 

(lliii|MT»  Mii«..  (W:  M5.     INW,) 
HOUHFIIUD,   KUKN   NOIITON.     Tlii.    prol.Iom   <if    tli.< 

Noiiliiiic-ii.  ('iiiiil>rlilK<':  J.  WIIhoii  \  Hon.  IHM). 
LKdENDHiirni.K  AM.  ((Dnililll  Mft({., '.il:  Wi.  IHT:).) 
LELASK.  <IIAIU.F.S  (lODKUKY.    Tin-  nntc-Nnrmi  iIIm- 

covcnTHiir  Am.    (ContlMi-ntnl  Monlhly,  I:  HMI.htll. 

m»  I 
FumkiiK:  IT  llu'  ill»<'iivi'ry  <>f  Am.  Iiy  Clilm'iKi  Uml- 

(IIiIhI  lirli'HiM  In  Hill  Mil  ciMitiiry.      uimlin:   Trllli- 

ncr.     IHT.1.     Now  York:    .1.  \V.  Hmilnn.    IKW. 
M*cLKAN,    .1.    r.      Pn'Coliiiiililiui    illiMMvery   of   Am. 

(AiiiL-i'lt-un  Autl(|iiarlun,  14.    IHtu  ) 
MAJOH,  HICIIAKI)  HFNHY.    Tlii-  llfn  of  prlncn  Ilnnry 

of  rorliitral.  Hiiniiiiiii'il  llii'  imvlgntor,  ami  ItH  ni- 

HiillN.     I/iniloii:  A.  AhIii'I',^  I'o.    INIIH. 
On    tliti    voviiKi'M  of   the    Vi'iu'llan    lirothnra   Zono. 

(MiiHii.  Illsi.  Soi'.     I'nuwdlMKH,  IHT:)  T.V) 
7V«iM.  (irifi  t'tl.    VnyaK''**  of  tlin  Vt'm*tlaii  hrotlion*. 

NIcoIA  anil  Antonio  /cno,  to  tlio  iiortlii*rii  hpoh,  In 

till' I'ltli  I'rntiiry.    I.,iiii(lon:  llakliiyt  S<h'.    IKT:). 
ONDEUDONK,  .1.  I..    Pn-Colimililan  clIwovorli'H  of  Am. 

(Natliiiial  giinrt.  Iti'v.,  :i.<l:  1.     (.HTII.) 
I'lLON,  M.  U.     VIsilHof  EiimiK'ans  to  Am  In  tlm  iOtli  ami 

nth  L'i'ntiirli'H.     (Piitli'r'H  Am.   Monthly,  5:  lK).i. 

IK75.) 
RANKIN(i,.I<)IIN.     lIlHtorleal  rcwarclirHontliiu-oniiiWHt 

of  IVni,  Moxhro,  t'tc,  In  thii  l.1tli  rrntiiry,  by  tin* 

ModkoIh.    London:  Longman.    ]K.'r. 


REFVEH,  ARTIHm  MIDDt.ETON  Thnflmllnnof  WIno 
land  tliii  Kooil.     l.omlon:  lli-nry  Frowili-.     IMWi 

KOI'FX,  A.  K.  Fjii'ly  i-xploratlimii  of  Am.,  n-al  and  Ini 
AKlnary.    (KnKliHh   Illntorlcal  Ki>v..  »:  ;X.     1(447) 

HllonT.  JOHN  T.  ClaliiM  to  thn  dlHoovcry  of  Am. 
(dalazy,  «):  mill.     IMT.t.) 

HI.dVFTEIl,  Kd'.  EnMITNI)  F.  TIip  dlwoviTV  of  .Mil.  hy 
thn  Nortlimtin,  IIKV  101.%;  n  dlHOoiinMnicllv('ii*d  Imi- 
forv  lh(i  Now  HampHhhii  HlHtorlral  Hinli'ty,  Apr. 
M.  IHNN. 
ril.  VoyoKi'ti  of  tliii  NorlhmiMi  to  Am.;  InolndlnK 
••xtrai'ln  from  thr  li'i'lanilli!  lUtKaH  In  nn  Fiik. 
Iraiinlatlon  hy  N.  I..  Il<>aiiili<li.  opinion  of  I'rof. 
Until,  i-ti'.     Hiwton:  I'rlnri' Soc.     mr". 

SMITH,  JOHHl'A  TOI'I.MIN.  Tim  dlm-ovpry  of  Am.  hy 
tliii  Northiiii'ii  In  tlio  loth  ri'iittiry:  coniprlHlntf 
traiiKlalloiiK  <>f  all  tlin  mont  liii|>ortniii  orlKliial 
narrativi'H  ilWHI).    ltd  i-d.     l/mdoii:  Win.  H.  Orr 

*  Co.    mw. 

HOIJTHEY.  ItOIlEHT.  Mndm?  nH0.11.  Umdon:  I^ong- 
iimiiM.     Ikmton:  HoiiKhton,  .MllHln  &  Co. 

HTEPHENH,  THOH.  Mmlm';  an  i-wtay  on  the  diacov- 
ery  of  Am.  hy  Miid(H>  np  Owen  (Iwyni'ild  In  the 
IDth  cimtury.    Iximlon:  IxinKiiiunii,  (Ini-ii  &  Co. 

iwn. 

8TOIIM,  (IJSTAV.    Ht  idli'H  on  thn  Vinpland    voynRHi. 

CoiH'iiliaKi'ii:  Thii'li'.     IHNU. 
VININd,  EDWAIin  r.     An  InKlorloiw  ColiimhiiH;  or,  I'vl- 

di-n'o  that  llwiil  Shan  ami  a  party  of  Miiddhliit 

iiionkH  from  Art^haiiiHlan  dlHirovrri'd  Anifrlcii  In 

tliK  .Ith  t'l'iitiiry.     Ni'W  York:    I>.  Appli'loii  .t  Co. 

I(«0. 
VOYAflE8  TO  VINLAND.  THE;  from  tho  aasa  of  Erlo 

thori-d.    IloHtim:  I).  C.  Heath  &  Co,    (Uld  Mouth 

iHalli'tH.  KtMiiiral  Ki-rli'it,  No.  .41.) 


WATHON,  I'AITI,  II.    nililloxraphy  of  tim pr«(^oliimhlnn 
'    ■  Mbr  '  ■     ■■    — 

IHMl.) 


lilxcovi'rIi'H   of    Am.      ( Library   Journal,    II:  tl7. 


WINHOR,  JUSTIN.     Amerli;a  prt'flKiin'd;    an  nddnws  at 
llurvaiil,  Oct.  iil,  IHW,    CambrldKU.     1HU3. 


COLUMBUS. 


APAM8,  CHARLFi*  KENDALL.    Christopher  Columhiis, 
hlH    life   anil    work.      ("  Makers  of    Ameriea."; 
New  York:  Dexld.  Menil  .t  Co.     mrj. 
Some  recent  dlKOoverleHOoneernlnK ColumbuK.    (Mag, 
of  Am.  History,  ar:  HI".     IHUa.J 

ADAM9,  HEUnERT  R.,  and  HENRY  WOf>I).  CohmibUH 
and  hlx  discovery  of  America.  (Johns  Hopkins 
University  stu<lleH  in  historical  and  political 
nclcnce,  10th  series,  Noa.  10-11.)  Ualtliiiore,  Oct.— 
Nov.,  IH«i!. 

BLIND,  K.  Tlio  forcninncrs  of  Cohimbiis.  (New  Rev., 
7:  ;M0.     LlvliiK  Age,  UW:  :Vr<r.    IHW.) 

CASTELAR,  EMILIO.  Christopher  Columbus.  (Century, 
aa:  1S3-1)S1.     IW)-'.) 

COLUMBUS,    CHRISTOPHER.      Journal,    MOaJ);    and 
doc"s  relatlni;  to  the  voyoKes  of  John  (and  Sebas- 
tian! Cal«>t  and  (laspar  Corto  Real;  trans,  by  C. 
R.  ^larkham.    Iy.>n(lou:  HakluylSoc.     lHt):i. 
The  letter  on  Hie  discovery  of  America;  a  facsimile 
of  tho  pictorial  e<l.,witha  new  and  literal  trans. 
I'rlnte<I  by  the  Ixmox  Library.     New  York.     mri. 
Lett<'r  to  flabriel  Sanchez,  UWJ.    Hnston:  1).  C.  Heath 
&  Co.    (Old  Soutli  leatlets,  general  series.  No. :«.) 
Select  letters,  witli  other  original  doeuitients;  trans, 
and  ed.  I)y  R.  It.  Major.     London:  Hakluyt  Soc. 
1W7. 
Writings  descriptive  of  the  discovery  and  occupation 
of  the  new  world;  e<l.  i)y  Paul  Leicester  Ford. 
New  York:  C.  L.  Webster  &  Co.    lSfl2 

COLUMBUS,  FERDINAND.  Tlie  discovery  of  America; 
from  the  life  of  Columbus.  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.     (Old  Soutli  leatlets,  general  series,  No,  29.) 

ELTON.  CHARLES.  The  career  of  Columbus.  New 
York:  Cassell  Publishing  Co.     180S. 

GOODRICH,  AARON.  History  of  the  character  and 
achievements  of  tiie  so-called  Christopher  Colum- 
bus,   New  York;  D.  Appleton  &  Co.    IW4. 


HKLl'S, .Sir  ARTHUR,  fDoMI  P.  Thomas.  Llfeof  Colnm- 
hiis.     1/iiiilon:  Uell  A:  |)alily.     IHAO. 

IRVIN(j1,  WAHHIN'ITON.  Life  anil  voyages  of  Chrlsto- 
iiher  Coluiiitu.silNaHi;  to  which  are  added  those  of 
his  companions  (18.11).  New  York:  II.  P.  Putnam. 
.Sv. 

LOIiaUFJi,  ROSELLY'  db.  Life  of  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, from  Spanish  and  Italian  documents;  coiiip. 
from  tho  Fr.  by  J.  J,  Barry,  Boston:  P.  Dona- 
hoe.     IHTO. 

MACKIE,  CIIAS.  PAITL  'I'he  last  voyages  of  the  Ad- 
miral of  tile  Ocean  Sea,  as  related  by  himself  and 
his  companions.    Chicago:  A.  C.  McClurg  .*t  Co. 

MACKINTOSH,  J.  The  discovery  of  America  by  Colum- 
bus and  the  origin  of  tho  N.  Am.  Iiidlans.  Ti>- 
ronto.    ISW. 

.MARKHA5I,  CLEMENTS  R.  Life  of  Christopher  Co- 
lumbus.    Uimlon:  (leo.  Plilllp  &  Son.    IRUa. 

MAUKY',  M.  An  examination  of  the  elalnjsof  Columbus. 
(Ilarjier's  Mag.,  «:  -iiX^M.     1871.) 

OBER,  FREDERICK  A.  In  the  wake  of  Columbus;  ad- 
ventures of  thespet:ial  commissioner  sent  by  the 
World's  Coiumbian  Exposition  to  the  West  Indies. 
Boston:  I).  I.»throp  Co.     181W. 

SEELY'E,  ELIZABETH  EUOLESTON.  The  story  of  Co- 
lumbus; witli  lntro<l.  by  Edward  Egglestoii.  New 
York;  I).  Appleton  &  (;o.     181)3. 

SPALDING,  J.  L.  Columbus.  (Catholic  World,  6fi:  1. 
1808.) 

TARDUCCI.  FRANCESCO.    The  life  of  CJhristopher  Co-  > 
lumbus;    trans,  from  the  It.  by  H.  F.  Brownson. 
Detroit:  II.  F.  Brownson.    1800.    2  v. 

^VINSOR,  JUSTIN.    Christopher  Columbus,  and  how  he 
received  and  impurt^'d  the  spirit  of  discovery. 
Boston:  Hougliton,  Minilii  &  Co.     IHUl. 
Columbiana.    (Nation,  M:  ai>7.    1801.) 


POST-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES. 


ARBER,  EDWARD,  eil.  The  llrst  three  Englisli  books  on 
America  (yi511)-^15,">5  A.  I).;  being  cliielly  trans., 
compilations,  &c.,  by  Richard  Eden,  from  the 
writings  of  Hetro  Martire,  Sebastian  MUnster, 
Sebastian  CalMt,    Bimiingliam.    ISR^. 

ASHER,  G.  M..  erf.  Henry  Hudson  the  navigator:  origi- 
nal documents  in  whicli  his  career  Is  recorded. 
London:     Ilakliiyi.  Soc.    1860. 


RIDDLE.  RICHARD.   Jlemoir  of  Sebastian  Cabot.    Phila^ 

delphla:  Corey  &  Leo.    1831. 
BOSTON  PUBLIC  LIBRARY.    Amcrlco  in  the  lOlh  cen- 
tury (biljliogl  note  in  Bulletins,  v.  8.  pp.  188-141). 
Early  English  explorations  in  America  (bibllog'l  note 

in  Bulletins,  v.  8,  pp.  S41-344). 
Early  explorations  in  America  (bibliog'l  note  In  Bulle- 
tins, V.  3,  pp.  103-106). 


XXll 


APPENDIX  F. 


APPENDIX  F 


BREVOORT,  J  ('.    ViTrn»nniithi'im»lK«torIfmm  rt-pnrt    | 
•if  till-  Am.  (li>iiKra|ilil<'ul  Hot-,  cif  N.  V.  for  llfr:i|     ' 


Voyngi-HdlKiS  1(1111 1;  Initw. 


Mrw  Yiirk      IHT4. 
CHAMPl.AIN.HAMrKI.  nit. 

Iiy  Chiw.  1'.  oilM.  Ii'illwltli  iiiniiolr  l>y  Iv  K,  Klaf- 

liT.    ItciHldii:  I'rliii'i' HmUMy.    imth  Hs).    ;t  v. 
Da  VUIKH.  I).  I'.    Kxtmi'iH  fniin  iln-  vnt.itri'H;  tr.  tram  n 

iMili'li  Ilia.  In  Ihi'  liillnili'liililn  l.ilimry,  liy  lir.  II 

TriKiHi.    (Cull  Kiif  ilii-  N.  V.  Ill«t.  HiH\,  1*1  wrli-H, 

V.  I.     Ni'w  Yiirk.     IK4I.) 
VoyaitcH  friiiii  llollniul  In  Am.,  I(VW  IIVI-I;  Ir.  liy  II.  ('. 

Miii'iiliv.    (('iiII'h  iir  the  N.  Y.  lllat.  H4k.-.,  M  wrivii, 

r.  Jt     Ni'w  Viirk.     1HR7.  ( 
FI8KE,  JOHN.    Tlir  roiimmv  nf  IlicSpnnliili  ami  Fri-nuli 

fX|iliin-rH.    (Iliii'in  in  MuK.,IVt:  4.18.     imtt,., 
FOItcr,,   M.   K.      Kdiiii'   oIisitviiIIiiiih   im  tlm    Ii'IIith  of 

AiiM-rl^i>     Vt>H|iiii*rl     (thill;,     ('iiii-lnii.ill;     liiibt, 

Cliirki!  *  Cci.     IHW. 
HAKLUYT,  RICIIAIlli.  f.(.     Tlic  prlnolpnl  niivlKUlioim, 

vov(iK*'H.  (riinii|iifHuiul  illiHNiVfrlfHof  Ihi*  KtiKllHh 

nntlnii  iLVtUi:  iil.  hy  h'..  liolilHinlil.  v.  1','  1.1.     Kdlii- 

Imi'Kli:  K.  &  II.  (IoIiIhiiiIiI.     Iknu  mi. 
HKKIINSON,  TIIOMAH  W.     Tlic  iild   KiirIIhIi  nciiiiii'ii. 

(lliir|MTn  Mii|{.,IW:  aiT.     IHKl  ) 
The  H|mnl«li  iIIwuvitith.      (IlurpiT'H  Man.,  Ill:  7-11. 

HUDSON,  IIKNRV.     Wvith  voyniji'H  anJ  nortlHTii  illii- 

oot'tTifH.     ( l^iirt'liOH  hin  pHifrlmcri,  V.  H,    ('nll'M  of 

tlm  N.  Y,  IllHl.  Hoc,  V.  1.    .Sew  York.    IHll.) 
JUET,  RODEUT.     Kjttmct  frimilhi- loiirnulof  IlicvnyaKO 

of   tli«  llnlfMooii,  IIiMiry  IhidMoii,  iiinKliT,  IIKW. 

(C'ollH  of  thi!  N.  V.  lllKt.  Hoc,  M  wrleM,  v.  1. 

New  York.     IWl.) 
KOHL,  .1.  (I.     lIlHtory  of  Iho  illdcovery  of  MoIiik:  with 

uii  111)11.  on  tht*  voynKt'Hof  tho  C'niHitH.    (roH'Hof 

lliit  Miiiiii'   Hint.  t4oc,  tM  M'rlcH,  %'    1.    rortlnml: 

IWHI,) 
LESTER,  ('.  EDWARDS,  ni.'l  A.  K(  )STEH,    IJfo  anil  voy- 

aK**H  of  Aiiierlcim  \'..'hpuoluH.     Ni^w  York:  HaktT 

&  SlmIIiiut.     1N4(I. 


NtCHOLt>«,  .1.  E.     R<-markahl<-  lir-.  ailvi'iiliir<     nn<l  dla- 

rovi'rlfn  of  KpImhIIuii  CuImiI.      I.0111I011:  H^iinimon 

l/iM',  H<in  ,it  Mamlon.     IhoU. 
I'ARKMAN,  KKANCIS      I'lon.i'ra  of  Kraiiw  In  III.-  Ni'W 

World.     ll<Mlon:  l.llllf.  Ilrouii.v  Co.     IH«.\ 
I'AYNE.  KliWAI<|i,l.\MKH.     VoyaK''"  oftlii- KII/alH-llian 

acniix'ii  to  ,\iiii'rli-ii:  I'l  orl»(liial  luirrullvi-H  from 

till-  I'olli'i'llon  of  lliikliiyl.     London:    I'Iioh.  do  la 

Uno  *('■!.     IWW, 
RKAt>,.l(illN  MKItKIHTII.  ./>'.     lllxlorlinl  lininlry  i-on- 

I'l'inliiKlli'iiry  ilndwin.    Alliany:  .1.  Miiiwll.    IWKI. 
HANTAUKM.  roii'oiiiif.     lli'iK-airlu-n  ri'B|HTllii)f  AinerU'im 

Vt'HiMK-liiHniMl  IiIh  '  oviih'cH  (IH.|'j);  irniiH.  liy  K.  V. 

Clilfdi'.     lloKlon:  C.(V  I.illlcV.  .Ilia.  Ilronn.     IKVI. 
STANLEY  ('K  AI.DKIil.KY.    I.in;l.      The  Ural  voyiik-o 

round  tho  world,   liy   >liik{i'llnn:  truiia.  from  tlit« 

aiT'ta  of     I'iKafi-lla    and    oiliir    ronti-niiairary 

writi'ra;    wlili  doi'mni'iila,  iioira,  I'tf.      Ijiiidon: 

Hakliiyt  Km-.     IH7I. 
TARPUCCI,  FItANCESCd.    ,|i,lin  and  Hi'lmallnn  C.itiot, 

hloK.  notli'M,  Willi  iliHMimi'nlH;  (rana.  from  i)ii<  It. 

liy  lli'nry  K.  Hrovvnaoii.     Hi'trolt:    II.    1'.    llrowii- 

son.     imn. 
TOWLE.  (lEOKOK  M.    Maici'llan.    Iloaton:  l^ee  &  Bhitp- 

ard.     IHNU. 
VERItA/ANO,  .lOlIN  nr..    Tin-  niatlonof.    iCoiraof  the 

N   Y',  Iliat.  Hoc,  V.  1.    Nrw  York.     IMIl.i 
Tlio  aanit':    a  new   Iranalatlon,    liy  >l.    H-   CofHwell, 

(Coiraof  til"  N.  Y.  Illat.  Hia'.,  '.'(I  wrli-a,  v.  1.    Xt'vr 

York.     IMI.i 
Voyui^f,  lfW4.    (I  )ld  Hoiuli  li>all*'ta,  j,'t*in*ral  acrli'a,  No. 

17.1    Itoaton:  I>.  C.  lli'alli  ,S:  Co. 
VESrUCCI,  AMEIIIOO.     Airount  of    lila  (list    voyntfc; 

Iftti'rto  Iter  HialiMlnl.    (did  Hoiilli  IrallHa,  k<'"- 

oral  aerli'a,  No.  'M.)    iloaton:  H.  C.  Itfalli  ,V  I'o. 
The  firat  four  voytiKi'a;    rcprinti'd  In  faraliullo  and 

t rana.  from  the  ran'  'triKlnal  t><l.  (I.Vi.V<h.     Lon- 
don: IkTnard  yiiarllili,     IWil. 
VOVAOESOF  THE  C.\II(>TS,  THE.      I'roiii   Hakliiyf* 

*' I'rlnrlpal  luivlKationa."     Itoaton:  Ii.  C.  Heatii  & 

Co.    (.oldSoiilli  Icalli'la,  Kriirral  aiTli-a,  No.  37.) 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  CONQUEST  AND  OCCUPATION. 


ANDAGOY'A,  I'AKCUAL  inc.     Narratlvo  of  tlii'  prowwd- 

InKaof  I'l'drarlaa  Duvlla  |IM4  l.MI| ;  liana,  and i-d. 

by  C.  U.  Markhani.     Uinilon:  Ilakliiyt  Hoc    HtHi. 
BANDEIJEH,  ADtH.l''  F.  A.    Ulacovcry  of  New  Mexico 

|C'llHila|  l)V  Fray  Marcoa  of  NIzza.    ( Slag,  of  Wi'St- 

em  lllatory,  4:  ilSll.     IHWl.) 
BENZONI.  UIUOLAMO.      lllatory  of    tlio   new    world, 

hIicwIdk  Ilia  travels  in  Ainerl'.'a,  l.Ml-l.ViH;  trana. 

and  I'd.  by  W.  H.  Hniytli.    Ixjndon:  Hakluyt  Hoc 

1857. 
BLACKMAR.   FRANK  W.    Kpanlali   Inatitiiliona  of  tbo 

Houtbwcat.      Ualtlmori'.     IHIIl.     (.lolma  Hopkina 

Unlvfralty  atudk'H  in  liiat.  and  i)ol.  aeienct'.     Extra 

V.  10.) 
CHARLEVOIX,   Fnther  F.  P.  X.  nit.     Hiatory  of   Para- 

Kiiiiy  (17.W);    Itrnna.  from  the  Fr.J.    I/jndon:  L. 

Davia.     I711U.    a  v. 
CHEVAHEH,  MICHEL.     Mexico,  ancient  and  mmlem; 

trana.  by  T.  Alpaaa.    London:  J.  Maxwell  &  Co. 

1864.    i  V.  . 
CTEZA  I>E  LEON,  PEDRO  de.    Travels,  A.  D.  l.VH  .W, 

contained  In  the  Aral  and  second  iiorta  of  hia 

Chronicle  of  Peru  (1M.S-);  trans,  ami  ed.  by  C.  R. 

Murklmm.    London:  Hakluyt  See    IHM-W. 
CLAVIOEKO,  Ahbe  I).  FRANCFXCOSAVERIO.    History 

of  Slexico,  collected  from  Spanish  and  Mexican 

liiatorlana,  from  mas.  and  ancient  iialntinKs  of 

the  Indians;  trana.  from  thu  It  by  Chaa.  CuUen. 

Phllttdclpliltt:  Thos.  Dobson.    1804.    3  v. 
CORTEZ,  IIEUNANDO.     Despatches  odiIresaiHl  to  the 

emjieror  Charles  V.  liiirlng  the  con(|iiest:  trans. 

from  the  Span,  with  inlr<Hl.  and  notes  by  Oeo. 

Folaom.    New  Y'ork:  Wiley  &  Putnam.    184;). 
DIAZ  DEL  CASTILLO,  BERNAL.    Memoirs,  contnlninR 

a  true  and  full  account  of  the  diacovcry  and  con- 

?iie8t  of  Mexico  and  New  Spain  (l(l;£!);    trans, 
rom  the  S|)an.  by  .lohn  I.  Lockhart.    London: 
J.  Hatchard&Son.    1844.    2  v. 
'JI8C0VERY'  and  conquest  of  Terra  Florida,  by  Don  Fer- 
nando de  Solo;  written  by  a  Kentleman  of  Elvas 
(1IV57),  and  trana.  out  of  Portuguese  by  Richard 
Hakluyt;  ed.   by  W.  B.  Rye.     London:  Hakluyt 
Soc    IHOl. 
FANCOURT,  CHAS.  ST.  J.    History  of  Yucatan.    Lon- 
don: J.  Murray.    18M. 
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don: Bell  &  Son.     1871.    a  v.    , 
Life  of  Ijis  Cosas.     London:  Bell  &  Son.    180H. 
Life  of  Pizarro.    London:  Bell  &  Son.    1869. 

^^  xxiii 


IIELI'S,  .Sir  ARTHUR.    The  Spanish  coninieat  In  America. 

Lohdiin:   Parker  it  Hon.     (IK/hOI.)    New  York: 

HarisT  &  Bros.    1H(17.    4  v. 
IHV'INO,  THEOliOHK.     History  of  Do  Soto's  conquest 

of  Florida  U8M).     New  York:    U.  P.  Putnani'n 

Sons. 
MARKHAM,  CLEMENTS  H.     HIatorv  ol   Peru,  eh.  1-4. 

Chicago:  C.  H.  Herccl  &  Co.     imrj. 
ed,   ami  trnnji.     lii'|Mirta  on   the  discovery  of  Peru. 

London:  Hakluyt  Soc     1872. 
MAYER,  BRANTZ.     Mexico,  Aztec  Spanish  and  repiib- 

licau.hk.l.     Hartford:  H.Drake  &  Co.     18,',l.    av. 
PRE8COTT,  WILLIAJI  H.    History  of  the  conquest  of 

Mexico  (IH4.1):  ed.  by  J.  F.  Kirk.    Pliiladelphlit: 

J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.    »  v. 
History  of  the  conipiest  of  Peru  (1847);  cd.  by  J.  F". 

Kirk.    Philadelphia:  J.  II.  Lippincott  &  Co.    2  v. 
RAYNAL,  Ahbil    A  philosophical  and  lailltlcal  history  of 

the  settlements  ond  trade  of  the  Europeans  hi  the 

east  and  west  Indies  (177(1);  trans,  from  the  Ir. 

by  .1.  O.  Justaiiiond.     Ixindon.     1788.    8  v. 
RIVERO,  M.  E.,  niirl  THCHUDI,  J.  J.  vox.    Penivlan  an- 
tiquities: trans   from  the  Span,  by  F.  L.  Hawks, 

New  York:  CJ.  P.  initnaiii  &  Co.    IN.').!. 
SIMPSON,  J.   H.    Coronado'H  inarch  In  search  of  the 

•'K«!ven  cities  of  Cibola."    Washington.     1871. 
SOUS,  Don  ANTfJNIO  db     HisUiry  of  the  conquest  of 

Mexico  by  the  Spaniards  (1IIH4);  trans,  from  the 

Span,  by  T.  T^iwnsend,  rev.  and  corr.  by  N.  Hook. 

London:  T.  Woodwurcl.     17;W.    2  v. 
SOUTHEY',  ROBERT.     History  of  Brazil,  \.  1.    Lonihin: 

Longman.     1810-11).    .i  v. 
SOUTHEY,  THOMAS.    Chronological  history  of  the  West 

Indies,  V.  1.     London:  Longman.    1827.    S  v. 
TOWLE,  OEOROEJI.    Pizarro.    Boston:  Li!e & Shepard. 

1879. 
TY'LOR,  EDWARD    B.    Anahunc;    or  Mexico  and  the 

Mexicans,  ancient  and  inodern.    London:   I..oiig- 

man.  Oreen  &  Co.     1801 . 
WASHBURN.  CIIAS.  A.    History  of  Paraguay,  cli.  1-4. 

Boston:  Le<?  &  Shepard.     1871.    2  v. 
WATSON,  ROBERT  O.    The  Siianiah  and  Poi  tuguese  In 

S.  .\nierioa  during  the  colonial  period,  v.  1.     Lou- 
don: TrUbncr&Co.    18W.    2  v. 
WILSON.  ROBERT  A.     A  new  hlstorv  of  the  er     ,       "of 

ftlexico.  in  wliicli  Los  Casaa'  deimnciatli   ..-.  o       le 

iwpiilar  historians  of  that  war  are  v.    c 

Philmlclphia:  Jas.  Challen  4  Son.    1859. 


APPENDIX  F. 


APPENDIX  F. 


ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  COLONIZATION. 


ACREUUS,  ISRAEL.  History  of  New  Sweden.  (Meni- 
olra  of  the  Pennsylvanio  HUt.  Sec.,  v.  11.  Phila- 
delphia.   1870.) 

ADAMS,  CHARLES  FRANCIS.  Three epIsodeB  of  Maasa- 
I'liUHPtlH  hixtory.  llostnii:  Houghton,  Mlflliii  & 
Co.    1<«W.    2v. 

BAYUES,  FRANCIS.  IIlBtorieol  memoir  of  the  colony 
of  New  Plymouth  (1830;.  Bo8ton:  Wlggin  &  Lunt. 
1808.   2v. 

BEVERLEY,  ROBERT.  History  of  Virginia  (1705).  Rich- 
mond: J  W.  Randolph.    18,5,'i. 

DOZMAN,  JOHN  L.  HUl  /  of  Maryland,  IKH-IOOO. 
Itultlmore:  Lucos  &  Deaver.  1H.S7  (introd.  1811.) 
Halllinorc:  Jolm  Murphy  &  Co. 

HRADFOUl),  WILLIAM.  History  of  Plymouth  Planta- 
tion. (Coll'H  of  the  MaHS.  Illst.  Soc,  4th  Heries,  v. 
8.  Boston.    185(1.) 

BRIDdEH,  GEOUCiE  W.  Annals  of  Jamaica,  v.  1.  Lon- 
don: .1.  Murray.     \Ki7.    ii  v. 

BRODHEAU  JOHN  R.,  vd.    Documents  relatiuK  to  the 
colonial  history  of  the  state  of  New  York.    Al- 
bany.    18,V)-87.     14  V. 
History  of  the  state  of  New  York,  v.  1.    New  York: 
Ilariwr  &  Bros.    lisa.    S  v. 

BROWN,  ALEXANDER,  ed.  Tlie  genesis  of  the  U.  8. 
[a  collection  of  historical  mss.  and  tracts,  with 
notes,  ctc.|.  Boston:  Houghton,  Miniin  &  Co. 
1690.    2v. 

BROWN,  WILUAJI  HAND,  ed.  Archives  of  Maryland. 
Baltimore.    1888-. 

BURKE,  ED.MUND.  An  account  of  the  European  settle- 
ments In  America.  London:  R.  &  J.  Dodsley. 
1757.    av. 

BURY,  ^i.^c•olm^  Exodus  of  the  western  nations.  Lon- 
don: Kichard  Bentley.     18(15.   Sv. 

CAMPBELL,  CHARLES.    Introduction  to  the  history  of 
the  colony  and  ancient   dominion    of  Virginia. 
Richmoncf:  B.  B.  Minor.    1847. 
The  saiiif,  tlistory  of  tlie  colony  and  ancient  doiiiin'in 
of  Virginia.    Philadelphia;  J.  B.  Lipplncott  &  c 

CAMPBELL,  DOUGLAS.  The  Puritan  in  Holland,  Eng- 
land and  America.  New  York:  Harper  &  Bros. 
lSi«.    av. 

CARROLL,  B.  R.,  ed.  Historical  collections  of  South 
Carolina.    New  York:  Harper  &  Bros.     181)0.    3  v. 

CHARLEVOIX,  FaWif  I  PIERRE  F.  X.  de.  History  and 
general  description  of  New  France  (1744);  trans., 
with  notes,  by  John  O.  Shea.  New  York:  J.  O. 
Shea.    180U-7a.    0  v. 

CHEEVEU,  GEORGE  B.,  ed.  Journal  .of  the  Pilgrluis  at 
I'lynioutli  in  I(HO.    New  York:  J.  Wiley.     1848. 

D.VLTON,  HENRY  G.  History  of  British  Guiana,  ch.  3. 
London:  Longmans.     18.'>5.    a  v. 

DOUGLASS,  WILLIAM.  Sunmiary,  liistorical  and  po- 
litiiol.  of  the  British  settlements  in  N.  Am.  Lon- 
don: U.Baldwin.    1755.     a  v. 

DOYLE,  JOHN  A.  The  American  colonies  (Arnold  prize 
es.say).  Ijoiulon:  Rivingtons.  IhOU. 
The  English  in  .Vni.;  Virginia,  Maryland  and  IheCaro- 
llnas(188ai.  The  I^ritan  colonies (18K7),  8  V.  Lon- 
don: Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  New  Y'ork:  Henry 
Holt  &  Co. 

DRAKE,  SAMI'EL  ADA5IS.    The  making  of  New  Eng- 
land, 158."M(U3,  New  York;  Chas.  Scribner'sSons. 
li-8(l. 
The  making  of  Virginia   and    the    middle  colonies. 
New  York:  Chas.  Scribner'sSons.     1803. 

DRAKE,  SAMUEL  G.  History  and  antiquities  of  Boston, 
1(WO-1770     Boston;  L.  Steve,  s.     185(1. 

EDWARDS.  BRYAN.  History,  civil  and  commercial,  of 
the  British  colonies  in  the  West  Indies.  [Caribs, 
etc.]    London:  J.  Stockdale.    17'.>3-1801.    :iv. 

FERRIS.  UENJ.  History  of  the  original  settlements  on 
the  Delaware.  Wilmington:  Wikou  &  HeaM. 
1840. 

FISHER,  GEORGE  P.  The  colonial  era  (Am.  Hist,  se- 
ries).   Ne  /  York:  Chas.  ScrlbniT's  Sons.     18!»a. 

FISKE,  JOHN.  The  beginnings  of  New  England.  Bos- 
ton; Ilougliton,  .Mimiii  &  Co.    1889. 

FORCE,  PETER,  ed.  Tracts  and  other  papers  relating 
pi  inci|mlly  to  the  origin,  settlement  and  progress 
of  the  cofonks  in  N.  Am.  Washmgtou.  lH;)U-47. 
4v. 

jAYARRE,  CIF'RLES.  History  of  Louisiana;  the 
French  doi  ition  (1851-4).  New  York:  Wm.  J. 
Widdleton.     .  167. 

GOODWIN  JOHN  A.  The  pilgrim  republic.  Boston: 
Ticknor  &  Co.    1868. 


GRAHAMt.  JAMES.  History  of  the  rise  and  progress 
of  the  United  States  of  N.  A.  till  lOSd,  v.  I.  I>on- 
don;  Longman.  1837.  a.  v. 
The  same,  enlarged  |to  177(11  and  amended  fed.  by 
Josiah  Quincy,  and  published  imder  the  title  of 
"  Hi8t(^ry  of  the  United  States"].  Philadelphia: 
Lea  &  Bianchard.    1840. 

HAWKS,  FRANCIS  L.  History  of  North  Carolina  [to 
173«J  (18.57-UO).     Fayettevlile:  Hale  &  Son.    -J  v. 

HIGGINSON,  THOMAS  W.  The  French  Voyageurs. 
(Harper's  Mag.,  00:  505.    1883.) 

HUBBARD,  Ret).  %Vn-LIAM.  General  history  of  New 
England,  to  1080  (1816).  (Coil's  of  the  Mass.  Hist. 
Soc.,  2d  series,  v.  5-6.    Boston.     1848.) 

HUTCHINSON,  THOMAS.  History  of  the  colony  [and 
province]  of  Massachusetts- Bay  [to  17491.  Bos- 
ton: T.  &  J.  Fleet.     1704-7.    3  v. 

LAMFRECHTSEN,  N.  C.  Short  description  of  the  dis- 
covery and  subsequent  history  oi^  the  New  Nether- 
lands (181, S);  [irons,  from  the  Dutch).  (Coll'sot 
the  N.  Y.  Hist.  Soc.,  8d  series,  v.  1.  New  Y'ork. 
1841.) 

LODGE,  HENRY  CABOT.  Short  history  of  the  English 
colonies  In  America.  New  York;  Harper  &  I'-.s. 
1881. 

MARSHALL,  JOHN.  History  of  the  colonies  plan  I  by 
the  English  on  the  continent  of  Noi*th  Ani'/rica, 
Philadelphia:  A.  Small.    1834. 

MOORE,  N.  Pilgrims  and  Puritans :  the  story  of  the 
planting  of  Plymouth  and  Boston.  Boston:  Ginn 
&  Co.     1888. 

MOUBT,  O'^-OROE.  Relation,  or  journal  of  theplanlatlon 
at  Plymouth  (1833);  with  introd.  and  notes  by 
H.  M.  Dexter.    Boston:  J.  K.  Wiggin,     ISUJ. 

■  EILL,  EDWARD  D.     English  colonization  of  Am.  diir- 
Ing  the  17th  century.    London:    Strahan  &   Co. 
1871. 
History  of  the  Virginia  Company  of  London.    Albany; 

J.  Munsell.    )"■'!'. 
Virginia  vetusta  [suppiement  to  above].    Albany:  J 
Munsell's  Sons.     1885. 

O'CALLAGHAN,  E.  B.  Register  of  New  Netherlaud, 
lOaii-1074.    Albany:  J.  Munsell.     18(15. 

PALFREY,  JOHN  G.  History  of  New  Eng'and  during 
the  Stuart  dynasty.  Boston:  Little,  llrown  Jt  Co. 
1858-18(M.     3  V. 

PRINCE,  THOMAS.  Chronological  history  of  New  Eng- 
land [to  1033]  (1730-55).  .Boston:  Cununings,  Hil- 
liard  <a  Co.    1830. 

SAINSBURY,  W.  N.,  ed.  Calendar  of  state  papers:  colo- 
nial series  [America  and  the  West  Indies].  Lon- 
don; Longman.     1800-«9.    3  v.    1810-81.    (1  v. 

SHURTLEFF,  N.  B.,  erf.  Records  of  the  governor  and 
Company  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay,  1038-8(1, 
Printed  by  order  of  the  Legishiture.  Boston.  1853- 
4.    5  V.  in  0. 

SHURTLEFF,  N.  B.,  and  D.  PULSIFER.  ed.i.  Records 
of  the  colony  of  New  Plymouth.  Printed  l)y 
order  of  the  Legislature.  Boston.  1855-01.  13  v. 
in  10. 

STITH,  WILLIAM.  History  of  the  first  discovery  and 
settlement  of  Virginia  (1747).  New  York:  Re- 
printed for  Jos.  Sabin.    1805. 

TAhBOX,  i?ee.  INCREASE  N.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  a.  id 
his  colony  in  Am.     Bo.ston:  Prince  Soi'.    1884. 

TRUMBULL,  BENJAMIN.  Generr"  history  of  tlie  U.  S. 
of  .\m.  to  1793.  Boston;  Farrand,  JIallory  &  to. 
1810.     V.  1. 

TYTLER,  PATRICK  F.     Historical  view  of  the  progress 
of  discovery   on    the   more   northern    coa.sts   of  >* 
America;  with  natural  history,  by  Jas.  Wilson. 
Edinlnirgh:    Oliver  Ji:  Boyd.    1833.    New  York: 
Harper  Bros. 

WHITEFIELD,  WM.  A.,  ed.  Documents  relating  to  the 
colonial  history  of  the  stateof  New  Jersey.  New- 
ar'n.     I880-.    11  v. 

WILSON,  JAMES  GRANT,  ed.  Memorial  history  of  the 
city  of  New  York.  v.  1.  New  York:  History  Co. 
1803.    4  V. 

WINTHROP,  JOHN.  History  of  New  England,  10,10-1040 
(183.5-0).  New  ed.  Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
1853.    3  V. 

YOUNG,  ALEXANDER.    Chronicles  of  the  first  planters 
of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  l(J*t-103U. 
Boston:  Little  &  Brown     1840. 
Chronicles  of  the  pilgrim  fathers,  IflO'.J-lOas,    Boston: 
Little  &  Brown.    ItMl. 


XXIV 


APPENDIX  F. 


APPENDIX  F. 


AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 


ABBOTT,  CHAfl.  C.  Primitive  Industry,  or  Illustrations 
of  the  handiwork,  in  stents  l.oni'  and  clay,  of  tlio 
native  races  of  the  northern  Atltnitie  seaboard  of 
Am.  Salem:  a.  A.  Dates.  18«1. 
Tracesof  an  Am.  autoctbon.  (American  Naturalist, 
10:  S».    IHTfl.) 

AMERICAN  ANTIQUARIAN  AND  ORIENTAL  JOUR- 
NAL.   Chicago.    1K78-. 

AMERICAN  ANTIQUARIAN  SOCIETY.  Proceediugg. 
Beaton. 

AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  ARCH.T.OLOOY.  Baltimore. 
1885-7.    Boston:  Glnn  &  Co.    1HH8-. 

ANTIIROPOLOOICAL  SOCIETY  OF  WASHINOTOI'. 
Proceedings  (1870-).  (Smithsonian  miscellaneous 
coil's,  V.  as-.    WashluRton.    1H8S-.) 

ATWATER,  CALEB.  Description  of  the  antiquities  dis- 
covered In  Ohio  and  other  western  states.  (Arch- 
fcologia  Americana,  V.  1 .  Worcester:  Am.  Antiq. 
8oc.    1820., 

BACON,  A.  T.  Ruins  of  the  Colorado  valley.  (Lippin- 
cotfs  Mag.,  SW:  621.    1880.) 

BAILEY,  Hev.  JACOB.  Observations  and  conjectures  on 
the  antiquities  of  Am.  (Coil's  of  the  Mass.  Ilist. 
Soc.,  V.  4.    Boston.    1705.) 

BALDWIN,  JOHN  O.     Ancient  America.     New  York: 
Harper  &  Bros.    IbTi. 
Prehistoric  nations.     New   York:   Harper  cS:  Bros. 

mm. 

BANDELIER,  ADOLF  F.  A  hlstor-cal  Introduction  to 
studies  among  the  sedentary  Indians  of  New 
Mexico.  Report  on  the  ruins  of  the  Pueblo  of 
Pecos.  Boston:  A.  Williams  ,S  Co.  1881.  (Papers 
Archo;ologlcal  Inst,  of  Am.) 
Report  of  an  archaeological  tour  In  Mexico,  la  1881. 
Boston:  Cuppies,  Upham  &  Co.    1884. 

BARBER.  EDWIN  A.    Ancient  pueblos,  Rio  San  Juan. 
(Am.  Naturalist,  Vi:  SaO,  606.    1878.) 
Pueblo  pottery.    (Am.  Naturalist,  l."i;  4.V}.    1881.) 
Hock  inscriptions  of  the  "ancient  pueblos."    (Am. 
Naturalist,  10:  716.    1(!76.) 

BAXTER,  SYLVES"'ER.  The  father  of  the  pueblos 
[Zunl|.    (Ill  rper's  JIag.,  05:  78.    1882.) 

BEAUCHAMP,  W.  V.  Indian  occupation  of  New  York. 
iScienct,  19:  "6.    1«B.) 

BO'-TON  PUBLIC  LIBRARY.  America  before  Columbus. 
(Bibliographical  note  In  Bulletins,  v.  3,  pp.  65-71.) 

i  rON  SOCIETY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY.  Palaeo- 
lithic implements  of  the  valley  of  the  Delaware; 
by  C.  C.  Abbott  and  others  (from  Proceedings,  v. 
(:l).    Cambridge.    1881. 

BMNToN,  DANIEL  O.    The  books  of  Chllan  Balam,  the 

prophetic  and  historic  records  of  the  Mayas  of 

Yucatan.    Philadelphia:  Edw.  Stem  &  Co.     It-'*!. 

Essays  of  an  Americanist     Philadelphia:  Porter  & 

(Joates.    1890. 
Prehistoric  chronology  of    Am.    (Science,    10:    76. 
1887.) 

BRYANT,  W.  C.  Inlerestiiig  archeeological  s'uuies  In 
and  about  Buffalo.    1  Buffalo.    1800.) 

BKYCE,  GEO.  The  mound  builders.  Winnipeg  Hist. 
Soc.    1884-5. 

CABR,  LUCIEN.  The  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  valley, 
historically  considered.  "Cincinnati:  Robt.  Clarke 
&Co.   im. 

CHAKNAY,  DfiSIRfi.  Ancient  cities  of  the  new  world, 
being  voyixges  and  exploratious  in  Mexico  and 
Central  Am.,  1857-82;  trans,  from  the  Fr.  by  J. 
Oonino  and  H.  S.  Conant.  New  York:  Harper  & 
Bros.    1887. 

CONANT,  A.  J.  Footprints  of  vanished  races  In  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley.    St.  Louis:  C.  R.  Bams.    1879. 

GUSHING,  FRAV'K  H.  The  nation  of  the  willows  [Zunis]. 
(Atlantic  Monthly,  60:  .102,541.    1882.) 
Zuni  social,  mythic  and  religious  systems.    (Popular 
SclenceMonthly,  21:  186.    1882.1 

DALL,  W.  H.  On  the  remains  of  late,  prehistoric  man 
obtained  from  caves  in  the  Catherina  Archijwlago, 
Alaska  (1876).  (Smithsonian  contributions  to 
knowledge,  v.  22.    Washington.    1880.) 

EVERETT,  J.  T.  The  earliest  Am.  people.  (Mag.  of 
Am.  History,  28:  114.    1889.) 

FI8KE,  JOHN.  The  discovery  of  America.  Boston: 
Houghton,  Mifflin  .St  Co.    1892.    2  v, 

FORCE,  M.  F.  Some  early  notices  of  the  Indians  of 
Ohio;  to  what  race  did  thn  mound  buildnu  be- 
long.   Cincinnati:  Robt.  Clarke  &  Co.    1879. 

FOSTER,  J.  W.    Prehistoric  races  of  the  U.  S.  of  Am. 
»       Chicago:  S.  C.  Griggs  &  Co.    1878. 

GANNETT,  HENRY.  Prehistoric  ruins  In  southern  Colo- 
rado.   (Popular  Science  Monthly,  16:  666.  1880.) 


II  ABEL.  S.  The  sculptures  of  Santa  Lucia  Cosumalwhu- 
apa  In  Guatemala  (1878).  (Snilthscmian  contribu- 
tions to  knowledge,  v.  88.    Washington.    1880.) 

HALE,  HORATIO.  Indian  migrations,  as  evidenced  by 
lunguagt*;  compi  ising  tiie  lluron-t^herokee  stock, 
Dakota.  Algonklns,  Clmhta-Muskokl,  motmd- 
bullders,  Iberians.  Chicago.  1883.  (Am.  Ass'n 
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XXV 


^f 


API'KNDIX  F. 


APPENDIX  F. 


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SQUIER,  E.  O.,  and  E.  H  DAVIS.  Ancient  monuments  of 
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THOMAS,  CYRUS.  CataloKuo  of  prehisUirlc  works  east 
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The  Clierokees  in  pre-Columbian  times.    New  Y'ork: 

N.  1).  C.  Hodges.     1890. 
The  circular,  square,  and  octagonal  earthworks  of 
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The  problem  of  the  Ohio  mounds     Washington.  188ft 

(Smithsonian  Inst.  Bureau  of  rthnoloKy.) 
A  study  of  the  ms  Troano.     (U.  S.  gcog.  and  geoL 
survey.    Contributions  to  N.  Am.  ethnology,  v.  5. 
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THRUSTON,  GATES  P.  The  antiquities  of  Tennessee 
and  the  adjacent  states,  and  the  state  of  aborig- 
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by  them.    Cincinnati:    Robt.  Clarke  ,£  Co.    1890. 

UNITED  STATES.  Bureau  of  Kthnolopy,  John  W.  Powell, 
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WALLACE.  A.  R.  .\merlcan  museums,  of  Am.  pre- 
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WHITTLESEY.  CHAS.  Description  of  ancient  works  in 
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AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 


(lENEUAL. 


ADAIR.  JAMES.  The  history  of  the  Am.  inilians,  par- 
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BANCROFT.  GEORGE.  History  of  the  U.  S.  of  Am.;  the 
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BEACH,  W.  W..  erf.  The  Indian  miseellaiiy.  Albany:  J. 
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BROOKS.  ELBRIDGE  S.  Tne  story  of  the  Am.  Indian, 
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BROWN,  ROBERT.  The  races  of  mankind,  v.  1.  Lon- 
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CATLIN.  GEORGE.  Illustrations  of  the  nianuers.  cus- 
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North  .\m.  portfolio  of  hunting  scenes,  etc.  London; 
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CHARLEVOIX,  Father.  Letters  to  the  Dutchessof  Les- 
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COLDEN,  CADWALLADSR.     History  of  the  five  Indian 
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COLTON,  C.  Tour  of  the  Am.  lakes.  In  1830.  Iy)ndon: 
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CRAIG,  NEVILLE  B.,  erf. 
1846-8.     Cincinnati: 


The  olden  time.    Pittsburg. 
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DODGE,  Col.  RICHARD  I.  Our  wild  Indians:  thirtytnree 
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DOMENECH,  Abbe  EM.  Seven  yeare'  r,!sldence  In  'he 
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DONALDSON,  THOS.  The  George  Cnflin  Indian  galli'ry. 
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XXVI 


APPENDIX  F. 


APPENDIX  P. 


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SPECIAL  TKIUE8,  OUOUPB  ANt  llEOIONS. 


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CLARKE,  PETER  D.  Origin  and  traditional  history  of 
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COPWAY,  GEORGE  (KAH-GE-GA-OAH-BOWH),  Chief. 
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DOBRIZHOFFER,  MARTIN  An  aceoimt  of  the  Abi- 
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xxvu 


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APPENDIX  V. 


D0R8EY,  JAS.  OWEN.    The  Bilnxi  Indiana  of  Ix>ulBiana. 
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Tho  K'ntllu  system  of  the  Siletz  tribes. 
Migratinns  of  Hioiian   tribes.    (American  Naturalist, 
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DUNDAU,  I.  B.  Tlie  Pawnee  Tniliaiis.  (Magazine  of 
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J:ASTMAN,.Vi».  MAItY.  I)aboiituli;<ir  lifoandlcRenilsof 
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EJil-'-S,  M.  Indians  of  Puftet  Sound.  (American  Anti- 
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EOOLESTi )N,  EDWARD.  nn<l  LILLIE  E.  8EELYE.  Fo- 
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tiATSCIIET,  ALBERT  S.  The  Kluinftth  Indians  of 
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A  nii>,'i''tlon  It'Keud  of  tlio  Creek  Indians,  with  a 
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OIBBS,  GEO.  Tril.,-'8  of  western  Wasliinpton  and  nortn- 
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aOOKIN.  DANIEL.  Ilistorit.M  account  of  the  doings 
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ORANT,  Mr.1.  ANNE  (of  Lnggan).  Memoirs  of  nil  Am. 
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GRINNEI-1,,  GEO.  BIRD.  Pawnee  hero  stories  and  fo:V- 
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GWYTilER,  O.  Pueblo  Indians.  (Overland  Montlily,  0: 
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HALE,  HORATIO,  rd.  The  Iroquois  book  of  rites.  Phila- 
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BEALY,  Capt.  M.  A.  Report  of  the  eniiso  of  tho  revenue 
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HEARNE,  SAMUEL.  A  journey  from  Hudson's  Bay  to 
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HECKEWELDER.  Rer.  JOHN.  History  of  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  Indian  nations  who  ^mce  in- 
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Rev,  Will.  C.  Heichel.  Memoirs  of  the  Pennsyl- 
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Narrative  of  the  mission  of  the  United  IMithren  among 
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HENRY,  AI/EX.  Travels  and  adventures  in  Canada  and 
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HILLARD,  O.  S.  Life  of  caiitain  John  Smith.  (Lllirary 
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HIND,  HENRY  Y.  E-vplorations  in  the  interior  of  the 
Ijibrador  peninsula;  the  country  of  the  Montagu- 
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HOWARD,  OLIVER  0.  Nez  PerC'  Joseph :  an  account  of 
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HUBBARD,  J.  NILES.  An  account  of  Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, 
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HUNTER,  JOHN  D.    Manners  "nd  customs  of  several 
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Philadelphia.    1888, 
The  same.  Memoirs  of  a  caiitivlty  among  the  Indiars. 
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HURT,  Br.  GARLAND.  Indians  of  Utah.  (Simps o-.s 
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HUTCHINSON,  THOS.  J.  The  Parana.  London:  Edward 
Stanford.    1808. 


IM  THURN,  EVERARD  F.  .Vmong  tho  Indians  of 
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mVlNG,  JOHN  TREAT.  Indian  sketches  laken  during 
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JAMES,  EDWIN,  com/).  Account  of  an  expedition  from 
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1K23.    2  V.  with  atlas. 

JEWITT,  JOHN  R.  Narrative  of  adventures  and  sulTer- 
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J0GUS8  PAPERS,  THE  (1042-0);  trans.,  with  a  memoir, 
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JOHNSON,  ELIAS,  Tuacnrora  chief.  Legends,  tradi- 
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JONES.'fter.  PETER  OCAHKEWAQUONABY),  History 
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KEATING,  WM.  H.,  comp.  Narrative  of  an  expedition 
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iieek,  Ac,  in  1823,  under  command  of  Maj.  Long, 
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KETCHUM,  WM.  Authentic  and  comprehensive  history 
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KIDDER,  FREDERIC.  Tho  Abenaki  Indians.  (ColU-c- 
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KIP,  Kev.  WJr.  INGRAHAM,  c  mp.  and  trann.  Tho  early 
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KOHL,  I.  G.  Kitchi-gami;  wandcTlngs  round  Lake 
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LA  ROCHEFOUOAULT  LIANCOURT,  Due  de.  Travels 
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Le  CLERCy,  Father  CHRTSTIAN.  First  establishment  of 
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LORD,  JOHN  K.  Tho  i.aturallst  in  Vancou\  fr's  Island 
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McKENNEY,  THOS.  L.  Sketches  of  a  tour  to  the  lakes 
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XXVUl 


APPENDIX  F. 


APPENDIX  F. 


MINER,  LKWIS  71.  The  valley  of  Wvomln(f.  New  York; 
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NEW  YORK  STATE.    ConunlsslonerH  of  Indian  nfTairs, 
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XXIX 


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XXX 


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APPENDIX  P. 


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in  Italy. 


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XXXI 


APPENDIX  P. 


APPENDIX  P. 


LOWE,  rflARLKS.    Prlncn  HInmarck;  an  lilittorlcal  btog. 

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a  V. 

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AUSTRIA,  GERMANY    AND   THE    EASTERN    QUES- 
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THE  RECONSTRUCTED  EMPIRE 
(Westminster  Rev., 


AUSTRIA  AND  HER  REFORMS 

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ITS   REFORMS  AND   POLICY. 

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FOREIGN   POLICY    AND    INTERNAL    \DMIN18TRA- 

TION  OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE.    (Foreign 

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Unwiu.    1891. 


XXXII 


